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= M @-@ 8 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 8 is a 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan lying within the cities of Detroit and Highland Park . Much of it is the Davison Freeway , the nation 's first urban depressed freeway , which became a connector between the Lodge ( M @-@ 10 ) and the Chrysler ( Interstate 75 , I @-@ 75 ) freeways .
Named for an English immigrant to the area , Davison Avenue was originally the only street connecting across Highland Park to Detroit . It was rebuilt by the city and Wayne County as a freeway during World War II . The roadway was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 1993 and numbered as M @-@ 8 . Subsequent changes by the state rebuilt the freeway and extended the M @-@ 8 designation to connect to the Jeffries Freeway ( I @-@ 96 ) .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 8 starts on the western end at an interchange with I @-@ 96 in Detroit . Davison Avenue continues west of this interchange forming a service drive for the freeway while M @-@ 8 uses a short section of freeway to connect between I @-@ 96 and Davison Avenue . This short freeway segment runs easterly to Livernois Avenue where the trunkline transitions into Davison Avenue . East of this transition , the roadway turns northeasterly running through residential areas of Detroit . The trunkline meets M @-@ 10 / Lodge Freeway on the border between Detroit and Highland Park , a city surrounded by Detroit . Northeast of this interchange , M @-@ 8 becomes the Davison Freeway , running depressed below the level of the cross streets . There are interchanges for M @-@ 1 / Woodward Avenue and Oakland Avenue before meeting the Chrysler Freeway ( I @-@ 75 ) on the eastern border of Highland Park . The Davison Freeway continues northeasterly in Detroit north of Hamtramck . The freeway ends between Gallagher and Newbern avenues . M @-@ 8 continues to Conant Street where the designation ends . Davison Avenue continues past Mound Road where it turns back due east until it ends at Van Dyke Street next to the Mt . Olivet Cemetery .
MDOT 's 2007 traffic surveys counted the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of the number of vehicles using a section of roadway on any given day of the year . An average of 38 @,@ 000 vehicles used the western section of M @-@ 8 along Davison Avenue in 2007 each day ; the eastern segment carried 37 @,@ 300 vehicles . The section of freeway in between carried in excess of 50 @,@ 000 vehicles a day in 2007 between M @-@ 10 and I @-@ 75 . Of this traffic , 1 @,@ 900 trucks and other commercial vehicles used the trunkline .
= = History = =
Davison Avenue predates both the Davison Freeway and the M @-@ 8 state trunkline designation in the area . The roadway was named for Jarad Davison , an English immigrant and one of the early settlers of the area . The street was the only one of the 30 parallel streets in Highland Park that crossed through the city from border to border and connected with Detroit streets . This road was heavily congested , approaching gridlock during rush hour by 1940 . A traffic survey showed that 96 % of the traffic using the street was crossing Highland Park with no destination in the city . A proposal to rebuild the street as a six @-@ lane , limited @-@ access highway was approved by the Highland Park City Council on March 17 , 1941 . The council also appropriated $ 100 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 5 @.@ 75 million in 2015 ) for the construction with Wayne County and the remaining $ 3 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 195 million in 2015 ) paid by state and federal government appropriations .
The freeway construction required a half @-@ block of right @-@ of @-@ way on the south side of Davison Avenue and the demolition of 69 homes to accommodate the 12 – 17 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 2 m ) of excavation along the 1 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) project . Another 63 homes were moved . The outbreak of World War II accelerated the construction schedule after the project was given priority due to the defense plants near the roadway . The freeway opened for traffic without a dedication ceremony at 4 : 00 p.m. on November 25 , 1942 . Travel times across Highland Park dropped from 15 minutes to around 3 – 4 minutes after the freeway opened . The roadway was the first urban , depressed freeway in the United States . The concrete for the road bed was cured underwater by flooding , creating an extremely hard and durable surface which lasted for more than 50 years ( some requiring dynamite for its eventual removal ) .
In 1968 , the freeway was extended eastward a few blocks through a junction with the newly opened Chrysler Freeway ( I @-@ 75 ) to its present @-@ day eastern terminus near Conant Street . The state requested additional Interstate Highway System mileage that year as well , and in the proposals submitted was a request to extend the Davison to I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 94 . These plans to transfer the freeway to state control and extend it were dropped in the 1970s after opposition to another freeway in Detroit . The plans would have extended it west to the Jeffries and east to a Van Dyke Freeway ( extended M @-@ 53 ) . Upon its transfer to state control in 1993 , it had previously been a county @-@ maintained freeway , the Davison Freeway was designated as M @-@ 8 . Three years later , the Davison was closed for a year and a half to reconstruct it to Interstate Highway standards with an additional through travel lane and a wider left shoulder for improved safety and traffic handling as well as a new interchange with Woodward Avenue . The reconstructed freeway was reopened on October 8 , 1997 by Governor John Engler .
In 2001 , M @-@ 8 was extended to include the two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) segment of Davison Avenue between the freeway 's western terminus and Davison Avenue 's junction with I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) . Except for a M @-@ 8 shield on the Lodge Freeway 's Davison Avenue exit signs , the non @-@ freeway portion of M @-@ 8 remains unsigned , including at the Davison Avenue exit from the Jeffries where new Clearview signs were erected as part of a large I @-@ 96 reconstruction project in 2005 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire highway is in Wayne County . All exits are unnumbered .
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= Son of a Gun ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" Son of a Gun " is the third episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 10 , 1993 . The teleplay was written by James Yoshimura based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and the episode was directed by Nick Gomez . In the episode , recurring character Officer Thormann ( Lee Tergesen ) is shot while on duty , and his close friend Crosetti takes the investigation personally .
" Son of a Gun " was originally supposed to be the fourth episode of the first season , but was broadcast third when the episode " Night of the Dead Living " was moved to the end of the season . The shooting of a police officer , as well as other aspects of the script , were directly inspired by real @-@ life events chronicled in David Simon 's non @-@ fiction book , Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets . The episode included guest appearances by actors Luis Guzmán , Paul Schulze and Edie Falco , who played Thormann 's wife . It also marked the first of five appearances by Washington Bullets team sports announcer Mel Proctor , and the first appearance by actor Walt MacPherson , who would later be cast as recurring character Detective Roger Gaffney .
" Son of a Gun " was seen by 6 @.@ 52 million households in its original broadcast , continuing a downward trend in ratings since the premiere of Homicide : Life on the Street . " Son of a Gun " lost viewership in part due to competition from a live Oprah Winfrey 90 @-@ minute interview with pop singer Michael Jackson on ABC . The episode , along with the rest of the first and second seasons of Homicide : Life on the Street was released on DVD in the United States on May 27 , 2003 .
= = Plot summary = =
Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) informs the detectives that Officer Thormann ( Lee Tergesen ) has been shot in the head , and he orders an immediate investigation . Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) arrive at the hospital to find the doctors working frantically on Thormann ; Crosetti , a close friend of Thormann , becomes very emotional . Crosetti comforts Thormann 's wife Eva ( Edie Falco ) , but is privately told by Dr. Eli Devilbiss ( Sean Whitesell ) that Thormann may be blind or mentally disabled , even if he survives . Crosetti begs Gee to give him the case and , even though Gee believes he is too emotionally involved , he gives in when Crosetti tries to make him feel guilty by showing him his previous gunshot wounds . When an investigation at the crime scene turns up nothing , Lewis catches Crosetti praying with a rosary in the locker room . Crosetti convinces a skeptical Lewis to pray with him for help in the investigation .
Meanwhile , Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) and Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) continue their investigation into the murder of 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson . They repeatedly comb through the crime scene and conduct arrests and interrogations throughout the neighborhood , but they fail to find anything new . A frustrated Bayliss snaps at Pembleton , prompting Pembleton to request a new partner , but Gee refuses and remains confident Bayliss will solve the Watson case . Elsewhere , while Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) prepares for a date with medical examiner Blythe ( Wendy Hughes ) , he complains to his neighbor Lorenzo Molera ( Luis Guzmán ) about noise he is making while doing his carpenter work . The two end up bonding over beers , with both confiding in each other about their ex @-@ wives . Inside Molera 's room is a coffin he built for a customer , which Bolander insists is bad luck . Bolander 's date with Blythe goes well , but he nervously rejects an invitation back to her apartment when he receives a call about a murder . The call brings him back to Molera , who has been found dead inside his coffin . Bolander tells the investigating police that Molera died of " a broken heart " . Inspired by his deceased neighbor , Bolander returns to Blythe and asks to come inside after all .
While investigating a murder involving a hitman , Howard ( Melissa Leo ) and Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) question Miles Stradinger ( Paul Schulze ) , who serves as an arbitrator between hitmen and their customers . Stradinger gives up several of his clients , including Calpurnia Church ( Mary Jefferson ) , a woman suspected of murdering five husbands for insurance money . Although Church denies killing anybody , the detectives find enough evidence to close many outstanding cases . Lewis , who had previously been investigating the Church case , believes his prayer with Crosetti led to her arrest . This is further upheld when Crosetti receives an anonymous call claiming a man named Alfred Smith shot Thormann . While searching for Smith , Crosetti meets a man named Charles Flavin ( Larry E. Hull ) who said he saw Smith shoot Thormann and will testify to it in court . The episode ends with Crosetti sitting with an unconscious Thormann in the hospital and listening to jazz music , which the two friends used to discuss frequently .
= = Production = =
" Son of a Gun " was written by James Yoshimura based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and was directed by Nick Gomez . It was the first Homicide : Life on the Street episode written by Yoshimura , who would serve as a writer and eventually supervising producer throughout the entirety of the series . The episode featured a blending of hard @-@ edged emotion and amusing character comedy , the combination of which would become common in future Yoshimura @-@ penned episodes . It was originally supposed to be the fourth episode of the first season of Homicide : Life on the Street , but was broadcast third when the episode " Night of the Dead Living " was moved to the end of the season . NBC programmers were worried that the latter episode , which takes place entirely within the detective 's squad room , was too deliberately paced for a series still trying to win viewers . However , as a result of the move , the Adena Watson investigation has suddenly advanced far further than it last stood in the previous episode , " Ghost of a Chance . "
The episode continues the story arc of the Adena Watson murder case , which was introduced in the final scene of series premiere " Gone for Goode " and dominates much of the Homicide : Life on the Street first season . The Watson case was based on the real @-@ life 1988 Baltimore slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace , which is chronicled in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book about a Baltimore Police Department , which was adapted into the Homicide series . The investigation into Calpurnia Church was inspired by the real @-@ life case of Geraldine Parrish , which was featured in Simon 's book . Parrish was accused of killing five husbands for insurance money and was eventually convicted for three of their deaths . The shooting of Officer Thormann was also adapted from true @-@ life events in Simon 's book , although Homicide writers added the twist of Crosetti taking the case personally based on his close friendship with the victim .
Edie Falco made a guest appearance in " Son of a Gun " as Officer Thormann 's wife Eva . Fontana cast Falco after watching her performance in Laws of Gravity , a 1992 film also directed by Nick Gomez . Fontana said of her , " She 's an actress who 's unadorned by any embroidery . She does everything with such simplicity and honesty , it 's breathtaking . " Falco was a struggling actor at the time , and said her salary from one Homicide episode paid for one month 's worth of rent . Fontana cast Falco as a regular in his HBO series Oz based on her work in the Homicide episodes .
" Son of a Gun " was also the first of five Homicide : Life on the Street episodes featuring Mel Proctor , then the home team sports announcer for the Washington Bullets , as recurring reporter character Grant Besser . Actor Walt MacPherson made a brief appearance as a uniformed police officer who finds an earring at the Adena Watson crime scene and offers it to Bayliss as possible evidence . MacPherson would return in the third season as the recurring character Detective Roger Gaffney , but there is no indication whether or not the beat cop he played in " Son of a Gun " was the same character . The line spoken by Lewis , " Murderers lie because they have to , witnesses lie because they think they have to , and everyone else lies for the sheer joy of it " , is almost a verbatim line from Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets . The line represents a three @-@ rule theorem about police work Simon created after following a Baltimore Police Department homicide unit for one year while writing his book .
= = Cultural references = =
" Son of a Gun " continues a common motif repeated throughout the first season of Crosetti discussing various conspiracy theories about the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , the 16th president of the United States . Crosetti said he believes the killing was arranged by the highest ranks of the Confederate States of America . Crosetti 's fascination with the Lincoln assassination was based on Tom Fontana 's real @-@ life obsession with it . A number of songs are featured throughout the episode , including " Going ' Around in Circles " by Jules Taub , " Telephone Blues " by Sam Ling and George Smith , " Something I Dreamed Last Night " by Sammy Fain , Jack Yellen and Herbert Magidson , and " It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday " by Freddie Perren and Christine Yarian .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Son of a Gun " was seen by 6 @.@ 52 million viewers , ranking third in its time slot among major television networks . The episode received a 7 rating / 10 share , which continued a downward trend in Homicide ratings since the January 31 post @-@ Super Bowl series premiere , " Gone for Goode " . " Son of a Gun " lost ratings in large part due to a live Oprah Winfrey 90 @-@ minute interview with pop singer Michael Jackson , which aired on ABC and was seen by 36 @.@ 59 million people , the fourth @-@ highest total recorded by an entertainment program at the time since 1960 . Yaphet Kotto said of the scheduling , " " Heck , on that night , even I was watching Oprah instead of our show . " Homicide also lost in its time slot to a cast reunion of The Andy Griffith Show , which aired on CBS and attracted 11 @.@ 36 million viewers .
Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called the episode " outstanding " and gave it his highest possible rating of four stars . Nicholas Read of The Gazette praised " Son of a Gun " for its realism ; regarding the episode 's portrayal of Thormann 's injuries , Read said , " For U.S. network television , it 's pretty disturbing stuff . ... The series isn 't afraid to show ( it ) in as graphic a way as network television will allow . " Alex Strachan of The Vancouver Sun said it was among the " sharpest , most gruelling episodes " of Homicide . Bruce Dancis particularly complimented the performances of Jon Polito and Edie Falco , who she said " played brilliantly " in her guest role .
= = DVD release = =
" Son of a Gun " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
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= Thor ( film ) =
Thor is a 2011 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is the fourth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Kenneth Branagh , written by Ashley Edward Miller & Zack Stentz and Don Payne , and stars Chris Hemsworth , Natalie Portman , Tom Hiddleston , Stellan Skarsgård , Colm Feore , Ray Stevenson , Idris Elba , Kat Dennings , Rene Russo and Anthony Hopkins . The film tells the story of Thor , the crown prince of Asgard , who is exiled from his homeland to Earth . While there , he forms a relationship with Jane Foster , a scientist . However , Thor must stop his adopted brother Loki , who intends to become the new king of Asgard .
Sam Raimi first developed the concept of a film adaptation of Thor in 1991 , but soon abandoned the project , leaving it in " development hell " for several years . During this time , the rights were picked up by various film studios until Marvel Studios signed Mark Protosevich to develop the project in 2006 , and planned to finance it and release it through Paramount Pictures . Matthew Vaughn was originally assigned to direct the film for a tentative 2010 release . However , after Vaughn was released from his holding deal in 2008 , Branagh was approached and the film 's release was rescheduled into 2011 . The main characters were cast in 2009 , and principal photography took place in California and New Mexico from January to May 2010 . The film was converted to 3D in post @-@ production .
Thor premiered on April 17 , 2011 , in Sydney , Australia and was released on May 6 , 2011 , in the United States . The film was a financial success and received positive reviews from film critics . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray sets were released on September 13 , 2011 . A sequel , Thor : The Dark World , was released on November 8 , 2013 . A third film , Thor : Ragnarok is set to be released on November 3 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
In 965 AD , Odin , king of Asgard , wages war against the Frost Giants of Jotunheim and their leader Laufey , to prevent them from conquering the nine realms , starting with Earth . The Asgardian warriors defeat the Frost Giants and seize the source of their power , the Casket of Ancient Winters .
In the present , Odin 's son Thor prepares to ascend to the throne of Asgard , but is interrupted when Frost Giants attempt to retrieve the Casket . Against Odin 's order , Thor travels to Jotunheim to confront Laufey , accompanied by his brother Loki , childhood friend Sif and the Warriors Three : Volstagg , Fandral , and Hogun . A battle ensues until Odin intervenes to save the Asgardians , destroying the fragile truce between the two races . For Thor 's arrogance , Odin strips his son of his godly power and exiles him to Earth as a mortal , accompanied by his hammer Mjolnir , now protected by an enchantment that allows only the worthy to wield it .
Thor lands in New Mexico , where astrophysicist Dr. Jane Foster , her assistant Darcy Lewis , and mentor Dr. Erik Selvig , find him . The local populace finds Mjolnir , which S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson soon commandeers before forcibly acquiring Jane 's data about the wormhole that delivered Thor to Earth . Thor , having discovered Mjolnir 's nearby location , seeks to retrieve it from the facility that S.H.I.E.L.D. quickly constructed but he finds himself unable to lift it , and is captured . With Selvig 's help , he is freed and resigns himself to exile on Earth as he develops a romance with Jane .
Loki discovers that he is actually Laufey 's son , adopted by Odin after the war ended . A weary Odin falls into the deep " Odinsleep " to recover his strength . Loki seizes the throne in Odin 's stead and offers Laufey the chance to kill Odin and retrieve the Casket . Sif and the Warriors Three , unhappy with Loki 's rule , attempt to return Thor from exile , convincing Heimdall , gatekeeper of the Bifröst — the means of traveling between worlds — to allow them passage to Earth . Aware of their plan , Loki sends the Destroyer , a seemingly indestructible automaton , to pursue them and kill Thor . The warriors find Thor , but the Destroyer attacks and defeats them , prompting Thor to offer himself instead . Struck by the Destroyer and near death , Thor 's sacrifice proves him worthy to wield Mjolnir . The hammer returns to him , restoring his powers and enabling him to defeat the Destroyer . Kissing Jane goodbye and vowing to return , he and his fellow Asgardians leave to confront Loki .
In Asgard , Loki betrays and kills Laufey , revealing his true plan to use Laufey 's attempt on Odin 's life as an excuse to destroy Jotunheim with the Bifröst Bridge , thus proving himself worthy to his adoptive father . Thor arrives and fights Loki before destroying the Bifröst Bridge to stop Loki 's plan , stranding himself in Asgard . Odin awakens and prevents the brothers from falling into the abyss created in the wake of the bridge 's destruction , but Loki allows himself to fall when Odin rejects his pleas for approval . Thor makes amends with Odin , admitting he is not ready to be king ; while on Earth , Jane and her team search for a way to open a portal to Asgard .
In a post @-@ credits scene , Selvig has been taken to a S.H.I.E.L.D. facility , where Nick Fury opens a briefcase and asks him to study a mysterious cube @-@ shaped object , which Fury says may hold untold power . An invisible Loki prompts Selvig to agree , and he does .
= = Cast = =
Chris Hemsworth as Thor :
The crown prince of Asgard , based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name . Director Kenneth Branagh and Marvel Studios chief Kevin Feige chose Hemsworth after a back @-@ and @-@ forth process in which the 27 @-@ year @-@ old actor was initially dropped from consideration and then given a second chance to read for the part . Hemsworth stated that he gained 20 pounds for the role by eating non @-@ stop and revealed that " It wasn 't until Thor that I started lifting weights , it was all pretty new to me . " Regarding his take of the character , Hemsworth said , " We just kept trying to humanize it all , and keep it very real . Look into all the research about the comic books that we could , but also bring it back to ' Who is this guy as a person , and what 's his relationship with people in the individual scenes ? ' " About approaching Thor 's fighting style , he remarked , " First , we looked at the comic books and the posturing , the way [ Thor ] moves and fights , and a lot of his power seems to be drawn up through the ground . We talked about boxers , you know , Mike Tyson , very low to the ground and big open chest and big shoulder swings and very sort of brutal but graceful at the same time , and then as we shot stuff things became easier . "
Natalie Portman as Jane Foster :
A scientist and Thor 's love interest . Marvel Studios stated in an announcement that the character was updated from the comics ' initial portrayal for the feature adaptation . When asked why she took the role , Portman replied , " I just thought it sounded like a weird idea because Kenneth Branagh 's directing it , so I was just like , ' Kenneth Branagh doing Thor is super @-@ weird , I 've gotta do it . ' " Portman stated that she really wanted to do a big effects film that emphasized character , and getting to do it with Branagh was a new way of approaching it , relative to Star Wars . Regarding her preparation for the role Portman remarked , " I signed on to do it before there was a script . And Ken , who 's amazing , who is so incredible , was like , ' You can really help create this character ' . I got to read all of these biographies of female scientists like Rosalind Franklin who actually discovered the DNA double helix but didn 't get the credit for it . The struggles they had and the way that they thought – I was like , ' What a great opportunity , in a very big movie that is going to be seen by a lot of people , to have a woman as a scientist ' . She 's a very serious scientist . Because in the comic she 's a nurse and now they made her an astrophysicist . Really , I know it sounds silly , but it is those little things that makes girls think it 's possible . It doesn 't give them a [ role ] model of ' Oh , I just have to dress cute in movies ' " .
Tom Hiddleston as Loki :
Thor 's adoptive brother and nemesis based on the deity of the same name . Hiddleston was chosen after previously working with Branagh on Ivanov and Wallander . Initially Hiddleston auditioned to play Thor but Branagh decided his talent would be better harnessed playing Loki . Hiddleston stated that " Loki 's like a comic book version of Edmund in King Lear , but nastier . " Hiddleston stated that he had to keep a strict diet before the start of filming because " Ken [ Branagh ] wants Loki to have a lean and hungry look , like Cassius in Julius Caesar . Physically , he can 't be posing as Thor " . Hiddleston looked at Peter O 'Toole as inspiration for Loki as well explaining , " Interestingly enough , [ Kenneth Branagh ] said to look at Peter O 'Toole in two specific films , The Lion in Winter and Lawrence of Arabia . What 's interesting about ... his performance [ as King Henry ] is you see how damaged he is . There 's a rawness [ to his performance ] ; it 's almost as if he 's living with a layer of skin peeled away . He 's grandiose and teary and , in a moment , by turns hilarious and then terrifying . What we wanted was that emotional volatility . It 's a different acting style , it 's not quite the same thing , but it 's fascinating to go back and watch an actor as great as O 'Toole head for those great high hills " .
Stellan Skarsgård as Erik Selvig :
A scientist doing research in New Mexico who encounters Thor . Skarsgård stated that he was not initially familiar with the comic book version of Thor . As to why he took the part , Skarsgård remarked , I " chose Thor because of [ director ] Kenneth Branagh . The script was nice and we got to rehearse and talk to the writers and do some collaborating in the process to make it fit us . So I had a very happy time on it . What I always try to do is immediately do something I just haven 't done so I get variation in my life . I 've made about 90 films and if I did the same thing over and over again I would be bored by now . I try to pick different films , I go and do those big ones and having done that I can usually afford to go and do some really small obscure films and experiment a little " .
Colm Feore as Laufey :
King of the Frost Giants and Loki 's biological father , based on the mythological being of the same name , who in myth was actually Loki 's mother . Feore stated it took five hours for his makeup to be applied . About his character Feore remarked , " I am the King of Frost Giants . And if you 've seen any of the Frost Giants , you know that I am , of course , the Napoleon of Frost Giants . We 've got some massive , fabulous guys who dwarf me and come in at around eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet , nine feet . But , no . Can 't you tell by the commanding presence ? I am the boss " . He said the Shakespearean training he shared with Hopkins and director Branagh helped keep production moving briskly , saying that " during the breaks , Tony , myself and Ken would be talking in Shakespearean shorthand about what the characters were doing , what we thought they may be like , and how we could focus our attention more intelligently . These were discussions that took no more than a few minutes between takes , but they allowed Ken , Tony and [ me ] to understand each other instantly without Ken taking an hour away to explain to the actors exactly what was going on . So that was enormously helpful . "
Ray Stevenson as Volstagg :
A member of the Warriors Three ; a group of three Asgardian adventurers who are among Thor 's closest comrades , known for both his hearty appetite and wide girth . Stevenson previously worked with Kenneth Branagh in the 1998 film The Theory of Flight , and with Marvel Studios as the titular character in Punisher : War Zone . Stevenson wore a fat suit for the role , stating , " I 've tried the suit on , and what they 've done is kind of sex him up : he 's sort of slimmer but rounder . " . Stevenson said , " He 's got every bit of that Falstaffian verve and vigor , and a bit of a beer gut to suggest that enormous appetite , but he 's not the sort of Weeble @-@ shaped figure he is in the comics . He 's Falstaff with muscles . I 've got this amazing foam @-@ injected undersuit that flexes with me . "
Idris Elba as Heimdall :
The all @-@ seeing , all @-@ hearing Asgardian sentry of the bifröst bridge , based on the mythological deity of the same name . Elba said Branagh 's involvement was a major incentive to take the role : " [ Branagh ] called me up personally and said , ' I know this isn 't a big role , but I would really love to see you play it . ' It 's Kenneth Branagh . I was like , ' Definitely ' " . About the role Elba remarked , " I did green screen for the first time ! I wouldn 't like to do a whole movie of green screen , though . You kind of forget the plot a little — like being in a Broadway play and doing it over and over and forgetting your line halfway through " . Elba stated he has made a four @-@ picture commitment with Marvel Studios . Elba 's casting prompted a proposed boycott by the Council of Conservative Citizens and a debate amongst comic book fans , some insisting it was wrong for a black man to play a Nordic god . In response Elba called the debate " ridiculous " .
Kat Dennings as Darcy Lewis :
A political science major who is Jane Foster 's intern . Dennings described her character as Foster 's " little helper gnome " . Dennings stated that her role was expanded during the rehearsal process . Dennings explained , " She 's kind of like a cute , clueless , little puppy or maybe a hamster . There wasn 't much on the page for the Darcy role to begin with and I didn 't even see a script before I took the job so I didn 't really know who Darcy was at first . But she really evolved — she 's so much fun now even . She 's very Scooby @-@ Doo if that makes sense . She 's always three steps behind and reacting to what 's happening with these great expressions ... She gets things wrong and doesn 't care . "
Rene Russo as Frigga :
The wife of Odin , queen of Asgard , mother of Thor and adoptive mother of Loki , based on the mythological deity of the same name . Russo stated in March 2011 interview that she has signed on for possible sequels , joking that , " Eventually they 'll kick me out , so who knows how many I 'll do " .
Anthony Hopkins as Odin :
The ruler of Asgard , father of Thor , and adoptive father of Loki , based on the mythological deity of the same name . In an interview Hopkins stated he knew nothing of the comic . About the film he said , " It 's a superhero movie , but with a bit of Shakespeare thrown in " . Hopkins stated , " I 'm very interested in that relationship between fathers and sons " , and that , " My father 's relationship with me was cold . He was a hot @-@ blood character but to me , cold . When I was young , he expressed his disappointment because I was bad in school and all of that . He didn 't mean any harm , but I felt I could never meet up to his expectations . " Hopkins expressed that he found a personal resonance in the Odin role , saying , " He 's a stern man . He 's a man with purpose . I play the god who banishes his son from the kingdom of Asgard because he screwed up . He 's a hot @-@ headed , temperamental young man ... probably a chip off of the old block but I decide he 's not really ready to rule the future kingdom , so I banish him . I 'm harsh and my wife complains and I say , ' That is why I 'm king . ' He 's ruthless , take @-@ it @-@ or @-@ leave @-@ it . Women are much more forgiving ; men are not so forgiving . I know in my life , my karma is , ' If you don 't like it , tough , move on . ' And I move on . I 'm a little like Odin myself " . In May 2016 , Mel Gibson stated he was offered the role but turned it down .
Tadanobu Asano as Hogun :
A member of the Warriors Three , primarily identified by his grim demeanor and as the only member who is not an Æsir . Ray Stevenson said of Asano 's character , " He doesn 't speak much but when he does , everybody shuts up . But also in the healing room where everyone licks their wounds , he 's the guy who just goes about his business " .
Josh Dallas as Fandral :
A member of the Warriors Three , characterized as an irrepressible swashbuckler and romantic . Stuart Townsend was initially cast after Zachary Levi was forced to vacate the role due to a scheduling conflict . However , days before filming began , Townsend was replaced by Dallas citing " creative differences " . Dallas said he believed that Fandral " would like to think of himself a philanderer . He would like to think of himself , I was saying , as the R. Kelly of Asgard . He 's a lover , not a fighter " . Dallas mentioned that Errol Flynn was an inspiration for the character stating , " He was a big inspiration for the character and for me . I watched a lot of his movies and kind of got that into my bones . I tried to bring out that little bit of Flynn @-@ ness in it . Flynn had a lot of that boyish charm that Fandral 's got .... "
Jaimie Alexander as Sif :
A warrior and Thor 's childhood friend based on the mythological deity of the same name . Alexander was best known for her portrayal of Jessi XX on the ABC Family series Kyle XY . Alexander said that she was familiar with Marvel Comics before having taken the part , having grown up with four brothers . Alexander said the part required hours a day in the gym , though training is not unfamiliar to her , explaining she was one of few girls on her Colleyville , Texas , high @-@ school wrestling team . Alexander described her character as " one of the guys " and that , " She 's a very talented , skilled warrior and can stand on her own against any villain in the film " . About her relationship with Thor she stated , " She is very loyal to Thor and cares a lot about protecting him and protecting Asgard " .
Clark Gregg reprises his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson from Iron Man and Iron Man 2 . Adriana Barraza plays diner owner Isabella Alvarez and Maximiliano Hernández plays S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell . Actors Joseph Gatt , Joshua Cox and Douglas Tait portray Frost Giants . Stan Lee and J. Michael Straczynski have cameo appearances as pick @-@ up truck drivers . Samuel L. Jackson has an uncredited cameo as Nick Fury , director of S.H.I.E.L.D. Jeremy Renner has an uncredited cameo as Clint Barton . Dakota Goyo and Ted Allpress play Thor and Loki , respectively , as children .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Sam Raimi originally envisioned the idea for Thor after making Darkman ( 1990 ) ; he met Stan Lee and pitched the concept to 20th Century Fox , but they did not understand it . Thor was abandoned until April 1997 , when Marvel Studios was beginning to expand rapidly . The film gained momentum after the success of X @-@ Men ( 2000 ) . The plan was for Thor to be made for television . UPN was in talks for airing it ; excited by the prospect , they pushed for a script and approached Tyler Mane to play Thor . In May 2000 , Marvel Studios brought Artisan Entertainment to help finance it as a film , but by June 2004 the project still had yet to be patronised by a studio . Sony Pictures Entertainment finally purchased the film rights , and in December 2004 David S. Goyer was in negotiations to write and direct . In 2005 , though there were talks between Goyer and Marvel , it was revealed that Goyer was no longer interested , though at this point the film was still set to be distributed through Sony Pictures .
Mark Protosevich , a fan of the Thor comic book , agreed to write the script in April 2006 , and the project moved to Paramount Pictures , after it acquired the rights from Sony . That year the film was announced to be a Marvel Studios production . In December 2007 , Protosevich described his plans for it " to be like a superhero origin story , but not one about a human gaining super powers , but of a god realizing his true potential . It 's the story of an Old Testament god who becomes a New Testament god " . In August 2007 Marvel Studios signed Matthew Vaughn to direct the film . Vaughn then rewrote Protosevich 's script in order to bring down the budget to $ 150 million , as Protosevich 's first draft would have cost $ 300 million to produce . He intended to start filming in late 2008 and after the success of Iron Man , Marvel Studios announced that they intended to release Thor on June 4 , 2010 , with Iron Man 2 being used to introduce the character of Thor .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Vaughn was released when his holding deal expired in May 2008 , at which point Marvel set Protosevich to work on a new draft and began searching for a new director . Guillermo del Toro entered talks to direct the film . Del Toro was a fan of Jack Kirby 's work on the comics , and said that he loved the character of Loki , but wished to incorporate more of the original Norse mythology into the film , including a " really dingy Valhalla , [ with ] Vikings and mud " . However , del Toro ultimately turned down Thor to direct The Hobbit . By September 2008 D. J. Caruso had been discussing taking on the project , though he did not read the script . Later that month , it was revealed that Kenneth Branagh had entered into negotiations to direct , and in December 2008 , Branagh confirmed that he had been hired . He described it as " a human story right in the center of a big epic scenario . " Branagh stated that he hoped to begin filming in January 2010 and Marvel Studios set back the release date of the film from its scheduled July 16 , 2010 date to June 17 , 2011 , almost a full year later . They later moved the release date to May 20 , 2011 , to distance the film 's release from that of Captain America : The First Avenger , another Marvel Studios film that was scheduled to be released on July 22 , 2011 . In October 2008 , Daniel Craig was offered the role , but ultimately turned it down , citing his commitments to the James Bond franchise .
In February 2009 , Samuel L. Jackson , who had briefly portrayed Nick Fury at the end of the film Iron Man , signed on to reprise the role in Thor as part of an unprecedented nine @-@ picture deal with Marvel Studios . However , in an April 2010 interview , Jackson stated that he would not be appearing in Thor . When asked why not Jackson explained , " I have no idea . I 'm not in charge of making those kinds of decisions . I thought I was ; they said I was in the trades , and I was like , ' Ooh ! I got a job ! ' I called my agent he said , ' Naw , you 're not in it . ' I was like , ' Well shit , they need to pay me if they 're gonna put my name in it . ' " Later in the month , Jackson revealed that he would be filming a scene for Thor to serve as " connective tissue " for The Avengers . Also in February , a casting call went out looking for actors with certain physical attributes to audition for the role of Thor .
In May 2009 , Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the title role after a back @-@ and @-@ forth process in which the 25 @-@ year @-@ old actor was refused early on , then given a second chance to read for the part . Hemsworth 's brother , Liam also auditioned for the role , but was passed on by Marvel Studios head Kevin Feige . The next day , Marvel announced that Tom Hiddleston , who had worked with Branagh before and had initially been considered to portray the lead role , had been cast as Loki . In June 2009 , Feige confirmed that both Hemsworth and Hiddleston had signed on . Feige mentioned that the film would take place on both modern day Earth and Asgard but Thor 's human host , Dr. Donald Blake , would not be included . In July 2009 , Marvel announced that Natalie Portman would portray Jane Foster . Jaimie Alexander and Colm Feore were reported to have joined the cast in September , with Alexander portraying Sif and Feore 's role unrevealed , though it was thought to be a villain . In an interview with Swedish news site Ystads Allehanda , Stellan Skarsgård stated that he had joined the cast , though he did not specify his role . By late October Anthony Hopkins had been cast as Odin in the film . The following month , Marvel announced that they had cast the Warriors Three ; Fandral was to be played by Stuart Townsend , Hogun was to be played by Tadanobu Asano and Volstagg was to be played by Ray Stevenson . Idris Elba was announced to have joined the cast , portraying Heimdall . Natalie Portman revealed that Kat Dennings would be involved in the project , portraying Darcy , a coworker of Portman 's Jane Foster .
In December 2009 , Rene Russo was cast as Frigga , Thor 's stepmother and Odin 's wife . Later that month , actors Joseph Gatt , Troy Brenna , and Joshua Cox had been cast in the film , though none of their roles were revealed . In January 2010 , Adriana Barraza had joined the film 's cast , in a supporting capacity . Only days before filming began , Stuart Townsend was replaced by Joshua Dallas as Fandral , citing " creative differences " . When Spider @-@ Man 4 's production stalled , Paramount and Marvel Entertainment pushed up the release of Thor by two weeks to the then vacated date of May 6 , 2011 .
The Science & Entertainment Exchange introduced Marvel Entertainment , Kenneth Branagh , " the screenwriter , and a few people on the design and production side of things " to three physicists ( Sean Carroll , Kevin Hand , and Jim Hartle ) , as well as physics student Kevin Hickerson , to provide a realistic science background for the Thor universe . The consultation resulted in a change in Jane Foster 's profession , from nurse to particle physicist , and the terminology ( Einstein @-@ Rosen bridge ) to describe the Bifrost Bridge .
= = = Filming = = =
In October 2008 , Marvel Studios signed a long @-@ term lease agreement with Raleigh Studios to photograph their next four films — Iron Man 2 , Thor , Captain America : The First Avenger and The Avengers — at Raleigh 's Manhattan Beach , California facility . Production Weekly reported that filming on Marvel 's Thor was scheduled to begin in Los Angeles mid @-@ January , then move to Santa Fe , New Mexico from March until late @-@ April . Principal photography began on January 11 , 2010 . A few days after filming began , it was reported that Clark Gregg had signed on to reprise his role from Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as Agent Coulson . In February , Paramount Pictures entered negotiations with Del Mar , California to use a 300 @-@ yard stretch of beach to film a scene for Thor involving six horses running down the terrain . Paramount said this coastline was ideal because its gradual slope of sand down to the waterline creates excellent reflective opportunities on film . On March 15 , 2010 production of Thor moved to Galisteo , New Mexico , where an old @-@ fashioned Western film town was extensively modified for the shoot .
Branagh , a fan of the comic book since childhood , commented on the challenge of bridging Asgard and the modern world : " Inspired by the comic book world both pictorially and compositionally at once , we 've tried to find a way to make a virtue and a celebration of the distinction between the worlds that exist in the film but absolutely make them live in the same world . It 's about finding the framing style , the color palette , finding the texture and the amount of camera movement that helps celebrate and express the differences and the distinctions in those worlds . If it succeeds , it will mark this film as different .... The combination of the primitive and the sophisticated , the ancient and the modern , I think that potentially is the exciting fusion , the exciting tension in the film " .
By April , the prospect for filming parts of Thor in Del Mar , California had fallen through . Paramount Pictures sent a letter informing the city that it has instead chosen an undisclosed Northern California location to film a beachfront scene for the film . The letter cited cost concerns with moving production too far away from its headquarters .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film ended principal photography on May 6 , 2010 and entered the " post @-@ production " phase . It was reported in February 2010 that France @-@ based BUF Compagnie would be the lead visual effects house working on the film . Digital Domain worked on the visual effects as well . Branagh stated that BUF , who developed the effects for the race through space was much inspired by Hubble photography and other images of deep space . Branagh stated he sent paintings from classic studies by J. M. W. Turner to Digital Domain when creating Jotunheim . Peter Butterworth , VFX supervisor and co @-@ founder of Fuel VFX , said the most challenging task was interpreting what the Bifröst would look like , " You can 't Google what these things look like — they are totally imagined and within the heads of the stakeholders . So to extract that and interpret it for the big screen was an interesting challenge creatively . Technically , probably creating fluid simulations that could be art @-@ directed and used for both the Bifröst and Odin 's chamber shots . Part of the difficulty with solving these is that we had to ensure they would work in stereo . In the film , Odin enters what is known as the " Odinsleep " in his chamber to regenerate . Butterworth stated , " For Odin 's Chamber , we developed a dome and curtain of light rays that hover over Odin 's bed . This dome of light suggests harnessed power and energy that revitalizes him as he sleeps . We took a lot of reference from the natural world such as the corona of the sun and gave the sleep effect plenty of volume and space " .
The film was released in a 3 @-@ D version . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Kenneth Branagh stated that the 3 @-@ D process initially made him cringe but " We came to feel that in our case 3 @-@ D could be the very good friend of story and character for a different kind of experience " . Although 2 @-@ D was used for principal photography , producer Kevin Feige stated that the " special effects for the film were conceived and executed from the beginning in 3 @-@ D " .
In October 2010 , casting calls went out for bit players to appear in an undisclosed number of reshoots .
In March 2011 , scenes involving Adriana Barraza were removed from the theatrical cut of the film during the editing process . Kenneth Branagh sent a letter of apology explaining the reasons for the cut and desire to work with Barraza again in the future . In response Barraza stated , " It saddens me because the movie is great and because I was acting alongside some tremendous actors that I admire very much , but I understand the nature of films , and it 's not the first or last time that scenes will be cut " . Barraza appears in only one scene in the film 's theatrical cut . In that same month , Douglas Tait revealed that he performed for motion capture of the Frost Giants . On his hiring , Tait said " I am 6 ' 5 " and have a lean , athletic build , and they hired guys who were 6 ' 7 " and taller , and weighed over 250 pounds . When the film was being edited , they wanted to make them even bigger and move faster . They auditioned people again and Kenneth Branagh chose me to perform the motion capture movements of the Frost Giants " .
In April 2011 , the IMAX Corporation , Paramount Pictures and Marvel Entertainment announced that they have finalized an agreement to release the film on digital IMAX 3D screens . The release marked the continuation of the partnership between the companies , which started on Iron Man 2 .
The post @-@ credits scene in which Skarsgård 's Erik Selvig comes face @-@ to @-@ face with Samuel L. Jackson 's Nick Fury was directed by Joss Whedon , who directed Marvel 's The Avengers ( 2012 ) .
= = Music = =
The film 's score was written by composer Patrick Doyle , a frequent collaborator of Branagh . Doyle described Thor as " the most commercially high profile film I have done since Frankenstein " , adding that the composing process had the challenge of trying to find a tone that fit the duality of Asgard and Earth . Thus Doyle and Branagh had frequent discussions on the musical direction , with the director suggesting a contemporary feel and having a balance between the music and " grand images [ that ] were not in any way hyperbolized " , and the composer in turn implementing " a strong sense of melody , which he responds to in my work " . As Doyle declared that his own Celtic background made him familiar with Norse mythology , an old Celtic folk song also provided the inspiration for Thor 's leitmotif . A soundtrack album was released by Buena Vista Records in April 2011 .
The film also features a song by the Foo Fighters , " Walk " , in both a scene where a powerless Thor shares some boilermakers with Selvig in a roadhouse , and the film 's closing credits . Marvel president Kevin Feige stated that " Walk " was a last minute addition , that the crew felt had " these eerie appropriate lyrics and themes " upon hearing it . Branagh in particular thought that " these lyrics about learning to walk again " were appropriate " of [ a ] movie about redemption , learning to be a hero . "
= = Release = =
The world premiere of Thor took place on April 17 , 2011 , at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street , Sydney . The U.S. premiere took place on May 2 , 2011 , at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles , California . The event was hosted by Isaiah Mustafa and streamed live on Marvel 's official website . The film premiered on April 21 , 2011 , in Australia , and on May 6 , 2011 , in the United States .
= = = Marketing = = =
In July 2010 Marvel Studios held a Thor panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International during which Kenneth Branagh and Chris Hemsworth , Natalie Portman , Kat Dennings , Tom Hiddleston , and Clark Gregg discussed the film and showed some clips from it . A few days later , this footage was leaked on the internet . The first television advertisement was broadcast during Super Bowl XLV on the Fox network in the United States . The rate for advertising during the game was approximately $ 3 million per 30 @-@ second spot . Marvel Studios and Acura launched a joint viral marketing promotion at the 2011 Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo . Other official promotional partners included Burger King , Dr. Pepper , 7 Eleven , and Visa . In May 2011 Marvel Entertainment 's President of Print , Animation and Digital , Dan Buckley , and Marvel Comics Editor @-@ In @-@ Chief , Axel Alonso , rang the NYSE closing bell in celebration of the theatrical release of Thor .
A post @-@ credits scene in the film Iron Man 2 showed Coulson reporting the discovery of a large hammer in the desert . Rick Marshall of MTV News believed it to be the weapon Mjöllnir belonging to Thor , writing , " It continues the grand tradition of connecting the film to another property in development around the Marvel movie universe . " In the commentary track of Iron Man 2 ' home media , Iron Man 2 's director , Jon Favreau , stated that " this is a scene from [ the set of ] Thor " .
Marvel Animation announced a 26 @-@ episode animated series in November 2008 , to air in late 2010 before the release of Marvel Studios ' film . The company released an animated direct @-@ to @-@ video film , Thor : Tales of Asgard , to coincide with the live @-@ action film .
A video game titled Thor : God of Thunder based on the film was developed by Sega using the voices and likenesses of actors Chris Hemsworth , Tom Hiddleston and Jaimie Alexander , and was released on May 3 , 2011 .
= = = Home media = = =
In July 2011 , Marvel Studios and Paramount Pictures announced the release of Thor on Blu @-@ ray 3D , Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD . The discs were released on September 13 , 2011 in three editions : a single @-@ disc DVD , a 2 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray @-@ DVD combo pack , and a 3 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray / DVD / 3D combo pack . All sets come with deleted scenes and a " Road to The Avengers featurette . The 2 @-@ disc and 3 @-@ disc packs includes a digital copy , the first in a series of Marvel One @-@ Shots , The Consultant , and 7 behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes .
Branagh said that the DVD includes at least 20 minutes of deleted scenes . Branagh stated the footage contains " things like the Asgardian parents , Odin and Frigga , played by the beautiful Rene Russo , there 's some beautiful scenes in there that I think people will enjoy . And certainly Thor and Loki interacting in different ways that just fill in a little bit of a back story , that was part of our rehearsal and research . " In its first week of release , Thor took the number one spot on Blu @-@ ray / DVD sales chart and topped Home Media Magazine 's rental chart for the week .
The film was also collected in a 10 @-@ disc box set titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase One – Avengers Assembled " which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on April 2 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Thor earned $ 181 @.@ 0 million in North America and $ 268 @.@ 3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 449 @.@ 3 million . It was also the 15th highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 .
= = = = North America = = = =
The film opened in North America on May 6 , 2011 in 3 @,@ 955 theaters with $ 25 @.@ 5 million ( including $ 3 @.@ 3 million from midnight screenings in about 1 @,@ 800 theaters ) and went on to earn $ 65 @.@ 7 million during its opening weekend taking the number one spot . $ 6 @.@ 2 million of the gross came from 214 IMAX 3D theaters . 3D presentations at a then @-@ record 2 @,@ 737 locations accounted for 60 % of the gross . It became the tenth highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 in North America and the highest @-@ grossing comic @-@ book film from May – August 2011 .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
The film opened solely in Australia on April 21 , 2011 , generating $ 5 @.@ 8 million and placing second behind Universal Pictures ' Fast Five . The film 's box office was just 1 % more than Iron Man opening in Australia in 2008 , Marvel 's most popular release at the time . The following week , Thor opened in 56 markets and took in $ 89 @.@ 2 million through the weekend . In total earnings , its highest @-@ grossing countries after North America were the UK ( $ 22 @.@ 5 million ) , Australia ( $ 20 @.@ 1 million ) and Mexico ( $ 19 @.@ 5 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 77 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 266 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " A dazzling blockbuster that tempers its sweeping scope with wit , humor , and human drama , Thor is mighty Marvel entertainment . " Metacritic assigned a weighted average score of 57 / 100 based on reviews from 40 film critics , a mixed score on their scale .
Richard Kuipers of Variety stated , " Thor delivers the goods so long as butt is being kicked and family conflict is playing out in celestial dimensions , but is less thrilling during the Norse warrior god 's rather brief banishment on Earth " . Megan Lehmann of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " The hammer @-@ hurling god of thunder kicks off this superhero summer with a bang " . In the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Richard Roeper liked the film " Thanks in large part to a charming , funny and winning performance from Australian actor Chris Hemsworth in the title role , Thor is the most entertaining superhero debut since the original Spider @-@ Man " .
Conversely , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave it a negative review stating , " Thor is a failure as a movie , but a success as marketing , an illustration of the ancient carnival tactic of telling the rubes anything to get them into the tent " . A.O. Scott of The New York Times also disliked the film , calling it " an example of the programmed triumph of commercial calculation over imagination " . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times had mixed feelings , describing the film as " an aesthetic stand @-@ off between predictable elements and unexpected ones " . Turan praised the performances of Hemsworth , Hopkins , and Elba , but found the special effects inconsistent and the Earth storyline derivative .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Sequels = =
= = = Thor : The Dark World = = =
A sequel , Thor : The Dark World , directed by Alan Taylor , was released on November 8 , 2013 . Hemsworth and Hiddleston reprise their roles as Thor and Loki , respectively , along with others from the first film . Christopher Eccleston joins the cast as the Dark Elf Maletkith .
= = = Thor : Ragnarok = = =
Thor : Ragnarok is scheduled to be released on November 3 , 2017 , directed by Taika Waititi . Stephany Folsom will write the screenplay , with Kevin Feige again producing . Hemsworth , Hiddleston , Alexander , Hopkins and Elba will reprise their roles as Thor , Loki , Sif , Odin , and Heimdall , respectively , while Mark Ruffalo will appear as Bruce Banner / Hulk reprising his role from previous MCU films . Cate Blanchett , Tessa Thompson , Jeff Goldblum and Karl Urban join the cast as Hela , Valkyrie , Grandmaster , and Skurge , respectively .
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= Pope Theodore II =
Pope Theodore II ( Latin : Theodorus II ; 840 – December 897 ) was pope for twenty days in December 897 . His short reign occurred during a period of partisan strife in the Catholic Church , which was entangled with a period of feudal violence and disorder in central Italy . His main act as pope was to annul the " Cadaver Synod " of the previous January , therefore reinstating the acts and ordinations of Pope Formosus , which had themselves been annulled by Pope Stephen VI . He also had the body of Formosus recovered from the river Tiber and reburied with honour . He died in office in late December 897 .
= = Background = =
Towards the end of the ninth century , due to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire the Catholic Church had to rely upon powerful European nobles for support . Pope Stephen V approached Arnulf of Carinthia to protect Rome from " pagan and evil Christians " . After he refused , Stephen V had to rely upon Guy III of Spoleto instead . Guy agreed to protect Rome as long as he was named as the Holy Roman Emperor , to which Stephen V acceded . After Stephen V 's death , Pope Formosus was elected . Formosus and Guy were reluctant allies , and Guy forced Formosus to crown him emperor again and to name his son , Lambert , as co @-@ emperor and successor . Formosus did so , but after Guy 's death , he lobbied Arnulf to rescue Rome from the Spoletans . Arnulf agreed , and Formosus subsequently appointed him as the Holy Roman Emperor in 894 . Both Arnulf and Formosus died within a few years of the coronation , and the new pope , Stephen VI , crowned Lambert as the new emperor shortly thereafter .
In January 897 , Stephen VI held what is known as the " Cadaver Synod " . He had the body of Formosus exhumed from St. Peter 's Basilica and dressed in pontifical vestments . The dead pope was charged with " perjury , violating the canons prohibiting the translation of bishops , and coveting the papacy . " Formosus ' defence was provided by a deacon , but he was found guilty of all the charges . The synod annulled all of Formosus ' acts and ordinations . Formosus ' body was reburied in a common grave , and then thrown in the river Tiber . Supporters of Formosus rebelled , and seven months after the synod , Stephen VI was deposed , and died soon after in prison . His replacement , Pope Romanus is generally assumed to have been pro @-@ Formosus , but he was only pope for four months before he was deposed and made a monk .
= = Theodore II 's reign = =
Little is known of Theodore 's background ; he is recorded as being born a Roman , and the son of Photios I of Constantinople , who was the Patriarch of Constantinople . His brother Theodosius ( or Theosius ) was also a bishop . He was ordained as a priest by Stephen V. The exact dates of his papal reign are unknown , but modern sources generally agree that he was pope for twenty days during December 897 . Flodoard , a tenth @-@ century French chronicler , only credited Theodore with a twelve @-@ day reign , while in his history of the popes , Alexis @-@ François Artaud de Montor listed Theodore 's reign as being twenty days , from 12 February to 3 March 898 .
Like his predecessor , Theodore was a supporter of Formosus . Some historians believe that Romanus had been deposed because he had not acted to restore Formosus ' honour quickly enough , though others suggest that he was removed by supporters of Stephen VI . In either case , Theodore immediately threw himself into the task of undoing the " Cadaver Synod " . He called his own synod , which annulled the rulings set out by Stephen VI . In so doing , he restored the acts and ordinations of Pope Formosus , including the restoration of a large number of clergy and bishops to their offices . Theodore also ordered Formosus ' body to be recovered from the harbour of Portus , where it had been secretly buried , and restored to the original grave at St. Peter 's Basilica . Like Romanus before him , Theodore bestowed a privilege upon the See of Grado , and had a coin minted , bearing the name of Lambert on the obverse , and " Scs . Petrus " and " Thedr . " on the reverse .
Flodoard cast Theodore in a positive light , describing him as " beloved of the clergy , a friend of peace , temperate , chaste , affable and a great lover of the poor . " He died in office , though the cause of his death is unknown . In her book The Deaths of the Popes , Wendy Reardon suggests that Theodore " died suddenly from unknown ' foul play ' ( most likely poisons ) " . Horace Kinder Mann offers a different suggestion in his papal history , noting that it is possible that Popes who were " infirm or even older than [ ... ] their predecessors " might have been elected intentionally . Theodore was buried at St. Peter 's Basilica , but his tomb was destroyed during the demolition of the old basilica in the seventeenth century .
= = Aftermath = =
After Theodore 's death , both Pope John IX and Sergius III claimed to have been elected pope ; the latter was excommunicated and driven from the city , though he did later become pope in 904 . John IX held synods reaffirming that of Theodore II , and he further banned the trial of people after their death . In turn , Sergius III later annulled the synods of Theodore II and John IX , and reinstated the validity of the " Cadaver Synod " .
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= Monday ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Monday " is the fourteenth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 28 , 1999 . It was written by Vince Gilligan and John Shiban , directed by Kim Manners , and featured guest appearances by Carrie Hamilton and Darren E. Burrows . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Monday " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 2 , being watched by 16 @.@ 7 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , the world is trapped in a time loop , and only one woman , named Pam ( Carrie Hamilton ) , seems to know . Each day the events that happen differ slightly . A bank robbery is committed over and over again until finally the eventual bombing of the building is prevented . Somehow , Mulder and Scully are trapped in the middle of it all .
" Monday , " inspired by The Twilight Zone episode titled " Shadow Play , " required the cast and crew to shoot the same scene several times . Because of this , director Kim Manners attempted to make each camera angle interesting . Actress Carrie Hamilton was cast to play Pam , and Darren E. Burrows , a former regular on the comedy show Northern Exposure , was cast to play her boyfriend Bernard .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) bleeding out from a gunshot wound while Scully tends to him . They are revealed to be hostages in a bank holdup , and Scully attempts to reason with their captor ( Darren E. Burrows ) , only to have him reveal a bomb strapped to his chest . The police begin to storm the building , prompting the gunman to detonate the bomb , seemingly killing them all .
Mulder then wakes , unharmed , to find that his water bed has sprung a leak , his alarm clock is broken , and he needs to pay his landlord for water damage . To do so , he is forced to go to the bank , instead of going to the meeting with his partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and various other FBI officials . When he arrives , the same gunman , named Bernard , arrives and nervously attempts to rob the bank , shooting Mulder in the process . The teller sets off the bank 's silent alarm and police cars come rushing to the scene . Scully arrives and once again attempts to help her partner as he lies dying , but events go the same way - the police rush the building , Bernard detonates the bomb , and everybody dies .
Suddenly , the action starts over . Mulder wakes to find that his water bed has sprung a leak , his alarm clock is broken , and he needs to pay his landlord for water damage . To the audience , time itself is stuck in a loop . Everyone is oblivious to the repetition of events except for one person , Pam ( Carrie Hamilton ) , Bernard 's girlfriend . Over multiple iterations of the events , Pam does everything in her power to save the agents , including trying to prevent them from entering the bank , trying to inform them of the time loop , and even begging Skinner not to let the police into the building . Because however she has a low intellect she is unable to stop things . It is implied that she has lived these events many times , as she refers to having had Mulder ask her the same question over fifty times . There are subtle changes in the events , and Mulder and Scully 's conversation is worded differently each time , but the results are always the same : Bernard detonates the bomb , usually after shooting Mulder , and they all die .
The time loop continues ad nauseam , though each time Pam speaks to Mulder , he comes closer to being able to remember her . She is finally able to convince him that events are repeating themselves , and before he is killed by the blast , Mulder begins repeating " he 's got a bomb " to himself , in an attempt to recall it the next time around . In the following iteration of the day Mulder finds himself repeating the phrase in the bank , and acting on his hunch , calls Scully and then confronts Bernard before he begins the holdup , changing events on a fundamental level . Scully , acting on Mulder 's phone call , brings Pam into the Bank . Mulder and Pam convince Bernard to give up and walk out with Pam . The sirens of the approaching Police response become audible and Bernard becomes agitated and attempts to shoot Mulder , but Pam throws herself in front of Mulder as he fires . As she lies dying , she admits , " This never happened before . " Bernard collapses to his knees , horrified by what he has done , and is peacefully arrested . The bomb blast averted , time continues as normal .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing , casting , and filming = = =
The episode was written under " extreme pressure " during the show 's brief Christmas hiatus . Many critics have noted similarities between " Monday " and the 1993 comedy film Groundhog Day . Vince Gilligan and John Shiban , the writers of the episode , however , credit a 1961 episode of The Twilight Zone titled " Shadow Play . " Gilligan later noted that , " the funny thing about ' Monday ' is people seemed to really like it a lot , but people always sorta [ sic ] smiled and said you 're sort of ripping off Groundhog Day aren 't you ? [ ... ] And I 'd say , we 're not ripping off Groundhog Day , we 're ripping off The Twilight Zone . " A similar plot device was used in the Stargate : SG @-@ 1 episode " Window of Opportunity " , in which the characters of Jack O 'Neill and Teal 'c are the only individuals who remain aware of the time loop .
Casting director Rick Millikan was tasked with finding a suitable actress to play Pam , the would @-@ be bank robber 's girlfriend . Millikan expressed the difficulty in casting the role , saying , " you had to feel sorry for this woman 's terrible , unbelievable plight — basically she 's trapped in a living hell — without at any time thinking she 's insane . " The role eventually went to actress Carrie Hamilton , who Millikan and the producers unanimously agreed was the perfect choice . This was one of Hamilton 's last roles , as she died from cancer three years later at the age of 38 . For the part of Bernard , Millikan cast Darren Burrows , a former regular on the comedy show Northern Exposure . Millikan later said that his acting was , " beautiful . "
Director Kim Manners , realizing the monotony of some of the scenes , such as Mulder waking up after each successive explosion , attempted to make each camera angle interesting . He diagrammed every camera angle and move to make the scenes visually appealing and hold the viewers ' attention . First assistant director Bruce Carter examined the script and created a complex timeline to make shooting easier . It took him two weeks to break all the episode 's elements into their exact timings , but Carter considered it a success . He later said , " It was one of the things I was proudest of all year . "
To create the bank needed for the episode , Ilt Jones and the location department staff found a former bank and current animation school and film production house on Fourth and Main Street in downtown Los Angeles . The building was completely renovated , complete with fake ATMs , columns , desks , and double @-@ glazed windows . All of the items inside of the bank were bought from a bank @-@ supply catalogue by set decorator Tim Stepeck . During the hold @-@ up scene outside the bank , a four @-@ block area was sealed off to allow cameras to film . A total of eleven cameras , some at different speeds , were used . Some of the cameras made it onto the film , but they were erased during post @-@ production .
= = = Props and make @-@ up = = =
Much of the episode relied on props . The water bed , which was purchased by Morris Fletcher earlier in the sixth season episode " Dreamland " while in Mulder 's body , proved to be the hardest prop to locate . Stepeck searched Los Angeles and was unable to find a suitable bed . He had to order the bed from a specialized furniture store in San Francisco . Mulder 's paycheck and envelope were created after several calls to the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington , D.C. The checks were made to be as realistic as possible without looking too convincing . During the hold @-@ up scene outside the bank , the police cruisers were all turned off , because the combined noise of the cars would drown out dialogue . To ensure their flashing lights , car coordinator Danny Briggs installed battery chargers in the cars .
To give Pam the proper look , the makeup department , headed by Cheri Montesanto @-@ Mecalf , applied mascara under Hamilton 's eyes and then smudged it to give her a " haunted " look . Pam 's stringy and multi @-@ hued hairstyle was Hamilton 's creation . Dena Green , the hair department head , was tasked with creating an exact wig replica to be worn by Hamilton 's stunt double .
In this episode , we see a thick black book on the shelf above Mulder 's bed . The book is a classic textbook on general relativity : Gravitation by Charles Misner , Kip Thorne , and John Wheeler . Thorne is the author of a review paper asking whether the laws of physics outlaw time loops completely . Agent Scully 's undergraduate thesis was about the physics of time in relativity .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Monday " first aired in the United States on February 28 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on June 13 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 90 million viewers , making it the second most @-@ watched episode that week , behind Friends . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " How do you stop the unstoppable from happening ? Tonight , Mulder may die trying . "
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received consistently positive reviews . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a positive review , writing " One of the strengths of ' Monday ' is in showing us Scully 's evolution and how her experiences with Mulder allow her to embrace , albeit reluctantly , ideas that are not grounded in science . " Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named the episode the " finest stand @-@ alone episode " of the sixth season and wrote , " Time loops , if dragged on for too long , can become tedious , but in small doses they can be hilariously funny or achingly poignant . This episode is definitely the latter , as the downtrodden girlfriend of a bank robber is forced to witness the deaths of her boyfriend , Mulder , Scully and a large group of innocent people die over and over again until finally she breaks the loop by dying herself [ ... ] The onus of saving everyone being largely on the shoulders of an unknown woman effectively brings in a change of pace and a welcome breath of fresh air . " Earl Cressey from DVD Talk called " Monday " one of the " highlights of season six . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A " and called it " a script which balances humor , structural brilliance , and compassion in equal measure . " Handlen compared and contrasted the episode to Groundhog Day , noting that , while both feature a character who is able to restart a day , in " Monday " , the characters have the benefit of free will and can change factors : " Every Monday to her has certain basic requirements : boyfriend with bomb , bank robbery , the FBI agents [ … ] and the earth @-@ shattering Kaboom . Aside from that , nothing is certain . " Handlen concluded that the episode managed to be both " a very funny hour " , as well as possess serious " sadness " .
Jordan Farley from SFX magazine named the episode the eighth of the " Top Groundhog Days " episodes . Farley applauded the show 's gall to seemingly kill one of the leads in the teaser and appreciated the entry 's mix of humor — during the scenes with Mulder and his water bed — and its alternative scenarios in the bank . Natalie Prado from Just Press Play gave the episode an A – and wrote , " The episode is well @-@ written and tense . As an audience , we become increasingly frustrated that the two people that we know can solve the problem are unaware that it exists , which makes the payoff when they finally find a way out much more satisfying . There are a few leaps in logic , especially towards the end , but overall it ’ s solid and enjoyable . " Jamie Jeffords , writing for the Dallas Morning News , awarded the episode four out of five stars and praised Hamilton 's performance , saying , " What makes ' Monday ’ is the performance of Hamilton [ ... ] When she is killed in the end , she almost possesses a quiet glee when she realizes her death never happened before , so maybe it is over now . Her performance is haunting . Very powerful . " Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the sixth season , said " Monday " was " well made and entertaining . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris called the episode " ingenious and heart @-@ wrenching , " and noted that David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson 's acting was the best of the season . Furthermore , she praised Kim Manners ' directing style , calling the same scenes shot in different ways " new " . UGO Networks listed the episode as number 95 in a countdown of the " 100 Greatest Moments in Time Travel " .
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= P.N.03 =
P.N.03 , short for Product Number Zero Three , is a 2003 third @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Capcom for the Nintendo GameCube . Set in a science @-@ fictional space colony compound , the game stars Vanessa Z. Schneider , a mercenary controlled by the player to combat berserk robots . The game was directed by Shinji Mikami as part of the Capcom Five . To avoid similarities with Devil May Cry and Resident Evil , the P.N.03 team emphasized defensive and rhythmic maneuvers and a " delicate " , " feminine " game world .
P.N.03 was developed on a tight schedule in an attempt to offset Capcom 's poor fiscal year . However , the game received mixed reviews and failed commercially . Several critics found the game repetitive and unintuitive . They were divided on its gameplay mechanics : some disliked its controls — specifically the inability to move and shoot simultaneously — while others compared it favorably to golden age arcade games . Mikami repurposed ideas from P.N.03 in his 2010 game Vanquish .
= = Plot and gameplay = =
P.N.03 is a science @-@ fiction third @-@ person shooter . In the game , the player controls Vanessa Z. Schneider , a freelance mercenary who works on colonized planets . She is contracted by a mysterious client to destroy Computerized Armament Management System ( CAMS ) robots that have gone berserk . Robots of this type had been responsible for the deaths of Vanessa 's parents . To combat the CAMS , Vanessa wears " Aegis suits " , powered exoskeletons that allow her to fire energy beams from her palms and to perform powerful attacks called " energy drives " . Energy drives , which deplete the energy meter , grant temporary invulnerability to Vanessa and damage multiple enemies . At checkpoints , the player uses points earned from defeated robots to purchase Aegis suits , suit upgrades and energy drives . The player may play " trial missions " ( randomly generated levels ) between missions to score extra points .
The CAMS attack in set patterns , and their next moves are indicated by visual and aural cues . The player avoids these attacks via evasive spins , rolls and other maneuvers . Vanessa cannot move while attacking , and so the player must often use the environment as cover . Defeated enemies sometimes drop items that replenish health and energy or that trigger a combo timer , which multiplies the points earned from enemies destroyed consecutively . Each mission takes place in a series of rooms that contain a fixed number of enemies and may include a boss robot . At the end of a mission , the player receives a score based on the number of rooms explored and enemies destroyed .
Late in the game , Vanessa discovers a clone of herself in a CAMS facility but is forced to abandon her when the building 's self @-@ destruct sequence is initiated . After destroying the CAMS central core , Vanessa encounters a digital projection of the client , whose appearance is identical to her own . She speculates that she is a clone of the client , but the client counters that none of their memories may be real . Vanessa debates whether to continue her work as a mercenary as the game ends .
= = Development = =
In November 2002 , Capcom announced the Capcom Five , a group of video games developed by Capcom Production Studio 4 and overseen by Resident Evil creator Shinji Mikami . Among these titles was P.N.03 , directed by Mikami . Capcom conceived the Capcom Five to bring new intellectual property to the industry , which the company viewed at the time as stagnant . According to producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi , the P.N.03 team 's goal was to make a game both " fun to watch and fun to play " . The team focused on the game 's audiovisuals , action , and speed , and they tried to balance the " tension experienced on the battlefield and the exhilaration of taking out the enemies " . Mikami wanted P.N.03 to evoke the same feelings as classic Nintendo games . While the staff felt the background graphics were important , they prioritized excitement in the game world .
During the planning stage , P.N.03 was originally a wargame referred to as the " robot war game " . Five days into development , the staff created a preliminary demonstration of the graphics . Mikami was unsatisfied with this prototype and decided to rework the project as a third @-@ person shooting game . The director wanted to name the game Jaguar to reflect Vanessa 's cat @-@ like agility . However , other staff members disliked the name : some claimed that it failed to describe the game , while others thought that White Jaguar was a better title . Mikami chose P.N.03 as a hint to the game 's plot .
Early coverage of P.N.03 by GameSpot and IGN highlighted the game 's acrobatics and shooting . P.N.03 's gameplay was initially similar to that of Devil May Cry : Vanessa attacked with two pistols and performed acrobatic moves like Devil May Cry 's protagonist , Dante . Feeling that it resembled Devil May Cry too closely , Mikami altered the game to reward players for performing defensive moves . Mikami wanted Vanessa to use guns , but the developers were unable to complete the animated graphics for weapons in time for release . The guns were substituted by energy bolts fired from the character 's hands . In an effort to meet yearly sales goals , Capcom developed P.N.03 quickly and released it in March 2003 . Many of Capcom 's releases for the year had underperformed . Viewtiful Joe , another Capcom Five title , was delayed into the next fiscal year to decrease the possible sales that had to be offset . After leaving Capcom , Mikami later incorporated ideas he intended for P.N.03 into the 2010 title Vanquish .
Kobayashi aimed to avoid conventions established in Resident Evil , such as that series ' dark , masculine world . With P.N.03 , Kobayashi wanted to portray a " white " world with " feminine , delicate lines " . To that end , the staff applied a minimalist approach to the visuals , used " fine drawn lines " , and emphasized " visibility and creativity " in the game world . To maintain the game 's " delicate image " , the developers tried to make the visuals easy to view and understand . The team crafted the gameplay to avoid " button mashing " ; instead , players were meant to observe enemy attack patterns and think before acting . Mechanical designer Shou Sakai tried to craft " things that would stick in [ the player 's ] mind " . Because of the tight development schedule , 3D models had to be created immediately after their designs were completed . Sakai described the lack of time as the " toughest part " of the process .
Mikami was indifferent to the main character 's gender . During the early creation process , he left the decision to his staff , who ultimately chose a female character . Because P.N.03 takes place in a space colony , Mikami wanted Vanessa 's country of origin to be ambiguous . To that end , she was given a combination of French , German , and English names . Vanessa 's movements were animated freehand , without motion capture technology . The designers posed Vanessa crouched on her hands and knees to resemble a jaguar , as an homage to the Jaguar title . The staff integrated rhythmic motions to her maneuvers to emulate dancing and to make her appear stylish . Kobayashi wanted Vanessa to be a " cool and sexy mercenary with a tough exterior that hides her dark past . " In retrospect , he was proud of the character 's style and movements .
= = Release = =
The Capcom Five were first announced as games exclusive to the Nintendo GameCube ; however , Capcom later ported most of the titles to other consoles . At the end of 2002 , the company confirmed that P.N.03 would be released in 2003 as a GameCube exclusive . In January 2003 , the company slated the game for a March release in Japan but retracted the exclusivity announcement . At a press conference prior to the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo , however , Capcom reaffirmed that P.N.03 would be available only for the GameCube . In the end , P.N.03 was the only Capcom Five title to remain exclusive to the system .
P.N.03 was the first of the Capcom Five to be released . Before the game 's debut in Japan , Capcom distributed playable demos to stores and released screenshots to the media . Upon P.N.03 's release , Capcom shipped 25 @,@ 000 copies to Japanese retailers . Under 11 @,@ 000 units were sold , which made the game Japan 's 26th best @-@ selling title during the last week of March 2003 . These low sales failed to help Capcom meet its yearly sales goals . The North American localization was announced in July 2003 . Few aspects of the game were changed for the North American market . Capcom advertised a free T @-@ shirt as a pre @-@ order incentive in North America . Promotional sunglasses modeled after Vanessa 's were also released .
= = Reception = =
P.N.03 failed commercially and received mixed reviews , with scores of 64 % and 63 on review aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's three reviewers characterized the game as shallow , repetitive and devoid of plot and character development . Mark MacDonald of the magazine criticized Vanessa 's inability to move and shoot at the same time . By contrast , the reviewer for Edge wrote , " P.N.03 may be rather short and its premise simple , but grace under fire has rarely been done better . " The writer favorably compared its gameplay to that of Space Invaders , in that the game " rewards skill above all else and mastery brings huge satisfaction " . The reviewer cited Vanessa as one of the game 's high points . In a 2009 retrospective review , the Edge magazine staff echoed its previous praise of P.N.03 but acknowledged the game 's awkward control mechanics . The staff commented that Vanessa 's potentially fluid movement is difficult to execute , but that the challenge of mastering the control scheme is part of the game 's charm .
GamePro 's Mike Weigand called the game " a long , intense , thumb @-@ busting shooter that tests trigger fingers and patience levels . " He found the environments and enemies repetitive , but he cited " strong aesthetics " and " a slick reward system " as redemptive features . Weigand summarized that , while the game lacks depth , it may be recommended to " those who crave a shoot @-@ em @-@ up with old @-@ school inflections " . Paul Byrnes of GMR found P.N.03 to be a " boring and repetitive " missed opportunity . He felt that it lacked flow , thanks in large part to Vanessa 's " clumsily staccato " movements and inability to move and shoot simultaneously . Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner wrote that P.N.03 's setting , animations and protagonist give it an " undeniable allure " of freshness and originality . However , he disliked the game 's control system and wrote that " blowing away robots gets old rather quickly " . Reiner called P.N.03 's length , which he estimated to be four hours , its " most disappointing aspect " .
Greg Kasavin of GameSpot wrote that " you 'll almost certainly be unimpressed with the repetitive and cumbersome action at the heart of [ P.N.03 ] . " He disliked the game 's separation into brief , discrete sections ; and , while he saw the game 's design as a reference to that of older games , he found that P.N.03 lacked the " extremely precise controls and smooth , colorful graphics " of the titles that inspired it . Kasavin summarized it as " a short , uninspired game that 's yet another would @-@ be imitator of Capcom 's own Devil May Cry . " Matt Casamassina of IGN wrote that players will " want to like " the game , but that its " design flaws and sloppy execution " are impossible to overlook . He found it to be shallow and repetitive , and he wrote that its fast pace and " unresponsive control setup " combine to place the game " at war with itself . " However , he believed that P.N.03 is " not a disaster — merely a disappointment " , and that it sits " solidly in average country . " In a 2012 retrospective from Eurogamer , Chris Schilling called the game the outcast of Shinji Mikami 's work , criticizing its plot and calling its control scheme its " biggest obstacle " . He later added " if at times its appeal can be hard to pin down , that doesn 't mean it should be so easily forgotten " , mentioning the satisfaction of beating the bosses in the game .
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= Tool ( band ) =
Tool is an American rock band from Los Angeles , California . Formed in 1990 , the group 's line @-@ up includes drummer Danny Carey , guitarist Adam Jones , and vocalist Maynard James Keenan . Since 1995 , Justin Chancellor has been the band 's bassist , replacing their original bassist Paul D 'Amour . Tool has won three Grammy Awards , performed worldwide tours , and produced albums topping the charts in several countries .
The band emerged with a heavy metal sound on their first studio album , Undertow ( 1993 ) , and later became a dominant act in the alternative metal movement , with the release of their second album , Ænima in 1996 . Their efforts to unify musical experimentation , visual arts , and a message of personal evolution continued , with Lateralus ( 2001 ) and the most recent album , 10 @,@ 000 Days ( 2006 ) , gaining the band critical acclaim , and commercial success around the world .
Due to Tool 's incorporation of visual arts and very long and complex releases , the band is generally described as a style @-@ transcending act and part of progressive rock , psychedelic rock , and art rock . The relationship between the band and today 's music industry is ambivalent , at times marked by censorship , and the band 's insistence on privacy .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1988 – 92 ) = = =
During the 1980s , each of the future members of Tool moved to Los Angeles . Both Paul D 'Amour and Adam Jones wanted to enter the film industry , while Maynard James Keenan found employment remodeling pet stores after having studied visual arts in Michigan . Danny Carey and Keenan performed for Green Jellÿ , and Carey played with Carole King and Pigmy Love Circus .
Keenan and Jones met through a mutual friend in 1989 . After Keenan played a tape recording for Jones of his previous band project , Jones was so impressed by his voice that he eventually talked his friend into forming their own band . They started jamming together and were on the lookout for a drummer and a bass player . Carey happened to live above Keenan and was introduced to Jones by Tom Morello , an old high school friend of Jones and former member of Electric Sheep . Carey began playing in their sessions because he " felt kinda sorry for them , " as other invited musicians were not showing up . Tool 's lineup was completed when a friend of Jones introduced them to bassist D 'Amour . Early on , the band fabricated the story that they formed because of the pseudophilosophy " lachrymology " . Although " lachrymology " was also cited as an inspiration for the band 's name , Keenan later explained their intentions differently : " Tool is exactly what it sounds like : It 's a big dick . It 's a wrench . ... we are ... your tool ; use us as a catalyst in your process of finding out whatever it is you need to find out , or whatever it is you 're trying to achieve . "
After almost two years of practicing and performing locally in the Los Angeles area , the band was approached by record companies , and eventually signed a record deal with Zoo Entertainment . In March 1992 , Zoo published the band 's first effort , Opiate . Described by the band as " slam and bang " heavy music and the " hardest sounding " six songs they had written to that point , the EP included the singles " Hush " and " Opiate " . The band 's first music video , " Hush " , promoted their dissenting views about the then @-@ prominent Parents Music Resource Center and its advocacy of the censorship of music . The video featured the band members naked with their genitalia covered by parental advisory stickers and their mouths covered by duct tape . The band began touring with Rollins Band , Fishbone , and Rage Against the Machine to positive responses , which Janiss Garza of RIP Magazine summarized in September 1992 as a " buzz " and " a strong start " .
= = = Undertow ( 1993 – 95 ) = = =
The following year , at a time when alternative rock and grunge was at its height , Tool released their first full @-@ length album , Undertow ( 1993 ) . It expressed more diverse dynamics than Opiate and included songs the band had chosen not to publish on their previous release , when they had opted for a heavier sound . The band began touring again as planned , with an exception in May 1993 . Tool was scheduled to play at the Garden Pavilion in Hollywood but learned at the last minute that the venue belonged to L. Ron Hubbard 's Church of Scientology , which was perceived as a clash with " the band 's ethics about how a person should not follow a belief system that constricts their development as a human being . " Keenan " spent most of the show baa @-@ ing like a sheep at the audience . "
Tool later played several concerts during the Lollapalooza festival tour , and were moved from the second stage to the main stage by their manager and the festival co @-@ founder Ted Gardner . At the last concert of Lollapalooza in Tool 's hometown Los Angeles , comedian Bill Hicks introduced the band . Hicks had become a friend of the band members and an influence on them after being mentioned in Undertow 's liner notes . He jokingly asked the audience of 10 @,@ 000 people to stand still and help him look for a lost contact lens . The boost in popularity gained from these concerts helped Undertow to be certified gold by the RIAA in September 1993 and to achieve platinum status in 1995 , despite being sold with a censored album cover by distributors such as Wal @-@ Mart . The single " Sober " became a hit single by March 1994 and won the band Billboard 's " Best Video by a New Artist " award for the accompanying stop motion music video .
With the release of Tool 's follow @-@ up single " Prison Sex " , the band again became the target of censorship . The song 's lyrics and video dealt with child abuse , which sparked controversial reactions ; Keenan 's lyrics begin with : " It took so long to remember just what happened . I was so young and vestal then , you know it hurt me , but I 'm breathing so I guess I 'm still alive ... I 've got my hands bound and my head down and my eyes closed and my throat wide open . " The video was created primarily by guitarist Adam Jones , who saw it as his " surrealistic interpretation " of the subject matter . And while some contemporary journalists praised the video and described the lyrics as " metaphoric " , the American branch of MuchMusic asked Keenan to represent the band in a hearing . It deemed the music video too graphic and obscene , and MTV stopped airing it after a few showings .
In September 1995 , the band started writing and recording their second studio album . At that time Tool experienced its only lineup change to date , with bassist D 'Amour leaving the band amicably to pursue other projects . Justin Chancellor , a member of former tourmates Peach , eventually replaced D 'Amour , having been chosen over competitors such as Kyuss ' Scott Reeder , Filter 's Frank Cavanaugh , Pigmy Love Circus 's E. Shepherd Stevenson , and ZAUM 's Marco Fox .
= = = Ænima ( 1996 – 2000 ) = = =
On September 17 , 1996 , Tool released their second full @-@ length album , Ænima ( / ˈɒnɪmə / ) . It was certified triple platinum by the RIAA on March 4 , 2003 . D 'Amour left Tool and Chancellor came on board during the recording of the album . The band enlisted the help of producer David Bottrill , who had produced some of King Crimson 's albums , while Jones collaborated with Cam de Leon to create Ænima 's Grammy @-@ nominated artwork .
The album was dedicated to stand @-@ up comedian Bill Hicks , who had died two and a half years earlier . The band intended to raise awareness about Hicks 's material and ideas , because they felt that Tool and Hicks " were resonating similar concepts " . In particular , Ænima 's final track " Third Eye " is preceded by a clip of Hicks ' performances , and the lenticular casing of the Ænima album packaging as well as the chorus of the title track " Ænema " make reference to a sketch from Hicks 's Arizona Bay , in which he contemplates the idea of Los Angeles falling into the Pacific Ocean .
The first single , " Stinkfist " , garnered limited airplay . It was shortened by radio programmers , MTV ( U.S. ) renamed the music video of " Stinkfist " to " Track No. 1 " due to offensive connotations , and the lyrics of the song were altered . Responding to fan complaints about censorship , Matt Pinfield of MTV 's 120 Minutes expressed regret on air by waving his fist in front of his face while introducing the video and explaining the name change .
A tour began in October 1996 , two weeks after Ænima 's release . Following numerous appearances in the United States and Europe , Tool headed for Australia and New Zealand in late March 1997 . April 1 of that year saw the first of several April Fools ' pranks related to the band . Kabir Akhtar , webmaster of the band 's semi @-@ official fanpage , The Tool Page , wrote that " at least three of the band are listed in critical condition " after a tour bus accident on a highway . This hoax gained wide attention and was eventually exposed on radio and MTV . Akhtar later posted an apology , claiming that The Tool Page " will not indulge itself in such outlandish pranks in the future " — a claim that would be belied by later April Fools ' pranks .
Eventually returning to the United States , Tool appeared at Lollapalooza ' 97 in July , this time as a headliner , where they gained critical praise from The New York Times :
Tool was returning in triumph to Lollapalooza after appearing among the obscure bands on the festival 's smaller stage in 1993 . Now Tool is the prime attraction for a festival that 's struggling to maintain its purpose ... Tool uses taboo @-@ breaking imagery for hellfire moralizing in songs that swerve from bitter reproach to nihilistic condemnation . Its music has refined all the troubled majesty of grunge .
Notwithstanding a decline in popularity of alternative rock music during the mid @-@ 1990s in the United States , Ænima eventually matched Tool 's successful debut album in sales . The progressive @-@ influenced Ænima landed the band at the head of the alternative metal genre : It featured the Grammy Award @-@ winning " Ænema " and appeared on several " Best Albums of 1996 " lists , with notable examples being those of Kerrang ! and Terrorizer .
A legal battle that began the same year interfered with the band 's working on another release . Volcano Entertainment — the successor of Tool 's by @-@ then defunct label Zoo Entertainment — alleged contract violations by Tool and filed a lawsuit . According to Volcano , Tool had violated their contract when the band looked at offers from other record labels . After Tool filed a countersuit stating that Volcano had failed to use a renewal option in their contract , the parties settled out of court . In December 1998 Tool agreed to a new contract , a three @-@ record joint venture deal . In 2000 , the band dismissed their long @-@ time manager Ted Gardner , who then sued the band over his commission on this lucrative agreement .
During this time , Keenan joined the band A Perfect Circle , which was founded by long @-@ time Tool guitar tech Billy Howerdel , while Jones joined The Melvins ' Buzz Osborne and Carey drummed with Dead Kennedys ' Jello Biafra on side projects . Although there were rumors that Tool were breaking up , Chancellor , Jones , and Carey were working on new material while waiting for Keenan to return . In 2000 , the Salival box set ( CD / VHS or CD / DVD ) was released , effectively putting an end to the rumors . The CD contained one new original track , a cover of Led Zeppelin 's " No Quarter " , a live version of Peach 's " You Lied " , and revised versions of old songs . The VHS and the DVD each contained four music videos , plus a bonus music video for " Hush " on the DVD . Although Salival did not yield any singles , the hidden track " Maynard 's Dick " ( which dates back to the Opiate era ) briefly found its way to FM radio when several DJs chose to play it on air under the title " Maynard 's Dead " .
= = = Lateralus ( 2001 – 05 ) = = =
In January 2001 , Tool announced a new album , Systema Encéphale , along with a 12 @-@ song track list containing titles such as " Riverchrist " , " Numbereft " , " Encephatalis " , " Musick " , and " Coeliacus " . File @-@ sharing networks such as Napster were flooded with bogus files bearing the titles ' names . At the time , Tool members were outspokenly critical of file @-@ sharing networks in general due to their impact on artists that are dependent on record sales to continue their careers . Keenan said during an interview with NY Rock in 2000 , " I think there are a lot of other industries out there that might deserve being destroyed . The ones who get hurt by MP3s are not so much companies or the business , but the artists , people who are trying to write songs . "
A year later , the band revealed that the new album was actually titled Lateralus ; the name Systema Encéphale and the track list had been a ruse . Lateralus and the corresponding tours would take Tool a step further toward art rock and progressive rock territory . Rolling Stone wrote in an attempt to summarize the album that " Drums , bass and guitars move in jarring cycles of hyperhowl and near @-@ silent death march ... The prolonged running times of most of Lateralus ' thirteen tracks are misleading ; the entire album rolls and stomps with suitelike purpose . " Joshua Klein of The A.V. Club expressed his opinion that Lateralus , with its 79 minutes and relatively complex and long songs — topped by the ten @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute music video for " Parabola " — posed a challenge to fans and music programming alike .
The album became a worldwide success , reaching No.1 on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart in its debut week . Tool received their second Grammy Award for the best metal performance of 2001 for the song " Schism " . During the band 's acceptance speech , drummer Carey stated that he would like to thank his parents ( for putting up with him ) and Satan , and bassist Chancellor concluded : " I want to thank my dad for doing my mom . "
Extensive touring throughout 2001 and 2002 supported Lateralus and included a personal highlight for the band : a 10 @-@ show joint mini @-@ tour with King Crimson in August 2001 . Comparisons between the two were made , MTV describing the bands as " the once and future kings of progressive rock " . Keenan stated of the minitour : " For me , being on stage with King Crimson is like Lenny Kravitz playing with Led Zeppelin , or Britney Spears onstage with Debbie Gibson . "
Although the end of the tour in November 2002 seemed to signal the start of another hiatus for the band , they did not become completely inactive . While Keenan recorded and toured with A Perfect Circle , the other band members released an interview and a recording of new material , both exclusive to the fan club . On April 1 , 2005 , the official Tool website announced that " Maynard has found Jesus " and would be abandoning the recording of the new Tool album temporarily and possibly permanently . Kurt Loder of MTV contacted Keenan via email to ask for a confirmation and received a nonchalant confirmation . When Loder asked again , Keenan 's response was simply " heh heh . " On April 7 the official site announced , " Good news , April fools fans . The writing and recording is back under way . "
Work continued on the follow @-@ up to Lateralus ; meanwhile , a Lateralus vinyl edition and two DVD singles were released , and the band 's official website received a new splash intro by artist Joshua Davis . The " double vinyl four @-@ picture disc " edition of Lateralus was first released as a limited autographed edition exclusively available to fan club members and publicly released on August 23 , 2005 . On December 20 the two DVDs were released , one containing the single " Schism " and the other " Parabola " , a remix by Lustmord , and a music video with commentary by David Yow and Jello Biafra .
= = = 10 @,@ 000 Days ( 2006 – 07 ) = = =
Fifteen years into the band 's career , Tool had acquired what Dan Epstein of Revolver described as a devoted " cult " following , and as details about the band 's next album emerged , such as the influence of Lateralus tourmates Fantômas and Meshuggah , controversy surrounding the new Tool album surfaced with speculation over song titles and pre @-@ release rumors of leaked songs . Speculation over possible album titles was dismissed with a news item on the official Tool website , announcing that the new album 's name was 10 @,@ 000 Days . Nevertheless , speculation continued , with allegations that 10 @,@ 000 Days was merely a " decoy " album to fool audiences . The rumor was proven false when a leaked copy of the album was distributed via filesharing networks a week prior to its official release .
The album opener , " Vicarious " , premiered on U.S. radio stations on April 17 , 2006 . The album premiered on May 2 in the U.S. and debuted at the top spots of various international charts . 10 @,@ 000 Days sold 564 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week in the U.S. and was number one on the Billboard 200 charts , doubling the sales of Pearl Jam 's self @-@ titled album , its closest competitor . However , 10 @,@ 000 Days was received less favorably by critics than its predecessor Lateralus had been .
Prior to the release of 10 @,@ 000 Days , a tour kicked off at Coachella on April 30 . The touring schedule was similar to the Lateralus tour of 2001 ; supporting acts were Isis and Mastodon . During a short break early the next year , after touring Australia and New Zealand , drummer Carey suffered a biceps tear during a skirmish with his girlfriend 's dog , casting uncertainty on the band 's upcoming concerts in North America . Carey underwent surgery on February 21 and several performances had to be postponed . Back on tour by April , Tool appeared on June 15 as a headliner at the Bonnaroo Music Festival with a guest appearance from Rage Against the Machine 's Tom Morello on " Lateralus " . Meanwhile , " Vicarious " was a nominee for Best Hard Rock Performance and 10 @,@ 000 Days won Best Recording Package at the 49th Grammy Awards . The music video for " Vicarious " was released on DVD on December 18 .
= = = Hiatus and upcoming fifth studio album ( 2008 – present ) = = =
Chancellor stated in May 2007 that the band would probably continue their tour until early 2008 and then " take some time off " . He added that the band had already written some new material and would surely release another album at some point . He speculated about the possibility of a " band movie " , something the band has considered for a long time . Ideas ranged from " a narrative story in a surreal fashion with as much money and special effects as possible " to " pockets of all of that or something that 's live or the band playing " . Although Carey stated that the necessary know @-@ how was at hand due to the band 's connections to artists working in the movie business , Jones dismissed the idea , saying " It 's just talk right now . "
The band 's 2009 summer tour began on July 18 in Commerce City , Colorado , at the Mile High Music Festival . They headlined Lollapalooza 2009 and a show on August 22 for the Epicenter Festival in Pomona , California . Their Tool Winter Tour played dates across the U.S. and Canada in January and February 2012 . The band played at Ozzfest Japan on May 12 , 2013 . Meanwhile , Tool members have pursued their own musical projects . Keenan has toured extensively with Puscifer , which he describes as involving a series of musical ideas he did not have an opportunity to explore with Tool or A Perfect Circle .
Keenan and Carey offered conflicting reports on whether or not their next album would surface in 2013 , though Carey later conceded that " early 2014 " seemed more likely . By May 2013 , Keenan stated that he had actively joined the writing process as enough instrumental material had been written . On March 6 , 2014 , Crave Online reported that Jones had said the new album was complete and on track for a 2014 release . The following day , Tool released an official statement to Rolling Stone , explaining that Jones was joking .
On July 15 , 2014 , Carey and Jones informed Rolling Stone that family commitments and an ongoing lawsuit are the key reasons for the delayed fifth album . Carey said to the music publication that one untitled track is " pretty much done " and explained in regard to the band 's legal issue :
But the point is , we 're fighting the good fight ... We 're going to trial and we want to crush them [ an insurance company ] . But every time we 've gotten close to going to trial , it gets postponed and we 've wasted money and time and it has just drained our creative energy . We bought an insurance policy for peace of mind , but instead we would have been better off if we never had it and just dealt with the original lawsuit .
In March 2015 , Jones revealed that the lawsuit had been settled in the band 's favor , and as such , the band was turning their focus towards recording the album . He said that he hoped the album would be finished before the end of 2015 but emphasized that the band would not rush their work to meet an arbitrary deadline .
In January 2016 , Tool undertook a tour of the United States .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Tool was described by Patrick Donovan of The Age as " the thinking person 's metal band . Cerebral and visceral , soft and heavy , melodic and abrasive , tender and brutal , familiar and strange , western and eastern , beautiful and ugly , taut yet sprawling and epic , they are a tangle of contradictions . " Tool has gained critical praise from the International Herald Tribune 's C.B. Liddell for their complex and ever @-@ evolving sound . Describing their general sound , AllMusic refers to them as " grinding , post @-@ Jane 's Addiction heavy metal " , and The New York Times sees similarities to " Led Zeppelin 's heaving , battering guitar riffs and Middle Eastern modes " . Their 2001 work Lateralus was compared by Allmusic to Pink Floyd 's Meddle ( 1971 ) , but thirty years later and altered by " Tool 's impulse to cram every inch of infinity with hard guitar meat and absolute dread " . Tool had been labelled as post @-@ metal in 1993 and 1996 , as well as in 2006 , after the term came into popularity .
= = = Musical style = = =
A component of Tool 's song repertoire relies on the use of unusual time signatures . For instance , Chancellor describes the time signature employed on the first single from Lateralus , " Schism " , as " six " and " six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half " and that it later " goes into all kinds of other times " . Further examples include the album 's title track , which also displays shifting rhythms , as does 10 @,@ 000 Days : " Wings for Marie ( Pt 1 ) " and " 10 @,@ 000 Days ( Wings Pt 2 ) " .
Beyond this aspect of the band 's sound , each band member experiments within his wide musical scope . Bass Player magazine described Chancellor 's bass playing as a " thick midrange tone , guitar @-@ style techniques , and elastic versatility " . As an example of this , the magazine mentioned the use of a wah effect by hammering " the notes with the left hand and using the bass 's tone controls to get a tone sweep " , such as on the song " The Patient " , from Lateralus .
Completing the band 's rhythm section , drummer Carey uses polyrhythms , tabla @-@ style techniques , and the incorporation of custom electronic drum pads to trigger samples , such as prerecorded tabla and octoban sounds .
Keenan 's ability as a vocalist has been characterized more subjectively by the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer : After his performance during an Alice in Chains reunion concert in 2005 , freelancer Travis Hay saw him as " a natural fit at replacing Layne Staley " . Regarding his role in A Perfect Circle and Tool , The New York Times wrote that " both groups rely on Mr. Keenan 's ability to dignify emotions like lust , anger and disgust , the honey in his voice adding a touch of profundity " .
According to Guitar Player magazine , Jones does not rely on any one particular guitar @-@ playing technique but rather combines many techniques . For example , Allmusic wrote that he " alternately utiliz [ es ] power chords , scratchy noise , chiming arpeggios , and a quiet minimalism " in " Sober " . Additionally , the band uses forms of instrumental experimentation , like the use of a " pipe bomb microphone " ( a guitar pickup mounted inside a brass cylinder ) and a talk box guitar solo on " Jambi " .
The band puts an emphasis on the sound of their songs and attempts to reduce the effect lyrics can have on the perception of songs by not releasing song lyrics with any album . Lyrical arrangements are often given special attention , such as in " Lateralus " . The number of syllables per line in the lyrics to " Lateralus " correspond to an arrangement of the Fibonacci numbers and the song " Jambi " uses and makes a reference to the common metrical foot iamb . The lyrics on Ænima and Lateralus focus on philosophy and spirituality — specific subjects range from organized religion in " Opiate " , to evolution and Jungian psychology in " Forty @-@ Six & 2 " and transcendence in " Lateralus " . On 10 @,@ 000 Days , Keenan wanted to explore issues more personal to him : the album name and title track refer to the twenty @-@ seven years during which his mother suffered from complications of a stroke until her death in 2003 .
= = = Influences = = =
The band has named the group Melvins as an influence on its development , but the most @-@ publicized influence is progressive rock pioneer group King Crimson . Longtime King Crimson member Robert Fripp has downplayed any influence his band had on Tool . In an interview , Fripp touched on how the two bands relate to each other , stating " Do you hear the influence ? There 's just one figure where I hear an influence , just one . It was a piece we were developing that we dropped . And it 's almost exactly the same figure : three note arpeggio with a particular accent from the guitar . So I do not think you could have heard it . That 's the only thing . " He also said , " I happen to be a Tool fan . The members of Tool have been generous enough to suggest that Crimson has been an influence on them . Adam Jones asked me if I could detect it in their music , and I said I couldn ’ t . I can detect more Tool influence in King Crimson , than I can hear King Crimson in Tool . " In describing their wide range of styles , critics have noted that they are " influenced as much by Pink Floyd as by the Sex Pistols " . Other reported influences of the band include Rush , Helmet , Faith No More and Jane 's Addiction .
Writers Harvey Newquist and Rich Maloof attribute to Tool an influence on modern metal in their book The New Metal Masters . Sean Richardson of The Boston Phoenix sees System of a Down , Deftones , and Korn as examples of Tool 's " towering influence " on the genre . Keenan 's unique style of singing has been seen as heavily influencing artists such as Pete Loeffler of Chevelle , Benjamin Burnley of Breaking Benjamin , Will Martin of Earshot , and Fred Durst of Limp Bizkit .
= = Visual arts = =
Part of Tool 's work as a band is to incorporate influences of other works of art in their music videos , live shows , and album packaging . Adam Jones doubles as the band 's art director and director of their music videos . Another expression of this is an official website " dedicated to the arts and influences " on the band .
= = = Music videos = = =
The band has released nine music videos but made personal appearances in only the first two , which the band states is to prevent people from " latching onto the personalities involved rather than listening to the music . " With the exception of " Hush " and " Vicarious " all of Tool 's music videos feature stop motion animation to some extent . The videos are created primarily by Adam Jones , often in collaboration with artists such as Chet Zar , Alex Grey , and Osseus Labyrint .
The " Sober " music video in particular attracted much attention . Jones explained that it doesn 't contain a storyline , but that his intentions were to summon personal emotions with its imagery . Rolling Stone described this imagery as " evil little men dwell in a dark dungeon with meat coursing through pipes in the wall " and called it a " groundbreaking " , " epic " clip . Billboard voted it " Best Video by a New Artist " .
The video for " Vicarious " was released on DVD on December 18 , 2007 . The video is the first by Tool to be produced entirely through the use of CGI .
= = = Album artwork = = =
Jones is responsible for most of the band 's artwork concepts . Their album Undertow features a ribcage sculpture by Jones on its cover and photos contributed by the band members . Later albums included artwork by collaborating artists : Ænima and Salival featured works by Cam de Leon ; Lateralus and 10 @,@ 000 Days were created with the help of Alex Grey . The releases garnered positive critical reception , with a music journalist of the Associated Press attributing to the band a reputation for innovative album packaging .
Both Ænima and 10 @,@ 000 Days were nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Recording Package , but while the former failed to win in 1997 , the latter did win in 2007 . Jones created packaging for 10 @,@ 000 Days that features a pair of stereoscopic lenses for viewing 3 @-@ D artwork and photos . Jones , a lifelong fan of stereoscopic photography , wanted the packaging to be unique and to reflect the 1970s artwork he appreciates .
= = = Live shows = = =
Following their first tours in the early 1990s , Tool has performed as a headline act in world tours and major festivals such as Lollapalooza ( 1997 and 2009 ) , Coachella ( 1999 and 2006 ) , Voodoo Fest ( 2001 ) , Download Festival ( 2006 ) , Roskilde ( 2001 and 2006 ) , Big Day Out ( 2007 and 2011 ) , Bonnaroo ( 2007 ) , All Points West Music & Arts Festival ( 2009 ) , and Epicenter ( 2009 ) . They have been joined on stage by numerous artists such as Buzz Osborne and Scott Reeder on several occasions ; Tom Morello and Zack de la Rocha during their 1991 tour ; Layne Staley in Hawaii , 1993 ; Tricky , Robert Fripp , Mike Patton , Dave Lombardo , Brann Dailor of Mastodon , and experimental arts duo Osseus Labyrint during their 2001 – 02 Lateralus tour ; and Kirk Hammett , Phil Campbell , Serj Tankian , and Tom Morello during their 2006 – 07 tour . They have covered songs by Led Zeppelin , Ted Nugent , Peach , Kyuss , the Dead Kennedys , and the Ramones .
Live shows on Tool 's headline tour incorporate an unorthodox stage setting and video display . Keenan and Carey line up in the back on elevated platforms , while Jones and Chancellor stand in the front , toward the sides of the stage . Keenan often faces the backdrop or the sides of the stage rather than the audience . No followspots or live cameras are used ; instead , the band employs extensive backlighting to direct the focus away from the band members and toward large screens in the back and the crowd . Breckinridge Haggerty , the band 's live video designer , says that the resulting dark spaces on stage " are mostly for Maynard " . He explains , " [ a ] lot of the songs are a personal journey for him and he has a hard time with the glare of the lights when he 's trying to reproduce these emotions for the audience . He needs a bit of personal space , and he feels more comfortable in the shadows . " The big screens are used to play back " looped clips that aren 't tracked to a song like a music video . The band has never used any sort of timecode . They ’ ve always made sure the video can change on @-@ the @-@ fly , in a way that can be improvised . ... The show is never the same twice . " During the 10 @,@ 000 Days tour , the video material consisted of over six hours of material , created by Jones , his wife Camella Grace , Chet Zar , Meats Meier , and Haggerty . Some of the material created by Zar has been released on his DVD Disturb the Normal .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Undertow ( 1993 )
Ænima ( 1996 )
Lateralus ( 2001 )
10 @,@ 000 Days ( 2006 )
= = Grammy awards and nominations = =
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= Ontario Highway 71 =
King 's Highway 71 , commonly referred to as Highway 71 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The 194 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 121 mi ) route travels concurrently with Highway 11 for 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from the Fort Frances @-@ International Falls International Bridge in Fort Frances , where it continues south as US Route 53 ( US 53 ) and US Route 71 ( US 71 ) in Minnesota . At Chapple , Highway 11 continues west while Highway 71 branches north and travels 154 kilometres ( 96 mi ) to a junction with Highway 17 just east of Kenora . Highway 71 is part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway for its entire length .
The current routing of Highway 71 was created out of a route renumbering that took place on April 1 , 1960 , to extend Highway 11 from Thunder Bay to Rainy River . The portion of the highway that is concurrent with Highway 11 follows the Cloverleaf Trail , which was constructed by the end of 1880s and improved over the next several decades . The portion between Highway 11 and Highway 17 follows the Heenan Highway , which was constructed to connect the Rainy River region with Kenora and the remainder of Ontario 's road network ; before its opening the area was accessible only via the United States . Both highways were incorporated into the provincial highway system in 1937 following the merger of the Department of Highways ( DHO ) and the Department of Northern Development .
= = Route description = =
Highway 71 connects the Rainy River region with the Trans @-@ Canada Highway near Kenora . The first 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) of the highway traverses the largest pocket of arable land in northern Ontario . Following that , the route suddenly enters the Canadian Shield , where the land is unsuitable for agricultural development .
The highway begins at the international bridge in Fort Frances ; within the United States , the road continues south as US 53 and US 71 in Minnesota . From the bridge , it proceeds along Central Avenue , encountering Highway 11 one block north . The two routes travel north concurrently to 3 Street West , where both turn west . At the Fort Frances Cemetery , the route branches southwest and exits Fort Frances after splitting with the Colonization Road ( Highway 602 ) . It follows the old Cloverleaf Trail west through Devlin , where it intersects Highway 613 , and Emo , where it merges with the Colonization Road . Approximately six kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) west of Emo , in the Manitou Rapids First Nations Reserve , Highway 71 branches north , while Highway 11 continues west to Rainy River .
North of the Manitou Rapids Reserve , Highway 71 presses through a large swath of land mostly occupied by horse and cattle ranches . It intersects Highway 600 and Highway 615 , both of which have historical connections to Highway 71 . The highway passes through Finland and enters the Boreal Forest , descending into the Canadian Shield over the course of a kilometre and a half ( approximately one mile ) . From this point to its northern terminus , the highway crosses through rugged and isolated terrain , curving around lakes , rivers and mountains on its northward journey . It passes through the community of Caliper Lake before crossing between Rainy River District and Kenora District midway between there and Nestor Falls .
North of Nestor Falls , the highway travels along the eastern shore of Lake of the Woods , providing access to Crow Lake , as well as to Whitefish Bay just southeast of Sioux Narrows . Here the route crosses the Sioux Narrows Bridge , the last part of the highway to be constructed and a formidable engineering obstacle in the 1930s . North of Sioux Narrows , the highway meanders northward through an uninhabited region , zigzagging among the numerous lakes that dot Kenora District and crossing the Black River . It provides access to Eagle Dogtooth and Rushing River Provincial Parks several kilometres south of its northern terminus at Highway 17 , four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) east of the split with Highway 17A and 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of downtown Kenora .
= = History = =
Highway 71 was created out of a renumbering of several highways in the Rainy River District during the late 1950s as Highway 11 was extended west of Thunder Bay . The history of the route is tied to the two major highways in Rainy River District : the Cloverleaf Trail and the Heenan Highway .
The Cloverleaf Trail , the older of the two roads , was initially developed as the Rainy River colonization road . A line was blazed as early as 1875 , possibly as part of the Dawson Trail , and improved in 1885 into a trail . This initial trail followed the Rainy River west from Fort Frances to Lake of the Woods ; Highway 602 now follows the road between Fort Frances and Emo . In 1911 , James Arthur Mathieu was elected as a Member of Provincial Parliament ( MPP ) in the Rainy River riding . As a lumber merchant , Mathieu promoted improved road access in the region . Between 1911 and 1915 , he oversaw construction of the gravel Cloverleaf Trail between Fort Frances and Rainy River .
The Heenan Highway would become the first Canadian link to the Rainy River area ; before its opening in the mid @-@ 1930s , the only way to drive to the area was via the United States . In 1922 , Kenora MPP Peter Heenan and Dr. McTaggart approached the government to lobby for construction of a road between Nestor Falls and Kenora . Nestor Falls was the northernmost point accessible by road from the Rainy River area . Heenan would become the Minister of Lands and Forests in Mitch Hepburn 's cabinet . This provided the impetus for construction to begin in 1934 . Unlike the Cloverleaf Trail , the Fort Frances – Kenora Highway , as it was known prior to its opening , was constructed through the rugged terrain of the Canadian Shield . Rocks , forests , lakes , muskeg , and insects served as major obstacles during construction of the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) highway , which progressed from both ends . By late 1935 , the only remaining gap in the road was the Sioux Narrows Bridge . Construction on this bridge was underway by March 1936 ; it was rapidly assembled using old @-@ growth Douglas fir from British Columbia ( BC ) as the main structural members . These timbers were cut in BC , and shipped to be built on @-@ site like a jig @-@ saw puzzle . The bridge was completed on June 15 , 1936 , completing the link between Fort Frances and Kenora .
On July 1 , 1936 , Premier Mitch Hepburn attended a ceremony in front of the Rainy Lake Hotel in Fort Frances . On a rainy afternoon , at 5 : 30 p.m. , Peter Heenan handed Hepburn a pair of scissors with which to cut the ribbon crossing the road and declare the highway open . Hepburn , addressing the crowd that was gathered , asked " What would you say if we call it the Heenan Highway , what would you think of that ? " . The crowd cheered and Hepburn cut the ribbon .
The Cloverleaf Trail and the Heenan Highway were assumed by the DHO shortly after its merger with the Department of Northern Development . Following the merger , the DHO began assigning trunk roads throughout northern Ontario as part of the provincial highway network . Highway 71 was assigned on September 1 , 1937 , along the Cloverleaf Trail . The portion of the Heenan Highway lying within Kenora District was designated as Highway 70 on the same day . The portion within Rainy River District was designated as Highway 70 on September 29 .
The original route of Highway 70 split in two south of Finland ; Highway 70 turned east to Off Lake Corner , then south to Emo , while Highway 70A turned west to Black Hawk then south to Barwick . The northern end of the highway was also concurrent with Highway 17 for 21 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 5 mi ) into Kenora , and the southern end concurrent with Highway 71 for 37 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) between Emo and Fort Frances . During 1952 , the highway was extended south from its split to Highway 71 , midway between Barwick and Emo . By 1953 , the new road was opened and informally designated as the new route of Highway 70 . The old routes were decommissioned on February 8 , and the new route designated several weeks later on March 10 , 1954 . Both forks were later redesignated as Highway 600 and Highway 615 .
Throughout the mid- to late 1950s , a new highway was constructed west from Thunder Bay towards Fort Frances . Initially this road was designated as Highway 120 . In 1959 , it was instead decided to make this new link a westward extension of Highway 11 ; a major renumbering took place on April 1 , 1960 : Highway 11 was established between Rainy River and Fort Frances , Highway 71 was truncated west of the Highway 70 junction , and the entirety of Highway 70 was renumbered as Highway 71 . This established the current routing of the highway .
Although now rebuilt as a steel structure , the original Sioux Narrows Bridge was considered to be the longest single span wooden bridge in the world , at 64 metres ( 210 ft ) . The original bridge remained in place until 2003 , when an engineering inspection revealed that 78 % of the structure had failed . A temporary bridge was erected while a new structure was built . The new bridge was completed in November 2007 , incorporating the old timber truss as a decorative element . A ribbon cutting ceremony to dedicate the bridge was held on July 1 , 2008 , 72 years after the original dedication by Mitch Hepburn .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 71 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Bird migration =
Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement , often north and south along a flyway , between breeding and wintering grounds . Many species of bird migrate . Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality , including from hunting by humans , and is driven primarily by availability of food . It occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere , where birds are funnelled on to specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea .
Historically , migration has been recorded as much as 3 @,@ 000 years ago by Ancient Greek authors including Homer and Aristotle , and in the Book of Job , for species such as storks , turtle doves , and swallows . More recently , Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749 , and scientific studies have used techniques including bird ringing and satellite tracking . Threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction especially of stopover and wintering sites , as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms .
The Arctic tern holds the long @-@ distance migration record for birds , travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year . Some species of tubenoses ( Procellariiformes ) such as albatrosses circle the earth , flying over the southern oceans , while others such as Manx shearwaters migrate 14 @,@ 000 km ( 8 @,@ 700 mi ) between their northern breeding grounds and the southern ocean . Shorter migrations are common , including altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas .
The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length . Migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the sun and stars , the earth 's magnetic field , and probably also mental maps .
= = Historical views = =
Records of bird migration were made as much as 3 @,@ 000 years ago by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod , Homer , Herodotus and Aristotle . The Bible also notes migrations , as in the Book of Job ( 39 : 26 ) , where the inquiry is made : " Is it by your insight that the hawk hovers , spreads its wings southward ? " The author of Jeremiah ( 8 : 7 ) wrote : " Even the stork in the heavens knows its seasons , and the turtle dove , the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival . "
Aristotle noted that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile . Pliny the Elder , in his Historia Naturalis , repeats Aristotle 's observations .
= = = Swallow migration versus hibernation = = =
Aristotle however suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated . This belief persisted as late as 1878 , when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows . Even the " highly observant " Gilbert White , in his posthumously published 1789 The Natural History of Selborne , quoted a man 's story about swallows being found in a chalk cliff collapse " while he was a schoolboy at Brighthelmstone " , though the man denied being an eyewitness . However , he also writes that " as to swallows being found in a torpid state during the winter in the Isle of Wight or any part of this country , I never heard any such account worth attending to " , and that if early swallows " happen to find frost and snow they immediately withdraw for a time — a circumstance this much more in favour of hiding than migration " , since he doubts they would " return for a week or two to warmer latitudes " .
It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted . Thomas Bewick 's A History of British Birds ( Volume 1 , 1797 ) mentions a report from " a very intelligent master of a vessel " who , " between the islands of Minorca and Majorca , saw great numbers of Swallows flying northward " , and states the situation in Britain as follows :
Swallows frequently roost at night , after they begin to congregate , by the sides of rivers and pools , from which circumstance it has been erroneously supposed that they retire into the water .
Bewick then describes an experiment which succeeded in keeping swallows alive in Britain for several years , where they remained warm and dry through the winters . He concludes :
These experiments have since been amply confirmed by ... M. Natterer , of Vienna ... and the result clearly proves , what is in fact now admitted on all hands , that Swallows do not in any material instance differ from other birds in their nature and propensities [ for life in the air ] ; but that they leave us when this country can no longer furnish them with a supply of their proper and natural food ...
= = General patterns = =
Migration is the regular seasonal movement , often north and south , undertaken by many species of birds . Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability , habitat , or weather . Sometimes , journeys are not termed " true migration " because they are irregular ( nomadism , invasions , irruptions ) or in only one direction ( dispersal , movement of young away from natal area ) . Migration is marked by its annual seasonality . Non @-@ migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary . Approximately 1800 of the world 's 10 @,@ 000 bird species are long @-@ distance migrants .
Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway . The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south . Of course , in the southern hemisphere the directions are reversed , but there is less land area in the far south to support long @-@ distance migration .
The primary motivation for migration appears to be food ; for example , some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter . Also , the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young . This helps diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non @-@ migratory species that remain in the tropics . As the days shorten in autumn , the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season .
These advantages offset the high stress , physical exertion costs , and other risks of the migration . Predation can be heightened during migration : Eleonora 's falcon Falco eleonorae , which breeds on Mediterranean islands , has a very late breeding season , coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants , which it feeds to its young . A similar strategy is adopted by the greater noctule bat , which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants . The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens , which require a heightened immune response .
Within a species not all populations may be migratory ; this is known as " partial migration " . Partial migration is very common in the southern continents ; in Australia , 44 % of non @-@ passerine birds and 32 % of passerine species are partially migratory . In some species , the population at higher latitudes tends to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude . The migrating birds bypass the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary , where suitable wintering habitats may already be occupied . This is an example of leap @-@ frog migration . Many fully migratory species show leap @-@ frog migration ( birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes ) , and many show the alternative , chain migration , where populations ' slide ' more evenly north and south without reversing order .
Within a population , it is common for different ages and / or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance . Female chaffinches Fringilla coelebs in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in the autumn than males do .
Most migrations begin with the birds starting off in a broad front . Often , this front narrows into one or more preferred routes termed flyways . These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines , sometimes rivers , and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water . The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learned to varying degrees . The routes taken on forward and return migration are often different . A common pattern in North America is clockwise migration , where birds flying North tend to be further West , and flying South tend to shift Eastwards .
Many , if not most , birds migrate in flocks . For larger birds , flying in flocks reduces the energy cost . Geese in a V @-@ formation may conserve 12 – 20 % of the energy they would need to fly alone . Red knots Calidris canutus and dunlins Calidris alpina were found in radar studies to fly 5 km / h ( 3 @.@ 1 mph ) faster in flocks than when they were flying alone .
Birds fly at varying altitudes during migration . An expedition to Mt . Everest found skeletons of northern pintail Anas acuta and black @-@ tailed godwit Limosa limosa at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) on the Khumbu Glacier . Bar @-@ headed geese Anser indicus have been recorded by GPS flying at up to 6 @,@ 540 metres ( 21 @,@ 460 ft ) while crossing the Himalayas , at the same time engaging in the highest rates of climb to altitude for any bird . Anecdotal reports of them flying much higher have yet to be corroborated with any direct evidence . Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land , and the reverse pattern is seen in landbirds . However most bird migration is in the range of 150 to 600 m ( 490 to 1 @,@ 970 ft ) . Bird strike aviation records from the United States show most collisions occur below 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) and almost none above 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) .
Bird migration is not limited to birds that can fly . Most species of penguin ( Spheniscidae ) migrate by swimming . These routes can cover over 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) . Dusky grouse Dendragapus obscurus perform altitudinal migration mostly by walking . Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae in Australia have been observed to undertake long @-@ distance movements on foot during droughts .
= = Long @-@ distance migration = =
The typical image of migration is of northern landbirds , such as swallows ( Hirundinidae ) and birds of prey , making long flights to the tropics . However , many Holarctic wildfowl and finch ( Fringillidae ) species winter in the North Temperate Zone , in regions with milder winters than their summer breeding grounds . For example , the pink @-@ footed goose Anser brachyrhynchus migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries , whilst the dark @-@ eyed junco Junco hyemalis migrates from subarctic and arctic climates to the contiguous United States and the American goldfinch from taiga to wintering grounds extending from the American South northwestward to Western Oregon . Migratory routes and wintering grounds are traditional and learned by young during their first migration with their parents . Some ducks , such as the garganey Anas querquedula , move completely or partially into the tropics . The European pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca also follows this migratory trend , breeding in Asia and Europe and wintering in Africa .
Often , the migration route of a long @-@ distance migrator bird doesn 't follow a straight line between breeding and wintering grounds . Rather , it could follow a hooked or arched line , with detours around geographical barriers . For most land @-@ birds , such barriers could consist in seas , large water bodies or high mountain ranges , because of the lack of stopover or feeding sites , or the lack of thermal columns for broad @-@ winged birds .
The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long @-@ distance land @-@ bird migration apply to water birds , but in reverse : a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters . Detours avoiding such barriers are observed : for example , brent geese Branta bernicla migrating from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Wadden Sea travel via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and northern Scandinavia .
= = = In waders = = =
A similar situation occurs with waders ( called shorebirds in North America ) . Many species , such as dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri , undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere , but others such as semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere .
For some species of waders , migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route . This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage . Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay .
Some bar @-@ tailed godwits Limosa lapponica have the longest known non @-@ stop flight of any migrant , flying 11 @,@ 000 km from Alaska to their New Zealand non @-@ breeding areas . Prior to migration , 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey .
= = = In seabirds = = =
Seabird migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl . Some , such as the black guillemot Cepphus grylle and some gulls , are quite sedentary ; others , such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere , move varying distances south in the northern winter . The Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea has the longest @-@ distance migration of any bird , and sees more daylight than any other , moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non @-@ breeding areas . One Arctic tern , ringed ( banded ) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast , reached Melbourne , Australia in just three months from fledging , a sea journey of over 22 @,@ 000 km ( 14 @,@ 000 mi ) . Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter .
The most pelagic species , mainly in the ' tubenose ' order Procellariiformes , are great wanderers , and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the " roaring forties " outside the breeding season . The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean , but congregate when food becomes available . Many are also among the longest @-@ distance migrants ; sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14 @,@ 000 km ( 8 @,@ 700 mi ) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway . Some Manx shearwaters Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse . As they are long @-@ lived birds , they may cover enormous distances during their lives ; one record @-@ breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km ( 5 million miles ) during its over @-@ 50 year lifespan .
= = = Diurnal migration in raptors = = =
Some large broad @-@ winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar . These include many birds of prey such as vultures , eagles , and buzzards , but also storks . These birds migrate in the daytime . Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water , since thermals only form over land , and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances . Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds , which must cross at the narrowest points . Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina , Gibraltar , Falsterbo , and the Bosphorus at migration times . More common species , such as the European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus , can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn . Other barriers , such as mountain ranges , can also cause funnelling , particularly of large diurnal migrants . This is a notable factor in the Central American migratory bottleneck . Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth . Avoiding flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains , hundreds of thousands of soaring birds funnel through an area around the city of Batumi , Georgia . Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20 % of their weight during migration , which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons , hawks and harriers .
= = = Nocturnal migration in smaller insectivorous birds = = =
Many of the smaller insectivorous birds including the warblers , hummingbirds and flycatchers migrate large distances , usually at night . They land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration . The birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for short durations between the origin and destination .
Nocturnal migrants minimize predation , avoid overheating , and can feed during the day . One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep . Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss .
= = Short @-@ distance and altitudinal migration = =
Many long @-@ distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length . Species that move short distances , however , may not need such a timing mechanism , instead moving in response to local weather conditions . Thus mountain and moorland breeders , such as wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria and white @-@ throated dipper Cinclus cinclus , may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground . Other species such as merlin Falco columbarius and Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis move further , to the coast or towards the south . Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe , mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives .
Short @-@ distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins . Those that have long @-@ distance migrants in the same family , such as the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita , are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere .
Species that have no long @-@ distance migratory relatives , such as the waxwings Bombycilla , are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food , rather than enhanced breeding opportunities .
In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year , and it is always warm enough for a food supply , but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds . There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits .
Altitudinal migration is common on mountains worldwide , such as in the Himalayas and the Andes .
= = Irruptions and dispersal = =
Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range . Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers , with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century , but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000 . Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive , with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251 , 1593 , 1757 , and 1791 .
Bird migration is primarily , but not entirely , a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon . This is because land birds in high northern latitudes , where food becomes scarce in winter , leave for areas further south ( including the Southern Hemisphere ) to overwinter , and because the continental landmass is much larger in the Northern Hemisphere . In contrast , among ( pelagic ) seabirds , species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate . This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere , and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest .
= = Physiology and control = =
The control of migration , its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non @-@ migratory species of birds . The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning .
= = = Timing = = =
The primary physiological cue for migration are the changes in the day length . These changes are also related to hormonal changes in the birds . In the period before migration , many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe ( German : migratory restlessness ) , first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795 , as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition . The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage @-@ raised birds with no environmental cues ( e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature ) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations . Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature , changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course .
In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism , males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females . This is termed protandry .
= = = Orientation and navigation = = =
Navigation is based on a variety of senses . Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass . Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time . Navigation has also been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields ( magnetoception ) , use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues .
Long distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites . Once the site attachment is made they show high site @-@ fidelity , visiting the same wintering sites year after year .
The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming , even with the help of responses to environmental cues . The ability to successfully perform long @-@ distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps . Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift .
Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations : one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience . A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth 's magnetic field , but does not know how far the journey will be . It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to long wavelengths are affected by the field . Although this only works during daylight hours , it does not use the position of the sun in any way . At this stage the bird is in the position of a boy scout with a compass but no map , until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use . With experience it learns various landmarks and this " mapping " is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system , which tell the bird how strong the field is . Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions , the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination . There is a neural connection between the eye and " Cluster N " , the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation , suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the earth .
= = = Vagrancy = = =
Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges . This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the " spring overshoot " in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended . Certain areas , because of their location , have become famous as watchpoints for such birds . Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada , and Spurn in England .
Reverse migration , where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly , can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range .
Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in " falls " of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites .
A related phenomenon called " abmigration " involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population . This is especially common in some waterfowl , which shift from one flyway to another .
= = = Migration conditioning = = =
It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds , for example in re @-@ introduction schemes . After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis , microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana .
= = Adaptations = =
Birds need to alter their metabolism in order to meet the demands of migration . The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations . In addition , the feathers of a bird suffer from wear @-@ and @-@ tear and require to be molted . The timing of this molt - usually once a year but sometimes twice - varies with some species molting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds . Apart from physiological adaptations , migration sometimes requires behavioural changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation .
= = Evolutionary and ecological factors = =
Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages . While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control , some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages . This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum .
Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20 % will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently . However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms . An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson 's thrush Catharus ustulatus , which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America ; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions , predation risk , or other factors .
= = = Climate change = = =
Large scale climatic changes , as have been experienced in the past , are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration . Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration , breeding as well as population variations .
= = Ecological effects = =
The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species , including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice , which in turn may carry micro @-@ organisms including those of concern to human health . Due to the global spread of avian influenza , bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission , but it has been found not to present a special risk ; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat . Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects , such as the West Nile Virus may however be spread by migrating birds . Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton .
Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration . Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines . Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders .
= = Study techniques = =
Early studies on the timing of migration began in 1749 in Finland , with Johannes Leche of Turku collecting the dates of arrivals of spring migrants .
Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest , marking . Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England . Scientific ringing was pioneered by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen in 1899 . Other techniques include radar and satellite tracking .
Stable isotopes of hydrogen , oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and sulphur can establish avian migratory connectivity between wintering sites and breeding grounds . Stable isotopic methods to establish migratory linkage rely on spatial isotopic differences in bird diet that are incorporated into inert tissues like feathers , or into growing tissues such as claws and muscle or blood .
An approach to identify migration intensity makes use of upward pointing microphones to record the nocturnal contact calls of flocks flying overhead . These are then analyzed in a laboratory to measure time , frequency and species .
An older technique to quantify migration involves observing the face of the moon towards full moon and counting the silhouettes of flocks of birds as they fly at night .
Orientation behaviour studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel , which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire @-@ screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues . The orientation behaviour of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage . Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Human activities have threatened many migratory bird species . The distances involved in bird migration mean that they often cross political boundaries of countries and conservation measures require international cooperation . Several international treaties have been signed to protect migratory species including the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 of the US. and the African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement
The concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk . Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct ; during the passenger pigeon 's ( Ectopistes migratorius ) migration the enormous flocks were a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide , darkening the sky and 300 miles ( 480 km ) long , taking several days to pass .
Other significant areas include stop @-@ over sites between the wintering and breeding territories . A capture @-@ recapture study of passerine migrants with high fidelity for breeding and wintering sites did not show similar strict association with stop @-@ over sites .
Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species . The populations of Siberian cranes ( Leucogeranus leucogeranus ) that wintered in India declined due to hunting along the route , particularly in Afghanistan and Central Asia . Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park in 2002 . Structures such as power lines , wind farms and offshore oil @-@ rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds . Other migration hazards include pollution , storms , wildfires , and habitat destruction along migration routes , denying migrants food at stopover points . For example , in the East Asian – Australasian Flyway , up to 65 % of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s .
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= Nig Clarke =
Jay Justin " Nig " Clarke ( December 15 , 1882 – June 15 , 1949 ) was a Canadian professional baseball player . A catcher , Clarke played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for nine seasons with the Detroit Tigers , Cleveland Naps , St. Louis Browns , Philadelphia Phillies , and Pittsburgh Pirates . In 506 career games , Clarke recorded a batting average of .254 and accumulated 20 triples , six home runs , and 127 runs batted in ( RBI ) .
Born in Canada and raised in Michigan , Clarke began his baseball career in 1902 , when he reportedly hit eight home runs while playing for the Corsicana Oil Citys of the Texas League . From there , he spent two more seasons in the minor leagues before the Cleveland Naps signed him to a contract . Aside from a loan to the Detroit Tigers , he played for the Naps for six seasons . Clarke was then traded to the St. Louis Browns , where he played for one season . After several years in the minor leagues , Clarke joined the United States Marine Corps . He returned to the major leagues and played there until 1920 , then continued playing for minor league teams until 1927 . Clarke then retired from the game , rejoined the Marines , and moved to River Rouge , Michigan , where he lived until his death in 1949 .
= = Early life = =
Clarke was born in 1882 at Anderdon Township ( now Amherstburg , Ontario ) , Canada . He moved to Detroit , Michigan as a child in April 1888 . He began playing semi @-@ pro baseball in Adrian , Michigan , while studying at Assumption College in Windsor , Ontario , Canada . Early in his career , he was given the nickname of " Nig " by newspapers due to his dark complexion .
= = Professional baseball = =
= = = Early career = = =
Clarke began his professional career in 1902 with the Corsicana Oil Citys in the Texas League . On July 14 , he hit eight home runs in ten at bats in a 51 – 3 victory over the Texarkana Casketmakers . Because Corsicana 's blue laws forbade Sunday baseball ( or , according to The Sporting News , due to poor attendance in Corsicana ) , the game was played in Ennis , Texas , in a facility that has a right field fence estimated to be 210 feet from home plate along the foul line . While some cast doubt on Clarke 's eight home run game , the feat was later attested to by the official scorer ( under oath ) and by others who observed the game . In a 1940 interview with The Sporting News one of Clarke 's Corsicana teammates claimed : " The right field fence at Ennis wasn 't more than 40 feet back of first base . Nig just pulled eight short flies around and over that wall . I 'm not taking anything away from old Nig 's batting prowess , but that 's the way he hit eight homers that day . Didn 't have to send the ball more than 140 feet at the most . "
In 1903 , Clarke played for the Little Rock Travelers in the Southern Association , and had a batting average of .254 in 41 games . While with Little Rock , he clashed with owner Mike Finn , who refused to trade him throughout the season despite Clarke 's demands and trade offers by other teams . After the 1903 season ended , he was traded to the Atlanta Crackers of the same league . With Atlanta , Clarke started off the first half of the season with a .400 batting average before cooling down in the second half . He finished the season with a .264 average in 135 games .
= = = Cleveland Naps = = =
At the end of the 1904 season , the Cleveland Naps purchased Clarke from Atlanta . The plan was for Clarke to be the third catcher on the roster behind Harry Bemis and Fritz Buelow , and as a result , he only played in a few games during the first half of the season . In August 1905 , Clarke briefly joined the Detroit Tigers after the Cleveland team traveled to Boston without him . He was loaned to Detroit with the understanding that the Naps could reclaim him on one day 's notice . Clarke appeared in only three games for Detroit , compiling a .429 batting average and a home run before being recalled by the Naps . In 45 games between both teams on the season , he had a .208 batting average .
Clarke began the 1906 season as the third string catcher . A month into the season , Naps manager Nap Lajoie changed the roster around partially due to Clarke 's hitting , which had improved greatly from last season . To end the year , Clarke compiled a career high batting average of .358 , tying him with George Stone for the American League batting championship . However , Stone was recognized as the batting champion because Clarke had only appeared in only 57 games with 195 plate appearances . Clarke began to wear shin guards early in his career , and was one of the first ballplayers to adopt this layer of protection .
After spending the offseason playing winter baseball in Florida with several other major leaguers , Clarke became the everyday catcher for the 1907 season . He started off hitting well , and had a batting average of .381 through the first month of the league , which was second in the American League . He started nearly every game for the Naps until his finger was hit by a foul ball in a game in June , causing him to miss two weeks . By the end of the season , he had stopped playing well , finishing the season with a .269 batting average and six triples in 120 games , as well as a league @-@ leading 25 passed balls . During the offseason , Clarke played winter baseball in Cuba , then returned to Cleveland in March .
Clarke spent the 1908 season splitting time at the catcher position with Bemis , as both struggled in spring practice . In September , Clarke sustained an injury in a game against Detroit when the bone of a finger on his right hand was split and he was unable to grow a nail . On October 2 , he caught a perfect game thrown by Addie Joss , which was only the fourth perfect game in MLB history . He finished the year with a .241 batting average and six triples in 97 games . On Thanksgiving night in 1908 , Clarke was married to Mary A. Smith at the home of the bride 's parents in Sandwich , Ontario , Canada . His wife did not like the " Nig " nickname that sports reporters used , and wanted them to simply call him Jay in newspapers .
The signing of Ted Easterly and Grover Land gave the Naps four catchers entering spring training . Easterly became the starting catcher and Bemis the backup due to Clarke 's " lack of ambition " , which led to speculation that he could be traded during the season . He finished the season with a .274 batting average in 55 games . During the offseason , St. Louis Browns player @-@ manager Jack O 'Connor attempted to trade for Clarke , but a deal never materialized . Clarke saw little playing time in 1910 due to a bout of typhoid fever , which landed him in the hospital for most of the season . He played 21 games that season , batting .155 .
= = = St. Louis Browns and minor leagues = = =
On December 14 , 1910 , Cleveland traded Clarke to the St. Louis Browns in exchange for Art Griggs . Clarke split time with Jim Stephens at catcher for the Browns , and appeared in 82 games for the team in 1911 , compiling a .215 batting average . After the 1911 season , was released on waivers to the Washington Senators . The Senators , however , had no interest in him and tried to undo the acceptance , which was overruled by American League president Ban Johnson . Shortly afterwards , he was sold to the Indianapolis Indians in the American Association , where he played from 1912 to 1913 . In 1912 , he hit .266 in 92 games , and the following year he hit .282 in 28 games .
Partway through the 1913 season , Clarke was sold to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League , where he played from 1913 to 1915 . With San Francisco , he hit .281 and .222 in 1913 and 1914 , respectively . He also played parts of the 1915 season with the Houston Buffaloes of the Texas League and the Memphis Chickasaws of the Southern Association , playing in 81 total games for the three teams . In 1916 , Clarke was traded by Houston to the Mobile Sea Gulls of the Southern Association for Hub Northen . That season , he batted .149 in 20 games before being released .
= = = Later career = = =
On August 1 , 1917 , Clarke enlisted in the United States Marine Corps . While serving , he attained the rank of corporal and served in Brest , France . In 1918 , while serving in the Marine Corps , Clarke filed a military naturalization petition and became a United States citizen ; a year later he was discharged . While serving in the Marines , Clarke stated that he wished he " joined the marine corps twelve years ago and never played ball . "
In 1919 , he returned mid @-@ season to the major leagues with the Philadelphia Phillies . He appeared in 26 games , compiling a .242 batting average . He led the National League with a 58 @.@ 8 % caught stealing percentage . Prior to 1919 , only three catchers in major league history had ever compiled a higher caught stealing percentage . In November 1919 , Clarke was selected off waivers by the Pittsburgh Pirates from the Phillies . He appeared in three games for the Pirates and had no hits in seven at bats . He appeared in his final major league game on April 24 , 1920 .
After his brief stay in Pittsburgh , the Pirates sent Clarke to Greenville in 1920 . He played next for Toledo and Winston @-@ Salem , and then for the Reading Aces in the International League during the 1922 and 1923 seasons . In 1924 , he played for both Reading and Harrisburg . In 1925 , he played for the Salisbury Indians in the Eastern Shore League . In the spring of 1925 , The Sporting News wrote : " Nig Clarke not only led the league with the bat and the mitt and the arm , he was the very picture of a baseball player . I rather suspect that Nig put away as much corn juice as the next man . In the days of his greatness he was wont to take a couple of snifters every morning before breakfast . Never seemed to hurt Nig any . " At the end of the season , he was given most valuable player honors for his performance with Salisbury . Clarke concluded his professional baseball career in 1927 with Tulsa .
= = Later life = =
At the time of the 1920 U.S. Census , Clarke and his wife were living in Detroit . In June 1929 , Clarke rejoined the Marine Corps , serving until August 1932 . At the time of the 1930 U.S. Census , Clarke was stationed at the Quantico Marine Barracks in Prince William County , Virginia . After being discharged from the Marine Corps , Clarke built a house in River Rouge , a suburb of Detroit , where he lived with his mother . In June 1949 , Clarke was found dead at his home in River Rouge .
|
= Logarithm =
In mathematics , the logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation . That means the logarithm of a number is the exponent to which another fixed value , the base , must be raised to produce that number . In simple cases the logarithm counts repeated multiplication . For example , the base 10 logarithm of 1000 is 3 , as 10 to the power 3 is 1000 ( 1000 |
= 10 × 10 × 10 =
103 ) ; the multiplication is repeated three times . More generally , exponentiation allows any positive real number to be raised to any real power , always producing a positive result , so the logarithm can be calculated for any two positive real numbers b and x where b is not equal to 1 . The logarithm of x to base b , denoted logb ( x ) , is the unique real number y such that
by
= x .
For example , as 64 =
26 , then :
log2 ( 64 )
= 6
The logarithm to base 10 ( that is b =
10 ) is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering . The natural logarithm has the number e ( ≈ 2 @.@ 718 ) as its base ; its use is widespread in mathematics and physics , because of its simpler derivative . The binary logarithm uses base 2 ( that is b = 2 ) and is commonly used in computer science .
Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations . They were rapidly adopted by navigators , scientists , engineers , and others to perform computations more easily , using slide rules and logarithm tables . Tedious multi @-@ digit multiplication steps can be replaced by table look @-@ ups and simpler addition because of the fact — important in its own right — that the logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors :
<formula>
provided that b , x and y are all positive and b ≠ 1 . The present @-@ day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler , who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th century .
Logarithmic scales reduce wide @-@ ranging quantities to tiny scopes . For example , the decibel is a unit quantifying signal power log @-@ ratios and amplitude log @-@ ratios ( of which sound pressure is a common example ) . In chemistry , pH is a logarithmic measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution . Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae , and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and of geometric objects called fractals . They describe musical intervals , appear in formulas counting prime numbers , inform some models in psychophysics , and can aid in forensic accounting .
In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation , the complex logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers . The discrete logarithm is another variant ; it has uses in public @-@ key cryptography .
= = Motivation and definition = =
The idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of exponentiation , that is , raising a number to a power . For example , the third power ( or cube ) of 2 is 8 , because 8 is the product of three factors of 2 :
<formula>
It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is 3 , so log2 8 = 3 .
= = = Exponentiation = = =
The third power of some number b is the product of three factors of b . More generally , raising b to the n @-@ th power , where n is a natural number , is done by multiplying n factors of b . The n @-@ th power of b is written bn , so that
<formula>
Exponentiation may be extended to by , where b is a positive number and the exponent y is any real number . For example , b − 1 is the reciprocal of b , that is , 1 / b . ( For further details , including the formula bm + n = bm · bn , see exponentiation or for an elementary treatise . )
= = = Definition = = =
The logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to base b , a positive real number not equal to 1 , is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x . In other words , the logarithm of x to base b is the solution y to the equation
<formula>
The logarithm is denoted " logb ( x ) " ( pronounced as " the logarithm of x to base b " or " the base @-@ b logarithm of x " ) . In the equation y = logb ( x ) , the value y is the answer to the question " To what power must b be raised , in order to yield x ? " . This question can also be addressed ( with a richer answer ) for complex numbers , which is done in section " Complex logarithm " , and this answer is much more extensively investigated in the page for the complex logarithm .
= = = Examples = = =
For example , log2 ( 16 ) |
= 4 , since 24 =
2 × 2 × 2 × 2
= 16 . Logarithms can also be negative :
<formula>
since
<formula>
A third example : log10 ( 150 ) is approximately 2 @.@ 176 , which lies between 2 and 3 , just as 150 lies between 102 =
100 and 103 |
= 1000 . Finally , for any base b , logb ( b ) =
1 and logb ( 1 ) |
= 0 , since b1 =
b and b0 = 1 , respectively .
= = Logarithmic identities = =
Several important formulas , sometimes called logarithmic identities or logarithmic laws , relate logarithms to one another .
= = = Product , quotient , power and root = = =
The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the numbers being multiplied ; the logarithm of the ratio of two numbers is the difference of the logarithms . The logarithm of the p @-@ th power of a number is p times the logarithm of the number itself ; the logarithm of a p @-@ th root is the logarithm of the number divided by p . The following table lists these identities with examples . Each of the identities can be derived after substitution of the logarithm definitions <formula> or <formula> in the left hand sides .
= = = Change of base = = =
The logarithm logb ( x ) can be computed from the logarithms of x and b with respect to an arbitrary base k using the following formula :
<formula>
Typical scientific calculators calculate the logarithms to bases 10 and e . Logarithms with respect to any base b can be determined using either of these two logarithms by the previous formula :
<formula>
Given a number x and its logarithm logb ( x ) to an unknown base b , the base is given by :
<formula>
= = Particular bases = =
Among all choices for the base , three are particularly common . These are b |
= 10 , b =
e ( the irrational mathematical constant ≈ 2 @.@ 71828 ) , and b = 2 . In mathematical analysis , the logarithm to base e is widespread because of its particular analytical properties explained below . On the other hand , base @-@ 10 logarithms are easy to use for manual calculations in the decimal number system :
<formula>
Thus , log10 ( x ) is related to the number of decimal digits of a positive integer x : the number of digits is the smallest integer strictly bigger than log10 ( x ) . For example , log10 ( 1430 ) is approximately 3 @.@ 15 . The next integer is 4 , which is the number of digits of 1430 . Both the natural logarithm and the logarithm to base two are used in information theory , corresponding to the use of nats or bits as the fundamental units of information , respectively . Binary logarithms are also used in computer science , where the binary system is ubiquitous , in music theory , where a pitch ratio of two ( the octave ) is ubiquitous and the cent is the binary logarithm ( scaled by 1200 ) of the ratio between two adjacent equally @-@ tempered pitches , and in photography to measure exposure values .
The following table lists common notations for logarithms to these bases and the fields where they are used . Many disciplines write log ( x ) instead of logb ( x ) , when the intended base can be determined from the context . The notation blog ( x ) also occurs . The " ISO notation " column lists designations suggested by the International Organization for Standardization ( ISO 31 @-@ 11 ) .
= = History = =
The history of logarithm in seventeenth century Europe is the discovery of a new function that extended the realm of analysis beyond the scope of algebraic methods . The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by John Napier in 1614 , in a book titled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio ( Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms ) . Prior to Napier 's invention , there had been other techniques of similar scopes , such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions , extensively developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600 .
The common logarithm of a number is the index of that power of ten which equals the number . Speaking of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm , and was referred to by Archimedes as the " order of a number " . The first real logarithms were heuristic methods to turn multiplication into addition , thus facilitating rapid computation . Some of these methods used tables derived from trigonometric identities . Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis .
Invention of the function now known as natural logarithm began as an attempt to perform a quadrature of a rectangular hyperbola by Gregoire de Saint Vincent , a Belgian Jesuit residing in Prague . Archimedes had written The Quadrature of the Parabola in the third century BC , but a quadrature for the hyperbola eluded all efforts until Saint @-@ Vincent published his results in 1647 . The relation that the logarithm provides between a geometric progression in its argument and an arithmetic progression of values , prompted A. A. de Sarasa to make the connection of Saint @-@ Vincent ’ s quadrature and the tradition of logarithms in prosthaphaeresis , leading to the term " hyperbolic logarithm " , a synonym for natural logarithm . Soon the new function was appreciated by Christiaan Huygens , Patavii , and James Gregory . The notation Log y was adopted by Leibniz in 1675 , and the next year he connected it to the integral <formula>
= = Logarithm tables , slide rules , and historical applications = =
By simplifying difficult calculations , logarithms contributed to the advance of science , especially astronomy . They were critical to advances in surveying , celestial navigation , and other domains . Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace called logarithms
" ... [ a ] n admirable artifice which , by reducing to a few days the labour of many months , doubles the life of the astronomer , and spares him the errors and disgust inseparable from long calculations . "
A key tool that enabled the practical use of logarithms before calculators and computers was the table of logarithms . The first such table was compiled by Henry Briggs in 1617 , immediately after Napier 's invention . Subsequently , tables with increasing scope were written . These tables listed the values of logb ( x ) and bx for any number x in a certain range , at a certain precision , for a certain base b ( usually b |
= 10 ) . For example , Briggs ' first table contained the common logarithms of all integers in the range 1 – 1000 , with a precision of 14 digits . As the function f ( x ) =
bx is the inverse function of logb ( x ) , it has been called the antilogarithm . The product and quotient of two positive numbers c and d were routinely calculated as the sum and difference of their logarithms . The product cd or quotient c / d came from looking up the antilogarithm of the sum or difference , also via the same table :
<formula>
and
<formula>
For manual calculations that demand any appreciable precision , performing the lookups of the two logarithms , calculating their sum or difference , and looking up the antilogarithm is much faster than performing the multiplication by earlier methods such as prosthaphaeresis , which relies on trigonometric identities . Calculations of powers and roots are reduced to multiplications or divisions and look @-@ ups by
<formula>
and
<formula>
Many logarithm tables give logarithms by separately providing the characteristic and mantissa of x , that is to say , the integer part and the fractional part of log10 ( x ) . The characteristic of 10 · x is one plus the characteristic of x , and their significands are the same . This extends the scope of logarithm tables : given a table listing log10 ( x ) for all integers x ranging from 1 to 1000 , the logarithm of 3542 is approximated by
<formula> Greater accuracy can be obtained by interpolation .
Another critical application was the slide rule , a pair of logarithmically divided scales used for calculation , as illustrated here :
The non @-@ sliding logarithmic scale , Gunter 's rule , was invented shortly after Napier 's invention . William Oughtred enhanced it to create the slide rule — a pair of logarithmic scales movable with respect to each other . Numbers are placed on sliding scales at distances proportional to the differences between their logarithms . Sliding the upper scale appropriately amounts to mechanically adding logarithms . For example , adding the distance from 1 to 2 on the lower scale to the distance from 1 to 3 on the upper scale yields a product of 6 , which is read off at the lower part . The slide rule was an essential calculating tool for engineers and scientists until the 1970s , because it allows , at the expense of precision , much faster computation than techniques based on tables .
= = Analytic properties = =
A deeper study of logarithms requires the concept of a function . A function is a rule that , given one number , produces another number . An example is the function producing the x @-@ th power of b from any real number x , where the base b is a fixed number . This function is written
<formula>
= = = Logarithmic function = = =
To justify the definition of logarithms , it is necessary to show that the equation
<formula>
has a solution x and that this solution is unique , provided that y is positive and that b is positive and unequal to 1 . A proof of that fact requires the intermediate value theorem from elementary calculus . This theorem states that a continuous function that produces two values m and n also produces any value that lies between m and n . A function is continuous if it does not " jump " , that is , if its graph can be drawn without lifting the pen .
This property can be shown to hold for the function f ( x ) |
= bx . Because f takes arbitrarily large and arbitrarily small positive values , any number y > 0 lies between f ( x0 ) and f ( x1 ) for suitable x0 and x1 . Hence , the intermediate value theorem ensures that the equation f ( x ) =
y has a solution . Moreover , there is only one solution to this equation , because the function f is strictly increasing ( for b > 1 ) , or strictly decreasing ( for 0 < b < 1 ) .
The unique solution x is the logarithm of y to base b , logb ( y ) . The function that assigns to y its logarithm is called logarithm function or logarithmic function ( or just logarithm ) .
The function logb ( x ) is essentially characterized by the above product formula
<formula>
More precisely , the logarithm to any base b > 1 is the only increasing function f from the positive reals to the reals satisfying f ( b ) = 1 and
<formula>
= = = Inverse function = = =
The formula for the logarithm of a power says in particular that for any number x ,
<formula>
In prose , taking the x @-@ th power of b and then the base @-@ b logarithm gives back x . Conversely , given a positive number y , the formula
<formula>
says that first taking the logarithm and then exponentiating gives back y . Thus , the two possible ways of combining ( or composing ) logarithms and exponentiation give back the original number . Therefore , the logarithm to base b is the inverse function of f ( x )
= bx .
Inverse functions are closely related to the original functions . Their graphs correspond to each other upon exchanging the x- and the y @-@ coordinates ( or upon reflection at the diagonal line x =
y ) , as shown at the right : a point ( t , u |
= bt ) on the graph of f yields a point ( u , t =
logbu ) on the graph of the logarithm and vice versa . As a consequence , logb ( x ) diverges to infinity ( gets bigger than any given number ) if x grows to infinity , provided that b is greater than one . In that case , logb ( x ) is an increasing function . For b < 1 , logb ( x ) tends to minus infinity instead . When x approaches zero , logb ( x ) goes to minus infinity for b > 1 ( plus infinity for b < 1 , respectively ) .
= = = Derivative and antiderivative = = =
Analytic properties of functions pass to their inverses . Thus , as f ( x )
= bx is a continuous and differentiable function , so is logb ( y ) . Roughly , a continuous function is differentiable if its graph has no sharp " corners " . Moreover , as the derivative of f ( x ) evaluates to ln ( b ) bx by the properties of the exponential function , the chain rule implies that the derivative of logb ( x ) is given by
<formula>
That is , the slope of the tangent touching the graph of the base @-@ b logarithm at the point ( x , logb ( x ) ) equals 1 / ( x ln ( b ) ) .
The derivative of ln ( x ) is 1 / x ; this implies that ln ( x ) is the unique antiderivative of 1 / x that has the value 0 for x =
1 . This is this very simple formula that motivated to qualify as " natural " the natural logarithm ; this is also one of the main reasons of the importance of the constant e .
The derivative with a generalised functional argument f ( x ) is
<formula>
The quotient at the right hand side is called the logarithmic derivative of f . Computing f ' ( x ) by means of the derivative of ln ( f ( x ) ) is known as logarithmic differentiation . The antiderivative of the natural logarithm ln ( x ) is :
<formula>
Related formulas , such as antiderivatives of logarithms to other bases can be derived from this equation using the change of bases .
= = = Integral representation of the natural logarithm = = =
The natural logarithm of t equals the integral of 1 / x dx from 1 to t :
<formula>
In other words , ln ( t ) equals the area between the x axis and the graph of the function 1 / x , ranging from x |
= 1 to x =
t ( figure at the right ) . This is a consequence of the fundamental theorem of calculus and the fact that derivative of ln ( x ) is 1 / x . The right hand side of this equation can serve as a definition of the natural logarithm . Product and power logarithm formulas can be derived from this definition . For example , the product formula ln ( tu )
= ln ( t ) + ln ( u ) is deduced as :
<formula>
The equality ( 1 ) splits the integral into two parts , while the equality ( 2 ) is a change of variable ( w =
x / t ) . In the illustration below , the splitting corresponds to dividing the area into the yellow and blue parts . Rescaling the left hand blue area vertically by the factor t and shrinking it by the same factor horizontally does not change its size . Moving it appropriately , the area fits the graph of the function f ( x )
= 1 / x again . Therefore , the left hand blue area , which is the integral of f ( x ) from t to tu is the same as the integral from 1 to u . This justifies the equality ( 2 ) with a more geometric proof .
The power formula ln ( tr ) =
r ln ( t ) may be derived in a similar way :
<formula>
The second equality uses a change of variables ( integration by substitution ) , w
= x1 / r .
The sum over the reciprocals of natural numbers ,
<formula>
is called the harmonic series . It is closely tied to the natural logarithm : as n tends to infinity , the difference ,
<formula>
converges ( i.e. , gets arbitrarily close ) to a number known as the Euler – Mascheroni constant . This relation aids in analyzing the performance of algorithms such as quicksort .
There is also another integral representation of the logarithm that is useful in some situations .
<formula>
This can be verified by showing that it has the same value at x =
1 , and the same derivative .
= = = Transcendence of the logarithm = = =
Real numbers that are not algebraic are called transcendental ; for example , π and e are such numbers , but <formula> is not . Almost all real numbers are transcendental . The logarithm is an example of a transcendental function . The Gelfond – Schneider theorem asserts that logarithms usually take transcendental , i.e. , " difficult " values .
= = Calculation = =
Logarithms are easy to compute in some cases , such as log10 ( 1000 ) = 3 . In general , logarithms can be calculated using power series or the arithmetic – geometric mean , or be retrieved from a precalculated logarithm table that provides a fixed precision . Newton 's method , an iterative method to solve equations approximately , can also be used to calculate the logarithm , because its inverse function , the exponential function , can be computed efficiently . Using look @-@ up tables , CORDIC @-@ like methods can be used to compute logarithms if the only available operations are addition and bit shifts . Moreover , the binary logarithm algorithm calculates lb ( x ) recursively based on repeated squarings of x , taking advantage of the relation
<formula>
= = = Power series = = =
Taylor series
For any real number z that satisfies 0 < z < 2 , the following formula holds :
<formula>
This is a shorthand for saying that ln ( z ) can be approximated to a more and more accurate value by the following expressions :
<formula>
For example , with z |
= 1 @.@ 5 the third approximation yields 0 @.@ 4167 , which is about 0 @.@ 011 greater than ln ( 1 @.@ 5 ) =
0 @.@ 405465 . This series approximates ln ( z ) with arbitrary precision , provided the number of summands is large enough . In elementary calculus , ln ( z ) is therefore the limit of this series . It is the Taylor series of the natural logarithm at z
= 1 . The Taylor series of ln z provides a particularly useful approximation to ln ( 1 + z ) when z is small , | z | < 1 , since then
<formula>
For example , with z =
0 @.@ 1 the first @-@ order approximation gives ln ( 1 @.@ 1 ) ≈ 0 @.@ 1 , which is less than 5 % off the correct value 0 @.@ 0953 .
More efficient series
Another series is based on the area hyperbolic tangent function :
<formula>
for any real number z > 0 . Using the Sigma notation , this is also written as
<formula>
This series can be derived from the above Taylor series . It converges more quickly than the Taylor series , especially if z is close to 1 . For example , for z
= 1 @.@ 5 , the first three terms of the second series approximate ln ( 1 @.@ 5 ) with an error of about 3 × 10 − 6 . The quick convergence for z close to 1 can be taken advantage of in the following way : given a low @-@ accuracy approximation y ≈ ln ( z ) and putting
<formula>
the logarithm of z is :
<formula>
The better the initial approximation y is , the closer A is to 1 , so its logarithm can be calculated efficiently . A can be calculated using the exponential series , which converges quickly provided y is not too large . Calculating the logarithm of larger z can be reduced to smaller values of z by writing z =
a · 10b , so that ln ( z ) = ln ( a ) + b · ln ( 10 ) .
A closely related method can be used to compute the logarithm of integers . From the above series , it follows that :
<formula>
If the logarithm of a large integer n is known , then this series yields a fast converging series for log ( n + 1 ) .
= = = Arithmetic – geometric mean approximation = = =
The arithmetic – geometric mean yields high precision approximations of the natural logarithm. ln ( x ) is approximated to a precision of 2 − p ( or p precise bits ) by the following formula ( due to Carl Friedrich Gauss ) :
<formula>
Here M ( x , y ) denotes the arithmetic – geometric mean of x and y . It is obtained by repeatedly calculating the average ( x + y ) / 2 ( arithmetic mean ) and sqrt ( x * y ) ( geometric mean ) of x and y then let those two numbers become the next x and y . The two numbers quickly converge to a common limit which is the value of M ( x , y ) . m is chosen such that
<formula>
to insure the required precision . A larger m makes the M ( x , y ) calculation take more steps ( the initial x and y are farther apart so it takes more steps to converge ) but gives more precision . The constants π and ln ( 2 ) can be calculated with quickly converging series .
= = Applications = =
Logarithms have many applications inside and outside mathematics . Some of these occurrences are related to the notion of scale invariance . For example , each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one , scaled by a constant factor . This gives rise to a logarithmic spiral . Benford 's law on the distribution of leading digits can also be explained by scale invariance . Logarithms are also linked to self @-@ similarity . For example , logarithms appear in the analysis of algorithms that solve a problem by dividing it into two similar smaller problems and patching their solutions . The dimensions of self @-@ similar geometric shapes , that is , shapes whose parts resemble the overall picture are also based on logarithms . Logarithmic scales are useful for quantifying the relative change of a value as opposed to its absolute difference . Moreover , because the logarithmic function log ( x ) grows very slowly for large x , logarithmic scales are used to compress large @-@ scale scientific data . Logarithms also occur in numerous scientific formulas , such as the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation , the Fenske equation , or the Nernst equation .
= = = Logarithmic scale = = =
Scientific quantities are often expressed as logarithms of other quantities , using a logarithmic scale . For example , the decibel is a unit of measurement associated with logarithmic @-@ scale quantities . It is based on the common logarithm of ratios — 10 times the common logarithm of a power ratio or 20 times the common logarithm of a voltage ratio . It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals , to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics , and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics . The signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio describing the amount of unwanted noise in relation to a ( meaningful ) signal is also measured in decibels . In a similar vein , the peak signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio is commonly used to assess the quality of sound and image compression methods using the logarithm .
The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the common logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake . This is used in the moment magnitude scale or the Richter magnitude scale . For example , a 5 @.@ 0 earthquake releases 32 times ( 101 @.@ 5 ) and a 6 @.@ 0 releases 1000 times ( 103 ) the energy of a 4 @.@ 0 . Another logarithmic scale is apparent magnitude . It measures the brightness of stars logarithmically . Yet another example is pH in chemistry ; pH is the negative of the common logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions ( the form hydrogen ions H + take in water ) . The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 10 − 7 mol · L − 1 , hence a pH of 7 . Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3 . The difference of 4 corresponds to a ratio of 104 of the activity , that is , vinegar 's hydronium ion activity is about 10 − 3 mol · L − 1 .
Semilog ( log @-@ linear ) graphs use the logarithmic scale concept for visualization : one axis , typically the vertical one , is scaled logarithmically . For example , the chart at the right compresses the steep increase from 1 million to 1 trillion to the same space ( on the vertical axis ) as the increase from 1 to 1 million . In such graphs , exponential functions of the form f ( x ) |
= a · bx appear as straight lines with slope equal to the logarithm of b . Log @-@ log graphs scale both axes logarithmically , which causes functions of the form f ( x ) =
a · xk to be depicted as straight lines with slope equal to the exponent k . This is applied in visualizing and analyzing power laws .
= = = Psychology = = =
Logarithms occur in several laws describing human perception : Hick 's law proposes a logarithmic relation between the time individuals take to choose an alternative and the number of choices they have . Fitts 's law predicts that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a logarithmic function of the distance to and the size of the target . In psychophysics , the Weber – Fechner law proposes a logarithmic relationship between stimulus and sensation such as the actual vs. the perceived weight of an item a person is carrying . ( This " law " , however , is less precise than more recent models , such as the Stevens ' power law . )
Psychological studies found that individuals with little mathematics education tend to estimate quantities logarithmically , that is , they position a number on an unmarked line according to its logarithm , so that 10 is positioned as close to 100 as 100 is to 1000 . Increasing education shifts this to a linear estimate ( positioning 1000 10x as far away ) in some circumstances , while logarithms are used when the numbers to be plotted are difficult to plot linearly .
= = = Probability theory and statistics = = =
Logarithms arise in probability theory : the law of large numbers dictates that , for a fair coin , as the number of coin @-@ tosses increases to infinity , the observed proportion of heads approaches one @-@ half . The fluctuations of this proportion about one @-@ half are described by the law of the iterated logarithm .
Logarithms also occur in log @-@ normal distributions . When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution , the variable is said to have a log @-@ normal distribution . Log @-@ normal distributions are encountered in many fields , wherever a variable is formed as the product of many independent positive random variables , for example in the study of turbulence .
Logarithms are used for maximum @-@ likelihood estimation of parametric statistical models . For such a model , the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated . A maximum of the likelihood function occurs at the same parameter @-@ value as a maximum of the logarithm of the likelihood ( the " log likelihood " ) , because the logarithm is an increasing function . The log @-@ likelihood is easier to maximize , especially for the multiplied likelihoods for independent random variables .
Benford 's law describes the occurrence of digits in many data sets , such as heights of buildings . According to Benford 's law , the probability that the first decimal @-@ digit of an item in the data sample is d ( from 1 to 9 ) equals log10 ( d + 1 ) − log10 ( d ) , regardless of the unit of measurement . Thus , about 30 % of the data can be expected to have 1 as first digit , 18 % start with 2 , etc . Auditors examine deviations from Benford 's law to detect fraudulent accounting .
= = = Computational complexity = = =
Analysis of algorithms is a branch of computer science that studies the performance of algorithms ( computer programs solving a certain problem ) . Logarithms are valuable for describing algorithms that divide a problem into smaller ones , and join the solutions of the subproblems .
For example , to find a number in a sorted list , the binary search algorithm checks the middle entry and proceeds with the half before or after the middle entry if the number is still not found . This algorithm requires , on average , log2 ( N ) comparisons , where N is the list 's length . Similarly , the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results . Merge sort algorithms typically require a time approximately proportional to N · log ( N ) . The base of the logarithm is not specified here , because the result only changes by a constant factor when another base is used . A constant factor is usually disregarded in the analysis of algorithms under the standard uniform cost model .
A function f ( x ) is said to grow logarithmically if f ( x ) is ( exactly or approximately ) proportional to the logarithm of x . ( Biological descriptions of organism growth , however , use this term for an exponential function . ) For example , any natural number N can be represented in binary form in no more than log2 ( N ) + 1 bits . In other words , the amount of memory needed to store N grows logarithmically with N.
= = = Entropy and chaos = = =
Entropy is broadly a measure of the disorder of some system . In statistical thermodynamics , the entropy S of some physical system is defined as
<formula>
The sum is over all possible states i of the system in question , such as the positions of gas particles in a container . Moreover , pi is the probability that the state i is attained and k is the Boltzmann constant . Similarly , entropy in information theory measures the quantity of information . If a message recipient may expect any one of N possible messages with equal likelihood , then the amount of information conveyed by any one such message is quantified as log2 ( N ) bits .
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system . For example , for a particle moving on an oval billiard table , even small changes of the initial conditions result in very different paths of the particle . Such systems are chaotic in a deterministic way , because small measurement errors of the initial state predictably lead to largely different final states . At least one Lyapunov exponent of a deterministically chaotic system is positive .
= = = Fractals = = =
Logarithms occur in definitions of the dimension of fractals . Fractals are geometric objects that are self @-@ similar : small parts reproduce , at least roughly , the entire global structure . The Sierpinski triangle ( pictured ) can be covered by three copies of itself , each having sides half the original length . This makes the Hausdorff dimension of this structure ln ( 3 ) / ln ( 2 ) ≈ 1 @.@ 58 . Another logarithm @-@ based notion of dimension is obtained by counting the number of boxes needed to cover the fractal in question .
= = = Music = = =
Logarithms are related to musical tones and intervals . In equal temperament , the frequency ratio depends only on the interval between two tones , not on the specific frequency , or pitch , of the individual tones . For example , the note A has a frequency of 440 Hz and B @-@ flat has a frequency of 466 Hz . The interval between A and B @-@ flat is a semitone , as is the one between B @-@ flat and B ( frequency 493 Hz ) . Accordingly , the frequency ratios agree :
<formula>
Therefore , logarithms can be used to describe the intervals : an interval is measured in semitones by taking the base @-@ 21 / 12 logarithm of the frequency ratio , while the base @-@ 21 / 1200 logarithm of the frequency ratio expresses the interval in cents , hundredths of a semitone . The latter is used for finer encoding , as it is needed for non @-@ equal temperaments .
= = = Number theory = = =
Natural logarithms are closely linked to counting prime numbers ( 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 11 , ... ) , an important topic in number theory . For any integer x , the quantity of prime numbers less than or equal to x is denoted π ( x ) . The prime number theorem asserts that π ( x ) is approximately given by
<formula>
in the sense that the ratio of π ( x ) and that fraction approaches 1 when x tends to infinity . As a consequence , the probability that a randomly chosen number between 1 and x is prime is inversely proportional to the number of decimal digits of x . A far better estimate of π ( x ) is given by the offset logarithmic integral function Li ( x ) , defined by
<formula>
The Riemann hypothesis , one of the oldest open mathematical conjectures , can be stated in terms of comparing π ( x ) and Li ( x ) . The Erdős – Kac theorem describing the number of distinct prime factors also involves the natural logarithm .
The logarithm of n factorial , n ! = 1 · 2 · ... · n , is given by
<formula>
This can be used to obtain Stirling 's formula , an approximation of n ! for large n .
= = Generalizations = =
= = = Complex logarithm = = =
The complex numbers a solving the equation
<formula>
are called complex logarithms . Here , z is a complex number . A complex number is commonly represented as z
= x + iy , where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit . Such a number can be visualized by a point in the complex plane , as shown at the right . The polar form encodes a non @-@ zero complex number z by its absolute value , that is , the distance r to the origin , and an angle between the x axis and the line passing through the origin and z . This angle is called the argument of z . The absolute value r of z is
<formula>
The argument is not uniquely specified by z : both φ and φ ' =
φ + 2π are arguments of z because adding 2π radians or 360 degrees to φ corresponds to " winding " around the origin counter @-@ clock @-@ wise by a turn . The resulting complex number is again z , as illustrated at the right . However , exactly one argument φ satisfies − π < φ and φ ≤ π . It is called the principal argument , denoted Arg ( z ) , with a capital A. ( An alternative normalization is 0 ≤ Arg ( z ) < 2π . )
Using trigonometric functions sine and cosine , or the complex exponential , respectively , r and φ are such that the following identities hold :
<formula>
This implies that the a @-@ th power of e equals z , where
<formula>
φ is the principal argument Arg ( z ) and n is an arbitrary integer . Any such a is called a complex logarithm of z . There are infinitely many of them , in contrast to the uniquely defined real logarithm . If n = 0 , a is called the principal value of the logarithm , denoted Log ( z ) . The principal argument of any positive real number x is 0 ; hence Log ( x ) is a real number and equals the real ( natural ) logarithm . However , the above formulas for logarithms of products and powers do not generalize to the principal value of the complex logarithm .
The illustration at the right depicts Log ( z ) . The discontinuity , that is , the jump in the hue at the negative part of the x- or real axis , is caused by the jump of the principal argument there . This locus is called a branch cut . This behavior can only be circumvented by dropping the range restriction on φ . Then the argument of z and , consequently , its logarithm become multi @-@ valued functions .
= = = Inverses of other exponential functions = = =
Exponentiation occurs in many areas of mathematics and its inverse function is often referred to as the logarithm . For example , the logarithm of a matrix is the ( multi @-@ valued ) inverse function of the matrix exponential . Another example is the p @-@ adic logarithm , the inverse function of the p @-@ adic exponential . Both are defined via Taylor series analogous to the real case . In the context of differential geometry , the exponential map maps the tangent space at a point of a manifold to a neighborhood of that point . Its inverse is also called the logarithmic ( or log ) map .
In the context of finite groups exponentiation is given by repeatedly multiplying one group element b with itself . The discrete logarithm is the integer n solving the equation
<formula>
where x is an element of the group . Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently , but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups . This asymmetry has important applications in public key cryptography , such as for example in the Diffie – Hellman key exchange , a routine that allows secure exchanges of cryptographic keys over unsecured information channels . Zech 's logarithm is related to the discrete logarithm in the multiplicative group of non @-@ zero elements of a finite field .
Further logarithm @-@ like inverse functions include the double logarithm ln ( ln ( x ) ) , the super- or hyper @-@ 4 @-@ logarithm ( a slight variation of which is called iterated logarithm in computer science ) , the Lambert W function , and the logit . They are the inverse functions of the double exponential function , tetration , of f ( w ) = wew , and of the logistic function , respectively .
= = = Related concepts = = =
From the perspective of group theory , the identity log ( cd )
= log ( c ) + log ( d ) expresses a group isomorphism between positive reals under multiplication and reals under addition . Logarithmic functions are the only continuous isomorphisms between these groups . By means of that isomorphism , the Haar measure ( Lebesgue measure ) dx on the reals corresponds to the Haar measure dx / x on the positive reals . In complex analysis and algebraic geometry , differential forms of the form df / f are known as forms with logarithmic poles .
The polylogarithm is the function defined by
<formula>
It is related to the natural logarithm by Li1 ( z ) =
− ln ( 1 − z ) . Moreover , Lis ( 1 ) equals the Riemann zeta function ζ ( s ) .
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= Hannah Buckling =
Hannah Buckling ( born 3 June 1992 in Sydney , Australia ) is an Australian water polo centre back . She attended the Wenona Girls School and is currently attending the University of Sydney while working on a Bachelor of Science . She started playing water polo as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old . She played club water polo for the Sydney Northern Beaches Breakers and as a junior player represented New South Wales in national competitions and Australia in international competitions . She plays for the Sydney Uni Lions in the National Water Polo League . As s representative of Australia on the junior and senior level , she had her first international cap during the 2008 Australian Junior Tour at the Pythia Cup . She was a member of the Australian side that finished third at the 2011 FINA Junior World Championships . As a member of the senior team , she competed at the 2011 Canada Cup and helped the team take home gold . She is one of seventeen players vying for thirteen spots to go to 2012 Summer Olympics as a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team .
= = Personal = =
Buckling was born on 3 June 1992 in Sydney , but calls Mosman , New South Wales her hometown . Her grandfather represented Wales as a member of the Wales School Boy team in rugby union . She attended Wenona Girls School located in North Sydney , New South Wales . She is currently working on a Bachelor of Science at the University of Sydney . She is 177 cm ( 5 ft 10 in ) tall , weights 75 kilograms ( 165 lb ) and is right handed .
= = Water polo = =
Buckling prefers to wear cap number six and plays in the centre back position . She started playing water polo as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old in Year 7 at Wenona Girls School . In 2011 , she was named a Sydney Uni Sport & Fitness / St Andrew ’ s College Foundation Awards winner because of her water polo . She has a water polo scholarship from the New South Wales Institute of Sport .
= = = Club and state representative teams = = =
When she was Buckling , she joined the Sydney Northern Beaches Breakers water polo team who continue to be her water polo club . One of her club team mates was another future national team member , Emily Scott . Buckling gave Scott advice related to future planning for water polo playing . While playing the sport casually on school and club level , she got a new coach at the Breakers , Jamie Ryan . Ryan helped elevate Buckling 's intensity at practice and become a more serious player . In 2007 , she was a member of the New South Wales development squad and competed on the 2007 16 & Under National Championships Girls where she scored 15 goals in the competition . In 2008 , she again represented New South Wales at the 2008 16 & Under National Championships Girls where she scored 13 goals . At the 18 & Under National Championships Girls in 2008 , she scored only 8 goals . In 2009 , at the 18 & Under Girls National Championship and a member of the New South Wales side , she scored 8 goals . That same year , as a member of New South Wales team at the 20 & Under National Championships Junior Women , she scored 8 goals . In 2010 , she scored 18 goals in the 18 & Under Girls National Championship and 6 goals in the 20 & Under National Championships Junior Women . In 2011 , she scored 8 goals in the 20 & Under Junior Women National Championships . That year , her team finished second at the Perth , Western Australia held event . In 2011 , her training consisted of going to the pool every morning , and doing training at the gym three times a week . During the summer , she would compete in up to three games a week . During the winter , she would compete in an average of one game a week .
= = = National Water Polo League = = =
Buckling plays for the Sydney Uni Lions of the National Water Polo League . In 2011 , her first year in the league , she wore cap number 14 and fifteen total goals for the season . Her largest single goal came was on 15 March against the Fyfe Adelaide Jets . During the 2012 season , she wore cap number four . As of 3 March , she had scored sixteen goals in the season .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Within 20 months of having Ryan be her coach on her local club side and as a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old , she made the Australian u @-@ 17 team with her first international appearance for Australia occurring at the 2008 Australian Junior Tour at the Pythia Cup in Greece where her team was runners @-@ up . The tour also included stops in Italy and Hungary . In 2010 , she was a member of the under @-@ 19 women 's national water polo team that did a European tour . In 2010 , as a member of the junior national team , she was a member of the team that toured California and part of the squad that competed in international friendlies against the United States , New Zealand and Canada . She was part of the junior national team again in 2011 and in July , she was invited to be part of the training squad for the junior national squad that was training in Perth in preparation for the Junior World Championships . She was a member of the Australian side that finished third at the 2011 FINA Junior World Championships .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Buckling is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team . At the 2011 Canada Cup , she scored a goal in the first period in the gold medal match against China that the Australian team ended up winning . She competed in the Pan Pacific Championships in January 2012 for the Australian Stingers . She scored a goal in a Stingers 8 – 7 win over the United States . In 2011 , her goal was to make the national team and compete at the 2016 Summer Olympics . In February 2012 , she was named to the final training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics . She attended training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . The team of seventeen players will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement being made on 13 June . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years .
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= Flaws and All =
" Flaws and All " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé , included on the 2007 deluxe edition of her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was composed by Ne @-@ Yo , Shea Taylor , Beyoncé and Solange Knowles , while Beyoncé Knowles and Taylor produced it . In the R & B song , Beyoncé shows appreciation for the love given by her man , who sees through all of her flaws and loves her unconditionally . " Flaws and All " received positive reviews from critics , who lauded Beyoncé 's emotion and vulnerability on the track . Some critics also noted that the song was better than some of the songs on the standard edition of B 'Day .
The music video was directed by Cliff Watts and Beyoncé for B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) . It features clips of a B 'Day promotional ad by Wal @-@ Mart pieced together , in which Beyoncé does not lip @-@ sync the words of the song , but instead acts as if it were an everyday scenario . Beyoncé explained the concept for the video was to show a different side to her , that the paparazzi does not show and that fans would not normally see . Beyoncé performed " Flaws and All " on The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) , and the song was included on the live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) . It was also sung live on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in 2008 and during Beyoncé 's show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live in May 2012 .
= = Background = =
" Flaws and All " was written by Ne @-@ Yo , Shea Taylor , Beyoncé Knowles and her sister Solange Knowles . The R & B song was produced by Beyoncé Knowles and Taylor , and mixed by Jean @-@ Marie Horvat at Oz Recording Studios , Valencia , California . " Flaws and All " was recorded by Jim Caruana , Shane Woodley and Robert " LB " Dorsey at Roc the Mic studio , New York City . Although the song was originally included on the re @-@ release of B 'Day , it was additionally included on compilation albums . In 2007 the song was included on Tyler Perry 's Why Did I Get Married ? soundtrack . In 2008 , Beyoncé released the song on a compilation album dedicated to karaoke performances titled Beyoncé Karaoke Hits , Vol . I. Author Latrice Gleen references the song in a memoir titled My Life 's Journey ( 2010 ) .
= = Reception = =
Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly named the song as his favorite addition to the deluxe edition of B 'Day , stating , " Better is ' Flaws and All ' , a ballad in which B [ eyoncé ] expresses melismatic gratitude that workaholic bitches ( her words ! ) merit love too . " Rory Dollard of Metro also wrote that the song was better than some of the tracks on the original track listing of B 'Day . While reviewing the deluxe edition of B 'Day , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the song , calling it a " surprise gem [ which ] sound [ s ] downright subtle " . BET included the song in its list of the " Top 10 Feel Good R & B Songs " , ranked at number nine . Discussing their choice , they stated " ' Flaws and All ' ... revealed Beyoncé at her most vulnerable . The song showed that even a superstar can struggle with insecurities and be in need of someone to love her . " Bobby Reed of Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted that the lyrics could also refer to " the way fans worship Beyonce " . Anthony Venutolo of New Jersey On @-@ Line noted that the song talks about true love . Destiny 's Child bandmate Kelly Rowland discussed the track during Billboard 's " Woman of the Year " spread for Beyoncé . She stated " Beyoncé is a true artist who brings it every time . My favorite song will always be ' Flaws and All . ' So much feeling , so beautiful ; her voice sounds amazing . "
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Flaws and All " was directed by Cliff Watts and Beyoncé . The video for the song was shot on inexpensive Super 8 film during the two @-@ week filiming for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) . Critics have noted that Beyoncé emulates Marilyn Monroe , Brigitte Bardot and Barbra Streisand throughout the clip . During an interview with MTV on a " Beyoncé : Behind the B 'Day Music Videos " , MTV commented on Beyoncé 's appearance in the music video stating that she acts like " a goofball " and " it also feels like we get to see the real [ her ] . " Beyoncé replied , " I 'm way different in my everyday life . My personal life and my celebrity life — I 've separated them so much it 's like two different people . But I 'm pretty balanced . I 'm over the top and I 'm natural . "
In an interview with Vibe , Beyoncé explained that the concept for the video in depth after being questioned as an " everyday woman . " " I don 't sing any of the song . The whole time it 's like a silent movie and I 'm being myself . I 'm not performing . I reveal a side of myself no one 's ever seen . I 'm silly and goofy and not ... trying to be a diva , or trying to be a star – just me . " The video features a black and white theme and a grainy film texture . Beyoncé does not lip @-@ sync the lyrics but acts out parts of the song and poses . Several of the scenes used in the video had been shot in 2006 for a B 'Day promotional ad by Wal @-@ Mart .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed the song on multiple occasions , including the song as part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) . Beyoncé cried during the performance , and was then embraced by a male dancer dressed as an angel . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly praised Beyoncé 's performance of the song stating " The true defibrillator moment , all freakum dress changes aside , is ' Flaws and All ' , during which Beyoncé weeps real tears ( nightly , according to reports from earlier overseas shows ) while apologizing for being such a bitch . That 's a rare campy , melodramatic performance in an otherwise energized two hours . " The performance also caught the attention of The New York Times writer Jon Pareles who stated , " Along the way the concert was a showcase for her consistently expanding music , from the kinetic dance beats of songs like ' Get Me Bodied ' to dramatic ballads like ' Flaws and All ' , which Beyoncé sang wide @-@ eyed in a video close @-@ up . " J. Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post wrote that during the performance she was offering a " litany of her own ' imperfections ' that her lover embraces unconditionally " . John Aizlewood from the Daily Mail criticized the angel embrace at the end of the " Flaws and All " performance as being the weakest part of The Beyoncé Experience set . A writer of The Times also gave a mixed review for the performance of the song , saying that " Her attempt at an introspective ballad , Flaws and All , was less convincing . " Anthony Venutolo of New Jersey On @-@ Line wrote that the performance was " silly " . The performance of the song in Los Angeles on September 2 , 2007 was taped and included on The Beyoncé Experience Live . The performance of the song was also shown independently at MTV.com and was released via digital download at the iTunes Store on November 19 , 2007 .
Beyoncé performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on November 25 , 2008 while promoting her third album I Am ... Sasha Fierce . In May , 2012 , she performed " Flaws and All " as a part of her revue show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . While reviewing the show , Ben Ratliff of The New York Times wrote , " She has a fast @-@ reacting face , and opens her eyes wide to look astonished , touched , or grateful . ( She did this especially during ' Flaws and All , ' which she dedicated to her fans : ' I don 't know why you love me / And that 's why I love you . ' ) " A writer for Vibe magazine listed the performance of the song in the five notable moments from the concerts , saying that Beyoncé " had the camera zoom in on her face the whole time , showing the crowd her own ' flaws , ' allowing the crowd to connect to her " . " Flaws and All " was also included on the live album Live in Atlantic City ( 2013 ) which was filmed during the revue . In 2013 , Beyoncé added the song to the set list of her worldwide The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . During the performance she dedicated the song to her fans , the BeyHive .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day Deluxe Edition liner notes .
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= Geothermal energy =
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth . Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter . The geothermal energy of the Earth 's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials ( in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions ) . The geothermal gradient , which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface , drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface . The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη ( ge ) , meaning earth , and θερμος ( thermos ) , meaning hot .
Earth 's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth 's formation . Temperatures at the core – mantle boundary may reach over 4000 ° C ( 7 @,@ 200 ° F ) . The high temperature and pressure in Earth 's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically , resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock . Rock and water is heated in the crust , sometimes up to 370 ° C ( 700 ° F ) .
From hot springs , geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times , but it is now better known for electricity generation . Worldwide , 11 @,@ 700 megawatts ( MW ) of geothermal power is online in 2013 . An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating , space heating , spas , industrial processes , desalination and agricultural applications in 2010 .
Geothermal power is cost @-@ effective , reliable , sustainable , and environmentally friendly , but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries . Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources , especially for applications such as home heating , opening a potential for widespread exploitation . Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth , but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels . As a result , geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels .
The Earth 's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity 's energy needs , but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited . Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive . Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology , energy prices , subsidies , and interest rates . Pilot programs like EWEB 's customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal . But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience , the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25 % over the past two decades . In 2001 , geothermal energy costs between two and ten US cents per kWh .
= = History = =
Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times . The oldest known spa is a stone pool on China 's Lisan mountain built in the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC , at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built . In the first century AD , Romans conquered Aquae Sulis , now Bath , Somerset , England , and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating . The admission fees for these baths probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power . The world 's oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes @-@ Aigues , France , has been operating since the 14th century . The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello , Italy .
In 1892 , America 's first district heating system in Boise , Idaho was powered directly by geothermal energy , and was copied in Klamath Falls , Oregon in 1900 . A deep geothermal well was used to heat greenhouses in Boise in 1926 , and geysers were used to heat greenhouses in Iceland and Tuscany at about the same time . Charlie Lieb developed the first downhole heat exchanger in 1930 to heat his house . Steam and hot water from geysers began heating homes in Iceland starting in 1943 .
In the 20th century , demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as a generating source . Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 , at the same Larderello dry steam field where geothermal acid extraction began . It successfully lit four light bulbs . Later , in 1911 , the world 's first commercial geothermal power plant was built there . It was the world 's only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until New Zealand built a plant in 1958 . In 2012 , it produced some 594 megawatts .
Lord Kelvin invented the heat pump in 1852 , and Heinrich Zoelly had patented the idea of using it to draw heat from the ground in 1912 . But it was not until the late 1940s that the geothermal heat pump was successfully implemented . The earliest one was probably Robert C. Webber 's home @-@ made 2 @.@ 2 kW direct @-@ exchange system , but sources disagree as to the exact timeline of his invention . J. Donald Kroeker designed the first commercial geothermal heat pump to heat the Commonwealth Building ( Portland , Oregon ) and demonstrated it in 1946 . Professor Carl Nielsen of Ohio State University built the first residential open loop version in his home in 1948 . The technology became popular in Sweden as a result of the 1973 oil crisis , and has been growing slowly in worldwide acceptance since then . The 1979 development of polybutylene pipe greatly augmented the heat pump ’ s economic viability .
In 1960 , Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power plant in the United States at The Geysers in California . The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power .
The binary cycle power plant was first demonstrated in 1967 in the USSR and later introduced to the US in 1981 . This technology allows the generation of electricity from much lower temperature resources than previously . In 2006 , a binary cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs , Alaska , came on @-@ line , producing electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57 ° C ( 135 ° F ) .
= = Direct Usage = =
= = Electricity = =
The International Geothermal Association ( IGA ) has reported that 10 @,@ 715 megawatts ( MW ) of geothermal power in 24 countries is online , which was expected to generate 67 @,@ 246 GWh of electricity in 2010 . This represents a 20 % increase in online capacity since 2005 . IGA projects growth to 18 @,@ 500 MW by 2015 , due to the projects presently under consideration , often in areas previously assumed to have little exploitable resource .
In 2010 , the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3 @,@ 086 MW of installed capacity from 77 power plants . The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers , a geothermal field in California . The Philippines is the second highest producer , with 1 @,@ 904 MW of capacity online . Geothermal power makes up approximately 27 % of Philippine electricity generation .
Geothermal electric plants were traditionally built exclusively on the edges of tectonic plates where high temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface . The development of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology enable enhanced geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range . Demonstration projects are operational in Landau @-@ Pfalz , Germany , and Soultz @-@ sous @-@ Forêts , France , while an earlier effort in Basel , Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes . Other demonstration projects are under construction in Australia , the United Kingdom , and the United States of America .
The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric plants is low , around 10 – 23 % , because geothermal fluids do not reach the high temperatures of steam from boilers . The laws of thermodynamics limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy . Exhaust heat is wasted , unless it can be used directly and locally , for example in greenhouses , timber mills , and district heating . System efficiency does not materially affect operational costs as it would for plants that use fuel , but it does affect return on the capital used to build the plant . In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume , electricity generation requires relatively hot fields and specialized heat cycles . Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy , unlike , for example , wind or solar , its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96 % has been demonstrated . The global average was 73 % in 2005 .
= = Types = =
Geothermal energy comes in either vapor @-@ dominated or liquid @-@ dominated forms . Larderello and The Geysers are vapor @-@ dominated . Vapor @-@ dominated sites offer temperatures from 240 to 300 ° C that produce superheated steam .
= = = Liquid @-@ dominated plants = = =
Liquid @-@ dominated reservoirs ( LDRs ) were more common with temperatures greater than 200 ° C ( 392 ° F ) and are found near young volcanoes surrounding the Pacific Ocean and in rift zones and hot spots . Flash plants are the common way to generate electricity from these sources . Pumps are generally not required , powered instead when the water turns to steam . Most wells generate 2 @-@ 10MWe . Steam is separated from liquid via cyclone separators , while the liquid is returned to the reservoir for reheating / reuse . As of 2013 , the largest liquid system is Cerro Prieto in Mexico , which generates 750 MWe from temperatures reaching 350 ° C ( 662 ° F ) . The Salton Sea field in Southern California offers the potential of generating 2000 MWe .
Lower temperature LDRs ( 120 – 200 ° C ) require pumping . They are common in extensional terrains , where heating takes place via deep circulation along faults , such as in the Western US and Turkey . Water passes through a heat exchanger in a Rankine cycle binary plant . The water vaporizes an organic working fluid that drives a turbine . These binary plants originated in the Soviet Union in the late 1960s and predominate in new US plants . Binary plants have no emissions .
= = = Thermal energy = = =
Lower temperature sources produce the energy equivalent of 100M BBL per year . Sources with temperatures of 30 – 150 ° C are used without conversion to electricity as district heating , greenhouses , fisheries , mineral recovery , industrial process heating and bathing in 75 countries . Heat pumps extract energy from shallow sources at 10 – 20 ° C in 43 countries for use in space heating and cooling . Home heating is the fastest @-@ growing means of exploiting geothermal energy , with global annual growth rate of 30 % in 2005 and 20 % in 2012 .
Approximately 270 petajoules ( PJ ) of geothermal heating was used in 2004 . More than half went for space heating , and another third for heated pools . The remainder supported industrial and agricultural applications . Global installed capacity was 28 GW , but capacity factors tend to be low ( 30 % on average ) since heat is mostly needed in winter . Some 88 PJ for space heating was extracted by an estimated 1 @.@ 3 million geothermal heat pumps with a total capacity of 15 GW .
Heat for these purposes may also be extracted from co @-@ generation at a geothermal electrical plant .
Heating is cost @-@ effective at many more sites than electricity generation . At natural hot springs or geysers , water can be piped directly into radiators . In hot , dry ground , earth tubes or downhole heat exchangers can collect the heat . However , even in areas where the ground is colder than room temperature , heat can often be extracted with a geothermal heat pump more cost @-@ effectively and cleanly than by conventional furnaces . These devices draw on much shallower and colder resources than traditional geothermal techniques . They frequently combine functions , including air conditioning , seasonal thermal energy storage , solar energy collection , and electric heating . Heat pumps can be used for space heating essentially anywhere .
Iceland is the world leader in direct applications . Some 92 @.@ 5 % of its homes are heated with geothermal energy , saving Iceland over $ 100 million annually in avoided oil imports . Reykjavík , Iceland has the world 's biggest district heating system . Once known as the most polluted city in the world , it is now one of the cleanest .
= = = Enhanced geothermal = = =
Enhanced geothermal systems ( EGS ) actively inject water into wells to be heated and pumped back out . The water is injected under high pressure to expand existing rock fissures to enable the water to freely flow in and out . The technique was adapted from oil and gas extraction techniques . However , the geologic formations are deeper and no toxic chemicals are used , reducing the possibility of environmental damage . Drillers can employ directional drilling to expand the size of the reservoir .
Small @-@ scale EGS have been installed in the Rhine Graben at Soultz @-@ sous @-@ Forêts in France and at Landau and Insheim in Germany .
= = Economics = =
Geothermal power requires no fuel ( except for pumps ) , and is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations . However , capital costs are significant . Drilling accounts for over half the costs , and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks . A typical well doublet ( extraction and injection wells ) in Nevada can support 4 @.@ 5 megawatts ( MW ) and costs about $ 10 million to drill , with a 20 % failure rate .
In total , electrical plant construction and well drilling cost about € 2 – 5 million per MW of electrical capacity , while the break – even price is 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 10 € per kW · h . Enhanced geothermal systems tend to be on the high side of these ranges , with capital costs above $ 4 million per MW and break – even above $ 0 @.@ 054 per kW · h in 2007 . Direct heating applications can use much shallower wells with lower temperatures , so smaller systems with lower costs and risks are feasible . Residential geothermal heat pumps with a capacity of 10 kilowatt ( kW ) are routinely installed for around $ 1 – 3 @,@ 000 per kilowatt . District heating systems may benefit from economies of scale if demand is geographically dense , as in cities and greenhouses , but otherwise piping installation dominates capital costs . The capital cost of one such district heating system in Bavaria was estimated at somewhat over 1 million € per MW . Direct systems of any size are much simpler than electric generators and have lower maintenance costs per kW · h , but they must consume electricity to run pumps and compressors . Some governments subsidize geothermal projects .
Geothermal power is highly scalable : from a rural village to an entire city .
The most developed geothermal field in the United States is The Geysers in Northern California .
Geothermal projects have several stages of development . Each phase has associated risks . At the early stages of reconnaissance and geophysical surveys , many projects are cancelled , making that phase unsuitable for traditional lending . Projects moving forward from the identification , exploration and exploratory drilling often trade equity for financing .
= = Resources = =
The Earth 's internal thermal energy flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44 @.@ 2 terawatts ( TW ) , and is replenished by radioactive decay of minerals at a rate of 30 TW . These power rates are more than double humanity ’ s current energy consumption from all primary sources , but most of this energy flow is not recoverable . In addition to the internal heat flows , the top layer of the surface to a depth of 10 meters ( 33 ft ) is heated by solar energy during the summer , and releases that energy and cools during the winter .
Outside of the seasonal variations , the geothermal gradient of temperatures through the crust is 25 – 30 ° C ( 77 – 86 ° F ) per kilometer of depth in most of the world . The conductive heat flux averages 0 @.@ 1 MW / km2 . These values are much higher near tectonic plate boundaries where the crust is thinner . They may be further augmented by fluid circulation , either through magma conduits , hot springs , hydrothermal circulation or a combination of these .
A geothermal heat pump can extract enough heat from shallow ground anywhere in the world to provide home heating , but industrial applications need the higher temperatures of deep resources . The thermal efficiency and profitability of electricity generation is particularly sensitive to temperature . The most demanding applications receive the greatest benefit from a high natural heat flux , ideally from using a hot spring . The next best option is to drill a well into a hot aquifer . If no adequate aquifer is available , an artificial one may be built by injecting water to hydraulically fracture the bedrock . This last approach is called hot dry rock geothermal energy in Europe , or enhanced geothermal systems in North America . Much greater potential may be available from this approach than from conventional tapping of natural aquifers .
Estimates of the potential for electricity generation from geothermal energy vary sixfold , from .035to2TW depending on the scale of investments . Upper estimates of geothermal resources assume enhanced geothermal wells as deep as 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) , whereas existing geothermal wells are rarely more than 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) deep . Wells of this depth are now common in the petroleum industry . The deepest research well in the world , the Kola superdeep borehole , is 12 kilometres ( 7 mi ) deep .
= = Production = =
According to the Geothermal Energy Association ( GEA ) installed geothermal capacity in the United States grew by 5 % , or 147 @.@ 05 MW , ce the last annual survey in March 2012 . This increase came from seven geothermal projects that began production in 2012 . GEA also revised its 2011 estimate of installed capacity upward by 128 MW , bringing current installed U.S. geothermal capacity to 3 @,@ 386 MW .
Myanmar Engineering Society has identified at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilized resource .
= = Renewability and sustainability = =
Geothermal power is considered to be renewable because any projected heat extraction is small compared to the Earth 's heat content . The Earth has an internal heat content of 1031 joules ( 3 · 1015 TW · hr ) , approximately 100 billion times current ( 2010 ) worldwide annual energy consumption . About 20 % of this is residual heat from planetary accretion , and the remainder is attributed to higher radioactive decay rates that existed in the past . Natural heat flows are not in equilibrium , and the planet is slowly cooling down on geologic timescales . Human extraction taps a minute fraction of the natural outflow , often without accelerating it .
Geothermal power is also considered to be sustainable thanks to its power to sustain the Earth ’ s intricate ecosystems . By using geothermal sources of energy present generations of humans will not endanger the capability of future generations to use their own resources to the same amount that those energy sources are presently used . Further , due to its low emissions geothermal energy is considered to have excellent potential for mitigation of global warming .
Even though geothermal power is globally sustainable , extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion . Over the course of decades , individual wells draw down local temperatures and water levels until a new equilibrium is reached with natural flows . The three oldest sites , at Larderello , Wairakei , and the Geysers have experienced reduced output because of local depletion . Heat and water , in uncertain proportions , were extracted faster than they were replenished . If production is reduced and water is reinjected , these wells could theoretically recover their full potential . Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites . The long @-@ term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy since 1913 , at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958 , and at The Geysers field in California since 1960 .
Falling electricity production may be boosted through drilling additional supply boreholes , as at Poihipi and Ohaaki . The Wairakei power station has been running much longer , with its first unit commissioned in November 1958 , and it attained its peak generation of 173MW in 1965 , but already the supply of high @-@ pressure steam was faltering , in 1982 being derated to intermediate pressure and the station managing 157MW . Around the start of the 21st century it was managing about 150MW , then in 2005 two 8MW isopentane systems were added , boosting the station 's output by about 14MW . Detailed data are unavailable , being lost due to re @-@ organisations . One such re @-@ organisation in 1996 causes the absence of early data for Poihipi ( started 1996 ) , and the gap in 1996 / 7 for Wairakei and Ohaaki ; half @-@ hourly data for Ohaaki 's first few months of operation are also missing , as well as for most of Wairakei 's history .
= = Environmental effects = =
Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases , notably carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) , hydrogen sulfide ( H
2S ) , methane ( CH
4 ) and ammonia ( NH
3 ) . These pollutants contribute to global warming , acid rain , and noxious smells if released . Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of 122 kilograms ( 269 lb ) of CO
2 per megawatt @-@ hour ( MW · h ) of electricity , a small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel plants . Plants that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission @-@ control systems to reduce the exhaust .
In addition to dissolved gases , hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic elements such as mercury , arsenic , boron , and antimony . These chemicals precipitate as the water cools , and can cause environmental damage if released . The modern practice of injecting cooled geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk .
Direct geothermal heating systems contain pumps and compressors , which may consume energy from a polluting source . This parasitic load is normally a fraction of the heat output , so it is always less polluting than electric heating . However , if the electricity is produced by burning fossil fuels , then the net emissions of geothermal heating may be comparable to directly burning the fuel for heat . For example , a geothermal heat pump powered by electricity from a combined cycle natural gas plant would produce about as much pollution as a natural gas condensing furnace of the same size . Therefore , the environmental value of direct geothermal heating applications is highly dependent on the emissions intensity of the neighboring electric grid .
Plant construction can adversely affect land stability . Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand . In Staufen im Breisgau , Germany , tectonic uplift occurred instead , due to a previously isolated anhydrite layer coming in contact with water and turning into gypsum , doubling its volume . Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes as part of hydraulic fracturing . The project in Basel , Switzerland was suspended because more than 10 @,@ 000 seismic events measuring up to 3 @.@ 4 on the Richter Scale occurred over the first 6 days of water injection .
Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements . Geothermal plants use 3 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 sq mi ) per gigawatt of electrical production ( not capacity ) versus 32 square kilometres ( 12 sq mi ) and 12 square kilometres ( 4 @.@ 6 sq mi ) for coal facilities and wind farms respectively . They use 20 litres ( 5 @.@ 3 US gal ) of freshwater per MW · h versus over 1 @,@ 000 litres ( 260 US gal ) per MW · h for nuclear , coal , or oil .
= = Legal frameworks = =
Some of the legal issues raised by geothermal energy resources include questions of ownership and allocation of the resource , the grant of exploration permits , exploitation rights , royalties , and the extent to which geothermal energy issues have been recognized in existing planning and environmental laws . Other questions concern overlap between geothermal and mineral or petroleum tenements . Broader issues concern the extent to which the legal framework for encouragement of renewable energy assists in encouraging geothermal industry innovation and development .
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= Izzie Stevens =
Isobel Katherine " Izzie " Stevens , M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes , and was portrayed by actress Katherine Heigl from 2005 to 2010 . Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , Izzie worked her way up to resident level , while her relationships with her colleagues Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) formed a focal point of the series .
Heigl was critical of the character 's development during the show 's fourth season , particularly her romance with George . She declined to put herself forward for the 2008 Emmy Awards , citing insufficient material in the role . After speculation that Izzie would be killed off in the fifth season , the character was diagnosed with Stage 4 metastatic melanoma . She married Alex in the series ' one @-@ hundredth episode , and afterwards , her tumor was successfully removed . Izzie made her final appearance in the sixth season , leaving Seattle after Alex ended their relationship . Heigl requested to be released from her contract 18 months early , in order to spend more time with her family . In January 2012 , Heigl reported that she would like to return to Grey 's Anatomy to give closure to her character , however , Rhimes confirmed that there were no plans to have the character return at that time and has since stated that she has no plans to ever reapproach Izzie 's storyline again .
= = Storylines = =
Izzie appears in the first episode of Grey 's Anatomy , meeting fellow interns Meredith Grey , Cristina Yang , Alex Karev , and George O 'Malley . She and George move in with Meredith and become best friends . Izzie 's boyfriend , hockey player Hank ( Jonathan Scarfe ) , struggles to accept her new role as a surgeon , and the two break up . Izzie is hurt when Alex exposes her past as a lingerie model . However , the two later go on to begin a friendship and then a romance . Alex experiences sexual dysfunction with Izzie and cheats on her with nurse Olivia Harper ( Sarah Utterback ) . When Izzie finds out , she breaks up with him , though they briefly reunite following a bomb incident at the hospital . Izzie reveals while treating a pregnant teenager that she had a daughter at the age of 16 and gave up for adoption . Izzie falls in love with cardiothoracic patient Denny Duquette ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) , and the two become engaged . When Denny 's condition deteriorates , Izzie deliberately worsens his health further by cutting his LVAD wire to move him up the donor register . Although Denny receives a new heart , he has a stroke hours later and dies . Izzie is the sole beneficiary of Denny 's will , inheriting $ 8 @.@ 7 million . She uses the money to open a free clinic at the hospital : the Denny Duquette Memorial Clinic .
Izzie disapproves of George 's relationship and marriage to orthopedic resident Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) . She and George sleep together , and attempt to keep their liaison a secret . George and resident Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) are the only people aware that Izzie gave birth to a daughter at the age of sixteen ; ultimately the child was given up for adoption . He supports Izzie when her daughter Hannah ( Liv Hutchings ) , diagnosed with leukemia , arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital in need of a bone marrow transplant from Izzie . Izzie 's feelings for George grow , and she reveals that she has fallen in love with him . When Callie discovers George has been unfaithful , the two separate , and George and Izzie embark on a short @-@ lived relationship , only to discover there is no real chemistry between them .
Izzie supports Alex when he discovers his new girlfriend has psychiatric problems , and convinces him to have her committed . She is also handed primary responsibility for the clinic , as Bailey cuts back on her responsibilities . Izzie and Alex go on to rekindle their relationship , though Izzie is concerned when she begins hallucinating Denny . She discovers she has metastatic melanoma ( Stage IV ) which has spread to her liver , skin , and brain , causing the hallucinations . Her survival chances are estimated at only 5 % . She is admitted to Seattle Grace as a patient , and Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) successfully removes a tumor from her brain . Izzie spends her time in the hospital planning Meredith and Derek 's wedding , but when her condition worsens and Derek discovers a second brain tumor , they give the ceremony to Izzie and Alex , who marry in front of all their friends . The procedure to remove the second tumor from Izzie 's brain causes her to lose her short @-@ term memory , and although she soon regains it , she flatlines moments later . The fifth season ends with her friends ignoring her DNR order and attempting to resuscitate her , transposed with images of Izzie in an elevator encountering George , who has been in an accident and is also currently flatlining . Though George dies , Izzie is resuscitated and recovers enough to return to work .
Izzie makes a treatment error that endangers the life of a patient , and is fired from the hospital 's surgical program . Believing Alex is partially to blame , she writes him a Dear John letter and leaves . Izzie later learns that Alex was not responsible for her lost job , and returns to make amends with him , but Meredith informs her that Alex is moving on . Izzie informs Alex that she no longer has cancer . Although he is pleased , Alex officially breaks up with Izzie , telling her that he loves her but deserves better . She leaves Seattle to start fresh . Several episodes later , Alex informs Meredith that Izzie sent divorce papers , which he signs in the episode " How Insensitive " . In the sixth season finale , Alex is shot and asks for Izzie . Imagining that Meredith 's half @-@ sister Lexie ( Chyler Leigh ) is Izzie , he apologizes and asks her never to leave him again .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Izzie was created by Grey 's Anatomy producer Shonda Rhimes , with actress Katherine Heigl cast in the role . Heigl originally wanted to play Izzie as a brunette , but was requested to retain her natural blond for the part . Heigl 's comprehension of medical procedures and terminology is slight ; the actress explained that while she has an admiration for doctors , she is not as fascinated by medicine as other cast members . When Kate Walsh 's character Addison Montgomery left Grey 's Anatomy to launch the spin @-@ off show Private Practice , Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin @-@ off for Izzie .
Heigl declined to put her name forward for consideration at the 2008 Emmy Awards , claiming that she had been given insufficient material on the series to warrant a nomination . Following Heigl 's statement , speculation arose that her character would suffer a brain tumor and be killed off Grey 's Anatomy , substantiated by the announcement Jeffrey Dean Morgan would return to the series as Denny , who died at the end of season two . ABC 's entertainment president Steve McPherson denied the rumor , stating : " There is an unbelievable storyline for her this year , which is really central to everything that 's going to go on this season " .
Speculation resumed , however , when Dean Morgan returned to the show for a second time in its fifth season . Cast member James Pickens , Jr. announced that both Heigl and T.R. Knight were set to depart from the show , but he later retracted his comment . During the course of the fifth season , Izzie was diagnosed with metastatic melanoma ( Stage IV ) which spread to her liver , skin and brain . Following the show 's one @-@ hundredth episode wrap party , Heigl revealed she did not know if Izzie would survive , as no one on the production team would disclose her character 's fate to her . It was confirmed in June 2009 that Heigl would return as Izzie for the show 's sixth season . Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic , seeing Izzie depart and return twice . Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season , Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early , and made her final appearance on January 21 , 2010 . Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family , and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again .
In August 2010 , Rhimes stated that she did not feel Izzie 's character arc — specifically her relationship with Alex — had fully concluded , and hoped to give proper closure to their relationship in the seventh season . She later confirmed that she had intended to kill off Izzie off @-@ screen , but opted against this a day later as she felt that it would destroy Alex , rather than give him closure . Instead , she concluded : " I 'm open to seeing Izzie again . So if she [ Katherine ] were to come back , we would be thrilled to [ wrap up her story ] . But if she doesn 't , we 'll just move on . " Heigl also went on to say in October 2010 that the character returning to show looks bleak because , " that chapter is closed , and it 's sad . And it 's hard . " She also felt that Izzie coming back to the show would , " just feel manipulative . "
However , in January 2012 , Heigl stated in an interview that she has asked the producers if she could return to the show to give closure to Izzie 's storyline : " I 've told them I want to [ return ] , " she said . " I really , really , really want to see where [ Izzie ] is . I just want to know what happened to her and where she went and what she 's doing now . My idea is that she actually like figures it out , and finds some success and does really well in a different hospital . She was always floundering you know , and so she was always one step behind the eight ball and I want to see that girl take some power back . " She later went on to say that she regrets leaving the show , " Oh yeah , sometimes , yeah . You miss it . I miss my friends . It was a great work environment ... and it becomes a family . I spent six years together with these people every day ... you grow up together , in a way , " and again commented on Izzie possibly returning to the show , " I always felt that if they wanted me to come back and sort of wrap up that storyline ... I want them to know that I 'm down with it if they want me to , but I completely understand if it doesn 't necessarily work ... They 've got a lot of story lines going on there . " But in March 2012 , Shonda Rhimes said that there are no plans at the moment for the character to return , " I think it was really nice to hear her appreciating the show . At the same time we are on a track we have been planning . The idea of changing that track is not something we are interested in right now . " Three years later , Rhimes said she has completely moved on from the idea of Izzie coming back , “ I ’ m done with that story . I ’ ve turned that idea over in my mind a thousand times and thought about how it would go . And I don ’ t think so . ”
= = = Characterization = = =
Heigl believes that the Grey 's Anatomy writers incorporate much of the actors ' personalities into their roles , and that Izzie is a " super moral " version of herself . Episode " Bring the Pain " , which aired as the fifth episode of the second season , was originally intended to be the final episode of the first season . Rhimes explained that Izzie 's character in this episode came " full circle " from her role in the pilot : " Izzie , so vulnerable and underestimated when we first meet her , is the girl who removes her heart from her sleeve in " Bring the Pain " . " Discussing Izzie 's personality in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview , Heigl assessed that she is " immensely kind " and patient . When Denny died in the season two episode " Losing My Religion " , Rhimes discussed the impact it had on Izzie , noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism , which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine . In the aftermath of Denny 's death , Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor . Executive producer Betsy Beers explained , however , that Denny 's death served to make Izzie more mature , and Heigl affirmed that " At the beginning of the [ third ] season they were trying to show how lost Izzie was . She lost her optimism . She realizes now that life is difficult , but she still tries very hard to see the best in people . " In order to demonstrate Izzie 's dislike of George 's love @-@ interest Callie , Rhimes penned a scene which she deemed one of her favorite moments on the show , in which Callie urinates in front of a stunned Izzie and Meredith . Rhimes assessed that : " I love that Mer and Izzie respond with all the trauma of having viewed a car crash [ ... ] the point is Callie pees and Izzie tortures her a tiny bit about the hand washing and that made me overjoyed because that ’ s the kind of thing people do . "
Discussing Izzie 's relationship with Alex in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview , Heigl assessed that " Even when Alex was a complete dirtbag to her [ Izzie ] , she forgave him and gave him another chance . And he really screwed her over . [ ... ] To go for a guy like that is to say I want to be damaged . ' " Writer Stacy McKee deemed Izzie 's moving on from Alex to patient Denny Duquette " karma " , as Alex previously treated Izzie badly , yet as he begins to realize his true feelings , he is forced to watch her embark on a romance with " the undeniably handsome - and totally charming " Denny . Series writer Blythe Robe commented on Izzie and Denny : " I love the way Izzie lights up when she 's around him . I love their relationship because it 's so pure and honest and completely game free . " Writer Elizabeth Klaviter noted at this time the way Izzie " seems to be sacrificing her reputation because of her feelings for Denny . " When Izzie deliberately worsened Denny 's condition to move him up the transplant list , series writer Mark Wilding questioned the morality of the actions , asking : " is Izzie bad for doing it ? Is she tremendously irresponsible ? She cut the LVAD wire for love so does that make her action understandable ? "
Rhimes discussed costuming choices in the scene which saw the interns gather around Denny 's deathbed , explaining : " Meredith and George and Cristina and Callie and Alex are all dressed , not for a prom , but for a funeral . Everyone in dark colors , everyone dressed somberly . As if they were in mourning . Only Izzie is in happy pink . Only Izzie looks like she didn ’ t know this was coming . " Following Denny 's death , Heigl approached Rhimes to ask when her character would next have a romantic liaison . Rhimes explained that " Izzie doesn 't sleep around " . Heigl expressed a desire for Izzie to reunite with Alex , explaining : " I believe on some level , there 's a connection between Izzie and Alex . He can do honorable things even though he 's cutting and sarcastic . I would like to ultimately see them together , if not this season , then next . "
Yahoo ! Voices wrote that Stevens in the third season " has become more condescending and passive aggressive herself , more than anyone else . " Heigl was critical of her character 's development in the show 's fourth season , particularly her affair with George , which she deemed " a ratings ploy " . Heigl explained : " They really hurt somebody , and they didn 't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it . I have a really hard time with that kind of thing . I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it . I don 't really know Izzie very well right now . She 's changed a lot . " Attempting to rationalise Izzie 's actions , Heigl later assessed that :
People who are so infallible , perfect and moral tend to be the first to slip and fall . But I would love to see how she deals with the consequences of what she 's done , because what ’ s interesting is when people make decisions that shake their world , they suddenly have to go , ' Woo , I didn 't know I was capable of this . ' I 'd like to see Izzie take some culpability .
= = Reception = =
Heigl was nominated for the " Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series " award at the 2007 and 2008 Golden Globe Awards for her role as Izzie . She was named " Favorite Female TV Star " at the 34th People 's Choice Awards , and awarded " Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series " at the 2007 Emmy Awards . Prior to the ceremony , considering Heigl 's chances of winning the Emmy , Variety 's Stuart Levine assessed of her performance : " Heigl has little difficulty reaching Izzie 's highest highs and lowest lows . Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines , and she 's up to the challenge . " Levine also noted , however : " There are times when Izzy becomes completely irrational during crisis situations , which may bother some . " Fox News included Izzie in its list of " The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General " . The character was listed in Wetpaint 's " 10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV " and in BuzzFeed 's " 16 Hottest Doctors On Television " .
During the show 's third season , the New York Post 's Robert Rorke deemed Izzie to be " the heart and soul " of Grey 's Anatomy . He deemed her the show 's heroine , and wrote that : " Izzie is a welcome , calming presence , despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiance Denny Duquette . [ ... ] Besides the formidable Dr. Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , Izzie seems to be the only adult intern at Seattle Grace ; the character has achieved a depth lacking in her fellow interns . " Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle was critical of Izzie 's ethics in cutting Denny 's LVAD wire , writing that she " should not be practising medicine " and stating : " That 's the reason I don 't watch Grey 's Anatomy , anymore , because the super hot blond chick can make an earth @-@ shattering , fatal decision and she doesn 't get canned . "
The season four romance between Izzie and George proved unpopular with viewers , and resulted in a fan backlash among Alex and Izzie fans . The return of Izzie 's deceased fiancé Denny and the resumption of their romance during the show 's fifth season also proved unpopular with fans , and was deemed " the world 's worst storyline " by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times . McNamara was also critical of the episode " Now or Never " , which saw Izzie flatline following neurosurgery , opining that Izzie ought to die . The episode in which Izzie married long @-@ term love Alex received 15 @.@ 3 million viewers , the largest television audience of the night .
Izzie 's cancer storyline received a mixed response from the medical community . Otis Brawley , chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society , commented that Izzie 's treatment options were unrealistic . Whereas in the show she was offered the drug interleukin @-@ 2 , in reality the drug is never recommended to patients when melanoma has spread to the brain , as it can cause bleeding and strokes . Brawley explained that such patients would instead be offered radiosurgery . Conversely however , Tim Turnham , executive director of the Melanoma Research Foundation , praised Grey 's Anatomy for bringing about greater public awareness of melanoma , stating : " We welcome the national spotlight Grey 's Anatomy has created for melanoma and its efforts to encourage viewers to learn more about the importance of prevention , early detection and research . "
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= Altair =
Altair ( α Aquilae , α Aql ) is the brightest star in the constellation Aquila and the twelfth brightest star in the night sky . It is currently in the G @-@ cloud — a nearby accumulation of gas and dust known as an interstellar cloud . Altair is an A @-@ type main sequence star with an apparent visual magnitude of 0 @.@ 77 and is one of the vertices of the Summer Triangle ( the other two vertices are marked by Deneb and Vega ) . It is 16 @.@ 7 light @-@ years ( 5 @.@ 13 parsecs ) from Earth and is one of the closest stars visible to the naked eye .
Altair rotates rapidly , with a velocity at the equator of approximately 286 km / s . This is a significant fraction of the star 's estimated breakup speed of 400 km / s . A study with the Palomar Testbed Interferometer revealed that Altair is not spherical , but is flattened at the poles due to its high rate of rotation . Other interferometric studies with multiple telescopes , operating in the infrared , have imaged and confirmed this phenomenon .
= = Characteristics = =
Altair is located 16 @.@ 7 light @-@ years ( 5 @.@ 13 parsecs ) from Earth and is one of the closest stars visible to the naked eye . Along with Beta Aquilae and Gamma Aquilae , it forms the well @-@ known line of stars sometimes referred to as the Family of Aquila or Shaft of Aquila .
Altair is a type @-@ A main sequence star with approximately 1 @.@ 8 times the mass of the Sun and 11 times its luminosity . Altair possesses an extremely rapid rate of rotation ; it has a rotational period of approximately 9 hours . For comparison , the equator of the Sun requires a little more than 25 days for a complete rotation . This rapid rotation forces Altair to be oblate ; its equatorial diameter is over 20 percent greater than its polar diameter .
Satellite measurements made in 1999 with the Wide Field Infrared Explorer showed that the brightness of Altair fluctuates slightly , varying by just a few thousandths of a magnitude with several different periods less than 2 hours . As a result , it was identified in 2005 as a Delta Scuti variable star . Its light curve can be approximated by adding together a number of sine waves , with periods that range between 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 5 hours . It is a weak source of coronal X @-@ ray emission , with the most active sources of emission being located near the star 's equator . This activity may be due to convection cells forming at the cooler equator .
= = = Oblateness and surface temperature = = =
The angular diameter of Altair was measured interferometrically by R. Hanbury Brown and his co @-@ workers at Narrabri Observatory in the 1960s . They found a diameter of 3 milliarcseconds . Although Hanbury Brown et al. realized that Altair would be rotationally flattened , they had insufficient data to experimentally observe its oblateness . Altair was later observed to be flattened by infrared interferometric measurements made by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer in 1999 and 2000 . This work was published by G. T. van Belle , David R. Ciardi and their co @-@ authors in 2001 .
Theory predicts that , owing to Altair 's rapid rotation , its surface gravity and effective temperature should be lower at the equator , making the equator less luminous than the poles . This phenomenon , known as gravity darkening or the von Zeipel effect , was confirmed for Altair by measurements made by the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer in 2001 , and analyzed by Ohishi et al . ( 2004 ) and Peterson et al . ( 2006 ) . Also , A. Domiciano de Souza et al . ( 2005 ) verified gravity darkening using the measurements made by the Palomar and Navy interferometers , together with new measurements made by the VINCI instrument at the VLTI .
Altair is one of the few stars for which a direct image has been obtained . In 2006 and 2007 , J. D. Monnier and his coworkers produced an image of Altair 's surface from 2006 infrared observations made with the MIRC instrument on the CHARA array interferometer ; this was the first time the surface of any main @-@ sequence star , apart from the Sun , had been imaged . The false @-@ color image was published in 2007 . The equatorial radius of the star was estimated to be 2 @.@ 03 solar radii , and the polar radius 1 @.@ 63 solar radii — a 25 % increase of the stellar radius from pole to equator . The polar axis is inclined by about 60 ° to the line of sight from the Earth .
= = Etymology , mythology , and culture = =
The name Altair has been used since medieval times . It is an abbreviation of the Arabic phrase النسر الطائر , al @-@ nesr al @-@ ṭā ’ ir ( " English : the flying eagle " ) . The term Al Nesr Al Tair appeared in Al Achsasi al Mouakket 's catalogue , which was translated into Latin as Vultur Volans . This name was applied by the Arabs to the asterism of α , β , and γ Aquilae and probably goes back to the ancient Babylonians and Sumerians , who called α Aquilae the eagle star . The spelling Atair has also been used . Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe depicted Altair and Vega as birds .
The Koori people of Victoria also knew Altair as Bunjil , the wedge @-@ tailed eagle , and β and γ Aquilae are his two wives the black swans . The people of the Murray River knew the star as Totyerguil . The Murray River was formed when Totyerguil the hunter speared Otjout , a giant Murray cod , who , when wounded , churned a channel across southern Australia before entering the sky as the constellation Delphinus .
In Chinese , the asterism consisting of α , β , and γ Aquilae is known as hegu ( 河鼓 ; lit . " river drum " ) . Altair is thus known as hegu er ( 河鼓二 ; lit . " river drum two " , meaning the " second star of the drum at the river " ) .
However , Altair is better known by its other names : qianniu xing ( 牵牛星 ) or niulang xing ( 牛郎星 ) , translated as the cowherd star . These names are an allusion to a love story , The Weaver Girl and the Cowherd , in which Niulang ( represented by Altair ) and his two children ( represented by β and γ Aquilae ) are separated from respectively their wife and mother Zhinu ( represented by Vega ) by the Milky Way . They are only permitted to meet once a year , when magpies form a bridge to allow them to cross the Milky Way .
The people of Micronesia called Altair as Mai @-@ lapa , " big / old breadfruit " , while the Māori people called this star as Poutu @-@ te @-@ rangi , " pillar of heaven " .
In Western astrology , the star Altair was ill @-@ omened , portending danger from reptiles .
Japan Airlines 's Starjet 777 @-@ 200 JA8983 was named Altair .
Altair Airlines was a regional airline that operated out of Philadelphia from 1966 to 1982 .
The NASA Constellation Program announced Altair as the name of the Lunar Surface Access Module ( LSAM ) on December 13 , 2007 . The Russian @-@ made Beriev Be @-@ 200 Altair seaplane is also named after the star .
The Altair 8800 was one of the first microcomputers intended for home use .
Altair is the name of three United States navy ships : USS Altair ( AD @-@ 11 ) , USS Altair ( AK @-@ 257 ) and USNS Altair ( T @-@ AKR @-@ 291 ) .
Altair is the name of a 1919 poem by Karle Wilson Baker .
Altaïr Ibn @-@ La 'Ahad is named after the star itself , who would become Master Assassin , then Mentor and become a legend in the history of the Assassins in the Assassin 's Creed series .
= = Visual companions = =
The bright primary star has the multiple star designation WDS 19508 + 0852A and has three faint visual companion stars , WDS 19508 + 0852B , C , and D. Component B is not physically close to A but merely appears close to it in the sky .
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= Poultry =
Poultry ( / ˌpoʊltriː / ) are domesticated birds kept by humans for the eggs they produce , their meat , their feathers , or sometimes as pets . These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae ( fowl ) , especially the order Galliformes ( which includes chickens , quails and turkeys ) and the family Anatidae , in order Anseriformes , commonly known as " waterfowl " and including domestic ducks and domestic geese . Poultry also includes other birds that are killed for their meat , such as the young of pigeons ( known as squabs ) but does not include similar wild birds hunted for sport or food and known as game . The word " poultry " comes from the French / Norman word poule , itself derived from the Latin word pullus , which means small animal .
The domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago . This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild , but later involved keeping the birds permanently in captivity . Domesticated chickens may have been used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs , but soon it was realised how useful it was having a captive @-@ bred source of food . Selective breeding for fast growth , egg @-@ laying ability , conformation , plumage and docility took place over the centuries , and modern breeds often look very different from their wild ancestors . Although some birds are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems , most birds available in the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises . Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat globally and , along with eggs , provides nutritionally beneficial food containing high @-@ quality protein accompanied by a low proportion of fat . All poultry meat should be properly handled and sufficiently cooked in order to reduce the risk of food poisoning .
= = Definition = =
The word " poultry " comes from the Middle English " pultrie " , from Old French pouletrie , from pouletier , poultry dealer , from poulet , pullet . The word " pullet " itself comes from Middle English pulet , from Old French polet , both from Latin pullus , a young fowl , young animal or chicken . The word " fowl " is of Germanic origin ( cf . Old English Fugol , German Vogel , Danish Fugl ) .
" Poultry " is a term used for any kind of domesticated bird , captive @-@ raised for its utility , and traditionally the word has been used to refer to wildfowl ( Galliformes ) and waterfowl ( Anseriformes ) . " Poultry " can be defined as domestic fowls , including chickens , turkeys , geese and ducks , raised for the production of meat or eggs and the word is also used for the flesh of these birds used as food . The Encyclopædia Britannica lists the same bird groups but also includes guinea fowl and squabs ( young pigeons ) . In R. D. Crawford 's Poultry breeding and genetics , squabs are omitted but Japanese quail and common pheasant are added to the list , the latter frequently being bred in captivity and released into the wild . In his 1848 classic book on poultry , Ornamental and Domestic Poultry : Their History , and Management , Edmund Dixon included chapters on the peafowl , guinea fowl , mute swan , turkey , various types of geese , the muscovy duck , other ducks and all types of chickens including bantams . In colloquial speech , the term " fowl " is often used near @-@ synonymously with " domesticated chicken " ( Gallus gallus ) , or with " poultry " or even just " bird " , and many languages do not distinguish between " poultry " and " fowl " . Both words are also used for the flesh of these birds . Poultry can be distinguished from " game " , defined as wild birds or mammals hunted for food or sport , a word also used to describe the flesh of these when eaten .
= = Chickens = =
Chickens are medium @-@ sized , chunky birds with an upright stance and characterised by fleshy red combs and wattles on their heads . Males , known as cocks , are usually larger , more boldly coloured , and have more exaggerated plumage than females ( hens ) . Chickens are gregarious , omnivorous , ground @-@ dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings search among the leaf litter for seeds , invertebrates , and other small animals . They seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger , preferring to run into the undergrowth if approached . Today 's domestic chicken ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) is mainly descended from the wild red junglefowl of Asia , with some additional input from grey junglefowl . Domestication is believed to have taken place between 7 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , and what are thought to be fossilized chicken bones have been found in northeastern China dated to around 5 @,@ 400 BC . Archaeologists believe domestication was originally for the purpose of cockfighting , the male bird being a doughty fighter . By 4 @,@ 000 years ago , chickens seem to have reached the Indus Valley and 250 years later , they arrived in Egypt . They were still used for fighting and were regarded as symbols of fertility . The Romans used them in divination , and the Egyptians made a breakthrough when they learned the difficult technique of artificial incubation . Since then , the keeping of chickens has spread around the world for the production of food with the domestic fowl being a valuable source of both eggs and meat .
Since their domestication , a large number of breeds of chickens have been established , but with the exception of the white Leghorn , most commercial birds are of hybrid origin . In about 1800 , chickens began to be kept on a larger scale , and modern high @-@ output poultry farms were present in the United Kingdom from around 1920 and became established in the United States soon after the Second World War . By the mid @-@ 20th century , the poultry meat @-@ producing industry was of greater importance than the egg @-@ laying industry . Poultry breeding has produced breeds and strains to fulfil different needs ; light @-@ framed , egg @-@ laying birds that can produce 300 eggs a year ; fast @-@ growing , fleshy birds destined for consumption at a young age , and utility birds which produce both an acceptable number of eggs and a well @-@ fleshed carcase . Male birds are unwanted in the egg @-@ laying industry and can often be identified as soon as they are hatch for subsequent culling . In meat breeds , these birds are sometimes castrated ( often chemically ) to prevent aggression . The resulting bird , called a capon , has more tender and flavorful meat , as well .
A bantam is a small variety of domestic chicken , either a miniature version of a member of a standard breed , or a " true bantam " with no larger counterpart . The name derives from the town of Bantam in Java where European sailors bought the local small chickens for their shipboard supplies . Bantams may be a quarter to a third of the size of standard birds and lay similarly small eggs . They are kept by small @-@ holders and hobbyists for egg production , use as broody hens , ornamental purposes , and showing .
= = = Cockfighting = = =
Cockfighting is said to be the world 's oldest spectator sport and may have originated in Persia 6 @,@ 000 years ago . Two mature males ( cocks or roosters ) are set to fight each other , and will do so with great vigour until one is critically injured or killed . Breeds such as the Aseel were developed in the Indian subcontinent for their aggressive behaviour . The sport formed part of the culture of the ancient Indians , Chinese , Greeks , and Romans , and large sums were won or lost depending on the outcome of an encounter . Cockfighting has been banned in many countries during the last century on the grounds of cruelty to animals .
= = Ducks = =
Ducks are medium @-@ sized aquatic birds with broad bills , eyes on the side of the head , fairly long necks , short legs set far back on the body , and webbed feet . Males , known as drakes , are often larger than females ( simply known as ducks ) and are differently coloured in some breeds . Domestic ducks are omnivores , eating a variety of animal and plant materials such as aquatic insects , molluscs , worms , small amphibians , waterweeds , and grasses . They feed in shallow water by dabbling , with their heads underwater and their tails upended . Most domestic ducks are too heavy to fly , and they are social birds , preferring to live and move around together in groups . They keep their plumage waterproof by preening , a process that spreads the secretions of the preen gland over their feathers .
Clay models of ducks found in China dating back to 4000 BC may indicate the domestication of ducks took place there during the Yangshao culture . Even if this is not the case , domestication of the duck took place in the Far East at least 1500 years earlier than in the West . Lucius Columella , writing in the first century BC , advised those who sought to rear ducks to collect wildfowl eggs and put them under a broody hen , because when raised in this way , the ducks " lay aside their wild nature and without hesitation breed when shut up in the bird pen " . Despite this , ducks did not appear in agricultural texts in Western Europe until about 810 AD , when they began to be mentioned alongside geese , chickens , and peafowl as being used for rental payments made by tenants to landowners .
It is widely agreed that the mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ) is the ancestor of all breeds of domestic duck ( with the exception of the Muscovy duck ( Cairina moschata ) , which is not closely related to other ducks ) . Ducks are farmed mainly for their meat , eggs , and down . As is the case with chickens , various breeds have been developed , selected for egg @-@ laying ability , fast growth , and a well @-@ covered carcase . The most common commercial breed in the United Kingdom and the United States is the Pekin duck , which can lay 200 eggs a year and can reach a weight of 3 @.@ 5 kg ( 7 @.@ 7 lb ) in 44 days . In the Western world , ducks are not as popular as chickens , because the latter produce larger quantities of white , lean meat and are easier to keep intensively , making the price of chicken meat lower than that of duck meat . While popular in haute cuisine , duck appears less frequently in the mass @-@ market food industry . However , things are different in the East . Ducks are more popular there than chickens and are mostly still herded in the traditional way and selected for their ability to find sufficient food in harvested rice fields and other wet environments .
= = Geese = =
The greylag goose ( Anser anser ) was domesticated by the Egyptians at least 3000 years ago , and a different wild species , the swan goose ( Anser cygnoides ) , domesticated in Siberia about a thousand years later , is known as a Chinese goose . The two hybridise with each other and the large knob at the base of the beak , a noticeable feature of the Chinese goose , is present to a varying extent in these hybrids . The hybrids are fertile and have resulted in several of the modern breeds . Despite their early domestication , geese have never gained the commercial importance of chickens and ducks .
Domestic geese are much larger than their wild counterparts and tend to have thick necks , an upright posture , and large bodies with broad rear ends . The greylag @-@ derived birds are large and fleshy and used for meat , while the Chinese geese have smaller frames and are mainly used for egg production . The fine down of both is valued for use in pillows and padded garments . They forage on grass and weeds , supplementing this with small invertebrates , and one of the attractions of rearing geese is their ability to grow and thrive on a grass @-@ based system . They are very gregarious and have good memories and can be allowed to roam widely in the knowledge that they will return home by dusk . The Chinese goose is more aggressive and noisy than other geese and can be used as a guard animal to warn of intruders . The flesh of meat geese is dark @-@ coloured and high in protein , but they deposit fat subcutaneously , although this fat contains mostly monounsaturated fatty acids . The birds are killed either around 10 or about 24 weeks . Between these ages , problems with dressing the carcase occur because of the presence of developing pin feathers .
In some countries , geese and ducks are force @-@ fed to produce livers with an exceptionally high fat content for the production of foie gras . Over 75 % of world production of this product occurs in France , with lesser industries in Hungary and Bulgaria and a growing production in China . Foie gras is considered a luxury in many parts of the world , but the process of feeding the birds in this way is banned in many countries on animal welfare grounds .
= = Turkeys = =
Turkeys are large birds , their nearest relatives being the pheasant and the guineafowl . Males are larger than females and have spreading , fan @-@ shaped tails and distinctive , fleshy wattles , called a snood , that hang from the top of the beak and are used in courtship display . Wild turkeys can fly , but seldom do so , preferring to run with a long , stratling gait . They roost in trees and forage on the ground , feeding on seeds , nuts , berries , grass , foliage , invertebrates , lizards , and small snakes .
The modern domesticated turkey is descended from one of six subspecies of wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) found in the present Mexican states of Jalisco , Guerrero and Veracruz . Pre @-@ Aztec tribes in south @-@ central Mexico first domesticated the bird around 800 BC , and Pueblo Indians inhabiting the Colorado Plateau in the United States did likewise around 200 BC . They used the feathers for robes , blankets , and ceremonial purposes . More than 1 @,@ 000 years later , they became an important food source . The first Europeans to encounter the bird misidentified it as a guineafowl , a bird known as a " turkey fowl " at that time because it had been introduced into Europe via Turkey .
Commercial turkeys are usually reared indoors under controlled conditions . These are often large buildings , purpose @-@ built to provide ventilation and low light intensities ( this reduces the birds ' activity and thereby increases the rate of weight gain ) . The lights can be switched on for 24 @-@ hrs / day , or a range of step @-@ wise light regimens to encourage the birds to feed often and therefore grow rapidly . Females achieve slaughter weight at about 15 weeks of age and males at about 19 . Mature commercial birds may be twice as heavy as their wild counterparts . Many different breeds have been developed , but the majority of commercial birds are white , as this improves the appearance of the dressed carcass , the pin feathers being less visible . Turkeys were at one time mainly consumed on special occasions such as Christmas ( 10 million birds in the United Kingdom ) or Thanksgiving ( 60 million birds in the United States ) . However , they are increasingly becoming part of the everyday diet in many parts of the world .
= = Quail = =
The quail is a small to medium @-@ sized , cryptically coloured bird . In its natural environment , it is found in bushy places , in rough grassland , among agricultural crops , and in other places with dense cover . It feeds on seeds , insects , and other small invertebrates . Being a largely ground @-@ dwelling , gregarious bird , domestication of the quail was not difficult , although many of its wild instincts are retained in captivity . It was known to the Egyptians long before the arrival of chickens and was depicted in hieroglyphs from 2575 BC . It migrated across Egypt in vast flocks and the birds could sometimes be picked up off the ground by hand . These were the common quail ( Coturnix coturnix ) , but modern domesticated flocks are mostly of Japanese quail ( Coturnix japonica ) which was probably domesticated as early as the 11th century AD in Japan . They were originally kept as songbirds , and they are thought to have been regularly used in song contests .
In the early 20th century , Japanese breeders began to selectively breed for increased egg production . By 1940 , the quail egg industry was flourishing , but the events of World War II led to the complete loss of quail lines bred for their song type , as well as almost all of those bred for egg production . After the war , the few surviving domesticated quail were used to rebuild the industry , and all current commercial and laboratory lines are considered to have originated from this population . Modern birds can lay upward of 300 eggs a year and countries such as Japan , India , China , Italy , Russia , and the United States have established commercial Japanese quail farming industries . Japanese quail are also used in biomedical research in fields such as genetics , embryology , nutrition , physiology , pathology , and toxicity studies . These quail are closely related to the common quail , and many young hybrid birds are released into the wild each year to replenish dwindling wild populations .
= = Other poultry = =
Guinea fowl originated in southern Africa , and the species most often kept as poultry is the helmeted guineafowl ( Numida meleagris ) . It is a medium @-@ sized grey or speckled bird with a small naked head with colourful wattles and a knob on top , and was domesticated by the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans . Guinea fowl are hardy , sociable birds that subsist mainly on insects , but also consume grasses and seeds . They will keep a vegetable garden clear of pests and will eat the ticks that carry Lyme disease . They happily roost in trees and give a loud vocal warning of the approach of predators . Their flesh and eggs can be eaten in the same way as chickens , young birds being ready for the table at the age of about four months .
A squab is the name given to the young of domestic pigeons that are destined for the table . Like other domesticated pigeons , birds used for this purpose are descended from the rock pigeon ( Columba livia ) . Special utility breeds with desirable characteristics are used . Two eggs are laid and incubated for about 17 days . When they hatch , the squabs are fed by both parents on " pigeon 's milk " , a thick secretion high in protein produced by the crop . Squabs grow rapidly , but are slow to fledge and are ready to leave the nest at 26 to 30 days weighing about 500 g ( 18 oz ) . By this time , the adult pigeons will have laid and be incubating another pair of eggs and a prolific pair should produce two squabs every four weeks during a breeding season lasting several months .
= = Poultry farming = =
Worldwide , more chickens are kept than any other type of poultry , with over 50 billion birds being raised each year as a source of meat and eggs . Traditionally , such birds would have been kept extensively in small flocks , foraging during the day and housed at night . This is still the case in developing countries , where the women often make important contributions to family livelihoods through keeping poultry . However , rising world populations and urbanization have led to the bulk of production being in larger , more intensive specialist units . These are often situated close to where the feed is grown or near to where the meat is needed , and result in cheap , safe food being made available for urban communities . Profitability of production depends very much on the price of feed , which has been rising . High feed costs could limit further development of poultry production .
In free @-@ range husbandry , the birds can roam freely outdoors for at least part of the day . Often , this is in large enclosures , but the birds have access to natural conditions and can exhibit their normal behaviours . A more intensive system is yarding , in which the birds have access to a fenced yard and poultry house at a higher stocking rate . Poultry can also be kept in a barn system , with no access to the open air , but with the ability to move around freely inside the building . The most intensive system for egg @-@ laying chickens is battery cages , often set in multiple tiers . In these , several birds share a small cage which restricts their ability to move around and behave in a normal manner . The eggs are laid on the floor of the cage and roll into troughs outside for ease of collection . Battery cages for hens have been illegal in the EU since January 1 , 2012 .
Chickens raised intensively for their meat are known as " broilers " . Breeds have been developed that can grow to an acceptable carcass size ( 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 lb ) ) in six weeks or less . Broilers grow so fast , their legs cannot always support their weight and their hearts and respiratory systems may not be able to supply enough oxygen to their developing muscles . Mortality rates at 1 % are much higher than for less @-@ intensively reared laying birds which take 18 weeks to reach similar weights . Processing the birds is done automatically with conveyor @-@ belt efficiency . They are hung by their feet , stunned , killed , bled , scalded , plucked , have their heads and feet removed , eviscerated , washed , chilled , drained , weighed , and packed , all within the course of little over two hours .
Both intensive and free @-@ range farming have animal welfare concerns . In intensive systems , cannibalism , feather pecking and vent pecking can be common , with some farmers using beak trimming as a preventative measure . Diseases can also be common and spread rapidly through the flock . In extensive systems , the birds are exposed to adverse weather conditions and are vulnerable to predators and disease @-@ carrying wild birds . Barn systems have been found to have the worst bird welfare . In Southeast Asia , a lack of disease control in free @-@ range farming has been associated with outbreaks of avian influenza .
= = Poultry shows = =
In many countries , national and regional poultry shows are held where enthusiasts exhibit their birds which are judged on certain phenotypical breed traits as specified by their respective breed standards . The idea of poultry exhibition may have originated after cockfighting was made illegal , as a way of maintaining a competitive element in poultry husbandry . Breed standards were drawn up for egg @-@ laying , meat @-@ type , and purely ornamental birds , aiming for uniformity . Sometimes , poultry shows are part of general livestock shows , and sometimes they are separate events such as the annual " National Championship Show " in the United Kingdom organised by the Poultry Club of Great Britain .
= = Poultry as food = =
= = = Trade = = =
Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat in the world , accounting for about 30 % of total meat production worldwide compared to pork at 38 % . Sixteen billion birds are raised annually for consumption , more than half of these in industrialised , factory @-@ like production units . Global broiler meat production rose to 84 @.@ 6 million tonnes in 2013 . The largest producers were the United States ( 20 % ) , China ( 16 @.@ 6 % ) , Brazil ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) and the European Union ( 11 @.@ 3 % ) . There are two distinct models of production ; the European Union supply chain model seeks to supply products which can be traced back to the farm of origin . This model faces the increasing costs of implementing additional food safety requirements , welfare issues and environmental regulations . In contrast , the United States model turns the product into a commodity .
World production of duck meat was about 4 @.@ 2 million tonnes in 2011 with China producing two thirds of the total , some 1 @.@ 7 billion birds . Other notable duck @-@ producing countries in the Far East include Vietnam , Thailand , Malaysia , Myanmar , Indonesia and South Korea ( 12 % in total ) . France ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) is the largest producer in the West , followed by other EU nations ( 3 % ) and North America ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) . China was also by far the largest producer of goose and guinea fowl meat , with a 94 % share of the 2 @.@ 6 million tonne global market .
Global egg production was expected to reach 65 @.@ 5 million tonnes in 2013 , surpassing all previous years . Between 2000 and 2010 , egg production was growing globally at around 2 % per year , but since then growth has slowed down to nearer 1 % .
= = = Cuts of poultry = = =
Poultry is available fresh or frozen , as whole birds or as joints ( cuts ) , bone @-@ in or deboned , seasoned in various ways , raw or ready cooked . The meatiest parts of a bird are the flight muscles on its chest , called " breast " meat , and the walking muscles on the legs , called the " thigh " and " drumstick " . The wings are also eaten ( Buffalo wings are a popular example in the United States ) and may be split into three segments , the meatier " drumette " , the " wingette " ( also called the " flat " ) , and the wing tip ( also called the " flapper " ) . In Japan , the wing is frequently separated , and these parts are referred to as 手羽元 ( teba @-@ moto " wing base " ) and 手羽先 ( teba @-@ saki " wing tip " ) .
Dark meat , which avian myologists refer to as " red muscle " , is used for sustained activity — chiefly walking , in the case of a chicken . The dark colour comes from the protein myoglobin , which plays a key role in oxygen uptake and storage within cells . White muscle , in contrast , is suitable only for short bursts of activity such as , for chickens , flying . Thus , the chicken 's leg and thigh meat are dark , while its breast meat ( which makes up the primary flight muscles ) is white . Other birds with breast muscle more suitable for sustained flight , such as ducks and geese , have red muscle ( and therefore dark meat ) throughout . Some cuts of meat including poultry expose the microscopic regular structure of intracellular muscle fibrils which can diffract light and produce iridescent colours , an optical phenomenon sometimes called structural colouration .
= = Health and disease ( humans ) = =
Poultry meat and eggs provide nutritionally beneficial food containing protein of high quality . This is accompanied by low levels of fat which have a favourable mix of fatty acids . Chicken meat contains about two to three times as much polyunsaturated fat as most types of red meat when measured by weight . However , for boneless , skinless chicken breast , the amount is much lower . A 100 @-@ g serving of baked chicken breast contains 4 g of fat and 31 g of protein , compared to 10 g of fat and 27 g of protein for the same portion of broiled , lean skirt steak .
A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that 47 % of the meat and poultry sold in United States grocery stores was contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus , and 52 % of the bacteria concerned showed resistance to at least three groups of antibiotics . Thorough cooking of the product would kill these bacteria , but a risk of cross @-@ contamination from improper handling of the raw product is still present . Also , some risk is present for consumers of poultry meat and eggs to bacterial infections such as Salmonella and Campylobacter . Poultry products may become contaminated by these bacteria during handling , processing , marketing , or storage , resulting in food @-@ borne illness if the product is improperly cooked or handled .
In general , avian influenza is a disease of birds caused by bird @-@ specific influenza A virus that is not normally transferred to people ; however , people in contact with live poultry are at the greatest risk of becoming infected with the virus and this is of particular concern in areas such as Southeast Asia , where the disease is endemic in the wild bird population and domestic poultry can become infected . The virus possibly could mutate to become highly virulent and infectious in humans and cause an influenza pandemic .
Bacteria can be grown in the laboratory on nutrient culture media , but viruses need living cells in which to replicate . Many vaccines to infectious diseases can be grown in fertilised chicken eggs . Millions of eggs are used each year to generate the annual flu vaccine requirements , a complex process that takes about six months after the decision is made as to what strains of virus to include in the new vaccine . A problem with using eggs for this purpose is that people with egg allergies are unable to be immunised , but this disadvantage may be overcome as new techniques for cell @-@ based rather than egg @-@ based culture become available . Cell @-@ based culture will also be useful in a pandemic when it may be difficult to acquire a sufficiently large quantity of suitable sterile , fertile eggs .
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= Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees =
Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees , 468 U.S. 491 ( 1984 ) , is a 4 @-@ to @-@ 3 ruling by the United States Supreme Court which held that a New Jersey state gaming law requiring union leaders to be of good moral character was not preempted by the National Labor Relations Act ( NLRA ) .
= = Background = =
In 1976 , New Jersey amended their state constitution to permit casino gambling in Atlantic City .
On June 2 , 1977 , Governor Brendan Byrne signed the Casino Control Act ( N.J. Stat . Ann . Section 5 : 12 @-@ 1 et seq . ) into law . The act established the New Jersey Casino Control Commission and instituted comprehensive regulation of casino gambling — including the regulation of labor unions representing gaming industry employees . In an attempt to forestall organized crime influence over labor unions , Sections 86 and 93 of the act imposed certain qualifications on officials of labor organizations representing casino industry workers . Among these qualifications were that the official be of " good moral character , " not been convicted of certain felonies , and was not associated with organized crime . If a labor union 's leaders did not meet these criteria , the union was prohibited from collecting or receiving dues from its members and from administering pension and welfare funds .
Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees Union Local 54 represented about 12 @,@ 000 workers , 10 @,@ 000 of whom were employed in Atlantic City casinos . Almost all of these casino workers had been organized since the legalization of gambling in the state .
On May 13 , 1981 , the Casino Control Commission found that Frank Gerace , president of Local 54 , and Frank Materio , the local 's grievance manager , were associated with organized crime . The commission also ruled that Karlos LaSane , the union 's business agent , was ineligible to be a union officer or agent because he had previously been convicted of extortion . The commission also found that union officers refused to cooperate with Casino Control Commission investigators , and held stock in Resorts International , Inc . ( which owned one of the casinos in which Local 54 represented workers ) . Both actions contravened state regulations . The commission feared that Local 54 was being influenced by Nicodemo " Little Nicky " Scarfo , a reputed leader of the Scarfo organized crime " family " based in Philadelphia .
National and state AFL @-@ CIO officials , fearing the New Jersey law might open the door to extensive new state regulation of labor unions , asked Local 54 to test the New Jersey law in court . After a regulatory appeal , the Casino Control Commission unanimously rejected the union 's contention that the law was unconstitutional and preempted by the NLRA .
Local 54 then filed suit in federal district court , seeking a permanent injunction prohibiting enforcement of the act . At trial , the union argued that the law infringed on its members ' constitutional right of freedom of association and was preempted by federal labor law . The state countered that the regulation was a permissible infringement of the freedom of association because keeping criminal elements out of the gaming industry was a compelling governmental interest .
On March 22 , 1982 , the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey held ( 536 F. Supp . 317 , ( 1982 ) ) that the New Jersey statute was not unconstitutionally vague and did not impermissibly infringe on union members ' First Amendment rights .
The union appealed .
While the appeal was pending , the Casino Control Commission ordered Gerace and Materio to vacate their union positions . The commission demanded that both men relinquish their union offices by October 12 , 1982 , or the local would not be permitted to collect dues or administer its pension plan .
On June 30 , 1983 , a three @-@ judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit ruled ( 709 F.2d 815 ( 1983 ) ) 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 that the district court had erred . The appellate court granted the union 's injunction , finding that Section 93 of the act was preempted by Section 7 of the NLRA . The Court of Appeals relied heavily on the Supreme Court 's decision in Hill v. Florida ex rel . Watson , 325 U.S. 538 ( 1945 ) , when it concluded that Section 7 conferred " an unfettered right on employees to choose the officials of their own bargaining representatives . "
The state sought a rehearing en banc , but the entire court of appeals refused to rehear the case after it deadlocked in a 5 @-@ to @-@ 5 vote .
The state appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court , which granted certiorari ( 464 U.S. 990 ( 1983 ) ) .
= = Decision = =
Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor delivered the opinion of the Court , in which Chief Justice Burger and Justices Harry Blackmun and William Rehnquist joined . Justice Byron White , joined by Justices Lewis F. Powell , Jr. and John Paul Stevens , dissented . Justices William J. Brennan , Jr. and Thurgood Marshall did not participate in the hearing or decision of the case .
= = = Majority opinion = = =
Justice O 'Connor concluded that Section 7 of the NLRA did not contain explicit pre @-@ emptive language nor indicate congressional intent to usurp a state role in labor @-@ management relations . " [ A ] ppropriate consideration for the vitality of our federal system and for a rational allocation of functions belies any easy inference that Congress intended to deprive the States of their ability to retain jurisdiction over such matters . "
O 'Connor then rejected the appellate court 's reading of Hill v. Florida ex rel . Watson . Subsequent to Hill , O 'Connor noted , Congress had enacted the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act ( the " Landrum @-@ Griffin Act " ) . Section 504 ( a ) of the Landrum @-@ Griffin Act explicitly barred from office for a five @-@ year period union officers convicted of any number of crimes . By enacting Section 504 ( a ) , O 'Connor concluded , Congress " unmistakably indicated that the right of employees to select the officers of their bargaining representatives is not absolute ... " Citing the plurality opinion in De Veau v. Braisted , 363 U.S. 144 ( 1960 ) , O 'Connor noted that the Court had previously held that the Landrum @-@ Griffin Act had not preempted the role of state legislation in regulating union officials .
O 'Connor next addressed the New Jersey statute 's enforcement mechanism . O 'Connor recognized the continuing controlling nature of Hill in this regard , and acknowledged that questions of constitutionality and preemption must " be assessed independently in terms of its potential conflict with the federal enactment . " O 'Connor concluded , however , that the record was too incomplete on this issue , and remanded the issue to the appellate court so that it could order further proceedings .
= = = Dissenting opinion = = =
Justice White , writing for the dissent , argued that the linkage between Section 93 and Section 86 of the New Jersey act rendered the act preempted by federal law . If Section 86 merely imposed qualifications on union officials , White concluded , the law would not be preempted by the NLRA . But the act went far beyond that , and imposed sweeping penalties on the union . For the dissent , this proved critical :
It is not clear what portion of the statute the Court upholds since it expressly refuses to decide whether the dues prohibition and fund administration provisions are valid . Section 93 ( b ) does nothing more than impose those two restrictions on unions whose officials are disqualified under the criteria set forth in § 86 . It does not , by its terms , provide a mechanism for disqualifying any union officer . Therefore , while it appears that the Court holds that a State is free to disqualify certain individuals from acting as union officials as long as it does not impose sanctions on the union itself , it is not clear that anything in § 93 ( b ) enables the State to do that .
White noted that although Section 7 of the NLRA granted employees the absolute right to choose collective bargaining representatives of their choosing , that right was not coextensive with the less absolute right to determine who should serve as officers in that organization . In the current case , White noted , the workers had chosen an organization rather than an individual as their collective bargaining agent . White agreed with the majority that the state can permissibly impose qualifications on the officers of Local 54 . But the language of Section 7 of the NLRA as well as the Court 's ruling in Hill permitted the state to impose sanctions only on the officers , not on the union . Interfering with the relatively untrammeled right of the union to carry out its duties as collective bargaining agent was impermissible as a matter of federal law :
Allowing the State to so restrict the union 's conduct infringes on the employees ' right to bargain collectively through the representative of their own choosing because it prevents that representative from functioning as a collective @-@ bargaining agent . ... A union which cannot sustain itself financially obviously cannot effectively engage in collective @-@ bargaining activities on behalf of its members .
The record , White noted , was quite clear in showing that Local 54 would not be able to function if either of the Casino Control Commission 's sanctions were imposed . Thus , White would have overturned the statute on grounds of preemption under Section 7 of the NLRA :
I am willing to hold that , as a matter of law , a statute like § 93 ( b ) , which prohibits a union from collecting dues from its members , impairs the union 's ability to represent those members to such an extent that it infringes on their § 7 right to bargain through the representative of their choice .
= = Consequences of the ruling = =
Gerace resigned shortly after the Supreme Court 's ruling . However , Local 54 immediately rehired Gerace as a $ 48 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ year " consultant . " The Casino Control Commission declared this " a subterfuge . " The gaming commission declined to impose either of its statutory sanctions , and instead sought a court injunction forcing Gerace to resign his consultancy . In November 1984 , a New Jersey state superior court ruled that the gaming commission had the right to force Gerace 's resignation . Gerace initially fought the court 's order , but eventually resigned after concluding that the continuing legal battle would " be disruptive to the operation of the union . " Materio and LaSane also resigned , but were later hired by the union as business agents to handle non @-@ casino related matters .
Five years after the ruling in Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees Union an academic study concluded that the Casino Control Act had been only marginally successful in preventing or eliminating organized crime influence in New Jersey 's casino unions . The study noted that the law had not been used since its initial 1981 enforcement action , and that many union officials were merely rehired as consultants rather than as elected officers . The state gaming commission never again attempted to use its two statutory sanctions against any union , and relied instead on the threat of injunctions to remove officials it suspected of links to organized crime .
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= Section Thirty @-@ four of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms =
Section 34 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the last section of Canada 's Charter of Rights , which is entrenched in the Constitution Act , 1982 . Section 34 provides guidance for the legal citation of the Charter .
The section has been interpreted by Canadian writers , who have analyzed both its intention and its meaning . Because the section affirms the name of the Charter and thus entrenches it in the Constitution Act , it came into focus in 1994 when a Member of Parliament ( MP ) proposed to change the name of the Charter .
= = Text = =
Under the heading " Citation , " the section reads :
= = Function = =
Section 34 , as part of the Constitution Act , 1982 , came into force on April 17 , 1982 . According to the government of Canada , section 34 's function " simply " relates to citation . The section clarifies that the first 34 sections of the Constitution Act , 1982 may be collectively called the " Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , " which is an " official name . " This would be the name of the English version . The French version of section 34 states " Titre de la présente partie : Charte canadienne des droits et libertés . "
In 1982 , constitutional scholar Peter Hogg suggested that the section also clarifies the size and scope of the Charter . Only section 34 and the sections that come before it compose the Charter . The next sections of the Constitution Act , 1982 , including section 35 ( which affirms Aboriginal rights ) and section 36 ( which affirms equalization payments ) , are thus not Charter rights . This is significant , since section 1 of the Constitution Act , 1982 allows for limits on Charter rights , so it cannot apply to sections 35 or 36 . However , this also means that a " judicial remedy " under section 24 of the Act is not available for sections 35 or 36 , since section 24 refers only to the Charter .
= = Discussion = =
Canadian poet George Elliott Clarke once analyzed section 34 , calling it " bland legalese . " He wrote it was " reassuring " because it was dull , signalling neither fear nor excitement . Thus , it seemed to imply the Charter of Rights was not a radical constitutional change , despite the fact that it was potentially revolutionary for a constitutional monarchy . In considering the name Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , Clarke felt the first word , " Canadian , " hinted at Canadian nationalism . He then compared this to the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the United States Bill of Rights , saying that those documents were written by men who had just emerged from conflict and still remembered it , and thus Canada could be duller . However , he noted there was some drama in the Charter in that it was written when there was a threat of Quebec separatism , and section 27 ( multiculturalism ) , section 25 ( Aboriginal rights ) , and section 15 ( 2 ) ( affirmative action ) of the Charter could change the country .
In 1994 , the Canadian House of Commons debated changing the name of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms to the Canadian Charter of Rights , Freedoms and Responsibilities . As Parliamentary Secretary Russell MacLellan pointed out , this would have to be done through a constitutional amendment , particularly to section 34 , since section 34 " establishes the charter 's title . The charter 's title is thus part of the Constitution . " MacLellan believed the amending formula needed would be the one requiring the support of seven provincial governments representing at least half of Canada 's population . Edmonton Southwest MP Ian McClelland had suggested the change , believing it to be necessary because " I felt we were becoming a nation of entitlement . " MacLellan replied that " The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is and aspires to be a statement by Canadians about the rights and freedoms which we as Canadians deeply value in our democratic society . " MacLellan added that section 1 implied a need for responsibilities , so " It is not necessary to change the title of this charter to emphasize the integral relationship between the individual 's rights and his or her responsibility to the rest of society . "
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= Willie wagtail =
The willie ( or willy ) wagtail ( Rhipidura leucophrys ) is a passerine bird native to Australia , New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , the Bismarck Archipelago , and Eastern Indonesia . It is a common and familiar bird throughout much of its range , living in most habitats apart from thick forest . Measuring 19 – 21 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 1 ⁄ 2 – 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in length , the willie wagtail is contrastingly coloured with almost entirely black upperparts and white underparts ; the male and female have similar plumage .
Three subspecies are recognised ; Rhipidura leucophrys leucophrys from central and southern Australia , the smaller R. l. picata from northern Australia , and the larger R. l. melaleuca from New Guinea and islands in its vicinity . It is unrelated to the true wagtails of the genus Motacilla ; it is a member of the fantail genus Rhipidura and is a part of a " core corvine " group that includes true crows and ravens , drongos and birds of paradise . Within this group , fantails are placed either in the family Dicruridae , alongside drongos , or in their own small family , Rhipiduridae .
The willie wagtail is insectivorous and spends much time chasing prey in open habitat . Its common name is derived from its habit of wagging its tail horizontally when foraging on the ground . Aggressive and territorial , the willie wagtail will often harass much larger birds such as the laughing kookaburra and wedge @-@ tailed eagle . It has responded well to human alteration of the landscape and is a common sight in urban lawns , parks , and gardens . It was widely featured in Aboriginal folklore around the country as either a bringer of bad news or a stealer of secrets .
= = Taxonomy = =
The willie wagtail was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Turdus leucophrys . Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek words leukos " white " and ǒphrys " eyebrow " . Other early scientific names include Muscicapa tricolor by Vieillot , and Rhipidura motacilloides by naturalists Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 , who erected the genus Rhipidura . The generic term is derived from the Ancient Greek rhipis " fan " and oura " tail " .
John Gould and other early writers referred to the species as the black @-@ and @-@ white fantail , although did note the current name . However , willie wagtail rapidly became widely accepted sometime after 1916 . Wagtail is derived from its active behaviour , while the origins of willie are obscure . The name had been in use colloquially for the pied subspecies of the white wagtail ( Motacilla alba ) on the Isle of Man , and Northern Ireland .
Other vernacular names applied include shepherd 's companion ( because it accompanied livestock ) , frogbird , morning bird , and Australian nightingale . Many Aboriginal names are onomatopoeic , based on the sound of its scolding call . Djididjidi is a name from the Kimberley , and Djigirridjdjigirridj is used by the Gunwinggu of western Arnhem Land . In Central Australia , southwest of Alice Springs , the Pitjantjatjara word is tjintir @-@ tjintir ( pa ) . Among the Kamilaroi , it is thirrithirri . In Bougainville Island , it is called tsiropen in the Banoni language from the west coast , and in Awaipa of Kieta district it is maneka . In the Solomon Islands Pijin it is sometimes called the polis ( police ) or pris ( priest ) bird , because of its black @-@ and @-@ white colouring .
The willie wagtail is unrelated to the Eurasian wagtails of the family Motacillidae . It is one of 47 members of the fantail genus Rhipidura ; some authorities classify this group of birds as a subfamily Rhipidurinae within the drongo family Dicruridae , together with the monarch flycatchers , while others consider them distinct enough to warrant their own family Rhipiduridae . Early molecular research in the late 1980s and early 1990s revealed that the fantails belong to a large group of mainly Australasian birds known as the parvorder Corvida comprising many tropical and Australian passerines . More recently , the grouping has been refined somewhat and the fantails have been classified in a " core corvine " group with the crows and ravens , shrikes , birds of paradise , monarch flycatchers , drongos and mudnest builders .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The following three subspecies are widely recognised :
R. leucophrys leucophrys , the nominate subspecies , is the most widely distributed form found in Australia . The description below refers to it . There is negligible variation within this form , and little between the three ; all have very similar plumage .
R. leucophrys picata was described by John Gould in 1848 . It is found across northern Australia , from northern Western Australia to Queensland . It has shorter wings , and it has a gradient in wing length between latitudes 18 – 22 ° S across the Australian continent where this subspecies intergrades with leucophrys . The subspecific epithet is Latin pǐcata " smeared with pitch " .
R. leucophrys melaleuca was described by French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard in 1830 . It occurs in eastern Indonesia , New Guinea , the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago . It is significantly larger , with longer bristles and larger bill . Its subspecific name is derived from the Ancient Greek melas " black " , and leukos " white " .
= = Description = =
An adult willie wagtail is between 19 and 21 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 and 8 @.@ 5 in ) in length and weighs 17 – 24 g ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 85 oz ) , with a tail 10 – 11 cm ( approx 4 in ) long . The short , slender bill measures 1 @.@ 64 – 1 @.@ 93 cm ( around 0 @.@ 75 in ) , and is tipped with a small hook . This species has longer legs than other fantails , which may be an adaptation to foraging on the ground . The male and female have similar plumage ; the head , throat , upper breast , wings , upperparts , and tail are all black , with a white eyebrow , " whiskers " and underparts . The bill and legs are black and the iris dark brown . Immature birds in their first year after moulting from juvenile plumage may have pale tips in their wings , while juvenile birds themselves have duller plumage , their upperparts brown @-@ tinged with some pale brown scallops on the head and breast .
= = = Vocalisation = = =
The wagtail is very " chatty " and has a number of distinct vocalisations . Its most @-@ recognised sound is its alarm call which is a rapid chit @-@ chit @-@ chit @-@ chit , although it has more melodious sounds in its repertoire . The alarm call is sounded to warn off potential rivals and threats from its territory and also seems to serve as a signal to its mate when a potential threat is in the area . John Gould reported that it sounded like a child 's rattle or " small cog @-@ wheels of a steam mill " . In his book What Bird is That ? ( 1935 ) , Neville Cayley writes that it has " a pleasant call resembling sweet pretty little creature , frequently uttered during the day or night , especially on moonlight nights " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Widespread and abundant , the willie wagtail is found across most of Australia and New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , the Bismarck Archipelago , and eastern Indonesia . It is sedentary across most of Australia , though some areas have recorded seasonal movements ; it is an autumn and winter visitor to northeastern New South Wales and southeast Queensland , as well as the Gulf Country and parts of Cape York Peninsula in the far north . It is a vagrant to Tasmania , and on occasion reaches Lord Howe Island . There is one record from Mangere Island in the Chatham Islands archipelago east of New Zealand in 2002 . The willie wagtail was released in Hawaii around 1922 to control insects on livestock , but the introduction was unsuccessful and the last sighting was at Koko Head in 1937 .
The willie wagtail is at home in a wide variety of habitats , but avoids densely forested areas such as rainforest . It prefers semi @-@ open woodland or grassland with scattered trees , often near wetlands or bodies of water . In New Guinea , it inhabits man @-@ made clearings and grasslands , as well as open forest and mangroves . On Guadalcanal , it was reported from open areas and coconut groves . It has responded well to human alteration of the landscape and can often be seen hunting in open , grassed areas such as lawns , gardens , parkland , and sporting grounds . The species spread into the Western Australian Wheatbelt after the original vegetation had been cleared for agriculture .
= = Behaviour = =
The willie wagtail is almost always on the move and rarely still for more than a few moments during daylight hours . Even while perching it will flick its tail from side to side , twisting about looking for prey . Birds are mostly encountered singly or in pairs , although they may gather in small flocks . Unlike other fantails , much of its time is spent on the ground . It beats its wings deeply in flight , interspersed with a swift flying dip . It characteristically wags its tail upon landing after a short dipping flight .
The willie wagtail is highly territorial and can be quite fearless in defence of its territory ; it will harry not only small birds but also much larger species such as the Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) , raven ( Corvus coronoides ) , laughing kookaburra ( Dacelo novaeguineae ) , or wedge @-@ tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ) . It may even attack domestic dogs , cats and humans which approach its nest too closely . It has also been observed harassing snake @-@ neck turtles and tiger snakes in Western Australia . When harassing an opponent , the willie wagtail avoids the head and aims for the rear . Both the male and female may engage in this behaviour , and generally more intensely in the breeding season . Territories range from 1 – 3 ha ( 2 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 4 acres ) in area . A pair of birds will declare and defend their territory against other pairs in a diving display . One bird remains still while the other loops and dives repeatedly before the roles are reversed ; both sing all the while .
The bird 's white eyebrows become flared and more prominent in an aggressive display , and settled and more hidden when in a submissive or appeasement display .
= = = Feeding = = =
The willie wagtail perches on low branches , fences , posts , and the like , watching for insects and other small invertebrates in the air or on the ground . It usually hunts by hawking flying insects such as gnats , flies , and small moths , but will occasionally glean from the ground . It will often hop along the ground and flit behind people and animals , such as cattle , sheep or horses , as they walk over grassed areas , to catch any creatures disturbed by their passing . It wags its tail in a horizontal fashion while foraging in this manner ; the exact purpose of this behaviour is unknown but is thought to help flush out insects hidden in vegetation and hence make them easier to catch . The willie wagtail takes ticks from the skin of grazing animals such as cattle or pigs , even from lions asleep in a zoo . It kills its prey by bashing it against a hard surface , or holding it and pulling off the wings before extracting the edible insides .
The adaptability and opportunistic diet of the willie wagtail have probably assisted it in adapting to human habitation ; it eats a wide variety of arthropods , including butterflies , moths , flies , beetles , dragonflies , bugs , spiders , centipedes , and millipedes , and has been recorded killing small lizards such as skinks and geckos in a study in Madang on Papua New Guinea 's north coast . The tailbones of these lizards have been found in their faeces although it is unclear whether the whole animal was eaten or merely the tail . Either way , lizards are only a very occasional prey item forming between 1 and 3 % of the total diet . Evidence from the study in Madang suggested that the willie wagtail selectively fed nestlings larger prey .
= = = Breeding = = =
Willie wagtails usually pair for life . The breeding season lasts from July to December , more often occurring after rain in drier regions . Anywhere up to four broods may be raised during this time . It builds a cup @-@ like nest on a tree branch away from leaves or cover , less than 5 m ( 16 ft ) above the ground . Rafters and eaves may also be used . It has been observed to build its nest in the vicinity of those of the magpie @-@ lark ( Grallina cyanoleuca ) , possibly taking advantage of the latter bird 's territoriality and aggression toward intruders . Similarly , it is not afraid to build near human habitation .
The nest consists of grass stems , strips of bark , and other fibrous material which is bound and woven together with spider web . Even hair from pet dogs and cats may be used . It has also been observed attempting to take hair from a pet goat . An alpaca breeder in the Mudgee District of New South Wales has observed alpaca fleece in the nests of willy wagtails ( the results of scraps of fleece not picked up at shearing time ) . The female lays two to four small cream @-@ white eggs with brownish markings measuring 16 mm × 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 in × 0 @.@ 83 in ) , and incubates them for 14 days . Like all passerines , the chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; they are born naked and helpless with closed eyes , and remain in the nest . Both parents take part in feeding the young , and may continue to do so while embarking on another brood . Nestlings remain in the nest for around 14 days before fledging . Upon leaving , the fledglings will remain hidden in cover nearby for one or two days before venturing further afield , up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) away by the third day . Parents will stop feeding their fledglings near the end of the second week , as the young birds increasingly forage for themselves , and soon afterwards drive them out of the territory .
The female pallid cuckoo ( Cuculus pallidus ) will lay eggs in a willie wagtail nest , although the hosts often recognise and eject the foreign eggs , so successful brood parasitism is rare . Parasitism by the fan @-@ tailed ( Cacomantis flabelliformis ) , brush , ( C. variolosus ) , Horsfield 's bronze ( Chrysococcyx basalis ) , and shining bronze cuckoo ( C. lucidus ) has also been reported .
Although the willie wagtail is an aggressive defender of its nest , predators do account for many eggs and young . About two thirds of eggs hatch successfully , and a third leave the nest as fledglings . Nestlings may be preyed upon by both pied butcherbirds , ( Cracticus nigrogularis ) black butcherbirds ( C. quoyi ) , the spangled drongo ( Dicrurus bracteatus ) , and the pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) , as well as the feral cat ( Felis catus ) , and rat species . The proximity of nesting to human habitation has also left nests open to destruction by children .
Although generally a peaceful bird , which lives quite happily alongside humans , the willie wagtail will defend its nest aggressively . Willie wagtails are known to swoop at passers by , much like the Australian magpie . While attacks from willie wagtails are not as common or as formidable as the magpie , they do come as a great shock to recipients .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The willie wagtail was a feature in Australian Aboriginal folklore . Aboriginal tribes in parts of southeastern Australia , such as the Ngarrindjeri of the Lower Murray River , and the Narrunga People of the Yorke Peninsula , regard the willie wagtail as the bearer of bad news . It was thought that the willie wagtail could steal a person 's secrets while lingering around camps eavesdropping , so women would be tight @-@ lipped in the presence of the bird . The people of the Kimberley held a similar belief that it would inform the spirit of the recently departed if living relatives spoke badly of them . They also venerated the willie wagtail as the most intelligent of all animals . Its cleverness is also seen in a Tinputz tale of Bougainville Island , where Singsing Tongereng ( Willie Wagtail ) wins a contest among all birds to see who can fly the highest , by riding on the back of the eagle . However , the Gunwinggu in western Arnhem Land took a dimmer view and regarded it as a liar and a tattletale . The willie wagtail was held to have stolen fire and tried to extinguish it in the sea in a dreaming story of the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara , and was able to send a strong wind if frightened . In the Noongar language dialects , the willie wagtail is known as the Chitti @-@ chitti along the Pallinup River , and the Willaring in the Perth region .
The Kalam people of New Guinea highlands called it konmayd , and deemed it a good bird ; if it came and chattered when a new garden was tilled , then there would be good crops . It is said to be taking care of pigs if it is darting and calling around them . It may also be the manifestation of the ghost of paternal relatives to the Kalam . Called the kuritoro bird in New Guinea 's eastern highlands , its appearance was significant in the mourning ceremony by a widow for her dead husband . She would offer him banana flowers ; the presence of the bird singing nearby would confirm that the dead man 's soul had taken the offering .
A tale from the Kieta district of Bougainville Island relates that a maneka , the willie wagtail , darting along a river bank echoes a legendary daughter looking for her mother who drowned trying to cross a flooding river in a storm . The bird has been depicted on postage stamps in Palau and the Solomon Islands , and has also appeared as a character in Australian children 's literature , such as Dot and the Kangaroo ( 1899 ) , Blinky Bill Grows Up ( 1935 ) , and Willie Wagtail and Other Tales ( 1929 ) .
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= Ælle of Sussex =
Ælle ( / ˈælɛ / ; also Aelle or Ella ) is recorded in early sources as the first king of the South Saxons , reigning in what is now called Sussex , England , from 477 to perhaps as late as 514 .
According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Ælle and three of his sons are said to have landed at a place called Cymensora and fought against the local Britons . The chronicle goes on to report a victory in 491 , at present day Pevensey , where the battle ended with the Saxons slaughtering their opponents to the last man .
Ælle was the first king recorded by the 8th century chronicler Bede to have held " imperium " , or overlordship , over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . In the late 9th @-@ century Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ( around four hundred years after his time ) Ælle is recorded as being the first bretwalda , or " Britain @-@ ruler " , though there is no evidence that this was a contemporary title . Ælle 's death is not recorded and although he may have been the founder of a South Saxon dynasty , there is no firm evidence linking him with later South Saxon rulers . The 12th @-@ century chronicler Henry of Huntingdon produced an enhanced version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle that included 514 as the date of Ælle 's death , but this is not secure .
= = Historical context = =
Historians are divided on the detail of Ælle 's life and existence as it was during the least @-@ documented period in English history of the last two millennia .
By the early 5th century Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years . The most troublesome enemies of Roman Britain were the Picts of central and northern Scotland , and the Gaels known as Scoti , who were raiders from Ireland . Also vexatious were the Saxons , the name Roman writers gave to the peoples who lived in the northern part of what is now Germany and the southern part of the Jutland peninsula . Saxon raids on the southern and eastern shores of England had been sufficiently alarming by the late 3rd century for the Romans to build the Saxon Shore forts , and subsequently to establish the role of the Count of the Saxon Shore to command the defence against these incursions . Roman control of Britain finally ended in the early part of the 5th century ; the date usually given as marking the end of Roman Britain is 410 , when the Emperor Honorius sent letters to the British , urging them to look to their own defence . Britain had been repeatedly stripped of troops to support usurpers ' claims to the Roman empire , and after 410 the Roman armies never returned .
Sources for events after this date are extremely scarce , but a tradition , reported as early as the mid @-@ 6th century by a British priest named Gildas , records that the British sent for help against the barbarians to Aetius , a Roman consul , probably in the late 440s . No help came . Subsequently , a British leader named Vortigern is supposed to have invited continental mercenaries to help fight the Picts who were attacking from the north . The leaders , whose names are recorded as Hengest and Horsa , rebelled , and a long period of warfare ensued . The invaders — Angles , Saxons , Jutes , and Frisians — gained control of parts of England , but lost a major battle at Mons Badonicus ( the location of which is not known ) . Some authors have speculated that Ælle may have led the Saxon forces at this battle , while others reject the idea out of hand .
The British thus gained a respite , and peace lasted at least until the time Gildas was writing : that is , for perhaps forty or fifty years , from around the end of the 5th century until midway through the sixth . Shortly after Gildas 's time the Anglo @-@ Saxon advance was resumed , and by the late 6th century nearly all of southern England was under the control of the continental invaders .
= = Early sources = =
There are two early sources that mention Ælle by name . The earliest is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People , a history of the English church written in 731 by Bede , a Northumbrian monk . Bede mentions Ælle as one of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings who exercised what he calls " imperium " over " all the provinces south of the river Humber " ; " imperium " is usually translated as " overlordship " . Bede gives a list of seven kings who held " imperium " , and Ælle is the first of them . The other information Bede gives is that Ælle was not a Christian — Bede mentions a later king as " the first to enter the kingdom of heaven " .
The second source is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals assembled in the Kingdom of Wessex in c . 890 , during the reign of Alfred the Great . The Chronicle has three entries for Ælle , from 477 to 491 , as follows :
477 : Ælle and his 3 sons , Cymen and Wlencing and Cissa , came to the land of Britain with 3 ships at the place which is named Cymen 's shore , and there killed many Welsh and drove some to flight into the wood called Andredes leag .
485 : Here Ælle fought against the Welsh near the margin of Mearcred 's Burn .
491 : Here Ælle and Cissa besieged Andredes cester , and killed all who lived in there ; there was not even one Briton left there .
The Chronicle was put together about four hundred years after these events . It is known that the annalists used material from earlier chronicles , as well as from oral sources such as sagas , but there is no way to tell where these lines came from . It should also be noted that the terms ' British ' and ' Welsh ' were used interchangeably , as ' Welsh ' is the Saxon word meaning ' foreigner ' , and was applied to all the native Romano @-@ British of the era .
Three of the places named may be identified :
" Cymen 's shore " ( " Cymenes ora " in the original ) is believed to be located at what is now a series of rocks and ledges , in the English Channel off Selsey Bill , on the south coast , known as the Owers . It has been suggested that Ower is derived from the word ora that is found only in placenames where Jutish and West Saxon dialects were in operation ( mainly in southern England ) . It is possible that the stretch of low ground along the coast from Southampton to Bognor was called Ora " the shore " , and that district names were used by the various coastal settlements , Cymens ora being one of them .
The wood called " Andredes leag " is the Weald , which at that time was a forest extending from north @-@ west Hampshire all through northern Sussex .
" Andredes cester " is thought to be Anderitum , the Saxon Shore fort , built by the Roman rebel Carausius in the late 3rd century , at Pevensey Castle , just outside the town . Some believe Andredes cester may have been an imperial stronghold somewhere else as Henry of Huntingdon described the place as a fortified city and gave a very full account of the siege which is inconsistent with the geography of ancient Pevensey and little archaeological evidence of sustained settlement there . Also , in his " Britannia " , William Camden suggests that it could be Newenden , Kent
The Chronicle mentions Ælle once more under the year 827 , where he is listed as the first of the eight " bretwaldas " , or " Britain @-@ rulers " . The list consists of Bede 's original seven , plus Egbert of Wessex . There has been much scholarly debate over just what it meant to be a " bretwalda " , and the extent of Ælle 's actual power in southern England is an open question . It is also noteworthy that there is a long gap between Ælle and the second king on Bede 's list , Ceawlin of Wessex , whose reign began in the late 6th century ; this may indicate a period in which Anglo @-@ Saxon dominance was interrupted in some way .
Earlier sources than Bede exist which mention the South Saxons , though they do not name Ælle . The earliest reference is still quite late , however , at about 692 : a charter of King Nothelm 's , which styles him " King of the South Saxons " . Charters are documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and which would be witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . They are one of the key documentary sources for Anglo @-@ Saxon history , but no original charters survive from earlier than the end of the 7th century .
There are other early writers whose works can shed light on Ælle 's time , though they do not mention either him or his kingdom . Gildas 's description of the state of Britain in his time is useful for understanding the ebb and flow of the Anglo @-@ Saxon incursions . Procopius , a Byzantine historian , writing not long after Gildas , adds to the meagre sources on population movement by including a chapter on England in one of his works . He records that the peoples of Britain — he names the English , the British , and the Frisians — were so numerous that they were migrating to the kingdom of the Franks in great numbers every year . Although this is probably a reference to Britons emigrating to Armorica to escape the Anglo @-@ Saxons . They subsequently gave their name to the area they settled as Brittany , or la petite Bretagne ( literally little Britain ) .
= = Evidence from place names in Sussex = =
The early dates given in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle for the colonization of Sussex are supported by an analysis of the place names of the region . The strongest evidence comes from place names that end in " -ing " , such as Worthing and Angmering . These are known to derive from an earlier form ending in " -ingas " . " Hastings " for example , derives from " Hæstingas " which may mean " the followers or dependents of a person named Hæsta " , although others suggest the heavily Romanised region may have had names of Gallo @-@ Roman origin derived from " -ienses " .
From west of Selsey Bill to east of Pevensey can be found the densest concentration of these names anywhere in Britain . There are a total of about forty @-@ five place names in Sussex of this form , however , personal names either were not associated with these places or fell out of use . This does not necessarily mean that the Saxons killed or drove out almost all of the native population , despite the slaughter of the Britons reported in the Chronicle entry for 491 ; however , it does imply that the invasion was on a scale that left little space for the British .
These lines of reasoning cannot prove the dates given in the Chronicle , much less the existence of Ælle himself , but they do support the idea of an early conquest and the establishment of a settled kingdom .
= = Reign = =
If the dates given by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle are accurate to within half a century , then Ælle 's reign lies in the middle of the Anglo @-@ Saxon expansion , and prior to the final conquest of the Britons . It also seems consistent with the dates given to assume that Ælle 's battles predate Mons Badonicus . This in turn would explain the long gap , of fifty or more years , in the succession of the " bretwaldas " : if the peace gained by the Britons did indeed hold till the second half of the 6th century , it is not to be expected that an Anglo @-@ Saxon leader should have anything resembling overlordship of England during that time . The idea of a pause in the Anglo @-@ Saxon advance is also supported by the account in Procopius of 6th century migration from Britain to the kingdom of the Franks . Procopius 's account is consistent with what is known to be a contemporary colonization of Armorica ( now Brittany , in France ) ; the settlers appear to have been at least partly from Dumnonia ( modern Cornwall ) , and the area acquired regions known as Dumnonée and Cornouaille . It seems likely that something at that time was interrupting the general flow of the Anglo @-@ Saxons from the continent to Britain .
The dates for Ælle 's battles are also reasonably consistent with what is known of events in the kingdom of the Franks at that time . Clovis I united the Franks into a single kingdom during the 480s and afterwards , and the Franks ' ability to exercise power along the southern coast of the English channel may have diverted Saxon adventurers to England rather than the continent .
It is possible , therefore , that a historical king named Ælle existed , who arrived from the continent in the late 5th century , and who conquered much of what is now Sussex . He may have been a prominent war chief with a leadership role in a federation of Anglo @-@ Saxon groups fighting for territory in Britain at that time . This may be the origin of the reputation that led Bede to list him as holding overlordship over southern Britain . The battles listed in the Chronicle are compatible with a conquest of Sussex from west to east , against British resistance stiff enough to last fourteen years . His area of military control may have extended as far as Hampshire and north to the upper Thames valley , but it certainly did not extend across all of England south of the Humber , as Bede asserts .
The historian Guy Halsall argues that as Ælle immediately preceded the late sixth @-@ century King Ceawlin as Bretwalda , it is far more likely that Ælle dates to the mid sixth century , and that the Chronicle has moved his dates back a century in order to provide a foundation myth for Sussex which puts it chronologically and geographically between the origins of the kingdoms of Kent and Wessex .
= = Death and burial = =
Ælle 's death is not recorded by the Chronicle , which gives no information about him , or his sons , or the South Saxons until 675 , when the South Saxon king Æthelwalh was baptized .
It has been conjectured that , as Saxon war leader , Ælle may have met his death in the disastrous battle of Mount Badon when the Britons halted Saxon expansion If Ælle died within the borders of his own kingdom then it may well have been that he was buried on Highdown Hill with his weapons and ornaments in the usual mode of burial among the South Saxons . Highdown Hill is the traditional burial @-@ place of the kings of Sussex .
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= HMS New Zealand ( 1911 ) =
HMS New Zealand was one of three Indefatigable @-@ class battlecruisers built for the defence of the British Empire . Launched in 1911 , the ship was funded by the government of New Zealand as a gift to Britain , and she was commissioned into the Royal Navy in 1912 . She had been intended for the China Station , but was released by the New Zealand government at the request of the Admiralty for service in British waters .
During 1913 , New Zealand was sent on a ten @-@ month tour of the British Dominions , with an emphasis on a visit to her namesake nation . She was back in British waters at the start of World War I , and operated as part of the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet , in opposition to the German High Seas Fleet . During the war , the battlecruiser participated in all three of the major North Sea battles — Heligoland Bight , Dogger Bank , and Jutland — and was involved in the response to the inconclusive Raid on Scarborough , and the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . New Zealand contributed to the destruction of two cruisers during her wartime service and was hit by enemy fire only once , sustaining no casualties ; her status as a " lucky ship " was attributed by the crew to a Māori piupiu ( warrior 's skirt ) and hei @-@ tiki ( pendant ) worn by the captain during battle .
After the war , New Zealand was sent on a second world tour , this time to allow Admiral John Jellicoe to review the naval defences of the Dominions . In 1920 , the battlecruiser was placed in reserve . She was broken up for scrap in 1922 in order to meet Britain 's tonnage limit in the disarmament provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Design = =
The Indefatigable class was not a significant improvement on the preceding Invincible class ; the main difference was the enlargement of the dimensions to give the ships ' two wing turrets a wider arc of fire . The ships were smaller and not as well protected as the contemporary German battlecruiser SMS Von der Tann and subsequent German designs . While Von der Tann 's characteristics were not known when the lead ship of the class , HMS Indefatigable , was laid down in February 1909 , the Royal Navy obtained accurate information on the German ship before work began on New Zealand and her sister ship HMAS Australia .
New Zealand had an overall length of 590 feet ( 179 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) , and a draught of 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 18 @,@ 500 long tons ( 18 @,@ 800 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 130 long tons ( 22 @,@ 490 t ) at deep load . The battlecruiser 's Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines were designed to produce 44 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 33 @,@ 000 kW ) , propelling the ship at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . However , during trials in 1912 , the turbines produced over 49 @,@ 000 shp ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ) , which allowed New Zealand to reach 26 @.@ 39 knots ( 48 @.@ 87 km / h ; 30 @.@ 37 mph ) . The ship carried approximately 3 @,@ 200 long tons ( 3 @,@ 300 t ) of coal , and an additional 850 long tons ( 860 t ) of fuel oil ; this was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . This gave her a range of 6 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 390 km ; 7 @,@ 700 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship carried eight BL 12 @-@ inch Mk X guns in four twin gun turrets . Two turrets were mounted fore and aft on the centreline , identified as ' A ' and ' X ' respectively . The other two were wing turrets mounted amidships and staggered diagonally : ' P ' was forward and to port of the centre funnel , while ' Q ' was situated starboard and aft . Each wing turret had a limited ability to fire to the opposite side , but if the ship was full broadside to her target she could bring all eight main guns to bear . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 4 @-@ inch BL Mk VII guns positioned in the superstructure . She mounted two 18 @-@ inch submerged torpedo tubes , one on each side aft of ' X ' barbette , and twelve torpedoes were carried .
New Zealand 's ' A ' turret was fitted with a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder at the rear of the turret roof . It was also equipped to control the entire main armament in the event that the normal fire control positions were knocked out or communication between the primary positions and the gun layers was disabled .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
The ship was fitted with a single QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun from October 1914 to the end of 1915 . In March 1915 , a single QF 3 inch 20 cwt AA gun was added . It was provided with 500 rounds . The battlecruiser 's 4 @-@ inch guns were enclosed in casemates and given blast shields during a refit in November to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action . Two aft guns were removed at the same time .
New Zealand received a fire @-@ control director sometime between mid @-@ 1915 and May 1916 ; this centralised fire control under the director officer , who now fired the guns . The turret crewmen merely had to follow pointers transmitted from the director to align their guns on the target . This greatly increased accuracy , as it was easier to spot the fall of shells and eliminated the problem of the ship 's roll dispersing the shells when each turret fired independently . An additional inch of armour was added to the top of the magazines and turret roofs after the Battle of Jutland .
By 1918 , New Zealand carried two aircraft , a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter , on flying @-@ off ramps fitted on top of ' P ' and ' Q ' turrets . The Pup was intended to shoot down Zeppelins while the 1 ½ Strutter was used for spotting and reconnaissance . Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather .
= = Acquisition and construction = =
At the start of the 20th century , the British Admiralty maintained that naval defence of the British Empire , including the Dominions , should be unified under the Royal Navy . Attitudes on this matter softened during the first decade , and at the 1909 Imperial Conference , the Admiralty proposed the creation of Fleet Units : forces consisting of a battlecruiser , three light cruisers , six destroyers , and three submarines . While Australia and Canada were encouraged to purchase fleet units to serve as the core of new national navies , other fleet units would be operated by the Royal Navy at distant bases , particularly in the Far East ; New Zealand was asked to partially subsidise a fleet unit for the China Station .
To this end , the Prime Minister of New Zealand , Sir Joseph Ward , announced on 22 March 1909 that his country would fund a battleship ( later changed to an Indefatigable @-@ class battlecruiser ) as an example to other countries . It is unclear why this design was selected , given that it was known to be inferior to the battlecruisers entering service with the Imperial German Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) . Historian John Roberts has suggested that the request may have been attributable to the Royal Navy 's practice of using small battleships and large cruisers as flagships of stations far from Britain , or it might have reflected the preferences of the First Sea Lord and Admiral of the Fleet John Fisher , preferences not widely shared . The New Zealand Government took out a loan to fund the cost of the ship .
New Zealand 's keel was laid at Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering 's yard on the Clyde on 20 June 1910 . Launched on 1 July 1911 , the battlecruiser was commissioned into the Royal Navy four days before she was completed on 23 November 1912 .
= = Service = =
New Zealand was sent on a ten @-@ month flag @-@ waving tour of New Zealand via South Africa in 1913 . During this tour , the ship was seen by an estimated half @-@ million New Zealanders — almost half the population — and her captain was presented with a Māori piupiu ( a warrior 's skirt made from rolled flax ) and a greenstone hei @-@ tiki ( pendant ) , which were intended to ward off evil .
The Admiralty requested that New Zealand return to the United Kingdom when the tour concluded , rather than remain in the Pacific region as originally planned . The New Zealand Government acceded to the request and , upon her arrival on 8 December 1913 , New Zealand joined the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( 1st BCS ) of the Grand Fleet . The squadron visited Brest in February 1914 , and Riga , Reval and Kronstadt in the Russian Empire the following June . On 19 August 1914 , shortly after World War I began , New Zealand was transferred to the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron ( 2nd BCS ) .
= = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =
New Zealand 's first wartime action was the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 , as part of the battlecruiser force under the command of Admiral David Beatty . Beatty 's ships were originally intended to provide distant support for the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast , in case large units of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks once the tide rose . When the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule at 11 : 35 a.m. , the battlecruisers , led by Beatty aboard his flagship , HMS Lion , began to head south at full speed to reinforce the smaller British ships ; the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the sandbar at the mouth of the Jade estuary .
The brand @-@ new light cruiser HMS Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers SMS Strassburg and SMS Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12 : 37 p.m. By this time , New Zealand had fallen behind the three newer and faster battlecruisers and was not in position to significantly participate in the battle . Strassburg was able to evade fire by hiding in the mists , but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by the British squadron . Before the German ship could be sunk , Beatty was distracted by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser SMS Ariadne off his starboard bow . He turned to pursue , but Ariadne was set afire after only three salvos fired from under 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . At 1 : 10 , Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire . Shortly after turning north , the battlecruisers encountered the crippled Cöln , which was sunk by two salvos from Lion . During the battle , New Zealand 's captain , Lionel Halsey , wore the Māori piupiu over his uniform , setting a tradition followed for the duration of the war . Two days after the battle , New Zealand was transferred back to the 1st BCS , when the battlecruiser Inflexible arrived from the Mediterranean .
= = = Raid on Scarborough = = =
The German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail . An earlier raid on Yarmouth on 3 November 1914 had been partially successful , but a larger @-@ scale operation was later devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper . The fast battlecruisers would conduct the bombardment , while the rest of the High Seas Fleet stationed itself east of Dogger Bank , so they could cover the battlecruisers ' return and destroy any pursuing British vessels . Having broken the German naval codes , the British were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey , although they were not aware of the High Seas Fleet 's presence . Admiral Beatty 's 1st BCS ( now reduced to four ships , including New Zealand ) and the 2nd Battle Squadron ( consisting of six dreadnoughts ) were detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank .
Admiral Hipper 's raiders set sail on 15 December 1914 , and successfully bombarded several English towns ; British destroyers escorting the 1st BCS had already encountered German destroyers of the High Seas Fleet at 5 : 15 a.m. and fought an inconclusive action with them . Vice Admiral Sir George Warrender , commanding the 2nd Battle Squadron , had received a signal at 5 : 40 that the destroyer HMS Lynx was engaging enemy destroyers , although Beatty had not . The destroyer HMS Shark spotted the German armoured cruiser SMS Roon and her escorts at about 7 : 00 , but could not transmit the message until 7 : 25 . Admiral Warrender received the signal , as did New Zealand , but Beatty , aboard Lion , did not , even though New Zealand had been specifically tasked to relay messages between the destroyers and the flagship . Warrender attempted to pass on Shark 's message to Beatty at 7 : 36 , but did not manage to make contact until 7 : 55 . On receiving the message , Beatty reversed course , and dispatched New Zealand to search for Roon . She was being overhauled by New Zealand when Beatty received messages that Scarborough was being shelled at 9 : 00 . Beatty ordered New Zealand to rejoin the squadron and turned west for Scarborough .
The British forces , heading west to cover the main route through the minefields protecting the coast of England , split up while passing the shallow Southwest Patch of Dogger Bank ; Beatty 's ships headed to the north , while Warrender passed to the south . This left a 15 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) gap between them , through which the German light forces began to move . At 12 : 25 p.m. , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper . The light cruiser HMS Southampton spotted the light cruiser SMS Stralsund and signalled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 , Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships , which he presumed were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships . However , those were some 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) behind . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape , and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the north @-@ east of the British forces and also made good their escape .
New Zealand became flagship of the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron ( 2nd BCS ) of the Grand Fleet on 15 January 1915 , and saw action the following week in the Battle of Dogger Bank .
= = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Hipper sortied to clear Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . Alerted by decoded German transmissions , a larger force of British battlecruisers , including New Zealand , sailed under the command of Admiral Beatty to intercept . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 a.m. on the 24th , when Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 7 : 35 , the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , believing that this speed would outdistance any British battleships to the north @-@ west ; he planned to increase speed to the armoured cruiser SMS Blücher 's maximum of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) if necessary to outrun any battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practical speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . New Zealand and Indomitable were the slowest of Beatty 's ships , and gradually fell behind the newer battlecruisers . Despite this , New Zealand was able to open fire on Blücher by 9 : 35 , and continued to engage the armoured cruiser after the other British battlecruisers had switched targets to the German battlecruisers . After about an hour , New Zealand had knocked out Blücher 's forward turret , and Indomitable began to fire on her as well at 10 : 31 . Two 12 @-@ inch shells pierced the German ship 's armoured deck and exploded in an ammunition room four minutes later . This started a fire amidships that destroyed her two port 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) turrets , while the concussion damaged her engines so that her speed dropped to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and jammed her steering gear . At 10 : 48 , Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her , but the combination of a signalling error by Beatty 's flag lieutenant and heavy damage to Beatty 's flagship Lion , which had knocked out her radio and caused enough smoke to obscure her signal halyards , caused the rest of the British battlecruisers , temporarily under the command of Rear Admiral Sir Gordon Moore in New Zealand , to think that that signal applied to them . In response , they turned away from Hipper 's main body and engaged Blücher . New Zealand fired 147 shells at Blücher before the German ship capsized and sank at 12 : 07 after being torpedoed by Arethusa . Captain Halsey had again worn the piupiu over his uniform during the battle , and the lack of damage to New Zealand was once more attributed to its good luck properties .
New Zealand was relieved by Australia as flagship of the 2nd BCS on 22 February 1915 . The squadron joined the Grand Fleet in a sortie on 29 March , in response to intelligence that the German fleet was leaving port as the precursor to a major operation . By the next night , the German ships had withdrawn , and the squadron returned to Rosyth . On 11 April , the British fleet was again deployed on the intelligence that a German force was planning an operation . The Germans intended to lay mines at the Swarte Bank , but after a scouting Zeppelin located a British light cruiser squadron , they began to prepare for what they thought was a British attack . Heavy fog and the need to refuel caused Australia and the British vessels to return to port on 17 April , and although they were redeployed that night , they were unable to stop two German light cruisers from laying the minefield . From 26 to 28 January 1916 , the 2nd BCS was positioned off the Skagerrak while the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron swept the strait in an unsuccessful search for a possible minelayer .
On the morning of 21 April 1916 , the 2nd BCS sailed again for the Skagerrak , this time to support efforts to disrupt the transport of Swedish ore to Germany . The planned destroyer sweep of the Kattegat was cancelled when word came that the High Seas Fleet was mobilising for an operation of their own ( later learned to be timed to coincide with the Irish Easter Rising ) , and the British ships were ordered to a rendezvous point in the middle of the North Sea , while the rest of the Grand Fleet made for the south @-@ eastern end of the Long Forties . On the afternoon of 22 April , the Battlecruiser Fleet was patrolling to the north @-@ west of Horn Reefs when heavy fog came down . The ships were zigzagging to avoid submarine attack when Australia collided with sister ship New Zealand twice in three minutes . Australia was damaged badly enough to be put out of action for several months , but New Zealand returned to the fleet on 30 May , a day before the start of the Battle of Jutland , relieving Indefatigable as flagship .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
On 31 May 1916 , the 2nd BCS consisted of New Zealand ( flagship of Rear Admiral William Christopher Pakenham ) and Indefatigable ; Australia was still under repair following her collision with New Zealand . The squadron was assigned to Admiral Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet , which had put to sea to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 3 : 20 p.m. , but Beatty 's ships didn 't spot the Germans to their east until 3 : 30 . Two minutes later , he ordered a course change to east @-@ south @-@ east to position himself astride the German 's line of retreat and called his ships ' crews to action stations . He also ordered the 2nd BCS , which had been leading , to fall in astern of the 1st BCS . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn , Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , then about 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Around this time , Beatty altered course to the east as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper .
Thus began the so @-@ called " Run to the South " as Beatty changed course to steer east @-@ south @-@ east at 3 : 45 , paralleling Hipper 's course , now that the range closed to under 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . The Germans opened fire first at 3 : 48 , followed by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn , and only the two leading ships , Lion and HMS Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The British formation was echeloned to the right with Indefatigable in the rear and the furthest to the west , and New Zealand ahead of her and slightly further east . The German fire was accurate from the beginning , but the British overestimated the range as the German ships blended into the haze . Indefatigable aimed at SMS Von der Tann , while New Zealand , unengaged herself , targeted SMS Moltke . By 3 : 54 , the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 3 : 57 . Indefatigable was destroyed at about 4 : 03 , when her magazines exploded .
After Indefatigable 's loss , New Zealand shifted her fire to Von der Tann in accordance with Beatty 's standing instructions . The range had grown too far for accurate shooting , so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 4 : 12 and 4 : 15 . By this time , the 5th Battle Squadron , consisting of four Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships , had closed up and was engaging Von der Tann and Moltke . At 4 : 23 , a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) shell from HMS Tiger struck near Von der Tann 's rear turret , starting a fire among the practice targets stowed there that completely obscured the ship and caused New Zealand to shift fire to Moltke . At 4 : 26 , the ship was hit by a 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) shell , fired by Von der Tann , on ' X ' barbette that detonated on contact and knocked loose a piece of armour that briefly jammed ' X ' turret and blew a hole in the upper deck . Four minutes later , Southampton , scouting in front of Beatty 's ships , spotted the lead elements of the High Seas Fleet charging north at top speed . Three minutes later , she sighted the topmasts of Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer 's battleships , but did not transmit a message to Beatty for another five minutes . Beatty continued south for another two minutes to confirm the sighting himself before ordering a sixteen @-@ point turn to starboard in succession . New Zealand , the last ship in the line , turned prematurely to stay outside the range of the oncoming battleships .
New Zealand was straddled several times by the battleship SMS Prinzregent Luitpold but was not hit . Beatty 's ships maintained full speed in an attempt to increase the distance between them and the High Seas Fleet , and gradually moved out of range . They turned north and then north @-@ east to try to rendezvous with the main body of the Grand Fleet . At 5 : 40 , they opened fire again on the German battlecruisers . The setting sun blinded the German gunners , and as they could not make out the British ships , they turned away to the north @-@ east at 5 : 47 . Beatty gradually turned more towards the east to allow him to cover the deployment of the Grand Fleet in battle formation and to move ahead of it , but he mistimed his manoeuvre and forced the leading division to fall off towards the east , further away from the Germans . By 6 : 35 , Beatty was following Indomitable and HMS Inflexible of the 3rd BCS as they were steering east @-@ south @-@ east , leading the Grand Fleet , and continuing to engage Hipper 's battlecruisers to their south @-@ west . A few minutes earlier , Scheer had ordered a simultaneous 180 ° starboard turn and Beatty lost sight of the High Seas Fleet in the haze . Twenty minutes later , Scheer ordered another 180 ° turn which put them on a converging course again with the Grand Fleet , which had altered course to the south . This allowed the Grand Fleet to cross Scheer 's T , forming a battle line that cut across his battle line and badly damaging his leading ships . Scheer ordered yet another 180 ° turn at 7 : 13 in an attempt to extricate the High Seas Fleet from the trap into which he had sent them .
This was successful , and the British lost sight of the Germans until 8 : 05 , when HMS Castor spotted smoke bearing west @-@ north @-@ west . Ten minutes later , she had closed the range enough to identify German torpedo boats , and engaged them . Beatty turned west upon hearing gunfire and spotted the German battlecruisers only 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) away . Inflexible opened fire at 8 : 20 , followed by the rest of Beatty 's battlecruisers . New Zealand and Indomitable concentrated their fire on SMS Seydlitz , and hit her five times before she turned west to disengage . Shortly after 8 : 30 , the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve 's II Battle Squadron were spotted and fire switched to them . The Germans had poor visibility and were able to fire only a few rounds at them before turning away to the west . The British battlecruisers hit the German ships several times before they blended into the haze around 8 : 40 . After this , Beatty changed course to south @-@ south @-@ east and maintained that course , ahead of both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet , until 2 : 55 the next morning , when the order was given to reverse course and head home .
New Zealand fired 420 twelve @-@ inch shells during the battle , more than any other ship on either side . Despite this , only four successful hits were credited to the battlecruiser : three on Seydlitz and one on the pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Schleswig @-@ Holstein . She was hit only once during the battle , confirming for the crew the piupiu and tiki worn by her new captain , J.F.E. ( Jimmy ) Green , brought good luck .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = =
New Zealand was relieved by Australia as flagship on 9 June and temporarily attached to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , until HMS Renown relieved her in September . On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 that indicated that the High Seas Fleet , minus II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on 19 August , based on extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and six battlecruisers . Throughout the next day , Jellicoe and Scheer received conflicting intelligence ; after reaching the location in the North Sea where the British expected to encounter the High Seas Fleet , they turned north in the erroneous belief that they had entered a minefield . Scheer turned south again , then steered south @-@ eastward to pursue a lone British battle squadron sighted by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force of cruisers and destroyers under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Realising their mistake , the Germans changed course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off contact . The British and the German fleets returned home ; the British lost two cruisers to submarine attacks , and one German dreadnought had been torpedoed . New Zealand underwent a refit at Rosyth in November 1916 . She temporarily replaced Australia as squadron flagship between 29 November and 7 January 1917 .
German minesweepers and escorting light cruisers were attempting to clear British @-@ laid minefields in the Heligoland Bight in late 1917 . The Admiralty planned a large operation for 17 November to destroy the ships , and allocated two light cruiser squadrons and the 1st Cruiser Squadron covered by the reinforced 1st Battlecruiser Squadron and , more distantly , the 1st Battle Squadron of battleships . New Zealand was attached to the 1st BCS for this operation , which became known as the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight . New Zealand did not fire her guns during the battle . As in previous engagements , Captain Green wore the piupiu and tiki for luck .
During 1918 , New Zealand and the Grand Fleet 's other capital ships were used on occasion to escort convoys between Britain and Norway . The 2nd BCS spent the period from 8 to 21 February covering these convoys in company with battleships and destroyers , and put to sea on 6 March in company with the 1st BCS to support minelayers . The 2nd BCS again supported minelayers in the North Sea from 25 June or 26 June to the end of July . During September and October , New Zealand and the 2nd BCS supervised and protected minelaying operations north of Orkney . The battlecruiser was present at the surrender of the High Seas Fleet as part of the 2nd BCS .
= = = = Dominion tour = = = =
Following the war , Admiral Jellicoe was tasked with helping to plan and coordinate the naval policies and defences of the British Dominions . New Zealand was made available for his transportation , and was refitted between December 1918 and February 1919 for the tour ; the main changes were the removal of her flying @-@ off platforms and the lower forward four @-@ inch guns . The first stop was India , with New Zealand arriving in Bombay on 14 March 1919 and departing six weeks later . The battlecruiser arrived at Albany , Western Australia , on 15 May , where Jellicoe and his staff disembarked to take an overland route across the country . New Zealand sailed via Melbourne and Hobart to depart from Sydney for New Zealand on 16 August .
The ship called upon Christmas Island , southeast of Fanning Island , on 19 November 1920 , thinking it uninhabited . Instead , they were greeted by Joe English , of Medford , Massachusetts , who had been manager of a copra plantation on the island , but had become marooned with two others , when the war had broken out . The men were rescued .
The ship was particularly popular in New Zealand , where crowds flocked to visit her as they had done in 1913 . Jellicoe , too , was popular and he later returned to New Zealand to serve as Governor @-@ General from 1920 to 1924 . The ship stopped off at Fiji and Hawaii before arriving on 8 November in Canada , the final country to be assessed . After returning to the United Kingdom , the battlecruiser was paid off into reserve on 15 March 1920 . New Zealand was regarded as obsolete by the Royal Navy , because her 12 @-@ inch guns were inferior to the 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns deployed on the latest generation of battlecruisers . She was sold for scrap on 19 December 1922 to meet the tonnage restrictions set on the British Empire by the Washington Naval Treaty . The New Zealand Government completed paying off the loan used to fund the ship in the 1944 / 45 financial year .
Many items from the battlecruiser were sent to New Zealand after she was scrapped . Equipment including several 4 @-@ inch guns , a range finder and laundry equipment , were used by military units while other artifacts were placed on display in museums . During World War II , the 4 @-@ inch guns were the main armament of the land batteries which protected the entrances to the harbours at Auckland , Wellington and Lyttelton . The captain 's piupiu was returned to New Zealand in 2005 , and is on display at the Torpedo Bay Navy Museum in Auckland alongside the ship 's bell and other artifacts . The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa in Wellington also holds several items from the ship in its collection .
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= 1993 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1993 Giro d 'Italia , ( English : Tour of Italy ) , was the 76th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Porto Azzurro on 23 May with a split stage , with the first leg being a mass @-@ start stage and the latter an individual time trial . The race ended on 13 June with a stage that stretched 166 km ( 103 @.@ 1 mi ) from Biella to Milan . Twenty teams entered the race , which was won by Miguel Indurain of the Banesto team . Second and third respectively were the Latvian Piotr Ugrumov and the Italian rider , Claudio Chiappucci . Indurain 's victory in the 1993 Giro was his first step in completing the Giro – Tour double – winning the Giro d 'Italia and Tour de France in one calendar year – becoming the first rider to repeat this feat in consecutive years .
Moreno Argentin was the first rider to wear the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) after winning the opening stage . Argentin held that lead for ten more days before losing it to Miguel Indurain after the conclusion stage 10 . Bruno Leali stole the lead away from Indurain after the race 's eleventh leg and held it until the end of the fourteenth day of racing . Indurain gained the lead after mountainous stage 14 and then held it all the way to the Giro 's finish in Milan .
Indurain became the first Spanish rider to win the Giro d 'Italia in consecutive years . Amongst the other classifications that the race awarded , Italian Adriano Baffi of Mercatone Uno – Zucchini – Medeghini won the points competition , Carrera Jeans – Tassoni 's Claudio Chiappucci won the mountains classification , Lampre – Polti 's Pavel Tonkov completed the Giro as the best rider aged 25 or younger in the general classification , finishing fifth overall , and Ján Svorada of Lampre @-@ Polti won the intergiro competition . Lampre @-@ Polti finished as the winners of the team classification , ranking each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time . Ariostea finished as winners of the team points classification .
= = Teams = =
Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1993 edition of the Giro d 'Italia , seven of which were based outside of Italy . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . From the riders that began the race , 132 made it to the finish in Milan .
The 20 teams that took part in the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton included the 1992 winner , Miguel Indurain , who had not had a successful start to his 1993 campaign according to El Mundo writer Javier de Dalmases . Dalmases went on to name Gianni Bugno , Pavel Tonkov , 1988 winner Andrew Hampsten , and Claudio Chiappucci as contenders for the overall crown , while author Bill McGann dismissed Bugno saying that he was ability to " win at will " had passed .
Famed sprinters Mario Cipollini and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov did not compete in the race , while Dutch sprinter Jean @-@ Paul van Poppel was going to race in the Giro but was left off the roster before it started . With the aforementioned riders ' absence , Dalmases stated that Italian Adriano Baffi would likely win some of the flat stages . In addition , Dalmases believed Maurizio Fondriest was in peak form coming into the race and that he would be the first rider to don the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1993 Giro d 'Italia was unveiled by race director Carmine Castellano on 14 November 1992 . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were nine stages containing high mountains , of which five had summit finishes : stage 3 , to Sella di Corno ; stage 13 , to Passo delle Erbe ; stage 15 , to Lumezzane ; stage 17 , to Chianale ; and stage 20 , to Oropa . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 19 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to village of Sestriere . The organizers chose to include one rest day . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 141 km ( 88 mi ) shorter , contained one more rest day , more mountains , and lacked an opening time trial prologue . In addition , this race contained one fewer stage , but two more sets of half stages .
The race began with a split stage on the island of Elba , where Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled briefly in 1814 . The race last visited in 1980 where the race finished in Portoferraio with a sprint finish won by Carmelo Barone . The route contained less time trials than the 1992 route , which Italian rider Claudio Chiappucci had requested . The race 's fourteenth stage , which began and ended in Corvara , was named the queen stage for the amount of difficult mountains contained in the stage . Italian rider Franco Chioccioli liked that there were more points of attack in the race and believed that played into Miguel Indurain 's hands .
= = Race overview = =
This edition of the Giro began with a split stage , with the morning leg consisting of a 85 km ( 53 mi ) undulating course and the afternoon stage being a brief 9 km ( 6 mi ) individual time trial . Moreno Argentin won the morning stage after attacking on the final climb of the day to win the leg by thirty @-@ four seconds over the chasing peloton . The afternoon time trial navigated the streets of Portoferraio and was won by Italian Maurizio Fondriest . The Giro 's second stage was relatively a flat route that culminated with a sprint finish which was won by Adriano Baffi . The next day saw the first uphill finish to the Selle di Corno . General classification hopeful Piotr Ugrumov positioned himself in the day 's breakaway and attacked up the final climb to win the stage and climb to second overall .
The Giro 's fourth stage ended with a sprint finish that was won by Italian Fabio Baldato . Jolly Componibili @-@ Club 88 's Dimitri Konyshev attacked in the closing kilometers of the fifth stage to take the win . The day of racing concluded with a sprint finish in Messina , which was won by Italian Guido Bontempi . Bjarne Riis , Giancarlo Perini , and Michele Coppolillo made up the leading breakaway as the race made its way into the stage seven finish in Agrigento . Riis and Coppolillo pulled away from Perini in the final seconds and Riis subsequently edged out Perini for the victory . The race 's eighth leg came down to a sprint finish in Palermo , where Adriano Baffi bested the likes of Endrio Leoni and Fabio Baldato for the win .
The race 's ninth stage began in Montelibretti after the race necessitated the transfer to the city during the rest day the day before . The riders were preparing for a sprint finish when Giorgio Furlan and Mario Chiesa attacked with about 5 km ( 3 mi ) of racing to go . The two riders successfully fended off the chasing peloton and went on to the finish in Fabriano , where Furlan managed to beat out Chiesa for the victory . The stage 10 individual time trial began and ended in the city of Senigallia . Miguel Indurain dominated the course and gained over a minute on race leader Moreno Argentin , which allowed him to gain the overall lead of the race and don the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) .
Stage eleven was marred by rainy weather , which caused many splits in the peloton . Fabio Fontanelli won the stage as a member of the lead group , but tenth @-@ place finisher Bruno Leali gained a six @-@ second race lead by finishing more than three minutes in front of overall leader Miguel Indurain . The Giro 's twelfth stage began with a large climb which led to many attacks . Despite the flurry of attacks , the whole peloton eventually made it to the finish line together for a sprint finish that was won by Russian Dimitri Konyshev .
The thirteenth stage saw the first stage that contained mountains from the Dolomites . On the penultimate climb of the day , the Passo di Eores , a lead group broke away that contained the likes of Andrew Hampsten , Piotr Urgrumov , and Massimiliano Lelli . The riders stayed out in front over the final climb of the Passi delle Erbe , but were eventually caught by the chase group containing the race leader Leoni . Moreno Argentin edged out Lelli for his second stage victory at the 1993 Giro d 'Italia . The next day 's route was even more demanding as it contained two ascents of the Passo Pordoi , as well as the climbing of three other highly categorized climbs . Miguel Indurain , Ugrumov , Claudio Chiappucci , and a few other general classification hopefuls were in the leading breakaway as they crossed the Pordoi for the second time . The group rode into the finish in Corvara with race leader Leoni trailing by several minutes . Chiappucci won the sprint to the line , while Indurain regained the overall lead .
Davide Cassani won the fifteenth stage that featured a summit finish to Lumezzane , while the general classification remained largely unaltered . The next day of racing saw a break from the mountains , with a primarily flat course that stretched from Varazze to Pontechianale . The stage ultimately finished with a bunch sprint that was won by Italian Fabio Baldato . The Giro 's seventeenth stage concluded with a summit finish to Chianale . Marco Saligari won the stage by over a minute on the second @-@ place finisher Gianluca Bortolami , while the general classification contenders finished together leaving the classification largely unchanged . Stage eighteen was a primarily flat stage that closed with a field sprint . Adriano Baffi won the field sprint and the stage , which was his third stage victory at the Giro that year .
The final time trial in the 1993 Giro d 'Italia was 55 km ( 34 mi ) in length and had a summit finish on the famous climb of the Sestriere . Miguel Indurain won the leg and extended his lead over the rest of the field . The penultimate stage featured a 10 km ( 6 mi ) climb to Oropa . Second overall Piotr Ugrumov attacked multiple times on the final climb of the day to gain time on Indurain ; he attacked one last time and Indurain could not match his move . Massimo Ghirotto was the first rider to cross the finish line , with Ugrumov finishing in fifth and Indurain in tenth . Ugrumov gained 40 seconds on Indurain 's lead , but it was not good enough to take it away from the Spaniard . The final stage was a primarily flat course that stretched from Biella to Milan . The leg culminated with a bunch sprint that was won by Italian Fabio Baldato . Indurain had won his second consecutive Giro d 'Italia .
Success in stages was limited to nine of the competing teams , seven of which achieved multiple stage victories , while five individual riders won multiple stages . The riders that won more than once were Moreno Argentin in stages 1a and 13 , Adriano Baffi in stages 2 , 8 , and 18 , Fabio Baldato in stages 4 , 16 , and 21 , Dimitri Konyshev in stages 5 and 12 , and Miguel Indurain in stages 10 and 19 . Mecair – Ballan won two stages with Moreno Argentin and stage 3 with Piotr Ugrumov . Ariostea won four stages , with Bjarne Riis in stage 7 , Giorgio Furlan in stage 9 , Davide Cassani in stage 15 , and Marco Saligari stage 17 . Banesto won two stages with Miguel Indurain . GB – MG Maglificio won three stages with Fabio Baldato . Jolly Componibili @-@ Club 88 won two stages with Dimitri Konyshev . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni won two stages , stage 6 with Guido Bontempi and stage 14 with Claudio Chiappucci . Navigare – Blue Storm also won multiple stages , with Fabiano Fontanelli in stage 11 and three stages with Adriano Baffi .
Lampre – Polti and ZG Mobili each won one stage apiece . Maurizio Fondriest of Lampre @-@ Polti won the stage 1b individual time trial , while ZG Mobili rider Massimo Ghirotto won the mountainous stage 20 .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1993 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . The first rider to cross the Pordoi Pass was Spaniard Miguel Indurain . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1969 were eligible for it . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also a classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time . There was another team classification that awarded points to each team based off their riding 's finishing position in every stage . The team with the highest total of points was the leader of the classification .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final Standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Miguel Indurain entered the Tour de France in July as the favorite to win the race . He would go on to win the race after taking the lead after the conclusion of the ninth stage . By winning the Tour , he became the first rider to complete the Giro - Tour double in two consecutive years .
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= Delaware Route 4 =
Delaware Route 4 ( DE 4 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 279 and DE 896 in Newark east to DE 48 in downtown Wilmington . The route passes through suburban areas in northern New Castle County between Newark and Wilmington , intersecting DE 72 in the eastern part of Newark , DE 273 in Ogletown , DE 58 in Christiana , DE 7 in Stanton , DE 141 in Newport , DE 62 and DE 100 between Newport and Wilmington , and Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) / U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) in Wilmington . DE 4 is a four @-@ lane road much of its length .
What is now DE 4 was originally a county road that was paved in the 1930s . DE 4 was designated in the 1960s to run from the Maryland border along Chestnut Hill Road near Newark east to DE 48 in Wilmington . Between 1971 and 1981 , the route extended past DE 48 along Washington Street and Washington Street Extension to US 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in Bellefonte . In the 1980s , the western terminus of DE 4 was realigned from Chestnut Hill Road to the newly built Christiana Parkway , terminating at DE 2 ( now DE 279 ) and DE 896 .
= = Route description = =
DE 4 begins at an intersection with Elkton Road in Newark , which heads southwest as DE 279 and northeast as DE 896 . From here the route heads southeast concurrent with DE 896 on the three @-@ lane undivided Christiana Parkway , carrying two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane . The road runs through wooded areas and comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line before it cures east and widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it passes to the south of the University of Delaware 's Science , Technology , and Advanced Research campus .
At the intersection with South College Avenue DE 896 splits to the south and DE 4 continues east near Delaware Stadium and the Bob Carpenter Center on the University of Delaware campus to the north , intersecting Chestnut Hill Road . At this point the road becomes Chestnut Hill Road and runs between farmland to the north and residential neighborhoods to the south as it comes to a crossing of Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The road heads into commercial areas and intersects DE 72 .
Past this intersection , DE 4 continues east along Chestnut Hill Road and heads into suburban Brookside , passing through residential neighborhoods with some businesses and curving to the northeast . The route continues to Ogletown and passes to the southeast of the Delaware School for the Deaf before it has an interchange with DE 273 and the name changes to Ogletown Stanton Road . Following this , the road passes to the north of Christiana Hospital . Beyond the hospital DE 4 comes to an intersection with the western terminus of DE 58 and an access road to Delaware Park Racetrack and the Churchmans Crossing station on SEPTA 's Wilmington / Newark Line ( which follows the Northeast Corridor ) in Christiana . The route continues through commercial areas with some woods and curves east to reach an intersection with DE 7 .
At this point , DE 4 turns north for a concurrency with DE 7 on the six @-@ lane divided Stanton Christiana Road , running through wooded areas with nearby development , including the Hale @-@ Byrnes House , and passing over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line and White Clay Creek . The road passes to the east of Delaware Park Racetrack and curves northeast into Stanton . At this point , the two routes head into a commercial area and split into the one @-@ way pair of Mitch Road eastbound and Main Street westbound . DE 7 splits from DE 4 by heading northwest on Limestone Road . DE 4 continues east along the one @-@ way pair past homes and businesses with two lanes in each direction . The directions of the route rejoin and the route becomes four @-@ lane divided West Newport Pike . DE 4 enters Newport and splits into the one @-@ way pair of West Market Street eastbound and West Justis Street westbound . The route interchanges with the DE 141 and the one @-@ way pair becomes East Market Street eastbound and East Justis Street westbound .
The two directions of DE 4 rejoin and the route continues northeast as four @-@ lane undivided East Newport Pike.The road leaves Newport and heads between suburban neighborhoods to the northwest and Banning Park to the southeast . The route intersects DE 62 and becomes Maryland Avenue , passing a mix of homes and businesses . The road comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 100 and crosses a CSX railroad line . DE 4 continues into Wilmington and passes rowhomes and businesses . The route passes under I @-@ 95 / US 202 and comes to a ramp from northbound I @-@ 95 / US 202 . Past this , DE 4 enters downtown Wilmington and splits into the one @-@ way pair of Maryland Avenue eastbound and South Monroe Street westbound before ending at DE 48 , which is routed on the one @-@ way pair of Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard eastbound and West Second Street westbound .
DE 4 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 53 @,@ 936 vehicles at the west end of the DE 7 concurrency to a low of 12 @,@ 033 vehicles at the I @-@ 95 / US 202 interchange . The entire length of DE 4 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what would become DE 4 existed as a county road . The road from Stanton to Wilmington was paved four years later and the portion west of Stanton was paved by 1936 . In 1936 , work was underway to improve the road between Stanton and Newport by widening and resurfacing it , with completion a year later . In 1957 , Maryland Avenue between Silview and Boxwood Road was widened to four lanes and the one @-@ way pair along Market Street and Justis Street in Newport was established .
The present DE 4 designation first appeared in 1967 , at which point it ran from the Maryland border near Newark east to DE 48 in Wilmington , following Chestnut Hill Road from the state line before picking up its current alignment southeast of Newark . By 1971 , the route was extended northeast to US 13 Bus. in Bellefonte , forming a brief concurrency with DE 48 before continuing along Washington Street and Washington Street Extension . DE 4 was truncated back to DE 48 by 1981 , with DE 3 being realigned to the easternmost part of Washington Street Extension three years later . The portion of DE 4 concurrent with DE 7 was widened into a divided highway in 1985 , with the road shifted west to a new alignment passing over the Amtrak tracks and the White Clay Creek .
The Christiana Parkway around the southern edge of Newark was completed in September 1983 and DE 4 was realigned to use the Christiana Parkway by 1987 , ending at DE 2 in the southwestern part of Newark . DE 896 was rerouted to use the Christiana Parkway the following year with DE 2 following by 1990 . The DE 2 designation was removed from the Christiana Parkway in 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Black Francis =
Charles Michael Kittridge Thompson IV ( born April 6 , 1965 ) is an American singer , songwriter and guitarist . He is best known as the frontman of the influential alternative rock band Pixies , with whom he performs under the stage name Black Francis . Following the band 's breakup in 1993 , he embarked on a solo career under the name Frank Black . After releasing two albums with record label 4AD and one with American Recordings , he left the label and formed a new band , Frank Black and the Catholics . He re @-@ adopted the name Black Francis in 2007 .
His vocal style has varied from a screaming , yowling delivery as lead vocalist of the Pixies to a more measured and melodic style in his solo career . His cryptic lyrics mostly explore unconventional subjects , such as surrealism , incest and biblical violence , along with science fiction and surf culture . His use of atypical meter signatures , loud – quiet dynamics and distinct preference for live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track recording in his career as a solo artist give him a distinct style within alternative rock .
As frontman of the Pixies , his songs ( such as " Where Is My Mind ? " and " Debaser " ) received praise and citations from contemporaries , including Radiohead 's Thom Yorke and Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain . Cobain once said that " Smells Like Teen Spirit " was his attempt to " rip off the Pixies " . Thompson reformed the Pixies in 2004 and continues to release solo records and tour as a solo artist .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth and college = = =
Charles Thompson was born in Boston , Massachusetts . His father was a bar owner , and Thompson lived in Los Angeles , California as a baby because his father wanted to " learn more about the restaurant and bar business " . Thompson was introduced to music at a young age , as his parents listened to 1960s folk rock . His first guitar was his mother 's , a Yamaha classical guitar bought with money from his father 's bar tips , which he started to play at age " 11 or 12 " .
Thompson 's family moved around , first with his father , and then his stepfather , a religious man who " pursued real estate on both coasts " ; his parents had separated twice by the time he was in first grade . When Thompson was 12 , his mother and stepfather joined a church that was tied to the evangelical Assemblies of God , a move that influenced many of his songs written with the Pixies , which often refer to the Bible .
He discovered the music of Christian rock singer @-@ songwriter Larry Norman at 13 when Norman played at a religious summer camp that Thompson attended . Norman 's music influenced Thompson to the extent that he named the Pixies ' first EP and a lyric in the band 's song " Levitate Me " after one of Norman 's catchphrases , " Come on , pilgrim ! " Thompson later described the music he listened to during his youth :
Thompson lived in Marblehead , Massachusetts , in an apartment . Just before Thompson 's senior year , his family moved to Westport , Massachusetts , where he received a Teenager of the Year award — the title of a later solo album . During this time , Thompson composed several songs that appeared in his later career , including " Here Comes Your Man " from Doolittle , and " Velvety Instrumental Version " .
After graduating from high school in 1983 , he studied at the University of Massachusetts Amherst , majoring in anthropology . Thompson shared a room with another roommate for a semester before moving in with future Pixies guitarist Joey Santiago . The two shared an interest in rock music , and Santiago introduced Thompson to 1970s punk and the music of David Bowie ; they began to jam together . It was at this time that Thompson discovered The Cars , a band he described as " very influential on me and the Pixies " .
In his second year of college , Thompson embarked on a trip to San Juan , Puerto Rico as part of an exchange program . He spent six months in an apartment with a " weird , psycho roommate " , who later served as a direct inspiration for the Pixies song " Crackity Jones " ; many of the band 's early songs refer to Thompson 's experiences in Puerto Rico . Thompson failed to learn to speak Spanish formally , and left his studies after debating whether he would go to New Zealand to view Halley 's Comet ( he later said it " seemed like the cool romantic thing to do at the time " ) , or start a rock band . He wrote a letter urging Santiago , with the words " we gotta do it , now is the time Joe " , to join him in a band upon his return to Boston .
= = = Pixies = = =
Soon after returning to Massachusetts , Thompson dropped out of college , and moved to Boston with Santiago . He spent 1985 working in a warehouse , " managing buttons on teddy bears " , composing songs on his acoustic guitar , and writing lyrics on the subway train . In January 1986 , Thompson formed the Pixies with Santiago . Bassist Kim Deal was recruited a week later via a classified advertisement placed in a Boston paper , which requested a bassist " into Hüsker Dü and Peter , Paul and Mary . " Drummer David Lovering was later hired on recommendation from Deal 's husband .
In 1987 , the Pixies released an 18 @-@ track demo tape , commonly referred to as The Purple Tape . Thompson 's father assisted the band financially , loaning $ 1 @,@ 000 in order to record the demo tape ; Thompson later said that his father " wasn 't around for a lot of my younger years , so I think he was doing his best to make up for lost time " . The Purple Tape led to a recording contract with the English independent record label 4AD . For the release of the mini album Come On Pilgrim , Thompson adopted the alias " Black Francis " , a name inspired by his father : " he had been saving that name in case he had another son " .
In 1988 , the Pixies recorded their debut album Surfer Rosa . Thompson wrote and sang on all the tracks , with the exception of the single " Gigantic " , which was co @-@ written and sung by Deal . To support the album , the band undertook a European tour , during which Thompson met Eric Drew Feldman , a later collaborator on Pixies and solo albums . Doolittle , with Thompson @-@ penned songs such as " Debaser " and " Monkey Gone To Heaven " , was released the following year to widespread critical acclaim . However , by this time , tensions between Thompson and Deal , combined with exhaustion , led the band to announce a hiatus . Thompson has an aversion to flying , and spent this time driving across America with his girlfriend , Jean Walsh ( whom he had met in the band 's early days ) , performing solo shows in order to raise funds to buy furniture for his new Los Angeles apartment .
The band reconvened in 1990 , and recorded two further albums : 1990 's Bossanova and 1991 's Trompe le Monde ; the latter was Thompson 's first collaboration with Feldman . The later Pixies albums were characterized by Thompson 's increasing influence on the band 's output , as well as a focus on science fiction themes , including aliens and UFOs . These themes would continue to be explored throughout his early solo work . Trompe le Monde includes the song " U @-@ Mass " , which was written about the university he attended as a youth , and due to the keyboard part played by Feldman , signified a move away from the band 's alternative rock sound . Although Deal had contributed on the songs " Gigantic " ( from Surfer Rosa ) and " Silver " ( from Doolittle ) , from Bossanova on , Thompson wrote all the band 's original material . This contributed to the increasing tension between him and Deal , and the Pixies broke up in 1992 ; this was not publicly announced until early 1993 .
= = = Early solo career = = =
While the Pixies ' 1991 album Trompe le Monde was being recorded , Thompson had discussions with the album 's producer , Gil Norton , about a possible solo record . He told Norton he was keen to record again , even though he had no new material ; as a result , the two decided on a cover album . However , by the time Thompson visited a recording studio again in 1992 , he had " plenty of tunes and musical scraps . "
He collaborated with Feldman to record new material ; they began by trimming down the number of covers to one , The Beach Boys ' " Hang On to Your Ego " . Feldman became the album 's producer , and played keyboard and bass guitar on several songs , with Santiago featuring on lead guitar and Nick Vincent on drums . Francis recorded the album during the hiatus and breakup of the Pixies in late 1992 and early 1993 . He then adopted the stage name " Frank Black " ( inverting his old persona " Black Francis " ) and released the results as Frank Black in March 1993 . Frank Black was characterized by a focus on UFOs and science fiction , although he explored other subjects , such as in " I Heard Ramona Sing " , a song about the Ramones . The album was similar in style , both musically and lyrically , to the Pixies ' albums Bossanova and Trompe le Monde . Feldman later said that the first record connected his solo career with Trompe le Monde , " but at the same time it is an island , like nothing else he [ Black ] did . "
The following year , Black released his second solo record , a 22 @-@ song double album entitled Teenager of the Year . Teenager included the song " Headache " ( sample ) , a moderate success on alternative rock playlists ; critics described the song as " irresistible pop " . The production of Teenager of the Year was markedly different from Frank Black ; in the previous album , MIDI templates were used when writing songs , but in Teenager , Black showed individual parts to band members , the core of which included drummer Vincent and Lyle Workman on lead guitar . Feldman noted that Thompson 's songwriting became " a lot more spontaneous " while recording the album . Thompson had begun to stray from his style with the Pixies , writing songs that covered a variety of genres and topics , and his new @-@ found method of recording was closer to later albums than that of Frank Black and Trompe le Monde .
Both Frank Black and Teenager of the Year were critically well received , although they enjoyed limited commercial success . In 1995 , Thompson left his long @-@ time labels 4AD and Elektra . In 1996 , he released The Cult of Ray on Rick Rubin 's American Recordings ; the album marked a turn away from the elaborate production of his first solo works and was recorded primarily live with few overdubs . His band for this album featured sole Teenager holdover Lyle Workman on lead guitar , along with bassist David McCaffrey and Scott Boutier on drums . Though the album was neither critically nor commercially successful , its stripped @-@ down approach would increasingly define Thompson 's working methods for the next several years .
= = = Frank Black and the Catholics = = =
Thompson dubbed his new band " Frank Black and the Catholics " , and recorded their eponymous first album in 1997 . Recorded live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track initially as merely a demo , he was so pleased with the results that he decided to release the sessions with no further production . The album was delayed for over a year by conflicts at American , both internal and over its production , and was ultimately released in late 1998 by SpinArt Records in the US . Since leaving American , Black has avoided long @-@ term contracts with labels , and has maintained ownership of his album masters , licensing each album individually for release .
Frank Black and the Catholics became the first album to be posted to the eMusic service ; they claim it is " the first album ever made legally available for commercial download " . Critical reception to the album was mixed , with some writers noting Thompson 's seemingly deliberate turn away from the " quirkiness " of the Pixies and his early solo work for a self @-@ consciously straightforward approach , and the " disappointingly straightforward punk @-@ pop " musical style present on the album .
He would continue to eschew multi @-@ track recording for the live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track technique for all subsequent releases under the group name . Live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track recording precludes the use of overdubs to correct errors or add texture ; all takes are recorded continuously , and mixing is done " on the fly " . On later albums , he incorporated more musicians into the sessions to allow for more varied instrumental textures . Explaining his rationale behind the method , he commented :
Well , it 's real . It 's a recording of a performance , of a real performance between a group of people , an entourage , a band , as opposed to a facsimile of that , which is frequently what people do with multi @-@ track recording ... I prefer it . It 's a little more real . It 's got a little more heart .
Workman left the Catholics in 1998 to pursue session and sideman work ; Rich Gilbert was added to the band to replace him . Frank Black and the Catholics released Pistolero in 1999 and Dog in the Sand in 2001 . Dog in the Sand added Dave Philips on pedal steel guitar and lead guitar , and Santiago and Feldman began making occasional appearances with the group live and on record . Both Pistolero and Dog in the Sand were produced by Nick Vincent .
By this time , while dismissing the possibility of a Pixies reunion , Thompson had begun to incorporate an increasing number of the band 's songs into Catholics concerts , as well as including Santiago in his solo work again . Black and the Catholics continued to release records ; two separate albums , Black Letter Days and Devil 's Workshop , were released simultaneously in 2002 . Devil 's Workshop included the song " Velvety " ( sample ) , a version of the Pixies song " Velvety Instrumental Version " ( written by Black as a teenager ) with lyrics . The song was one of the first signs that he had acknowledged his past work with the Pixies in his solo output . A sixth album with the Catholics , Show Me Your Tears , was released in 2003 . Show Me Your Tears ' title and many of the songs in it were inspired by Thompson 's recent divorce and entry into therapy .
= = = Pixies reunion , Nashville and the return of Black Francis = = =
In late 2003 , following long @-@ standing rumors , an official announcement was made that the Pixies were rehearsing for a reunion tour . The band played publicly for the first time in 12 years in April 2004 , and went on to tour extensively throughout the U.S. , Canada and Europe in the same year . They also recorded one of Deal 's compositions , " Bam Thwok " , which was released on the iTunes Music Store . Frank Black Francis , a double album bridging the gap between his two personas , was released to coincide with the Pixies reunion tour . The first disc consisted of solo demos of Pixies songs recorded the day before The Purple Tape was recorded , and the second contained studio collaborations , again of Pixies songs , with Two Pale Boys .
Also in 2004 , Thompson began to collaborate with a group of Nashville session musicians , including Steve Cropper , Spooner Oldham , Reggie Young , and Anton Fig , as well as producer Jon Tiven . In July 2005 , the collective released Honeycomb under the Frank Black name , to generally favorable reviews . Entertainment Weekly described the album as " spare , graceful , [ and ] in the pocket " , while Billboard noted it as " One of [ Thompson 's ] finest hours " . A second volume of Nashville sessions , a double album entitled Fast Man Raider Man , was released in June 2006 . Thompson appeared at a concert by Christian rock pioneer Larry Norman in June 2005 in Salem , Oregon . Norman and Thompson performed a duet on " Watch What You 're Doing " , which later appeared on Norman 's album , Live at The Elsinore .
Thompson continued to tour with the Pixies through 2005 and 2006 . Though the Catholics were effectively defunct , they released two separate albums of B @-@ sides and rarities , Snake Oil and One More Road for the Hit , on iTunes , with an eye towards a future CD release . Thompson was also working on more new solo material with Feldman in the first part of 2006 , some of which they performed live . In the fall of 2006 , Thompson began his first solo tour since 2003 , taking Feldman , Billy Block , and Duane Jarvis along as his backing band . In October 2006 , Thompson announced plans for the Pixies to start rehearsing and recording a new album in January 2007 , but it is believed that no recording took place because of the reluctance of another member of the Pixies to commit to the project . In December 2006 , he released the compilation Christmass album ; a collection of new studio tracks , hotel room sessions , and live acoustic recordings from a solo tour the previous summer .
A Frank Black " best of " compilation , Frank Black 93 @-@ 03 , was released in June 2007 . Concurrently with that release , Thompson undertook a European tour with a new band , featuring Salem 's Guards of Metropolis members Jason Carter and Charles Normal , as well as bassist Ding Archer . For this tour , Thompson eschewed his usual rhythm guitar role and performed solely as a frontman and singer . In September 2007 , a new album entitled Bluefinger was released under his former stage name of Black Francis . For this album , he was inspired by the life and works of Herman Brood , a Dutch musician and artist . He also released a new " mini @-@ album " entitled Svn Fngrs as Black Francis in March 2008 .
In February 2008 , Thompson was taken away by the Irish police in Dublin , Ireland after staging an impromptu " precore " acoustic solo gig at St. Stephen 's Green . He was later released and performed that night in Vicar Street as planned . However , a similar event planned for London was prevented by police and had to be re @-@ arranged for a small indoor venue .
Thompson currently lives in Amherst , Massachusetts , and is married to Violet Clark , his second wife , with whom he has three children , along with her two children from previous relationships . The couple formerly lived in Eugene , Oregon , where they met . Thompson and Clark currently compose the band Grand Duchy . Their debut album , Petit Fours , was released in February 2009 .
In 2008 , Black produced Art Brut 's third album , Art Brut vs. Satan , which was released the following year . Black gave several joint interviews with frontman Eddie Argos about the album , and Art Brut supported the Pixies at their 2009 Brixton Academy show . In 2010 , Black worked with the group a second time on their album Brilliant ! Tragic ! .
Black Francis released NonStopErotik in March 2010 and contributed the song " I Heard Ramona Sing " to the soundtrack for the film Scott Pilgrim vs. the World released in August 2010 .
In the fall of 2010 in Nashville , Thompson recorded an album of new songs written and performed with collaborator Reid Paley , as Paley & Francis ( Reid Paley & Black Francis ) . The debut Paley & Francis album ( also titled Paley & Francis ) was produced by Jon Tiven , and features Reid Paley and Black Francis on guitars and vocals , accompanied by Muscle Shoals legends Spooner Oldham on piano and David Hood on bass . The album was released in October 2011 on Sonic Unyon in North America , and on Cooking Vinyl in the UK & Europe .
Paley & Francis debuted live in early September 2011 with club performances in Albany NY , Buffalo NY , and Hamilton , Ontario , and as one of the headliners of the Supercrawl Festival . The band for these performances consisted of Reid Paley and Black Francis on guitars and vocals , Eric Eble on bass , and Dave Varriale on drums . The pair toured again from February 8 to 22 , 2013 , with the shows including solo performances by each artist .
Black Francis performed at The Coach House Concert Hall in San Juan Capistrano , California on March 22 , 2013 . The Pixies , minus original bassist Kim Deal , reunited for a United States and world tour in 2014 .
= = Musical style = =
See also : Pixies ' musical style
Over the course of his career , Thompson 's musical style has grown to encompass a large number of genres ; however , he is considered to produce rock or alternative rock compositions . Whereas songs such as " Here Comes Your Man " ( Doolittle ) , " Velvety " ( Devil 's Workshop ) and " Headache " ( Teenager of the Year ) expose a more light rock side , others such as " Something Against You " ( Surfer Rosa ) and " Thalassocracy " ( Teenager of the Year ) hint to a more heavy rock influence in his material . A strong country music influence is also increasingly evident in his style , most notably in his Nashville albums , Honeycomb and Fast Man Raider Man .
Thompson has said that he acquired his vocal style as a teenager , when a Thai neighbor asked him to sing " Oh ! Darling " by The Beatles ( from their album Abbey Road ) and to " Scream it like you hate that bitch ! " Thompson 's powerful screams were a signature of Pixies albums , along with the band 's typical song structure of quietly paced verses followed by thundering chorus lines and repetitive guitar staccato .
= = = Influences = = =
Thompson has drawn influence from a number of musical genres . As a teenager , he mostly listened to 1960s folk and religious music , including the Christian singer @-@ songwriter Larry Norman . For playing on his junior high baseball team , he was given Leon Russell 's 1970 debut album , which he says influenced some of his vocalizing . Later in high school and in college , he discovered punk music ( Black Flag ) , along with bands from other genres , such as the new wave band The Cars and the obscure Angst . While in Boston in 1984 , before starting the Pixies , he listened to Hüsker Dü 's Zen Arcade , The Spotlight Kid by Captain Beefheart , and I 'm Sick of You , an Iggy Pop bootleg . Thompson was also greatly influenced by the Beatles self @-@ titled 1968 release ( known as White Album ) with regards to the experimental nature of his compositions ( especially those featured in Doolittle ) .
Thompson 's lyrics have also featured references to the Bible , especially in his career with the Pixies ; most notably in the incestuous tale of " Nimrod 's Son " , the stories of Uriah and Bathsheba in " Dead " , Samson in " Gouge Away " and references to the Tower of Babel in songs such as " Build High " and " Old Black Dawning " . He cited surrealist films Eraserhead and Un Chien Andalou ( as mentioned in " Debaser " ) as major influences on his work with the Pixies ; however , surrealism was less of an influence in his solo career . He commented on these influences ( which he paid tribute to most in the Pixies ' Doolittle ) , saying he " didn 't have the patience to sit around reading Surrealist novels " , but found it easier to watch 20 @-@ minute films .
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
During his stay in Puerto Rico , Thompson acquired a fairly fluent , although informal and at times incorrect , use of Spanish , which he has continued throughout his career . Several early Pixies songs , including " Isla de Encanta " and " Vamos " , reference his experiences in San Juan , and the lyrics are often heavily seasoned with the island 's slang . The island 's influence in his work is most notable in the song " Isla De Encanta " , named after the island 's motto , " Isla Del Encanto " . Other Pixies songs drawn from his experiences there include " Vamos " ( Come On Pilgrim ) , " Oh My Golly ! " , " Where Is My Mind ? " ( Surfer Rosa ) , " Crackity Jones " ( Doolittle ) and the B @-@ side " Bailey 's Walk " . Several of his songs contain Spanish lyrics , most notably in the Pixies ' first album , Come On Pilgrim , and a Spanish translation of " Evil Hearted You " by The Yardbirds . From his later works with the Pixies onwards , his use of Spanish drifted westward , reflecting places and aspects of the state of California and its culture .
Thompson 's lyrics are noted for their obscure references to off @-@ beat topics such as outer space , UFOs , and The Three Stooges — the last of these being the subject of " Two Reelers " , a song from Teenager of the Year . Lyrics with a focus on science fiction were particularly prominent on the later Pixies records , as well as his early solo albums . With the Catholics , his lyrics have tended towards historical topics ; for example , the song " St. Francis Dam Disaster " ( from Dog in the Sand ) details the catastrophic collapse of the St. Francis Dam near Los Angeles in March 1928 , and the All My Ghosts EP featured an account of the Humboldt County Massacre of Wiyot Indians in 1860 near Eureka , California .
= = Television appearances and videos = =
See also : Pixies ' television appearances and videos
Thompson has appeared on a range of television shows solo and as part of the Pixies , ranging from 120 Minutes and The Late Show in the United States , to The Word in the UK .
As part of the Pixies , he was reluctant to film music videos for singles . Elektra Records ' Peter Lubin commented that " to get videos out of them was a major ... undertaking and it only got worse over time " , citing the fact that Thompson refused to lip @-@ sync ; the video for " Here Comes Your Man " features Thompson and Deal opening their mouths as the vocals are being heard , mocking the practice .
In his early solo career as Frank Black , his videos were more professional ; he became more willing to take part in them . " Los Angeles " is an example ; the video features Thompson riding across a desert on a hovercraft . They Might Be Giants ' John Flansburgh , who directed the " Los Angeles " video , later commented on the change in Black 's attitude to music videos :
I think the Pixies had made enough anti @-@ videos that Charles was ready to do things that were more visually hopped up . The " Los Angeles " video that we did , the last minute and a half of the song is this open field of grey over which hovercrafts are floating . It 's about as tripped up as any video I 've ever been involved in , and it was also realizing a dream of Charles ' , getting him in a hovercraft .
Thompson has released few music videos since leaving 4AD , one being a low @-@ budget video in Germany for Dog in the Sand 's " Robert Onion " . The last widely released video produced for his solo material was for " Men in Black " , from Cult of Ray .
In 2013 , Thompson appeared in a video promoting McSweeney 's children 's book Lost Sloth .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Pixies = = =
= = Equipment = =
Frank Black 's 2014 Pixies guitar rig is well @-@ documented .
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= Tristan Tzara =
Tristan Tzara ( French : [ tʁistɑ ̃ dzaʁa ] ; Romanian : [ trisˈtan ˈt ͡ sara ] ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock , also known as S. Samyro ; April 16 [ O.S. April 4 ] 1896 – December 25 , 1963 ) was a Romanian and French avant @-@ garde poet , essayist and performance artist . Also active as a journalist , playwright , literary and art critic , composer and film director , he was known best for being one of the founders and central figures of the anti @-@ establishment Dada movement . Under the influence of Adrian Maniu , the adolescent Tzara became interested in Symbolism and co @-@ founded the magazine Simbolul with Ion Vinea ( with whom he also wrote experimental poetry ) and painter Marcel Janco . During World War I , after briefly collaborating on Vinea 's Chemarea , he joined Janco in Switzerland . There , Tzara 's shows at the Cabaret Voltaire and Zunfthaus zur Waag , as well as his poetry and art manifestos , became a main feature of early Dadaism . His work represented Dada 's nihilistic side , in contrast with the more moderate approach favored by Hugo Ball .
After moving to Paris in 1919 , Tzara , by then one of the " presidents of Dada " , joined the staff of Littérature magazine , which marked the first step in the movement 's evolution toward Surrealism . He was involved in the major polemics which led to Dada 's split , defending his principles against André Breton and Francis Picabia , and , in Romania , against the eclectic modernism of Vinea and Janco . This personal vision on art defined his Dadaist plays The Gas Heart ( 1921 ) and Handkerchief of Clouds ( 1924 ) . A forerunner of automatist techniques , Tzara eventually aligned himself with Breton 's Surrealism , and under its influence wrote his celebrated utopian poem The Approximate Man .
During the final part of his career , Tzara combined his humanist and anti @-@ fascist perspective with a communist vision , joining the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War and the French Resistance during World War II , and serving a term in the National Assembly . Having spoken in favor of liberalization in the People 's Republic of Hungary just before the Revolution of 1956 , he distanced himself from the French Communist Party , of which he was by then a member . In 1960 , he was among the intellectuals who protested against French actions in the Algerian War .
Tristan Tzara was an influential author and performer , whose contribution is credited with having created a connection from Cubism and Futurism to the Beat Generation , Situationism and various currents in rock music . The friend and collaborator of many modernist figures , he was the lover of dancer Maja Kruscek in his early youth and was later married to Swedish artist and poet Greta Knutson .
= = Name = =
S. Samyro , a partial anagram of Samy Rosenstock , was used by Tzara from his debut and throughout the early 1910s . A number of undated writings , which he probably authored as early as 1913 , bear the signature Tristan Ruia , and , in summer of 1915 , he was signing his pieces with the name Tristan .
In the 1960s , Rosenstock 's collaborator and later rival Ion Vinea claimed that he was responsible for coining the Tzara part of his pseudonym in 1915 . Vinea also stated that Tzara wanted to keep Tristan as his adopted first name , and that this choice had later attracted him the " infamous pun " Triste Âne Tzara ( French for " Sad Donkey Tzara " ) . This version of events is uncertain , as manuscripts show that the writer may have already been using the full name , as well as the variations Tristan Țara and Tr . Tzara , in 1913 @-@ 1914 ( although there is a possibility that he was signing his texts long after committing them to paper ) .
In 1972 , art historian Serge Fauchereau , based on information received from Colomba , the wife of avant @-@ garde poet Ilarie Voronca , recounted that Tzara himself had explained his chosen name was a pun in Romanian , trist în țară , meaning " sad in the country " ; Colomba Voronca was also dismissing rumors that Tzara had selected Tristan as a tribute to poet Tristan Corbière or to Richard Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde opera . Samy Rosenstock legally adopted his new name in 1925 , after filing a request with Romania 's Ministry of the Interior . The French pronunciation of his name has become commonplace in Romania , where it replaces its more natural reading as țara ( " the land " , Romanian pronunciation : [ ˈt ͡ sara ] ) .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and Simbolul years = = =
Tzara was born in Moinești , Bacău County , in the historical region of Moldavia . His parents were Jewish Romanians who reportedly spoke Yiddish as their first language ; his father Filip and grandfather Ilie were entrepreneurs in the forestry business . Tzara 's mother was Emilia Rosenstock , née Zibalis . Owing to the Romanian Kingdom 's discrimination laws , the Rosenstocks were not emancipated , and thus Tzara was not a full citizen of the country until after 1918 .
He moved to Bucharest at the age of eleven , and attended the Schemitz @-@ Tierin boarding school . It is believed that the young Tzara completed his secondary education at a state @-@ run high school , which is identified as the Saint Sava National College or as the Sfântul Gheorghe High School . In October 1912 , when Tzara was aged sixteen , he joined his friends Vinea and Marcel Janco in editing Simbolul . Reputedly , Janco and Vinea provided the funds . Like Vinea , Tzara was also close to their young colleague Jacques G. Costin , who was later his self @-@ declared promoter and admirer .
Despite their young age , the three editors were able to attract collaborations from established Symbolist authors , active within Romania 's own Symbolist movement . Alongside their close friend and mentor Adrian Maniu ( an Imagist who had been Vinea 's tutor ) , they included N. Davidescu , Alfred Hefter @-@ Hidalgo , Emil Isac , Claudia Millian , Ion Minulescu , I. M. Rașcu , Eugeniu Sperantia , Al . T. Stamatiad , Eugeniu Ștefănescu @-@ Est , Constantin T. Stoika , as well as the journalist and lawyer Poldi Chapier . In its inaugural issue , the journal even printed a poem by one of the leading figures in Romanian Symbolism , Alexandru Macedonski . Simbolul also featured illustrations by Maniu , Millian and Iosif Iser .
Although the magazine ceased print in December 1912 , it played an important part in shaping Romanian literature of the period . Literary historian Paul Cernat sees Simbolul as a main stage in Romania 's modernism , and credits it with having brought about the first changes from Symbolism to the radical avant @-@ garde . Also according to Cernat , the collaboration between Samyro , Vinea and Janco was an early instance of literature becoming " an interface between arts " , which had for its contemporary equivalent the collaboration between Iser and writers such as Ion Minulescu and Tudor Arghezi . Although Maniu parted with the group and sought a change in style which brought him closer to traditionalist tenets , Tzara , Janco and Vinea continued their collaboration . Between 1913 and 1915 , they were frequently vacationing together , either on the Black Sea coast or at the Rosenstock family property in Gârceni , Vaslui County ; during this time , Vinea and Samyro wrote poems with similar themes and alluding to one another .
= = = Chemarea and 1915 departure = = =
Tzara 's career changed course between 1914 and 1916 , during a period when the Romanian Kingdom kept out of World War I. In autumn 1915 , as founder and editor of the short @-@ lived journal Chemarea , Vinea published two poems by his friend , the first printed works to bear the signature Tristan Tzara . At the time , the young poet and many of his friends were adherents of an anti @-@ war and anti @-@ nationalist current , which progressively accommodated anti @-@ establishment messages . Chemarea , which was a platform for this agenda and again attracted collaborations from Chapier , may also have been financed by Tzara and Vinea . According to Romanian avant @-@ garde writer Claude Sernet , the journal was " totally different from everything that had been printed in Romania before that moment . " During the period , Tzara 's works were sporadically published in Hefter @-@ Hidalgo 's Versuri și Proză , and , in June 1915 , Constantin Rădulescu @-@ Motru 's Noua Revistă Română published Samyro 's known poem Verișoară , fată de pension ( " Little Cousin , Boarding School Girl " ) .
Tzara had enrolled at the University of Bucharest in 1914 , studying mathematics and philosophy , but did not graduate . In autumn 1915 , he left Romania for Zürich , in neutral Switzerland . Janco , together with his brother Jules , had settled there a few months before , and was later joined by his other brother Georges . Tzara , who may have applied for the Faculty of Philosophy at the local university , shared lodging with Marcel Janco , who was a student at the Technische Hochschule , in the Altinger Guest House ( by 1918 , Tzara had moved to the Limmatquai Hotel ) . His departure from Romania , like that of the Janco brothers , may have been in part a pacifist political statement . After settling in Switzerland , the young poet almost completely discarded Romanian as his language of expression , writing most of his subsequent works in French . The poems he had written before , which were the result of poetic dialogues between him and his friend , were left in Vinea 's care . Most of these pieces were first printed only in the interwar period .
It was in Zürich that the Romanian group met with the German Hugo Ball , an anarchist poet and pianist , and his young wife Emmy Hennings , a music hall performer . In February 1916 , Ball had rented the Cabaret Voltaire from its owner , Jan Ephraim , and intended to use the venue for performance art and exhibits . Hugo Ball recorded this period , noting that Tzara and Marcel Janco , like Hans Arp , Arthur Segal , Otto van Rees , Max Oppenheimer , and Marcel Słodki , " readily agreed to take part in the cabaret . " According to Ball , among the performances of songs mimicking or taking inspiration from various national folklores , " Herr Tristan Tzara recited Rumanian poetry . " In late March , Ball recounted , the group was joined by German writer and drummer Richard Huelsenbeck . He was soon after involved in Tzara 's " simultaneist verse " performance , " the first in Zürich and in the world " , also including renditions of poems by two promoters of Cubism , Fernand Divoire and Henri Barzun .
= = = Birth of Dada = = =
It was in this milieu that Dada was born , at some point before May 1916 , when a publication of the same name first saw print . The story of its establishment was the subject of a disagreement between Tzara and his fellow writers . Cernat believes that the first Dadaist performance took place as early as February , when the nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Tzara , wearing a monocle , entered the Cabaret Voltaire stage singing sentimental melodies and handing paper wads to his " scandalized spectators " , leaving the stage to allow room for masked actors on stilts , and returning in clown attire . The same type of performances took place at the Zunfthaus zur Waag beginning in summer 1916 , after the Cabaret Voltaire was forced to close down . According to music historian Bernard Gendron , for as long as it lasted , " the Cabaret Voltaire was dada . There was no alternative institution or site that could disentangle ' pure ' dada from its mere accompaniment [ ... ] nor was any such site desired . " Other opinions link Dada 's beginnings with much earlier events , including the experiments of Alfred Jarry , André Gide , Christian Morgenstern , Jean @-@ Pierre Brisset , Guillaume Apollinaire , Jacques Vaché , Marcel Duchamp or Francis Picabia .
In the first of the movement 's manifestos , Ball wrote : " [ The booklet ] is intended to present to the Public the activities and interests of the Cabaret Voltaire , which has as its sole purpose to draw attention , across the barriers of war and nationalism , to the few independent spirits who live for other ideals . The next objective of the artists who are assembled here is to publish a revue internationale [ French for " international magazine " ] . " Ball completed his message in French , and the paragraph translates as : " The magazine shall be published in Zürich and shall carry the name ' Dada ' ( ' Dada ' ) . Dada Dada Dada Dada . " The view according to which Ball had created the movement was notably supported by writer Walter Serner , who directly accused Tzara of having abused Ball 's initiative .
A secondary point of contention between the founders of Dada regarded the paternity for the movement 's name , which , according to visual artist and essayist Hans Richter , was first adopted in print in June 1916 . Ball , who claimed authorship and stated that he picked the word randomly from a dictionary , indicated that it stood for both the French @-@ language equivalent of " hobby horse " and a German @-@ language term reflecting the joy of children being rocked to sleep . Tzara himself declined interest in the matter , but Marcel Janco credited him with having coined the term . Dada manifestos , written or co @-@ authored by Tzara , record that the name shares its form with various other terms , including a word used in the Kru languages of West Africa to designate the tail of a sacred cow ; a toy and the name for " mother " in an unspecified Italian dialect ; and the double affirmative in Romanian and in various Slavic languages .
= = = Dadaist promoter = = =
Before the end of the war , Tzara had assumed a position as Dada 's main promoter and manager , helping the Swiss group establish branches in other European countries . This period also saw the first conflict within the group : citing irreconcilable differences with Tzara , Ball left the group . With his departure , Gendron argues , Tzara was able to move Dada vaudeville @-@ like performances into more of " an incendiary and yet jocularly provocative theater . "
He is often credited with having inspired many young modernist authors from outside Switzerland to affiliate with the group , in particular the Frenchmen Louis Aragon , André Breton , Paul Éluard , Georges Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes and Philippe Soupault . Richter , who also came into contact with Dada at this stage in its history , notes that these intellectuals often had a " very cool and distant attitude to this new movement " before being approached by the Romanian author . In June 1916 , he began editing and managing the periodical Dada as a successor of the short @-@ lived magazine Cabaret Voltaire — Richter describes his " energy , passion and talent for the job " , which he claims satisfied all Dadaists . He was at the time the lover of Maja Kruscek , who was a student of Rudolf Laban ; in Richter 's account , their relationship was always tottering .
As early as 1916 , Tristan Tzara took distance from the Italian Futurists , rejecting the militarist and proto @-@ fascist stance of their leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti . Richter notes that , by then , Dada had replaced Futurism as the leader of modernism , while continuing to build on its influence : " we had swallowed Futurism — bones , feathers and all . It is true that in the process of digestion all sorts of bones and feathers had been regurgitated . " Despite this and the fact that Dada did not make any gains in Italy , Tzara could count poets Giuseppe Ungaretti and Alberto Savinio , painters Gino Cantarelli and Aldo Fiozzi , as well as a few other Italian Futurists , among the Dadaists . Among the Italian authors supporting Dadaist manifestos and rallying with the Dada group was the poet , painter and in the future a fascist racial theorist Julius Evola , who became a personal friend of Tzara .
The next year , Tzara and Ball opened the Galerie Dada permanent exhibit , through which they set contacts with the independent Italian visual artist Giorgio de Chirico and with the German Expressionist journal Der Sturm , all of whom were described as " fathers of Dada " . During the same months , and probably owing to Tzara 's intervention , the Dada group organized a performance of Sphinx and Strawman , a puppet play by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka , whom he advertised as an example of " Dada theater " . He was also in touch with Nord @-@ Sud , the magazine of French poet Pierre Reverdy ( who sought to unify all avant @-@ garde trends ) , and contributed articles on African art to both Nord @-@ Sud and Pierre Albert @-@ Birot 's SIC magazine . In early 1918 , through Huelsenbeck , Zürich Dadaists established contacts with their more explicitly left @-@ wing disciples in the German Empire — George Grosz , John Heartfield , Johannes Baader , Kurt Schwitters , Walter Mehring , Raoul Hausmann , Carl Einstein , Franz Jung , and Heartfield 's brother Wieland Herzfelde . With Breton , Soupault and Aragon , Tzara traveled Cologne , where he became familiarized with the elaborate collage works of Schwitters and Max Ernst , which he showed to his colleagues in Switzerland . Huelsenbeck nonetheless declined to Schwitters membership in Berlin Dada .
As a result of his campaigning , Tzara created a list of so @-@ called " Dada presidents " , who represented various regions of Europe . According to Hans Richter , it included , alongside Tzara himself , figures ranging from Ernst , Arp , Baader , Breton and Aragon to Kruscek , Evola , Rafael Lasso de la Vega , Igor Stravinsky , Vicente Huidobro , Francesco Meriano and Théodore Fraenkel . Richter notes : " I 'm not sure if all the names who appear here would agree with the description . "
= = = End of World War I = = =
The shows Tzara staged in Zürich often turned into scandals or riots , and he was in permanent conflict with the Swiss law enforcers . Hans Richter speaks of a " pleasure of letting fly at the bourgeois , which in Tristan Tzara took the form of coldly ( or hotly ) calculated insolence " ( see Épater la bourgeoisie ) . In one instance , as part of a series of events in which Dadaists mocked established authors , Tzara and Arp falsely publicized that they were going to fight a duel in Rehalp , near Zürich , and that they were going to have the popular novelist Jakob Christoph Heer for their witness . Richter also reports that his Romanian colleague profited from Swiss neutrality to play the Allies and Central Powers against each other , obtaining art works and funds from both , making use of their need to stimulate their respective propaganda efforts . While active as a promoter , Tzara also published his first volume of collected poetry , the 1918 Vingt @-@ cinq poèmes ( " Twenty @-@ five Poems " ) .
A major event took place in autumn 1918 , when Francis Picabia , who was then publisher of 391 magazine and a distant Dada affiliate , visited Zürich and introduced his colleagues there to his nihilistic views on art and reason . In the United States , Picabia , Man Ray and Marcel Duchamp had earlier set up their own version of Dada . This circle , based in New York City , sought affiliation with Tzara 's only in 1921 , when they jokingly asked him to grant them permission to use " Dada " as their own name ( to which Tzara replied : " Dada belongs to everybody " ) . The visit was credited by Richter with boosting the Romanian author 's status , but also with making Tzara himself " switch suddenly from a position of balance between art and anti @-@ art into the stratospheric regions of pure and joyful nothingness . " The movement subsequently organized its last major Swiss show , held at the Saal zur Kaufleutern , with choreography by Susanne Perrottet , Sophie Taeuber @-@ Arp , and with the participation of Käthe Wulff , Hans Heusser , Tzara , Hans Richter and Walter Serner . It was there that Serner read from his 1918 essay , whose very title advocated Letzte Lockerung ( " Final Dissolution " ) : this part is believed to have caused the subsequent mêlée , during which the public attacked the performers and succeeded in interrupting , but not canceling , the show .
Following the November 1918 Armistice with Germany , Dada 's evolution was marked by political developments . In October 1919 , Tzara , Arp and Otto Flake began publishing Der Zeltweg , a journal aimed at further popularizing Dada in a post @-@ war world were the borders were again accessible . Richter , who admits that the magazine was " rather tame " , also notes that Tzara and his colleagues were dealing with the impact of communist revolutions , in particular the October Revolution and the German revolts of 1918 , which " had stirred men 's minds , divided men 's interests and diverted energies in the direction of political change . " The same commentator however dismisses those accounts which , he believes , led readers to believe that Der Zeltweg was " an association of revolutionary artists . " According to one account rendered by historian Robert Levy , Tzara shared company with a group of Romanian communist students , and , as such , may have met with Ana Pauker , who was later one of the Romanian Communist Party 's most prominent activists .
Arp and Janco drifted away from the movement ca . 1919 , when they created the Constructivist @-@ inspired workshop Das Neue Leben . In Romania , Dada was awarded an ambiguous reception from Tzara 's former associate Vinea . Although he was sympathetic to its goals , treasured Hugo Ball and Hennings and promised to adapt his own writings to its requirements , Vinea cautioned Tzara and the Jancos in favor of lucidity . When Vinea submitted his poem Doleanțe ( " Grievances " ) to be published by Tzara and his associates , he was turned down , an incident which critics attribute to a contrast between the reserved tone of the piece and the revolutionary tenets of Dada .
= = = Paris Dada = = =
In late 1919 , Tristan Tzara left Switzerland to join Breton , Soupault and Claude Rivière in editing the Paris @-@ based magazine Littérature . Already a mentor for the French avant @-@ garde , he was , according to Hans Richter , perceived as an " Anti @-@ Messiah " and a " prophet " . Reportedly , Dada mythology had it that he entered the French capital in a snow @-@ white or lilac @-@ colored car , passing down Boulevard Raspail through a triumphal arch made from his own pamphlets , being greeted by cheering crowds and a fireworks display . Richter dismisses this account , indicating that Tzara actually walked from Gare de l 'Est to Picabia 's home , without anyone expecting him to arrive .
He is often described as the main figure in the Littérature circle , and credited with having more firmly set its artistic principles in the line of Dada . When Picabia began publishing a new series of 391 in Paris , Tzara seconded him and , Richter says , produced issues of the magazine " decked out [ ... ] in all the colors of Dada . " He was also issuing his Dada magazine , printed in Paris but using the same format , renaming it Bulletin Dada and later Dadaphone . At around that time , he met American author Gertrude Stein , who wrote about him in The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas , and the artist couple Robert and Sonia Delaunay ( with whom he worked in tandem for " poem @-@ dresses " and other simultaneist literary pieces ) .
Tzara became involved in a number of Dada experiments , on which he collaborated with Breton , Aragon , Soupault , Picabia or Paul Éluard . Other authors who came into contact with Dada at that stage were Jean Cocteau , Paul Dermée and Raymond Radiguet . The performances staged by Dada were often meant to popularize its principles , and Dada continued to draw attention on itself by hoaxes and false advertising , announcing that the Hollywood film star Charlie Chaplin was going to appear on stage at its show , or that its members were going to have their heads shaved or their hair cut off on stage . In another instance , Tzara and his associates lectured at the Université populaire in front of industrial workers , who were reportedly less than impressed . Richter believes that , ideologically , Tzara was still in tribute to Picabia 's nihilistic and anarchic views ( which made the Dadaists attack all political and cultural ideologies ) , but that this also implied a measure of sympathy for the working class .
Dada activities in Paris culminated in the March 1920 variety show at the Théâtre de l 'Œuvre , which featured readings from Breton , Picabia , Dermée and Tzara 's earlier work , La Première aventure céleste de M. Antipyrine ( " The First Heavenly Adventure of Mr. Antipyrine " ) . Tzara 's melody , Vaseline symphonique ( " Symphonic Vaseline " ) , which required ten or twenty people to shout " cra " and " cri " on a rising scale , was also performed . A scandal erupted when Breton read Picabia 's Manifeste cannibale ( " Cannibal Manifesto " ) , lashing out at the audience and mocking them , to which they answered by aiming rotten fruit at the stage .
The Dada phenomenon was only noticed in Romania beginning in 1920 , and its overall reception was negative . Traditionalist historian Nicolae Iorga , Symbolist promoter Ovid Densusianu , the more reserved modernists Camil Petrescu and Benjamin Fondane all refused to accept it as a valid artistic manifestation . Although he rallied with tradition , Vinea defended the subversive current in front of more serious criticism , and rejected the widespread rumor that Tzara had acted as an agent of influence for the Central Powers during the war . Eugen Lovinescu , editor of Sburătorul and one of Vinea 's rivals on the modernist scene , acknowledged the influence exercised by Tzara on the younger avant @-@ garde authors , but analyzed his work only briefly , using as an example one of his pre @-@ Dada poems , and depicting him as an advocate of literary " extremism " .
= = = Dada stagnation = = =
By 1921 , Tzara had become involved in conflicts with other figures in the movement , whom he claimed had parted with the spirit of Dada . He was targeted by the Berlin @-@ based Dadaists , in particular by Huelsenbeck and Serner , the former of whom was also involved in a conflict with Raoul Hausmann over leadership status . According to Richter , tensions between Breton and Tzara had surfaced in 1920 , when Breton first made known his wish to do away with musical performances altogether and alleged that the Romanian was merely repeating himself . The Dada shows themselves were by then such common occurrences that audiences expected to be insulted by the performers .
A more serious crisis occurred in May , when Dada organized a mock trial of Maurice Barrès , whose early affiliation with the Symbolists had been shadowed by his antisemitism and reactionary stance : Georges Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes was the prosecutor , Aragon and Soupault the defense attorneys , with Tzara , Ungaretti , Benjamin Péret and others as witnesses ( a mannequin stood in for Barrès ) . Péret immediately upset Picabia and Tzara by refusing to make the trial an absurd one , and by introducing a political subtext with which Breton nevertheless agreed . In June , Tzara and Picabia clashed with each other , after Tzara expressed an opinion that his former mentor was becoming too radical . During the same season , Breton , Arp , Ernst , Maja Kruschek and Tzara were in Austria , at Imst , where they published their last manifesto as a group , Dada au grand air ( " Dada in the Open Air " ) or Der Sängerkrieg in Tirol ( " The Battle of the Singers in Tyrol " ) . Tzara also visited Czechoslovakia , where he reportedly hoped to gain adherents to his cause .
Also in 1921 , Ion Vinea wrote an article for the Romanian newspaper Adevărul , arguing that the movement had exhausted itself ( although , in his letters to Tzara , he continued to ask his friend to return home and spread his message there ) . After July 1922 , Marcel Janco rallied with Vinea in editing Contimporanul , which published some of Tzara 's earliest poems but never offered space to any Dadaist manifesto . Reportedly , the conflict between Tzara and Janco had a personal note : Janco later mentioned " some dramatic quarrels " between his colleague and him . They avoided each other for the rest of their lives and Tzara even struck out the dedications to Janco from his early poems . Julius Evola also grew disappointed by the movement 's total rejection of tradition and began his personal search for an alternative , pursuing a path which later led him to esotericism and fascism .
= = = Evening of the Bearded Heart = = =
Tzara was openly attacked by Breton in a February 1922 article for Le Journal de Peuple , where the Romanian writer was denounced as " an impostor " avid for " publicity " . In March , Breton initiated the Congress for the Determination and Defense of the Modern Spirit . The French writer used the occasion to strike out Tzara 's name from among the Dadaists , citing in his support Dada 's Huelsenbeck , Serner , and Christian Schad . Basing his statement on a note supposedly authored by Huelsenbeck , Breton also accused Tzara of opportunism , claiming that he had planned wartime editions of Dada works in such a manner as not to upset actors on the political stage , making sure that German Dadaists were not made available to the public in countries subject to the Supreme War Council . Tzara , who attended the Congress only as a means to subvert it , responded to the accusations the same month , arguing that Huelsenbeck 's note was fabricated and that Schad had not been one of the original Dadaists . Rumors reported much later by American writer Brion Gysin had it that Breton 's claims also depicted Tzara as an informer for the Prefecture of Police .
In May 1922 , Dada staged its own funeral . According to Hans Richter , the main part of this took place in Weimar , where the Dadaists attended a festival of the Bauhaus art school , during which Tzara proclaimed the elusive nature of his art : " Dada is useless , like everything else in life . [ ... ] Dada is a virgin microbe which penetrates with the insistence of air into all those spaces that reason has failed to fill with words and conventions . "
In " The Bearded Heart " manifesto a number of artists backed the marginalization of Breton in support of Tzara . Alongside Cocteau , Arp , Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes , and Éluard , the pro @-@ Tzara faction included Erik Satie , Theo van Doesburg , Serge Charchoune , Louis @-@ Ferdinand Céline , Marcel Duchamp , Ossip Zadkine , Jean Metzinger , Ilia Zdanevich , and Man Ray . During an associated soirée , Evening of the Bearded Heart , which began on 6 July 1923 , Tzara presented a re @-@ staging of his play The Gas Heart ( which had been first performed two years earlier to howls of derision from its audience ) , for which Sonia Delaunay designed the costumes . Breton interrupted its performance and reportedly fought with several of his former associates and broke furniture , prompting a theatre riot that only the intervention of the police halted . Dada 's vaudeville declined in importance and disappeared altogether after that date .
Picabia took Breton 's side against Tzara , and replaced the staff of his 391 , enlisting collaborations from Clément Pansaers and Ezra Pound . Breton marked the end of Dada in 1924 , when he issued the first Surrealist Manifesto . Richter suggests that " Surrealism devoured and digested Dada . " Tzara distanced himself from new trend , disagreeing with its methods and , increasingly , with its politics . In 1923 , he and a few other former Dadaists collaborated with Richter and the Constructivist artist El Lissitzky on the magazine G , and , the following year , he wrote pieces for the Yugoslav @-@ Slovenian magazine Tank ( edited by Ferdinand Delak ) .
= = = Transition to Surrealism = = =
Tzara continued to write , becoming more seriously interested in the theater . In 1924 , he published and staged the play Handkerchief of Clouds , which was soon included in the repertoire of Serge Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes . He also collected his earlier Dada texts as the Seven Dada Manifestos . Marxist thinker Henri Lefebvre reviewed them enthusiastically ; he later became one of the author 's friends .
In Romania , Tzara 's work was partly recuperated by Contimporanul , which notably staged public readings of his works during the international art exhibit it organized in 1924 , and again during the " new art demonstration " of 1925 . In parallel , the short @-@ lived magazine Integral , where Ilarie Voronca and Ion Călugăru were the main animators , took significant interest in Tzara 's work . In a 1927 interview with the publication , he voiced his opposition to the Surrealist group 's adoption of communism , indicating that such politics could only result in a " new bourgeoisie " being created , and explaining that he had opted for a personal " permanent revolution " , which would preserve " the holiness of the ego " .
In 1925 , Tristan Tzara was in Stockholm , where he married Greta Knutson , with whom he had a son , Christophe ( born 1927 ) . A former student of painter André Lhote , she was known for her interest in phenomenology and abstract art . Around the same period , with funds from Knutson 's inheritance , Tzara commissioned Austrian architect Adolf Loos , a former representative of the Vienna Secession whom he had met in Zürich , to build him a house in Paris . The rigidly functionalist Maison Tristan Tzara , built in Montmartre , was designed following Tzara 's specific requirements and decorated with samples of African art . It was Loos ' only major contribution in his Parisian years .
In 1929 , he reconciled with Breton , and sporadically attended the Surrealists ' meetings in Paris . The same year , he issued the poetry book De nos oiseaux ( " Of Our Birds " ) . This period saw the publication of The Approximate Man ( 1931 ) , alongside the volumes L 'Arbre des voyageurs ( " The Travelers ' Tree " , 1930 ) , Où boivent les loups ( " Where Wolves Drink " , 1932 ) , L 'Antitête ( " The Antihead " , 1933 ) and Grains et issues ( " Seed and Bran " , 1935 ) . By then , it was also announced that Tzara had started work on a screenplay . In 1930 , he directed and produced a cinematic version of Le Cœur à barbe , starring Breton and other leading Surrealists . Five years later , he signed his name to The Testimony against Gertrude Stein , published by Eugene Jolas 's magazine transition in reply to Stein 's memoir The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas , in which he accused his former friend of being a megalomaniac .
The poet became involved in further developing Surrealist techniques , and , together with Breton and Valentine Hugo , drew one of the better @-@ known examples of " exquisite corpses " . Tzara also prefaced a 1934 collection of Surrealist poems by his friend René Char , and the following year he and Greta Knutson visited Char in L 'Isle @-@ sur @-@ la @-@ Sorgue . Tzara 's wife was also affiliated with the Surrealist group at around the same time . This association ended when she parted with Tzara late in the 1930s .
At home , Tzara 's works were collected and edited by the Surrealist promoter Sașa Pană , who corresponded with him over several years . The first such edition saw print in 1934 , and featured the 1913 @-@ 1915 poems Tzara had left in Vinea 's care . In 1928 @-@ 1929 , Tzara exchanged letters with his friend Jacques G. Costin , a Contimporanul affiliate who did not share all of Vinea 's views on literature , who offered to organize his visit to Romania and asked him to translate his work into French .
= = = Affiliation with communism and Spanish Civil War = = =
Alarmed by the establishment of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi regime , which also signified the end of Berlin 's avant @-@ garde , he merged his activities as an art promoter with the cause of anti @-@ fascism , and was close to the French Communist Party ( PCF ) . In 1936 , Richter recalled , he published a series of photographs secretly taken by Kurt Schwitters in Hanover , works which documented the destruction of Nazi propaganda by the locals , ration stamp with reduced quantities of food , and other hidden aspects of Hitler 's rule . After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , he briefly left France and joined the Republican forces . Alongside Soviet reporter Ilya Ehrenburg , Tzara visited Madrid , which was besieged by the Nationalists ( see Siege of Madrid ) . Upon his return , he published the collection of poems Midis gagnés ( " Conquered Southern Regions " ) . Some of them had previously been printed in the brochure Les poètes du monde défendent le peuple espagnol ( " The Poets of the World Defend the Spanish People " , 1937 ) , which was edited by two prominent authors and activists , Nancy Cunard and the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda . Tzara had also signed Cunard 's June 1937 call to intervention against Francisco Franco . Reportedly , he and Nancy Cunard were romantically involved .
Although the poet was moving away from Surrealism , his adherence to strict Marxism @-@ Leninism was reportedly questioned by both the PCF and the Soviet Union . Semiotician Philip Beitchman places their attitude in connection with Tzara 's own vision of Utopia , which combined communist messages with Freudo @-@ Marxist psychoanalysis and made use of particularly violent imagery . Reportedly , Tzara refused to be enlisted in supporting the party line , maintaining his independence and refusing to take the forefront at public rallies .
However , others note that the former Dadaist leader would often show himself a follower of political guidelines . As early as 1934 , Tzara , together with Breton , Éluard and communist writer René Crevel , organized an informal trial of independent @-@ minded Surrealist Salvador Dalí , who was at the time a confessed admirer of Hitler , and whose portrait of William Tell had alarmed them because it shared likeness with Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin . Historian Irina Livezeanu notes that Tzara , who agreed with Stalinism and shunned Trotskyism , submitted to the PCF cultural demands during the writers ' congress of 1935 , even when his friend Crevel committed suicide to protest the adoption of socialist realism . At a later stage , Livezeanu remarks , Tzara reinterpreted Dada and Surrealism as revolutionary currents , and presented them as such to the public . This stance she contrasts with that of Breton , who was more reserved in his attitudes .
= = = World War II and Resistance = = =
During World War II , Tzara took refuge from the German occupation forces , moving to the southern areas , controlled by the Vichy regime . On one occasion , the antisemitic and collaborationist publication Je Suis Partout made his whereabouts known to the Gestapo .
He was in Marseille in late 1940 @-@ early 1941 , joining the group of anti @-@ fascist and Jewish refugees who , protected by American diplomat Varian Fry , were seeking to escape Nazi @-@ occupied Europe . Among the people present there were the anti @-@ totalitarian socialist Victor Serge , anthropologist Claude Lévi @-@ Strauss , playwright Arthur Adamov , philosopher and poet René Daumal , and several prominent Surrealists : Breton , Char , and Benjamin Péret , as well as artists Max Ernst , André Masson , Wifredo Lam , Jacques Hérold , Victor Brauner and Óscar Domínguez . During the months spent together , and before some of them received permission to leave for America , they invented a new card game , on which traditional card imagery was replaced with Surrealist symbols .
Some time after his stay in Marseille , Tzara joined the French Resistance , rallying with the Maquis . A contributor to magazines published by the Resistance , Tzara also took charge of the cultural broadcast for the Free French Forces clandestine radio station . He lived in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , then in Souillac , and ultimately in Toulouse . His son Cristophe was at the time a Resistant in northern France , having joined the Francs @-@ Tireurs et Partisans . In Axis @-@ allied and antisemitic Romania ( see Romania during World War II ) , the regime of Ion Antonescu ordered bookstores not to sell works by Tzara and 44 other Jewish @-@ Romanian authors . In 1942 , with the generalization of antisemitic measures , Tzara was also stripped of his Romanian citizenship rights .
In December 1944 , five months after the Liberation of Paris , he was contributing to L 'Éternelle Revue , a pro @-@ communist newspaper edited by philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , through which Sartre was publicizing the heroic image of a France united in resistance , as opposed to the perception that it had passively accepted German control . Other contributors included writers Aragon , Char , Éluard , Elsa Triolet , Eugène Guillevic , Raymond Queneau , Francis Ponge , Jacques Prévert and painter Pablo Picasso .
Upon the end of the war and the restoration of French independence , Tzara was naturalized a French citizen . During 1945 , under the Provisional Government of the French Republic , he was a representative of the Sud @-@ Ouest region to the National Assembly . According to Livezeanu , he " helped reclaim the South from the cultural figures who had associated themselves to Vichy [ France ] . " In April 1946 , his early poems , alongside similar pieces by Breton , Éluard , Aragon and Dalí , were the subject of a midnight broadcast on Parisian Radio . In 1947 , he became a full member of the PCF ( according to some sources , he had been one since 1934 ) .
= = = International leftism = = =
Over the following decade , Tzara lent his support to political causes . Pursuing his interest in primitivism , he became a critic of the Fourth Republic 's colonial policy , and joined his voice to those who supported decolonization . Nevertheless , he was appointed cultural ambassador of the Republic by the Paul Ramadier cabinet . He also participated in the PCF @-@ organized Congress of Writers , but , unlike Éluard and Aragon , again avoided adapting his style to socialist realism .
He returned to Romania on an official visit in late 1946 @-@ early 1947 , as part of a tour of the emerging Eastern Bloc during which he also stopped in Czechoslovakia , Hungary , and the Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia . The speeches he and Sașa Pană gave on the occasion , published by Orizont journal , were noted for condoning official positions of the PCF and the Romanian Communist Party , and are credited by Irina Livezeanu with causing a rift between Tzara and young Romanian avant @-@ gardists such as Victor Brauner and Gherasim Luca ( who rejected communism and were alarmed by the Iron Curtain having fallen over Europe ) . In September of the same year , he was present at the conference of the pro @-@ communist International Union of Students ( where he was a guest of the French @-@ based Union of Communist Students , and met with similar organizations from Romania and other countries ) .
In 1949 @-@ 1950 , Tzara answered Aragon 's call and become active in the international campaign to liberate Nazım Hikmet , a Turkish poet whose 1938 arrest for communist activities had created a cause célèbre for the pro @-@ Soviet public opinion . Tzara chaired the Committee for the Liberation of Nazım Hikmet , which issued petitions to national governments and commissioned works in honor of Hikmet ( including musical pieces by Louis Durey and Serge Nigg ) . Hikmet was eventually released in July 1950 , and publicly thanked Tzara during his subsequent visit to Paris .
His works of the period include , among others : Le Signe de vie ( " Sign of Life " , 1946 ) , Terre sur terre ( " Earth on Earth " , 1946 ) , Sans coup férir ( " Without a Need to Fight " , 1949 ) , De mémoire d 'homme ( " From a Man 's Memory " , 1950 ) , Parler seul ( " Speaking Alone " , 1950 ) , and La Face intérieure ( " The Inner Face " , 1953 ) , followed in 1955 by À haute flamme ( " Flame out Loud " ) and Le Temps naissant ( " The Nascent Time " ) , and the 1956 Le Fruit permis ( " The Permitted Fruit " ) . Tzara continued to be an active promoter of modernist culture . Around 1949 , having read Irish author Samuel Beckett 's manuscript of Waiting for Godot , Tzara facilitated the play 's staging by approaching producer Roger Blin . He also translated into French some poems by Hikmet and the Hungarian author Attila József . In 1949 , he introduced Picasso to art dealer Heinz Berggruen ( thus helping start their lifelong partnership ) , and , in 1951 , wrote the catalog for an exhibit of works by his friend Max Ernst ; the text celebrated the artist 's " free use of stimuli " and " his discovery of a new kind of humor . "
= = = 1956 protest and final years = = =
In October 1956 , Tzara visited the People 's Republic of Hungary , where the government of Imre Nagy was coming into conflict with the Soviet Union . This followed an invitation on the part of Hungarian writer Gyula Illyés , who wanted his colleague to be present at ceremonies marking the rehabilitation of László Rajk ( a local communist leader whose prosecution had been ordered by Joseph Stalin ) . Tzara was receptive of the Hungarians ' demand for liberalization , contacted the anti @-@ Stalinist and former Dadaist Lajos Kassák , and deemed the anti @-@ Soviet movement " revolutionary " . However , unlike much of Hungarian public opinion , the poet did not recommend emancipation from Soviet control , and described the independence demanded by local writers as " an abstract notion " . The statement he issued , widely quoted in the Hungarian and international press , forced a reaction from the PCF : through Aragon 's reply , the party deplored the fact that one of its members was being used in support of " anti @-@ communist and anti @-@ Soviet campaigns . "
His return to France coincided with the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution , which ended with a Soviet military intervention . On October 24 , Tzara was ordered to a PCF meeting , where activist Laurent Casanova reportedly ordered him to keep silent , which Tzara did . Tzara 's apparent dissidence and the crisis he helped provoke within the Communist Party were celebrated by Breton , who had adopted a pro @-@ Hungarian stance , and who defined his friend and rival as " the first spokesman of the Hungarian demand . "
He was thereafter mostly withdrawn from public life , dedicating himself to researching the work of 15th @-@ century poet François Villon , and , like his fellow Surrealist Michel Leiris , to promoting primitive and African art , which he had been collecting for years . In early 1957 , Tzara attended a Dada retrospective on the Rive Gauche , which ended in a riot caused by the rival avant @-@ garde Mouvement Jariviste , an outcome which reportedly pleased him . In August 1960 , one year after the Fifth Republic had been established by President Charles de Gaulle , at a time when French forces were confronting the Algerian rebels ( see Algerian War ) . Together with Simone de Beauvoir , Marguerite Duras , Jérôme Lindon , Alain Robbe @-@ Grillet and other intellectuals , he addressed Premier Michel Debré a letter of protest , concerning France 's refusal to grant Algeria its independence . As a result , Minister of Culture André Malraux announced that his cabinet would not subsidize any films to which Tzara and the others may contribute , and the signatories could no longer appear on stations managed by the state @-@ owned French Broadcasting Service .
In 1961 , as recognition for his work as a poet , Tzara was awarded the prestigious Taormina Prize . One of his final public activities took place in 1962 , when he attended the International Congress on African Culture , organized by English curator Frank McEwen and held at the National Gallery in Salisbury , Southern Rhodesia . He died one year later in his Paris home , and was buried at the Cimetière du Montparnasse .
= = Literary contributions = =
= = = Identity issues = = =
Much critical commentary about Tzara surrounds the measure to which the poet identified with the national cultures which he represented . Paul Cernat notes that the association between Samyro and the Jancos , who were Jews , and their ethnic Romanian colleagues , was one sign of a cultural dialogue , in which " the openness of Romanian environments toward artistic modernity " was stimulated by " young emancipated Jewish writers . " Salomon Schulman , a Swedish researcher of Yiddish literature , argues that the combined influence of Yiddish folklore and Hasidic philosophy shaped European modernism in general and Tzara 's style in particular , while American poet Andrei Codrescu speaks of Tzara as one in a Balkan line of " absurdist writing " , which also includes the Romanians Urmuz , Eugène Ionesco and Emil Cioran . According to literary historian George Călinescu , Samyro 's early poems deal with " the voluptuousness over the strong scents of rural life , which is typical among Jews compressed into ghettos . "
Tzara himself used elements alluding to his homeland in his early Dadaist performances . His collaboration with Maja Kruscek at Zuntfhaus zür Waag featured samples of African literature , to which Tzara added Romanian @-@ language fragments . He is also known to have mixed elements of Romanian folklore , and to have sung the native suburban romanza La moară la Hârța ( " At the Mill in Hârța " ) during at least one staging for Cabaret Voltaire . Addressing the Romanian public in 1947 , he claimed to have been captivated by " the sweet language of Moldavian peasants " .
Tzara nonetheless rebelled against his birthplace and upbringing . His earliest poems depict provincial Moldavia as a desolate and unsettling place . In Cernat 's view , this imagery was in common use among Moldavian @-@ born writers who also belonged to the avant @-@ garde trend , notably Benjamin Fondane and George Bacovia . Like in the cases of Eugène Ionesco and Fondane , Cernat proposes , Samyro sought self @-@ exile to Western Europe as a " modern , voluntarist " means of breaking with " the peripheral condition " , which may also serve to explain the pun he selected for a pseudonym . According to the same author , two important elements in this process were " a maternal attachment and a break with paternal authority " , an " Oedipus complex " which he also argued was evident in the biographies of other Symbolist and avant @-@ garde Romanian authors , from Urmuz to Mateiu Caragiale . Unlike Vinea and the Contimporanul group , Cernat proposes , Tzara stood for radicalism and insurgency , which would also help explain their impossibility to communicate . In particular , Cernat argues , the writer sought to emancipate himself from competing nationalisms , and addressed himself directly to the center of European culture , with Zürich serving as a stage on his way to Paris . The 1916 Monsieur 's Antipyrine 's Manifesto featured a cosmopolitan appeal : " DADA remains within the framework of European weaknesses , it 's still shit , but from now on we want to shit in different colors so as to adorn the zoo of art with all the flags of all the consulates . "
With time , Tristan Tzara came to be regarded by his Dada associates as an exotic character , whose attitudes were intrinsically linked with Eastern Europe . Early on , Ball referred to him and the Janco brothers as " Orientals " . Hans Richter believed him to be a fiery and impulsive figure , having little in common with his German collaborators . According to Cernat , Richter 's perspective seems to indicate a vision of Tzara having a " Latin " temperament . This type of perception also had negative implications for Tzara , particularly after the 1922 split within Dada . In the 1940s , Richard Huelsenbeck alleged that his former colleague had always been separated from other Dadaists by his failure to appreciate the legacy of " German humanism " , and that , compared to his German colleagues , he was " a barbarian " . In his polemic with Tzara , Breton also repeatedly placed stress on his rival 's foreign origin .
At home , Tzara was occasionally targeted for his Jewishness , culminating in the ban enforced by the Ion Antonescu regime . In 1931 , Const . I. Emilian , the first Romanian to write an academic study on the avant @-@ garde , attacked him from a conservative and antisemitic position . He depicted Dadaists as " Judaeo @-@ Bolsheviks " who corrupted Romanian culture , and included Tzara among the main proponents of " literary anarchism " . Alleging that Tzara 's only merit was to establish a literary fashion , while recognizing his " formal virtuosity and artistic intelligence " , he claimed to prefer Tzara in his Simbolul stage . This perspective was deplored early on by the modernist critic Perpessicius . Nine years after Emilian 's polemic text , fascist poet and journalist Radu Gyr published an article in Convorbiri Literare , in which he attacked Tzara as a representative of the " Judaic spirit " , of the " foreign plague " and of " materialist @-@ historical dialectics " .
= = = Symbolist poetry = = =
Tzara 's earliest Symbolist poems , published in Simbolul during 1912 , were later rejected by their author , who asked Sașa Pană not to include them in editions of his works . The influence of French Symbolists on the young Samyro was particularly important , and surfaced in both his lyric and prose poems . Attached to Symbolist musicality at that stage , he was indebted to his Simbolul colleague Ion Minulescu and the Belgian Maurice Maeterlinck . Philip Beitchman argues that " Tristan Tzara is one of the writers of the twentieth century who was most profoundly influenced by symbolism — and utilized many of its methods and ideas in the pursuit of his own artistic and social ends . " However , Cernat believes , the young poet was by then already breaking with the syntax of conventional poetry , and that , in subsequent experimental pieces , he progressively stripped his style of its Symbolist elements .
During the 1910s , Samyro experimented with Symbolist imagery , in particular with the " hanged man " motif , which served as the basis for his poem Se spânzură un om ( " A Man Hangs Himself " ) , and which built on the legacy of similar pieces authored by Christian Morgenstern and Jules Laforgue . Se spânzură un om was also in many ways similar to ones authored by his collaborators Adrian Maniu ( Balada spânzuratului , " The Hanged Man 's Ballad " ) and Vinea ( Visul spânzuratului , " The Hanged Man 's Dream " ) : all three poets , who were all in the process of discarding Symbolism , interpreted the theme from a tragicomic and iconoclastic perspective . These pieces also include Vacanță în provincie ( " Provincial Holiday " ) and the anti @-@ war fragment Furtuna și cântecul dezertorului ( " The Storm and the Deserter 's Song " ) , which Vinea published in his Chemarea . The series is seen by Cernat as " the general rehearsal for the Dada adventure . " The complete text of Furtuna și cântecul dezertorului was published at a later stage , after the missing text was discovered by Pană . At the time , he became interested in the free verse work of the American Walt Whitman , and his translation of Whitman 's epic poem Song of Myself , probably completed before World War I , was published by Alfred Hefter @-@ Hidalgo in his magazine Versuri și Proză ( 1915 ) .
Beitchman notes that , throughout his life , Tzara used Symbolist elements against the doctrines of Symbolism . Thus , he argues , the poet did not cultivate a memory of historical events , " since it deludes man into thinking that there was something when there was nothing . " Cernat notes : " That which essentially unifies , during [ the 1910s ] , the poetic output of Adrian Maniu , Ion Vinea and Tristan Tzara is an acute awareness of literary conventions , a satiety [ ... ] in respect to calophile literature , which they perceived as exhausted . " In Beitchman 's view , the revolt against cultivated beauty was a constant in Tzara 's years of maturity , and his visions of social change continued to be inspired by Arthur Rimbaud and the Comte de Lautréamont . According to Beitchman , Tzara uses the Symbolist message , " the birthright [ of humans ] has been sold for a mess of porridge " , taking it " into the streets , cabarets and trains where he denounces the deal and asks for his birthright back . "
= = = Collaboration with Vinea = = =
The transition to a more radical form of poetry seems to have taken place in 1913 @-@ 1915 , during the periods when Tzara and Vinea were vacationing together . The pieces share a number of characteristics and subjects , and the two poets even use them to allude to one another ( or , in one case , to Tzara 's sister ) .
In addition to the lyrics were they both speak of provincial holidays and love affairs with local girls , both friends intended to reinterpret William Shakespeare 's Hamlet from a modernist perspective , and wrote incomplete texts with this as their subject . However , Paul Cernat notes , the texts also evidence a difference in approach , with Vinea 's work being " meditative and melancholic " , while Tzara 's is " hedonistic " . Tzara often appealed to revolutionary and ironic images , portraying provincial and middle class environments as places of artificiality and decay , demystifying pastoral themes and evidencing a will to break free . His literature took a more radical perspective on life , and featured lyrics with subversive intent :
In his Înserează ( roughly , " Night Falling " ) , probably authored in Mangalia , Tzara writes :
Vinea 's similar poem , written in Tuzla and named after that village , reads :
Cernat notes that Nocturnă ( " Nocturne " ) and Înserează were the pieces originally performed at Cabaret Voltaire , identified by Hugo Ball as " Rumanian poetry " , and that they were recited in Tzara 's own spontaneous French translation . Although they are noted for their radical break with the traditional form of Romanian verse , Ball 's diary entry of February 5 , 1916 , indicates that Tzara 's works were still " conservative in style " . In Călinescu 's view , they announce Dadaism , given that " bypassing the relations which lead to a realistic vision , the poet associates unimaginably dissipated images that will surprise consciousness . " In 1922 , Tzara himself wrote : " As early as 1914 , I tried to strip the words of their proper meaning and use them in such a way as to give the verse a completely new , general , meaning [ ... ] . "
Alongside pieces depicting a Jewish cemetery in which graves " crawl like worms " on the edge of a town , chestnut trees " heavy @-@ laden like people returning from hospitals " , or wind wailing " with all the hopelessness of an orphanage " , Samyro 's poetry includes Verișoară , fată de pension , which , Cernat argues , displays " playful detachment [ for ] the musicality of internal rhymes " . It opens with the lyrics :
The Gârceni pieces were treasured by the moderate wing of the Romanian avant @-@ garde movement . In contrast to his previous rejection of Dada , Contimporanul collaborator Benjamin Fondane used them as an example of " pure poetry " , and compared them to the elaborate writings of French poet Paul Valéry , thus recuperating them in line with the magazine 's ideology .
= = = Dada synthesis and " simultaneism " = = =
Tzara the Dadaist was inspired by the contributions of his experimental modernist predecessors . Among them were the literary promoters of Cubism : in addition to Henri Barzun and Fernand Divoire , Tzara cherished the works of Guillaume Apollinaire . Despite Dada 's condemnation of Futurism , various authors note the influence Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and his circle exercised on Tzara 's group . In 1917 , he was in correspondence with both Apollinaire and Marinetti . Traditionally , Tzara is also seen as indebted to the early avant @-@ garde and black comedy writings of Romania 's Urmuz .
For a large part , Dada focused on performances and satire , with shows that often had Tzara , Marcel Janco and Huelsenbeck for their main protagonists . Often dressed up as Tyrolian peasants or wearing dark robes , they improvised poetry sessions at the Cabaret Voltaire , reciting the works of others or their spontaneous creations , which were or pretended to be in Esperanto or Māori language . Bernard Gendron describes these soirées as marked by " heterogeneity and eclecticism " , and Richter notes that the songs , often punctuated by loud shrieks or other unsettling sounds , built on the legacy of noise music and Futurist compositions .
With time , Tristan Tzara merged his performances and his literature , taking part in developing Dada 's " simultaneist poetry " , which was meant to be read out loud and involved a collaborative effort , being , according to Hans Arp , the first instance of Surrealist automatism . Ball stated that the subject of such pieces was " the value of the human voice . " Together with Arp , Tzara and Walter Serner produced the German @-@ language Die Hyperbel vom Krokodilcoiffeur und dem Spazierstock ( " The Hyperbole of the Crocodile 's Hairdresser and the Walking @-@ Stick " ) , in which , Arp stated , " the poet crows , curses , sighs , stutters , yodels , as he pleases . His poems are like Nature [ where ] a tiny particle is as beautiful and important as a star . " Another noted simultaneist poem was L 'Amiral cherche une maison à louer ( " The Admiral Is Looking for a House to Rent " ) , co @-@ authored by Tzara , Marcel Janco and Huelsenbach .
Art historian Roger Cardinal describes Tristan Tzara 's Dada poetry as marked by " extreme semantic and syntactic incoherence " . Tzara , who recommended destroying just as it is created , had devised a personal system for writing poetry , which implied a seemingly chaotic reassembling of words that had been randomly cut out of newspapers .
= = = Dada and anti @-@ art = = =
The Romanian writer also spent the Dada period issuing a long series of manifestos , which were often authored as prose poetry , and , according to Cardinal , were characterized by " rumbustious tomfoolery and astringent wit " , which reflected " the language of a sophisticated savage " . Huelsenbeck credited Tzara with having discovered in them the format for " compress [ ing ] what we think and feel " , and , according to Hans Richter , the genre " suited Tzara perfectly . " Despite its production of seemingly theoretical works , Richter indicates , Dada lacked any form of program , and Tzara tried to perpetuate this state of affairs . His Dada manifesto of 1918 stated : " Dada means nothing " , adding " Thought is produced in the mouth . " Tzara indicated : " I am against systems ; the most acceptable system is on principle to have none . " In addition , Tzara , who once stated that " logic is always false " , probably approved of Serner 's vision of a " final dissolution " . According to Philip Beitchman , a core concept in Tzara 's thought was that " as long as we do things the way we think we once did them we will be unable to achieve any kind of livable society . "
Despite adopting such anti @-@ artistic principles , Richter argues , Tzara , like many of his fellow Dadaists , did not initially discard the mission of " furthening the cause of art . " He saw this evident in La Revue Dada 2 , a poem " as exquisite as freshly @-@ picked flowers " , which included the lyrics :
La Revue Dada 2 , which also includes the onomatopoeic line tralalalalalalalalalalala , is one example where Tzara applies his principles of chance to sounds themselves . This sort of arrangement , treasured by many Dadaists , was probably connected with Apollinaire 's calligrams , and with his announcement that " Man is in search of a new language . " Călinescu proposed that Tzara willingly limited the impact of chance : taking as his example a short parody piece which depicts the love affair between cyclist and a Dadaist , which ends with their decapitation by a jealous husband , the critic notes that Tzara transparently intended to " shock the bourgeois " . Late in his career , Huelsenbeck alleged that Tzara never actually applied the experimental methods he had devised .
The Dada series makes ample use of contrast , ellipses , ridiculous imagery and nonsensical verdicts . Tzara was aware that the public could find it difficult to follow his intentions , and , in a piece titled Le géant blanc lépreux du paysage ( " The White Leprous Giant in the Landscape " ) even alluded to the " skinny , idiotic , dirty " reader who " does not understand my poetry . " He called some of his own poems lampisteries , from a French word designating storage areas for light fixtures . The Lettrist poet Isidore Isou included such pieces in a succession of experiments inaugurated by Charles Baudelaire with the " destruction of the anecdote for the form of the poem " , a process which , with Tzara , became " destruction of the word for nothing " . According to American literary historian Mary Ann Caws , Tzara 's poems may be seen as having an " internal order " , and read as " a simple spectacle , as creation complete in itself and completely obvious . "
= = = Plays of the 1920s = = =
Tristan Tzara 's first play , The Gas Heart , dates from the final period of Paris Dada . Created with what Enoch Brater calls a " peculiar verbal strategy " , it is a dialogue between characters called Ear , Mouth , Eye , Nose , Neck , and Eyebrow . They seem unwilling to actually communicate to each other and their reliance on proverbs and idiotisms willingly creates confusion between metaphorical and literal speech . The play ends with a dance performance that recalls similar devices used by the proto @-@ Dadaist Alfred Jarry . The text culminates in a series of doodles and illegible words . Brater describes The Gas Heart as a " parod [ y ] of theatrical conventions " .
In his 1924 play Handkerchief of Clouds , Tzara explores the relation between perception , the subconscious and memory . Largely through exchanges between commentators who act as third parties , the text presents the tribulations of a love triangle ( a poet , a bored woman , and her banker husband , whose character traits borrow the clichés of conventional drama ) , and in part reproduces settings and lines from Hamlet . Tzara mocks classical theater , which demands from characters to be inspiring , believable , and to function as a whole : Handkerchief of Clouds requires actors in the role of commentators to address each other by their real names , and their lines include dismissive comments on the play itself , while the protagonist , who in the end dies , is not assigned any name . Writing for Integral , Tzara defined his play as a note on " the relativity of things , sentiments and events . " Among the conventions ridiculed by the dramatist , Philip Beitchman notes , is that of a " privileged position for art " : in what Beitchman sees as a comment on Marxism , poet and banker are interchangeable capitalists who invest in different fields . Writing in 1925 , Fondane rendered a pronouncement by Jean Cocteau , who , while commenting that Tzara was one of his " most beloved " writers and a " great poet " , argued : " Handkerchief of Clouds was poetry , and great poetry for that matter — but not theater . " The work was nonetheless praised by Ion Călugăru at Integral , who saw in it one example that modernist performance could rely not just on props , but also on a solid text .
= = = The Approximate Man and later works = = =
After 1929 , with the adoption of Surrealism , Tzara 's literary works discard much of their satirical purpose , and begin to explore universal themes relating to the human condition . According to Cardinal , the period also signified the definitive move from " a studied inconsequentiality " and " unreadable gibberish " to " a seductive and fertile surrealist idiom . " The critic also remarks : " Tzara arrived at a mature style of transparent simplicity , in which disparate entities could be held together in a unifying vision . " In a 1930 essay , Fondane had given a similar verdict : arguing that Tzara had infused his work with " suffering " , had discovered humanity , and had become a " clairvoyant " among poets .
This period in Tzara 's creative activity centers on The Approximate Man , an epic poem which is reportedly recognized as his most accomplished contribution to French literature . While maintaining some of Tzara 's preoccupation with language experimentation , it is mainly a study in social alienation and the search for an escape . Cardinal calls the piece " an extended meditation on mental and elemental impulses [ ... ] with images of stunning beauty " , while Breitchman , who notes Tzara 's rebellion against the " excess baggage of [ man 's ] past and the notions [ ... ] with which he has hitherto tried to control his life " , remarks his portrayal of poets as voices who can prevent human beings from destroying themselves with their own intellects . The goal is a new man who lets intuition and spontaneity guide him through life , and who rejects measure . One of the appeals in the text reads :
The next stage in Tzara 's career saw a merger of his literary and political views . His poems of the period blend a humanist vision with communist theses . The 1935 Grains et issues , described by Beitchman as " fascinating " , was a prose poem of social criticism connected with The Approximate Man , expanding on the vision of a possible society , in which haste has been abandoned in favor of oblivion . The world imagined by Tzara abandons symbols of the past , from literature to public transportation and currency , while , like psychologists Sigmund Freud and Wilhelm Reich , the poet depicts violence as a natural means of human expression . People of the future live in a state which combines waking life and the realm of dreams , and life itself turns into revery . Grains et issues was accompanied by Personage d 'insomnie ( " Personage of Insomnia " ) , which went unpublished .
Cardinal notes : " In retrospect , harmony and contact had been Tzara 's goals all along . " The post @-@ World War II volumes in the series focus on political subjects related to the conflict . In his last writings , Tzara toned down experimentation , exercising more control over the lyrical aspects . He was by then undertaking a hermeutic research into the work of Goliards and François Villon , whom he deeply admired .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Influence = = =
Beside the many authors who were attracted into Dada through his promotional activities , Tzara was able to influence successive generations of writers . This was the case in his homeland during 1928 , when the first avant @-@ garde manifesto issued by unu magazine , written by Sașa Pană and Moldov , cited as its mentors Tzara , writers Breton , Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes , Vinea , Filippo Tommaso Marinetti , and Tudor Arghezi , as well as artists Constantin Brâncuși and Theo van Doesburg . One of the Romanian writers to claim inspiration from Tzara was Jacques G. Costin , who nevertheless offered an equally good reception to both Dadaism and Futurism , while Ilarie Voronca 's Zodiac cycle , first published in France , is traditionally seen as indebted to The Approximate Man . The Kabbalist and Surrealist author Marcel Avramescu , who wrote during the 1930s , also appears to have been directly inspired by Tzara 's views on art . Other authors from that generation to have been inspired by Tzara were Polish Futurist writer Bruno Jasieński , Japanese poet and Zen thinker Takahashi Shinkichi , and Chilean poet and Dadaist sympathizer Vicente Huidobro , who cited him as a precursor for his own Creacionismo .
An immediate precursor of Absurdism , he was acknowledged as a mentor by Eugène Ionesco , who developed on his principles for his early essays of literary and social criticism , as well as in tragic farces such as The Bald Soprano . Tzara 's poetry influenced Samuel Beckett ( who translated some of it into English ) ; the Irish author 's 1972 play Not I shares some elements with The Gas Heart . In the United States , the Romanian author is cited as an influence on Beat Generation members . Beat writer Allen Ginsberg , who made his acquaintance in Paris , cites him among the Europeans who influenced him and William S. Burroughs . The latter also mentioned Tzara 's use of chance in writing poetry as an early example of what became the cut @-@ up technique , adopted by Brion Gysin and Burroughs himself . Gysin , who conversed with Tzara in the late 1950s , records the latter 's indignation that Beat poets were " going back over the ground we [ Dadaists ] covered in 1920 " , and accuses Tzara of having consumed his creative energies into becoming a " Communist Party bureaucrat " .
Among the late 20th @-@ century writers who acknowledged Tzara as an inspiration are Jerome Rothenberg , Isidore Isou and Andrei Codrescu . The former Situationist Isou , whose experiments with sounds and poetry come in succession to Apollinaire and Dada , declared his Lettrism to be the last connection in the Charles Baudelaire @-@ Tzara cycle , with the goal of arranging " a nothing [ ... ] for the creation of the anecdote . " For a short period , Codrescu even adopted the pen name Tristan Tzara . He recalled the impact of having discovered Tzara 's work in his youth , and credited him with being " the most important French poet after Rimbaud . "
In retrospect , various authors describe Tzara 's Dadaist shows and street performances as " happenings " , with a word employed by post @-@ Dadaists and Situationists , which was coined in the 1950s . Some also credit Tzara with having provided an ideological source for the development of rock music , including punk rock , punk subculture and post @-@ punk . Tristan Tzara has inspired the songwriting technique of Radiohead , and is one of the avant @-@ garde authors whose voices were mixed by DJ Spooky on his trip hop album Rhythm Science . Romanian contemporary classical musician Cornel Țăranu set to music five of Tzara 's poems , all of which date from the post @-@ Dada period . Țăranu , Anatol Vieru and ten other composers contributed to the album La Clé de l 'horizon , inspired by Tzara 's work .
= = = Tributes and portrayals = = =
In France , Tzara 's work was collected as Oeuvres complètes ( " Complete Works " ) , of which the first volume saw print in 1975 , and an international poetry award is named after him ( Prix International de Poésie Tristan Tzara ) . An international periodical titled Caietele Tristan Tzara , edited by the Tristan Tzara Cultural @-@ Literary Foundation , has been published in Moinești since 1998 .
According to Paul Cernat , Aliluia , one of the few avant @-@ garde texts authored by Ion Vinea features a " transparent allusion " to Tristan Tzara . Vinea 's fragment speaks of " the Wandering Jew " , a character whom people notice because he sings La moară la Hârța , " a suspicious song from Greater Romania . " The poet is a character in Indian novelist Mulk Raj Anand 's Thieves of Fire , part four of his The Bubble ( 1984 ) , as well as in The Prince of West End Avenue , a 1994 book by the American Alan Isler . Rothenberg dedicated several of his poems to Tzara , as did the Neo @-@ Dadaist Valery Oișteanu . Tzara 's legacy in literature also covers specific episodes of his biography , beginning with Gertrude Stein 's controversial memoir . One of his performances is enthusiastically recorded by Malcolm Cowley in his autobiographical book of 1934 , Exile 's Return , and he is also mentioned in Harold Loeb 's memoir The Way It Was . Among his biographers is the French author François Buot , who records some of the lesser @-@ known aspects of Tzara 's life .
At some point between 1915 and 1917 , Tzara is believed to have played chess in a coffeehouse that was also frequented by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin . While Richter himself recorded the incidental proximity of Lenin 's lodging to the Dadaist milieu , no record exists of an actual conversation between the two figures . Andrei Codrescu believes that Lenin and Tzara did play against each other , noting that an image of their encounter would be " the proper icon of the beginning of [ modern ] times . " This meeting is mentioned as a fact in Harlequin at the Chessboard , a poem by Tzara 's acquaintance Kurt Schwitters . German playwright and novelist Peter Weiss , who has introduced Tzara as a character in his 1969 play about Leon Trotsky ( Trotzki im Exil ) , recreated the scene in his 1975 @-@ 1981 cycle The Aesthetics of Resistance . The imagined episode also inspired much of Tom Stoppard 's 1974 play Travesties , which also depicts conversations between Tzara , Lenin , and the Irish modernist author James Joyce ( who is also known to have resided in Zürich after 1915 ) . His role was notably played by David Westhead in the 1993 British production , and by Tom Hewitt in the 2005 American version .
Alongside his collaborations with Dada artists on various pieces , Tzara himself was a subject for visual artists . Max Ernst depicts him as the only mobile character in the Dadaists ' group portrait Au Rendez @-@ vous des Amis ( " A Friends ' Reunion " , 1922 ) , while , in one of Man Ray 's photographs , he is shown kneeling to kiss the hand of an androgynous Nancy Cunard . Years before their split , Francis Picabia used Tzara 's calligraphed name in Moléculaire ( " Molecular " ) , a composition printed on the cover of 391 . The same artist also completed his schematic portrait , which showed a series of circles connected by two perpendicular arrows . In 1949 , Swiss artist Alberto Giacometti made Tzara the subject of one of his first experiments with lithography . Portraits of Tzara were also made by Greta Knutson , Robert Delaunay , and the Cubist painters M. H. Maxy and Lajos Tihanyi . As an homage to Tzara the performer , art rocker David Bowie adopted his accessories and mannerisms during a number of public appearances . In 1996 , he was depicted on a series of Romanian stamps , and , the same year , a concrete and steel monument dedicated to the writer was erected in Moinești .
Several of Tzara 's Dadaist editions had illustrations by Picabia , Janco and Hans Arp . In its 1925 edition , Handkerchief of Clouds featured etchings by Juan Gris , while his late writings Parler seul , Le Signe de vie , De mémoire d 'homme , Le Temps naissant , and Le Fruit permis were illustrated with works by , respectively , Joan Miró , Henri Matisse , Pablo Picasso , Nejad Devrim and Sonia Delaunay . Tzara was the subject of an 1949 eponymous documentary film directed by Danish filmmaker Jørgen Roos , and footage of him featured prominently in the 1953 production Les statues meurent aussi ( " Statues Also Die " ) , jointly directed by Chris Marker and Alain Resnais .
= = = Posthumous controversies = = =
The many polemics which surrounded Tzara in his lifetime left traces after his death , and determine contemporary perceptions of his work . The controversy regarding Tzara 's role as a founder of Dada extended into several milieus , and continued long after the writer died . Richter , who discusses the lengthy conflict between Huelsenbeck and Tzara over the issue of Dada foundation , speaks of the movement as being torn apart by " petty jealousies " . In Romania , similar debates often involved the supposed founding role of Urmuz , who wrote his avant @-@ garde texts before World War I , and Tzara 's status as a communicator between Romania and the rest of Europe . Vinea , who claimed that Dada had been invented by Tzara in Gârceni ca . 1915 and thus sought to legitimize his own modernist vision , also saw Urmuz as the ignored precursor of radical modernism , from Dada to Surrealism . In 1931 the young , modernist literary critic Lucian Boz evidenced that he partly shared Vinea 's perspective on the matter , crediting Tzara and Constantin Brâncuși with having , each on his own , invented the avant @-@ garde . Eugène Ionesco argued that " before Dadaism there was Urmuzianism " , and , after World War II , sought to popularize Urmuz 's work among aficionados of Dada . Rumors in the literary community had it that Tzara successfully sabotaged Ionesco 's initiative to publish a French edition of Urmuz 's texts , allegedly because the public could then question his claim to have initiated the avant @-@ garde experiment in Romania and the world ( the edition saw print in 1965 , two years after Tzara 's death ) .
A more radical questioning of Tzara 's influence came from Romanian essayist Petre Pandrea . In his personal diary , published long after he and Tzara had died , Pandrea depicted the poet as an opportunist , accusing him of adapting his style to political requirements , of dodging military service during World War I , and of being a " Lumpenproletarian " . Pandrea 's text , completed just after Tzara 's visit to Romania , claimed that his founding role within the avant @-@ garde was an " illusion [ ... ] which has swelled up like a multicolored balloon " , and denounced him as " the Balkan provider of interlope odalisques , [ together ] with narcotics and a sort of scandalous literature . " Himself an adherent to communism , Pandrea grew disillusioned with the ideology , and later became a political prisoner in Communist Romania . Vinea 's own grudge probably shows up in his 1964 novel Lunatecii , where Tzara is identifiable as " Dr. Barbu " , a thick @-@ hided charlatan .
From the 1960s to 1989 , after a period when it ignored or attacked the avant @-@ garde movement , the Romanian communist regime sought to recuperate Tzara , in order to validate its newly adopted emphasis on nationalist and national communist tenets . In 1977 , literary historian Edgar Papu , whose controversial theories were linked to " protochronism " , which presumes that Romanians took precedence in various areas of world culture , mentioned Tzara , Urmuz , Ionesco and Isou as representatives of " Romanian initiatives " and " road openers at a universal level . " Elements of protochronism in this area , Paul Cernat argues , could be traced back to Vinea 's claim that his friend had single @-@ handedly created the worldwide avant @-@ garde movement on the basis of models already present at home .
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= Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy =
Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy , 162 U.S. 283 ( 1896 ) , was the first litigation of aboriginal title in the United States by a tribal plaintiff in the Supreme Court of the United States since Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) . It was the first such litigation by an indigenous plaintiff since Fellows v. Blacksmith ( 1857 ) and its companion case of New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) . The New York courts held that the 1788 Phelps and Gorham Purchase did not violate the Nonintercourse Act , one of the provisions of which prohibits purchases of Indian lands without the approval of the federal government , and that ( even if it did ) the Seneca Nation of New York was barred by the state statute of limitations from challenging the transfer of title . The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the merits of lower court ruling because of the adequate and independent state grounds doctrine .
According to O 'Toole and Tureen , " Christy is an important case in that it revived the concept that states had special powers to deal with Indian tribes within their borders . "
Although the case has not been formally overruled , two Supreme Court decisions in the 1970s and 1980s have undone its effect by ruling that there is federal subject @-@ matter jurisdiction for a federal common law cause of action for recovering possession based on the common @-@ law doctrine of aboriginal title . Moreover , the New York courts ' interpretation of the Nonintercourse Act is no longer good law . Modern federal courts hold that only Congress can ratify a conveyance of aboriginal title , and only with a clear statement , rather than implicitly .
= = Background = =
= = = Conveyance = = =
The land in question , which had been part of the Seneca Nation 's traditional territory for centuries before the American Revolution , comprised part of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase , a tract of land disputed after the war between claims of New York and Massachusetts . By a December 16 , 1786 interstate compact , the states agreed that Massachusetts would retain the proprietary rights and the pre @-@ emption rights , but New York would retain governmental rights . After the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1787 , the federal government ratified their compact .
Three private individuals — Robert Troup , Thomas L. Ogden , and Benjamin W. Rogers — obtained the proprietary and preemptive rights from Massachusetts . They executed a treaty of conveyance with the Seneca on August 31 , 1826 , purchasing 87 @,@ 000 acres for $ 48 @,@ 216 . Massachusetts approved the conveyance , but the United States Senate was never consulted and never ratified the treaty , as required for treaties with Native American nations . In 1827 , the money was deposited in Ontario Bank in Canandaigua , New York , and in 1855 it was paid to the United States treasury , which began remitting the interest to the Seneca Nation .
= = = Dispute = = =
The Seneca Nation could not have brought the lawsuit until 1845 , when the New York legislature granted the nation the right to bring suits in courts of law and equity . The Seneca filed a petition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on January 5 , 1881 , requesting restoration and possession of certain lands related to the Phelps and Gorham Purchase . This petition was ignored by the BIA .
The Seneca hired the lawyer James Clark Strong to represent them , a " prominent lawyer and civic @-@ minded resident of Buffalo . " Strong was a former lieutenant colonel in the Union army ( brevetted to general after the war ) . He had a permanent limp from his wounds in the American Civil War . At the law practice of his brother , John C. Strong , he had also represented the Cayuga in a claim against New York state .
= = Procedural history = =
= = = New York trial court = = =
The Seneca brought suit in the Circuit Court of Erie County , New York on October 13 , 1885 . The Seneca requested the ejectment of Harrison B. Christy from 100 acres of land in the town of Brant , New York ( purchased from the Ogden Land Company ) , known as the " mile strip . " These lands were formerly part of the Cattaraugus Indian Reservation , as established by the New York Treaty of Big Tree ( 1797 ) .
The Seneca contended that the purchase was invalid because the treaty was not approved by the Senate , as required by the Constitution ; therefore it violated the Nonintercourse Act . Christy 's " answer consisted of a general denial , the plea of the statute of limitations of 20 years , and that the plaintiff had not the legal right , title , capacity , or authority to maintain the action . "
= = = New York intermediate appellate court = = =
The General Term of the Fifth Department of the New York Supreme Court heard the intermediate appeal . Bradley J. , writing for himself and Dwight J.J. , affirmed . The court considered whether the Indians had properly surrendered the land and whether the consideration had been paid . As to the first question , the court noted that , while " in view of the known habits of Indians they may not be supposed to represent their occupation or possession by improvements or inclosures of all or great portions of their lands " :
[ I ] n this case the abandonment and surrender were not only practically made , but have been characterized by such circumstances and by such recognition , not only by the Indians , but by the government , in such manner as to determine the situation , and in legal effect to sever the prior relation of the Indians to the lands from them . The quantity of land covered by the treaty of conveyance was large .
The court cited Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) for the proposition that : " [ t ] he title of the Indians was possessory , and embraced the right of occupancy only . And when abandoned by them the possession attached itself to the fee of the lands . "
As to the second question , the court noted :
The suggestion that the entire amount of the purchase money was not paid , and that such fact is in the way of supporting the claim to the Indian title , is not sustained . We are not called upon to consider the effect of default in payment of any portion of the purchase money . The treaty recites the payment of it , and as no such question seems ever before to have been raised , or full payment questioned , either by government or the Indians , it must at this late day be assumed , until the contrary is quite clearly made to appear , that the contract in that respect was performed .
Finally , the court noted :
The plaintiff not being a corporation , and having no such corporate name , could not at common law maintain an action . This right , however , was more than 40 years ago conferred by statute , which , among other things , provides that the Seneca Nation of Indians may maintain any action of ejectment to recover the possession of any part of the Allegany and Cattaraugus reservations unlawfully withheld from them .
As a result , the intermediate appellate court did not reach the question of whether the statute of limitation applies .
= = = New York Court of Appeals = = =
Chief Justice Charles Andrews , writing for a unanimous New York Court of Appeals , affirmed .
Validity of the transaction
After reviewing the facts , Andrews began by arguing that there were many ways to extinguish aboriginal title . He said : " It is material to observe that there was no uniform procedure on the part of the purchasers from Massachusetts in acquiring the Indian title , " and gave examples of conveyances he believed to have been implicitly ratified by the federal government . As to the Seneca argument that , after the ratification of the Constitution , only the federal government could extinguish aboriginal title , Andrews noted that :
These claims challenge the title not only of every purchaser and holder of lands within the boundaries of the grant of August 31 , 1826 , but also the title to many millions of acres of lands in this state , held under Indian treaties made by the state of New York with the Indian tribes within its borders , or under grants made by Indians to individuals under the authority of the state , where no treaty had been made between the United States and the Indian occupants .
Andrews expressed the view that the U.S. states , not the federal government , inherited from Great Britain the sole power to extinguish aboriginal title :
On the Declaration of Independence the colonies became sovereign states . They were so acknowledged by the treaty of peace of 1783 , and Great Britain by that treaty ‘ relinquished all claims to the government , property , and territorial rights ' within the several colonies . It is the received opinion that the colonies succeeded to the title of the crown to all the ungranted lands within their respective boundaries , with the exclusive right to extinguish by purchase the Indian title , and to regulate dealings with the Indian tribes . ‘ There was no territory in the United States , ’ said JOHNSON , J. , in Harcourt v. Gaillard , 12 Wheat . 523 , ‘ that was claimed in any other right than that of one of the confederated states ; therefore there could be no acquisition of territory made by the United States distinct from or independent of some one of the United States . ’
Andrews rejected the argument that the federal government had acquired Indian lands by treaty out of a legal requirement to do so :
But the dealing by the general government with the Indian tribes through treaties was resorted to as a convenient mode of regulating Indian affairs , and not because , as with other nations , it was the only mode , independently of the arbitrament of war , of dealing with them .
Andrews relied upon the argument of federal acquiescence :
The practical construction given by the state of New York to the federal constitution , as shown by the numerous treaties made by it with the Indian tribes , and the recognition by the federal authority of their validity , is very strong evidence that the clause in the federal constitution prohibiting the states from entering into treaties does not preclude a state , having the preemption right to Indian lands , from dealing with the Indian tribes directly , for the extinguishment of the Indian title .
Effect of the Nonintercourse Act
As to the Nonintercourse Act , Andrews questioned both whether it applied to purchases by a state and whether it applied to purchases within a state . However , Andrews proceed to assume that the Act applied and held that it had not been violated . Andrews proceeded to argue that the treaty requirement of the Act was satisfied by state treaties :
The purchase must be made at a treaty , as in other cases . This insures publicity , and affords a protection against fraud . But the proviso does not require that the treaty should be one between the United States and the tribe from whom the purchase is made , as in the cases coming under the first clause of the section . It is sufficient if the purchase is made at a treaty held ‘ under the authority of the United States , ’ and in the ‘ presence and with the approbation of the commissioner or commissioners of the United States , ’ etc .
Andrews also placed reliance on the fact that later versions of the Act excluded the clause " or to any state , whether having the right of pre @-@ emption or not " and instead simply prohibited acquisitions by persons .
Applicability of the statute of limitations
Independently , Andrews indicated he would have dismissed the action under the statute of limitations :
We are also of opinion that as the right of the plaintiff to sue was given by , and is dependent upon , the statute , the statute of limitations is a bar to the action . By the act of 1845 , the actions thereby authorized are to be brought and maintained ‘ in the same time ’ as if brought by citizens of the state . The question is not whether an Indian title can be barred by adverse possession , or by state statutes of limitation . The point is that the plaintiff cannot invoke the special remedy given by the statute , without being bound by the conditions upon which it is given .
Andrews emphasized this latter ground because of his desire to prevent any similar lands claims by Indian tribes :
In view of the numerous Indian titles in this state originating in treaties by the state , or in purchases made with its sanction by individuals , we prefer to place our judgment on the broader ground , which will remove any cloud upon the validity of those titles .
= = Opinion = =
Chief Justice Melville Fuller , for a unanimous Court , dismissed the writ of error , relying on the adequate and independent state grounds for the New York Court of Appeals ' decision . After reviewing the facts and the judgment below , he wrote that :
The proper construction of this enabling act , and the time within which an action might be brought and maintained thereunder , it was the province of the state courts to determine .
The Seneca Nation availed itself of the act in bringing this action , which was subject to the provision , as held by the court of appeals , that it could only be brought and maintained ‘ in the same manner and within the same time as if brought by citizens of this state in relation to their private individual property and rights . ’ Under the circumstances , the fact that the plaintiff was an Indian tribe cannot make federal questions of the correct construction of the act and the bar of the statute of limitations .
As it appears that the decision of the court of appeals was rested , in addition to other grounds , upon a distinct and independent ground , not involving any federal question , and sufficient in itself to maintain the judgment , the writ of error falls within the wellsettled rule on that subject , and cannot be maintained .
= = Legacy = =
A 19th @-@ century New York Times article claimed that " [ t ] he decision is one of local , state , and national importance alike . . . . " In 1998 Prof. Hauptman summed up the case by the following :
The Treaties of 1823 and 1826 , although fraudulent at their roots , were allowed to stand . The legal obstacles to Indian land suits at the time made it almost impossible to obtain redress until monetary compensation was awarded the Senecas under the Indian Claims Commission in the late 1960s and early 1970s .
Seneca Nation has never been overruled . But , the effect of the decision was undone by rulings in Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State v. Oneida County ( 1974 ) , known as Oneida I , and Oneida County v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y. State ( 1985 ) , known as Oneida II , which held that there is a federal common law cause of action for ejectment based upon aboriginal title for which there is federal subject @-@ matter jurisdiction . Therefore , Indian tribes no longer have to rely on state statutes for a cause of action . In the words of Prof. Hauptman , Oneida I " overturned one hundred forty @-@ three years of American law . "
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= Frank Sinatra =
Francis Albert " Frank " Sinatra ( / sᵻˈnɑːtrə / ; December 12 , 1915 – May 14 , 1998 ) was an American singer , actor , and producer who was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century . Sinatra 's music has been considered timeless by many . He is one of the best @-@ selling music artists of all time , having sold more than 150 million records worldwide . Born in Hoboken , New Jersey , to Italian immigrants , he began his musical career in the swing era with Harry James and Tommy Dorsey . He found success as a solo artist after being signed by Columbia Records in 1943 , becoming the idol of the " bobby soxers " . He released his first album , The Voice of Frank Sinatra , in 1946 . Sinatra 's professional career had stalled by the early 1950s , and he turned to Las Vegas , where he became one of its best known performers as part of the Rat Pack . His career was reborn in 1953 with the success of From Here to Eternity and his subsequent Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . He signed with Capitol Records and released several critically lauded albums , including In the Wee Small Hours ( 1955 ) , Songs for Swingin ' Lovers ! ( 1956 ) , Come Fly with Me ( 1958 ) , Only the Lonely ( 1958 ) and Nice ' n ' Easy ( 1960 ) .
Sinatra left Capitol in 1960 to start his own record label , Reprise Records , and released a string of successful albums . In 1965 he recorded the retrospective September of My Years , starred in the Emmy @-@ winning television special Frank Sinatra : A Man and His Music , and scored hits with " Strangers in the Night " and " My Way " . After releasing Sinatra at the Sands , recorded at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Vegas with frequent collaborator Count Basie in early 1966 , the following year he recorded one of his most famous collaborations with Tom Jobim , the album Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim . It was followed by 1968 's collaboration with Duke Ellington . Sinatra retired for the first time in 1971 , but came out of retirement two years later and recorded several albums and resumed performing at Caesars Palace . In 1980 he scored a Top 40 hit with " ( Theme From ) New York , New York " . Using his Las Vegas shows as a home base , he toured both within the United States and internationally until a short time before his death in 1998 .
Sinatra forged a highly successful career as a film actor . After winning an Academy Award for From Here to Eternity , he starred in The Man with the Golden Arm ( 1955 ) , and received critical acclaim for his performance in The Manchurian Candidate ( 1962 ) . He appeared in various musicals such as On the Town ( 1949 ) , Guys and Dolls ( 1955 ) , High Society ( 1956 ) , and Pal Joey ( 1957 ) , and toward the end of his career he became associated with playing detectives , including the title character in Tony Rome ( 1967 ) . On television , The Frank Sinatra Show began on ABC in 1950 , and he continued to make appearances on television throughout the 1950s and 1960s . Sinatra was also heavily involved with politics from the mid 1940s , and actively campaigned for presidents such as Harry S. Truman , John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan , though before Kennedy 's death Sinatra 's alleged Mafia connections led to his being snubbed . ( The Nevada Gaming Commission stripped Sinatra of his gambling license after he failed to meet an October 7 , 1963 deadline for refuting charges of close associations with Chicago mobster Sam Giancana . )
While Sinatra never formally learned how to read music , he had a fine , natural understanding of it , and he worked very hard from a young age to improve his abilities in all aspects of music . A perfectionist , renowned for his impeccable dress sense and cleanliness , he always insisted on recording live with his band . His deep blue eyes earned him the popular nickname " Ol ' Blue Eyes " . Sinatra led a colorful personal life , and was often involved in turbulent affairs with women , such as with his second wife Ava Gardner . He went on to marry Mia Farrow in 1966 and Barbara Marx in 1976 . Sinatra had several violent confrontations , usually with journalists he felt had crossed him , or work bosses with whom he had disagreements . He was honored at the Kennedy Center Honors in 1983 , was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Ronald Reagan in 1985 , and the Congressional Gold Medal in 1997 . Sinatra was also the recipient of eleven Grammy Awards , including the Grammy Trustees Award , Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . After his death , American music critic Robert Christgau called him " the greatest singer of the 20th century " , and he continues to be seen as an iconic figure .
= = Early life = =
Francis Albert Sinatra was born on December 12 , 1915 , in an upstairs tenement at 415 Monroe Street in Hoboken , New Jersey . He was the only child of Italian immigrants Antonino Martino " Marty " Sinatra ( May 4 , 1892 – January 24 , 1969 ) , the son of grape growers from Lercara Friddi , and Natalina " Dolly " Garaventa ( December 26 , 1896 – January 6 , 1977 ) , daughter of a lithographer from Genoa . The couple had eloped on Valentine 's Day 1913 , and married in a civil ceremony in Jersey City , New Jersey . Sinatra weighed 13 @.@ 5 pounds ( 6 @.@ 1 kg ) at birth and had to be delivered with the aid of forceps , which caused severe scarring to his left cheek , neck , and ear , and perforated his ear drum , damage that remained for life . Due to his injuries at birth , his baptism at St. Francis Church in Hoboken was delayed until April 2 , 1916 . A childhood operation on his mastoid bone left major scarring on his neck , and during adolescence he suffered from cystic acne that scarred his face and neck . Sinatra was raised Roman Catholic .
When Sinatra 's mother was a child , her pretty face earned her the nickname " Dolly " . Energetic and driven , biographers believe that she was the dominant factor in the development of her son 's personality traits and extraordinary self @-@ confidence . Barbara Sinatra claims that Dolly was abusive to him as a child , and " knocked him around a lot " . Dolly became influential in Hoboken and in local Democratic Party circles . She worked as a midwife , earning $ 50 for each delivery , and according to Sinatra biographer Kitty Kelley , also ran an illegal abortion service that catered to Italian Catholic girls . She also had a gift for languages and served as a local interpreter . Sinatra 's illiterate father was a bantamweight boxer who fought under the name Marty O 'Brien . He later worked for 24 years at the Hoboken Fire Department , working his way up to captain . Sinatra spent much time at his parents ' tavern in Hoboken , working on his homework and occasionally singing a song on top of the player piano for spare change . During the Great Depression , Dolly provided money to her son for outings with friends and to buy expensive clothes , resulting in neighbors describing him as the " best @-@ dressed kid in the neighborhood " . Excessively thin and small as a child and young man , Sinatra 's skinny frame later became a staple of jokes during stage shows .
Sinatra developed an interest in music , particularly big band jazz , at a young age . He listened to Gene Austin , Rudy Vallée , Russ Colombo , and Bob Eberly , and " idolized " Bing Crosby . Sinatra 's maternal uncle , Domenico , gave him a ukulele for his 15th birthday , and he began performing at family gatherings . Sinatra attended David E. Rue Jr . High School from 1928 , and A. J. Demarest High School in 1931 , where he arranged bands for school dances . He left without graduating , having attended only 47 days before being expelled for " general rowdiness " . To please his mother , he enrolled at Drake Business School , but departed after 11 months . Dolly found Sinatra work as a delivery boy at the Jersey Observer newspaper , where his godfather Frank Garrick worked , and after that , Sinatra was a riveter at the Tietjen and Lang shipyard . He performed in local Hoboken social clubs such as The Cat 's Meow and The Comedy Club , and sang for free on radio stations such as WAAT in Jersey City . In New York , Sinatra found jobs singing for his supper or for cigarettes . To improve his speech , he began taking elocution lessons for a dollar each from vocal coach John Quinlan , who was one of the first people to notice his impressive vocal range .
= = Music career = =
= = = Hoboken Four and Harry James ( 1935 – 39 ) = = =
Sinatra began singing professionally as a teenager , but he learned music by ear and never learned to read music . He got his first break in 1935 when his mother persuaded a local singing group , the 3 Flashes , to let him join . Fred Tamburro , the group 's baritone , stated that " Frank hung around us like we were gods or something " , admitting that they only took him on board because he owned a car and could chauffeur the group around . Sinatra soon learned they were auditioning for the Major Bowes Amateur Hour show , and " begged " the group to let him in on the act . With Sinatra , the group became known as the Hoboken Four , and passed an audition from Edward Bowes to appear on the Major Bowes Amateur Hour show . They each earned $ 12 @.@ 50 for the appearance , and ended up attracting 40 @,@ 000 votes and won first prize — a six @-@ month contract to perform on stage and radio across the United States . Sinatra quickly became the group 's lead singer , and , much to the jealousy of his fellow group members , garnered most of the attention from girls . Due to the success of the group , Bowes kept asking for them to return , disguised under different names , varying from " The Seacaucus Cockamamies " to " The Bayonne Bacalas " .
In 1938 , Sinatra found employment as a singing waiter at a roadhouse called " The Rustic Cabin " in Englewood Cliffs , New Jersey , for which he was paid $ 15 a week . The roadhouse was connected to the WNEW radio station in New York City , and he began performing with a group live during the Dance Parade show . Despite the low salary , Sinatra felt that this was the break he was looking for , and boasted to friends that he was going to " become so big that no one could ever touch him " . In March 1939 , saxophone player Frank Mane , who knew Sinatra from Jersey City radio station WAAT where both performed on live broadcasts , arranged for him to audition and record " Our Love " , his first solo studio recording . In June , bandleader Harry James , who had heard Sinatra sing on " Dance Parade " , signed a two @-@ year contract of $ 75 a week one evening after a show at the Paramount Theatre in New York . It was with the James band that Sinatra released his first commercial record " From the Bottom of My Heart " in July . No more than 8 @,@ 000 copies of the record were sold , and further records released with James through 1939 , such as " All or Nothing At All " , also had weak sales on their initial release . Thanks to his vocal training , Sinatra could now sing two tones higher , and developed a repertoire which included songs such as " My Buddy " , " Willow Weep for Me " , " It 's Funny to Everyone But Me " , " Here Comes the Night " , " On a Little Street in Singapore " , " Ciribiribin " and " Every Day of My Life " .
= = = Tommy Dorsey years ( 1939 – 42 ) = = =
Sinatra became increasingly frustrated with the status of the Harry James band , feeling that he was not achieving the major success and acclaim he was looking for . His pianist and close friend Hank Sanicola persuaded him to stay with the group , but in November 1939 he left James to replace Jack Leonard as the lead singer of the Tommy Dorsey band . Sinatra signed a contract with Dorsey for $ 125 a week at Palmer House in Chicago , and James agreed amicably to release Sinatra from his contract . On January 26 , 1940 , he made his first public appearance with the band at the Coronado Theatre in Rockford , Illinois , opening the show with " Stardust " . Dorsey recalled : " You could almost feel the excitement coming up out of the crowds when the kid stood up to sing . Remember , he was no matinée idol . He was just a skinny kid with big ears . I used to stand there so amazed I 'd almost forget to take my own solos " . Dorsey was a major influence on Sinatra and became a father figure . Sinatra copied Dorsey 's mannerisms and traits , becoming a demanding perfectionist like him , even adopting his hobby of toy trains . He asked Dorsey to be godfather to his daughter Nancy in June 1940 . Sinatra later said that " The only two people I 've ever been afraid of are my mother and Tommy Dorsey " . Though Kelley claims that Sinatra and drummer Buddy Rich were bitter rivals , other authors state that they were friends and even roommates when the band was on the road , but professional jealousy surfaced as both men wanted to be considered the star of Dorsey 's band . Later , Sinatra helped Rich form his own band with a $ 25 @,@ 000 loan and provided financial help to Rich during times of the drummer 's serious illness .
In his first year with Dorsey , Sinatra recorded over forty songs . Sinatra 's first vocal hit was the song " Polka Dots and Moonbeams " in late April 1940 . Two more chart appearances followed with " Say It " and " Imagination " , which was Sinatra 's first top @-@ 10 hit . His fourth chart appearance was " I 'll Never Smile Again " , topping the charts for twelve weeks beginning in mid @-@ July . Other records with Tommy Dorsey issued by RCA Victor include " Our Love Affair " and " Stardust " in 1940 ; " Oh ! Look at Me Now " , " Dolores " , " Everything Happens to Me " and " This Love of Mine " in 1941 ; " Just as Though You Were There " , " Take Me " and " There Are Such Things " in 1942 ; and " It Started All Over Again " , " In the Blue of Evening " and " It 's Always You " in 1943 . As his success and popularity grew , Sinatra pushed Dorsey to allow him to record some solo songs . Dorsey eventually relented , and on January 19 , 1942 , Sinatra recorded " Night and Day , " The Night We Called It a Day " , " The Song is You " and " Lamplighter 's Serenade " at a Bluebird recording session , with Axel Stordahl as arranger and conductor . Sinatra first heard the recordings at the Hollywood Palladium and Hollywood Plaza and was astounded at how good he sounded . Stordahl recalled : " He just couldn 't believe his ears . He was so excited , you almost believed he had never recorded before . I think this was a turning point in his career . I think he began to see what he might do on his own " .
After the 1942 recordings , Sinatra believed he needed to go solo , with an insatiable desire to compete with Bing Crosby , but he was hampered by his contract which gave Dorsey 43 % of Sinatra 's lifetime earnings in the entertainment industry . A legal battle ensued , eventually settled in August 1943 . On September 3 , 1942 , Dorsey bid farewell to Sinatra , reportedly saying as Sinatra left , " I hope you fall on your ass " . He replaced Sinatra with singer Dick Haymes . Rumors began spreading in newspapers that Sinatra 's mobster godfather , Willie Moretti , coerced Dorsey to let Sinatra out of his contract for a few thousand dollars , holding a gun to his head . Sinatra persuaded Stordahl to leave Dorsey with him and become his personal arranger , offering him $ 650 a month , five times the salary of Dorsey . Dorsey and Sinatra , who had been very close , never patched up their differences before Dorsey 's death in 1956 , worsened by the fact that Dorsey occasionally made biting comments to the press such as " he 's the most fascinating man in the world , but don 't put your hand in the cage " .
= = = Onset of Sinatramania and role in World War II ( 1942 – 45 ) = = =
By May 1941 , Sinatra topped the male singer polls in Billboard and Down Beat magazines . His appeal to bobby soxers , as teenage girls of that time were called , revealed a whole new audience for popular music , which had been recorded mainly for adults up to that time . The phenomenon became officially known as " Sinatramania " after his " legendary opening " at the Paramount Theatre in New York on December 30 , 1942 . According to Nancy Sinatra , Jack Benny later said , " I thought the goddamned building was going to cave in . I never heard such a commotion ... All this for a fellow I never heard of . " Sinatra performed for four weeks at the theatre , his act following the Benny Goodman orchestra , after which his contract was renewed for another four weeks by Bob Weitman due to his popularity . He became known as " Swoonatra " or " The Voice " , and his fans " Sinatratics " . They organized meetings and sent masses of letters of adoration , and within a few weeks of the show , some 1000 Sinatra fan clubs had been reported across the US . Sinatra 's publicist , George Evans , encouraged interviews and photographs with fans , and was the man responsible for depicting Sinatra as a vulnerable , shy , Italian – American with a rough childhood who made good . When Sinatra returned to the Paramount in October 1944 only 250 persons left the first show , and 35 @,@ 000 fans left outside caused a near riot , known as the Columbus Day Riot , outside the venue because they were not allowed in . Such was the bobby @-@ soxer devotion to Sinatra that they were known to write Sinatra 's song titles on their clothing , bribe hotel maids for an opportunity to touch his bed , and accost his person in the form of stealing clothing he was wearing , most commonly his bow @-@ tie .
Sinatra signed with Columbia Records as a solo artist on June 1 , 1943 during the 1942 – 44 musicians ' strike . Columbia Records re @-@ released Harry James and Sinatra 's August 1939 version of " All or Nothing at All " , which reached number 2 on June 2 , and was on the best – selling list for 18 weeks . He initially had great success , and performed on the radio on Your Hit Parade from February 1943 until December 1944 , and on stage . Columbia wanted new recordings of their growing star as quickly as possible , so Alec Wilder was hired as an arranger and conductor for several sessions with a vocal group called the Bobby Tucker Singers . These first sessions were on June 7 , June 22 , August 5 , and November 10 , 1943 . Of the nine songs recorded during these sessions , seven charted on the best – selling list . That year he also made his first solo nightclub appearance at New York 's Riobamba , and a successful concert in the Wedgewood Room of the prestigious Waldorf @-@ Astoria New York that year secured his popularity in New York high society . Sinatra released " You 'll Never Know " , " Close to You " , " Sunday , Monday , or Always " and " People Will Say We 're in Love " as singles . By the end of 1943 he was more popular in a Down Beat poll than Bing Crosby , Perry Como , Bob Eberly and Dick Haymes .
Sinatra did not serve in the military during World War II . On December 11 , 1943 , he was officially classified 4 @-@ F ( " Registrant not acceptable for military service " ) by his draft board because of a perforated eardrum . However , army files reported that Sinatra was " not acceptable material from a psychiatric viewpoint " , but his emotional instability was hidden to avoid " undue unpleasantness for both the selectee and the induction service " . Briefly , there were rumors reported by columnist Walter Winchell that Sinatra paid $ 40 @,@ 000 to avoid the service , but the FBI found this to be without merit . Toward the end of the war , Sinatra entertained the troops during several successful overseas USO tours with comedian Phil Silvers . During one trip to Rome he met the Pope , who asked him if he was an operatic tenor . Sinatra worked frequently with the popular Andrews Sisters in radio the 1940s , and many USO shows were broadcast to troops via the Armed Forces Radio Service ( AFRS ) . In 1944 Sinatra released " I Couldn 't Sleep a Wink Last Night " as a single and recorded his own version of Crosby 's " White Christmas " , and the following year he released " I Dream of You ( More Than You Dream I Do ) " , " Saturday Night ( Is the Loneliest Night of the Week ) " , " Dream " and " Nancy ( with the Laughing Face ) " as singles .
= = = Columbia years and career slump ( 1946 – 52 ) = = =
Despite being heavily involved in political activity in 1945 and 1946 , in those two years Sinatra sang on 160 radio shows , recorded 36 times , and shot four films . By 1946 he was performing on stage up to 45 times a week , singing up to 100 songs daily , and earning up to $ 93 @,@ 000 a week .
In 1946 Sinatra released " Oh ! What it Seemed to Be " , " Day by Day " , " They Say It 's Wonderful " , " Five Minutes More " and " The Coffee Song " as singles , and launched his first album , The Voice of Frank Sinatra , which reached No. 1 on the Billboard chart . William Ruhlmann of AllMusic noted that Sinatra " took the material very seriously , singing the love lyrics with utter seriousness " , and that his " singing and the classically influenced settings gave the songs unusual depth of meaning " . He was soon selling ten million records a year . Such was Sinatra 's command at Columbia that his love of conducting was indulged with the release of the set Frank Sinatra Conducts the Music of Alec Wilder , an offering unlikely to appeal to Sinatra 's core fanbase at the time , which consisted of teenage girls . The following year he released his second album , Songs by Sinatra , featuring songs of a similar mood and tempo such as Irving Berlin 's " How Deep is the Ocean ? " and Harold Arlen 's and Jerome Kern 's " All The Things You Are " . " Mam 'selle " , composed by Edmund Goulding with lyrics by Mack Gordon for the film The Razor 's Edge ( 1946 ) , was released a single . Sinatra had competition ; versions by Art Lund , Dick Haymes , Dennis Day , and The Pied Pipers also reached the top ten of the Billboard charts . In December he recorded " Sweet Lorraine " with the Metronome All @-@ Stars , featuring talented jazz musicians such as Coleman Hawkins , Harry Carney and Charlie Shavers , with Nat King Cole on piano , in what Charles L. Granata describes as " one of the highlights of Sinatra 's Columbia epoch " .
Sinatra 's third album , Christmas Songs by Sinatra , was originally released in 1948 as a 78 rpm album set , and a 10 " LP record was released two years later . When Sinatra was featured as a priest in The Miracle of the Bells , due to press negativity surrounding his alleged Mafia connections at the time , it was announced to the public that Sinatra would donate his $ 100 @,@ 000 in wages from the film to the church . By the end of 1948 , Sinatra had slipped to fourth on Down Beat 's annual poll of most popular singers ( behind Billy Eckstine , Frankie Laine , and Bing Crosby ) . and in the following year he was pushed out of the top spots in polls for the first time since 1943 . Frankly Sentimental ( 1949 ) was panned by Down Beat , who commented that " for all his talent , it seldom comes to life " .
Though " The Hucklebuck " reached the top ten , it was his last single release under the Columbia label . Sinatra 's last two albums with Columbia , Dedicated to You and Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra , were released in 1950 . Sinatra would later feature a number of the Sing and Dance with Frank Sinatra album 's songs , including " Lover " , " It 's Only a Paper Moon " , " It All Depends on You " , on his 1961 Capitol release , Sinatra 's Swingin ' Session ! ! ! .
Cementing the low of his career was the death of publicist George Evans from a heart attack in January 1950 at 48 . According to Jimmy Van Heusen , Sinatra 's close friend and songwriter , Evans 's death to him was " an enormous shock which defies words " , as he had been crucial to his career and popularity with the bobbysoxers . Sinatra 's reputation continued to decline as reports broke out in February of his affair with Ava Gardner and the destruction of his marriage to Nancy , though he insisted that his marriage had long been over even before he had met Gardner . In April , Sinatra was engaged to perform at the Copa club in New York , but had to cancel five days of the booking due to suffering a submucosal hemorrhage of the throat . Evans once noted that whenever Sinatra suffered from a bad throat and loss of voice it was always due to emotional tension which " absolutely destroyed him " .
In financial difficulty following his divorce and career decline , Sinatra was forced to borrow $ 200 @,@ 000 from Columbia to pay his back taxes after MCA refused to front the money . Rejected by Hollywood , he turned to Las Vegas and made his debut at the Desert Inn in September 1951 , and also began singing at the Riverside Hotel in Reno , Nevada . Sinatra became one of Las Vegas 's pioneer entertainers , and a prominent figure on the Vegas scene throughout the 1950s and 1960s onwards , a period described by Rojek as the " high @-@ water mark " of Sinatra 's " hedonism and self absorption " . Rojek notes that the Rat Pack " provided an outlet for gregarious banter and wisecracks " , but argues that it was Sinatra 's vehicle , possessing an " unassailable command over the other performers " . Sinatra would fly to Las Vegas from Los Angeles in Van Heusen 's single @-@ engine plane . On October 4 , 1953 , Sinatra made his first performance at the Sands Hotel and Casino , after an invitation by the manager Jack Entratter , who had previously worked at the Copa in New York . Sinatra typically performed there three times a year , and later acquired a share in the hotel .
Sinatra 's decline in popularity was evident at his concert appearances . At a brief run at the Paramount in New York he drew small audiences . At the Desert Inn in Las Vegas he performed to half @-@ filled houses of wildcatters and ranchers . At a concert at Chez Paree in Chicago , only 150 people in a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat capacity venue turned up to see him . By April 1952 he was performing at the Kauai County Fair in Hawaii . Sinatra 's relationship with Columbia Records was also disintegrating , with A & R executive Mitch Miller claiming he " couldn 't give away " the singer 's records . Though several notable recordings were made during this time period , such as " If I Could Write a Book " in January 1952 , which Granata sees as a " turning point " , forecasting his later work with its sensitivity , Columbia and MCA dropped him later that year . His last studio recording for Columbia , " Why Try To Change Me Now " , was recorded in New York on September 17 , 1952 , with orchestra arranged and conducted by Percy Faith . Journalist Burt Boyar observed , " Sinatra had had it . It was sad . From the top to the bottom in one horrible lesson . "
= = = Career revival and the Capitol years ( 1953 – 62 ) = = =
The release of the film From Here to Eternity in August 1953 marked the beginning of a remarkable career revival . Santopietro notes that Sinatra began to bury himself in his work , with an " unparalleled frenetic schedule of recordings , movies and concerts " , in what authors Anthony Summers and Robbyn Swan describe as " a new and brilliant phase " . On March 13 , 1953 , Sinatra met with Capitol Records vice president Alan Livingston and signed a seven @-@ year recording contract . His first session for Capitol took place at KHJ studios at Studio C , 5515 Melrose Avenue in Los Angeles , with Axel Stordahl conducting . The session produced four recordings , including " I 'm Walking Behind You " , Sinatra 's first Capitol single . After spending two weeks on location in Hawaii filming From Here to Eternity , Sinatra returned to KHJ on April 30 for his first recording session with Nelson Riddle , an established arranger and conductor at Capitol who was Nat King Cole 's musical director . After recording the first song , " I 've Got the World on a String " , Sinatra offered Riddle a rare expression of praise , " Beautiful ! " , and after listening to the playbacks , he could not hide his enthusiasm , exclaiming , " I 'm back , baby , I 'm back ! "
In subsequent sessions in May and November 1953 , Sinatra and Riddle developed and refined their musical collaboration , with Sinatra providing specific guidance on the arrangements . Sinatra 's first album for Capitol , Songs for Young Lovers , was released on January 4 , 1954 , and included " A Foggy Day " , " I Get a Kick Out of You " , " My Funny Valentine " , " Violets for Your Furs " and " They Can 't Take That Away from Me " , songs which became staples of his later concerts . That same month , Sinatra and Doris Day released the single " Young at Heart " , which reached # 2 and was awarded Song of the Year . In March , he recorded and released the single " Three Coins in the Fountain " , a " powerful ballad " that reached # 4 . Sinatra 's second album with Riddle , Swing Easy ! , which reflected his " love for the jazz idiom " according to Granata , was released on August 2 of that year and included " Just One of Those Things " , " Taking a Chance on Love " , " Get Happy " , and " All of Me " . Swing Easy ! was named Album of the Year by Billboard , and he was also named " Favorite Male Vocalist " by Billboard , Down Beat , and Metronome that year . Sinatra came to consider Riddle " the greatest arranger in the world " , and Riddle , who considered Sinatra " a perfectionist " , offered equal praise of the singer , observing , " It 's not only that his intuitions as to tempi , phrasing , and even configuration are amazingly right , but his taste is so impeccable ... there is still no one who can approach him . "
In 1955 Sinatra released In the Wee Small Hours , his first 12 " LP , featuring songs such as " In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning " , " Mood Indigo " , " Glad to Be Unhappy " and " When Your Lover Has Gone " . According to Granata it was the first concept album of his to make a " single persuasive statement " , with an extended program and " melancholy mood " . Sinatra embarked on his first tour of Australia the same year . Another collaboration with Riddle resulted in the development of Songs for Swingin ' Lovers ! , sometimes seen as one of his best albums , which was released in March 1956 . It features a recording of " I 've Got You Under My Skin " by Cole Porter , something which Sinatra paid meticulous care to , taking a reported 22 takes to perfect .
His February 1956 recording sessions inaugurated the studios at the Capitol Records Building , complete with a 56 @-@ piece symphonic orchestra . According to Granata his recordings of " Night and Day " , " Oh ! Look At Me Now " and " From This Moment On " revealed " powerful sexual overtones , stunningly achieved through the mounting tension and release of Sinatra 's best @-@ teasing vocal lines " , while his recording of " River , Stay ' Way from My Door " in April demonstrated his " brilliance as a syncopational improviser " . Riddle noted that Sinatra took " particular delight " in singing " The Lady is a Tramp " , commenting that he " always sang that song with a certain amount of salaciousness " , making " cue tricks " with the lyrics . His penchant for conducting was displayed again in 1956 's Frank Sinatra Conducts Tone Poems of Color , an instrumental album that has been interpreted to be a catharsis to his failed relationship with Gardner . Also that year , Sinatra sang at the Democratic National Convention , and performed with The Dorsey Brothers for a week soon afterwards at the Paramount Theatre .
In 1957 , Sinatra released Close to You , A Swingin ' Affair ! and Where Are You ? – his first album in stereo , with Gordon Jenkins . Granata considers " Close to You " to have been thematically his closest concept album to perfection during the " golden " era , and Nelson Riddle 's finest work , which was " extremely progressive " by the stands of the day . It is structured like a three @-@ act play , each commencing with the songs " With Every Breath I Take " , " Blame It On My Youth " and " It Could Happen to You " . For Granata , Sinatra 's A Swingin ' Affair ! and swing music predecessor Songs for Swingin ' Lovers ! solidified " Sinatra 's image as a ' swinger ' , from both a musical and visual standpoint " . Buddy Collette considered the swing albums to have been heavily influenced by Sammy Davis , Jr . , and noted that when he worked with Sinatra in the mid @-@ 1960s he approached a song much differently than he had done in the early 1950s . On June 9 , 1957 , he performed in a 62 @-@ minute concert conducted by Riddle at the Seattle Civic Auditorium , his first appearance in Seattle since 1945 . The recording was first released as a bootleg , but in 1999 Artanis Entertainment Group officially released it as the Sinatra ' 57 in Concert live album , after Sinatra 's death . In 1958 Sinatra released the album Come Fly with Me with Billy May . It reached the top spot on the Billboard album chart in its second week , remaining at the top for five weeks , and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the inaugural Grammy Awards . The title song , " Come Fly With Me " , written especially for him , would become one of his best known standards . On May 29 he recorded seven songs in a single session , more than double the usual yield of a recording session , and an eighth was planned , " Lush Life " , but Sinatra found it too technically demanding . In September , Sinatra released Frank Sinatra Sings for Only the Lonely , a stark collection of introspective saloon songs and blues @-@ tinged ballads which proved a huge commercial success , spending 120 weeks on Billboards album chart and peaking at No. 1 . Cuts from this LP , such as " Angel Eyes " and " One for My Baby ( and One More for the Road ) " , would remain staples of the " saloon song " segments of Sinatra 's concerts .
In 1959 , Sinatra released Come Dance with Me ! , a highly successful , critically acclaimed album which stayed on Billboard 's Pop album chart for 140 weeks , peaking at # 2 . It won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year , as well as Best Vocal Performance , Male and Best Arrangement for Billy May . He also released No One Cares in the same year , a collection of " brooding , lonely " torch songs , which critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought was " nearly as good as its predecessor Where Are You ? , but lacked the " lush " arrangements of it and the " grandiose melancholy " of Only the Lonely .
In the words of Kelley , by 1959 , Sinatra was " not simply the leader of the Rat Pack " but had " assumed the position of il padrone in Hollywood " . He was asked by 20th Century Fox to be the master of ceremonies at a luncheon attended by President Nikita Khrushchev on September 19 , 1959 . Nice ' n ' Easy , a collection of ballads , topped the Billboard chart in October 1960 and remained in the charts for 86 weeks , winning critical plaudits . Granata noted the " lifelike ambient sound " quality of Nice and Easy , the perfection in the stereo balance , and the " bold , bright and snappy " sound of the band . He highlighted the " close , warm and sharp " feel of Sinatra 's voice , particularly on the songs " September in the Rain " , " I Concentrate on You " , and " My Blue Heaven " .
= = = Reprise years ( 1961 – 81 ) = = =
Sinatra grew discontented at Capitol , and fell into a feud with Alan Livingston , which lasted over six months . He decided to part with Riddle , May and Jenkins , to form his own label , Reprise Records . Under Sinatra the company developed into a music industry " powerhouse " , and he later sold it for an estimated $ 80 million . His first album on the label , Ring @-@ a @-@ Ding @-@ Ding ! ( 1961 ) , was a major success , peaking at No.4 on Billboard . The album was released in February 1961 , the same month that Reprise Records released Ben Webster 's The Warm Moods , Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s The Wham of Sam , Mavis River 's Mavis and Joe E. Lewis 's It is Now Post Time . On September 11 and 12 , 1961 , Sinatra recorded his final songs for Capitol . In an effort to maintain his commercial viability in the 1960s , Sinatra recorded Elvis Presley 's hit " Love Me Tender " , and later recorded works by Paul Simon such as " Mrs. Robinson " , the Beatles ( " Something " , " Yesterday " ) , and Joni Mitchell ( " Both Sides , Now " ) .
In 1962 , Sinatra released Sinatra and Strings , a set of standard ballads which became one of the most critically acclaimed works of Sinatra 's entire Reprise period . Frank Sinatra , Jr . , who was present during the recording , noted the " huge orchestra " , which Nancy Sinatra stated " opened a whole new era " in pop music , with orchestras getting bigger , embracing a " lush string sound " . Sinatra and Count Basie collaborated for the album Sinatra @-@ Basie the same year , a popular and successful release which prompted them to rejoin two years later for the follow @-@ up It Might as Well Be Swing , arranged by Quincy Jones . The two became frequent performers together , and appeared at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1965 . Also in 1962 , as the owner of his own record label , Sinatra was able to step on the podium as conductor again , releasing his third instrumental album Frank Sinatra Conducts Music from Pictures and Plays .
In 1963 , Sinatra released The Concert Sinatra , an ambitious album with a 73 @-@ piece symphony orchestra led by Nelson Riddle . The concert was recorded on a motion picture scoring stage with the use of multiple synchronized recording machines that employed 35 mm magnetic film . Granata considers the album to have been " impeachable " [ sic ] , " one of the very best of the Sinatra @-@ Riddle ballad albums " , in which Sinatra displayed an impressive vocal range , particularly in " Ol ' Man River " , in which he darkened the hue . In 1964 the song " My Kind of Town " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song . Sinatra released Softly , as I Leave You , and collaborated with Bing Crosby and Fred Waring on America , I Hear You Singing , a collection of patriotic songs recorded as a tribute to the assassinated President John F. Kennedy . Sinatra increasingly became involved in charitable pursuits in this period . In 1961 and 1962 he went to Mexico , with the sole purpose of putting on performances for Mexican charities , and in July 1964 he was present for the dedication of the Frank Sinatra International Youth Center for Arab and Jewish children in Nazareth .
Sinatra 's phenomenal success in 1965 , coinciding with his 50th birthday , prompted Billboard to proclaim that he may have reached the " peak of his eminence " . In June 1965 , Sinatra , Sammy Davis , Jr . , and Dean Martin played live in St. Louis to benefit Dismas House , a prisoner rehabilitation and training center with nationwide programs that in particular helped serve African Americans . The Rat Pack concert was broadcast live via satellite to numerous movie theaters across America . The album September of My Years was released September 1965 , and went on to win the Grammy Award for best album of the year . Granata considers the album to have been one of the finest of his Reprise years , " a reflective throwback to the concept records of the 1950s , and more than any of those collections , distills everything that Frank Sinatra had ever learned or experienced as a vocalist " . One of the album 's singles , " It Was a Very Good Year " , won the Grammy Award for Best Vocal Performance , Male . A career anthology , A Man and His Music , followed in November , winning Album of the Year at the Grammys the following year .
In 1966 Sinatra released That 's Life , with both the single of " That 's Life " and album becoming Top Ten hits in the US on Billboard 's pop charts . Strangers in the Night went on to top the Billboard and UK pop singles charts , winning the award for Record of the Year at the Grammys . Sinatra 's first live album , Sinatra at the Sands , was recorded during January and February 1966 at the Sands Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas . Sinatra was backed by the Count Basie Orchestra , with Quincy Jones conducting . Sinatra pulled out from the Sands the following year , when he was driven out by its new owner Howard Hughes , after a fight .
Sinatra started 1967 with a series of recording sessions with Antônio Carlos Jobim . He recorded one of his most famous collaborations with Jobim , the Grammy @-@ nominated album Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim , which was one of the best @-@ selling albums of the year , behind the Beatles 's Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . According to Santopietro the album " consists of an extraordinarily effective blend of bossa nova and slightly swinging jazz vocals , and succeeds in creating an unbroken mood of romance and regret " . Writer Stan Cornyn noted that Sinatra sang so softly on the album that it was comparable to the time that he suffered from a vocal hemorrhage in 1950 . Sinatra also released the album The World We Knew , which features a chart @-@ topping duet of " Somethin ' Stupid " with daughter Nancy . In December , Sinatra collaborated with Duke Ellington on the album Francis A. & Edward K .. According to Granata , the recording of " Indian Summer " on the album was a favorite of Riddle 's , noting the " contemplative mood [ which ] is heightened by a Johnny Hodges alto sax solo that will bring a tear to your eye " . With Sinatra in mind , singer @-@ songwriter Paul Anka wrote the song " My Way " , using the melody of the French " Comme d 'habitude " ( " As Usual " ) , composed by Claude François and Jacques Revaux . Sinatra recorded it just after Christmas 1968 . " My Way " , Sinatra 's best @-@ known song on the Reprise label , was not an instant success , charting at # 27 in the US and # 5 in the UK , but it remained in the UK charts for 122 weeks , including 75 non @-@ consecutive weeks in the Top 40 , between April 1969 and September 1971 , which was still a record in 2015 . Sinatra told songwriter Ervin Drake in the 1970s that he " detested " singing the song , because he believed audiences would think it was a " self @-@ aggrandizing tribute " , professing that he " hated boastfulness in others " .
= = = = " Retirement " and return ( 1970 – 81 ) = = = =
In 1970 , Sinatra released Watertown , one of his most acclaimed concept albums , with music by Bob Gaudio ( of the Four Seasons ) and lyrics by Jake Holmes . However , it sold a mere 30 @,@ 000 copies that year and reached a peak chart position of 101 . He left Caesars Palace in September that year after an incident where executive Sanford Waterman pulled a gun on him . He performed several charity concerts with Count Basie at the Royal Festival Hall in London . On November 2 , 1970 , Sinatra recorded the last songs for Reprise Records before his self @-@ imposed retirement , announced the following June at a concert in Hollywood to raise money for the Motion Picture and TV Relief Fund . He finished the concert with a " rousing " performance of " That 's Life " , and stated " Excuse me while I disappear " as he left the stage . He told LIFE journalist Thomas Thompson that " I 've got things to do , like the first thing is not to do anything at all for eight months ... maybe a year " , while Barbara Sinatra later claimed that Sinatra had grown " tired of entertaining people , especially when all they really wanted were the same old tunes he had long ago become bored by " . While he was in retirement , President Richard Nixon asked him to perform at a Young Voters Rally in anticipation of the upcoming campaign . Sinatra obliged and chose to sing " My Kind of Town " for the rally held in Chicago on October 20 , 1972 .
In 1973 , Sinatra came out of his short @-@ lived retirement with a television special and album . The album , entitled Ol ' Blue Eyes Is Back , arranged by Gordon Jenkins and Don Costa , was a success , reaching number 13 on Billboard and number 12 in the UK . The television special , Magnavox Presents Frank Sinatra , reunited Sinatra with Gene Kelly . He initially developed problems with his vocal cords during the comeback due to a prolonged period without singing . That Christmas he performed at the Sahara Hotel in Las Vegas , and returned to Caesars Palace the following month in January 1974 , despite previously vowing to perform there again [ sic ] . He began what Barbara Sinatra describes as a " massive comeback tour of the United States , Europe , the Far East and Australia " . In July , while on a second tour of Australia , he caused an uproar by describing journalists there – who were aggressively pursuing his every move and pushing for a press conference – as " bums , parasites , fags , and buck @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hookers " . After he was pressured to apologize , Sinatra instead insisted that the journalists apologize for " fifteen years of abuse I have taken from the world press " . In the end , Sinatra 's lawyer , Mickey Rudin , arranged a final concert which was televised to the nation , and Sinatra was given the opportunity to say " I love your attitude , I love your booze " to the Australian people . In October 1974 he appeared at New York City 's Madison Square Garden in a televised concert that was later released as an album under the title The Main Event – Live . Backing him was bandleader Woody Herman and the Young Thundering Herd , who accompanied Sinatra on a European tour later that month .
In 1975 , Sinatra performed in concerts in New York with Count Basie and Ella Fitzgerald , and at the London Palladium with Basie and Sarah Vaughan , and in Tehran at Aryamehr Stadium , giving 140 performances in 105 days . In August he held several consecutive concerts at Lake Tahoe together with the newly @-@ risen singer John Denver , who became a frequent collaborator . Sinatra had recorded Denver 's " Leaving on a Jet Plane " and " My Sweet Lady " for Sinatra & Company ( 1971 ) , and according to Denver , his song " A Baby Just Like You " was written at Sinatra 's request for his new grandchild , Angela . During the Labor Day weekend held in 1976 , Sinatra was responsible for reuniting old friends and comedy partners Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis for the first time in nearly twenty years , when they performed at the " Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon " . That year , the Friars Club selected him as the " Top Box Office Name of the Century " , and he was given the Scopus Award by the American Friends of Hebrew University in Israel and an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Nevada .
Sinatra continued to perform at Caesars Palace in the late 1970s , and was performing there in January 1977 when his mother Dolly died in a plane crash on the way to see him . He cancelled two weeks of shows and spent time recovering from the shock in Barbados . In March , he performed in front of Princess Margaret at the Royal Albert Hall in London , raising money for the NSPCC . On March 14 he recorded with Nelson Riddle for the last time , recording the songs " Linda " , " Sweet Loraine " and " Barbara " . The two men had a major falling out , and later patched up their differences in January 1985 at a dinner organized for Ronald Reagan , when Sinatra asked Riddle to make another album with him . Riddle was ill at the time , and died that October , before they had a chance to record .
In 1978 , Sinatra filed a $ 1 million lawsuit against a land developer for using his name in the " Frank Sinatra Drive Center " in West Los Angeles . During a party at Caesars in 1979 , he was awarded the Grammy Trustees Award , while celebrating 40 years in show business and his 64th birthday . That year , former President Gerald Ford awarded Sinatra the International Man of the Year Award , and he performed in front of the Egyptian pyramids for Anwar Sadat , which raised more than $ 500 @,@ 000 for Sadat 's wife 's charities .
In 1980 , Sinatra 's first album in six years was released , Trilogy : Past Present Future , a highly ambitious triple album that features an array of songs from both the pre @-@ rock era and rock era . It was the first studio album of Sinatra 's to feature his touring pianist at the time , Vinnie Falcone , and was based on an idea by Sonny Burke . The album garnered six Grammy nominations – winning for best liner notes – and peaked at number 17 on Billboard 's album chart , and spawned yet another song that would become a signature tune , " Theme from New York , New York " . That year , as part of the Concert of the Americas , he performed in the Maracana Stadium in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which broke records for the " largest live paid audience ever recorded for a solo performer " . The following year , Sinatra built on the success of Trilogy with She Shot Me Down , an album that was praised for embodying the dark tone of his Capitol years . Also in 1981 , Sinatra was embroiled in controversy when he worked a ten @-@ day engagement for $ 2 million in Sun City , in the internationally unrecognized Bophuthatswana , breaking a cultural boycott against apartheid @-@ era South Africa . President Lucas Mangope awarded Sinatra with the highest honor , the Order of the Leopard , and made him an honorary tribal chief .
= = = Later career ( 1982 – 1998 ) = = =
Santopietro stated that by the early 1980s , Sinatra 's voice had " coarsened , losing much of its power and flexibility , but audiences didn 't care " . In 1982 , he signed a $ 16 million three @-@ year deal with the Golden Nugget of Las Vegas . Kelley notes that by this period Sinatra 's voice had grown " darker , tougher and loamier " , but he " continued to captivate audiences with his immutable magic " . She added that his baritone voice " sometimes cracked , but the gliding intonations still aroused the same raptures of delight as they had at the Paramount Theater " . That year he made a reported further $ 1 @.@ 3 million from the Showtime television rights to his " Concert of the Americas " in the Dominican Republic , $ 1 @.@ 6 million for a concert series at Carnegie Hall , and $ 250 @,@ 000 in just one evening at the Chicago Fest . He donated a lot of his earnings to charity . He put on a performance at the White House for the Italian Prime Minister , and performed at the Radio City Music Hall with Luciano Pavarotti and George Shearing .
Sinatra was selected as one of the five recipients of the 1983 Kennedy Center Honors , alongside Katherine Dunham , James Stewart , Elia Kazan , and Virgil Thomson . Quoting Henry James , President Reagan said in honoring his old friend that " art was the shadow of humanity " and that Sinatra had " spent his life casting a magnificent and powerful shadow " . On September 21 , 1983 , Sinatra filed a $ 2 million court case against Kitty Kelley , suing her in punitive damages , before her unofficial biography , His Way , was even published . The book became a best @-@ seller for " all the wrong reasons " and " the most eye @-@ opening celebrity biography of our time " , according to William Safire of The New York Times . Sinatra was always adamant that such a book would be written on his terms , and he himself would " set the record straight " in details of his life . According to Kelley , the family detested her and the book , which took its toll on Sinatra 's health . Kelley claims that Tina Sinatra blamed her for her father 's colon surgery in 1986 . He was forced to drop the case on September 19 , 1984 , with several leading newspapers expressing concerns about his views on censorship .
In 1984 , Sinatra worked with Quincy Jones for the first time in nearly two decades on the album , L.A. Is My Lady , which was well received critically . The album was a substitute for another Jones project , an album of duets with Lena Horne , which had to be abandoned . In 1986 , Sinatra collapsed on stage while performing in Atlantic City and was hospitalized for diverticulitis , which left him looking frail . Two years later , Sinatra reunited with Martin and Davis , Jr. and went on the Rat Pack Reunion Tour , during which they played a number of large arenas . When Martin dropped out of the tour early on , a rift developed between them and the two never spoke again .
In 1990 , Sinatra was awarded the second " Ella Award " by the Los Angeles @-@ based Society of Singers , and performed for a final time with Ella Fitzgerald at the award ceremony . Sinatra maintained an active touring schedule in the early 1990s , performing 65 concerts in 1990 , 73 in 1991 and 84 in 1992 in seventeen different countries .
In 1993 , Sinatra returned to Capitol Records and the recording studio for Duets , which became his best @-@ selling album . The album and its sequel , Duets II , released the following year , would see Sinatra remake his classic recordings with popular contemporary performers , who added their vocals to a pre @-@ recorded tape . During his tours in the early 1990s , his memory failed him at times during concerts , and he happened to faint onstage in Richmond , Virginia , in March 1994 . His final public concerts were held in Fukuoka Dome in Japan on December 19 – 20 , 1994 . The following year , Sinatra sang for the very last time on February 25 , 1995 , before a live audience of 1200 select guests at the Palm Desert Marriott Ballroom , on the closing night of the Frank Sinatra Desert Classic golf tournament . Esquire reported of the show that Sinatra was " clear , tough , on the money " and " in absolute control " . Sinatra was awarded the Legend Award at the 1994 Grammy Awards , where he was introduced by Bono , who said of him , " Frank 's the chairman of the bad attitude ... Rock ' n roll plays at being tough , but this guy is the boss – the chairman of boss ... I 'm not going to mess with him , are you ? "
In 1995 , to mark Sinatra 's 80th birthday , the Empire State Building glowed blue . A star @-@ studded birthday tribute , Sinatra : 80 Years My Way , was held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles , featuring performers such as Ray Charles , Little Richard , Natalie Cole and Salt @-@ N @-@ Pepa singing his songs . At the end of the program Sinatra graced the stage for the last time to sing the final notes of the " Theme from New York , New York " with an ensemble . In recognition of his many years of association with Las Vegas , Frank Sinatra was elected to the Gaming Hall of Fame in 1997 .
= = Sinatra , the musician = =
While Sinatra never formally learned how to read music , he had a fine , natural understanding of it , and he worked very hard from a young age to improve his abilities in all aspects of music . He did , however , learn to follow a lead sheet during a performance by " carefully following the patterns and groupings of notes arranged on the page " and made his own notations to the music , using his ear to detect semi @-@ tonal differences . Granata states that some of the most accomplished classically trained musicians soon noticed his musical understanding , and remarked that Sinatra had a " sixth sense " , which " demonstrated unusual proficiency when it came to detecting incorrect notes and sounds within the orchestra " . Sinatra was an aficionado of classical music , and would often request classical strains in his music , inspired by composers such as Puccini and Impressionist masters . His personal favorite was Ralph Vaughan Williams . He would insist on always recording live with the band because it gave him a " certain feeling " to perform live surrounded by musicians . By the mid 1940s , such was his understanding of music that after hearing an air check of some compositions by Alec Wilder which were for strings and woodwinds , he became the conductor at Columbia Records for six of Wilder 's compositions : " Air for Oboe " , " Air for English Horn " , " Air for Flute " , " Air for Bassoon " , " Slow Dance " and " Theme and Variations " . The works , which combine elements of jazz and classical music were considered by Wilder to have been among the finest renditions and recordings of his compositions @-@ past or present . At one recording session with arranger Claus Ogerman and an orchestra , Sinatra heard " a couple of little strangers " in the string section , prompting Ogerman to make corrections to what were thought to be copyist 's errors . Critic Gene Lees , a lyricist and the author of the words to the Jobim melody " This Happy Madness " , expressed amazement when he heard Sinatra 's recording of it on Sinatra & Company ( 1971 ) , considering him to have worded the lyrics in the way that he had intended when writing them to perfection .
Voice coach John Quinlan was impressed by Sinatra 's vocal range , remarking , " He has far more voice that people think he has . He can vocalize to a B @-@ flat on top in full voice , and he doesn 't need a mic either " . As a singer , early on he was primarily influenced by Bing Crosby , but later believed that Tony Bennett was " the best singer in the business " . Bennett also praised Sinatra himself , claiming that as a performer , he had " perfected the art of intimacy . " According to Nelson Riddle , Sinatra had a " fairly rangy voice " , remarking that " His voice has a very strident , insistent sound in the top register , a smooth lyrical sound in the middle register , and a very tender sound in the low . His voice is built on infinite taste , with an overall inflection of sex . He points everything he does from a sexual standpoint " . Despite his heavy New Jersey accent , according to Richard Schuller , when Sinatra sang his accent was " virtually undetectable " , with his diction becoming " precise " and articulation " meticulous " . His timing was impeccable , allowing him , according to Charles L. Granata , to " toy with the rhythm of a melody , bringing tremendous excitement to his reading of a lyric " . Tommy Dorsey observed that Sinatra would " take a musical phrase and play it all the way through seemingly without breathing for eight , ten , maybe sixteen bars . " Dorsey was a considerable influence on Sinatra 's techniques for his vocal phrasing with his own exceptional breath control on the trombone , and Sinatra regularly swam and held his breath underwater , thinking of song lyrics to increase his breathing power .
Arranger Nelson Riddle found Sinatra to be a " perfectionist who drove himself and everybody around him relentlessly " , and stated that his collaborators approached him with a sense of uneasiness because of his unpredictable and often volatile temperament . Granata comments that Sinatra was almost fanatically obsessed with perfection to the point that people began wondering if he was genuinely concerned about the music or showing off his power over others . On days when he felt that his voice was not right , he would know after only a few notes and would postpone the recording session until the following day , yet still pay his musicians . After a period of performing , Sinatra tired of singing a certain set of songs and was always looking for talented new songwriters and composers to work with . Once he found ones that he liked , he actively sought to work with them as often as he could , and made friends with many of them . He once told Sammy Cahn , who wrote songs for Anchor 's Away , " if you 're not there Monday , I 'm not there Monday " . Over the years he recorded 87 of Cahn 's songs , of which 24 were composed by Jule Styne , and 43 by Jimmy Van Heusen . The Cahn @-@ Styne partnership lasted from 1942 until 1954 , when Van Heusen succeeded him as Sinatra 's main composer . Unlike many of his contemporaries , Sinatra insisted upon direct input regarding arrangements and tempos for his recordings . He would spend weeks thinking about the songs he wanted to record , and would keep an arranger in mind for each song . If it were a mellow love song , he would ask for Gordon Jenkins . If it were a " rhythm " number , he would think of Billy May , or perhaps Neil Hefti or some other favored arranger . Jenkins considered Sinatra 's musical sense to be unerring . His changes to Riddle 's charts would frustrate Riddle , yet he would usually concede that Sinatra 's ideas were superior . Barbara Sinatra notes that Sinatra would almost always credit the songwriter at the end of each number , and would often make comments to the audience , such as " Isn 't that a pretty ballad " or " Don 't you think that 's the most marvelous love song " , delivered with " childlike delight " . She states that after each show , Sinatra would be " in a buoyant , electrically charged mood , a post @-@ show high that would take him hours to come down from as he quietly relived every note of the performance he 'd just given " .
Sinatra 's split with Gardner in the fall of 1953 had a profound impact on the types of songs he sang and his voice . He began to console himself in songs with a " brooding melancholy " , such as " I 'm a Fool to Want You " , " Don 't Worry ' Bout Me " , " My One and Only Love " and There Will Never Be Another You " , which Riddle believed was the direct influence of Ava Gardner . Lahr comments that the new Sinatra was " not the gentle boy balladeer of the forties . Fragility had gone from his voice , to be replaced by a virile adult 's sense of happiness and hurt " . Author Granata considered Sinatra to have been a " master of the art of recording " , noting that his work in the studio " set him apart from other gifted vocalists " . During his career he made over 1000 recordings . Recording sessions would typically last three hours , though Sinatra would always prepare for it by spending at least an hour by the piano beforehand to vocalize , followed by a short rehearsal with the orchestra to ensure the balance of sound . During his Columbia years Sinatra would use a RCA 44 microphone , which Granata describes as " the ' old @-@ fashioned ' microphone which is closely associated with Sinatra 's crooner image of the 1940s " , though when performing on talk shows later he would use a bullet @-@ shaped RCA 77 . At Capitol he used a Neumann U47 , an " ultra @-@ sensitive " microphone which better captured the timbre and tone of his voice .
In the 1950s , Sinatra 's career was facilitated by developments in technology . As disc jockey Jonathan Schwartz said , " Never before had there been an opportunity for a popular singer to express emotions at an extended length " . In the words of author John Lahr , " as many as sixteen songs could be held by the twelve @-@ inch L.P. , and this allowed Sinatra to use song in a novelistic way , turning each track in a kind of chapter , which built and counterpointed moods to illuminate a larger theme " . Santopietro writes that through the 1950s , well into the 1960s , " every Sinatra LP was a masterpiece of one sort of another , whether uptempo , torch song , or swingin ' affairs . Track after track , the brilliant concept albums redefined the nature of pop vocal art " .
= = Film career = =
= = = Debut , musical films and career slump ( 1941 – 52 ) = = =
Sinatra attempted to pursue an acting career in Hollywood in the early 1940s . While films appealed to him , being exceptionally self @-@ confident , he was rarely enthusiastic towards his own acting , once remarking that " pictures stink " . Sinatra made his film debut in 1941 , performing in an uncredited sequence in Las Vegas Nights , singing " I 'll Never Smile Again " with Tommy Dorsey 's The Pied Pipers . In 1943 he had a cameo role along with Duke Ellington and Count Basie in Charles Barton 's Reveille with Beverly , making a brief appearance singing " Night and Day " . The following year he was given his leading roles in Higher and Higher and Step Lively for RKO Pictures .
In 1945 , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer cast Sinatra opposite Gene Kelly and Kathryn Grayson in the Technicolor musical Anchors Aweigh , in which he played a sailor on leave in Hollywood for four days . A major success , it garnered several Academy Award wins and nominations , and the song " I Fall in Love Too Easily " , sung by Sinatra in the film , was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song . In 1946 , Sinatra briefly appeared at the end of Richard Whorf 's commercially successful Till the Clouds Roll By , a Technicolor musical biopic of Jerome Kern , in which he sang " Ol ' Man River .
In 1949 , Sinatra co @-@ starred with Gene Kelly in the Technicolor musical Take Me Out to the Ball Game , a film set in 1908 , in which Sinatra and Kelly play baseball players who are part @-@ time vaudevillians . He teamed up with Kelly for a third time in On the Town , playing a sailor on leave in New York City . Today the film is rated very highly by critics , and in 2006 it ranked No. 19 on the American Film Institute 's list of best musicals . Both Double Dynamite ( 1951 ) , an RKO Irving Cummings comedy produced by Howard Hughes , and Joseph Pevney 's Meet Danny Wilson ( 1952 ) failed to make an impression . The New York World Telegram and Sun ran the headline " Gone on Frankie in ' 42 ; Gone in ' 52 " .
= = = Career comeback and prime ( 1953 – 59 ) = = =
Fred Zinnemann 's From Here to Eternity deals with the tribulations of three soldiers , played by Burt Lancaster , Montgomery Clift , and Sinatra , stationed on Hawaii in the months leading up to the attack on Pearl Harbor . Sinatra had long been desperate to find a film role which would bring him back into the spotlight , and Columbia Pictures boss Harry Cohn had been inundated by appeals from people across Hollywood to give Sinatra a chance to star as " Maggio " in the film . During production , Montgomery Clift became a close friend , and Sinatra later professed that he " learned more about acting from him than anybody I ever knew before " . After several years of critical and commercial decline , his Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor win helped him regain his position as the top recording artist in the world . The Los Angeles Examiner wrote that Sinatra is " simply superb , comical , pitiful , childishly brave , pathetically defiant " , commenting that his death scene is " one of the best ever photographed " .
In 1954 Sinatra starred opposite Doris Day in the musical film Young at Heart , and earned critical praise for his performance as a psychopathic killer posing as an FBI agent opposite Sterling Hayden in the film noir Suddenly .
Sinatra was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor and BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his role as a heroin addict in The Man With The Golden Arm ( 1955 ) . After roles in Guys and Dolls , and The Tender Trap , Sinatra was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his role as hospital orderly in Stanley Kramer 's début picture , Not as a Stranger . During production , Sinatra got drunk with Robert Mitchum and Broderick Crawford and trashed Kramer 's dressing room . Kramer vowed to never hire Sinatra again at the time , and later regretted casting him as a Spanish guerrilla leader in The Pride and the Passion ( 1957 ) .
In 1956 Sinatra featured alongside Bing Crosby and Grace Kelly in High Society for MGM , earning a reported $ 250 @,@ 000 for the picture . The public rushed to the cinemas to see Sinatra and Crosby together on @-@ screen , and it ended up earning over $ 13 million at the box office , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing pictures of 1956 . In 1957 , Sinatra starred opposite Rita Hayworth and Kim Novak in George Sidney 's Pal Joey , for which he won for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . Santopietro considers the scene in which Sinatra sings " The Lady Is a Tramp " to Hayworth to have been the finest moment of his film career . He next portrayed comedian Joe E. Lewis in The Joker Is Wild ; the song " All the Way " won the Academy Award for Best Original Song . By 1958 Sinatra was one of the ten biggest box office draws in the United States , appearing with Dean Martin and Shirley MacLaine in Vincente Minnelli 's Some Came Running and Kings Go Forth with Tony Curtis and Natalie Wood . " High Hopes " , sung by Sinatra in the Frank Capra comedy , A Hole in the Head ( 1959 ) , won the Academy Award for Best Original Song , and became a chart hit , lasting on the Hot 100 for 17 weeks .
= = = Later career ( 1960 – 88 ) = = =
Due to an obligation he owed to 20th Century Fox for walking off the set of Henry King 's Carousel ( 1956 ) , in 1960 Sinatra starred opposite Shirley MacLaine , Maurice Chevalier and Louis Jourdan in Can @-@ Can . He earned $ 200 @,@ 000 and 25 % of the profits for the performance . Later that year he starred in the Las Vegas @-@ set Ocean 's 11 , the first film to feature the Rat Pack together and the start of a " new era of screen cool " for Santopietro . Sinatra personally financed the film , and paid Martin and Davis Jr. fees of $ 150 @,@ 000 and $ 125 @,@ 000 respectively , sums considered exorbitant for the period . In 1962 , Sinatra had a leading role opposite Laurence Harvey in the The Manchurian Candidate , which he considered to be the role he was most excited about and the high point of his film career . Vincent Canby , writing for the magazine Variety , found the portrayal of Sinatra 's character to be " a wide @-@ awake pro creating a straight , quietly humorous character of some sensitivity . " He appeared with the Rat Pack in the western Sergeants 3 , following it with 4 for Texas in 1963 . For his performance in Come Blow Your Horn , he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy .
Though 1965 's Von Ryan 's Express was a major success , and he had directed None but the Brave that year , in the mid 1960s , Brad Dexter wanted to " breathe new life " in Sinatra 's film career by helping him display the same professional pride in his films as he did his recordings . On one occasion , he gave Sinatra Anthony Burgess 's novel A Clockwork Orange ( 1962 ) to read , with the idea of making a film , but Sinatra thought it had no potential and did not understand a word .
In the late 1960s , Sinatra became known for playing detectives , including Tony Rome in Tony Rome ( 1967 ) and its sequel Lady In Cement ( 1968 ) . He also played a similar role in 1968 's The Detective .
In 1970 , Sinatra starred opposite George Kennedy in the western Dirty Dingus Magee , an " abysmal " affair according to Santopietro , which was panned by the critics . Sinatra had intended to play Detective Harry Callahan in Dirty Harry ( 1971 ) , but had to turn the role down due to developing Dupuytren 's contracture in his hand . Sinatra 's last major film role was opposite Faye Dunaway in Brian G. Hutton 's The First Deadly Sin ( 1980 ) . Santopietro noted that as a troubled New York City homicide cop , Sinatra gave an " extraordinarily rich " , heavily layered characterization , one which " made for one terrific farewell " to his film career .
= = Television and radio career = =
After beginning on the Major Bowes Amateur Hour radio show with the Hoboken Four in 1935 , and later WNEW and WAAT in Jersey City , Sinatra became the star of various radio shows of his own on NBC and CBS from the early 1940s to the mid 1950s . In 1942 Sinatra hired arranger Axel Stordahl away from Tommy Dorsey before he began his first radio program that year , keeping Stordahl with him for all of his radio work . By the end of 1942 he was named the " Most Popular Male Vocalist on Radio " in a Down Beat poll . Early on he frequently worked with the popular Andrews Sisters on radio , and they would appear as guests on each other 's shows , as well as on many USO shows broadcast to troops via the Armed Forces Radio Service ( AFRS ) . He appeared as a special guest in the sisters ' ABC Eight @-@ to @-@ the @-@ Bar Ranch series , while the trio in turn guested on his Songs by Sinatra series on CBS . Sinatra had two stints as a regular member of cast of Your Hit Parade ; his first was from 1943 to 1945 , and second was from 1946 to May 28 , 1949 , during which he was paired with the then @-@ new girl singer , Doris Day . Starting in September 1949 , the BBD & O advertising agency produced a radio series starring Sinatra for Lucky Strike called Light Up Time – some 176 15 @-@ minute shows which featured Frank and Dorothy Kirsten singing – which lasted through to May 1950 .
In October 1951 , the second season of The Frank Sinatra Show began on CBS Television . Ultimately , Sinatra did not find the success on television for which he had hoped . Santopietro writes that Sinatra " simply never appeared fully at ease on his own television series , his edgy , impatient personality conveying a pent up energy on the verge of exploding " . In 1953 Sinatra starred in the NBC radio program Rocky Fortune , portraying Rocco Fortunato ( a.k.a. Rocky Fortune ) , a " footloose and fancy free " temporary worker for the Gridley Employment Agency who stumbles into crime @-@ solving . The series aired on NBC radio Tuesday nights from October 1953 to March 1954 .
In 1957 , Sinatra formed a three @-@ year $ 3 million contract with ABC to launch The Frank Sinatra Show , featuring himself and guests in 36 half hour shows . ABC agreed to allow Sinatra 's Hobart Productions to keep 60 % of the residuals , and bought stock in Sinatra 's film production unit , Kent Productions , guaranteeing him $ 7 million . Though an initial critical success upon its debut on October 18 , 1957 , it soon attracted negative reviews from Variety and The New Republic , and The Chicago Sun @-@ Times thought that Sinatra and frequent guest Dean Martin " performed like a pair of adult delinquents " , " sharing the same cigarette and leering at girls " . In return , Sinatra later made numerous appearances on The Dean Martin Show and Martin 's TV specials .
Sinatra 's fourth and final Timex TV special , Welcome Home Elvis was broadcast in March 1960 , which earned massive viewing figures . Sinatra had previously been highly critical of Elvis Presley and rock and roll in the 1950s , describing it as a " deplorable , a rancid smelling aphrodisiac " which " fosters almost totally negative and destructive reactions in young people . " A CBS News special about the singer 's 50th birthday , Frank Sinatra : A Man and His Music , was broadcast on November 16 , 1965 , and garnered both an Emmy award and a Peabody Award .
According his musical collaboration with Jobim and Ella Fitzgerald in 1967 , Sinatra appeared in the TV special , A Man and His Music + Ella + Jobim , which was broadcast on CBS on November 13 . When Sinatra came out of retirement in 1973 , he released both an album and appeared in a TV special named " Ol ' Blue Eyes Is Back " . The TV special was highlighted by a dramatic reading of " Send in the Clowns " and a song @-@ and @-@ dance sequence with former co @-@ star Gene Kelly . In the late 1970s , John Denver appeared as a guest in the Sinatra and Friends ABC @-@ TV Special , singing " September Song " as a duet .
In 1977 , Sinatra starred as a detective in Contract on Cherry Street , cited as his " one starring role in a dramatic television film " . Ten years later , he made a guest appearance opposite Tom Selleck in Magnum , P.I. , playing a retired policeman who teams up with Selleck to find his granddaughter 's murderer . Shot in January 1987 , the episode aired on CBS on February 25 .
= = Personal life = =
Sinatra had three children , Nancy ( born 1940 ) , Frank Jr . ( 1944 – 2016 ) , and Tina ( born 1948 ) , all with his first wife , Nancy Sinatra ( née Barbato ; born September 11 , 1917 ) ( m . 1939 – 1951 ) . Sinatra had met Barbato in Long Branch , New Jersey in the late 1930s , where he spent most of the summer working as a lifeguard .
He agreed to marry her after an incident at " The Rustic Cabin " which led to his arrest . Sinatra had numerous extra @-@ marital affairs , and gossip magazines published details of affairs with women including Marilyn Maxwell , Lana Turner , and Joi Lansing .
Sinatra was married to Hollywood actress Ava Gardner from 1951 to 1957 . It was a turbulent marriage , with many well @-@ publicized fights and altercations , and Gardner aborted a child in November 1952 . The couple formally announced their separation on October 29 , 1953 , through MGM . Gardner filed for divorce in June 1954 , at a time when she was dating matador Luis Miguel Dominguín , but the divorce was not settled until 1957 . Sinatra continued to feel very strongly for her , and they remained friends for life . He was still dealing with her finances in 1976 .
Sinatra reportedly broke off engagements to Lauren Bacall in 1958 , and Juliet Prowse in 1962 . He married Mia Farrow on July 19 , 1966 , a short marriage which ended with divorce in Mexico in August 1968 . They remained close friends for life , and in a 2013 interview Farrow admitted that Sinatra might be the father of her son , Ronan Farrow ( born 1986 ) .
Sinatra was lastly married to Barbara Marx from 1976 until his death . The couple married at Sunnylands , in Rancho Mirage , California , the estate of media magnate Walter Annenberg , on July 11 , 1976 .
Sinatra was close friends with Jilly Rizzo , songwriter Jimmy Van Heusen , golfer Ken Venturi , comedian Pat Henry and baseball manager Leo Durocher . In his spare time , Sinatra enjoyed listening to classical music , and would attend concerts when he could . He swam daily in the Pacific Ocean , finding it to be therapeutic and giving him much @-@ needed solitude . He would often play golf with Venturi at the course in Palm Springs , where he lived , and liked painting , reading , and building model railways . Though Sinatra was critical of the church on numerous occasions , and had an Albert Einstein @-@ like view of God in his earlier life , he turned to the Roman Catholic Church for healing after his mother died in a plane crash in 1977 . He died as a practicing Catholic and had a Catholic burial .
= = = Style and personality = = =
Sinatra was noted for his impeccable sense of style . He always dressed immaculately , both in his professional and private life . He believed that as he was the best , he had to give his best to the audience , and would wear expensive custom @-@ tailored tuxedos on stage as a sign of respect and to look important . He spent lavishly on stylish pin @-@ striped suits and other clothing , and later admitted that clothing made him feel wealthy and important , bolstering his ego . He was also obsessed with cleanliness — while with the Tommy Dorsey band he developed the nickname " Lady Macbeth " , because of frequent showering and switching his outfits . His deep blue eyes earned him the popular nickname " Ol ' Blue Eyes " .
For Santopietro , Sinatra was the personification of America in the 1950s : " cocky , eye on the main chance , optimistic , and full of the sense of possibility " . Barbara Sinatra wrote that " A big part of Frank 's thrill was the sense of danger that he exuded , an underlying , ever @-@ present tension only those closest to him knew could be defused with humor " . Cary Grant , a good friend of Sinatra 's , stated that Sinatra was the " most honest person he 'd ever met " , who spoke " a simple truth , without artifice which scared people " , and was often moved to tears by his performances . Jo @-@ Caroll Dennison commented that he possessed " great inner strength " , and that his energy and drive was " enormous " . A workaholic , he reportedly only slept for four hours a night on average . Throughout his life , Sinatra had mood swings and bouts of mild to severe depression , admitting to an interviewer in the 1950s that " I have an over @-@ acute capacity for sadness as well as elation " . Barbara Sinatra stated that he would " snap at anyone for the slightest misdemeanor " , while Van Heusen said that when Sinatra got drunk it was " best to disappear " .
Sinatra 's mood swings often developed into violence , directed at people he felt had crossed him , particularly journalists who gave him scathing reviews , publicists and photographers , According to Rojek he was " capable of deeply offensive behavior that smacked of a persecution complex " . He received negative press for fights with Lee Mortimer in 1947 , photographer Eddie Schisser in Houston in 1950 , Judy Garland 's publicist Jim Byron on the Sunset Strip in 1954 , and for a confrontation with Washington Post journalist Maxine Cheshire in 1973 , in which he implied that she was a cheap prostitute . Yet Sinatra was known for his generosity , particularly after his comeback . Kelley notes that when Lee J. Cobb nearly died from a heart attack in June 1955 , Sinatra flooded him with " books , flowers , delicacies " , paid his hospital bills , and visited him daily , telling him that his finest acting was yet to come . In another instance , after a heated argument with manager Bobby Burns , rather than apologize , Sinatra bought him a brand new Cadillac .
= = = Alleged organized @-@ crime links and Cal Neva Lodge = = =
Sinatra became the stereotype of the " tough working @-@ class Italian American " , something which he embraced . Sinatra commented that if it had not been for his interest in music he would " probably have ended in a life of crime " . In his early days , Mafia boss Willie Moretti , Sinatra 's godfather and notorious underboss of the Genovese crime family , helped him for kickbacks and was reported to have intervened in releasing him from his contract with Tommy Dorsey . Sinatra was present at the Mafia Havana Conference in 1946 , and when the press learned of Sinatra being in Havana with Lucky Luciano , one newspaper published the headline , " Shame , Sinatra " . He was reported to be a good friend of Sam Giancana , and the two were seen playing golf together . Kelley quotes Jo @-@ Carrol Silvers in saying that Sinatra " adored " Bugsy Siegel , and would boast about him to friends and how many people he had killed . Kelley claims that Sinatra and mobster Joseph Fischetti had been good friends from 1938 onward , and acted like " Sicilian brothers " . She also states that Sinatra and Hank Sanicola were financial partners with Mickey Cohen in the gossip magazine Hollywood Night Life .
The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) kept records amounting to 2 @,@ 403 pages on Sinatra , becoming a natural target with his alleged Mafia ties , his ardent New Deal politics and his friendship with John F. Kennedy . The FBI kept Sinatra under surveillance for almost five decades beginning in the 1940s . The documents include accounts of Sinatra as the target of death threats and extortion schemes . The FBI documented that Sinatra was losing esteem with the Mafia as he grew closer to President Kennedy , whose brother Bobby was leading a crackdown on organized crime . Sinatra denied Mafia involvement , declaring that " any report that I fraternized with goons or racketeers is a vicious lie " .
In 1960 , Sinatra bought a share in the Cal Neva Lodge & Casino , a casino hotel which straddles the border between Nevada and California on the north shores of Lake Tahoe . Though it only opened between June and September , Sinatra built the Celebrity Room theater , which attracted the other Rat Pack members , Red Skelton , Marilyn Monroe , Victor Borge , Joe E. Lewis , Lucille Ball , Lena Horne , Juliet Prowse , the McGuire Sisters and others . By 1962 he reportedly held a 50 % share in the hotel . Sinatra 's gambling license was temporarily stripped by the Nevada Gaming Control Board in 1963 after Giancana was spotted on the premises . Due to ongoing pressure from the FBI and Nevada Gaming Commission on mobster control of casinos , Sinatra agreed to give up his share in Cal Neva and the Sands . That year , Sinatra 's son , Frank Sinatra , Jr . , was kidnapped , but was eventually released unharmed . Sinatra was restored his gaming license in February 1981 , following support from Ronald Reagan .
= = Politics and activism = =
Sinatra held differing political views throughout his life . His mother , Dolly Sinatra ( 1896 – 1977 ) , was a Democratic Party ward leader . Sinatra met President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944 , and subsequently heavily campaigned for the Democrats in the 1944 presidential election . According to Jo Carroll Silvers , in his younger years Sinatra had " ardent liberal " sympathies , and was " so concerned about poor people that he was always quoting Henry Wallace " . He was outspoken on racism , particularly toward blacks and Italians from early on . In November 1945 Sinatra was invited by the mayor of Gary , Indiana , to try to settle a strike by white students of Froebel High School against the " Pro @-@ Negro " policies of the new principal . His comments , while praised by liberal publications , led to accusations by some that he was a Communist , which he strongly denied . In the 1948 presidential election , Sinatra actively campaigned for President Harry S. Truman . In 1952 and 1956 , he also campaigned for Adlai Stevenson .
Of all the U.S. Presidents he associated with during his career , he was closest to John F. Kennedy . Sinatra often invited Kennedy to Hollywood and Las Vegas , and the two would womanize and enjoy parties together . In January 1961 Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized the Inaugural Gala in Washington , D.C. , held on the evening before President Kennedy was sworn into office . In 1962 , Sinatra was snubbed by Kennedy during his visit to Palm Springs when he decided to stay with the Republican Bing Crosby , due to FBI concerns about Sinatra 's alleged connections to organized crime . Sinatra had invested a lot of his own money in upgrading the facilities at his home in anticipation of the President 's visit , fitting it with a heliport , which he later reportedly smashed up with a sledgehammer upon being rejected . Despite the snub , when he learned of Kennedy 's assassination he reportedly sobbed in his bedroom for three days .
Sinatra worked with Hubert H. Humphrey in 1968 , and remained a supporter of the Democratic Party until the early 1970s . Although still a registered Democrat , Sinatra endorsed Republican Ronald Reagan for a second term as Governor of California in 1970 . He officially changed allegiance in July 1972 when he supported Richard Nixon for re @-@ election in the 1972 presidential election .
In the 1980 presidential election , Sinatra supported Ronald Reagan and donated $ 4 million to Reagan 's campaign . Sinatra arranged Reagan 's Presidential gala , as he had done for Kennedy 20 years previously . In 1985 , Reagan presented Sinatra with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , remarking , " His love of country , his generosity for those less fortunate ... make him one of our most remarkable and distinguished Americans . "
Santopietro notes that Sinatra was a " lifelong sympathizer with Jewish causes " . He was awarded the Hollzer Memorial Award by the Los Angeles Jewish Community in 1949 . He gave a series of concerts in Israel in 1962 , and donated his entire $ 50 @,@ 000 fee for appearing in a cameo role in Cast a Giant Shadow ( 1966 ) to the Youth Center in Jerusalem . On November 1 , 1972 , he raised $ 6 @.@ 5 million in bond pledges for Israel , and was given the Medallion of Valor for his efforts . The Frank Sinatra Student Center at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem was dedicated in his name in 1978 .
From his youth , Sinatra displayed sympathy for African Americans and worked both publicly and privately all his life to help them win equal rights . He blamed racial prejudice on the parents of children . Sinatra played a major role in the desegregation of Nevada hotels and casinos in the 1950s and 1960s . At the Sands in 1955 , Sinatra went against policy by inviting Nat King Cole into the dining room , and in 1961 , after an incident where an African @-@ American couple entered the lobby of the hotel and were blocked by the security guard , Sinatra and Sammy Davis , Jr. forced the hotel management to begin hiring black waiters and busboys . On January 27 , 1961 , Sinatra played a benefit show at Carnegie Hall for Martin Luther King , Jr. and led his fellow Rat Pack members and Reprise label mates in boycotting hotels and casinos that refused entry to black patrons and performers . According to his son , Frank Sinatra , Jr . , King sat weeping in the audience at one of his father 's concerts in 1963 as Sinatra sang " Ol ' Man River " , a song from the musical Show Boat that is sung by an African @-@ American stevedore . When he changed his political affiliations in 1970 , Sinatra became less outspoken on racial issues . Though he did much towards racial causes , it did not stop the occasional racist jibe from him and the other Rat Pack members toward Davis at concerts .
= = Death = =
Sinatra died with his wife at his side at Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles on May 14 , 1998 , aged 82 , after suffering a severe heart attack .
Sinatra suffered from ill health during the last few years of his life , and was frequently hospitalized for heart and breathing problems , high blood pressure , pneumonia and bladder cancer . He was further diagnosed as suffering from dementia . He had made no public appearances following a heart attack in February 1997 . Sinatra 's wife encouraged him to " fight " while attempts were made to stabilize him , and his final words were , " I 'm losing . " Sinatra 's daughter , Tina , later wrote that she and her sister , Nancy , had not been notified of their father 's final hospitalization , and it was her belief that " the omission was deliberate . Barbara would be the grieving widow alone at her husband 's side . " The night after Sinatra 's death , the lights on the Empire State Building in New York City were turned blue . Also right after Sinatra 's death , the lights on the Las Vegas Strip were dimmed in his honor , and the casinos stopped spinning for a minute .
Sinatra 's funeral was held at the Roman Catholic Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills , California , on May 20 , 1998 , with 400 mourners in attendance and thousands of fans outside . Gregory Peck , Tony Bennett , and Sinatra 's son , Frank Jr . , addressed the mourners , who included many notable people from film and entertainment . Sinatra was buried in a blue business suit with mementos from family members including cherry @-@ flavored Life Savers , Tootsie Rolls , a bottle of Jack Daniel 's , a pack of Camel cigarettes and a Zippo lighter , stuffed toys , and a dog biscuit , next to his parents in section B @-@ 8 of Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City , California .
His close friends , Jilly Rizzo and Jimmy Van Heusen , are buried nearby . The words " The Best Is Yet to Come " , plus " Beloved Husband & Father " are imprinted on Sinatra 's grave marker . Significant increases in sales worldwide were reported by Billboard in the month of his death .
= = Legacy and honors = =
American music critic Robert Christgau referred to Sinatra as " the greatest singer of the 20th century " . His popularity was later matched only by Elvis Presley , Michael Jackson , and the Beatles . For Santopietro , Sinatra was the " greatest male pop singer in the history of America " , who amassed " unprecedented power onscreen and off " , and " seemed to exemplify the common man , an ethnic twentieth @-@ century American male who reached the ' top of the heap ' , yet never forgot his roots " . Santopietro argues that Sinatra created his own world , which he was able to dominate — his career was centred around power , perfecting the ability to capture an audience .
Composer Gus Levene commented that Sinatra 's strength was that when it came to lyrics , telling a story musically , Sinatra displayed a " genius " ability and feeling , which with the " rare combination of voice and showmanship " made him the " original singer " which others who followed most tried to emulate . George Roberts , a trombonist in Sinatra 's band , remarked that Sinatra had a " charisma , or whatever it is about him , that no one else had " . Biographer Arnold Shaw considered that " If Las Vegas had not existed , Sinatra could have invented it " . He quoted reporter James Bacon in saying that Sinatra was the " swinging image on which the town is built " , adding that no other entertainer quite " embodied the glamour " associated with Las Vegas as him . Sinatra continues to be seen as one of the icons of the 20th century , and has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in film and music . There are stars on east and west sides of the 1600 block of Vine Street respectively , and one on the south side of the 6500 block of Hollywood Boulevard for his work in television .
In Sinatra 's native New Jersey , Hoboken 's Frank Sinatra Park , the Hoboken Post Office , and a residence hall at Montclair State University were named in his honor . Other buildings named for Sinatra include the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in Astoria , Queens , the Frank Sinatra International Student Center at Israel 's Hebrew University in Jerusalem dedicated in 1978 , and the Frank Sinatra Hall at the USC School of Cinematic Arts in Los Angeles , California , dedicated in 2002 . Wynn Resorts ' Encore Las Vegas resort features a restaurant dedicated to Sinatra which opened in 2008 . Items of memorabilia from Sinatra 's life and career are displayed at USC 's Frank Sinatra Hall and Wynn Resort 's Sinatra restaurant . Near the Las Vegas Strip is a road named Frank Sinatra Drive in his honor . The United States Postal Service issued a 42 @-@ cent postage stamp in honor of Sinatra in May 2008 , commemorating the tenth anniversary of his death . The United States Congress passed a resolution introduced by Representative Mary Bono Mack on May 20 , 2008 , designating May 13 as Frank Sinatra Day to honor his contributions to American culture .
Sinatra received three honorary degrees during his lifetime . In May 1976 , he was invited to speak at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas ( UNLV ) graduation commencement held at Sam Boyd Stadium . It was at this commencement that he was bestowed an Honorary Doctorate litterarum humanarum by the university . During his speech , Sinatra noted that his education had come from " the school of hard knocks " and was suitably touched by the award . He went on to describe that " this is the first educational degree I have ever held in my hand . I will never forget what you have done for me today " . A few years later in 1984 and 1985 , Sinatra also received an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Loyola Marymount University as well as an Honorary Doctorate of Engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology .
= = Film and television portrayals = =
Sinatra has been portrayed on numerous occasions in film and on television . A television miniseries based on Sinatra 's life , titled Sinatra , was aired by CBS in 1992 . Sinatra was directed by James Steven Sadwith , who won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing for a Miniseries or a Special , and starred Philip Casnoff as Sinatra . Sinatra was written by Abby Mann and Philip Mastrosimone , and produced by Sinatra 's daughter , Tina .
Sinatra has subsequently been portrayed on screen by Ray Liotta ( The Rat Pack , 1998 ) , James Russo ( Stealing Sinatra , 2003 ) , Dennis Hopper ( The Night We Called It a Day , 2003 ) , and Robert Knepper ( My Way , 2012 ) , and spoofed by Joe Piscopo and Phil Hartman on Saturday Night Live . A biographical film directed by Martin Scorsese has long been in production . A 1998 episode of the BBC documentary series Arena , The Voice of the Century , focused on Sinatra . Alex Gibney directed a four @-@ part biographical series on Sinatra , All or Nothing At All , for HBO in 2015 . A musical tribute was aired on CBS television in December 2015 to mark Sinatra 's centenary .
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= 2006 Subway 500 =
The 2006 Subway 500 was the 32nd stock car race of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the sixth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . It was held on October 22 , 2006 , before a crowd of 65 @,@ 000 , at Martinsville Speedway in Martinsville , Virginia , one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races . The 500 @-@ lap race was won by Jimmie Johnson of the Hendrick Motorsports team , after he started from ninth position ; Denny Hamlin finished second , and Bobby Labonte came in third .
Although Kurt Busch won the pole position , he was immediately passed by Jeff Gordon at the start of the race . 143 laps later Johnson took the lead for one lap . Gordon regained the lead on the next lap , only to lose it to Johnson again on the 153rd lap . Labonte moved into the lead on lap 406 and held it with 55 laps remaining , when he was passed by Johnson . At the race 's final restart on lap 495 Hamlin challenged Johnson for the lead , but the latter resisted Hamlin 's passing maneuver and won the race . There were 18 cautions and 16 lead changes by five different drivers during the race .
It was Johnson 's fifth win of the 2006 season , and the 23rd of his career . The result advanced him to third in the Drivers ' Championship , 41 points behind Matt Kenseth ( who took over the championship lead when Jeff Burton retired during the race ; this caused Burton to fall to fifth in the championship , one point behind Hamlin ) . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , 53 points ahead of Dodge and 61 ahead of Ford with four races left in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Subway 500 was the 32nd of 36 scheduled stock car races of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the sixth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . It was held on October 22 , 2006 at Martinsville Speedway in Martinsville , Virginia , one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Richmond International Raceway , Dover International Speedway , Bristol Motor Speedway and Phoenix International Raceway . The standard track at Martinsville Speedway is a four @-@ turn , 0 @.@ 526 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 847 km ) oval . Its turns are banked at eleven degrees , and neither the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) nor the back stretch is banked .
Before the race Jeff Burton led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 763 points , with Matt Kenseth second and Kevin Harvick third . Mark Martin and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. were fourth and fifth , and Denny Hamlin , Jimmie Johnson , Kasey Kahne , Kyle Busch and Jeff Gordon rounded out the top ten drivers competing for the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet led with 237 points ; Dodge was second with 189 , followed by Ford with 183 . Gordon was the race 's defending champion .
After falling from seventh to tenth in the Drivers ' Championship at the previous race ( at Charlotte Motor Speedway ) , Gordon said he would try and win races to return to contention for the championship . Jeff Burton called the Subway 500 " another volatile race in the Chase " , and thought it would significantly impact the chase contenders . Although Kenseth felt that the race would be the toughest for his team , he believed that a good finish would put him in a better position for the championship because of his good results at the tracks following the Martinsville race . After a good finish at Charlotte , Earnhardt felt he was in " good shape " : " Jeff has been at this a long time , but I don 't look at him as indestructible . If he has a mistake or even a couple of bad runs , it will completely shake up the points . " After winning the Busch Series championship , Harvick focused on the Nextel Cup championship : " We 're excited about it , proud of what we 've done this year , and , hopefully , we can do what we need to do on the Cup side in the next five weeks . I have never had a season like this . " Hamlin thought he would perform well at Martinsville , where he felt comfortable , and he and his team did not rule themselves out of contention for the title .
In preparation for the race , NASCAR held the last of its test days for Nextel Cup entrants on October 16 – 18 at Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway . Sessions began at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT , paused from 5 : 00 to 6 : 00 p.m. and concluded at 9 : 00 p.m. Fifty @-@ eight cars , a mix of Cars of Tomorrow and 2006 cars , participated in the October 16 afternoon session . Reed Sorenson was quickest with a speed of 171 @.@ 652 miles per hour ( 276 @.@ 247 km / h ) , and Casey Mears had the highest speed of 173 @.@ 077 miles per hour ( 278 @.@ 540 km / h ) in the evening session . During the third session ( with 75 cars ) , Kyle Busch had the fastest speed of 175 @.@ 382 miles per hour ( 282 @.@ 250 km / h ) ; Gordon had the highest speed of the three days , at 175 @.@ 553 miles per hour ( 282 @.@ 525 km / h ) in the fourth session . During the fifth session , on the afternoon of October 18 , 23 cars were tested . Scott Wimmer had the highest speed of 172 @.@ 364 miles per hour ( 277 @.@ 393 km / h ) , and Jeff Green had the highest speed of 174 @.@ 639 miles per hour ( 281 @.@ 054 km / h ) in the evening session .
One team substituted for its regular driver . Morgan @-@ McClure Motorsports driver Todd Bodine decided to concentrate on the Craftsman Truck Series title , and was replaced by Ward Burton , the 2002 Daytona 500 champion . Burton , who had not raced since 2004 , went to Motor Mile Speedway to reacquaint himself with NASCAR . According to crew chief Chris Carrier , Burton expressed a large amount of interest in driving at Martinsville : " He 's a Virginia driver and we 're a Virginia team . That makes for a great combination at Martinsville . " On October 18 , Roush Racing announced that Craftsman Truck Series driver David Ragan would drive the No. 06 car in four of the season 's five remaining races beginning with the Subway 500 . Ragan said that the experience would help him prepare for his full @-@ time début in 2007 .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race : one on Friday and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , the second 60 minutes and the third 45 minutes . In the first practice session , Gordon was fastest with a time of 19 @.@ 478 seconds ; Ryan Newman was second and Hamlin third . Johnson took fourth position , and Dave Blaney placed fifth . Kurt Busch , Sterling Marlin , Green , Sorenson and Kahne rounded out the session 's top ten drivers . Martin switched to a back @-@ up car after he crashed .
Although fifty cars were entered in the qualifier , according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Kurt Busch clinched his sixth pole position of the season , the ninth of his career and his first at Martinsville , with a time of 19 @.@ 408 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Gordon , who was 0 @.@ 038 seconds slower and had the pole position until Kurt Busch 's lap . Hamlin qualified third , Newman fourth and Tony Stewart fifth . Blaney was sixth , with Earnhardt and Green seventh and eighth . Johnson , a Chase for the Nextel Cup driver , qualified ninth and Ken Schrader rounded out the top ten qualifiers . Harvick , another driver in the Chase , set the twelfth @-@ fastest time . The seven drivers who failed to qualify were Mike Bliss , Hermie Sadler , Chad Chaffin , Morgan Shepherd , Ted Christopher , Derrike Cope and Stanton Barrett . After the qualifier Kurt Busch said , " It was a great lap , unexpected for me , but this team has always qualified well at this track , Martinsville is the kind of track that you either love or hate , and I 've learned to do both . It 's a tough , challenging short track . "
On Saturday morning Marlin was fastest in the second practice session with a time of 19 @.@ 668 seconds , ahead of Kahne and Gordon . Dale Jarrett was fourth @-@ fastest ; Mears was fifth and Johnson sixth . Hamlin , Brian Vickers , Greg Biffle and Jeff Burton followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Kyle Busch was 13th @-@ fastest and Martin set the 19th @-@ fastest time . During the second practice session , Scott Riggs ( who had the forty @-@ third quickest time ) had an engine failure in the session 's opening minutes and changed engines . Later that day , Johnson paced the final practice session with a time of 19 @.@ 722 ; Harvick was second and Biffle third . Marlin was fourth @-@ fastest , ahead of David Stremme and Hamlin . Earnhardt was seventh @-@ fastest , Kyle Busch eighth , Gordon ninth and Mears tenth . Other Chase drivers included Jeff Burton in 17th and Kahne in 17th ; all were within one @-@ tenth of a second of Johnson 's time . The session was suspended when Kenny Wallace 's engine blew up , since the track then needed to be checked and cleaned , and Wallace changed engines . Jarrett spun out with a brake problem , but since he made only minor contact with the wall he did not have to switch to a back @-@ up car . After a similar collision , Michael Waltrip also did not have to switch cars .
= = = Race = = =
Live television coverage of the race began at 12 : 32 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time in the United States on NBC . Rain showers were forecast for the day of the race , and at the start weather conditions were overcast and some rain had already fallen . The air temperature was around 48 ° F ( 9 ° C ) . Cleaning trucks cleared the track before the start . Eldrid Davis of Raceway Ministries began pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation , the Martinsville High School marching band performed the national anthem and Subway spokesperson Jared Fogle commanded the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Riggs and Wallace moved to the rear of the grid because they had changed their engines .
The race began at 1 : 00 p.m. Gordon accelerated faster than Kurt Busch off the line , and was ahead of him by the second turn . The first caution was given two laps later when Martin Truex Jr. spun sideways in turn four and Marlin , Sorenson and Kyle Petty sustained damage to their cars . Jeff Burton had front @-@ end damage to his vehicle when he contacted the rear of Joe Nemechek 's car . At the lap ten restart , Gordon maintained his lead over Kurt Busch and Denny Hamlin . Seven laps later , Hamlin passed Kurt Busch for second place . Earnhardt passed Kurt Busch for fourth place on the 44th lap . On lap 45 , he reported that one of his engine 's cylinders was misfiring and was worse coming out of the turns . Five laps later Gordon had a 1 @.@ 8 @-@ second lead over Hamlin , which grew to 2 @.@ 4 seconds on lap 60 ; Earnhardt had moved into second by that lap . On lap 64 , a collision between Mears and Newman in turn four prompted the second caution ; although Mears was spun around , he was able to continue . During the caution , all the leaders made pit stops for fuel and tires . Jeff Burton 's pit crew repaired his loose hood with tape on the right front . Biffle left the track on lap 67 with brake problems . Newman was sent to the rear of the longest line by NASCAR two laps later for his role in the incident with Mears , and Gordon maintained the top position at the lap @-@ 71 restart .
Eight laps later Earnhardt passed Raines for second position , and Gordon had a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ second advantage over Earnhardt by lap 80 . Raines was passed by Stewart for third on lap 83 , and Johnson took third place from Stewart six laps later . J.J. Yeley drove to pit road on the 94th lap with a flat left @-@ rear tire . On lap 106 , Burton ( whose car was hot because of the tape on his hood ) made contact with Gordon and escaped with minor damage after a three @-@ lap battle . Twenty @-@ four laps later Johnson passed Earnhardt for second place , and on lap 144 he passed Gordon for the lead . One lap later Gordon reclaimed first place , and built a quarter @-@ second lead by lap 150 . Johnson moved back into the lead on lap 153 . Two laps later Stremme spun sideways , prompting the third caution , and all the leaders made pit stops . Johnson remained the leader at the lap @-@ 161 restart , ahead of Gordon and Stewart . After the caution ended , Burton switched to a second ignition after feeling he had a problem with his engine . Forty @-@ two laps later Waltrip 's turn @-@ four spin prompted the fourth caution , although he was able to continue . During the caution , the leaders again made pit stops . Johnson , who had minor air @-@ pressure adjustments because of sunlight exposure at his pit stop , maintained his lead at the restart .
Jeff Burton drove to his garage on lap 218 when a carburetor problem caused him to run slower than his rivals ; Earnhardt and Stewart avoided a wreck on that lap . Four laps later , the fifth caution came out when David Gilliland made contact with Ward Burton in turn two ; although Burton spun , he avoided hitting the wall . Johnson maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 227 restart . The sixth caution was given on lap 231 when Sorenson spun after colliding with Riggs , causing Mike Skinner to contact the left front quarter of Harvick 's car and Travis Kvapil to spin sideways . Biffle sustained damage to his car 's nose , and turn three was temporarily blocked . Harvick , Kahne , Vickers and Biffle went to pit road for repairs , while the leaders remained on the track . Johnson led on the lap @-@ 238 restart . Four laps later Kvapil made heavy contact with the wall after being bumped and Tony Raines ' car had a cut tire from contact with Ragan , prompting the seventh caution . Most of the leaders , including Johnson , again made pit stops . On lap 244 , it was announced that Jeff Burton had retired from the race . Gordon became the leader at the restart , ahead of Hamlin , Elliott Sadler , Kurt Busch and Nemechek .
Hamlin passed Gordon for the lead on lap 256 . Twenty @-@ three laps later Bowyer made contact with Kenseth , spinning him in turn four ( although he kept his car off the wall ) and prompting the race 's eighth caution . During the caution , most of the leaders ( including Hamlin ) made pit stops . Kyle and Kurt Busch 's pit crews made track @-@ bar adjustments to their cars . Hamlin had tape added to the front of his car to fix a handling problem , and Sadler narrowly avoided a collision with Kahne . Johnson regained the lead after the pit stops , maintaining it at the lap @-@ 286 restart . Fourteen laps later Kurt Busch passed Earnhardt for second place , and Gordon moved back up to fifth by lap 318 . On lap 331 , the ninth caution was given ; Schrader collided with the wall , made contact with Ragan going into turn two and both drivers hit Jarrett . Schrader retired from the race because of the collision , but Ragan and Jarrett continued . The leaders , including Johnson , made pit stops during the caution . Kurt Busch gained the lead after the pit stops , maintaining it at the lap @-@ 341 restart . Six laps later Raines made contact with Skinner , forcing him to collide with the inside wall and prompting the tenth caution . With severe damage to his car 's rear end quarter , Skinner stopped before the start @-@ finish line . Kurt Busch maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 353 restart , ahead of Johnson and Earnhardt .
Johnson moved into the lead on the same lap after passing Kurt Busch , who dropped two more places on the lap . Two laps later Ragan spun after contact with Elliott Sadler , prompting the eleventh caution ; none of the leaders made pit stops . Johnson led at the lap @-@ 361 restart , ahead of Earnhardt and Hamlin . The twelfth caution came out two laps later when Kurt Busch tried to pass Riggs and the drivers made contact coming off turn four . Kurt Busch was spun while crossing the start @-@ finish line and hit the inside wall , requiring a pit stop for repairs . Johnson maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 371 restart and was followed by Earnhardt , Hamlin , Kurt Busch and Gordon ( who made a pit stop for an air @-@ pressure adjustment during the caution ) . Hamlin passed Earnhardt for second place ten laps later . The thirteenth caution was prompted on lap 399 when Bobby Labonte made contact with Jamie McMurray in turn two , sending him spinning sideways but avoiding the wall . Most of the leaders , including Johnson , made pit stops . Johnson adjusted his air pressure , and Hamlin 's pit crew removed a front fender .
Labonte led on the lap @-@ 406 restart , followed by Mears and Gordon . Elliott Sadler went to his garage with motor problems on lap 411 . By lap 437 , Johnson had moved into second position . Seven laps later he passed Labonte for the lead , and Hamlin passed Gordon for fourth a lap later . Lap 447 saw the fourteenth caution ; Ragan spun sideways at turn four and Kyle Busch collided with the wall to avoid him , sustaining minor damage to his car 's right side . One lap later , Kyle Busch went to pit road for repairs . The race restarted on lap 453 , with Johnson leading Labonte and Hamlin . On the 460th lap Gilliand caused Mears to spin sideways coming out of turn four , prompting the fifteenth caution ; Johnson maintained his lead at the restart . On lap 468 , Bowyer triggered the sixteenth caution after spinning sideways at turn three . Four laps later , Martin drove to pit road for engine troubleshooting .
The race restarted on lap 476 , when a seventeenth caution was issued because Earnhardt made contact with Kahne after trying to pass him ; Earnhardt spun at turn three . Martin again went to pit road because of water problems , and Johnson maintained the lead at the restart . On lap 484 , Hamlin passed Labonte for second place . Five laps later Wallace spun coming out of turn two after being hit by McMurray , prompting the race 's eighteenth ( and final ) caution , but was able to continue . Johnson remained the leader at the lap @-@ 495 restart , with Hamlin close behind . Hamlin bumped Johnson coming out of turn two , causing Johnson to move to the outside lane , and went to the inside lane to draw alongside him on the back stretch . They remained side by side for one lap , when Johnson drew ahead of Hamlin at turn four . He pulled away , holding the lead for the remaining six laps to win the race . Hamlin finished second , ahead of Labonte in third , Stewart in fourth and Gordon in fifth . Mears , Kahne , Green , Harvick and Petty rounded out the top ten finishers . The race had a total of 18 cautions and 16 lead changes by five drivers . Johnson led seven times for a total of 245 laps , more than any other competitor . The win was the 23rd of Johnson 's Cup Career , as well as his final of five victories he posted in the 2006 season .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Johnson appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to celebrate his fifth win of the season in front of the crowd ; the win earned him $ 191 @,@ 886 . He was pleased with the result , saying he was happy to have taken the victory : " We 've been running up front the last three of four races and haven 't been able to close the deal . Today we did . " Hamlin was disappointed with his finish as he felt he had a faster car after the race 's final restart but admitted Johnson would not be beaten : " It was my only shot to get around him . I wasn 't going to get under him completely . There was no way possible . I was doing the best I could to win the race . " He later admitted that he made contact with Johnson and that it was on purpose . Labonte said about his third @-@ place finish , " I feel like I stole something . " Jeff Burton was philosophical about his retirement from the race : " These things happen . Everybody has had an issue in this Chase , and we had ours today . This thing is not over for us by any means . " Kenseth , who finished eleventh , was optimistic about his chances of winning the Drivers ' Championship : " It 's great to be the leader , but we 've got to start running good , It 's still pretty wide open . It 's going to be pretty exciting , I think , coming down to the last race . "
Earnhardt admitted that he was to blame for the collision with Kahne on lap 476 . He said was anxious to pass him and was underneath him when he made the maneuver but his rear brakes locked which caused him to spin . Kahne thought Earnhardt was driving too hard in turn three : " I guess I need to get somebody on [ the radio ] to preach to me to have more patience because I definitely can 't take control of myself . " After retiring from the race , Schrader said of his collision with Ragan , " I moved him earlier because you can 't run like that two laps down . Got back around him and he paid me back for moving him , but he was two laps down . " Ragan denied intentionally wrecking Schrader , saying that he over @-@ drove his car going into the first corner and his brakes locked . Stewart saw Ragan 's lap @-@ 447 spin ( which caused Kyle Busch to collide with the wall ) , and believed that NASCAR should have disqualified Ragan from the race .
According to Mears , who was involved in an incident with Newman on the 64th lap , " [ Newman ] was kind of holding everyone up . When I got up to him , he tried to park me in the center of the corner . [ He ] just got on the brakes and I got into the back of him . Got him a little loose . He didn 't wreck , but he came around the next lap and wrecked me . " Although Mears was also angry about the incident with Gilliland 396 laps later , he praised his car 's handling and said it was the first time a car had worked in his favor . Three days after the race , NASCAR announced that Waltrip @-@ Jasper Racing crew chief Tommy Baldwin , Jr. was fined $ 5 @,@ 000 for violating four NASCAR rules . The fines were for " actions detrimental to stock car racing " , car , car parts , components and / or equipment used in the race that was not compliant to NASCAR rules and for entering the car @-@ servicing area without a fire @-@ resistant uniform or helmet .
The result left Kenseth leading the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 848 points , ahead of Harvick with 5 @,@ 812 . Johnson moved into third with 5 @,@ 807 , six points ahead of Hamlin . After the race , Jeff Burton ( who fell to fifth ) was still upbeat about his championship chances : " We have as good a shot as anybody . We 've run well enough to win the championship ; we just got to put the next four races together . " Earnhardt , Martin , Kahne , Gordon and Kyle Busch rounded out the top ten . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 246 points . Dodge remained in second with 195 , eight points ahead of Ford . The race took three hours and forty @-@ four minutes to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 544 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Doxorubicin =
Doxorubicin , sold under the trade names Adriamycin among others , is a medication used in cancer chemotherapy . It is derived by chemical semisynthesis from a bacterial species . It is an anthracycline antitumor antibiotic ( note : in this context , this does not mean it is used to treat bacterial infections ) closely related to the natural product daunomycin and like all anthracyclines , it works by intercalating DNA , with the most serious adverse effect being life @-@ threatening heart damage . It is commonly used in the treatment of a wide range of cancers , including hematological malignancies ( blood cancers , like leukaemia and lymphoma ) , many types of carcinoma ( solid tumours ) and soft tissue sarcomas . It is often used in combination chemotherapy as a component of various chemotherapy regimens .
Common adverse effects of doxorubicin include hair loss ( seen in most of those treated with the drug ) , myelosuppression ( a compromised ability of the body 's bone marrow to produce new blood cells ) , nausea and vomiting ( which are seen in roughly 30 @-@ 90 % of people treated with the drug ) , oral mucositis , oesophagitis , diarrhoea , skin reactions ( including hand @-@ foot syndrome ) and localised swelling and redness along the vein in which the drug is delivered . Less common , yet serious reactions include hypersensitivity reactions ( including anaphylaxis ) , radiation recall , heart damage and liver dysfunction . Some people experience red discoloration of their urine , sometimes for up to 1 to 2 days after treatment .
Doxorubicin is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most important medication needed in a basic health system . The drug is administered intravenously as a hydrochloride salt . Doxorubicin is photosensitive , and containers are often covered by an aluminum bag and / or brown wax paper to prevent light from affecting it . Doxorubicin is also available in liposome @-@ encapsulated forms as Doxil ( pegylated form ) , Myocet ( nonpegylated form ) , and Caelyx , although these forms must also be given by intravenous injection .
= = Medical use = =
Doxorubicin is commonly used to treat some leukemias and Hodgkin 's lymphoma , as well as cancers of the bladder , breast , stomach , lung , ovaries , thyroid , soft tissue sarcoma , multiple myeloma , and others . Commonly used doxorubicin @-@ containing regimens are AC ( Adriamycin , cyclophosphamide ) , TAC ( Taxotere , AC ) , ABVD ( Adriamycin , bleomycin , vinblastine , dacarbazine ) , BEACOPP , CHOP ( cyclophosphamide , hydroxydaunorubicin , vincristine , prednisone ) and FAC ( 5 @-@ fluorouracil , adriamycin , cyclophosphamide ) .
Doxil ( see below ) is used primarily for the treatment of ovarian cancer where the disease has progressed or recurred after platinum @-@ based chemotherapy , or for the treatment of AIDS @-@ related Kaposi 's sarcoma .
= = = Liposomal formulations = = =
There is a pegylated ( polyethylene glycol coated ) liposome @-@ encapsulated form of doxorubicin , sold as Doxil . It was developed to treat Kaposi 's sarcoma , an AIDS @-@ related cancer that causes lesions to grow under the skin , in the lining of the mouth , nose and throat , or in other organs . The polyethylene glycol coating results in preferential concentration of doxorubicin in the skin . However , this also results in a side effect called palmar plantar erythrodysesthesia ( PPE ) , more commonly known as hand @-@ foot syndrome . Following administration of this form of doxorubicin , small amounts of the drug can leak from capillaries in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . The result of this leakage is redness , tenderness , and peeling of the skin that can be uncomfortable and even painful . In clinical testing at 50 mg / m2 dosing every 4 weeks , half of people developed hand @-@ foot syndrome . The rate of this side effect limits the dose of this formulation that can be given as compared with plain doxorubicin in the same treatment regimen , thereby limiting potential substitution . Substitution would be desirable because liposome @-@ encapsulated doxorubicin is less cardiotoxic than unencapsulated doxorubicin . This form is also approved by the FDA for treatment of ovarian cancer and multiple myeloma .
A non @-@ pegylated liposomal doxorubicin , called Myocet , is approved in Europe and Canada for treatment of metastatic breast cancer in combination with cyclophosphamide , but has not been approved by the FDA for use in the United States . Unlike Doxil , the Myocet liposome does not have a polyethylene glycol coating , and therefore does not result in the same rate of hand @-@ foot syndrome . The minimization of this side effect may allow for one for one substitution with doxorubicin in the same treatment regimen , thereby improving safety with no loss of efficacy . Like Doxil , the liposomal encapsulation of the doxorubicin limits the cardiotoxicity . In theory , by limiting the cardiotoxicity of doxorubicin through liposomal encapsulation , it can be used safely in concurrent combination with other cardiotoxic chemotherapy drugs , such as trastuzumab . There is an FDA black box warning that trastuzumab cannot be used in concurrent combination with doxorubicin , only in sequential combination . Though concurrent combination of trastuzumab and doxorubicin in clinical studies found superior tumor response , the combination resulted in unacceptable cardiotoxicity , including risk of cardiac failure manifesting as congestive heart failure ( CHF ) . Published phase II study results have shown that Myocet , trastuzumab , and paclitaxel can safely be used concurrently without the cardiac risk , as measured by reduction in LVEF function , while still achieving superior tumor response . This finding is the basis for the ongoing phase III trial for FDA approval .
= = Adverse effects = =
The most dangerous side effect of doxorubicin is cardiomyopathy , leading to congestive heart failure . The rate of cardiomyopathy is dependent on its cumulative dose , with an incidence about 4 % when the dose of doxorubicin is 500 – 550 mg / m ² , 18 % when the dose is 551 – 600 mg / m ² and 36 % when the dose exceeds 600 mg / m ² . There are several ways in which doxorubicin is believed to cause cardiomyopathy , including oxidative stress , downregulation of genes for contractile proteins , and p53 mediated apoptosis . The drug dexrazoxane is used to mitigate doxorubicin 's cardiotoxicity .
Another common and potentially fatal complication of doxorubicin is typhlitis , an acute life @-@ threatening infection of the bowel .
Additionally , some patients may develop PPE , characterized by skin eruptions on the palms of the hand or soles of the feet , swelling , pain , and erythema .
Due to these side effects and its red color , doxorubicin has earned the nickname " red devil " or " red death . "
Chemotherapy can cause reactivation of hepatitis B , and doxorubicin @-@ containing regimens are no exception .
Doxorubicin and several chemotherapeutic drugs ( including cyclophosphamide ) cause dyspigmentation . Other groups of drugs that cause this problem include antimalarials , amiodarone , heavy metals ( but not iron ) , tetracyclines , and antipsychotics .
= = Biosynthesis = =
Doxorubicin ( DXR ) is a 14 @-@ hydroxylated version of daunorubicin , the immediate precursor of DXR in its biosynthetic pathway . Daunorubicin is more abundantly found as a natural product because it is produced by a number of different wild type strains of Streptomyces . In contrast , only one known non @-@ wild type species , Streptomyces peucetius subspecies cesius ATCC 27952 , was initially found to be capable of producing the more widely used doxorubicin . This strain was created by Arcamone et al. in 1969 by mutating a strain producing daunorubicin , but not DXR , at least in detectable quantities . Subsequently , Hutchinson 's group showed that under special environmental conditions , or by the introduction of genetic modifications , other strains of Streptomyces can produce doxorubicin . His group has also cloned many of the genes required for DXR production , although not all of them have been fully characterized . In 1996 , Strohl 's group discovered , isolated and characterized dox A , the gene encoding the enzyme that converts daunorubicin into DXR . By 1999 , they produced recombinant dox A , a cytochrome P450 oxidase , and found that it catalyzes multiple steps in DXR biosynthesis , including steps leading to daunorubicin . This was significant because it became clear that all daunorubicin @-@ producing strains have the necessary genes to produce DXR , the much more therapeutically important of the two . Hutchinson 's group went on to develop methods to improve the yield of DXR , from the fermentation process used in its commercial production , not only by introducing dox A encoding plasmids , but also by introducing mutations to deactivate enzymes that shunt DXR precursors to less useful products , for example baumycin @-@ like glycosides . Some triple mutants , that also over @-@ expressed dox A , were able to double the yield of DXR . This is of more than academic interest , because at that time DXR cost about $ 1 @.@ 37 million per kg and current production in 1999 was 225 kg per annum . More efficient production techniques have brought the price down to $ 1 @.@ 1 million per kg for the nonliposomal formulation . Although DXR can be produced semi @-@ synthetically from daunorubicin , the process involves electrophilic bromination and multiple steps , and the yield is poor . Since daunorubicin is produced by fermentation , it would be ideal if the bacteria could complete DXR synthesis more effectively .
= = Mechanism of action = =
Doxorubicin interacts with DNA by intercalation and inhibition of macromolecular biosynthesis . This inhibits the progression of the enzyme topoisomerase II , which relaxes supercoils in DNA for transcription . Doxorubicin stabilizes the topoisomerase II complex after it has broken the DNA chain for replication , preventing the DNA double helix from being resealed and thereby stopping the process of replication . It may also increase quinone type free radical production , hence contributing to its cytotoxicity .
The planar aromatic chromophore portion of the molecule intercalates between two base pairs of the DNA , while the six @-@ membered daunosamine sugar sits in the minor groove and interacts with flanking base pairs immediately adjacent to the intercalation site , as evidenced by several crystal structures .
By intercalation , doxorubicin can also induce histone eviction from transcriptionally active chromatin . As a result , DNA damage response , epigenome and transcriptome are deregulated in doxorubicin @-@ exposed cells .
= = History = =
In the 1950s , an Italian research company , Farmitalia Research Laboratories , began an organized effort to find anticancer compounds from soil @-@ based microbes . A soil sample was isolated from the area surrounding the Castel del Monte , a 13th @-@ century castle . A new strain of Streptomyces peucetius , which produced a red pigment , was isolated , and an antibiotic from this bacterium was effective against tumors in mice . Since a group of French researchers discovered the same compound at about the same time , the two teams named the compound daunorubicin , combining the name Dauni , a pre @-@ Roman tribe that occupied the area of Italy where the compound was isolated , with the French word for ruby , rubis , describing the color . Clinical trials began in the 1960s , and the drug was successful in treating acute leukemia and lymphoma . However , by 1967 , it was recognized that daunorubicin could produce fatal cardiac toxicity .
Researchers at Farmitalia soon discovered that changes in biological activity could be made by minor changes in the structure of the compound . A strain of Streptomyces was mutated using N @-@ nitroso @-@ N @-@ methyl urethane , and this new strain produced a different , red @-@ colored antibiotic . They named this new compound Adriamycin , after the Adriatic Sea , and the name was later changed to doxorubicin to conform to the established naming convention . Doxorubicin showed better activity than daunorubicin against mouse tumors , and especially solid tumors . It also showed a higher therapeutic index , yet the cardiotoxicity remained .
Doxorubicin and daunorubicin together can be thought of as prototype compounds for the anthracyclines . Subsequent research has led to many other anthracycline antibiotics , or analogs , and there are now over 2 @,@ 000 known analogs of doxorubicin . By 1991 , 553 of them had been evaluated in the screening program at the National Cancer Institute ( NCI ) . In 2016 GPX @-@ 150 was granted Orphan Drug designation by US FDA .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Names = = =
It is also known as hydroxydaunorubicin and hydroxydaunomycin .
It is sold under a number of different brand names , including Adriamycin PFS , Adriamycin RDF , or Rubex .
= = = Shortage = = =
As of February 2014 , Doxil was available in limited supply . In 2011 , Doxil became available only in very limited supply due to production problems with the third @-@ party manufacturer . Johnson & Johnson ( JNJ ) , through its subsidiary Janssen Products , LP , had been receiving its Doxil supply from contract manufacturer Ben Venue Laboratories ( located in Bedford , Ohio ) , a unit of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH of Germany . The problems began when Ben Venue temporarily shut down their manufacturing facility due to quality control issues .
In February 2012 , to address the Doxil shortage , the US Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) allowed for the temporary importation of Lipodox , which contains the same active ingredient as Doxil and is made by Sun Pharma Global FZE ( Sun ) , a subsidiary of India 's Sun Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd . The agency said it intends to continue allowing the importation of Lipodox until Sun has made enough generic Doxil to meet demand .
The FDA approved the first generic version of Doxil , made by Sun , in February 2013 . It will be available in 20 milligram and 50 milligram vials .
= = Research = =
Combination therapy experiments with sirolimus ( rapamycin ) and doxorubicin have shown promise in treating Akt @-@ positive lymphomas in mice .
Recent animal research coupling a murine monoclonal antibody with doxorubicin has created an immunoconjugate that was able to eliminate HIV @-@ 1 infection in mice . Current treatment with antiretroviral therapy ( ART ) still leaves pockets of HIV within the host . The immunoconjugate could potentially provide a complementary treatment to ART to eradicate antigen @-@ expressing T cells .
= = = Antimalarial activity = = =
There is some evidence for antimalarial activity for doxorubicin and similar compounds . In 2009 , a compound similar in structure to doxorubicin was found to inhibit plasmepsin II , an enzyme unique to the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum . The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline ( GSK ) later identified doxorubicin in a set of compounds that inhibit parasite growth
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= Seth @-@ Peribsen =
Seth @-@ Peribsen ( also known as Ash @-@ Peribsen , Peribsen and Perabsen ) is the serekh name of an early Egyptian monarch ( pharaoh ) , who ruled during the Second Dynasty of Egypt ( c . 2890 – c . 2686 BC ) . His chronological position within this dynasty is unknown and it is disputed who ruled both before and after him . The duration of his reign is also unknown .
Peribsen 's royal name is a subject of curiosity for Egyptologists because it is connected to the deity Seth rather than Horus , as was traditional for the name of a pharaoh . The debate continues over why Peribsen chose this name . Earlier theories have favoured the idea that Egypt was split in two realms during Peribsen 's time or that he was a heretic , who sought to start a new monotheistic religion with Seth as the only worshipped god . However , newer evidence and evaluations tend to show that the Egyptian kingdom was unified , but witnessed a vast and profound reform during the second dynasty . Seal impressions from tombs of this era reveal great changes in the titles held by high officials , pointing to a reduction of their power . Further seal impressions show that several deities were worshipped under Peribsen , refuting the monotheism theory , with other contemporary inscriptions indicating that the Egyptian grammar was perfected during his reign : In particular , the earliest seal impressions with complete sentences date back to Peribsen 's reign . Thus , Peribsen 's reign was in fact a time of cultural and religious advancement .
Existing negative views about Peribsen 's existence are based on Ramesside king lists , such as the Abydos King List , the Saqqara King List and the Royal Canon of Turin , which all omit Peribsen 's name . These , however , are known to have been redacted nearly 1500 years after his death and several 4th dynasty tombs of priests performing the funerary cult for Peribsen have been uncovered . These tombs report Peribsen 's name correctly and their existence demonstrate that Peribsen was seen as a legitimate pharaoh , not subject to damnatio memoriae as Akhenaten later would be . Historians and Egyptologists therefore consider the possibility that Peribsen 's name was actually forgotten in time or that his name was preserved in a distorted , misspelled form .
Peribsen 's Tomb was discovered in 1898 at Abydos . It was well preserved and showed traces of restoration undertaken during later dynastic periods .
= = Archaeological evidence = =
The serekh for Peribsen was found pressed in earthen jar seals made of clay and mud and in inscriptions on alabaster , sandstone , porphyry and black schist vessels . These seals and vessels were excavated from Peribsen 's tomb and at an excavation site in Elephantine . One clay seal with Peribsen 's name was found inside the mastaba tomb K1 at Beit Khallaf .
Two large tomb stelae made of granite were found at his burial site . Their shape is unusual and they appear unfinished and rough . Egyptologists suspect that this was done deliberately , but the reasons are unknown . A cylinder seal of unknown provenance shows Peribsen 's name inside a cartouche and gives the epithet Merj @-@ netjeru ( " beloved of the gods " ) . This arrangement leads Egyptologists and archaeologists to the conclusion that the seal must have been created later , in memoriam , because the use of royal cartouches began long after Peribsen 's reign . Another seal of the same material shows Peribsen 's name without a cartouche , but with the royal title Nisut @-@ Bity ( " king of Lower- and Upper Egypt " ) instead .
= = Peribsen 's name = =
Peribsen 's name is unusual , in that Seth , not Horus , was his patron deity . This goes against the Egyptian tradition of a king choosing the falcon @-@ shaped deity Horus as his royal patron . Traditionally , the Horus name of the king was written within a serekh : the image of the facade of the royal palace beneath a falcon representing the god Horus ( see Hieroglyphics ) . Instead , Peribsen chose to have the Set animal , representing Seth , on his serekh . Like Horus , Seth was a popular deity during the early dynastic period . He became the god of darkness and chaos afterward , during the much later Late Period of Ancient Egypt . Although Peribsen is the only known pharaoh to have the Set animal preside alone over his serekh , he is not the only king to associate himself with Seth . Examples include the 13th dynasty pharaoh Seth Meribre , the 19th dynasty rulers Seti I and Seti II and the 20th dynasty king Setnakhte .
Peribsen 's choice of patron , and his rule during the shadowy period of the mid Second dynasty , led Egyptologists and historians to search for possible explanations for both his name and the troubled times he lived in . The following sections discuss some of the theories that they put forth .
= = = Religious theories uniting Peribsen with Seth = = =
Older theories
A theory that was popular until the mid 20th century , supported by Egyptologists Percy Newberry , Jaroslav Černý , Walter Bryan Emery and Bernhard Grdseloff held that Peribsen was a heretic who sought to introduce a new , monotheistic state religion to Egypt , with Seth as the only worshipped god . Peribsen 's actions were thought to be similar to those of the much later 18th dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten , who had required Egyptians to serve only Aten . Newberry proposed that the priests of Horus and Seth fought each other " in the Manner of a war of the roses " during the second half of the Second dynasty .
The " heretic Peribsen " theory was based on three observations : that the name " Peribsen " was excluded from later king lists , that the king 's tomb had been destroyed and plundered during antiquity and finally that the tomb stelae of Peribsen , that once displayed the Set animal , were badly scratched with the clear intention of effacing the Seth image . Egyptologists hypothesized these were the actions of religious opponents to the Sethian priest @-@ caste . Lauer and Firth relied on the " heretic Peribsen " theory to explain the enormous quantity of stone vessels inscribed with the name of First and Second dynasty kings found beneath Djoser 's pyramid in bags bearing seals of Khasekhemwy and Djoser . They proposed that Peribsen had plundered the tombs of his predecessors , followers of Horus , and scattered their funerary equipment . These vessels were gathered in the royal treasury during Khasekhemwy 's reign following his reunification of Egypt , and finally put beneath the step pyramid by Djoser , in an act of pious devotion .
Contemporary theories
Today this theory , as well as Lauer and Firths ' conclusions , is widely questioned . Archaeological evidence of Peribsen has almost entirely been found in Upper Egypt . In particular , his name does not appear in Lower Egyptian records surviving from that time . It is argued that Peribsen may not have ruled over all of Egypt and therefore did not have the authority to force a change in state religion . Another piece of evidence that argues against the " heretic Peribsen " theory is the false door of the priest Shery at Saqqara . Shery held office during the early Fourth dynasty . The inscription on the false door connects the name of Peribsen in one sentence with another shadowy king of the Second dynasty , Senedj . According to the addendum , Shery was " overseer of all wab @-@ priests of king Peribsen in the necropolis of king Senedj , in his mortuary temple and at all other places " . This implies that the funerary cult of Peribsen continued at least until the Fourth dynasty , inconsistent with the assumption that Peribsen 's name was not allowed to be mentioned . Additionally , Egyptologists such as Herman te Velde point out that Shery was not the only Fourth dynasty priest participating in the funerary cult of Peribsen . Inkef , possibly a brother or cousin of Shery , also held the title of a " supervisor of Ka @-@ priests of Peribsen " .
Seal impressions found in Peribsen 's tomb at Abydos show several deities : Ash , Min and Bastet , suggesting they were venerated during Peribsen 's time on the throne . This finding argues against Peribsen worshipping a single god , or promoting monotheism . The heretic theory of Newberry , Černý , Grdseloff and others was devised from the very limited archaeological information available during their lifetimes . Most of the found clay seal impressions were still undeciphered and untranslated at their time .
According to the Egyptologists Jean Sainte Fare Garnot and Herman te Velde , the name of " Peribsen " accords religious meaning , even before association with a deity . The name " Peribsen " literally means " He who comes forth by their will " or " His heart and will comes forth for them . " The Egyptian syllable sn means " them , their , those " , revealing a clear plural writing . Te Velde and Garnot are convinced that Peribsen used the heraldic Seth animal as a serekh patron , but also linked his name to Horus . If true , it would prove that Peribsen worshipped Horus and Seth on an equal footing during his lifetime . An ostentatious plural meaning with religious ambiguity was not uncommon for pharaohs ' names in the early Egyptian dynasties . Peribsen may have been perceived as a living incarnation of both Horus and Seth in equal measure , just like his predecessors on the throne . Therefore , Peribsen 's name may actually show no break in the sacred tradition ; he added the power of Seth to Horus . As further examples , the titles of early dynastic queens used plural patron deities , such as " she who is allowed to see Horus and Seth " and " she who carries Horus and Seth " . Similarly , the unusual serekh of king Khasekhemwy , the last ruler of the Second dynasty , shows the deities Horus and Seth together atop the serekh . Horus wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt and Seth wears the Red Crown of Lower Egypt . Both gods are depicted facing each other in a kissing gesture . This special name was meant to illustrate the dual incarnation of the king as the representative of Horus and Seth , with power over all Egypt . Khasekhemwy 's name can be interpreted as an advanced form of Peribsen 's serekh name .
Egyptologists Ludwig David Morenz and Wolfgang Helck remark that the targeted gouging of Seth @-@ animals did not occur until the New Kingdom of Egypt . The erasure of the Seth chimera on Peribsen 's tomb stelae had been attributed to activity shortly after his death under the " heretic " theory ; new discoveries suggested the defamation occurred centuries later . Historian Dietrich Wildung states that the necropolis of Abydos was not the only one plundered in antiquity : the tombs at Saqqara and Giza were also ransacked . Thus , he concludes that any targeted action against one particular pharaoh can be excluded .
= = = Political theories = = =
The earlier theories of Newberry , Černý and Grdseloff said that the Egyptian state under Peribsen suffered from several civil wars , either economic or political in origin . If he was held responsible for the putative misery in the past , this could explain why later king lists excluded Peribsen .
In contrast , more recent theories now hold that , if the Egyptian kingdom was divided , the division happened peacefully . Egyptologists such as Michael Rice , Francesco Tiradritti and Wolfgang Helck point to the once palatial and well preserved mastaba tombs at Sakkara and Abydos belonging to high officials such as Ruaben and Nefer @-@ Setekh . These are all dated from the reign of Nynetjer to that of Khasekhemwy , the last ruler of the Second dynasty . Egyptologists consider the archaeological record of the mastabas ' condition and the original architecture as proof that the statewide mortuary cults for kings and noblemen successfully took place during the entire dynasty . If true , their preservation is inconsistent with the theory of civil wars and economic problems during Peribsen 's reign . Rice , Tiradritti and Helck think that Nynetjer decided to leave a divided realm because of private or political reasons and that the split was a formality sustained by Second Dynasty kings .
The origin of the political division is unknown . It might have happened at the beginning of Peribsen 's rule or shortly before . Because Peribsen chose the deity Seth as his new throne patron , Egyptologists are of the view that Peribsen was a chieftain from Thinis or a prince of the Thinite royal house . This theory is based on Seth being a deity of Thinite origin , which would explain Peribsen 's choice : his name changing may have been nothing more than smart political ( and religious ) propaganda . Peribsen is thought to have gained the Thinite throne and ruled only Upper Egypt , whilst other rulers held the Memphite throne and ruled Lower Egypt .
= = Identity = =
Egyptologists Walter Bryan Emery , Kathryn A. Bard and Flinders Petrie believe that Peribsen was also known as Sekhemib @-@ Perenmaat , another Second Dynasty ruler that had connected his name with the falcon @-@ god Horus . As evidence , clay seals of Sekhemib found in the entrance of Peribsen 's tomb support this hypothesis . Sekhemib 's tomb has not yet been found .
This theory is debatable ; Hermann Alexander Schlögl , Wolfgang Helck , Peter Kaplony and Jochem Kahl argue that the clay seals were only found at the entrance area of Peribsen 's tomb and none of them depict Peribsen and Sekhemib 's names together in one inscription . Furthermore , they remark that it was customary for a pharaoh to bury and seal his predecessor 's tomb ; the presence of Sekhemib 's seals show the line of dynastic inheritance . Similar inferences can be drawn from the ivory tablets of king Hotepsekhemwy found at the entrance of king Qa 'a's tomb and the clay seals of Djoser found at the entrance of Khasekhemwy 's tomb . Schlögl , Helck , Kaplony and Kahl are convinced that the discovery of Sekhemib 's seals support the view that Sekhemib immediately succeeded Peribsen and buried him .
Scholars Toby Wilkinson and Helck believe that Peribsen and Sekhemib could have been related . Their theory is based on the stone vessel inscriptions and seal impressions that show strong similarities in their typography and grammar . The vessels of Peribsen show the notation " ini @-@ setjet " ( " tribute of the people of Sethroë " ) , whilst Sekhemib 's inscriptions have the notation " ini @-@ khasut " ( " tribute of the desert nomads " ) . A further indication that Peribsen and Sekhemib were related is by serekh @-@ name ; they use the syllables " Per " and " ib " in their names .
The false door inscription of Shery might indicate that Peribsen is identical with king Senedj ( " Senedj " means " the frightening " ) and that this name was used in the king lists by proxy , as the Seth name was forbidden mention . In contrast , Dietrich Wildung and Wolfgang Helck identify Peribsen with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes . They think it is possible that the name Per @-@ ib @-@ sen was misread from a sloppy hieratic inscription of Wadj @-@ sen .
= = Reign = =
As some archaeological records support the view that the Egyptian state was divided during Peribsen 's reign , there is continued debate as to why his predecessors decided to divide the realm , and whether Peribsen ruled part or all of Egypt .
= = = Proponents of the divided @-@ realm @-@ theory = = =
Egyptologists Wolfgang Helck , Nicolas Grimal , Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Nynetjer , the third ruler of the Second dynasty and predecessor to Peribsen , ruled an Egypt that was suffering from an overly complex state administration . Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to two chosen successors who would rule two separate kingdoms , in the hope that the state administration could improve . Archaeological evidence , such as the imprinted clay seals and inscribed jars , appear to support the claim that Peribsen ruled only in Upper Egypt . A great number of these were found in Abydos , Naqada and at Elephantine , with only a single clay seal bearing his name found in Lower Egypt , at Beit Khallaf . Historians think Peribsen 's realm would have extended from Naqada to the Isle of Elephantine . The rest of Egypt would therefore have been controlled by a different , coexisting ruler .
Egyptologist Dimitri B. Proussakov supports his theory with notations on the famous Palermo stone concerning the year events of king Nynetjer . From the twelfth year event onward , " The king of Upper- and Lower Egypt appears " was amended to " The king of Lower Egypt appears " . Proussakov sees this as a strong indication that Nynetjer 's power over Egypt had diminished . Egyptologists compare the situation to that of king Qa 'a , one of the last rulers of the First dynasty . When Qa 'a died , obscure claimants appeared and battled for the throne of Egypt . The struggles reached an apex with the plundering of the royal cemetery at Abydos , whereupon the cemetery was abandoned and Saqqara became the new royal burial site . The conflict was ended by the ascension of king Hotepsekhemwy , the founder of the Second dynasty .
Barbara Bell , another scholar , believes that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long @-@ lasting drought affected Egypt . To better address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population , Nynetjer split the realm into two and his successors founded two independent realms , perhaps with intent to reunite after the famine . Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone , where , in her opinion , the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period . Bell 's theory is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer , who asserts her calculations were incorrect . Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at usual levels at Nynetjer 's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom . Bell overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscription take into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis , but not elsewhere along the river . A state @-@ wide drought was unlikely .
= = = Opponents of the divided @-@ realm @-@ theory = = =
Scholars such as Herman TeVelde , I. E. S. Edwards and Toby Wilkinson believe the inscription of the famous Annal stone of Fifth dynasty , a black olivin @-@ basalt slabstone displaying a very detailed king list , argues against the division of the realm . On the stone the kings from 1st to 7th dynasty are listed by their Horus name , their gold name and their cartouche name , their name banderoles end with the name of their royal mother . The lists also contain rectangular windows presenting year events from the day of king 's coronation up to his death . The most famous fragments of the Annal stone are called Palermo Stone and Cairo Stone . On the Cairo stone , in line IV , the nine last years of king Nynetjer are preserved ( but most of the year windows are illegible now ) . The date of Nynetjer 's death is followed by a new king . Recent investigations reveal that the serekh of that new king is surmounted by a four @-@ legged animal , not by the Horus @-@ falcon . Since the only four @-@ legged heraldic serekh animal in early Egypt was the chimera of the god Seth , despite passionate disagreement , the indicated ruler is likely to be Peribsen . Egyptologists such as TeVelde , Barta and Edwards do not agree ; Peribsen might have not been the only king with a Seth @-@ name . The year events under Nynetjer show increasing references to Seth , suggesting the tradition of a Horus name as the sole name of kings might have already evolved . The rise of a king allied with Seth was thus unsurprising . TeVelde , Barta and Edwards think that , in addition to Peribsen , the rulers Wadjenes , Nubnefer or Sened might have been Seth @-@ kings as well ; one of them surely was the true direct successor of Nynetjer . The comparatively large amount of archaeological finds from Peribsen 's reign contradict the brief estimated length of rulership , only 10 to 12 years , as presented on the Annal stone .
The Annal stone gives absolutely no indication of a division of the Egyptian realm . Barta , TeVelde , Wilkinson and Edwards argue that the theory of state division is untenable . An administrative reorganization or split in the priesthood sects is more likely .
= = = Political accomplishments = = =
During his time on the throne , Peribsen founded an administrative center called " The white house of treasury " as well as a new royal residence , called the " protection of Nubt " , located near Ombos ( " Nubt " being the Ancient Egyptian name of Naqada ) . The administrative titles of scribes , seal @-@ bearers and overseers were adjusted to correspond to the divided bureaucratic state administration . For example , titles like " sealer of the king " were changed into " sealer of the king of Upper Egypt " . This bureaucratic reform may indicate an attempt by Peribsen to limit the power of these officials , further evidence for a bloated and unwieldy state administration under Nynetjer .
The administration system under Peribsen and Sekhemib had a clear and well @-@ defined hierarchy ; as an example , from highest to the lowest rank : Treasury house ( royal and therefore highest in ranking ) → pension office → property → vineyards → private vineyard ( property of citizens and therefore lowest in ranking ) . King Khasekhemwy , the last ruler of the Second dynasty , was able to re @-@ unify the state administration of Egypt and therefore unite the whole of Ancient Egypt . He brought the two treasury houses of Egypt under the control of the " House of the King " , bringing them into a new , single administration centre .
Peribsen also founded royal edifices such as Per @-@ nubt ( " house of Ombos " ) and Per @-@ Medjed ( " house of meetings " ) and created several cities of economic importance . Their names , Afnut ( " city of the headdress @-@ makers " ) , Nebj ( " protector 's city " ) , Abet @-@ desheret ( " city of the red granite jars " ) and Huj @-@ setjet ( " city of the Asians ' ) , are mentioned on numerous clay seals alongside Peribsen 's serekh , often preceded by the phrase " visit of the king at ... " . Inscriptions on stone vessels also mention an " ini @-@ setjet " ( " tribute of the people of Sethroë " ) , which might indicate that Peribsen founded a cult centre for the deity Seth in the Nile Delta . This may suggest Peribsen ruled over the whole of Egypt , or , at least , that he was accepted as king across all of Egypt .
One official from Peribsen 's reign , Nefer @-@ Setekh ( " Seth is beautiful " ) , the " wab @-@ priest of the king " , is known to Egyptologists by his stela . His name may highlight the appearance and popularity of Seth as a royal deity .
In Peribsen 's tomb at Abydos , clay seals were found that demonstrate the first complete written sentence in recorded Egyptian history . The inscription reads :
" The golden one / He of Ombos hath unified / handed over the two realms for / to his son , the king of Lower and Upper Egypt , Peribsen " .
The title " The golden one " , also read as " He of Ombos " , is considered by Egyptologists to be a religious form of address to the deity Seth .
= = = Religious changes = = =
Despite his alignment with Seth , numerous deities were worshipped by the populace under Peribsen . Numerous clay seal impressions and jar inscriptions mention the gods Ash , Horus , Nekhbet , Min , Bastet and Kherty . The depictions of the deities are followed by the name of the place or town where they had their principal cult center . On the Cairo stone , a statue of Ash and a fetish of Seth are credited to Peribsen , complementing the clay seal impressions . Curiously , several seal impressions show a sun disc over the Seth chimera atop the royal serekh : the ancient symbol for the god Ra . There is no archaeologic proof that the sun god Ra was part of the Egyptian pantheon at this early date ; the appearance of the disc may be the first evidence of the evolving sun cult and theistic change . The sun disc appears in connection to one of the state patrons ( for example , under Peribsen 's predecessor Raneb the sun was connected to Horus ) ; under Peribsen it was connected to Seth . Under king Khasekhemwy the sun finally received its own name ( ra ) and , at the time of throne change between Khasekhemwy and his follower Djoser , several priests and officials also connected their name to Ra .
= = Rulers of Lower and Upper Egypt = =
Egyptian historians such as Helck , Tiradritti , Schlögl , Emery and Grimal are convinced that Peribsen was a co @-@ ruler . The investigation into the rulers of Lower Egypt is ongoing . The Rammesside king lists differ in their order of royal names from king Senedj onward . The royal table of Sakkara and the royal canon of Turin reflect Memphite traditions , which only allowed Memphite rulers to be mentioned . The Abydos king list reflects instead the Thinite traditions and therefore only Thinite rulers appear on that list . Until king Senedj , all the king lists are in agreement . After him , the Sakkara list and the Turin list mention three kings as successors : Neferkara I , Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I. The Abydos king list jumps forward to Khasekhemwy , calling him " Djadjay " . The discrepancies are considered by Egyptologists to be the result of the division of Egypt during the Second dynasty .
Additional contradictory findings are the Horus and Nebty names of kings discovered in the Great Southern Gallery in the necropolis of the ( Third dynasty ) king Djoser at Sakkara . Stone vessel inscriptions mention the kings Nubnefer , Weneg @-@ Nebty , Horus Ba , Horus " Bird " and Za ; each of these is mentioned only a few times , suggesting their reigns were short . King Sneferka might be identical with king Qa 'a or an ephemeral successor of his . King Weneg @-@ Nebty might be identical with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes . But kings such as " Nubnefer " , " Bird " and " Za " remain a mystery . They never appear anywhere else and the number of objects surviving from their lifetimes is very limited . Schlögl , Helck and Peter Kaplony postulate , that Nubnefer , Za and Bird were contemporaries of Peribsen and Sekhemib and ruled over Lower Egypt , whilst the latter two ruled Upper Egypt .
= = The tomb of Peribsen = =
Peribsen was buried in the tomb P of the royal cemetery at Umm el @-@ Qa 'ab near Abydos . The first excavation of the tomb started in 1898 under the supervision of French archaeologist and Egyptologist Émile Amélineau . This first foray was followed by excavations in 1901 and 1902 under the supervision of British archaeologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie . Further exploration of the tomb was undertaken in 1928 by the Swiss Egyptologist Edouard Naville .
The tomb 's construction is straightforward and , compared to the size of other royal tombs in the same area , surprisingly small . The design model was the tomb of king Djer ( third pharaoh of the First dynasty ) , thought to be the ' Tomb of Osiris ' from the Middle Kingdom . The architecture of Peribsen 's tomb is similar to the residential palace . The tomb measures 16 metres ( 52 ft ) x 13 metres ( 43 ft ) and comprises three independent structures nested into one another : in the center is the main burial chamber , measuring 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) x 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) , and which is made of mud bricks , reeds , and wood . On the north , east and west sides the burial chamber is surrounded by nine small storage rooms leading into one another ; on the south face is a long antechamber . A passageway runs between the inner structures and the outer wall .
Excavations under the supervision of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo ( DAIK ) in 2001 and 2004 revealed that the tomb had been erected and completed in a great hurry . The building works took place in a single phase ; the walls were plastered roughly ; and the monument had collapsed several times over the centuries . During the Middle Kingdom , Peribsen 's tomb was restored at least twice together with the tomb of Djer , which was thought to be that of Osiris .
= = = Findings = = =
The tomb had been extensively plundered by tomb robbers during antiquity , yet numerous stone vessels and earthen jars remained . Some of the stone vessels had copper @-@ coated rims and are similar to the better known finds from tomb of Khasekhemwy . Vessels from preceding rulers such as Nynetjer and Raneb were also found . Beads and bracelets made of fayence and carnelian and tools made of copper were excavated . Special findings include a silver needle engraved with the name of king Hor Aha and clay seal fragments with the name of king Sekhemib . The two stone stelae from the entrance , common to burial chambers of the First and Second dynasties , are now on display in two different museums .
= = = Royal funerary enclosure = = =
A royal funerary enclosure made of mud bricks was found close to Peribsen 's tomb . Clay seals with Peribsen 's serekh name on them were located near the eastern entrance and inside a destroyed offering shrine . The findings support the view that the building was part of Peribsen 's burial site . The funerary enclosure is commonly known as " Middle Fort " . This was first discovered in 1904 under the supervision of Canadian archaeologist Charles Trick Currelly and British Egyptologist Edward Russell Ayrton . The enclosure wall was located at the north @-@ west site of Khasekhemwy 's funerary enclosure " Shunet ez Zebib " ( " raisin barn " ) . Peribsen 's measures 108 metres ( 354 ft ) x 55 metres ( 180 ft ) and housed only a few cult buildings . The enclosure has three entrances : one to the east , one to the south and one to the north . A small shrine , measuring 12 @.@ 3 metres ( 40 ft ) x 9 @.@ 75 metres ( 32 @.@ 0 ft ) was located at the south @-@ east corner of the funerary enclosure . It once comprised three small chapels . No subsidiary tombs were found .
The tradition of burying the family and court of the king when he died was abandoned at the time of Qa 'a , one of the last rulers of the First dynasty .
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= Who We Are ( Lifehouse album ) =
Who We Are is the fourth studio album by American alternative rock band Lifehouse . It was first released via compact disc in the United States on June 18 , 2007 by Geffen Records . It was released via digital download the next day on June 19 , 2007 . The band entered the studio without any demos recorded and only had lyrics from Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade . The songs on the album were mostly inspired by different emotions of love , bliss , struggles , and pain . Musically , the album is a combination of rock , alternative , and adult alternative .
The album received positive reviews from critics , and peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard 200 , selling 49 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It also managed to chart in the top twenty of Billboard 's Alternative Albums , Digital Albums , and Rock Albums charts the first week it was released . It was certified Gold in the United States by the RIAA on October 22 , 2008 .
The album 's lead single , " First Time " , was released May 7 , 2007 , and charted in several countries . The second single , " Whatever It Takes " , was released on November 13 , 2007 , and charted on several Billboard charts . The third single , " Broken " was released July 8 , 2008 , and had commercial success in the United States and Canada , and eventually other countries .
= = Background = =
The album was produced by American record producer Jude Cole , Lifehouse , and John Fields . Lifehouse started recording Who We Are without any demos , and only had lyrics from Jason Wade when they entered the studio . When asked about creating a song for the album , Lifehouse lead percussionist Rick Woolstenhulme , Jr. said , " Nobody really knew what they would be playing . We just cut it , listened to it and realized it was pretty electric … the kind of song where you just turn up the radio . " The album focused on the different emotions of love , bliss , struggles , and pain . Musically , the album was a combination of rock , alternative , and adult alternative . After being asked about the title of the album , Wade stated , " We established camaraderie on the road and gelled as a unit . This record defines ' Who We Are , ' which is why that ’ s the title . The sound fits where we ’ re at right now . "
Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade had many inspirations when writing songs for Who We Are . When asked about the background of lead single " First Time " , Wade said , " It just felt urgent , like a first kiss , a first love . Like the first time you realize there 's more to that relationship than you thought . I had to dig a little for that one , but I find myself at a place where I can write stuff that 's a little deeper than your average love song in terms of emotion . " Wade was inspired to write " The Joke " after he read a newspaper article that detailed the story of a British boy who hung himself as a result of being bullied by his fellow schoolmates . The song " Broken " was written by Wade after he visited a friend in Nashville that needed a kidney transplant .
" Make Me Over " was inspired by the band 's love of British rock , while strains of " Learn You Inside Out " were inspired by the Plastic Ono Band . When asked about the song " Learn You Inside Out " , Wade said , " I wrote it really quick . We decided just to freestyle . It was one of those moments when we really grew as a band , being able to reach each other and know where we 're going . " The song " Disarray " was inspired by Wade 's strict and religious family . When asked about the song , he said , " Angels , demons . We all fight them both , and anyone who pretends they don ’ t is not someone I want to hang out with . " " Storm " was originally written by Wade at the age of sixteen , when he was going through difficult times . When asked about the song in an interview , Wade said , " That was fun to record because of its starkness . We love the idea of the title , surrounded by negative space , like the a cappella beginning . Because when you ’ re lost in confusion , no matter how much is going on around you , you ’ re still alone . "
= = = Singles = = =
" First Time " was released as the album 's lead single on May 7 , 2007 and was solicited to mainstream radio on May 15 , 2007 . The song peaked at number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number forty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 . It also appeared on the Billboard Pop Songs , Radio Songs , Digital Songs , and Adult Contemporary charts . In 2007 , the song was nominated for the " Choice Music : Love Song " award at the Teen Choice Awards . " Whatever It Takes " was released as the album 's second single on November 13 , 2007 . The song peaked at number thirty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 during its twenty weeks on the chart . It also placed on the Billboard Pop Songs , Radio Songs , Digital Songs , Adult Contemporary , and Christian Songs charts . " Broken " was released as the album 's third and final single on July 8 , 2008 . It appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 , Canadian Hot 100 , and Digital Songs charts . On October 10 , 2007 , " Broken " was played in the Criminal Minds episode " Scared to Death " . Several months later , the song appeared in the Grey 's Anatomy episode " Lay Your Hands On Me " on January 10 , 2008 . It featured in the One Tree Hill episode " For Tonight You 're Only Here to Know " on February 26 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described the album as " post @-@ alternative guitar rock preserved in amber , all shallow angst and earnestness , communicated through music that surges without hooks . " However , he further commented that " Lifehouse [ is ] pleasant enough , but hardly memorable , and hardly [ answers ] the question of who they are no matter how they try . " Alex Lai of Contact Music called " the ballads on this record amongst the best the band has produced " and further commented that " [ the album ] is very well balanced and though far from groundbreaking , show that Lifehouse have returned to their consistent best . " John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout said that the album " isn 't much different from their previous chapters . " However , DiBiase said that " there [ are ] plenty of accented new flavors among the tracks to keep things fresh and interesting . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , Who We Are debuted and peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 200 , selling 49 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It stayed on the chart for seventy @-@ six non @-@ consecutive weeks . The album debuted and peaked on the Billboard Rock Albums chart at number five . On the Billboard Digital Albums chart , the album debuted and peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for five consecutive weeks . It debuted and peaked at number eighteen on the Billboard Alternative Albums chart and stayed there for ten non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was certified Gold in the United States by the RIAA on October 22 , 2008 . As of June 28 , 2010 , the album 's singles have garnered over three million digital downloads .
= = Promotion = =
In support of Who We Are , Lifehouse went on the " Disarray Tour " , which was highlighted by dates in Los Angeles , Chicago , New York City , and Atlanta . American singer @-@ songwriter Matt Nathanson and HoneyHoney joined Lifehouse on select dates throughout the tour . Lifehouse continued to promote the album on Last Call with Carson Daly on July 9 , 2007 where they played " First Time " . They also performed the song on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on August 15 , 2007 . The band made an appearance at the 2008 NFL Pro Bowl on February 10 , 2008 . On February 15 , 2008 , the band performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . They performed on Live with Regis and Kelly playing " First Time " and " Whatever It Takes " on April 1 , 2008 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Jude Cole and Lifehouse , except " Broken " produced by John Fields .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Tropical Storm Patricia ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Patricia was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that briefly affected parts of Baja California Sur before rapidly degenerating over water . Developing from a tropical wave that traversed the Atlantic Ocean during September 2009 , Patricia was first classified as a tropical depression on October 11 several hundred miles south of the Baja California Peninsula . The system quickly intensified into a tropical storm as it tracked in a general northward direction . By October 12 , Patricia attained its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . The following day , increasing wind shear and unfavorable conditions caused the storm to rapidly weaken . By the morning of October 14 , Patricia had degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area near the southern coastline of Baja California Sur . The remnants of the storm persisted until October 15 , at which time they dissipated over open waters .
Although the center of Patricia did not impact land , the outer bands caused significant rainfall in portions of western Mexico . In Sonora , up to 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of rain fell , leading to significant flooding that left 600 people homeless . Other Mexican states received similar impact . Overall , the effects of Patricia were minor and resulted in no loss of life .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Patricia originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 23 , 2009 . Two days later , Tropical Depression Eight developed from the wave over the eastern Atlantic Ocean . The depression tracked northwestward , while the wave continued a steady westward track . By October 6 , the system crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Gradual development took place over the following several days with widespread , scattered convection consolidating around a developing area of low pressure . On October 11 , a well @-@ defined circulation had formed and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that it developed into a tropical depression roughly 405 mi ( 650 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of Baja California Sur .
Several hours later , the system further strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Patricia . The low @-@ level circulation became embedded within very deep convection and further intensification was anticipated . Patricia tracked north @-@ northwest in a region of low to moderate wind shear , under the steering currents of a strong ridge of high pressure to the east and a trough located northwest . Although over warm sea surface temperatures , relatively stable air prevented substantial intensification . By the late morning of October 12 , the overall extent of cloud cover had increased but the center became less defined , described as " sloppy " by NHC forecaster Todd Kimberlain . Later that day , Patricia attained its peak intensity as a moderately strong tropical storm with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) .
The storm maintained this intensity for several hours as its central dense overcast remained intact despite increasing wind shear . However , the NHC stated that there was a 20 % chance of the storm becoming a hurricane within 24 hours based on climatological factors and the average forecast intensity errors . However , this did not take place . The combination of moderate wind shear and a stable environment caused Patricia to rapidly weaken on October 13 . The storm 's cirrus outflow became weak in all directions and convection diminished . Later that day , convective developed ceased to occur as the storm neared the south tip of Baja California Sur . Early on October 14 , Patricia degenerated into a remnant low pressure area , bypassing tropical depression status , roughly 30 mi ( 50 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . The remnant low turned westward and tracked over open waters before dissipating on October 15 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Several hours after Patricia was classified as a tropical storm on October 12 , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for areas along Baja California Sur between La Paz and Santa Fe . The following day , the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning for areas between Buenavista and Agua Blanca . However , the storm 's rapid decay on October 14 allowed the watches and warnings to be discontinued . Officials in the threatened region began preparing by closing schools and opening 159 shelters on October 12 . The Civil Protection Department was prepared to evacuate residents in low @-@ lying area if necessary . Resorts and hotels cancelled all outdoor activities and brought all loose objects indoors . The city of Los Cabos was placed under a state of emergency as flooding rains were forecast to impact the area . Ports in the region were also shut down due to rough seas .
The storm 's quick deterioration led to significantly less impact than anticipated . High waves affected the coastlines of Baja California Sur , Sinaloa and Nayarit . Parts of Sinaloa also recorded heavy rainfall from Patricia , peaking at 184 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 26 in ) in Higuera de Zaragoza . Subsequent flooding was reported in 12 municipalities in the state , resulting in the evacuation of 3 @,@ 000 people . Officials also closed elementary schools throughout the affected area due to the anticipation of flood waters . In southern Sonora , rainfall up to 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) led to widespread flooding . Officials reported that 181 people sought refuge in shelters . Additionally , relief agencies supplied 500 people with food during the storm . A total of 2 @,@ 272 hectares ( 5 @,@ 614 acres ) of agricultural land was inundated by flood waters . Roughly 815 people were left homeless in the wake of the storm , 600 of whom were in Sonora .
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= Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary =
Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary is a comic @-@ book story by American cartoonist Justin Green , published in 1972 . Green takes the persona of Binky Brown to tell of the " compulsive neurosis " with which he struggled in his youth and which he blamed on his strict Roman Catholic upbringing . Green was later diagnosed with obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) and came to see his problems in that light .
In the story , sinful thoughts that he cannot control torment Binky Brown ; to his alarm , phallic objects become literal penises and project what he calls " pecker rays " at religious objects such as churches and statues of the Virgin Mary . He develops an internal set of rules to obey and punishments for breaking them . The torment does not subside , and he comes to reject the Catholic Church in defiance as the source of it . The work combines a wide variety of visual and narrative techniques in a style that echoes the torment of its protagonist .
Binky Brown had an immediate influence on contemporaries in underground comix : such cartoonists as Aline Kominsky , Robert Crumb , and Art Spiegelman soon turned to producing similarly confessional works . Binky Brown has gained a reputation as the first major work of autobiography in English @-@ language comics , and many aspects of its approach have become widespread in underground and alternative comics .
= = Background = =
Justin Green ( b . 1945 ) was born to a Jewish father and Catholic mother and raised Catholic . As a child he at first attended a Catholic parochial school , and later transferred to a school where most students were Jews . He rejected the Catholic faith in 1958 as he believed it caused him " compulsive neurosis " that decades later was diagnosed as obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) .
Green was studying painting at the Rhode Island School of Design when in 1967 he discovered the work of Robert Crumb and turned to cartooning , attracted to what he called Crumb 's " harsh drawing stuffed into crookedly @-@ drawn panels " . He experimented with his artwork to find what he called an " inherent and automatic style as a conduit for the chimerical forms in [ his ] own psyche " . He dropped out of an MFA program at Syracuse University when in 1968 he felt a " call to arms " to move to San Francisco , where the nascent underground comix scene was blossoming amid the counterculture there .
At the time , comic books had a reputation in the US as low @-@ brow children 's entertainment , and the public often associated them with juvenile delinquency . Comics had little cultural capital and few American cartoonists had challenged the perception that the medium was inherently incapable of mature artistic expression .
= = Synopsis = =
Green takes the persona of Binky Brown , who opens the story writing a confession of the neurosis that has tortured him since puberty . In his childhood , he knocks over a statue of the Virgin Mary and feels intense guilt over this affront to his mother and to God . Binky is raised a Catholic and undergoes the religious indoctrination of nuns at a strict Catholic parochial school that commonly employs corporal punishment . He forms an image of a vengeful God , which fills him with feelings of fear and guilt .
Binky 's intrusive thoughts bring him to believe his body is trying to lead him to sin and eternal punishment . He develops an internal system of rules to cope with these thoughts and punishes himself for violations . He wards off thoughts and fantasies he cannot control and that give him guilt by silently repeating the word " noyatin " to himself , a contraction of the repentant " not a sin " .
As he approaches adolescence and becomes aware of his sexuality , he begins to see common objects as phalluses — phalluses that project unholy rays . These objects include his fingers , his toes , and his own penis , and he obsessively tries to deflect their " pecker rays " from reaching holy items such as churches or statues of Mary . Binky finds his anguish all @-@ consuming as he imagines the destruction he cannot avoid , and spends hours praying to God for forgiveness . As an adult , Binky confronts his faith and by smashing a set of statues of the Virgin Mary declares himself free of the Church and its influence on him .
= = Composition and publication = =
Green spent about a year working on the 44 @-@ page Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary . He took a few months making cards of what he called " factual incidents or neurotic habits " to incorporate . During the seven months he drew the work Green received a monthly stipend of $ 150 from Ron Turner , the founder of underground comix publisher Last Gasp Eco @-@ Funnies . Last Gasp published the story as a one @-@ shot comic book in 1972 — Green 's first solo title . It went through two print runs of 55 @,@ 000 copies each with a " Youngsters Prohibited " label on the cover .
In 1990 , Green had an essay published entitled " The Binky Brown Matter " in The Sun . In the essay , he describes the OCD with which he was diagnosed years after completing Binky Brown . Last Gasp reprinted the story in 1995 in The Binky Brown Sampler , a softcover anthology of Binky Brown strips with an introduction by Art Spiegelman and an expanded version of " The Binky Brown Matter " .
Green sold the original artwork to the strip in the 1970s ; McSweeney 's staff contacted the owner of the artwork , Christine Valenza , to make fresh scans for a standalone reprinting in 2009 , overseen by McSweeney 's editor Eli Horowitz . It had a print run of 5 @,@ 000 copies and reprints the artwork at the full size of the originals ; the page reproductions mimic the actual pages , including marks , smudges , and corrections . In 2011 , the publisher Stara published a French translation by Harry Morgan titled Binky Brown rencontre la Vierge Marie , and La Cúpula published a Spanish translation by Francisco Pérez Navarro titled Binky Brown conoce a la virgen María .
= = = Editions = = =
= = Style and analysis = =
The story takes the form of a guilt @-@ ridden confession . In the opening , the adult Binky hangs over a sickle , bound from head to toe and listening to Ave Maria as he draws with a pen in his mouth . He declares his intention : " to purge myself of the compulsive neurosis which I have served since I officially left Catholicism on Halloween , 1958 . " He justifies the work to communicate with the " many others [ who ] are slaves to their neuroses " and who , despite believing themselves isolated , number so many that they " would entwine the globe many times over in a vast chain of common suffering " .
Though Green built Binky Brown on an autobiographical base he fabricated many scenes — such as one in which Binky is bullied by two third @-@ graders — " to suggest or convey a whole generalized idea about some subjective feeling , such as order or fear or guilt " . To critic Charles Hatfield Binky Brown displays a " radical subjectivity " that calls into question the notion of objectivity in autobiography . The presentation is insistently subjective and non @-@ literal in its visuals .
Despite the heavy tone , humor is prominent . The work is conscious of its own creation — Green 's drawing of it frames the narrative proper and there are constant reminders of it throughout . Green patterned the opening after those featuring the Crypt @-@ Keeper in EC Comics ' Tales from the Crypt series from the 1950s . Green used the adult Binky as the narrator of the captions and as a way to tie together the past and present timeframes . There is a disconnect in that the narrator refers to his younger self as " he " . Other references to comics include a Sinstopper 's Guidebook , which alludes to Dick Tracy 's Crimestopper 's Textbook and a cartoon by Robert Crumb in the background .
Green employs numerous Catholic symbols , such as a word balloon adorned with symbols of Christ 's martyrdom to represent the depth of Binky 's desperation . Catholic works such as a catechism and Treasure Chest parochial comics appear throughout the work .
Despite strict censorship in other media in the US , explicit sexuality was common in underground comix . Binky Brown was the first work of autobiographical comics to depict explicit sexuality : penises appear throughout , and Binky masturbates in one scene . The central symbol of the penis recurs sometimes subtly as in the images of pencils used to craft the work , and more often explicitly , as every phallic @-@ like object Green sees because a literal " pecker ray " -projecting penis in Binky 's mind .
Art Spiegelman described the artwork as " quirky and ungainly " . Though it appears awkward , Green put considerable effort into elements such as graphical perspective , and draws attention to his craft by depicting himself drawing and by placing the drawing manuals Perspective and Fun With a Pencil in the backgrounds . Green makes wide use of visual metaphors , in contrast to the mundane tales of Harvey Pekar , another prominent early practitioner of autobiographical comics . In Binky Brown symbols become literal , as when Binky imagines himself becoming a snowball hurtling into Hell or as a fish chased by a police officer who wears a crucifix . The work displays a wide array of visual techniques : diagrammatic arrows ; mock @-@ scholarly documentation ; a great variety in panel size , composition , and layout ; and a range of contrasting mechanical and organic rendering techniques , such as screentone alongside dense hand @-@ drawn hatching . The symbolic and technical collide where the Virgin Mary becomes the vanishing point of Binky 's converging " pecker rays " .
Critic Joseph Witek sees the shifting between different modes of traditional comics representation at times presents a literalist view through " windowlike panels " , and at others " representational , symbolic , allegorical , associative , and allusive " , an approach analogous to " Binky Brown 's massively and chaotically overdetermined subjectivity " . Witek finds roots for the fractured psychological landscape of Binky Brown in the comics of earlier eras : the unrestrained psyches in the dreams of Winsor McCay 's Dream of the Rarebit Fiend , the irrational , shifting landscapes of George Herriman 's Krazy Kat , and Superman 's obsessively contrarian nemesis Bizarro .
In Binky Brown Green blames the Catholic Church for his psychological troubles ; years later , he was diagnosed with OCD , and came to see these episodes in that light rather than as the fault of the Church . He nevertheless continued to blame the Church for contributing to his anxieties and maintained that religion has a magnifying influence on the condition . He said the abandoning of both religion and recreational drugs made it easier to cope with his condition . In 1990 a Catholic priest raised concerns that Binky Brown may be harmful to minors ; Green countered that he believed it was the Church that was harming minors . Green has likened his OCD to a " split vision " which made him " both the slave to the compulsion and the detached observer " .
Literary scholar Hillary Chute sees the work as addressing feminist concerns of " embodiment and representation " as it " delves into and forcefully pictures non @-@ normative sexuality " . Chute affirms that despite its brevity Binky Brown merits the label " graphic novel " as " the quality of work , its approach , parameters , and sensibility " mark a " seriousness of purpose " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Green recounted " a strong energy " that Binky Brown drew from his readership , the first significant response he got from his work . The story has had a wide influence on underground and alternative comics , where its self @-@ mocking and confessional approach has inspired numerous cartoonists to expose intimate and embarrassing details of their lives . Under the influence of Binky Brown , in 1972 Aline Kominsky published her first strip , the autobiographical " Goldie : A Neurotic Woman " in Wimmen 's Comix # 1 . Other contemporary underground cartoonists were soon to incorporate confessional autobiography into their work . Robert Crumb followed the same year with " The Confessions of R. Crumb " and continued with numerous other such strips . Art Spiegelman , who had seen Binky Brown in mid @-@ creation in 1971 , went as far as to state that " without Binky Brown there would be no Maus " — Spiegelman 's most prominent work . The same year as Binky Brown 's publication , Green asked Spiegelman to contribute a three @-@ page strip to the first issue of Funny Aminals , which Green edited . Spiegelman delivered the three @-@ page " Maus " in which Nazi cats persecute Jewish mice , inspired by his father 's experiences in the Auschwitz concentration camp ; years later he revisited the theme in the graphic novel of the same name . Comics critic Jared Gardner asserts that , while underground comix was associated with countercultural iconoclasm , the movement 's most enduring legacy was to be autobiography .
The strip went out of print for two decades after selling its initial print runs , during which time enthusiasts traded copies or photocopies . Rather than through cartooning , Green made his living painting signs , and contributed occasional cartoon strips to various publications . Aside from occasional one @-@ off strips , his more regular cartooning appeared in the ongoing strips The Sign Game in Signs of the Times magazine and Musical Legends in America in Pulse ! Such later work has attracted far less attention than Binky Brown .
Though autobiographical elements had appeared earlier in the work of underground cartoonists such as Crumb , Spain , and Kim Deitch , Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary has gained credit as the first important work of autobiographical comics in English . To Charles Hatfield Binky Brown " the ur @-@ example of confessional literature in comics " ; for Paul Gravett Green was " the first neurotic visionary to unburden his uncensored psychological troubles " ; Douglas Wolk declared Green and his work " ahead of the memoirist curve " ; Art Spiegelman declared : " What the Brontë sisters did for Gothic romance , what Tolkien did for sword @-@ and @-@ sorcery , Justin Green did for confessionary , autobiographical comix [ sic ] " ; and Publishers Weekly called the work the " Rosetta Stone of autobiographical comics " . Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary strip has appealed mostly to comics fans and cartoonists and has gained little recognition from mainstream audiences and arts critics . Spiegelman has speculated this neglect comes from the nature of the comics medium ; in contrast to explicit works such as Philip Roth 's Portnoy 's Complaint , the penises in Green 's work are visual .
According to underground comix historian Patrick Rosenkranz , Green represents a break with past convention by being " the first to openly render his personal demons and emotional conflicts within the confines of a comic " . Green denied credit , calling confessional autobiography " a fait accompli , a low fruit ripe for the plucking " , examples of which abounded in literary works he had read by James Joyce , James T. Farrell , and Philip Roth . He has accepted credit for " anticipat [ ing ] the groundswell in literature about obsessive compulsive disorder by almost two decades " , for which he knew of no precedent . Green used the Binky Brown persona over the years in short strips and prose pieces that appeared in underground periodicals such as Arcade and Weirdo . " Sweet Void of Youth " in 1976 follows Binky from high school to age thirty @-@ one , torn between cartooning and more respected forms of art .
To cartoonist Jim Woodring , Green 's autobiographical work " has never been surpassed " . Woodring 's own autobiographical work in Jim draws from his dreams rather than his waking life . British @-@ American cartoonist Gabrielle Bell sympathized with Brown 's approach , which she described as " talking about his feelings or his emotional state when he was illustrating it with striking images that were sort of absurd or a weird juxtaposition " . Green 's influence extended overseas to cartoonists such as the Dutch Peter Pontiac , who drew inspiration from Binky Brown and Maus to produce Kraut ( 2000 ) , about his father who collaborated with the Nazis during World War II . Chute sees major themes of isolation and coping with OCD recurring in autobiographical works such as Howard Cruse 's Stuck Rubber Baby ( 1995 ) and Alison Bechdel 's Fun Home ( 2006 ) . Hatfield sees echoes of Green 's unrestrained approach to dealing with a mental condition in Madison Clell 's Cuckoo ( 2002 ) — about Clell 's dissociative identity disorder — and in David B. ' s Epileptic ( 2003 ) .
The story ranked No. 9 on The Comics Journal 's list of the best hundred English @-@ language comics of the 20th century , and featured as the cover artwork for the autobiographical comics issue of the journal Biography ( Vol . 31 , No. 1 ) . Artwork to Binky Brown appeared in an exhibition of Green 's work at Shake It Records in Cincinnati in 2009 .
Autobiographical cartoonists inspired by ' ' Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary ' '
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= Kraków =
Kraków ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈkrakuf ] listen ) , also Cracow or Krakow ( US English / ˈkrɑːkaʊ / , UK English / ˈkrækaʊ / ) , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland . Situated on the Vistula River ( Polish : Wisła ) in the Lesser Poland region , the city dates back to the 7th century . Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic , cultural , and artistic life and is one of Poland 's most important economic hubs . It was the capital of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland from 1038 to 1569 ; the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1795 ; the Free City of Kraków from 1815 to 1846 ; the Grand Duchy of Cracow from 1846 to 1918 ; and Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1998 . It has been the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship since 1999 .
The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland 's second most important city . It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was already being reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965 . With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918 and throughout the 20th century , Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre . The city has a population of approximately 760 @,@ 000 , with approximately 8 million additional people living within a 100 km ( 62 mi ) radius of its main square .
After the invasion of Poland at the start of World War II , Kraków became the capital of Germany 's General Government . The Jewish population of the city was forced into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto , from which they were sent to German extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz never to return , and the Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów .
In 1978 , Karol Wojtyła , archbishop of Kraków , was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II — the first Slavic pope ever , and the first non @-@ Italian pope in 455 years . Also that year , UNESCO approved the first ever sites for its new World Heritage List , including the entire Old Town in inscribing Cracow 's Historic Centre . Kraków is classified as a global city by GaWC , with the ranking of High sufficiency . Cited as one of Europe 's most beautiful cities , its extensive cultural heritage across the epochs of Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque architecture includes the Wawel Cathedral and the Royal Castle on the banks of the Vistula river , the St. Mary 's Basilica and the largest medieval market square in Europe , the Rynek Główny . Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University , one of the oldest universities in the world and traditionally Poland 's most reputable institution of higher learning .
In 2000 , Kraków was named European Capital of Culture . The city will also host the next World Youth Day in 2016 .
= = Etymology = =
The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus ( Krak , Grakch ) , the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Lechitians . In Polish , Kraków is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means " Krak 's ( town ) " . Krakus 's name may derive from " krakula " , a Proto @-@ Slavic word meaning a judge 's staff , or a Proto @-@ Slavic word " krak " meaning an oak , once a sacred tree most often associated with the concept of genealogy . The first mention of Prince Krakus ( then written as Grakch ) dates back to 1190 , although the town existed as early as the 7th century , inhabited by the tribe of Vistulans .
The city 's full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków , or " Royal Capital City of Kraków " . In English , a person born or living in Kraków is a Cracovian ( Polish : krakowianin ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Kraków 's prehistory begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill . A legend attributes Kraków 's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus , who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon , Smok Wawelski . The first written record of the city 's name dates back to 965 , when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre controlled first by Moravia ( 876 – 879 ) , but captured by a Bohemian duke Boleslaus I in 955 . The first acclaimed ruler of Poland , Mieszko I , took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign .
In 1038 , Kraków became the seat of the Polish government . By the end of the 10th century , the city was a leading centre of trade . Brick buildings were constructed , including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda , Romanesque churches such as St. Adalbert 's , a cathedral , and a basilica . The city was almost entirely destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241 . It was rebuilt practically identical , based on new location act and incorporated in 1257 by the high duke Bolesław V the Chaste who following the example of Wrocław , introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens . In 1259 , the city was again ravaged by the Mongols . A third attack in 1287 was repelled thanks in part to the new built fortifications . In 1335 , King Casimir III of Poland ( Kazimierz in Polish ) declared the two western suburbs to be a new city named after him , Kazimierz ( Casimiria in Latin ) . The defensive walls were erected around the central section of Kazimierz in 1362 , and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka .
The city rose to prominence in 1364 , when Casimir III of Poland founded the University of Kraków , the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague . King Casimir also began work on a campus for the Academy in Kazimierz , but he died in 1370 and the campus was never completed . The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian @-@ Polish Jagiellon dynasty . As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League , the city attracted many craftsmen , businesses , and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish . The royal chancery and the University ensured a first flourishing of Polish literary culture in the city .
= = = Poland 's ' Golden Age ' = = =
The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland 's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age . Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created , including ancient synagogues in Kraków 's Jewish quarter located in the north @-@ eastern part of Kazimierz , such as the Old Synagogue . During the reign of Casimir IV , various artists came to work and live in Kraków , and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense , the first work printed in Poland , in 1473 .
In 1520 , the most famous church bell in Poland , named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland , was cast by Hans Behem . At that time , Hans Dürer , a younger brother of artist and thinker Albrecht Dürer , was Sigismund 's court painter . Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches . In 1553 , the Kazimierz district council gave the Jewish Qahal a licence for the right to build their own interior walls across the western section of the already existing defensive walls . The walls were expanded again in 1608 due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia . In 1572 , King Sigismund II , the last of the Jagiellons , died childless . The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign @-@ based rulers in rapid succession , causing a decline in the city 's importance that was worsened by pillaging during the Swedish invasion and by an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20 @,@ 000 of the city 's residents dead . In 1596 , Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa moved the administrative capital of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw .
= = = 18th to early 20th centuries = = =
Already weakened during the 18th century , by the mid @-@ 1790s the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth had twice been partitioned by its neighbors : Russia , the Habsburg empire , and Prussia . In 1791 , the Austrian Emperor Joseph II changed the status of Kazimierz as a separate city and made it into a district of Kraków . The richer Jewish families began to move out . However , because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath , most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues . In 1794 , Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town 's Main Square which , in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army , resulted in the third and final partition of Poland . In 1809 , Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw . Following Napoleon 's defeat , the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the pre @-@ war boundaries but also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków . An insurrection in 1846 failed , resulting in the city being annexed by Austria under the name the Grand Duchy of Cracow ( Polish : Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie , German : Großherzogtum Krakau ) .
In 1866 , Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after its own defeat in the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Politically freer Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art , known frequently as the " Polish Athens " ( Polskie Ateny ) or " Polish Mecca " . Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków , among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko , laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery , and the founder of modern Polish drama , Stanisław Wyspiański . Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis ; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901 , and between 1910 and 1915 , Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków ( Wielki Kraków ) .
At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914 , Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit , the First Cadre Company — the predecessor of the Polish Legions — which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland . The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914 . Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power .
= = = 1918 to the present = = =
With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic , Kraków resumed its role as a major academic and cultural centre with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts , including a number of new and essential vocational schools . It became an important cultural centre for the Polish Jews with a Zionist youth movement relatively strong among the city 's Jewish population . Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life , with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox , to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side .
Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939 the city became part of the General Government , a separate administrative region of the Third Reich , and from 4 November 1939 its capital . The General Government was headed by Hans Frank who was based in the city 's Wawel Castle . The Nazis envisioned turning Kraków into a completely German city after removing all Jews and Poles , renamed locations and streets into German and sponsored propaganda attempting to portray it as a historically German city In an operation called " Sonderaktion Krakau " , more than 180 university professors and academics were arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps , though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians . The Jewish population was first confined to a ghetto in which many died of illness or starvation . Those in the Ghetto were later murdered or sent to concentration camps , including Płaszów and Auschwitz . Roman Polanski , the film director , is a survivor of the Ghetto , while Oskar Schindler selected employees from the Ghetto to work in his enamelware plant , Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik ( Emalia for short ) saving them from the camps . Although looted by occupational authorities , Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II , sparing most of the city 's historical and architectural legacy . Soviet forces entered the city on 18 January 1945 and started arresting Poles loyal to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile or those who had served in the Home Army .
After the war , under the Polish People 's Republic , the intellectual and academic community of Kraków was put under total political control . The universities were soon deprived of printing rights and autonomy . The Stalinist government ordered the construction of the country 's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta . The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks ( now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal ) sealed Kraków 's transformation from a university city to an industrial centre . The new working class , drawn by the industrialisation of Kraków , contributed to rapid population growth .
In an effort that spanned two decades , Karol Wojtyła , cardinal archbishop of Kraków , successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the new industrial suburbs . In 1978 , Wojtyła was elevated to the papacy as John Paul II , the first non @-@ Italian pope in 455 years . In the same year , UNESCO placed Kraków Old Town on the first @-@ ever list of World Heritage Sites .
= = Geography = =
Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland , on the Vistula River ( Polish name : Wisła ) , in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains , 219 m ( 719 ft ) above sea level ; half way between the Jurassic Rock Upland ( Polish : Jura Krakowsko @-@ Częstochowska ) to the north , and the Tatra Mountains 100 km ( 62 mi ) to the south , constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic ; 230 km ( 143 mi ) west from the border with Ukraine . There are five nature reserves in Kraków , with a combined area of ca . 48 @.@ 6 hectares ( 120 acres ) . Due to their ecological value , these areas are legally protected . The western part of the city , along its northern and north @-@ western side , borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany @-@ Tyniec refuge . The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area 's geomorphological features and landscape . Another part of the city is located within the ecological ' corridor ' of the Vistula River valley . This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan @-@ European ecological network . The city centre is situated on the left ( northern ) bank of the river .
= = = Climate = = =
Kraków has an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) according to the Köppen climate classification system , one of the easternmost localities in Europe to do so . A mere 100 km ( 62 mi ) north @-@ east of Kraków ( east of Tarnów , and north of Kielce ) , the January mean dips below − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) and thus becomes continental ( Dfb ) in nature . The Kraków climate is also influenced by its far inland position , with significant temperature differences between seasons . Average temperatures in summer range from 18 to 19 @.@ 6 ° C ( 64 to 67 ° F ) and in winter from − 2 @.@ 0 to − 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 28 to 31 ° F ) . The average annual temperature is 8 @.@ 7 ° C ( 48 ° F ) . In summer temperatures often exceed 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , and even 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , while winter drops to − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) at night and about 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) at day ; during very cold nights the temperature can drop to − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) . Since Kraków lies near the Tatra Mountains , there are often occurrences of halny blowing ( a foehn wind ) , causing temperatures to rise rapidly , and even in winter reach up to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) .
The climate table below presents weather data from the years 2000 – 2012 although the official Köppen reference period was from 1981 – 2010 . According to ongoing measurements , the temperature has increased during these years as compared with the last series . This increase averages about 0 @.@ 6 ° C over all months . Warming is most pronounced during the winter months , with an increase of more than 1 @.@ 0 ° C in January .
= = = = Air Pollution = = = =
Since a couple of years growing with the economic meaning and individual transport Krakow faces the problem of Air pollution . In 2012 the city holds the 213th place out of 1215 cities of the most polluted ones referring to World Health Organization ( WHO ) .
= = Cityscape = =
Developed over many centuries , Kraków provides a showcase setting for many historic styles of architecture . As the city expanded , so too did the architectural achievements of its builders . It is for this reason that the variations in style and urban planning are so easily recognisable .
Built from its earliest nucleus outward , and having escaped much of the destruction endured by Poland during the 20th @-@ century wars , Kraków 's many architectural monuments can typically be seen in historical order by walking from the city centre out , towards its later districts . Kraków is one of the few medieval towns in Poland that does not have a historic Ratusz town hall in its Main Square , because it has not survived the Partitions of Poland .
Kraków 's historic centre , which includes the Old Town , Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle , was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978 . The Stare Miasto is the most prominent example of an old town in the country . For many centuries Kraków was the royal capital of Poland , until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596 . The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road , the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland . The Route begins at St. Florian 's Church outside the northern flank of the old city @-@ walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz ; passes the Barbican of Kraków ( Barbakan ) built in 1499 , and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate . It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square , and up Grodzka to Wawel , the former seat of Polish royalty , overlooking the Vistula river . Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World . Kraków historic centre is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The architectural design of the district had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times . The Old Town of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art . Its rich variety of heritage architecture includes Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque buildings . Kraków 's palaces , churches , theatres and mansions display great variety of color , architectural details , stained glass , paintings , sculptures , and furnishings .
In addition to the old town , the city 's district of Kazimierz is particularly notable for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets , as well as the historic Jewish quarter located in the north @-@ eastern part of Kazimierz . Kazimierz was founded in the 14th century to the south @-@ east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy , well @-@ populated area where construction of imposing properties became commonplace . Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the only major , permanent bridge ( Pons Regalis ) across the northern arm of the Vistula . This natural barrier used to separate Kazimierz from the Old Town for several centuries , while the bridge connected Kraków to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route . The last structure at this location ( at the end of modern Stradom Street ) was dismantled in 1880 when the northern arm of the river was filled in with earth and rock , and subsequently built over .
By the 1930s , Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses that spanned across the old city . Much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze . This in turn , led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków . Most historic buildings in central Kazimierz today are preserved in their original form . Some old buildings however , were not repaired after the devastation brought by the Second World War , and have remained empty . Most recent efforts at restoring the historic neighborhoods gained new impetus around 1993 . Kazimierz is now a well @-@ visited area , seeing a booming growth in Jewish @-@ themed restaurants , bars , bookstores and souvenir shops .
As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , the new architectural styles also developed . Key buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts , the directorate of the Polish State Railways as well as the original complex of Kraków Główny railway station and the city 's Academy of Economics . It was also at around that time that Kraków 's first radial boulevards began to appear , with the city undergoing a large @-@ scale program aimed at transforming the ancient Polish capital into a sophisticated regional centre of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . New representative government buildings and multi @-@ story tenement houses were built at around that time . Much of the urban @-@ planning beyond the walls of the Old Town was done by Polish architects and engineers trained in Vienna . Some major projects of the era include the development of the Jagiellonian University 's new premises and the building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town . The imperial style planning of the city 's further development continued until the return of Poland 's independence , following the First World War . Early modernist style in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the Palace of Art by Franciszek Mączyński and the ' House under the Globe ' . Secession style architecture , which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna , became popular towards the end of the Partitions .
With Poland 's regained independence came the major change in the fortunes of Kraków — now the second most important city of a sovereign nation . The state began to make new plans for the city development and commissioned a number of representative buildings . The predominant style for new projects was modernism with various interpretations of the art @-@ deco style . Important buildings constructed in the style of Polish modernism include the Feniks ' LOT ' building on Basztowa Street , the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Szczepański Square . The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly good example of interwar architecture in the city .
After the Second World War , new government turned toward Soviet influence and the Stalinist monumentalism . The doctrine of Socialist realism in Poland , as in other countries of the People 's Republics , was enforced from 1949 to 1956 . It involved all domains of art , but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of urban design . The guidelines for this new trend were spelled @-@ out in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects . Architecture was to become a weapon in establishing the new social order by the communists . The ideological impact of urban design was valued more than aesthetics . It aimed at expressing persistence and power . This form of architecture was implemented in the new industrial district of Nowa Huta with apartment blocks constructed according to a Stalinist blueprint , with repetitious courtyards and wide , tree @-@ lined avenues .
Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture , it was also used for augmenting Poland 's Socialist national format . However , in the course of incorporating the principles of Socialist realism , there were quite a few deviations introduced by the communists . One of these was to more closely reflect Soviet architecture , which resulted in the majority of works blending into one another . From 1953 , critical opinions in the Party were increasingly frequent , and the doctrine was given up in 1956 marking the end of Stalinism . Currently the soc @-@ realist centre of Nowa Huta is considered to be a meritorious monument of the times . This period in postwar architecture was followed by the mass @-@ construction of large Panel System apartment blocks , most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns . Some examples of the new style ( e.g. , Hotel Cracovia ) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the later half of the 20th century in Kraków .
After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the later half of the 20th century , a number of new architectural projects were completed , including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the Galeria Krakowska , or infrastructure investments like the Kraków Fast Tram , giving the city a great deal of quality solutions blending with its centuries @-@ old heritage . A good example of this would be the 2007 @-@ built Pawilon Wyspiański 2000 , which is used as a multi @-@ purpose information and exhibition space , or the award @-@ winning Małopolski Garden of Arts ( Małopolski Ogród Sztuki ) , a multi @-@ purpose exhibition and theatre complex located in the historic Old Town .
= = = Parks and gardens = = =
There are about 40 parks in Kraków including dozens of gardens and forests . Several , like the Planty Park , Botanical Garden , Park Krakowski , Jordan Park and Błonia Park are located in the centre of the city ; with Zakrzówek , Lasek Wolski forest , Strzelecki Park and Park Lotników ( among others ) in the surrounding districts . Parks cover about 318 @.@ 5 hectares ( 2002 ) of the city .
The Planty Park is the best @-@ known park in Kraków . It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls , forming a green belt around the Old Town . It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments . The park has an area of 21 hectares ( 52 acres ) and a length of 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) , forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians .
The Jordan Park founded in 1889 by Dr Henryk Jordan , was the first public park of its kind in Europe . The park built on the banks of the Rudawa river was equipped with running and exercise tracks , playgrounds , the swimming pool , amphitheatre , pavilions , and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles . It is located on the grounds of a larger Kraków ’ s Błonia Park . The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development . It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century .
= = = Environment = = =
There are five nature reserves in Kraków with a total area of 48 @.@ 6 ha . Smaller green zones constitute parts of the Kraków @-@ Częstochowa Upland Jurassic Landscape Parks ' Board , which deals with the protection areas of the Polish Jura . Under its jurisdiction are : the Bielany @-@ Tyniec Landscape Park ( Park Bielańsko @-@ Tyniecki ) , Tenczynek Landscape Park ( Park Tenczyński ) and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park ( Park Krajobrazowy Dolinki Krakowskie ) , with their watersheds . All natural reserves of the Polish Jura Chain are part of the CORINE biotopes programme due to their unique flora , fauna , geomorphology and landscape . The western part of Kraków constitute the so @-@ called Obszar Krakowski ecological network , including the ecological corridor of the Vistula river . The southern slopes of limestone hills provide conditions for the development of thermophilous vegetation , grasslands and scrubs .
The city is spaced along an extended latitudinal transect of the Vistula River Valley with a network of tributaries including its right tributary Wilga , and left : Rudawa , Białucha , Dłubnia and Sanka . The rivers and their valleys along with bodies of water are some of the most interesting natural wonders of Kraków .
= = Governance = =
The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members , one of whom is the mayor , or President of Kraków , elected every four years . The election of the City Council and of the local head of government , which takes place at the same time , is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002 . The current President of Kraków , re @-@ elected for his fourth term in 2014 , is Jacek Majchrowski . Several members of the Polish national Parliament ( Sejm ) are elected from the Kraków constituency . The city 's official symbols include a coat of arms , a flag , a seal , and a banner .
The responsibilities of Kraków 's president include drafting and implementing resolutions , enacting city bylaws , managing the city budget , employing city administrators , and preparing against floods and natural disasters . The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council , city managers and city inspectors . In the 1990s , the city government was reorganised to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions . As a result , the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large .
In 2000 , the city government introduced a new long @-@ term program called " Safer City " in cooperation with the Police , Traffic , Social Services , Fire , Public Safety , and the Youth Departments . Subsequently , the number of criminal offences went down by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001 , and the rate of detection increased by 1 @.@ 4 percent to a total of 30 @.@ 2 percent in the same period . The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media , including TV , radio and the press .
= = = Districts = = =
Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts ( dzielnica ) or boroughs , each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government . Prior to March 1991 , the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków – the towns of Podgórze , Nowa Huta , and Krowodrza which were absorbed by Kraków as it expanded , and the ancient town centre of Kraków itself .
The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late 18th century . They include the Old Town ( Stare Miasto ) , once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park ; the Wawel District , which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral ; Stradom and Kazimierz , the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters ; as well as the ancient town of Kleparz .
Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze , which until 1915 was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula , and Nowa Huta , east of the city centre , built after World War II .
Among the most notable historic districts of the city are : Wawel Hill , home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral , where many Polish kings are buried ; the medieval Old Town , with its Main Market Square ( 200 metres ( 660 ft ) square ) ; dozens of old churches and museums ; the 14th @-@ century buildings of the Jagiellonian University ; and Kazimierz , the historical centre of Kraków 's Jewish social and religious life .
The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art . Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance , Baroque and Gothic buildings . Kraków 's palaces , churches and mansions display great variety of color , architectural details , stained glass , paintings , sculptures , and furnishings .
In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary 's Basilica ( Kościół Mariacki ) . It was re @-@ built in the 14th century and features the famous wooden altar ( Altarpiece of Veit Stoss ) , the largest Gothic altarpiece in the World , carved by Veit Stoss . From the church 's main tower a trumpet call ( hejnał mariacki ) , is sounded every hour . The melody , which used to announce the opening and closing of city @-@ gates , ends unexpectedly in midstream . According to legend , the tune was played during the 13th @-@ century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack . He was shot by a Tatar archer while playing , the bugle @-@ call breaking off at the moment he died . The story was recounted in a book published in the late 1920s called The Trumpeter of Krakow , by Eric P. Kelly , which won a Newbery Award .
The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995 . Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the current name : Stare Miasto ( I ) , Grzegórzki ( II ) , Prądnik Czerwony ( III ) , Prądnik Biały ( IV ) , Łobzów ( V ) , Bronowice ( VI ) , Zwierzyniec ( VII ) , Dębniki ( VIII ) , Łagiewniki @-@ Borek Fałęcki ( IX ) , Swoszowice ( X ) , Podgórze Duchackie ( XI ) , Bieżanów @-@ Prokocim ( XII ) , Podgórze ( XIII ) , Czyżyny ( XIV ) , Mistrzejowice ( XV ) , Bieńczyce ( XVI ) , Wzgórza Krzesławickie ( XVII ) , and Nowa Huta ( XVIII ) .
Map of districts of the City of Kraków
= = Economy = =
Kraków is one of Poland 's most important economic centres and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland ( Małopolska ) region . Following the collapse of communism , the private sector has been growing steadily . There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city , including Google , IBM , Royal Dutch Shell , Motorola , Delphi , MAN SE , General Electric , Aon Hewitt , Hitachi , Philip Morris , Capgemini , and Sabre Holdings , along with other British , German and Scandinavian @-@ based firms . The city is also the global headquarters for Comarch , a Polish enterprise software house . In 2005 , Foreign direct investment in Kraków has reached approximately 3 @.@ 5 billion USD . Kraków has been trying to position itself as Europe 's Silicon Valley , based on the large number of local and foreign hi tech companies . The unemployment rate in Kraków was 4 @.@ 8 percent in May 2007 , well below the national average of 13 percent . Kraków is the second city in Poland ( after Warsaw ) most often visited by foreigners . According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) , Kraków is also the most emerging city location for investment in global BPO projects ( Business Process Outsourcing ) in the world .
In 2011 , the city budget , which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on 15 November each year , has a projected revenue of 3 @.@ 5 billion złoty . The primary sources of revenue were as follows : 14 % from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities , 30 % in transfers from the national budget , and 34 % in state subsidies . Projected expenditures , totaling 3 @.@ 52 billion złoty , included 21 % in city development costs and 79 % in city maintenance costs . Of the maintenance costs , as much as 39 % were spent on education and childcare . City of Kraków development costs included 41 % toward road building , transport , and communication ( combined ) , and 25 % for the city 's infrastructure and environment . The city has a high bond credit rating , and some 60 % of its population is below the age of 45 .
= = = Knowledge and Innovation Community EIT = = =
Kraków is one of the co @-@ location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community ( Sustainable Energy ) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology ( EIT ) .
InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organisations from the education , research and industry sectors . It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence . The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy .
= = Transport = =
Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of tram and bus lines operated by a municipal company , supplemented by a number of private minibus operators . Local trains connect some of the suburbs . The bulk of the city 's historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse buggies ; however , the tramlines run within a three @-@ block radius ( pictured ) . The historic means of transportation in the city can be examined at the Museum of Municipal Engineering in the Kazimierz district , with many old trams , cars and buses .
Rail connections are available to most Polish cities . Trains to Warsaw depart every hour . International destinations include Berlin , Budapest , Prague , Hamburg , Lviv , Kiev , and Odessa ( June – September ) . The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well @-@ served by public transport .
Kraków 's airport , ( John Paul II International Airport Kraków – Balice , Polish : Międzynarodowy Port Lotniczy im . Jana Pawła II Kraków @-@ Balice , ( IATA : KRK ) ) is 11 km ( 7 mi ) west of the city . Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 15 minutes . The annual capacity of the airport is estimated at 1 @.@ 3 million passengers ( second largest airport in Poland ) ; however , in 2007 more than 3 @.@ 042 million people used the airport , giving Kraków Airport 15 percent of all air passenger traffic in Poland . Currently , the airport offers 59 connections and is operated by 2 terminals ( international T1 and national T2 ) . The Katowice International Airport is located 80 km or about 75 minutes from Kraków .
= = Demographics = =
Kraków had a recorded population of 762 @,@ 508 in 2015 . According to the 2006 data , the population of Kraków comprised about 2 % of the population of Poland and 23 % of the population of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship . Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table ( below ) , compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently . The larger metropolitan area of the city encompasses a territory in which ( in 2010 ) 1 @,@ 393 @,@ 893 inhabitants live .
Already in the Middle Ages , the population of Kraków consisting of numerous ethnic groups , began to grow rapidly . It doubled between 1100 and 1300 from 5 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 , and in 1400 counted 14 @,@ 000 inhabitants . By 1550 , the population of metropolitan Kraków was 18 @,@ 000 ; although it went down to 15 @,@ 000 in the next fifty years due to calamity . By the early 17th century the Kraków population had reached 28 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
In the historical 1931 census preceding World War II , 78 @.@ 1 % of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language , with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20 @.@ 9 % , Ukrainian 0 @.@ 4 % , German 0 @.@ 3 % , and Russian 0 @.@ 1 % . The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków . The official and unofficial numbers differ , as in the case of Romani people . Hence , according to the 2002 census , among those who have declared their national identity ( irrespective of language and religion ) in Kraków Voivodeship , 1 @,@ 572 were Slovaks , followed by Ukrainians ( 472 ) , Jews ( 50 ) and Armenians ( 22 ) . Romani people , officially numbered at 1 @,@ 678 , are estimated at over 5 @,@ 000 . Statistics collected by the Ministry of Education reveal that , even though only 1 % of adults ( as per above ) officially claim minority status , as many as 3 % of students participate in programmes designed for ethnic minorities .
Population growth in Kraków since 1791
= = = Religion = = =
The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches . The abundance of landmark , historic temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the " Northern Rome " in the past . The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship ( 2007 ) of which over 65 were built in the 20th century . More are still being added . In addition to Roman Catholicism , other denominations present include Jehovah 's Witnesses , Mariavite Church , Polish Catholic Church , Polish Orthodox Church , Protestantism and Latter @-@ Day Saints .
Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland . Kraków was an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II , with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side . There were at least 90 synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland , serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 ( out of the city 's total population of 237 @,@ 000 ) , established since the early 12th century .
Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects , and used them as storehouses for ammunition , firefighting equipment , as general storage facilities and stables . The post @-@ Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5 @,@ 900 before the end of the 1940s . Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah without visas or exit permits upon the conclusion of World War II . By contrast , Stalin forcibly kept Soviet Jews in the USSR , as agreed to in the Yalta Conference . In recent time , thanks to efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organisations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee , many synagogues underwent major restorations and serve religious and tourist purposes .
= = Education = =
Kraków is a major centre of education . Twenty @-@ four institutions of higher education offer courses in the city , with more than 200 @,@ 000 students . Jagiellonian University , the oldest university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the second @-@ best university in the country , was founded in 1364 as the Cracow University and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of Polish @-@ Lithuanian kings . Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library , with more than 4 million volumes , including a large collection of medieval manuscripts like Copernicus ' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex . With 42 @,@ 325 students ( 2005 ) and 3 @,@ 605 academic staff , the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland . Famous historical figures connected with the University include Saint John Cantius , Jan Długosz , Nicolaus Copernicus , Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski , Jan Kochanowski , King John III Sobieski , Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska .
AGH University of Science and Technology , established in 1919 , is the largest technical university in Poland , with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30 @,@ 000 . It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country in 2004 . During its 80 @-@ year history , more than 73 @,@ 000 students graduated from AGH with master 's or bachelor 's degrees . Some 3 @,@ 600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science , and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor .
Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888 , one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue ; Cracow University of Economics , established in 1925 ; Pedagogical University , in operation since 1946 ; Agricultural University of Cracow , offering courses since 1890 ( initially as a part of Jagiellonian University ) ; Academy of Fine Arts , the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland , founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko ; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts ; The Pontifical Academy of Theology ; and Cracow University of Technology , which has more than 37 @,@ 000 graduates .
Scientific societies and their branches in Kraków conduct scientific and educational work in local and countrywide scale . Academy of Learning , Cracow Scientific Society , Association of Law Students ' Library of the Jagiellonian University , Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists , Polish Geological Society , Polish Theological Society in Kraków , Polish Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and Polish Society for Synchrotron Radiation have in Kraków their main seats .
= = Culture = =
Kraków was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union . It is a major attraction for both local and international tourists , attracting seven million visitors a year . Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary 's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall , the Wawel Castle , the National Art Museum , the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral , and the medieval St Florian 's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route . Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries . Among them are the main branch of Poland 's National Museum and the Czartoryski Museum , the latter featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt .
= = = Museums and national art galleries = = =
Kraków 's 28 museums are separated into the national and municipal museums ; the city also has a number of art collections and public art galleries . The National Museum established in 1879 , which is the main branch of Poland 's National Museum with permanent collections around the country , as well as the National Art Collection on Wawel Hill are all accessible to the general public and well patroned . Meanwhile , the Czartoryski Museum features works by Leonardo and Rembrandt .
The National Art Collection is located at the Wawel , the former residence of three dynasties of Polish monarchs . Royal Chambers feature art , period furniture , Polish and European paintings , collectibles , and an unsurpassed display of the 16th @-@ century monumental Flemish tapestries . Wawel Treasury and Armoury features Polish royal memorabilia , jewels , applied art , and 15th to 18th century arms . The Wawel Eastern Collection features Turkish tents and military accessories . The National Museum is the richest museum in the country with collections consisting of several hundred thousand items kept in big part in the Main Building at Ul . 3 Maja , although there are as many as eleven separate divisions of the museum in the city , one of the most popular being The Gallery of the 19th Century Polish Art in Sukiennice with the collection of some of the best known paintings and sculptures of the Young Poland movement . The latest division called Europeum with Brueghel among a hundred Western European paintings was inaugurated in 2013 .
Other major museums of special interest in Kraków include the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology ( at M. Konopnickiej 26 ) , Stanisław Wyspiański Museum ( at 11 Szczepanska St ) , Jan Matejko Manor in Krzesławice , – a museum devoted to the master painter and his life , Emeryk Hutten Czapski Museum , and Józef Mehoffer Manor .
The Rynek Underground museum , under the main square , is an evocative modern display of Kraków 's 1000 + years of history though its streets , activities and artifacts . This followed the massively extended excavations which started in a small way in 2005 and , as more and more was found , ran on eventually to 2010 .
A half @-@ an @-@ hour tram @-@ ride takes you to the little @-@ heralded Polish Aviation Museum considered eighth world 's best aviation museum by CNN and featuring over 200 aircraft including a Sopwith Camel among other First World War biplanes ; a comprehensive display of aero engines ; and essentially a complete collection of airplane types developed by Poland after 1945 . Activities of small museums around Kraków and in the Lesser Poland region are promoted and supported by the Małopolska Institute of Culture ; the Institute organises annual Małopolska Heritage Days .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The city has several famous theatres , including the Narodowy Stary Teatr ( the National Old Theatre ) , the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre , the Bagatela Theatre , the Ludowy Theatre , and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry , as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta . The city 's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic ( Filharmonia Krakowska ) built in 1931 .
Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events , some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia ( Baroque music ) , Sacrum @-@ Profanum ( contemporary music ) , the Cracow Screen Festival ( popular music ) , the Festival of Polish Music ( classical music ) , Dedications ( theatre ) , the Kraków Film Festival ( one of Europe 's oldest short films events ) , Etiuda & Anima International Film Festival ( the oldest international art @-@ film event in Poland ) , Biennial of Graphic Arts , and the Jewish Culture Festival . Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature , Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz ; a third Nobel laureate , the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric , lived and studied in Kraków . Other former longtime residents include internationally renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski , both of whom are Academy Award winners .
= = = Music = = =
Opera Krakowska one of the leading national opera companies , stages 200 performances each year including ballet , operettas and musicals . It has , in its main repertoire , the greatest world and Polish opera classics . The Opera moved into its first permanent House in the autumn of 2008 . It is in charge also of the Summer Festival of Opera and Operetta .
Kraków is home to two major Polish festivals of early music presenting forgotten Baroque oratorios and operas : Opera Rara , and Misteria Paschalia . Meanwhile , Capella Cracoviensis runs the Music in Old Cracow International Festival .
Academy of Music in Kraków , founded in 1888 , is known world @-@ wide as the alma mater of the contemporary Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki and it is also the only one in Poland to have two winners of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw among its alumni . The Academy organises concerts of its students and guests throughout the whole year .
Music organisations and venues include : Kraków Philharmonic , Sinfonietta Cracovia ( a.k.a. the Orchestra of the Royal City of Kraków ) , the Polish Radio Choir of Kraków , Organum Academic Choir , the Mixed Mariański Choir ( Mieszany Chór Mariański ) , Kraków Academic Choir of the Jagiellonian University , the Kraków Chamber Choir , Amar Corde String Quartet , Consortium Iagellonicum Baroque Orchestra of the Jagiellonian University , Brass Band of T. Sendzimir Steelworks , and Camerata Chamber Orchestra of Radio Kraków .
= = Tourism = =
According to statistics , in 2012 Kraków was visited by 7 @.@ 3 million tourists including 2 @.@ 1 million foreign travelers ( over 30 % of their grand total ) . The visitors spent over 2 @.@ 5 billion złoty in the city ( without travel costs and pre @-@ booked accommodations ) . Most foreign tourists came from Great Britain ( over 25 % ) , with German , French , Spanish , Italian and American visitors closely following . The Kraków tour @-@ guide from the Lesser Poland Visitors Bureau indicated that not all statistics are recorded due to considerable number of those who come , staying in readily available private rooms paid by cash , especially from Eastern Europe .
The main reasons for visiting the city are : its historical monuments , recreation as well as relatives and friends ( placing third in the ranking ) , religion and business . There are 120 quality hotels in Kraków ( usually about half full ) offering 15 @,@ 485 overnight accommodations . The average stay last for about 4 to 7 nights . The survey conducted among the travelers showed that they enjoyed the city 's friendliness most , with 90 % of Polish tourists and 87 % foreigners stating that they would personally recommend visiting it . Notable points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine , the Tatra Mountains 100 km ( 62 mi ) to the south , the historic city of Częstochowa ( north @-@ west ) , the well @-@ preserved former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz , and Ojcowski National Park , which includes the Renaissance Castle at Pieskowa Skała . Kraków has been awarded a number of top international rankings such as the 1st place in the Top city @-@ break destinations 2014 survey conducted by the British Which ? .
= = Sports = =
Kraków is the host city of the 2014 FIVB Men 's Volleyball World Championship and 2016 European Men 's Handball Championship . It has also been selected as the European City of Sport for 2014 .
Football is one of the most popular sports in the city . The two teams with the largest following are thirteen @-@ time Polish champion Wisła Kraków , and five @-@ time champion Cracovia , both founded in 1906 as the oldest in Poland . They have been involved in the most intense rivalry in the country and one of the most intense in all of Europe , known as the Holy War ( Święta Wojna ) . Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków , Wawel Kraków , and one @-@ time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków . There is also the first @-@ league rugby club Juvenia Kraków . Kraków has a number of additional , equally valued sports teams including nine @-@ time Polish ice hockey champion Cracovia Kraków and the twenty @-@ time women 's basketball champion Wisła Kraków .
The Cracovia Marathon , with over a thousand participants from two dozen countries annually , has been held in the city since 2002 . Poland 's first F1 racing driver Robert Kubica was born and brought up in Kraków , as was former WWE tag team champion Ivan Putski , and Top 10 ranked women 's tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska .
The construction of the new Kraków Arena has started in May 2011 ; for concerts , indoor athletics , hockey , basketball , futsal , etc . The Arena will be ready in 2013 ; cost is estimated at 363 million Polish złoty . It will accommodate up to 15 thousand viewers . In the case of a concert , when the stage is set on the lower arena , the facility will be able to seat up to 18 thousand people .
Kraków was bidding to host the 2022 Winter Olympics with Jasná but the bid was rejected in a local referendum on 25 May 2014 by a majority of 69 @.@ 72 % of the vote . The referendum was organised after a wave of criticism from citizens who believed that the Olympics would not promote the city . The organizing committee of " Krakow 2022 " spent almost $ 40 @,@ 000 to pay for a citizen @-@ approved logo , but many citizens considered this a waste of public money . The committee was rumoured to have fraudulently used several million zloty 's for unknown expenses .
= = International relations = =
= = = Contemporary foreign names for the city = = =
Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages . The city is known in Czech and Slovak as Krakov , in Hungarian as Krakkó , in Lithuanian as Krokuva , in Finnish as " Krakova " , in German and Dutch as Krakau , in Latin , Spanish and Italian as Cracovia , in French as Cracovie , in Portuguese as Cracóvia and in Russian as Краков . Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as Krakiv ( Краків ) and Kroke ( קראָקע ) respectively . Names of Kraków in different languages are also available .
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Kraków is twinned , or maintains close relations , with 34 cities around the world :
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= BAE Systems =
BAE Systems plc is a British multinational defence , security and aerospace company . Its headquarters are in London in the United Kingdom and it has operations worldwide . It is among the world 's largest defence contractors ; it was ranked as the second @-@ largest based on applicable 2012 revenues . Its largest operations are in the United Kingdom and United States , where its BAE Systems Inc. subsidiary is one of the six largest suppliers to the US Department of Defense . Other major markets include Australia , India and Saudi Arabia . The company was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £ 7 @.@ 7 billion merger of two British companies : Marconi Electronic Systems ( MES ) – the defence electronics and naval shipbuilding subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc ( GEC ) – and British Aerospace ( BAe ) – an aircraft , munitions and naval systems manufacturer .
BAE Systems is the successor to various aircraft , shipbuilding , armoured vehicle , armaments and defence electronics companies , including the Marconi Company , the first commercial company devoted to the development and use of radio ; A.V. Roe and Company , one of the world 's first aircraft companies ; de Havilland , manufacturer of the Comet , the world 's first commercial jet airliner ; British Aircraft Corporation , co @-@ manufacturer of the Concorde supersonic transport ; Supermarine , manufacturer of the Spitfire ; Yarrow Shipbuilders , builder of the Royal Navy 's first destroyers ; Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , pioneer of the triple @-@ expansion engine and builder of the world 's first battlecruiser ; and Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering , builder of the Royal Navy 's first submarines . Since its formation it has made a number of acquisitions , most notably of United Defense and Armor Holdings of the United States , and sold its shares in Airbus , Astrium , AMS and Atlas Elektronik .
BAE Systems is involved in several major defence projects , including the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , the Eurofighter Typhoon , the Astute @-@ class submarine and the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carriers . BAE Systems is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index .
= = History = =
= = = Heritage = = =
BAE Systems was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £ 7 @.@ 7 billion merger of British Aerospace ( BAe ) and Marconi Electronic Systems ( MES ) . As a result , BAE Systems is the successor to many of the most famous British aircraft , defence electronics and warship manufacturers . Predecessor companies built the Comet , the world 's first commercial jet airliner ; the Harrier " jump jet " , the world 's first operational Vertical / Short Take @-@ Off and Landing ( VTOL ) aircraft ; the " groundbreaking " Blue Vixen radar carried by Sea Harrier FA2s and which formed the basis of the Eurofighter 's CAPTOR radar ; and co @-@ produced the iconic Concorde supersonic airliner with Aérospatiale .
British Aerospace was a civil and military aircraft manufacturer , as well as a provider of military land systems . The company had emerged from the massive consolidation of UK aircraft manufacturers since World War II . British Aerospace was formed on 29 April 1977 by the nationalisation and merger of The British Aircraft Corporation ( BAC ) , the Hawker Siddeley Group and Scottish Aviation . Both BAC and Hawker Siddeley were themselves the result of various mergers and acquisitions .
Marconi Electronic Systems was the defence subsidiary of British engineering firm The General Electric Company ( GEC ) , dealing largely in military systems integration , as well as naval and land systems . Marconi 's heritage dates back to Guglielmo Marconi 's Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company , founded in 1897 . GEC purchased English Electric ( which included Marconi ) in 1968 and thereafter used the Marconi brand for its defence businesses ( as GEC @-@ Marconi and later Marconi Electronic Systems ) . GEC 's own defence heritage dates back to World War I , when its contribution to the war effort included radios and bulbs . World War II consolidated this position , as the company was involved in important technological advances , notably the cavity magnetron for radar . Between 1945 and 1999 , GEC @-@ Marconi / Marconi Electronic Systems became one of the world 's most important defence contractors . GEC 's major defence related acquisitions included Associated Electrical Industries in 1967 , Yarrow Shipbuilders in 1985 , Plessey companies in 1989 , parts of Ferranti 's defence business in 1990 , the rump of Ferranti when it went into receivership in 1993 / 1994 , Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering in 1995 and Kværner Govan in 1999 . In June 1998 , MES acquired Tracor , a major American defence contractor , for £ 830 million ( approx . US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion c . 1998 ) .
= = = Formation = = =
The 1997 merger of American corporations Boeing and McDonnell Douglas , which followed the forming of Lockheed Martin , the world 's largest defence contractor in 1995 , increased the pressure on European defence companies to consolidate . In June 1997 British Aerospace Defence managing director John Weston commented " Europe ... is supporting three times the number of contractors on less than half the budget of the U.S. " . European governments wished to see the merger of their defence manufacturers into a single entity , a European Aerospace and Defence Company .
As early as 1995 British Aerospace and the German aerospace and defence company DaimlerChrysler Aerospace ( DASA ) were said to be keen to create a transnational aerospace and defence company . The two companies envisaged including Aérospatiale , the other major European aerospace company , but only after its privatisation . The first stage of this integration was seen as the transformation of Airbus from a consortium of British Aerospace , DASA , Aérospatiale and Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA into an integrated company ; in this aim British Aerospace and DASA were united against the various objections of Aérospatiale . As well as Airbus , British Aerospace and DASA were partners in the Panavia Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft projects . Merger discussions began between British Aerospace and DASA in July 1998 , just as French participation became more likely with the announcement that Aérospatiale was to merge with Matra and emerge with a diluted French government shareholding . A merger was agreed between British Aerospace chairman Richard Evans and DASA CEO Jürgen Schrempp in December 1998 .
Meanwhile , GEC was also under pressure to participate in defence industry consolidation . Reporting the appointment of George Simpson as GEC managing director in 1996 , The Independent had said " some analysts believe that Mr Simpson 's inside knowledge of BAe , a long @-@ rumoured GEC bid target , was a key to his appointment . GEC favours forging a national ' champion ' defence group with BAe to compete with the giant US organisations . " When GEC put MES up for sale on 22 December 1998 , British Aerospace abandoned the DASA merger in favour of purchasing its British rival . The merger of British Aerospace and MES was announced on 19 January 1999 . Evans stated that in 2004 that his fear was that an American defence contractor would acquire MES and challenge both British Aerospace and DASA . The merger created a vertically integrated company which The Scotsman described as " [ a combination of British Aerospace 's ] contracting and platform @-@ building skills with Marconi 's coveted electronics systems capability " , for example combining the manufacturer of the Eurofighter with the company that provided many of the aircraft 's electronic systems ; British Aerospace was MES ' largest customer . In contrast , DASA 's response to the breakdown of the merger discussion was to merge with Aérospatiale to create the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company ( EADS ) , a horizontal integration . EADS has since considered a merger with Thales to create a " fully rounded " company .
Seventeen undertakings were given by BAE Systems to the Department of Trade and Industry which prevented a reference of the merger to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission . These were largely to ensure that the integrated company would tender sub @-@ contracts to external companies on an equal basis with its subsidiaries . Another condition was the " firewalling " of former British Aerospace and MES teams on defence projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter ( JSF ) . In 2007 the government , on advice from the Office of Fair Trading , announced it had agreed to release BAE Systems from ten of the undertakings due to " a change in circumstances " .
BAE Systems inherited the UK government owned " golden " share that was established when British Aerospace was privatised . This unique share prevents amendments of certain parts of the company 's Articles of Association without the permission of the Secretary of State . These Articles require that no foreign person or persons acting together may hold more than 15 % of the company 's shares or control the majority of the board and that the CEO and the Chairman of BAE Systems must be British nationals .
British Aerospace 's head office was in Warwick House , Farnborough Aerospace Centre in Farnborough , Hampshire . BAE Systems retains this but the registered office , and base for the senior leadership team , is in the City of Westminster .
= = = 2000s = = =
BAE Systems ' first annual report identified Airbus , support services to militaries and integrated systems for air , land and naval applications as key areas of growth . It also stated the company 's desire to both expand in the US and participate in further consolidation in Europe . BAE Systems described 2001 as an " important year " for its European joint ventures , which were reorganised considerably . The company has described the rationale for expansion in the US ; " [ it ] is by far the largest defence market with spend running close to twice that of the Western European nations combined . Importantly , US investment in research and development is significantly higher than in Western Europe . " When Dick Olver was appointed chairman in July 2004 he ordered a review of the company 's businesses which ruled out further European acquisitions or joint ventures and confirmed a " strategic bias " for expansion and investment in the US . The review also confirmed the attractiveness of the land systems sector and , with two acquisitions in 2004 and 2005 , BAE moved from a limited land systems supplier to the second largest such company in the world . This shift in strategy was described as " remarkable " by the Financial Times . Between 2008 and early 2011 BAE acquired five cyber security companies in a shift in strategy to take account of reduced spending by governments on " traditional defence items such as warships and tanks " .
In 2000 Matra Marconi Space , a joint BAE Systems / Matra company , was merged with the space division of DASA to form Astrium . On 16 June 2003 BAE sold its 25 % share to EADS for £ 84 million , however due to the lossmaking status of the company , BAE Systems invested an equal amount for " restructuring " . In January 2001 Airbus Industrie was transformed from an inherently inefficient consortium structure to a formal joint stock company . BAE Systems sold its 54 % majority share of BAE Systems Canada , an electronics company , in April for CA $ 310 ( approx . £ 197 million as of December 2010 ) . In November 2001 , the company announced the closure of the Avro Regional Jet ( Avro RJ ) production line at Woodford and the cancellation of the Avro RJX , an advanced series of the aircraft family , as the business was " no longer viable " . The final Avro RJ to be completed became the last British civil airliner . In November 2001 BAE sold its 49 @.@ 9 % share of Thomson Marconi Sonar to Thales for £ 85 million . A further step of European defence consolidation was the merger of BAE 's share of Matra BAe Dynamics and the missile division of Alenia Marconi Systems ( AMS ) into MBDA in December . MBDA thus became the world 's second largest missile manufacturer . Although EADS has been reported to be interested in acquiring full control of MBDA , BAE has said that , unlike Airbus , MBDA is a " core business " .
In June 2002 , BAE Systems confirmed it was in takeover discussions with TRW , an American aerospace , automotive and defence business . This was prompted by Northrop Grumman 's £ 4 @.@ 1 billion ( approx . US $ 6 billion c . 2002 ) hostile bid for TRW in February 2002 . A bidding war between BAE Systems , Northrop and General Dynamics ended on 1 June when Northrop 's increased bid of £ 5 @.@ 1 billion was accepted . On 11 December 2002 , the company issued a shock profit warning due to cost overruns of the Nimrod MRA4 maritime reconnaissance / attack aircraft and the Astute @-@ class submarine projects . On 19 February 2003 BAE took a charge of £ 750 million against these projects and the Ministry of Defence ( MOD ) agreed to pay a further £ 700 million of the cost . In 2000 the company had taken a £ 300 million " loss charge " on the Nimrod contract which was expected to cover " all the costs of completion of the current contract " .
The UK government , following a cabinet row described as " one of the most bitter Cabinet disputes over defence contracts since the Westland helicopter affair in 1985 " , ordered 20 BAE Hawk trainer aircraft with 24 options in July 2003 in a deal worth £ 800 million . The deal was significant because it was a factor in India 's decision to finalise a £ 1 billion order for 66 Hawks in March 2004 . Also in July 2003 BAE Systems and Finmeccanica announced their intention to set up three joint venture companies , to be collectively known as Eurosystems . These companies would have pooled the avionics , C4ISTAR and communications businesses of the two companies . However the difficulties of integrating the companies in this way led to a re @-@ evaluation of the proposal ; BAE Systems ' 2004 Annual Report states that " recognising the complexity of the earlier proposed Eurosystems transaction with Finmeccanica we have moved to a simpler model " . The main part of this deal was the dissolution of AMS and the establishment of SELEX Sensors and Airborne Systems ; BAE Systems sold its 25 % share of the latter to Finmeccanica for € 400 million ( approx . £ 270 million c . 2007 ) in March 2007 .
In May 2004 , it was reported that the company was considering selling its shipbuilding divisions , BAE Systems Naval Ships and BAE Systems Submarines . It was understood that General Dynamics wished to acquire the submarine building facilities at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , while VT Group was said to be interested in the remaining yards on the Clyde . However , in 2008 BAE Systems merged its Surface Fleet arm with the shipbuilding operations of VT Group to form BVT Surface Fleet , an aim central to the British Government 's Defence Industrial Strategy .
On 4 June 2004 , BAE Systems outbid General Dynamics for Alvis Vickers , the UK 's main manufacturer of armoured vehicles . Alvis Vickers was merged with the company 's RO Defence unit to form BAE Systems Land Systems . Recognising the lack of scale of this business compared to General Dynamics , BAE Systems executives soon identified the US defence company United Defense Industries ( UDI ) , a major competitor to General Dynamics , as a main acquisition target . On 7 March 2005 BAE announced the £ 2 @.@ 25 billion ( approx . US $ 4 @.@ 2 billion c . 2005 ) acquisition of UDI . UDI , now BAE Systems Land and Armaments , manufactures combat vehicles , artillery systems , naval guns , missile launchers and precision guided munitions .
In December 2005 , BAE Systems announced the sale of its German naval systems subsidiary , Atlas Elektronik , to ThyssenKrupp and EADS . The sale was complicated by the requirement of the German government to approve any sale . The Financial Times described the sale as " cut price " because French company Thales bid € 300 million , but was blocked from purchasing Atlas on national security grounds . On 31 January 2006 the company announced the sale of BAE Systems Aerostructures to Spirit AeroSystems , Inc , having said as early as 2002 that it wished to dispose of what it did not regard as a " core business " .
On 18 August 2006 Saudi Arabia signed a contract worth £ 6 billion to £ 10 billion for 72 Eurofighter Typhoons , to be delivered by BAE Systems . On 10 September 2006 the company was awarded a £ 2 @.@ 5 billion contract for the upgrade of 80 Royal Saudi Air Force Tornado IDSs . One of BAE Systems ' major aims , as highlighted in the 2005 Annual Report , was the granting of increased technology transfer between the UK and the US . The F @-@ 35 ( JSF ) programme became the focus of this effort , with British government ministers such as Lord Drayson , Minister for Defence Procurement , suggesting the UK would withdraw from the project without the transfer of technology that would allow the UK to operate and maintain F @-@ 35s independently . However , on 12 December 2006 , Lord Drayson signed an agreement which allows " an unbroken British chain of command " for operation of the aircraft . On 22 December 2006 BAE received a £ 947 million contract to provide guaranteed availability of Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Tornados .
On 7 May 2007 the company announced its subsidiary BAE Systems Inc. was to purchase Armor Holdings for £ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( approx . US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion c . 2007 ) and completed the deal on 31 July 2007 . The company is a manufacturer of tactical wheeled vehicles and a provider of vehicle and individual armour systems and survivability technologies . BAE Systems ( and British Aerospace previously ) was a technology partner to the McLaren Formula One team from 1996 to December 2007 . The partnership originally focused on McLaren 's F1 car 's aerodynamics , eventually moving on to carbon fibre techniques , wireless systems and fuel management . BAE Systems ' main interest in the partnership was to learn about the high speed build and operations processes of McLaren .
The company announced the acquisition of Tenix Defence , a major Australian defence contractor on 18 January 2008 . The purchase was completed on 27 June for A $ 775 million ( £ 373 million ) making BAE Systems Australia that country 's largest defence contractor . The UK Ministry of Defence awarded BAE Systems a 15 @-@ year munitions contract in August 2008 worth up to £ 3 billion . The contract guarantees supply of 80 % of the UK Armed Forces ' ammunition and required BAE to modernise its munitions manufacturing facilities . BAE Systems expanded its intelligence and security business with the £ 531 million purchase of Detica Group in July 2008 . It continued this strategy with purchases of Danish cyber and intelligence company ETI for approximately $ 210 million in December 2010 , and Norkom Group PLC the following month for € 217 million . The latter provides counter fraud and anti @-@ money laundering solutions to the global financial services industry where its software assists institutions to comply with regulations on financial intelligence and monitoring .
= = = = Airbus shareholding = = = =
BAE Systems inherited British Aerospace 's share of Airbus Industrie , which consisted of two factories at Broughton and Filton . These facilities manufactured wings for the Airbus family of aircraft . In 2001 Airbus was incorporated as Airbus SAS , a joint stock company . In return for a 20 % share in the new company BAE Systems transferred ownership of its Airbus plants ( known as Airbus UK ) to the new company .
Despite repeated suggestions as early as 2000 that BAE Systems wished to sell its 20 % share of Airbus , the possibility was consistently denied by the company . However , on 6 April 2006 BBC News reported that it was indeed to sell its stake , then " conservatively valued " at £ 2 @.@ 4 billion . Due to the slow pace of informal negotiations , BAE Systems exercised its put option which saw investment bank Rothschild appointed to give an independent valuation . Six days after this process began , Airbus announced delays to the A380 with significant effects on the value of Airbus shares . On 2 June 2006 Rothschild valued the company 's share at £ 1 @.@ 87 billion , well below its own analysts ' and even EADS ' expectations . The BAE Systems board recommended that the company proceed with the sale . On 4 October 2006 shareholders voted in favour and the sale was completed on 13 October . BAE Systems ' sale of its Airbus share saw the end of UK owned involvement in civil airliner production . Airbus Operations Ltd ( the former Airbus UK ) continues to be the Airbus " Centre of Excellence " for wing production , employing over 9 @,@ 500 , but is entirely owned by the Airbus Group ( formerly EADS ) .
= = = 2010s = = =
In February 2010 BAE Systems announced a £ 592 million writedown of the former Armor Holdings business following the loss of the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles contract in 2009 . It was outbid by Oshkosh Corporation for the £ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 3 @.@ 7 billion ) contract . Land and Armaments had been the " star performer " of BAE Systems ' subsidiaries , growing from sales of £ 482 million in 2004 to £ 6 @.@ 7 billion in 2009 .
BAE Systems inherited British Aerospace 's 35 % share of Saab AB , with which it produced and marketed the Gripen fighter aircraft . In 2005 it reduced this share to 20 @.@ 5 % and in March 2010 announced its intention to sell the remainder . The Times stated that the decision brought " to an end its controversial relationship with the Gripen fighter aircraft " . Several of the export campaigns for the aircraft were subject to allegations of bribery and corruption . Meanwhile , the company was increasing its presence in India with the formation of Defence Land Systems India in April , a joint venture with Mahindra & Mahindra Limited . BAE Systems holds just 26 % of the equity due to Indian foreign direct investment regulations .
The company continued its move into support services in May 2010 with the purchase of the marine support company Atlantic Marine for $ 352 million . In September 2010 BAE Systems announced plans to sell the Platform Solutions division of BAE Systems Inc . , which the Financial Times said could yield as much as £ 1 @.@ 3 billion . However , despite " considerable expressions of interest " , the sale was abandoned in January 2011 . On 19 October 2010 the British government cancelled the Nimrod project as part of its Strategic Defence and Security Review . The purchases of Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carrier , the Astute class submarines , and the Type 26 frigates were all confirmed . A new generation of nuclear missile submarines will be built , however the final decision will be delayed until after the next election .
BAE Systems sold the regional aircraft lease portfolio and asset management arm of its BAE Systems Regional Aircraft business in May 2011 . This unit leases the BAe 146 / Avro RJ family , BAe ATP , Jetstream and BAe 748 . The company retained the support and engineering activities of the business as part of the transaction .
In September 2011 , BAE Systems began consultation with unions and workers over plans to cut nearly 3 @,@ 000 jobs , mostly in the company 's military aircraft division .
In its 2012 half @-@ year report , the company revealed a 10 % decline in revenue in the six months up to 30 June due to falling demand for armaments . In May 2012 the governments of the UK and Saudi Arabia reached an agreement on an arms package which saw a £ 1 @.@ 6 billion contract awarded to BAE for the delivery of 55 Pilatus PC @-@ 21 and 22 BAE Systems Hawk aircraft . The Sultanate of Oman ordered Typhoon and Hawk aircraft worth £ 2 @.@ 5 billion in December 2012 .
On 13 September 2012 , it was reported that BAE Systems and EADS had entered possible merger talks . In case of a potential tie @-@ up , BAE shareholders would own 40 % and EADS ' 60 % of the new organisation . However , on 10 October 2012 , the companies said the merger talks had been called off .
In July 2014 it announced the acquisition of US intelligence capability , Signal Innovations Group Inc . , to augment imagery and data analysis technologies in its Intelligence & Security business .
In August 2014 , BAE was awarded a £ 248 million contract from the British government to build three new offshore patrol vessels .
In October 2014 , BAE Systems and Babcock International won contracts from the British Ministry of Defence worth a total of £ 3 @.@ 2 billion to maintain British warships , submarines and naval bases for the following five years .
On 9 October 2014 , the company announced the loss of 440 management jobs across the country , with 286 of the job cuts in Lancashire . BAE said that the changes are to " make a more efficient and effective business " . During 2014 BAE Systems acquired US @-@ based cybersecurity firm Silversky for $ 232 @.@ 5 million .
= = Products = =
BAE Systems plays a significant role in the production of military equipment . In 2008 , 95 % of BAE Systems ' total sales were military related .
It plays important roles in military aircraft production . The company 's Typhoon fighter and Tornado fighter @-@ bomber are both front line aircraft of the RAF . The company is a major partner in the F @-@ 35 Lightning II programme . Its Hawk advanced jet trainer aircraft has been widely exported . In July 2006 , the British government declassified the HERTI ( High Endurance Rapid Technology Insertion ) , an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ( UAV ) which can navigate autonomously .
BAE Systems Land and Armaments manufactures the M2 / M3 Bradley fighting vehicle family , the US Navy Advanced Gun System ( AGS ) , M113 armoured personnel carrier ( APC ) , M109 Paladin , M777 howitzer , the British Army 's Challenger II , Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle , Panther Command and Liaison Vehicle , and the SA80
Major naval projects include the Astute class nuclear submarine , Type 45 air defence destroyer and Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carrier .
= = Areas of business = =
BAE Systems defines its " home markets " to be Australia , India , Saudi Arabia , the UK and the US .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
BAE Systems is the predominant supplier to the UK Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) ; in 2009 / 2010 BAE Systems companies in the list of Top 100 suppliers to the MoD received contracts totalling £ 3 @.@ 98 billion , with total revenue being higher when other subsidiary income is included . In comparison , the second largest supplier is Babcock International Group and its subsidiaries , with a revenue of £ 1 @.@ 1 billion from the MoD . Oxford Economic Forecasting states that in 2002 the company 's UK businesses employed 111 @,@ 578 people , achieved export sales of £ 3 billion and paid £ 2 @.@ 6 billion in taxes . These figures exclude the contribution of Airbus UK .
After its creation BAE Systems had a difficult relationship with the MoD . This was attributed to deficient project management by the company , but also in part to the deficiencies in the terms of " fixed price contracts " . CEO Mike Turner said in 2006 " We had entered into contracts under the old competition rules that frankly we shouldn 't have taken " . These competition rules were introduced by Lord Levene during the 1980s to shift the burden of risk to the contractor and were in contrast to " cost plus contracts " where a contractor was paid for the value of its product plus an agreed profit .
BAE Systems was operating in " the only truly open defence market " , which meant that it was competing with US and European companies for British defence projects , while they were protected in their home markets . The US defence market is competitive , however largely between American firms , while foreign companies are excluded . In December 2005 the MoD published the Defence Industrial Strategy ( DIS ) which has been widely acknowledged to recognise BAE Systems as the UK 's " national champion " . The DIS identifies key industrial capabilities which must be maintained within the UK through long @-@ term government commitments to support research spending and procurement . Of these capabilities , several are dominated by BAE Systems , including naval vessels and submarines , combat vehicles , fixed @-@ wing aircraft , general munitions ( with the exception of certain " niche capabilities abroad " ) and network @-@ enabled capability ( defined as C4ISTAR in the DIS ) . The company maintains an interest in future UAV technologies through its collaborative FLAVIIR research programme with EPSRC .
After the publication of the DIS BAE Systems CEO Mike Turner said " If we didn 't have the DIS and our profitability and the terms of trade had stayed as they were ... then there had to be a question mark about our future in the UK " . Lord Levene said in the balance between value for money or maintaining a viable industrial base the DIS " tries as well as it can to steer a middle course and to achieve as much as it can in both directions . ... We will never have a perfect solution . "
In May 2012 , the MOD awarded BAE Systems a £ 328m contract to design the UK 's next generation nuclear @-@ armed submarines .
On 6 November 2013 , BAE Systems announced that 1 @,@ 775 jobs are to go at its yards in England and Scotland . Shipbuilding will cease entirely in Portsmouth in 2014 with the loss of 940 jobs , and a further 835 jobs would be lost at Filton , near Bristol , and at the shipyards in Govan , Rosyth , and Scotstoun in Scotland .
= = = United States = = =
The attraction of MES to British Aerospace was largely its ownership of Tracor , a major American defence contractor . Since its creation the company has steadily increased its investment in and revenues from the US .
BAE Systems Inc. now sells more to the US Department of Defense ( DOD ) than the UK MoD . The company has been allowed to buy important defence contractors in the US , however its status as a UK company requires that its US subsidiaries are governed by American executives under Special Security Arrangements . The company faces fewer impediments in this sense than its European counterparts , as there is a high degree of integration between the US and UK defence establishments . BAE Systems ' purchase of Lockheed Martin Aerospace Electronic Systems in November 2000 was described by John Hamre , CEO of the Center for Strategic and International Studies and former Deputy Secretary of Defense , as " precedent setting " given the advanced and classified nature of many of that company 's products .
The possibility of a merger between BAE Systems Inc. and major North American defence contractors has long been reported , including Boeing , General Dynamics , Lockheed Martin , and Raytheon .
= = = Rest of the world = = =
BAE Systems Australia is one of the largest defence contractors in Australia , having more than doubled in size with the acquisition of Tenix Defence in 2008 . The Al Yamamah agreements between the UK and Saudi Arabia require " the provision of a complete defence package for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia " ; BAE Systems employs 4 @,@ 600 people in the kingdom . BAE Systems Land Systems South Africa , 75 % owned by BAE Systems , is the largest military vehicle manufacturer in South Africa , and is currently taking part in the US MRAP programme . BAE Systems ' interests in Sweden are a result of the purchases of Alvis Vickers and UDI , which owned Hägglunds and Bofors respectively ; The companies are now part of BAE Systems AB and have a combined workforce of approximately 1 @,@ 750 . BAE Systems is also present in India under the name BAE Systems India . Also , BAE Systems owns 49 % of Air Astana , Kazakhstan .
= = Shareholders = =
As of 8 October 2012 BAE Systems listed the following as " significant " shareholders : Invesco Perpetual ( 13 @.@ 38 % ) , BlackRock ( 4 @.@ 66 % ) , Franklin Templeton Investments , ( 3 @.@ 95 % ) and Legal & General , ( 3 @.@ 62 % ) .
= = Organisation = =
BAE Systems has its head office and its registered office in City of Westminster , London . In addition to its central London offices , it has an office in Farnborough , Hampshire that houses functional specialists and support functions .
The company divides its business into the following business groups :
Applied Intelligence
This division delivers hardware and software tools to protect and enhance critical assets . The division includes BAE Systems Applied Intelligence .
Saudi Arabia
This division supports customers in Saudi Arabia , including the Al Yamamah project and subsequent Saudi Typhoon contract .
Intelligence & Security
This division provides mission @-@ critical cyber security tools , information technology and intelligence and analytical and support tools
Maritime
This division designs and manufactures naval ships and submarines . The division includes BAE Systems Maritime – Naval Ships and BAE Systems Maritime – Submarines . Maritime has inherited the naval systems businesses of Insyte , for example BAE Systems Underwater Systems and naval radar .
Regional Aircraft
This division provides regional aircraft and support services to regional airlines
Australia
This division supports customers in Australia
Electronic Systems
This division supplies flight and engine controls for electronic warfare and night vision systems , surveillance and reconnaissance sensors , secure networked communications equipment , and power and energy management systems
Platforms & Services
This division designs , develops , produces , supports , maintains , modernises and upgrades armoured combat vehicles , wheeled vehicles , naval guns , surface ship combatants , commercial vessels , missile launchers , artillery systems , military ordnance , and protective wear and armour . This division includes BAE Systems Land & Armaments . It also includes projects such as Taranis . The company 's 33 % share of Eurofighter Jagdflugzeug GmbH ( 33 % ) represents its involvement in the Eurofighter Typhoon project .
Military Air & Information
This division provides information superiority and air power to customers . The division includes BAE Systems Military Air & Information
Shared Services
This division provides shared capabilities and support services , principally to internal customers . It also includes a 49 % interest in Air Astana .
= = Corporate governance = =
BAE Systems ' chairman is Sir Roger Carr . The executive directors are Ian King ( CEO ) , Jerry DeMuro , and George Rose . The non @-@ executive directors are Harriet Green , Michael Hartnall , Sir Peter Mason , Carl Symon , Roberto Quarta , Paul Anderson and Nick Rose .
The company 's first CEO , John Weston , was forced to resign in 2002 in a boardroom " coup " and was replaced by Mike Turner . The Business reported that Weston was ousted when non @-@ executive directors informed the chairman that they had lost confidence in him . Further , it was suggested that at least one non @-@ executive director was encouraged to make such a move by the MOD due to the increasingly fractious relationship between BAE Systems and the government . As well as the terms of the Nimrod contract , Weston had fought against the MOD 's insistence that one of the first three Type 45 destroyers should be built by VT Group . The Business said he considered this " competition @-@ policy gone mad " .
It is understood that Turner had a poor working relationship with senior MOD officials , ( for example with former Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon ) Significantly the first meeting between Olver and Hoon was said to have gone well , a MOD official commented " He is a man we can do business with . We think it is good to be taking a fresh look at things . " It has been suggested that relations between Turner and Olver were tense . On 16 October 2007 the company announced that Mike Turner would retire in August 2008 . The Times called his departure plans " abrupt " and a " shock " , given previous statements that he wished to retire in 2013 at the age of 65 . Despite suggestions that BAE Systems would prefer an American CEO due to the increasing importance of the United States defence market to the company and the opportunity to make a clean break from corruption allegations and investigations related to the Al Yamamah contracts the company announced on 27 June 2008 that it had selected the company 's chief operating officer , Ian King , to succeed Turner with effect from 1 September 2008 ; The Financial Times noted that King 's career at Marconi distances him from the British Aerospace @-@ led Al Yamamah project .
In 2015 the company invested more than £ 11m in charities and not @-@ for @-@ profit organisations through company and employee donations to support its key areas of customer , education and heritage .
= = Financial information = =
Financial information for the Company is as follows :
[ a ] : Restated to exclude Airbus contributions . Included for comparison .
[ b ] : Data prepared using UK GAAP guidelines . Recent data prepared using International Financial Reporting Standards .
[ c ] : Reflects £ 750 million charges for problems with Nimrod MRA4 ( £ 500 million ) and Astute class submarine ( £ 250 million ) programmes .
= = Corruption investigations = =
= = = Serious Fraud Office = = =
BAE Systems has been under investigation by the Serious Fraud Office , into the use of political corruption to help sell arms to Chile , Czech Republic , Romania , Saudi Arabia , South Africa , Tanzania and Qatar . In response , BAE Systems ' 2006 Corporate Responsibility Report states " We continue to reject these allegations ... We take our obligations under the law extremely seriously and will continue to comply with all legal requirements around the world . In June 2007 Lord Woolf was selected to lead what the BBC described as an " independent review .... [ an ] ethics committee to look into how the defence giant conducts its arms deals . " The report , Ethical business conduct in BAE Systems plc – the way forward , made 23 recommendations , measures which the company has committed to implement . The finding stated that " in the past BAE did not pay sufficient attention to ethical standards in the way it conducted business , " and was described by the BBC as " an embarrassing admission . "
In September 2009 , the Serious Fraud Office announced that it intended to prosecute BAE Systems for offences relating to overseas corruption . The Guardian claimed that a penalty " possibly of more than £ 500m " might be an acceptable settlement package . On 5 February 2010 , BAE Systems agreed to pay £ 257m criminal fines to the US and £ 30m to the UK . The UK had already massively benefited from £ 43 billion contract in tax receipts and jobs in the UK , and dropped an anti @-@ corruption investigation into the Al Yamamah contracts later taken up by US authorities . Crucially , under a plea bargain with the US Department of Justice , BAE Systems was convicted of felony conspiracy to defraud the United States government and sentenced in March 2010 by US District Court Judge John D. Bates to pay a $ 400 million fine , one of the largest fines in the history of the DOJ . Judge Bates said the company 's conduct involved " deception , duplicity and knowing violations of law , I think it 's fair to say , on an enormous scale " . BAE Systems did not directly admit to bribery , and is thus not internationally blacklisted from future contracts . Some of the £ 30m penalty the company will pay in fines to the UK will be paid ex gratia for the benefit of the people of Tanzania . On 2 March 2010 Campaign Against Arms Trade and The Corner House were successful in gaining a High Court injunction on the Serious Fraud Office 's settlement with BAE Systems . The High Court may order a full review of the settlement .
= = = Saudi Arabia = = =
BAE Systems ( and British Aerospace previously ) has long been the subject of allegations of bribery in relation to its business in Saudi Arabia . The UK National Audit Office ( NAO ) investigated the Al Yamamah contracts and has so far not published its conclusions , the only NAO report ever to be withheld . The MOD has stated " The report remains sensitive . Disclosure would harm both international relations and the UK 's commercial interests . " The company has been accused of maintaining a £ 60 million Saudi slush fund and was the subject of an investigation by the Serious Fraud Office ( SFO ) . However , on 14 December 2006 it was announced that the SFO was " discontinuing " its investigation into the company . It stated that representations to its Director and the Attorney General Lord Goldsmith had led to the conclusion that the wider public interest " to safeguard national and international security " outweighed any potential benefits of further investigation . The termination of the investigation has been controversial . In June 2007 , the BBC 's Panorama alleged BAE Systems " paid hundreds of millions of pounds to the ex @-@ Saudi ambassador to the US , Prince Bandar bin Sultan " in return for his role in the Al Yamamah deals . In late June 2007 the United States Department of Justice ( DOJ ) began a formal investigation into BAE 's compliance with anti @-@ corruption laws . On 19 May 2008 BAE Systems confirmed that its CEO Mike Turner and non @-@ executive director Nigel Rudd had been detained " for about 20 minutes " at two US airports the previous week and that the DOJ had issued " a number of additional subpoenas in the US to employees of BAE Systems plc and BAE Systems Inc as part of its ongoing investigation " . The Times suggested that such " humiliating behaviour by the DOJ " is unusual toward a company that is co @-@ operating fully .
A judicial review of the decision by the SFO to drop the investigation was granted on 9 November 2007 . On 10 April 2008 the High Court ruled that the SFO " acted unlawfully " by dropping its investigation . The Times described the ruling as " one of the most strongly worded judicial attacks on government action " which condemned how " ministers ' buckled ' to ' blatant threats ' that Saudi cooperation in the fight against terror would end unless the ... investigation was dropped . " On 24 April the SFO was granted leave to appeal to the House of Lords against the ruling . There was a two @-@ day hearing before the Lords on 7 and 8 July 2008 . On 30 July the House of Lords unanimously overturned the High Court ruling , stating that the decision to discontinue the investigation was lawful .
= = = Others = = =
In September 2005 The Guardian reported that banking records showed that BAE Systems paid £ 1 million to Augusto Pinochet , the former Chilean dictator . The Guardian has also reported that " clandestine arms deals " have been under investigation in Chile and the UK since 2003 and that British Aerospace and BAE Systems made a number of payments to Pinochet advisers . In 2003 , HMS Sheffield was sold to the Chilean Navy for £ 27 million , however the government 's profit from the sale was £ 3 million , after contracts worth £ 24 million were placed with BAE Systems for upgrade and refurbishment of the ship .
BAE Systems is alleged to have paid " secret offshore commissions " of over £ 7 million to secure the sale of HMS London and HMS Coventry to the Romanian Navy . The company received a £ 116 million contract for the refurbishment of the ships prior to delivery ; however the British taxpayer only received the scrap value of £ 100 @,@ 000 each from the sale .
BAE Systems ran into controversy in 2002 over the abnormally high cost of a radar system sold to Tanzania . The sale was criticised by several opposition MPs and the World Bank ; Secretary of State for International Development Clare Short declared that BAE Systems had " ripped off " developing nations . In December 2010 , leaked US diplomatic communications revealed that Edward Hoseah , the Tanzanian prosecutor investigating misconduct by BAE Systems , had confided in US diplomats that " his life may be in danger " and was being routinely threatened .
In January 2007 , details of an investigation by the Serious Fraud Office into BAE Systems ' sales tactics in regard to South Africa were reported , highlighting the £ 2 @.@ 3 billion deal to supply Hawk trainers and Gripen fighters as suspect . In May 2011 , as allegations of bribery behind South Africa 's Gripen procurement continued , the company 's partner Saab AB issued strong denials of any illicit payments being made ; however in June 2011 Saab announced that BAE Systems had made unaccounted payments of roughly $ 3 @.@ 5 million to a consultant , this revelation prompted South African Opposition parties to call for a renewed inquiry . The Gripen 's procurement by the Czech Republic was also under investigation by the Serious Fraud Office in 2006 over allegations of bribery .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Espionage = = =
In September 2003 The Sunday Times reported that BAE Systems had hired a private security contractor to collate information about individuals working at the Campaign Against Arms Trade and their activities . In February 2007 , it was reported that the corporation again obtained private confidential information from CAAT .
The company was reported in 2012 to have been the target of Chinese cyber espionage that may have stolen secrets related to the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II .
= = = Nuclear weapons = = =
In 2006 , BAE Systems was excluded from the portfolio of the government pension fund of Norway " because they develop and / or produce central components for nuclear weapons " . " According to the ethical guidelines for the Government Pension Fund – Global , companies that produce weapons that through normal use may violate fundamental humanitarian principles shall be excluded from the fund . " BAE Systems is indirectly engaged in production of nuclear weapons – through its 37 @.@ 5 % share of MBDA it is involved with the production and support of the ASMP missile , an air @-@ launched nuclear missile which forms part of the French nuclear deterrent . The company is also the UK 's only nuclear submarine manufacturer and thus produces a key element of the United Kingdom 's nuclear weapons capability . However , Norway has bound their strategic defence to the UK 's " since Napoleonic times " , including both protection under the British nuclear deterrent as well as the joint NATO nuclear sharing policy .
= = = Cluster bombs and land mines = = =
BAE Systems was in 2003 initially criticised for its role in the production of cluster bombs , due to the long term risk for injury or death to civilians . However , following the 2008 Oslo Convention on Cluster Munitions BAE Systems was among the first defence contractors to stop their manufacture and by 2012 the majority of the munitions had been destroyed .
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= Imru ' al @-@ Qais =
Imra ’ ul @-@ Qais bin Hujr al @-@ Kindi ( Arabic : امْرُؤُ الْقَيْسِ ابْنُ حُجْرِ الْكِنْدِيِّ / ALA @-@ LC : Imrū ’ al @-@ Qays ibn Ḥujr al @-@ Kindī ) was an Arabic poet in the 6th century AD , and also the son of one of the last Kindite kings . He is sometimes considered the father of Arabic poetry . His qaseeda , or long poem , " Let us stop and weep " ( Arabic : قفا نبك ) is one of the seven Mu 'allaqat , poems prized as the best examples of pre @-@ Islamic Arabian verse . Imru ' al @-@ Qais was born in the Najd region of northern Arabia sometime in the early 6th century AD . His father was said to be Hujr bin al @-@ Harith ( حجر ابن الحارث / Ḥujr ibn al @-@ Ḥārith ) , the Kindah monarchy 's regent over the tribes of Asad and Ghatfan , and it is believed that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was born in the territory of Asad . His mother was said to be Fatimah bint Rabi 'ah al @-@ Taghlibi ( فاطمة بنت ربيعة التغلبي / Fāṭimah bint Rabī ‘ ah al @-@ Taghlibī ) .
Legend has it that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the youngest of his father 's sons , and began composing poetry while he was still a child . His father strongly disapproved of this habit in his son , believing poetry to be an unseemly pastime for the son of a king . His father also disapproved of Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' scandalous lifestyle of drinking and chasing women , and eventually banished him from his kingdom , or so the legend goes . Later , when the tribe of Asad rebelled and assassinated his father , Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the only one of his brothers to take responsibility for avenging his death . Renouncing wine and women , he fought the tribe of Asad until he had exacted revenge in blood , and spent the remainder of his life trying to regain his father 's kingdom .
Like many figures of early Arabia , which at that time lacked a formal writing system and relied on the oral transmission of stories , the details of the life of Imru ' al @-@ Qais are hard to determine with any certainty . Even so , historians have been able to compare the various stories written down by later biographers with clues from Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' own poems and information about major historical events in the Persian and Byzantine empires to reconstruct a probable account of the life and ancestry of this most famous of the Jahili ( pre @-@ Islamic ) poets .
According to one account , his full name and ancestry was Imru ' al @-@ Qais , son of Hujr , son of al @-@ Harith , son of ' Amr , son of Hujr the eater of bitter herbs , son of Mu 'awiyya , son of Thawr of the tribe of Kindah ( Arabic : إمرؤ القيس ابن حجر ابن الحارث ابن عمرو ابن حجر اكل المرار ابن معاوية ابن ثور الكندي ) . He was also referred to as " The Lost King " ( الملك الضليل / al @-@ Malik aḍ @-@ Ḍalīl ) , because he was never able to recover his father 's throne .
= = Ancestry = =
The tribe of Kindah had its origins in Southern Arabia of and migrated north to Najd sometime in the 4th or 5th century AD . Sometime in the 5th century they asked the king of Yemen to select them a king , and Hujr the " eater of bitter herbs " became the first Kindite king . He was succeeded by his son ' Amr , who was succeeded by his son al @-@ Harith , who was the greatest of all the Kindite kings . One of al @-@ Harith 's sons was Hujr , and he made him regent over the tribes of Asad and Ghatfan , and Hujr was the father of Imru ' al @-@ Qais .
Of al @-@ Harith , it is told that when the Persian emperor Kavadh I adopted the teachings of the religious revolutionary Mazdak , al @-@ Harith converted to Mazdakism with him . This caused Kavadh to make al @-@ Harith king of the Hirah , a region in the south of modern @-@ day Iraq , and expel his previous Arab vassal al @-@ Mundhir . Kavadh 's son Khosrau I rejected Mazdakism and rebuked al @-@ Harith , restoring al @-@ Mundhir to the throne of the Hirah . It is not known for sure how al @-@ Harith died , but some reports indicate he was captured by al @-@ Mundhir as he fled al @-@ Hirah , and then killed along with two of his sons and more than forty of his kinsmen . Imru ' al @-@ Qais mourns this tragedy in one of the poems attributed to him :
Weep for me , my eyes ! Spill your tears
And mourn for me the vanished kings
Hujr ibn ' Amru 's princely sons
Led away to slaughter at eventide ;
If only they had died in combat
Not in the lands of Banu Marina !
No water was there to wash their fallen heads ,
And their skulls lie spattered with blood
Pecked over by birds
Who tear out first the eyebrows , then the eyes .
( Diwan , Poem 2 )
In 525 AD Yemen was occupied by the Negus ( Emperor ) of Axum ( modern @-@ day Ethiopia ) . With their sponsor destroyed , the Kindah monarchy quickly fell apart . It is probably during this period that the tribe of Asad rebelled and killed Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' father , Hujr .
= = Early life = =
Historians are divided as to the year of Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' birth , but one estimate is that he was born sometime around 526 AD . He was said to be the youngest of the sons of Hujr , king over the tribes of Asad and Ghutfan . Some historians have pointed out that his father had other wives and concubines than his mother , in accordance with the custom of kings at this time , and it is possible that he received little fatherly attention . He began composing poetry from an early age , an activity that his father strongly disapproved of because it was not considered appropriate for the son of a king . Al @-@ Tahir Ahmad Makki comments that " among the northern tribes , likewise , each tribe had its chief and its poet , and the two were hardly ever the same . "
Another source of friction with his father was Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' excessive dedication to lewd drinking parties and his scandalous pursuit of women . One story says that , concerned with his son 's lack of responsibility , Hujr tried putting Imru ' al @-@ Qais in charge of the family 's camel herds , an experiment which ended in disaster . Another story says that Hujr finally disowned his son after Imru ' al @-@ Qais publicly courted his cousin ' Uzayzah , and after failing to win her hand in marriage , managed to enjoy her affections in secret , which caused a considerable scandal in the family . Yet other stories say that Imru ' al @-@ Qais may have written some lewd verses about his father 's wives or concubines , and that this was the cause of their falling out . Whatever the reason , most of the stories agree that Hujr became exasperated with his son 's behavior and expelled him from his kingdom . In his exile Imru ' al @-@ Qais wandered with his group of rebellious friends from oasis to oasis , stopping to drink wine , and recite poetry , and enjoy the performance of the singing @-@ girls , sometimes tarrying for days before packing up to wander again .
Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' adventures with women also formed an important part of his early life , consisting according to some records of dozens of marriages , divorces and affairs , all ending badly for one reason or another . Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' lovers feature large in his poetry , as he praises their graces , lambasts their cruelty , and laments their absence and the longing in his heart .
= = The death of his father = =
Some stories tell that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was in his father 's army fighting the tribe of Asad when his father was slain , but this is not agreed by all the biographers . The most popular story comes to us from ibn al @-@ Kalbi ( d . 826 AD ) . Ibn al @-@ Kalbi holds that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was still in exile at the time of his father 's death , and that the news reached him while he was in the midst of a party with his friends . Upon hearing the news , he said " May God be merciful to my father . He let me stray when I was small , and now that I am grown he has burdened me with his blood . There will be no alertness today , and no drunkenness tomorrow , " followed by perhaps his most famous quote : " Today is for drink , and tomorrow for serious matters . " ( Arabic : اليوم خمر وغداً أمر )
It is told that of all his father 's sons , Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the only one to take responsibility for avenging his father . One story tells that the tribe of Asad sent him an emissary and offered him three options — either that he kill one of their nobles to equal the death of his father , or that he accept a payment of thousands of sheep and camels , or that he make war on them , in which case they asked for one month to make ready . Imru ' al @-@ Qais chose the third option . The tribes of Bakr and Taghlib agreed to support him and fought with him against Asad , killing many Asad tribesmen . Bakr and Taghlib withdrew their support once they judged that enough of Asad had been killed to satisfy the requirements of revenge .
= = Exile and death = =
After exacting his revenge upon the tribe of Asad and losing the support of Bakr and Taghlib , Imru ' al @-@ Qais travelled all over the Arabian peninsula and the Levant , taking refuge with different tribes , running from his enemies and seeking support to regain his father 's kingship . His last journey was to Constantinople , to seek support from Emperor Justinian I. The Ghassanid prince Al @-@ Harith ibn Jabalah , Justinian 's north Arabian vassal , sponsored Imru ' al @-@ Qais in his appeal , and most accounts indicate that he won some promise of support from the Byzantine emperor , and perhaps even a contingent of troops . Some reports indicate that Justinian pressed the Negus of Axum to support Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' bid , but that he refused due to the ongoing feud between the Axumite Empire and the tribe of Kindah .
After leaving Constantinople , Imru ' al @-@ Qais travelled until he fell ill near the city of Ankara in modern @-@ day Turkey . He remained there until he died . There is a story which says that Emperor Justinian became angry with Imru ' al @-@ Qais after he left , and sent a messenger with a poisoned jacket , and that Imru ' al @-@ Qais wore the jacket and the poison killed him . This story says that Justinian was angry because he discovered that Imru ' al @-@ Qais had an affair with a woman in his court .
However , most historians downplay the likelihood of this account , in favor of the story that Imru ' al @-@ Qais actually died from a chronic skin disease , a disease which he mentioned in one of his poems .
The best estimates of the years of Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' embassy to Justinian and death in Anatolia are from 561 to 565 AD . It has been said that after the death of Imru ' al @-@ Qais the Greeks made a statue of him on his tomb that was still seen in 1262 AD , and that his tomb is nowadays located in Hızırlık , Ankara .
= = Poetic influences = =
Makki summarizes the accounts of the biographers in identifying three older poets who Imru ' al @-@ Qais could have met and learned from . The first was Zuhayr bin Janab al @-@ Kalbi , a well @-@ known poet who was a friend and drinking companion of his fathers ' . It is also possible that Imru ' al @-@ Qais learned from Abu Du 'ah al @-@ Iyadi , and some accounts say that the young Imru ' al @-@ Qais was his reciter ( a poet 's disciple who would memorize all of his poems ) . A third possible poetic influence was a ' Amr bin Qami 'ah who was a member of his father 's retinue , and was said to have later joined Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' retinue and accompanied him until his death .
= = Religion = =
Most historians in the centuries since Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' death have been content with the assumption that , as an Arab before the advent of Islam , he was pagan . More recently some researchers have called this view into question , most notably Louis Shaykho ( c . 1898 ) , a Jesuit missionary , who insisted that Imru ' al @-@ Qais was a Christian . The evidence that Shaykho cites to support his claim consists mostly of a handful of references to Christian practices and symbols in Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' poems , as well as a few instances of the Arabic word for ( the one ) God ( Allah ) . Other historians have said that references to Christianity can be explained by the presence of monasteries and missionaries along the northern frontier of the Arabian peninsula , and the fact that many Arabs would have been impressed by these scenes without necessarily converting themselves . It can be explained by the fact that Arabs have been close to Jewish tribes since ancient times , too ( Gindibu helped the Juda kingdom during the Battle of Qarqar ) because of their ethnic similarity and geographic proximity . Others have pointed out that the word " Allah " was in use by the pagan Arabs long before the advent of Islam , and merely referred to the high God ( above all the many others ) .
Imru ' al @-@ Qais may have been a Hanif . Makki reports that some historians have suggested Imru ' al @-@ Qais could have been influenced by the purported Mazdakism of his grandfather , but also states that , in his opinion , there is little direct evidence to support this .
= = Cultural impact = =
To this day Imru ' al @-@ Qays remains the best @-@ known of the pre @-@ Islamic poets , and has been a source of literary and national inspiration for Arabic intellectuals all the way into the 20th century . Opening his entry in the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Al @-@ Tahir Ahmad Makki says this about Imru ' al @-@ Qais :
The Prince @-@ Poet Imru ' al @-@ Qais , of the tribe of Kindah , is the first major Arabic literary figure . Verses from his Mu 'allaqah ( Hanging Poems ) , one of seven poems prized above all others by pre @-@ Islamic Arabs , are still in the 20th century the most famous--and possibly the most cited--lines in all of Arabic literature . The Mu 'allaqah is also an integral part of the linguistic , poetic and cultural education of all Arabic speakers .
Ibn Sallam al @-@ Jumahi ( d . 846 AD ) said of Imru ' al @-@ Qais in his " Generations of the Stallion Poets " ( Arabic : طبقات فحول الشعراء ) :
Imru ' al @-@ Qais was the originator of a great many things the Arabs considered beautiful , and which were adopted by other poets . These things include calling up his companions to halt , weeping over the ruins of abandoned campsites , describing his beloved with refinement and delicacy , and using language that was easy to understand . He was the first to compare women to gazelles and eggs , and to liken horses to birds of prey and to staves . He ' hobbled like a fleeing beast ' [ a reference to his famous description of his horse ] and separated the erotic prelude from the body of his poem . In the coining of similitudes , he surpassed everybody in his generation .
Some historians have emphasized the historical significance of the Kindah monarchy as the first attempt to unite the central Arabian tribes before the success of Islam , and Imru ' al @-@ Qais ' tragic place as one of the last Kindite princes . Others have focused on his colorful and violent life , putting it forward as an example of the immorality and brutality which existed in pre @-@ Islamic Arabia .
Iraqi writer Madhhar al @-@ Samarra 'i ( Arabic : مظهر السامرائي ) in his 1993 book Imru ' al @-@ Qais : Poet and Lover ( Arabic : إمرؤ القيس الشاعر العاشق ) , calls Imru ' al @-@ Qais the " poet of freedom " :
The poet Imru ' al @-@ Qais had a gentle heart and a sensitive soul . He wanted the best not only for himself but for all the people of his society . The freedom that he struggled for was not confined to the romantic and erotic relations between him and his beloved Fatimah , and was not limited to his demands to lift the restrictions on sexual relations between men and women , but exceeded all this , so that he was singing for the freedom of all mankind-- and from this point we are able to name him , the Poet of Freedom .
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= Effects of Hurricane Georges in Louisiana =
The effects of Hurricane Georges in Louisiana included $ 30 @.@ 1 million in damage and three deaths . Forming from a tropical wave over the Atlantic Ocean , Georges attained a peak intensity of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) on September 20 , 1998 . Over the following several days , the storm tracked through the Greater Antilles and later entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 28 , the Category 2 storm made landfall in Mississippi before dissipating on October 1 . Before landfall , about 500 @,@ 000 residents in Louisiana evacuated from low @-@ lying areas . The mayor of New Orleans declared a state of emergency to allow federal assistance into the state . After nearly 1 @.@ 5 million people were urged to evacuate coastal areas , officials described the evacuation as " probably the largest [ ... ] we have ever achieved " .
Numerous homes located outside the levee system were flooded by the storm surge , and 85 fishing camps on the banks of Lake Pontchartrain were destroyed . An estimated 160 @,@ 000 residences were left without power due to Georges and severe beach erosion took place due to the slow movement of the hurricane . Precipitation statewide peaked at 2 @.@ 98 in ( 75 @.@ 69 mm ) in Bogalusa , and wind gusts reached 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . In the wake of the hurricane , the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) opened 67 shelters throughout the state , and covered insurance claims totalling $ 14 @,@ 150 @,@ 532 , including from Puerto Rico and Mississippi . The Clinton administration appropriated $ 56 million in disaster relief to regions in Louisiana for recovery from Tropical Storm Frances and Hurricane Georges .
= = Background = =
Hurricane Georges began as a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa during mid @-@ September 1998 . Tracking westward , the wave spawned an area of low pressure two days later , which quickly strengthened into a tropical depression . On September 16 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Georges , and to Hurricane Georges the next day . The storm reached its peak intensity on September 20 with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , just below Category 5 status on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
Over the following five days , the hurricane tracked through the Greater Antilles , causing over 600 fatalities , primarily in the Dominican Republic and Haiti . By September 25 , Georges entered the Gulf of Mexico as a Category 2 hurricane . The storm made landfall three days later near Biloxi , Mississippi , with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Upon landfall , the hurricane 's forward motion slowed to an eastward drift . Georges dissipated on October 1 near the Atlantic coast of Florida .
= = Preparations = =
At 9 : 00 am Central Daylight Time ( CDT ) on September 25 , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for coastal regions of Louisiana east of Morgan City . The following day , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning when the storm neared landfall . A hurricane watch was also issued for areas between Morgan City and Intracoastal City . When forecasts indicated a landfall east of the state , the hurricane watch was canceled and the hurricane warning amended to a tropical storm warning . By September 29 , all tropical cyclone warnings and watches were discontinued .
During September 25 – 26 , large @-@ scale evacuations took place in response to forecasts suggesting a landfall near New Orleans . More than 1 @.@ 5 million people in New Orleans were advised to leave the city . The nine shelters opened throughout the area were collectively capable of accommodating up to 450 @,@ 000 people . New Orleans mayor Marc Morial declared a State of Emergency to allow federal assistance into the affected areas during the immediate aftermath of the hurricane . A curfew was instituted for those who ignored evacuation orders or could not leave the city .
Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people evacuated from Jefferson and Orleans Parishes in advance of the hurricane . Elsewhere , about 31 @,@ 000 others took refuge in shelters set up throughout the state . In Jefferson Parish , roughly 3 @,@ 900 people evacuated to public shelters , while 20 @,@ 000 temporarily moved to Orleans Parish , 14 @,@ 000 of whom were located in the Louisiana Superdome . In Plaquemines Parish , about 15 @,@ 000 residents evacuated and 2 @,@ 300 took refuge in public shelters . Grand Isle 's 1 @,@ 500 residents were ordered to evacuate for the fourth time in a month . Due to the large @-@ scale evacuations , 175 off @-@ duty state troopers and 250 national guard troops were deployed to help speed up the process . Only two highways , U.S. Route 90 and Interstate 10 lead in and out of New Orleans ; however , heavy rains from previous storms flooded parts of US 90 , hindering preparation efforts . Lt. Col. Ronnie Jones of the Louisiana state police noted that the evacuation was " probably the largest [ ... ] we have ever achieved " .
= = Impact = =
Compared to the record @-@ breaking rainfall in Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , Hurricane Georges produced relatively little precipitation in Louisiana , peaking at 2 @.@ 98 in ( 75 @.@ 69 mm ) in Bogalusa . The worst damages were confined to the southeastern portion of the state , concentrated in the Plaquemines and St. Bernard Parishes . A storm surge of 8 @.@ 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) was recorded in Gardene Bay before power at the recording station failed . Gale @-@ force winds impacted most of the parish and gusts peaked at 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . The combination of high winds and surge cut power to most of the area and flooded at least 50 homes , all of which were located outside the levee system . A lighthouse on one island was partially submerged in the Gulf of Mexico , nearly 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) from land following severe beach erosion . Six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) sand dunes on the islands were completely eroded by the storm , leaving boardwalks formerly situated atop the dunes suspended near the water 's surface .
In St. Tammany Parish , the storm 's effects were mainly limited to wind damage : gusts reached 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) , knocking down trees and power lines . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 3 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) flooded 20 homes in the parish . Winds in Jefferson Parish gusted up to 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) , causing minor roof damage and power outages . In Orleans Parish , a storm surge of 5 @.@ 81 ft ( 1 @.@ 77 m ) destroyed 85 fishing camps constructed on wooden pilings . Winds gusting up to 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) left 80 @,@ 000 residences without power in the parish . Throughout the state , a total of 160 @,@ 000 homes and businesses lost power due to the hurricane . Georges is blamed for three indirect fatalities ; two men collapsed and died due to medical conditions aggravated by the stress of the evacuation , and another died as the result of a house fire sparked by an emergency candle that was tipped over . Damages from the storm totaled approximately $ 30 @.@ 1 million .
= = Aftermath = =
Before Hurricane Georges , FEMA issued disaster declarations for Ascension , Assumption , Jefferson , Lafourche , Livingston , Plaquemines , Orleans , St. Bernard , St. Charles , St. James , St. John the Baptist , St. Tammany , Terrebone , Tangipahoa , and Washington Parishes . The declaration allowed residents to receive individual and public assistance . Including relief funds to Puerto Rico and Mississippi associated with Georges , a total of $ 14 @,@ 150 @,@ 532 insurance claims was paid for by FEMA . The Clinton administration appropriated $ 56 million in post @-@ disaster funds for regions impacted Tropical Storm Frances and Hurricane Georges in Louisiana .
Throughout the state , officials opened 67 shelters and deployed 1 @,@ 200 FEMA personnel to Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , Florida and Georgia . The day after Georges made landfall , 4 @,@ 000 of the 14 @,@ 000 residents who evacuated to the Louisiana Superdome returned to their homes ; however , Mayor Marc Morial requested that the residents stay in the superdome for their own safety . In attempts to prevent major flooding in the aftermath of Georges , the United States National Guard provided the Gulf Coast with 1 @.@ 25 million sandbags . Rescue teams flew nearly 50 missions in response to calls for help from stranded residents . The United Methodist Committee on Relief deployed its disaster response team on September 29 to the state to assess damages wrought by Georges . Thomas Michot , a United States Geological Survey ecologist , surveyed the islands following the storm and stated that " the single most important line of defense standing between New Orleans and future hurricanes had all but disappeared " .
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= Cyclone Fantala =
Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Fantala was the strongest tropical cyclone of the south @-@ west Indian Ocean in terms of sustained winds . Part of the 2015 – 16 cyclone season , Fantala formed on 11 April to the south of Diego Garcia , an island in the central Indian Ocean . With a ridge to the south , the storm moved westward for several days while gaining strength , aided by warm waters and decreasing wind shear . Late on 17 April , the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making Fantala the strongest tropical cyclone of the basin in terms of 10 @-@ minute sustained winds . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , equivalent to Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale and tied only with Agnielle from November 1995 as the strongest on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean .
While near peak intensity , Fantala passed near the Farquhar Group of the Seychelles , damaging most of the buildings in the small archipelago . By 18 April , Fantala had weakened to an intense tropical cyclone and slowed its forward motion , eventually reversing its direction of movement . After fluctuating in strength , the disorganized system reversed direction again , making its closest approach to Madagascar . Fantala degenerated into a remnant low on 24 April , and the remnants continued toward Tanzania . There , heavy rainfall resulted in flooding that washed away roads and houses , killing 13 people . Rains extended further into Kenya , with similar effects .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of disturbed weather persisted as of 9 April to the southeast of Diego Garcia . The system moved generally westwards , steered by a ridge , and a low @-@ level circulation gradually became more defined . Limiting factors to faster development included poor inflow and moderate wind shear , although associated convection became more organized . At 06 : 00 UTC on 11 April , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center Météo @-@ France in La Réunion ( MFR ) classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 8 about 600 km ( 375 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . Six hours later , the agency upgraded the system to a tropical depression . At 13 : 00 UTC on 11 April , the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , noting the increased organization of the convection , circulation , and outflow . Later that day , the MFR upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Fantala , and the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 19S . By that time , the convection was quickly consolidating around the center , organizing into a circular central dense overcast .
On 12 April , the previously detrimental wind shear began easing , allowing the structure to become more symmetric . On that day , an eye feature began developing in the center of Fantala , indicative of strengthening . At 12 : 00 UTC on 12 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to severe tropical storm status , and six hours later , the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , with 1 minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) ; rapid strengthening was prevented by the entrainment of nearby dry air , although the core of convection continued to contract . At 06 : 00 UTC on 13 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to tropical cyclone status , with 10 minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . By that time , the eye feature persisted , consisting of a warm area within the deepest convection , although the dry air in the region prevented quicker strengthening .
By early on 14 April , the eye became better defined after an eyewall replacement cycle . The intensity fluctuated after outflow decreased to the north , although increasingly warm waters favored further intensification . Early on 15 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to an intense tropical cyclone , while the storm was undergoing rapid deepening . The outflow was enhanced by a large upper @-@ level low well to the southeast , and shear had decreased to a minimum . After reaching an initial peak intensity with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) at 12 : 00 UTC that day , Fantala 's intensity leveled off for the following 48 hours , with its 10 @-@ minute sustained winds fluctuating between 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) for the first 6 hours of this time period , 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) for the following 24 hours , and 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) for the remaining 18 hours , all equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane , with the latter two wind estimates equivalent to a western Pacific super typhoon .
On 16 April , Fantala turned more to the west @-@ northward toward the southern islands of the Seychelles , steered by a strengthening ridge near Madagascar . Intensification resumed by 12 : 00 UTC the following day , with the JTWC estimating 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , classifying Fantala as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent cyclone on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Around 15 : 00 UTC , the cyclone moved through the Farquhar Group of the Seychelles , and its eyewall moved over several small islands . At 18 : 00 UTC on 17 April , the MFR upgraded Fantala to a very intense tropical cyclone ; based on a Dvorak rating of T7.5 , the satellite @-@ derived wind estimate was 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , along with an estimated barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) . However , in the best track for Fantala , the MFR concluded that Fantala had been a very intense tropical cyclone 6 hours earlier as well , with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , and that its minimum central pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) had occurred 12 hours later , at 06 : 00 UTC the following day . The JTWC also estimated peak 1 minute winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) .
While maintaining peak intensity , Fantala slowed its forward movement as the ridge to its south over Madagascar weakened . The cyclone turned back to the southeast due to the building influence of a ridge to the northeast , and the storm retraced its former path . Cooler waters along its path – the result of upwelling – as well as another eyewall replacement cycle , caused Fantala to weaken to an intense tropical cyclone by 19 April . Fantala had maintained at least Category 4 @-@ equivalent intensity for about 90 hours , and of those 90 hours , about 30 were at both very intense tropical cyclone status and Category 5 @-@ equivalent intensity . That day , the eye disappeared on satellite imagery and the storm deteriorated further to tropical cyclone status . The eye redeveloped on 20 April , with pronounced outflow assisting in the re @-@ intensification , although increased shear resulted in weakening again on 21 April . That day , the MFR downgraded Fantala to a severe tropical storm . The structure improved again on 22 April as the system stalled due to the building ridge to the south . At 00 : 00 UTC that day , the MFR upgraded Fantala to an intense tropical cyclone once the eye became more pronounced again , only to downgrade it to tropical cyclone status by 06 : 00 UTC , though this was pushed back to 12 : 00 UTC in the best track . A small area of convection persisted over the center , although dry air in the region continued to weaken the thunderstorms .
The MFR again downgraded Fantala to a severe tropical storm on 23 April as the storm began drifting to the northwest . Increasing wind shear weakened Fantala further to a moderate tropical storm that day , and on 24 April , both the JTWC and MFR issued their final advisories ; the latter agency had first downgraded it to a tropical depression . By that time , the circulation was exposed from the convection as Fantala moved over cooled waters where it traversed a few days prior . The circulation continued to the northwest , with occasional flares of convection . By 27 April , a circulation was no longer present as the convective remnants of Fantala approached the coastline of Tanzania .
= = Impact and records = =
Cyclone Fantala first threatened Agaléga , part of the Outer Islands of Mauritius . Government officials forced all 72 residents on the South Island to evacuate to the North Island , and strongly advised fishermen to avoid sailing .
Fantala was the first tropical cyclone to threaten the Farquhar Group since Cyclone Bondo in 2006 . Most of the 34 residents on Farquhar Atoll evacuated ahead of the storm , and those that remained behind were uninjured . While moving through the Seychelles near peak intensity , Fantala had estimated 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , and days later it moved through the region again with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds estimated at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Based on satellite imagery , it was estimated that of the 50 structures on Farquhar Atoll , 19 were destroyed and 27 sustained severe damage . Only four buildings , which were constructed to be cyclone @-@ proof after Bondo , withstood the estimated 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) gusts , even then suffering moderate damage . In addition , many of the island 's trees were knocked down . Due to the storm 's prolonged passage through the island group , the Seychelles government declared the Farquhar islands as a disaster area on 20 April . In a visit to the Seychelles , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon stated that the country has become " highly vulnerable to storm surges , as we are reminded by the recent devastating effects of Cyclone Fantala . " A World Bank survey team found $ 4 @.@ 5 million in damage . The lodge on the island is not expected to be rebuilt until March 2017 , about 11 months after the storm .
The remnants of Fantala spurred warnings from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency after the storm produced heavy rainfall . In Kilimanjaro Region , the rains caused flooding that covered roads and entered houses , trapping hundreds of residents and killing eight . Officials required helicopters from nearby Kilimanjaro National Park to rescue residents . Five people were killed in the country 's Morogoro Region , all drowning in flooded rivers . The overflowing Umba River isolated several villages . In the region , 13 @,@ 933 people were left homeless after 315 houses were washed away . Flooding also washed away 12 @,@ 073 ha ( 29 @,@ 830 acres ) of crop fields , prompting officials to purchase and distribute maize , beans , and cooking oil to affected residents . The storm also sent a plume of moisture northward to Kenya , where storm @-@ influenced rainfall reached 133 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in Kwale in just four hours . This resulted in flooding in coastal portions of Kenya that destroyed several houses . About 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields were flooded . The port and several roads were closed in the city of Mombasa , Kenya 's second @-@ largest city .
The MFR 's estimate of peak 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) made Fantala the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean by that measure . According to estimates from the JTWC , Fantala attained peak 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , tied only with Cyclone Agnielle from November 1995 as the strongest cyclone on record in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . Reliable satellite @-@ based intensity estimates date back to 1990 . The storm was fueled by the powerful 2014 – 16 El Niño event , which also contributed to the record intensities of Hurricane Patricia in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and Cyclone Winston in the southern Pacific Ocean .
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= K ' =
K Dash ( ケイ ・ ダッシュ , Kei Dasshu , commonly stylized as K ′ and also known as K Prime in certain English language materials ) , is a video game character from The King of Fighters fighting game series developed by SNK . He debuted as the leader of the Hero Team in The King of Fighters ' 99 , released in 1999 . He stars as the reluctant hero in the NESTS syndicate story arc of the series . He was created to be a " dark hero " in contrast to the series ' previous protagonist Kyo Kusanagi .
K ′ is a young man who lost all his memories when the NESTS syndicate captured him and injected the DNA of the powerful fighter Kyo into him to copy Kusanagi 's pyrokinetic abilities . Angered by what NESTS did to him , K ' betrays NESTS and decides to destroy them for using his body and deleting all his memories . Although he hates tournaments , K ' uses the King of Fighters tournaments to find NESTS members and defeat them . In his search , he meets allies who have the same goal and joins forces with them . Aside from the main series , K ' also appears in several other media series , such as spin @-@ offs and crossover video games , as well as printed adaptations of the series .
Since his introduction in the series , K ' has received both praise and criticism by video game publications . The character 's gameplay has been praised for its style and differences from previous known fighting styles . His absence in The King of Fighters XII was controversial and his return in the following game was due mainly to his popularity as a character .
= = Conception and creation = =
To contrast the previous protagonist of the series , Kyo Kusanagi , K ' was made to be the " dark hero " . During the early phases of the development of The King of Fighters ' 99 , the introduction of K ' to the series was meant to remove popular characters Kyo Kusanagi and Iori Yagami from the roster — though this idea was scrapped before the game 's release . Eiji , one of the game 's designers , commented that he thought K ' would be more popular than he turned out to be , noting that K ' was too plain . Nevertheless , character designer Tatsuhiko Kanaoka , better known as " Falcoon " , said K ' was one of his favorite original King of Fighters characters . Music composer Sha @-@ V suggested that K ' should yell " Dora ! " or " Ora ! " to mirror Kyo and Iori 's shouts , " Kurae ! " and " Doushita ! " respectively . Konny , another music composer , jokingly wondered if K ' is trying to say the word " dry " , since the first word of his yell was " Dorei ! "
It has been noted by several of the series ' designers that K ' is one of the most difficult characters to illustrate , since his look is very different when he is drawn by different illustrators . In the early development of the game , K ' had a slicked back hairstyle , but as it was nixed by his powers , the character 's hair was changed . They also jokingly mentioned that the reason for his hair being bushier than it needed to be may be a reflection of the conditions around him . The King of Fighters ' 99 was developed at the same time as Garou : Mark of the Wolves ; developers noted several similarities between K ' and Mark of the Wolves ' main character , Rock Howard , which caused K ' ' s designer to become very nervous . The producer of The King of Fighters 2002 : Unlimited Match , Neogeo Hakase , advised advanced players to use K ' stating that once the player had learned how to control him , the character would become very strong during fights .
For The King of Fighters XIII , K ' ' s design was crafted so that he had a " cool " appearance . Developers liked the result as his moves , such as putting on his sunglasses , were carefully detailed . His gameplay mechanics were developed so that gamers who had used him before would not find his new gameplay mechanics strange . In contrast to Kyo 's flames , K ' ' s were designed with intention of making them look more violent . As a result of various The King of Fighters endings showing K ' removing his red glove , a special move was required to show him doing the same thing . After thinking of several methods that would show this , the staff was inspired by The King of Fighters HK Comics printed adaptations in which the character 's glove once broke after defeating his opponent , leading to his winpose that happens only after he has used his strongest technique . Following various revisions of K ' ' s " Chain Drive " ( チェーンドライブ ) technique , in order to better follow the material that inspired the move , the staff decided to make K ' fight while wearing his sunglasses .
= = = Attributes = = =
K ' is a former subject of an experiment made by the NESTS organization . He stands 183cm ( 6 ' 0 " ) tall and weighs 65kg ( 143 lbs ) . In their attempt to create powerful soldiers , NESTS kidnapped K ′ and injected him with DNA from the fighter Kyo Kusanagi , giving him his pyrokinetic skills . Unlike Kyo , K ' is only able to create fire from his right hand , which he is sometimes unable to control . He wears a glove to protect his body from being burned accidentally . During the program , NESTS repressed K ′ ' s memories , and he was made to believe that he was Krizalid 's clone . While in NESTS , K ′ became enraged with how the organization played with human lives , and escaped to recover his memories . As he could not even remember his name , K ' decided to destroy NESTS in order to stop their experiments . K ' ' s fighting style is simply called Pure Violence which involves him using the fire from his right hand along with martial arts moves .
In the process of destroying NESTS , he becomes allied with Maxima , a cyborg whose best friend was killed by NESTS agents and is seeking to avenge the death . While Maxima sees K ' as a friend and his partner , K ' is stoic and cynical . He also meets Whip , who it is revealed is a clone of his sister , Seirah . Even though Whip reveals her identity to K ' , he ignores this , saying he will do what he pleases . Although he hates The King of Fighters tournaments , he commonly enters them , being asked by someone , or to find NESTS . The participants often criticize him for being antisocial . After destroying NESTS , K ' starts recovering his memories , but he suspects he could forget all the people he has met . He also becomes determined to prove he is better than Kyo , instead of being only a clone .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
In The King of Fighters ' 99 , K ' and Maxima hear of a King of Fighters tournament being held by NESTS and decide to participate in it and face NESTS head @-@ on . They form a " Hero Team " along with Benimaru Nikaido and Shingo Yabuki . The Hero Team is taken to a NESTS base , where they meet NESTS ' agent Krizalid , who claims that K ' was cloned from him ; both are ignorant of the fact that K ′ was the original . After Krizalid asks K ' to join him , the two end up fighting . Following Krizalid 's defeat , K ' and Maxima become targets of NESTS . In The King of Fighters 2000 , K ' and Maxima enter a new tournament , along with mercenaries Vanessa and Ramon . K ′ and Maxima enter the tournament to discover NESTS ' scheme , but Vanessa and Ramon are using them to find NESTS . K ′ and his team make it to the finals and face NESTS ' agent Zero . After Zero 's defeat , K ' has a dream involving his sister . He wakes up with Maxima as well as Whip , the clone of his sister .
In The King of Fighters 2001 , K ' , Maxima , and Whip are joined by Lin , a Hizoku assassin who has a grudge against Ron , who betrayed the Hizoku to join NESTS . During the tournament , K ' and his team face the original Zero , the one they met during the events of The King of Fighters 2000 having been a clone , and the new NESTS leader , Igniz , who has the secrets to unlock K ' ' s memories . After Igniz commits suicide , K ′ forms an alliance with Kula Diamond , a clone designed to be the Anti @-@ K ' , and her guardian Diana to continue their lives . In The King of Fighters 2002 , a game without a storyline , K ′ is a playable character , along with Maxima and Whip . In The King of Fighters 2003 , K ' and Maxima are allowed to enter to that year 's tournament by Chin Gentsai to investigate a dark wave around the King of Fighters . In the finals , K ' faces Mukai , a demon who belongs to the group " Those from the Past " . Although K ' defeats Mukai , he is bothered by Mukai 's taunts about reaching his true potential . In The King of Fighters XI , K ' enters the tournament with Maxima and Kula , in order to surpass his limits . The King of Fighters XIII retains the same team from The King of Fighters XI , with K ′ teaming with Kula and Maxima .
Aside from the main series , K ' has also appeared in other media from The King of Fighters series . K ' appears in the spin @-@ off video game series The King of Fighters : Maximum Impact and Neowave . In Neowave , K ' is playable , as are Maxima and Whip ; while in Maximum Impact , he fights alone ( as do all characters in the game ) . In the Maximum Impact series , he enters into the King of Fighters tournaments searching for the host who sponsored it . In the crossover video game Neo Geo Battle Coliseum , K ' is featured as a playable character .
= = = In other media = = =
In the anime The King of Fighters : Another Day , K ' is featured prominently in the third chapter . K ' also appears in the manhua adaptation of The King of Fighters : Zillion that was created by Andy Seto . He stars in other manhua for the games , starting with The King of Fighters 2001 through 2003 , as well as the Maximum Impact series . He also appears in the CD dramas KOF 2000 , in which he confronts Kula , Diamond , and in KOF : Mid Summer Struggle , in which he appears in a fake King of Fighters tournament . Outside The King of Fighters , the character has appeared in a dating sim part of the Days of Memories series .
= = Reception = =
The character K ' has been well received by fans ; in a 2005 poll by SNK Playmore USA , he was voted the fans ' fourth favorite character , with a total of 338 votes . His character has also been used as the mascot for The King of Fighters 's 15th anniversary . He has received praise and criticism from several video game publications and other media . Scott Daylor from CultureCuartel labelled him a " lame " addition to the character roster in The King of Fighters ' 99 . Andres Rojas from Nintendo World Report referred to K ' as " a fighter not to be reckoned with " as well as a comical " Michael Jackson wannabe " . 1UP.com praised K ' as among the most inspired new character designs in The King of Fighters series since Iori Yagami in The King of Fighters ' 95 , noting his unique fighting style : merely " Violence " which contrasted with other known fighting styles . Additionally , 1UP.com noted that anything involving the character 's sunglasses qualified as the best pose from the game . Similarly , Josh Kramer of Thunderbolt praised K ' ' s design alongside Iori . In another review , Jeremy Dunham of IGN noted that Eolith had re @-@ voiced K ' in The King of Fighters 2001 for PlayStation 2 , listing the character among those that provided " plenty of old @-@ school enjoyment " . FileFactory Games commented that K ' appears in a " fun to watch " CG movie in KOF : Maximum Impact 2 , even though " neither of these movies actually make any sense at all " .
Critics have also commented on the character 's role in the printed adaptations of the franchise . A. E. Sparrow , reviewing the graphic novel King of Fighters 2003 : Volume 4 for IGN , commented that K ' is " sufficiently heroic " with the comic allowing the exploration of his motivations . His duel against Kyo 's clone , Kusanagi , was referred by GenjisPress as " fan @-@ only territory " due to the lack of context . His relationship with his partner Maxima is described as : " hard to tell friend from rival in a story like this , especially for one who is unfamiliar with the game . " Reviewing volume five , Mania Entertainment 's Ben Leary said the K ' -heavy storyline makes " one of the wildest transitions I 've seen in a comic yet " with K ' involved in a conflict related to Japanese mythology for no apparent reason . However , he said that the way K ' receives new powers to defeat Mukai is " self @-@ contradictory " and that " nothing really happens as a result " of this event .
On the official SNK Playmore King of Fighters anniversary website , an image of K ' drawn in the style of the other The King of Fighters XII participants appeared , along with a similar image of Mai Shiranui , leading to speculation that they would appear in the game . UTV Ignition Entertainment 's business development director Shane Bettenhausen refused to answer these rumors , but noted fans asked more often about Mai 's absence . None of them made it into the game which caused discontent within gamers . In an official press releases by Atlus regarding The King of Fighters XIII , it was stated that K ' ' s return was because of popular demand . His return along with his two teammates , Maxima and Kula , as well as Mai , has been met with praise by video game publications .
Merchandising based on K ' has been released including action figures and clothing for cosplaying .
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= Grand Theft Auto clone =
Grand Theft Auto clone is a subgenre of open world action @-@ adventure video games , characterized by their likeness to the Grand Theft Auto series in either gameplay , or overall design . These types of open world games are games in which players may find and use a variety of vehicles and weapons while roaming freely in an open world setting . The objective of such games is to complete a sequence of core missions involving driving and shooting , but often side @-@ missions and minigames are added to improve replay value . The storylines of games in this subgenre typically have strong themes of crime and violence .
The subgenre has its origins in open @-@ world action adventure games popularized in Europe ( and particularly the United Kingdom ) throughout the 1980s and 1990s . The release of Grand Theft Auto ( 1997 ) marked a major commercial success for open @-@ ended game design in North America , and featured a more marketable crime theme . But it was the popularity of its 3D sequel Grand Theft Auto III in 2001 that led to the widespread propagation of a more specific set of gameplay conventions consistent with a subgenre . The subgenre now includes many games from different developers all over the world where the player can control wide ranges of vehicles and weapons . The subgenre has evolved with greater levels of environmental detail and more realistic behaviors .
Since calling a game a " clone " usually has a negative connotation , reviewers have come up with other names for the subgenre . Names such as " sandbox games " , however , are applied to a wider range of games that do not share key features of the Grand Theft Auto series .
= = Definition = =
A Grand Theft Auto clone is a video game that falls within the genre popularized by the 2001 title Grand Theft Auto III , where players are given the ability to drive any vehicle or fire any weapon as they explore an open world . These games are sometimes treated as a 3D action @-@ adventure game , or third @-@ person shooter . They are noted for frequently bearing strong violent or criminal themes , though exceptions like American McGee Presents : Scrapland have copied its gameplay and structure with a Teen rating .
= = = Other terminology = = =
Calling a game a " Grand Theft Auto clone " is sometimes considered unfair or insulting . This is because reviewers sometimes use this term to suggest that the " clone " is a mere imitation , which commonly occurs in the video game industry , designed for the sole purpose of capitalizing on the success of the Grand Theft Auto series . However , this term can also be used as a neutral description of a game , which can range from good to bad . Reviewers have used " Grand Theft Auto clone " to describe games that rest on their own merits , and do not necessarily dismiss the entire class of games as mere imitators .
Games of this type are sometimes defined under the broader terminology " open world games " or " sandbox games " . However , many games that predate Grand Theft Auto III , such as Metroid from 1986 , are also called open world games . Conflictingly , games such as Grand Theft Auto III and Body Harvest are credited with inventing this genre more than a decade later . Furthermore , reviewers have stated that this genre does not include every game with a freely explorable world and that this genre is much more specific , thus excluding the free @-@ roaming titles Spider @-@ Man 2 and The Incredible Hulk : Ultimate Destruction from this class of games . The terminology is inconsistent , sometimes including any game with open level design , while other times focusing on a specific genre created at the turn of the century .
Without clear classifications to describe the genre popularized by Grand Theft Auto , reviewers have created a number of alternate names for this genre . Some reviewers have focused on the pervasive criminal themes and content in the genre , using terminology such as " crime games " , " crime @-@ based action games " , and what CNN called the " gangsta genre " . Other journalists have emphasized gameplay by describing the genre as " free roaming action adventure games " , " driving @-@ and @-@ shooting games " , and " driving action hybrids " .
= = Game design = =
= = = Driving and shooting = = =
Grand Theft Auto clones offer players the ability to steal and drive a number of vehicles . Games have included all kinds of vehicles , such as cars , helicopters , boats , jet @-@ skis , fixed @-@ wing aircraft , and military vehicles . Reviewers have compared these games based on the number of vehicles they offer , with greater choice resulting in better reviews . Players can also use vehicles as weapons , either by driving into enemies , or by damaging the vehicle until it explodes . Some games allow vehicles to perform stunts . Games in the genre thus incorporate elements of driving simulation games . Some games even allow players to customize their vehicles .
Players can engage in combat using range of weapons depending on the game setting , such as assault weapons , sniper rifles , explosives , rocket launchers , and close @-@ range melee weapons . As such , several reviewers have stated that games in this genre are partially third person shooters . Players can find weapons scattered throughout the game world , and may buy weapons in shops or take them from dead enemies . Virtually anyone in the game world can be attacked by the player . In many games , excessive violent behavior will provoke a reaction by police authorities , who the player may then choose to fight or evade . Players must also keep track of their health and ammunition in order to succeed in combat .
These games have employed a variety of aiming mechanisms , such as free look aiming or a " lock @-@ on " button . Several games have been criticized for difficult or burdensome controls when it comes to shooting , and thus video game designers have tried refine the aiming and shooting controls in these games .
= = = Open world and missions = = =
Grand Theft Auto clones allow players to freely explore the game world , which is typically on the scale of an entire city . Some games base their level design on real world cities , such as London , New York City , and Los Angeles . Players are usually able to navigate by vehicle or on foot . Some games put greater emphasis on leaping , climbing , and even swimming . Exploring the world is not just necessary to complete objectives , but also to gain valuable items , weapons , and vehicles . Different parts of the game world may be controlled by different enemy factions , who will attempt to stop the player in a variety of ways . However , more recent games in this genre allow players to acquire their own territory . The freedom of navigating a huge game world may be overwhelming or confusing for new players . Game designers have come up with a variety of navigational aids to solve this problem . A mini @-@ map feature is common , while Saints Row and Grand Theft Auto IV go so far as to offer a GPS service . Games without these navigation tools are sometimes criticized as confusing .
The player 's freedom to explore may be limited until they complete certain objectives and advance the game plot . Players must visit specific locations and complete specific missions in order to win the game , such as racing , tailing , couriering , robbing , stealing , shooting , assassinating , and driving to specific checkpoints . There may be multiple ways to complete these missions as the game environment is designed to facilitate shortcuts , experimentation , and creative ways to kill enemies . Completing a core mission will unlock further missions and advance the storyline , and if the player fails a mission they will be able to resume the game from before the mission began . In addition , these games usually offer optional side missions , which allow players to gain other rewards . These side missions improve the game 's replay value . These games are also known for incorporating numerous minigames into the game world , such as circuit races . Ultimately , this allows the player to follow or ignore the game 's storyline as they see fit .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
Open @-@ world , 3D action @-@ adventure games existed for years prior to the release of any similar game from the Scottish developer DMA Design . Mercenary ( 1985 ) has been described as a major ancestor to the Grand Theft Auto series , because it featured an open world which the player could explore freely . The Terminator , released in 1990 , was a free @-@ form , open @-@ world game that set its action in a modern @-@ day city that extended for miles , and included the ability to fire at civilians and steal cars . This game was also among the first American @-@ developed games to feature these elements .
Hunter ( 1991 ) has been described as the first sandbox game featuring full 3D , third @-@ person graphics , thus making it an important precursor to the Grand Theft Auto series . The game consisted of a large , open world in which there were numerous possibilities to complete different missions . The character could travel on foot , or steal different vehicles such as cars , tanks , or even bicycles , boats , helicopters and hovercrafts . Moreover , Hunter also had many unique features such as day and night lighting , fuel modelling , a log book , aerial observation units , tank traps , land mines and computer @-@ controlled rocket batteries and tracer guns . It was also possible to ride a bicycle , swim , windsurf or even make a parachute jump from a helicopter .
DMA Design began pursuing open @-@ world game design with the first Grand Theft Auto , which allowed players to commandeer various automobiles and shoot various weapons within a mission @-@ based structure . Unlike later games in the series , and indeed many earlier influences , the first two GTA games were 2D . In 1998 , DMA moved many of these design concepts into a 3D world , with Body Harvest , a Nintendo 64 game developed by DMA Design ( which eventually became Rockstar North when it was acquired by Rockstar Games ) . This title featured an open world with nonlinear missions and side @-@ quests , as well as the ability to commandeer and drive a variety of vehicles . As such , it has been retroactively called " GTA in space " ( despite the fact that the entire game takes place in various settings on earth ) , and is credited with making Grand Theft Auto III possible . Dan Houser has also cited the 3D Mario and Zelda games on the Nintendo 64 as major influences . Another important influence came from the Driver series , which was created in 1999 , with its open city environments and being cited as the first driving game to allow the player to go anywhere in the map .
Grand Theft Auto III took the gameplay foundation of the first two Grand Theft Auto games and expanded it into a 3D world , and offered an unprecedented variety of minigames and side @-@ missions . The title was a much greater commercial success than its direct precursors , and its influence was profound . As such , Grand Theft Auto III is credited with popularizing this genre , let alone inventing it . Its release is sometimes treated as a revolutionary event in the history of video games , much like the release of Doom nearly a decade earlier . GamePro called it the most important game of all time , and claimed that every genre was influenced to rethink their conventional level design . IGN similarly praised it as one of the top ten most influential games of all time . Subsequent games that follow this formula of driving and shooting in a free @-@ roaming level have been called Grand Theft Auto clones .
Other critics , however , likened Grand Theft Auto III to The Legend of Zelda and Metroid , as well as Shenmue in particular , and noted how GTA III had combined elements from previous games and fused them together into a new immersive experience . For instance , radio stations had been implemented earlier in games such as Sega 's Out Run ( 1986 ) and Maxis ' SimCopter ( 1996 ) , open @-@ ended missions based on operating a taxi cab in a sandbox environment were the basis for Sega 's Crazy Taxi ( 1999 ) , the ability to kill non @-@ player characters dated back to action role @-@ playing games like Hydlide II ( 1985 ) , and Final Fantasy Adventure ( 1991 ) , and the way in which players run over pedestrians and get chased by police has been compared to Pac @-@ Man ( 1980 ) .
= = = Recent history = = =
Rockstar North developed Grand Theft Auto : Vice City in 2002 , which expanded on the open world concept by letting players explore the interior of more than sixty buildings . The game featured an expanded soundtrack and the voice talent of several Hollywood actors , including Ray Liotta . This set a new standard for the genre , making studio talent a pre @-@ requisite for success . Other game developers entered the field that year , with releases such as The Getaway . The Simpsons : Hit & Run in 2003 applied the concept to a cartoon world , while True Crime : Streets of LA reversed the Grand Theft Auto formula by putting the player in the role of a police officer . Even the Driver series , which influenced Grand Theft Auto III , began to follow this formula by combining driving and shooting in Driv3r . Some reviewers began warning parents of the growing number of games in this genre , due to the violent themes intended for mature audiences .
Ultimately , rival developers were unable to match the reception of the Grand Theft Auto series . Rockstar North released Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas in 2004 , which featured an open world on the scale of three distinct cities . The game also allowed players to customize the player @-@ character and vehicles , as well as compete for turf by fighting with rival gangs . The continued success of the Grand Theft Auto series led to successful spin @-@ offs , including Grand Theft Auto : Liberty City Stories in 2005 , Grand Theft Auto : Vice City Stories in 2006 , and the 2D Grand Theft Auto Advance for the Game Boy Advance handheld game console . A market analysis in early 2006 found that new games in this genre would have more difficulty than new first @-@ person shooters or racing games , and noted that that overall revenue for this genre declines during periods without a new Grand Theft Auto game . By 2006 , developers were producing fewer games in this space , estimated at half the number seen in 2005 . City Racing developed by EA Group and published by Gametop continues to be wildly popular GTA clone , despite the complete lack of storyline .
With the arrival of the seventh generation of video game consoles , the first " next @-@ gen " Grand Theft Auto clones were released in 2006 , beginning with Saints Row from 2006 and Crackdown from 2007 both introduced online multiplayer to the genre , a feature that had been requested by many fans . Crackdown attracted attention for being created by David Jones , the developer of the original Grand Theft Auto , and featured the ability to develop the player character 's superpowers in a semi @-@ futuristic setting . Meanwhile , The Godfather : The Game and Scarface : The World Is Yours entered the market in 2006 , and attempted to apply the Grand Theft Auto formula to popular movie franchises . Still , reviewers continued to measure these games against the standard set by the Grand Theft Auto series . Grand Theft Auto IV was released in April 2008 and featured a large , detailed environment , redefining gameplay and even adopted the GPS navigation system seen in Saints Row . The game broke numerous sales records , including the record for the fastest selling game in its first 24 hours . Since its inception , this genre has evolved to include larger settings , more missions , and a wider range of vehicles . In 2010 Rockstar Games published Red Dead Redemption , an open world Western themed game . On the day of Grand Theft Auto V ' s release on September 17 , 2013 , Volition released a free downloadable content pack for Saints Row IV titled " GATV " , purposely playing the similarity in the abbreviated titles to promote their game due to the confusion raised on various social networks .
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= HMS Cygnet ( H83 ) =
HMS Cygnet was a C @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Home Fleet , although she was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935 – 36 . Cygnet was sold to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) in late 1937 and renamed HMCS St. Laurent . She was stationed on the west coast of Canada when World War II began in September 1939 , and had to be transferred to the Atlantic coast for convoy escort duties . She served as a convoy escort in the Battle of the Atlantic and participated in the sinking of two German submarines . The ship was on anti @-@ submarine patrols during the invasion of Normandy , and was employed as a troop transport after VE Day for returning Canadian servicemen . St. Laurent was decommissioned in late 1945 and scrapped in 1947 .
= = Design and construction = =
Cygnet displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 865 long tons ( 1 @,@ 895 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Cygnet carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Cygnet had a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels , and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2 @-@ pounders were relocated to between the funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . Three depth @-@ charge chutes were fitted , each with a capacity of two depth charges . After World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges , delivered by one or two rails and two throwers .
The ship was ordered on 15 July 1930 from Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness under the 1929 Programme . Cygnet was laid down on 1 December 1930 , launched on 29 September 1931 , as the 14th ship to carry the name , and completed on 1 April 1932 .
= = Service history = =
After the ship commissioned on 9 April 1932 , she was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet . Cygnet spent a lot of time in dockyard hands during her first two years of service . She was repaired at Devonport in November 1932 – January 1933 , March – May , July – August and November 1933 – January 1934 before deploying to the West Indies with the Home Fleet between January and March 1934 . The ship required more repairs upon her return in April – May and then a refit from 25 July to 31 August 1934 . Cygnet was detached from the Home Fleet during the Abyssinian Crisis , and deployed in the Red Sea from September 1935 to April 1936 . The ship returned to the UK in April 1936 and refitted at Devonport between 20 April and 18 June before resuming duty with the Home Fleet . In July – August she was deployed for patrol duties off the Spanish coast in the Bay of Biscay to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British @-@ flagged shipping during the first stages of the Spanish Civil War .
= = = Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy = = =
Together with her sister HMS Crescent , Cygnet was sold to Canada on 20 October 1936 for a total price of £ 400 @,@ 000 . She was refitted again to meet Canadian standards , including the installation of Type 124 ASDIC , and handed over on 1 February 1937 . The ship was renamed as HMCS St. Laurent and commissioned into the RCN on 17 February . St. Laurent was assigned to Halifax , Nova Scotia and arrived there in May . She remained there for a year before she was transferred to Esquimalt in 1938 . The ship remained there until she was ordered to the East Coast on 31 August 1939 , arriving at Halifax on 18 September . St. Laurent escorted local convoys while based there , including the convoy carrying half of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to the UK on 10 December . The ship was ordered to Plymouth on 24 May 1940 and arrived there on 31 May . Upon arrival , the ship 's rear torpedo tube mount was removed and replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun and the 2 @-@ pounders were exchanged for quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun .
On 9 June , St. Laurent was ordered to Le Havre , France to evacuate British troops , but none were to be found and the ship evacuated a small group of French soldiers further up the coast on 11 June . The ship was taken under fire by a German artillery battery near Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux , but she was not hit and Lieutenant Commander H.G. DeWolf , the ship 's captain , ordered her to return fire although no results were noted . After returning to England , St. Laurent escorted several troop convoys on the last legs of their journeys from Canada , Australia and New Zealand in mid @-@ June and was assigned to escort duties with Western Approaches Command afterwards .
On 2 July , whilst escorting the British battleship Nelson , St. Laurent received word that the unescorted British passenger ship SS Arandora Star had been torpedoed by U @-@ 47 , about 125 nautical miles ( 232 km ; 144 mi ) northeast of Malin Head , Ireland . Arriving some four and a half hours after the ocean liner sank , the ship rescued 857 survivors , including German and Italian prisoners of war . Together with the British sloop Sandwich , she badly damaged the German submarine U @-@ 52 whilst defending Convoy HX 60 on 4 August . On 2 December , St. Laurent rescued survivors from the armed merchant cruiser HMS Forfar that had been torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 99 as well survivors from the British oil tanker Conch .
After refitting at Halifax from 3 March to 11 July 1941 , St. Laurent was assigned to the 14th Escort Group of the RCN 's Newfoundland Escort Force which covered convoys in the Mid @-@ Atlantic . Whilst escorting Convoy ON 33 in November in a gale , the ship was damaged severely enough by the weather that she was forced to return to Halifax for repairs . St. Laurent was transferred to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in December and remained until March 1943 . She was given a lengthy refit at Halifax in April – August 1942 . In early December 1942 , the ship 's director @-@ control tower and rangefinder were exchanged for a Type 271 target indication radar mounted above the bridge . By this time , she had been fitted with a high @-@ frequency direction finding system as well . Whilst assigned to Escort Group C1 defending Convoy ON 154 in late December 1942 , St. Laurent had her first victory on 27 December 1942 when she was credited with sinking U @-@ 356 while north of the Azores .
The ship was refitted in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia between 17 August and December 1943 . On 10 March 1944 , St. Laurent was credited with sinking U @-@ 845 in the North Atlantic , along with the destroyer HMS Forester , and frigates HMCS Owen Sound and HMCS Swansea .
The other changes made to the ship 's armament during the war ( exactly when these occurred is unknown ) included the replacement of ' B ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , exchanging the two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform and another pair were fitted on the wings of her bridge , and the removal of her 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was also added . ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased to at least 60 depth charges .
In May 1944 she was transferred to the 11th Escort Group to support the Allied landings in Normandy . On D @-@ Day itself – 6 June 1944 – she was deployed with the Canadian destroyers Chaudière , Gatineau , Kootenay and Ottawa stationed in the entrance to the English Channel to prevent U @-@ boat attacks on the invasion convoys . Later she was deployed with her group in the Bay of Biscay for anti @-@ submarine operations . On 8 August she was unsuccessfully attacked by a glide bomb , and on the 13th she and Ottawa rescued survivors from U @-@ 270 which had been sunk with depth charges by a Sunderland aircraft . These duties continued into October , when she returned to Canada to refit . Conducted at Shelburne , Nova Scotia , the refit lasted from November 1944 to 20 March 1945 . St. Laurent returned to service in April 1945 , and was attached to the Halifax Escort Force for convoy defence off the east coast . After the German surrender on 6 May , she was employed as a troop transport , until paid off on 10 October 1945 . The ship was sold for scrap and broken up in 1947 .
= = = Trans @-@ Atlantic convoys escorted = = =
= = Acclaimed model = =
A model of HMS Cygnet by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough is held by the National Maritime Museum .
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= Entombed ( video game ) =
Entombed is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play the Game for the Commodore 64 in 1985 . It is the second instalment of the Pendragon series and is a sequel to The Staff of Karnath . The game features series protagonist and aristocrat adventurer , Sir Arthur Pendragon , as he attempts to escape an ancient Egyptian tomb before all oxygen runs out . As with its predecessor , Entombed is presented in an isometric format .
The game was created and designed by brothers Dave and Bob Thomas , with Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper otherwise being uninvolved in development . Entombed took considerably longer to develop due to the re @-@ programming of its game engine . It received positive reviews from critics upon release , with praise being directed at its playability and graphics . It was followed by a sequel , Blackwyche , which was released later in the year .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in a isometric format and is set inside an ancient Egyptian tomb . Sir Arthur Pendragon 's main objective is to escape the tomb , the Great Sphinx , before all oxygen runs out . To achieve this end , the player must navigate a series of chambers linked by corridors , solve logic puzzles and deal with hostile enemies by either avoiding or fighting them . The tomb has seven floors . Pendragon 's only form of defence is his whip , which he can utilise to defend himself from enemies . The player also has access to a torch , which will allow them to see in certain pitch @-@ black areas of the tomb .
Unlike other games from the Pendragon series , Entombed features no collectable items required to finish the game . The player @-@ character has a life bar , which will deplete every time he makes contact with an enemy . To replenish life , the player must kill crows which will spawn in rooms at various times , and upon its death the crow will drop an Ankh symbol , the ancient Egyptian " Symbol of Life " . If the player completely runs out of life or if all the oxygen runs out from the tomb , then the game will end .
= = Development and release = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play the Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " : one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming .
The Pendragon series and The Staff of Karnath were materialised by brothers Dave and Robert " Bob " Thomas , rather than Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper . Dave Thomas began his career in 1983 when he began producing games for the Atari 400 , including moderate @-@ sellers such as Warlok , which won him GB £ 5 @,@ 000 in a competition from Calisto Software . Although he later began working for the company in producing video games , he quit due to the strain of his daily 68 miles ( 109 km ) commute . Shortly after quitting Calisto Software , Dave Thomas started work on The Staff of Karnath . Bob Thomas was a trained technical illustrator for the Ministry of Defence and had experience with designing interiors for the Royal Navy , which later aided to the military @-@ themed visuals of the Pendragon series . As with all games in the Pendragon series , Entombed was programmed by Dave Thomas , whereas the graphics were designed by Bob Thomas . Dave Thomas admitted in a March 2008 interview that the name of the series protagonist , " Sir Arthur Pendragon " , was copied from the character of the Black Prince Pendragon from the Jack the Giant Killer stories . According to Dave Thomas , Entombed had the longest development cycle due to the expansion of the previous engine .
= = Reception = =
The game received positive reviews upon release . John Cook of Popular Computing Weekly praised the graphics , heralding them as " colourful " and the detail of the stages as " beautiful " . Julian Rignall of Zzap ! 64 similarly praised the presentation of the game , expressing surprise on the size and graphical advancements from its predecessor . A reviewer of Computer and Video Games praised the graphics as " excellent " , whilst noting the resemblance to Indiana Jones . A reviewer of Computer Gamer similarly cited the graphics as " excellent " , stating that it was " what he expected from an Ultimate game " . However , they criticised the overall gameplay , stating it to be " very boring " and " slowly smegged " .
Cook praised the game 's puzzle sections , comparing them more favourably than those of its predecessor , and summarised that the game was " definitely a must for any adventurer 's collection " . Rignall stated that the puzzles were " specular " and similarly praised them more favourably than those in The Staff of Karnath . However , Rignall criticised the sprites of the game , asserting that they were " large and crude " .
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= HMS Iron Duke ( 1870 ) =
HMS Iron Duke was the last of four Audacious @-@ class central battery ironclads built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s . Completed in 1871 , the ship was briefly assigned to the Reserve Fleet as a guardship in Ireland , before she was sent out to the China Station as its flagship . Iron Duke returned four years later and resumed her duties as a guardship . She accidentally rammed and sank her sister ship , Vanguard , in a heavy fog in mid @-@ 1875 and returned to the Far East in 1878 . The ship ran aground twice during this deployment and returned home in 1883 . After a lengthy refit , Iron Duke was assigned to the Channel Fleet in 1885 and remained there until she again became a guardship in 1890 . The ship was converted into a coal hulk a decade later and continued in that role until 1906 when she was sold for scrap and broken up .
= = Design and description = =
The Audacious class was designed as a second @-@ class ironclad intended for overseas service . They were 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) . Iron Duke had a draught of 21 feet 7 inches ( 6 @.@ 6 m ) forward and 22 feet 7 inches ( 6 @.@ 9 m ) aft . The Audacious @-@ class ships displaced 6 @,@ 034 long tons ( 6 @,@ 131 t ) and had a tonnage of 3 @,@ 774 tons burthen . They had a complement of 450 officers and ratings .
Iron Duke had a pair of two @-@ cylinder , horizontal @-@ return , connecting @-@ rod steam engines , each driving a single 16 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 03 m ) propeller , using steam provided by six rectangular boilers . The engines were designed to give the ships a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) ; Iron Duke , however , reached a speed of 13 @.@ 64 knots ( 25 @.@ 26 km / h ; 15 @.@ 70 mph ) from 4 @,@ 268 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 183 kW ) during her sea trials on 2 November 1870 . She carried a maximum of 450 long tons ( 460 t ) of coal .
The Audacious class was ship @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 25 @,@ 054 square feet ( 2 @,@ 327 @.@ 6 m2 ) . Around 1871 they were re @-@ rigged as barques with their sail area reduced to 23 @,@ 700 square feet ( 2 @,@ 200 m2 ) To reduce drag , the funnel was telescopic and could be lowered . Under sail alone , they could reach 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the Audacious @-@ class ships consisted of 10 RML 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Six of these were positioned on the main deck , three on each broadside , and the other four guns were mounted on the corners of the upper deck battery . The battery protruded over the sides of the ships to give the guns a certain amount of end @-@ on fire . The shell of the nine @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was rated with the ability to penetrate 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought @-@ iron armour at the muzzle .
The ships were equipped with four RML 6 in ( 152 mm ) 71 cwt guns as chase guns , two in the bow and another pair in the stern . They fired a 64 @-@ pound ( 29 @.@ 0 kg ) , 6 @.@ 3 @-@ inch ( 160 mm ) shell . They also had six RBL 20 pdr ( 3 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 95 mm ) ) rifled breech @-@ loading guns that were used as saluting guns . In 1878 , the ships received four 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo launchers on the main deck and the 6 @-@ inch guns were replaced by four breech @-@ loading BL 5 @-@ inch guns during the mid @-@ 1880s .
The wrought iron waterline armour belt of the Audacious class covered the entire length of the ships . It was eight inches ( 203 mm ) thick amidships , backed by eight – ten inches ( 203 – 254 mm ) of teak , and thinned to six inches towards the ends of the ships . It had a total height of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of which 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) was below water and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) above at deep load . The main deck citadel 's ends were protected by a 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) forward bulkhead and a 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) one aft . The sides and embrasures of the upper battery were six inches thick , but its ends were unprotected . The ships also had a one @-@ man conning tower with walls 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Iron Duke , named after the nickname for Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , was the first ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy . The ship was laid down at Pembroke Dockyard on 23 August 1868 , launched on 1 March 1870 and was completed on 1 January 1871 , at a cost of £ 208 @,@ 763 . She was initially assigned as a First Reserve Guardship at Plymouth , but was assigned as the flagship of the China Station in September . En route to the Far East , she became the first ironclad to use the Suez canal ; virtually all of her coal had to be unloaded to reduce her draught and she was towed by three tugboats through the canal in three days . Relieved by her sister ship , Audacious , Iron Duke returned to the UK in 1875 . To save money on the return ship , no tugboats were hired and the ship ran aground four times and frequently scraped the sides of the canal during her four @-@ day transit . Upon her arrival , she was paid off in May .
Iron Duke recommissioned two months later and was assigned as the guardship at Hull . During the First Reserve Squadron 's summer cruise on 1 September , she was en route with three other ironclads between Dublin and Queenstown ( now Cobh ) . In a thick fog , the ship accidentally rammed her sister , Vanguard , off Kish Bank , in Dublin Bay . Iron Duke had her bowsprit wrecked , but was otherwise little damaged . Her ram , however , had torn a 9 @-@ by @-@ 3 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 74 by 0 @.@ 91 m ) hole in Vanguard 's side . The ram also damaged the watertight bulkhead between Vanguard 's engine and boiler rooms which flooded both compartments and prevented her crew from using her steam @-@ powered pumps . The ship sunk in a little over an hour after all of the crew abandoned ship .
Following the loss , Iron Duke replaced Vanguard as the guardship at Kingstown ( now Dún Laoghaire ) , where she received the latter 's crew and remained until July 1877 when the ship began a lengthy refit that lasted until August 1878 . She was inspected by Admiral Thomas Symonds , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Plymouth , on 22 July . Iron Duke then departed Plymouth on 4 August , bound for the China Station ; en route , she pulled the P & O steamship SS Bengal off a reef in the Red Sea on 7 September after two days ' effort . Vice @-@ Admiral Robert Coote hoisted his flag aboard Iron Duke on 9 November . The ship ran aground herself on a sandbar entering the Huangpu River in May 1880 , after five days , she was pulled free by the American paddlewheel river gunboat Monocacy with little damage . Princes Arisugawa Taruhito and Arisugawa Takehito visited Iron Duke on 22 July while she was visiting Yokohama , Japan . Several weeks later , Arisugawa Takehito came aboard to serve as a midshipman . The ship struck a rock off the coast of Hokkaido en route to Aniva Bay , Sakhalin Island , on 30 July 1880 . She floated off on 1 August after another ship had also grounded while trying to assist ; her repairs required a month in drydock in Hong Kong . On 28 January 1881 , Coote hauled down his flag and was relieved by Vice @-@ Admiral George Willes , the new Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , of the China Station . On 10 October , the ship was drydocked in Nagasaki , Japan and then sailed to Wusong District , Shanghai , China on 26 October . Iron Duke returned home in January 1883 and began a lengthy refit that included the replacement of her boilers .
On 16 April 1885 , the ship became a member of Admiral Geoffrey Hornby 's Particular Service Squadron until August , when she joined the Channel Squadron . After the ironclad Sultan broke loose from her anchors in Lisbon on 24 December 1886 during a gale and accidentally rammed and sank the French steamship SS Ville de Victoria , Iron Duke 's crew manned one boat in search for survivors , although it is uncertain how many they saved . The following year , Iron Duke participated in Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee Fleet review on 1 July 1887 at Spithead . She was reduced to reserve in 1890 and was converted to a coal hulk in 1900 , serving at Kyles of Bute . The ship was transferred from Fleet Reserve to Dockyard Reserve at Portsmouth in April 1902 , and eventually sold for scrap on 15 May 1906 to Galbraith of Glasgow .
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= William McKinley =
William McKinley ( January 29 , 1843 – September 14 , 1901 ) was the 25th President of the United States , serving from March 4 , 1897 , until his assassination in September 1901 , six months into his second term . McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish – American War , raised protective tariffs to promote American industry , and maintained the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of inflationary proposals .
McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War , beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major . After the war , he settled in Canton , Ohio , where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton . In 1876 , he was elected to Congress , where he became the Republican Party 's expert on the protective tariff , which he promised would bring prosperity . His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial ; which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office , led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890 . He was elected Ohio 's governor in 1891 and 1893 , steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests . With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna , he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 , amid a deep economic depression . He defeated his Democratic rival , William Jennings Bryan , after a front @-@ porch campaign in which he advocated " sound money " ( the gold standard unless altered by international agreement ) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity .
Rapid economic growth marked McKinley 's presidency . He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition , and in 1900 , he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act . McKinley hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict , but when negotiation failed , he led the nation in the Spanish – American War of 1898 ; the U.S. victory was quick and decisive . As part of the peace settlement , Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines ; Cuba was promised independence , but at that time remained under the control of the U.S. Army . The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a U.S. territory .
Historians regard McKinley 's 1896 victory as a realigning election , in which the political stalemate of the post @-@ Civil War era gave way to the Republican @-@ dominated Fourth Party System , which began with the Progressive Era . McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election , in a campaign focused on imperialism , protectionism , and free silver . However , his legacy was quickly cut short when he was shot on September 6 , 1901 by Leon Czolgosz , a second @-@ generation Polish @-@ American with anarchist leanings ; McKinley died eight days later , and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt . As an innovator of American interventionism and pro @-@ business sentiment , McKinley 's presidency is generally considered above average , though his universally positive public perception was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt .
= = Early life and family = =
William McKinley , Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles , Ohio , the seventh child of William and Nancy ( née Allison ) McKinley . The McKinleys were of English and Scots @-@ Irish descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in the 18th century . There , the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township , Mercer County .
The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy , settling in New Lisbon ( now Lisbon ) . He met Nancy Allison there , and married her later . The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvania 's earliest settlers . The family trade on both sides was iron @-@ making , and McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio , in New Lisbon , Niles , Poland , and finally Canton . The McKinley household was , like many from Ohio 's Western Reserve , steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment , the latter based on the family 's staunch Methodist beliefs . William followed in the Methodist tradition , becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen .
He was a lifelong pious Methodist . In 1852 , the family moved from Niles to Poland , Ohio so that their children could attend the better school there . Graduating in 1859 , he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville , Pennsylvania . He remained at Allegheny for only one year , returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed . He also spent time at Mount Union College in Alliance , Ohio , where he joined Sigma Alpha Epsilon . He did not graduate from either university . Although his health recovered , family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny , first working as a postal clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland , Ohio .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Western Virginia and Antietam = = =
When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began , thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service . Among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne , who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861 . The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other small units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry . The men were unhappy to learn that , unlike Ohio 's earlier volunteer regiments , they would not be permitted to elect their officers ; they would be designated by Ohio 's governor , William Dennison . Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment , and the men began training on the outskirts of Columbus . McKinley quickly took to the soldier 's life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause . Delays in issuance of uniforms and weapons again brought the men into conflict with their officers , but Major Rutherford B. Hayes convinced them to accept what the government had issued them ; his style in dealing with the men impressed McKinley , beginning an association and friendship that would last until Hayes ' death in 1893 .
After a month of training , McKinley and the 23rd Ohio , now led by Colonel Eliakim P. Scammon , set out for western Virginia ( today part of West Virginia ) in July 1861 as a part of the Kanawha Division . McKinley initially thought Scammon was a martinet , but when the regiment finally saw battle , he came to appreciate the value of their relentless drilling . Their first contact with the enemy came in September when they drove back Confederate troops at Carnifex Ferry in present @-@ day West Virginia . Three days after the battle , McKinley was assigned to duty in the brigade quartermaster office , where he worked both to supply his regiment , and as a clerk . In November , the regiment established winter quarters near Fayetteville ( today in West Virginia ) . McKinley spent the winter substituting for a commissary sergeant who was ill , and in April 1862 he was promoted to that rank . The regiment resumed its advance that spring with Hayes in command ( Scammon by then led the brigade ) and fought several minor engagements against the rebel forces .
That September , McKinley 's regiment was called east to reinforce General John Pope 's Army of Virginia at the Second Battle of Bull Run . Delayed in passing through Washington , D.C. , the 23rd Ohio did not arrive in time for the battle , but joined the Army of the Potomac as it hurried north to cut off Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia as it advanced into Maryland . The 23rd was the first regiment to encounter the Confederates at the Battle of South Mountain on September 14 . After severe losses , Union forces drove back the Confederates and continued to Sharpsburg , Maryland , where they engaged Lee 's army at the Battle of Antietam , one of the bloodiest battles of the war . The 23rd was also in the thick of the fighting at Antietam , and McKinley himself came under heavy fire when bringing rations to the men on the line . McKinley 's regiment again suffered many casualties , but the Army of the Potomac was victorious and the Confederates retreated into Virginia . The regiment was then detached from the Army of the Potomac and returned by train to western Virginia .
= = = Shenandoah Valley and promotion = = =
While the regiment went into winter quarters near Charleston , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) , McKinley was ordered back to Ohio with some other sergeants to recruit fresh troops . When they arrived in Columbus , Governor David Tod surprised McKinley with a commission as second lieutenant in recognition of his service at Antietam . McKinley and his comrades saw little action until July 1863 , when the division skirmished with John Hunt Morgan 's cavalry at the Battle of Buffington Island . Early in 1864 , the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized , and the division was assigned to George Crook 's Army of West Virginia . They soon resumed the offensive , marching into southwestern Virginia to destroy salt and lead mines used by the enemy . On May 9 , the army engaged Confederate troops at Cloyd 's Mountain , where the men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field . McKinley later said the combat there was " as desperate as any witnessed during the war . " Following the rout , the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and skirmished with the enemy again successfully .
McKinley and his regiment moved to the Shenandoah Valley as the armies broke from winter quarters to resume hostilities . Crook 's corps was attached to Major General David Hunter 's Army of the Shenandoah and soon back in contact with Confederate forces , capturing Lexington , Virginia , on June 11 . They continued south toward Lynchburg , tearing up railroad track as they advanced . Hunter believed the troops at Lynchburg were too powerful , however , and the brigade returned to West Virginia . Before the army could make another attempt , Confederate General Jubal Early 's raid into Maryland forced their recall to the north . Early 's army surprised them at Kernstown on July 24 , where McKinley came under heavy fire and the army was defeated . Retreating into Maryland , the army was reorganized again : Major General Philip Sheridan replaced Hunter , and McKinley , who had been promoted to captain after the battle , was transferred to General Crook 's staff . By August , Early was retreating south in the valley , with Sheridan 's army in pursuit . They fended off a Confederate assault at Berryville , where McKinley had a horse shot out from under him , and advanced to Opequon Creek , where they broke the enemy lines and pursued them farther south . They followed up the victory with another at Fisher 's Hill on September 22 , and were engaged once more at Cedar Creek on October 19 . After initially falling back from the Confederate advance , McKinley helped to rally the troops and turn the tide of the battle .
After Cedar Creek , the army stayed in the vicinity through election day , when McKinley cast his first presidential ballot , for the incumbent Republican , Abraham Lincoln . The next day , they moved north up the valley into winter quarters near Kernstown . In February 1865 , Crook was captured by Confederate raiders . Crook 's capture added to the confusion as the army was reorganized for the spring campaign , and McKinley found himself serving on the staffs of four different generals over the next fifteen days — Crook , John D. Stevenson , Samuel S. Carroll , and Winfield S. Hancock . Finally assigned to Carroll 's staff again , McKinley acted as the general 's first and only adjutant . Lee and his army surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant a few days later , effectively ending the war . McKinley found time to join a Freemason lodge ( later renamed after him ) in Winchester , Virginia , before he and Carroll were transferred to Hancock 's First Veterans Corps in Washington . Just before the war 's end , McKinley received his final promotion , a brevet commission as major . In July , the Veterans Corps was mustered out of service , and McKinley and Carroll were relieved of their duties . Carroll and Hancock encouraged McKinley to apply for a place in the peacetime army , but he declined and returned to Ohio the following month .
= = Legal career and marriage = =
After the war ended in 1865 , McKinley decided on a career in the law and began studying in the office of an attorney in Poland , Ohio . The following year , he continued his studies by attending Albany Law School in New York . After studying there for less than a year , McKinley returned home and was admitted to the bar in Warren , Ohio , in March 1867 . That same year , he moved to Canton , the county seat of Stark County , and set up a small office . He soon formed a partnership with George W. Belden , an experienced lawyer and former judge . His practice was successful enough for him to buy a block of buildings on Main Street in Canton , which provided him with a small but consistent rental income for decades to come . When his Army friend Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated for governor in 1867 , McKinley made speeches on his behalf in Stark County , his first foray into politics . The county was closely divided between Democrats and Republicans , but Hayes carried it that year in his statewide victory . In 1869 , McKinley ran for the office of prosecuting attorney of Stark County , an office usually then held by Democrats , and was unexpectedly elected . When McKinley ran for re @-@ election in 1871 , the Democrats nominated William A. Lynch , a prominent local lawyer , and McKinley was defeated by 143 votes .
As McKinley 's professional career progressed , so too did his social life blossom as he wooed Ida Saxton , the daughter of a prominent Canton family . They were married on January 25 , 1871 , in the newly built First Presbyterian Church of Canton , although Ida soon joined her husband 's Methodist church . Their first child , Katherine , was born on Christmas Day 1871 . A second daughter , Ida , followed in 1873 , but died the same year . McKinley 's wife descended into a deep depression at her baby 's death and her health , never robust , grew worse . Two years later , in 1875 , Katherine died of typhoid fever . Ida never recovered from her daughters ' deaths ; the McKinleys had no more children . Ida McKinley developed epilepsy around the same time and thereafter disliked her husband 's leaving her side . He remained a devoted husband and tended to his wife 's medical and emotional needs for the rest of his life .
Ida insisted that McKinley continue his increasingly successful career in law and politics . He attended the state Republican convention that nominated Hayes for a third term as governor in 1875 , and campaigned again for his old friend in the election that fall . The next year , McKinley undertook a high @-@ profile case defending a group of coal miners arrested for rioting after a clash with strikebreakers . Lynch , McKinley 's opponent in the 1871 election , and his partner , William R. Day , were the opposing counsel , and the mine owners included Mark Hanna , a Cleveland businessman . Taking the case pro bono , he was successful in getting all but one of the miners acquitted . The case raised McKinley 's standing among laborers , a crucial part of the Stark County electorate , and also introduced him to Hanna , who would become his strongest backer in years to come .
McKinley 's good standing with labor became useful that year as he campaigned for the Republican nomination for Ohio 's 17th congressional district . Delegates to the county conventions thought he could attract blue @-@ collar voters , and in August 1876 , McKinley was nominated . By that time , Hayes had been nominated for president , and McKinley campaigned for him while running his own congressional campaign . Both were successful . McKinley , campaigning mostly on his support for a protective tariff , defeated the Democratic nominee , Levi L. Lamborn , by 3 @,@ 300 votes , while Hayes won a hotly disputed election to reach the presidency . McKinley 's victory came at a personal cost : his income as a congressman would be half of what he earned as a lawyer .
= = Rising politician 1877 – 1895 = =
= = = Spokesman for protection = = =
" Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave . Protection is but the law of nature , the law of self @-@ preservation , of self @-@ development , of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man . [ It is said ] that protection is immoral .... Why , if protection builds up and elevates 63 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 [ the U.S. population ] of people , the influence of those 63 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 of people elevates the rest of the world . We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere . Well , they say , ' Buy where you can buy the cheapest ' .... Of course , that applies to labor as to everything else . Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that , and it is the protection maxim : ' Buy where you can pay the easiest . ' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards . "
McKinley first took his congressional seat in October 1877 , when President Hayes summoned Congress into special session . With the Republicans in the minority , McKinley was given unimportant committee assignments , which he undertook conscientiously . McKinley 's friendship with Hayes did McKinley little good on Capitol Hill ; the President was not well @-@ regarded by many leaders there . The young congressman broke with Hayes on the question of the currency , but it did not affect their friendship . The United States had effectively been placed on the gold standard by the Coinage Act of 1873 ; when silver prices dropped significantly , many sought to make silver again a legal tender , equally with gold . Such a course would be inflationary , but advocates argued that the economic benefits of the increased money supply would be worth the inflation ; opponents warned that " free silver " would not bring the promised benefits and would harm the United States in international trade . McKinley voted for the Bland @-@ Allison Act of 1878 , which mandated large government purchases of silver for striking into money , and also joined the large majorities in each house that overrode Hayes ' veto of the legislation . In so doing , McKinley voted against the position of the House Republican leader , his fellow Ohioan and friend , James Garfield .
From his first term in Congress , McKinley was a strong advocate of protective tariffs . The primary purposes of such imposts was not to raise revenue , but to allow American manufacturing to develop by giving it a price advantage in the domestic market over foreign competitors . McKinley biographer Margaret Leech noted that Canton had become prosperous as a center for the manufacture of farm equipment because of protection , and that this may have helped form his political views . McKinley introduced and supported bills that raised protective tariffs , and opposed those that lowered them or imposed tariffs simply to raise revenue . Garfield 's election as president in 1880 created a vacancy on the House Ways and Means Committee ; McKinley was selected to fill it , placing him on the most powerful committee after only two terms .
McKinley increasingly became a significant figure in national politics . In 1880 , he served a brief term as Ohio 's representative on the Republican National Committee . In 1884 , he was elected a delegate to that year 's Republican convention , where he served as chair of the Committee on Resolutions and won plaudits for his handling of the convention when called upon to preside . By 1886 , McKinley , Senator John Sherman , and Governor Joseph B. Foraker were considered the leaders of the Republican party in Ohio . Sherman , who had helped to found the Republican Party , ran three times for the Republican nomination for president in the 1880s , each time failing , while Foraker began a meteoric rise in Ohio politics early in the decade . Hanna , once he entered public affairs as a political manager and generous contributor , supported Sherman 's ambitions , as well as those of Foraker . The latter relationship broke off at the 1888 Republican National Convention , where McKinley , Foraker , and Hanna were all delegates supporting Sherman . Convinced Sherman could not win , Foraker threw his support to the unsuccessful Republican 1884 presidential nominee , Maine Senator James G. Blaine . When Blaine stated he was not a candidate , Foraker returned to Sherman , but the nomination went to former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison , who was elected president . In the bitterness that followed the convention , Hanna abandoned Foraker , and for the rest of McKinley 's life , the Ohio Republican Party was divided into two factions , one aligned with McKinley , Sherman , and Hanna and the other with Foraker . Hanna came to admire McKinley and became a friend and close adviser to him . Although Hanna remained active in business and in promoting other Republicans , in the years after 1888 , he spent an increasing amount of time boosting McKinley 's political career .
In 1889 , with the Republicans in the majority , McKinley sought election as Speaker of the House . He failed to gain the post , which went to Thomas B. Reed of Maine ; however , Speaker Reed appointed McKinley chairman of the Ways and Means Committee . The Ohioan guided the McKinley Tariff of 1890 through Congress ; although McKinley 's work was altered through the influence of special interests in the Senate , it imposed a number of protective tariffs on foreign goods .
= = = Gerrymandering and defeat for re @-@ election = = =
Recognizing McKinley 's potential , the Democrats , whenever they controlled the Ohio legislature , sought to gerrymander or redistrict him out of office . In 1878 , McKinley faced election in a redrawn 17th district ; he won anyway , causing Hayes to exult , " Oh , the good luck of McKinley ! He was gerrymandered out and then beat the gerrymander ! We enjoyed it as much as he did . " After the 1882 election , McKinley was unseated on an election contest by a near party @-@ line House vote . Out of office , he was briefly depressed by the setback , but soon vowed to run again . The Democrats again redistricted Stark County for the 1884 election ; McKinley was returned to Congress anyway .
For 1890 , the Democrats gerrymandered McKinley one final time , placing Stark County in the same district as one of the strongest pro @-@ Democrat counties , Holmes , populated by solidly Democratic Pennsylvania Dutch . The new boundaries seemed good , based on past results , for a Democratic majority of 2000 to 3000 . The Republicans could not reverse the gerrymander as legislative elections would not be held until 1891 , but they could throw all their energies into the district , as the McKinley Tariff was a main theme of the Democratic campaign nationwide , and there was considerable attention paid to McKinley 's race . The Republican Party sent its leading orators to Canton , including Blaine ( then Secretary of State ) , Speaker Reed and President Harrison . The Democrats countered with their best spokesmen on tariff issues . McKinley tirelessly stumped his new district , reaching out to its 40 @,@ 000 voters to explain that his tariff
was framed for the people ... as a defense to their industries , as a protection to the labor of their hands , as a safeguard to the happy homes of American workingmen , and as a security to their education , their wages , and their investments ... It will bring to this country a prosperity unparalleled in our own history and unrivalled in the history of the world . "
Democrats ran a strong candidate in former lieutenant governor John G. Warwick . To drive their point home , they hired young partisans to pretend to be peddlers , who went door to door offering 25 @-@ cent tinware to housewives for 50 cents , explaining the rise in prices was due to the McKinley Tariff . In the end , McKinley lost by 300 votes , but the Republicans won a statewide majority and claimed a moral victory .
= = = Governor of Ohio = = =
Even before McKinley completed his term in Congress , he met with a delegation of Ohioans urging him to run for governor . Governor James E. Campbell , a Democrat , who had defeated Foraker in 1889 , was to seek re @-@ election in 1891 . The Ohio Republican party remained divided , but McKinley quietly arranged for Foraker to nominate him at the 1891 state Republican convention , which chose McKinley by acclamation . The former congressman spent much of the second half of 1891 campaigning against Campbell , beginning in his birthplace of Niles . Hanna , however , was little seen in the campaign ; he spent much of his time raising funds for the election of legislators pledged to vote for Sherman in the 1892 senatorial election . McKinley won the 1891 election by some 20 @,@ 000 votes ; the following January , Sherman , with considerable assistance from Hanna , turned back a challenge by Foraker to win the legislature 's vote for another term in the Senate .
Ohio 's governor had relatively little power — for example , he could recommend legislation , but not veto it — but with Ohio a key swing state , its governor was a major figure in national politics . Although McKinley believed that the health of the nation depended on that of business , he was evenhanded in dealing with labor . He procured legislation that set up an arbitration board to settle work disputes and obtained passage of a law that fined employers who fired workers for belonging to a union .
President Harrison had proven unpopular ; there were divisions even within the Republican party as the year 1892 began and Harrison began his re @-@ election drive . Although no declared candidate opposed Harrison , many Republicans were ready to dump the President from the ticket if an alternative emerged . Among the possible candidates spoken of were McKinley , Reed , and the aging Blaine . Fearing that the Ohio governor would emerge as a candidate , Harrison 's managers arranged for McKinley to be permanent chairman of the convention in Minneapolis , requiring him to play a public , neutral role . Hanna established an unofficial McKinley headquarters near the convention hall , though no active effort was made to convert delegates to McKinley 's cause . McKinley objected to delegate votes being cast for him ; nevertheless he finished third , behind the renominated Harrison , and behind Blaine , who had sent word he did not want to be considered . Although McKinley campaigned loyally for the Republican ticket , Harrison was defeated by former President Cleveland in the November election . In the wake of Cleveland 's victory , McKinley was seen by some as the likely Republican candidate in 1896 .
Soon after Cleveland 's return to office , hard times struck the nation with the Panic of 1893 . A businessman in Youngstown , Robert Walker , had lent money to McKinley in their younger days ; in gratitude , McKinley had often guaranteed Walker 's borrowings for his business . The governor had never kept track of what he was signing ; he believed Walker a sound businessman . In fact , Walker had deceived McKinley , telling him that new notes were actually renewals of matured ones . Walker was ruined by the recession ; McKinley was called upon for repayment in February 1893 . The total owed was over $ 100 @,@ 000 and a despairing McKinley initially proposed to resign as governor and earn the money as an attorney . Instead , McKinley 's wealthy supporters , including Hanna and Chicago publisher H. H. Kohlsaat , became trustees of a fund from which the notes would be paid . Both William and Ida McKinley placed their property in the hands of the fund 's trustees ( who included Hanna and Kohlsaat ) , and the supporters raised and contributed a substantial sum of money . All of the couple 's property was returned to them by the end of 1893 , and when McKinley , who had promised eventual repayment , asked for the list of contributors , it was refused him . Many people who had suffered in the hard times sympathized with McKinley , whose popularity grew . He was easily re @-@ elected in November 1893 , receiving the largest percentage of the vote of any Ohio governor since the Civil War .
McKinley campaigned widely for Republicans in the 1894 midterm congressional elections ; many party candidates in districts where he spoke were successful . His political efforts in Ohio were rewarded with the election in November 1895 of a Republican successor as governor , Asa Bushnell , and a Republican legislature that elected Foraker to the Senate . McKinley supported Foraker for Senate and Bushnell ( who was of Foraker 's faction ) for governor ; in return , the new senator @-@ elect agreed to back McKinley 's presidential ambitions . With party peace in Ohio assured , McKinley turned to the national arena .
= = Election of 1896 = =
= = = Obtaining the nomination = = =
It is unclear when William McKinley began to seriously prepare a run for president . As Phillips notes , " no documents , no diaries , no confidential letters to Mark Hanna ( or anyone else ) contain his secret hopes or veiled stratagems . " From the beginning , McKinley 's preparations had the participation of Hanna , whose biographer William T. Horner noted , " what is certainly true is that in 1888 the two men began to develop a close working relationship that helped put McKinley in the White House . " Sherman did not run for president again after 1888 , and so Hanna could support McKinley 's ambitions for that office wholeheartedly .
Backed by Hanna 's money and organizational skills , McKinley quietly built support for a presidential bid through 1895 and early 1896 . When other contenders such as Speaker Reed and Iowa Senator William B. Allison sent agents outside their states to organize Republicans in support of their candidacies , they found that Hanna 's agents had preceded them . According to historian Stanley Jones in his study of the 1896 election ,
Another feature common to the Reed and Allison campaigns was their failure to make headway against the tide which was running toward McKinley . In fact , both campaigns from the moment they were launched were in retreat . The calm confidence with which each candidate claimed the support of his own section [ of the country ] soon gave way to ... bitter accusations that Hanna by winning support for McKinley in their sections had violated the rules of the game .
Hanna , on McKinley 's behalf , met with the eastern Republican political bosses , such as Senators Thomas Platt of New York and Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania , who were willing to guarantee McKinley 's nomination in exchange for promises regarding patronage and offices . McKinley , however , was determined to obtain the nomination without making deals , and Hanna accepted that decision . Many of their early efforts were focused on the South ; Hanna obtained a vacation home in southern Georgia where McKinley visited and met with Republican politicians from the region . McKinley needed 453 ½ delegate votes to gain the nomination ; he gained nearly half that number from the South and border states . Platt lamented in his memoirs , " [ Hanna ] had the South practically solid before some of us awakened . "
The bosses still hoped to deny McKinley a first @-@ ballot majority at the convention by boosting support for local favorite son candidates such as Quay , New York Governor ( and former vice president ) Levi P. Morton , and Illinois Senator Shelby Cullom . Delegate @-@ rich Illinois proved a crucial battleground , as McKinley supporters , such as Chicago businessman ( and future vice president ) Charles G. Dawes , sought to elect delegates pledged to vote for McKinley at the national convention in St. Louis . Cullom proved unable to stand against McKinley despite the support of local Republican machines ; at the state convention at the end of April , McKinley completed a near @-@ sweep of Illinois ' delegates . Former president Harrison had been deemed a possible contender if he entered the race ; when Harrison made it known he would not seek a third nomination , the McKinley organization took control of Indiana with a speed Harrison privately found unseemly . Morton operatives who journeyed to Indiana sent word back that they had found the state alive for McKinley . Wyoming Senator Francis Warren wrote , " The politicians are making a hard fight against him , but if the masses could speak , McKinley is the choice of at least 75 % of the entire [ body of ] Republican voters in the Union " .
By the time the national convention began in St. Louis on June 16 , 1896 , McKinley had an ample majority of delegates . The former governor , who remained in Canton , followed events at the convention closely by telephone , and was able to hear part of Foraker 's speech nominating him over the line . When Ohio was reached in the roll call of states , its votes gave McKinley the nomination , which he celebrated by hugging his wife and mother as his friends fled the house , anticipating the first of many crowds that gathered at the Republican candidate 's home . Thousands of partisans came from Canton and surrounding towns that evening to hear McKinley speak from his front porch . The convention nominated Republican National Committee vice chairman Garret Hobart of New Jersey for vice president , a choice actually made , by most accounts , by Hanna . Hobart , a wealthy lawyer , businessman , and former state legislator , was not widely known , but as Hanna biographer Herbert Croly pointed out , " if he did little to strengthen the ticket he did nothing to weaken it " .
= = = General election campaign = = =
Before the Republican convention , McKinley had been a " straddle bug " on the currency question , favoring moderate positions on silver such as accomplishing bimetallism by international agreement . In the final days before the convention , McKinley decided , after hearing from politicians and businessmen , that the platform should endorse the gold standard , though it should allow for bimetallism by international agreement . Adoption of the platform caused some western delegates , led by Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller , to walk out of the convention . However , compared with the Democrats , Republican divisions on the issue were small , especially as McKinley promised future concessions to silver advocates .
The bad economic times had continued , and strengthened the hand of forces for free silver . The issue bitterly divided the Democratic Party ; President Cleveland firmly supported the gold standard , but an increasing number of rural Democrats wanted silver , especially in the South and West . The silverites took control of the 1896 Democratic National Convention and chose William Jennings Bryan for president ; he had electrified the delegates with his Cross of Gold speech . Bryan 's financial radicalism shocked bankers — they thought his inflationary program would bankrupt the railroads and ruin the economy . Hanna approached them for support for his strategy to win the election , and they gave $ 3 @.@ 5 million for speakers and over 200 million pamphlets advocating the Republican position on the money and tariff questions .
Bryan 's campaign had at most an estimated $ 500 @,@ 000 . With his eloquence and youthful energy his major assets in the race , Bryan decided on a whistle @-@ stop political tour by train on an unprecedented scale . Hanna urged McKinley to match Bryan 's tour with one of his own ; the candidate declined on the grounds that the Democrat was a better stump speaker : " I might just as well set up a trapeze on my front lawn and compete with some professional athlete as go out speaking against Bryan . I have to think when I speak . " Instead of going to the people , McKinley would remain at home in Canton and allow the people to come to him ; according to historian R. Hal Williams in his book on the 1896 election , " it was , as it turned out , a brilliant strategy . McKinley 's ' Front Porch Campaign ' became a legend in American political history . "
McKinley made himself available to the public every day except Sunday , receiving delegations from the front porch of his home . The railroads subsidized the visitors with low excursion rates — the pro @-@ silver Cleveland Plain Dealer disgustedly stated that going to Canton had been made " cheaper than staying at home " . Delegations marched through the streets from the railroad station to McKinley 's home on North Market Street . Once there , they crowded close to the front porch — from which they surreptitiously whittled souvenirs — as their spokesman addressed McKinley . The candidate then responded , speaking on campaign issues in a speech molded to suit the interest of the delegation . The speeches were carefully scripted to avoid extemporaneous remarks ; even the spokesman 's remarks were approved by McKinley or a representative . This was done as the candidate feared an offhand comment by another that might rebound on him .
Most Democratic newspapers refused to support Bryan , the major exception being the New York Journal , controlled by William Randolph Hearst , whose fortune was based on silver mines . In biased reporting and through the sharp cartoons of Homer Davenport , Hanna was viciously characterized as a plutocrat , trampling on labor . McKinley was drawn as a child , easily controlled by big business . Even today , these depictions still color the images of Hanna and McKinley : one as a heartless businessman , the other as a creature of Hanna and others of his ilk .
The Democrats had pamphlets too , though not as many . Jones analyzed how voters responded to the education campaigns of the two parties :
For the people it was a campaign of study and analysis , of exhortation and conviction — a campaign of search for economic and political truth . Pamphlets tumbled from the presses , to be read , reread , studied , debated , to become guides to economic thought and political action . They were printed and distributed by the million ... but the people hankered for more . Favorite pamphlets became dog @-@ eared , grimy , fell apart as their owners laboriously restudied their arguments and quoted from them in public and private debate .
The battleground proved to be the Midwest — the South and most of the West were conceded to Bryan — and the Democrat spent much of his time in those crucial states . The Northeast was considered most likely safe for McKinley after the early @-@ voting states of Maine and Vermont supported him in September . By then , it was clear that public support for silver had receded , and McKinley began to emphasize the tariff issue . By the end of September , the Republicans had discontinued printing material on the silver issue , and were entirely concentrating on the tariff question . On November 3 , 1896 , the voters had their say in most of the nation . McKinley won the entire Northeast and Midwest ; he won 51 % of the vote and an ample majority in the Electoral College . Bryan had concentrated entirely on the silver issue , and had not appealed to urban workers . Voters in cities supported McKinley ; the only city outside the South of more than 100 @,@ 000 population carried by Bryan was Denver , Colorado .
The 1896 presidential election is often seen as a realigning election , in which McKinley 's view of a stronger central government building American industry through protective tariffs and a dollar based on gold triumphed . The voting patterns established then displaced the near @-@ deadlock the major parties had seen since the Civil War ; the Republican dominance begun then would continue until 1932 , another realigning election with the ascent of Franklin Roosevelt . Phillips argues that , with the possible exception of Iowa Senator Allison , McKinley was the only Republican who could have defeated Bryan — he theorized that eastern candidates such as Morton or Reed would have done badly against the Illinois @-@ born Bryan in the crucial Midwest . According to the biographer , though Bryan was popular among rural voters , " McKinley appealed to a very different industrialized , urbanized America . "
= = Presidency ( 1897 – 1901 ) = =
= = = Inauguration and appointments = = =
McKinley was sworn in as president on March 4 , 1897 , as his wife and mother looked on . The new President gave a lengthy inaugural address ; he urged tariff reform , and stated that the currency issue would have to await tariff legislation . He warned against foreign interventions , " We want no wars of conquest . We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression . "
McKinley 's most controversial Cabinet appointment was that of John Sherman as Secretary of State . Sherman was not McKinley 's first choice for the position ; he initially offered it to Senator Allison . One consideration in Senator Sherman 's appointment was to provide a place in the Senate for Hanna ( who had turned down a Cabinet position as Postmaster General ) . As Sherman had served as Secretary of the Treasury under Hayes , only the State position , the leading Cabinet post , was likely to entice him from the Senate . Sherman 's mental faculties were decaying even in 1896 ; this was widely spoken of in political circles , but McKinley did not believe the rumors . Nevertheless , McKinley sent his cousin , William McKinley Osborne , to have dinner with the 73 @-@ year @-@ old senator ; he reported back that Sherman seemed as lucid as ever . McKinley wrote once the appointment was announced , " the stories regarding Senator Sherman 's ' mental decay ' are without foundation ... When I saw him last I was convinced both of his perfect health , physically and mentally , and that the prospects of life were remarkably good . "
After some difficulties , Ohio Governor Bushnell appointed Hanna to the Senate . Once in Cabinet office , Sherman 's mental incapacity became increasingly apparent . He was often bypassed by his first assistant , McKinley 's Canton crony Judge William Day , and by the second secretary , Alvey A. Adee . Day , an Ohio lawyer unfamiliar with diplomacy , was often reticent in meetings ; Adee was somewhat deaf . One diplomat characterized the arrangement , " the head of the department knew nothing , the first assistant said nothing , and the second assistant heard nothing " .
Maine Congressman Nelson Dingley Jr. was McKinley 's choice for Secretary of the Treasury ; he declined it , preferring to remain as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee . Charles Dawes , who had been Hanna 's lieutenant in Chicago during the campaign , was considered for the Treasury post but by some accounts Dawes considered himself too young . Dawes eventually became Comptroller of the Currency ; he recorded in his published diary that he had strongly urged McKinley to appoint as secretary the successful candidate , Lyman J. Gage , president of the First National Bank of Chicago and a Gold Democrat . The Navy Department was offered to former Massachusetts Congressman John Davis Long , an old friend from the House , on January 30 , 1897 . Although McKinley was initially inclined to allow Long to choose his own assistant , there was considerable pressure on the President @-@ elect to appoint Theodore Roosevelt , head of the New York City Police Commission and a former state assemblyman . McKinley was reluctant , stating to one Roosevelt booster , " I want peace and I am told that your friend Theodore is always getting into rows with everybody . " Nevertheless , he made the appointment .
In addition to Sherman , McKinley made one other ill @-@ advised Cabinet appointment , that of Secretary of War , which fell to Russell A. Alger , former general and Michigan governor . Competent enough in peacetime , Alger proved inadequate once the conflict with Spain began . With the War Department plagued by scandal , Alger resigned at McKinley 's request in mid @-@ 1899 . Vice President Hobart , as was customary at the time , was not invited to Cabinet meetings . However , he proved a valuable adviser both for McKinley and for his Cabinet members . The wealthy Vice President leased a residence close to the White House ; the two families visited each other without formality , and the Vice President 's wife , Jennie Tuttle Hobart , sometimes substituted as Executive Mansion hostess when Ida McKinley was unwell . For most of McKinley 's administration , George B. Cortelyou served as his personal secretary . Cortelyou , who served in three Cabinet positions under Theodore Roosevelt , became a combination press secretary and chief of staff to McKinley .
= = = War with Spain = = =
For decades , rebels in Cuba had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule . By 1895 , the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence . As war engulfed the island , Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew ever harsher . These included the removal of Cubans to internment camps near Spanish military bases , a strategy designed to make it hard for the rebels to receive support in the countryside . American opinion favored the rebels , and McKinley shared in their outrage against Spanish policies . As many of his countrymen called for war to liberate Cuba , McKinley favored a peaceful approach , hoping that through negotiation , Spain might be convinced to grant Cuba independence , or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy . The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897 , but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence , while the rebels ( and their American supporters ) would never settle for anything less .
In January 1898 , Spain promised some concessions to the rebels , but when American consul Fitzhugh Lee reported riots in Havana , McKinley agreed to send the battleship USS Maine there to protect American lives and property . On February 15 , the Maine exploded and sank with 266 men killed . Public opinion and the newspapers demanded war , but McKinley insisted that a court of inquiry first determine whether the explosion was accidental . Negotiations with Spain continued as the court considered the evidence , but on March 20 , the court ruled that the Maine was blown up by an underwater mine . As pressure for war mounted in Congress , McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence . Spain refused McKinley 's proposals , and on April 11 , McKinley turned the matter over to Congress . He did not ask for war , but Congress declared war anyway on April 20 , with the addition of the Teller Amendment , which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba .
The expansion of the telegraph and the development of the telephone gave McKinley a greater control over the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed , and he used the new technologies to direct the army 's and navy 's movements as far as he was able . McKinley found Alger inadequate as Secretary of War , and did not get along with the Army 's commanding general , Nelson A. Miles . Bypassing them , he looked for strategic advice first from Miles 's predecessor , General John Schofield , and later from Adjutant General Henry Clarke Corbin . The war led to a change in McKinley 's cabinet , as the President accepted Sherman 's resignation as Secretary of State ; Day agreed to serve as Secretary until the war 's end .
Within a fortnight , the navy had its first victory when the Asiatic Squadron , led by Commodore George Dewey , engaged the Spanish navy at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines , destroying the enemy force without the loss of a single American vessel . Dewey 's overwhelming victory expanded the scope of the war from one centered in the Caribbean to one that would determine the fate of all of Spain 's Pacific colonies . The next month , he increased the number of troops sent to the Philippines and granted the force 's commander , Major General Wesley Merritt , the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes — necessities for a long occupation . By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898 , McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender the archipelago to the United States . He professed to be open to all views on the subject ; however , he believed that as the war progressed , the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war .
Meanwhile , in the Caribbean theater , a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near Tampa , Florida , for an invasion of Cuba . The army faced difficulties in supplying the rapidly expanding force even before they departed for Cuba , but by June , Corbin had made progress in resolving the problems . After lengthy delays , the army , led by Major General William Rufus Shafter , sailed from Florida on June 20 , landing near Santiago de Cuba two days later . Following a skirmish at Las Guasimas on June 24 , Shafter 's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the Battle of San Juan Hill . In an intense day @-@ long battle , the American force was victorious , although both sides suffered heavy casualties . The next day , the Spanish Caribbean squadron , which had been sheltering in Santiago 's harbor , broke for the open sea but was intercepted and destroyed by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson 's North Atlantic Squadron in the largest naval battle of the war . Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago , which surrendered on July 17 , placing Cuba under effective American control . McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of Puerto Rico , which met little resistance when it landed in July . The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible , and the Spanish government began to look for a way to end the war .
= = = Peace and territorial gain = = =
On July 22 , the Spanish authorized Jules Cambon , the French Ambassador to the United States , to represent Spain in negotiating peace . The Spanish initially wished to restrict the discussion to Cuba , but were quickly forced to recognize that their other possessions would be claimed as spoils of war . McKinley 's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico , but they disagreed on the Philippines , with some wishing to annex the entire archipelago and some wishing only to retain a naval base in the area . Although public sentiment seemed to favor annexation of the Philippines , several prominent political leaders – including Bryan , ex @-@ President Grover Cleveland , and the newly formed American Anti @-@ Imperialist League – made their opposition known .
McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation , with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion . He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever . Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12 , and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898 . The talks continued until December 18 , when the Treaty of Paris was signed . The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of Guam , and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba ; in exchange , the United States agreed to pay Spain $ 20 million . McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two @-@ thirds vote , but his lobbying , and that of Vice President Hobart , eventually saw success , as the Senate voted in favor on February 6 , 1899 , 57 to 27 .
During the war , McKinley also pursued the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii . The new republic , dominated by American interests , had seized power from the royal government in 1893 . The lame @-@ duck Harrison administration had submitted a treaty of annexation to the Senate ; Cleveland , once he returned to office , had sent a special commission to the islands . After receiving the report , Cleveland withdrew the treaty , stating that the revolution did not reflect the will of Hawaiian citizens . Nevertheless , many Americans favored annexation , and the cause gained momentum as the United States became embroiled in war with Spain . McKinley came to office as a supporter of annexation , and lobbied Congress to adopt his opinion , believing that to do nothing would invite a royalist counter @-@ revolution or a Japanese takeover . Foreseeing difficulty in getting two @-@ thirds of the Senate to approve a treaty of annexation , McKinley instead supported the effort of Democratic Representative Francis G. Newlands of Nevada to accomplish the result by joint resolution of both houses of Congress . The resulting Newlands Resolution passed both houses by wide margins , and McKinley signed it into law on July 8 , 1898 . McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan notes , " McKinley was the guiding spirit behind the annexation of Hawaii , showing ... a firmness in pursuing it " ; the President told Cortelyou , " We need Hawaii just as much and a good deal more than we did California . It is manifest destiny . " Wake Island , an uninhabited atoll between Hawaii and Guam , was claimed for the United States on July 12 , 1898 .
= = = Expanding influence overseas = = =
In acquiring Pacific possessions for the United States , McKinley expanded the nation 's ability to compete for trade in China . Even before peace negotiations began with Spain , McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in the region and espoused an " Open Door Policy " , in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation 's territorial integrity . When John Hay replaced Day as Secretary of State at the end of the war , he circulated notes to that effect to the European powers . Great Britain favored the idea , but Russia opposed it ; France , Germany , Italy and Japan agreed in principle , but only if all the other nations signed on .
Trade with China became imperiled shortly thereafter as the Boxer Rebellion menaced foreigners and their property in China . Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and , in cooperation with other western powers , McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition . The westerners were rescued the next month , but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature . McKinley 's actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military . After the rebellion ended , the United States reaffirmed its commitment to the Open Door policy , which became the basis of American policy toward China .
Closer to home , McKinley and Hay engaged in negotiations with Britain over the possible construction of a canal across Central America . The Clayton – Bulwer Treaty , which the two nations signed in 1850 , prohibited either from establishing exclusive control over a canal there . The war had exposed the difficulty of maintaining a two @-@ ocean navy without a connection closer than Cape Horn . Now , with American business and military interests even more involved in Asia , a canal seemed more essential than ever , and McKinley pressed for a renegotiation of the treaty . Hay and the British ambassador , Julian Pauncefote , agreed that the United States could control a future canal , provided that it was open to all shipping and not fortified . McKinley was satisfied with the terms , but the Senate rejected them , demanding that the United States be allowed to fortify the canal . Hay was embarrassed by the rebuff and offered his resignation , but McKinley refused it and ordered him to continue negotiations to achieve the Senate 's demands . He was successful , and a new treaty was drafted and approved , but not before McKinley 's assassination in 1901 .
= = = Tariffs and bimetallism = = =
Two of the great issues of the day , tariff reform and free silver , became intertwined in 1897 . Ways and Means chairman Dingley introduced a new tariff bill ( later called the Dingley Act ) to revise the Wilson – Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 . McKinley supported the bill , which increased tariffs on wool , sugar , and luxury goods , but the proposed new rates alarmed the French , who exported many luxury items to the United States . The Dingley Act passed the House easily , but was delayed in the Senate as they assessed the French objections . French representatives offered to cooperate with the United States in developing an international agreement on bimetallism if the new tariff rates were reduced ; this pleased silverite Republicans in the Senate , whose votes were necessary for passage . The Senate amended the bill to allow limited reciprocity ( giving France some possibility of relief ) , but did not reduce the rates on luxury goods . McKinley signed the bill into law and agreed to begin negotiations on an international bimetallism standard .
American negotiators soon concluded a reciprocity treaty with France , and the two nations approached Britain to gauge British enthusiasm for bimetallism . The Prime Minister , Lord Salisbury , and his government showed some interest in the idea and told the American envoy , Edward O. Wolcott , that he would be amenable to reopening the mints in India to silver coinage if the Viceroy 's Executive Council there agreed . News of a possible departure from the gold standard stirred up immediate opposition from its partisans , and misgivings by the Indian administration led Britain to reject the proposal . With the international effort a failure , McKinley turned away from silver coinage and embraced the gold standard . Even without the agreement , agitation for free silver eased as prosperity began to return to the United States and gold from recent strikes in the Yukon and Australia increased the monetary supply even without silver coinage . In the absence of international agreement , McKinley favored legislation to formally affirm the gold standard , but was initially deterred by the silver strength in the Senate . By 1900 , with another campaign ahead and good economic conditions , McKinley urged Congress to pass such a law , and was able to sign the Gold Standard Act on March 14 , 1900 , using a gold pen to do so .
= = = Civil rights = = =
In the wake of McKinley 's election in 1896 , African Americans were hopeful of progress towards equality . McKinley had spoken out against lynching while governor , and most African Americans who could vote supported him in 1896 . McKinley 's priority , however , was in ending sectionalism , and they were disappointed by his policies and appointments . Although McKinley made some appointments of African Americans to low @-@ level government posts , and received some praise for that , the appointments were less than they had received under previous Republican administrations . Blanche K. Bruce , an African American who during Reconstruction had served as senator from Mississippi , received the post of register at the Treasury Department ; this post was traditionally given to an African American by Republican presidents . McKinley appointed several black postmasters ; however , when whites protested the appointment of Justin W. Lyons as postmaster of Augusta , Georgia , McKinley asked Lyons to withdraw ( he was subsequently given the post of Treasury register after Bruce 's death in 1898 ) . The President did appoint George B. Jackson , a former slave , to the post of customs collector in Presidio , Texas . However , African Americans in northern states felt that their contributions to McKinley 's victory were overlooked ; few were appointed to office .
The administration 's response to racial violence was minimal , causing him to lose black support . When black postmasters at Hogansville , Georgia in 1897 , and at Lake City , South Carolina the following year , were assaulted , McKinley issued no statement of condemnation . Although black leaders criticized McKinley for inaction , supporters responded by saying there was little the president could do to intervene . Critics replied by saying that he could at least publicly condemn such events , as Harrison had done .
According to historian Clarance A. Bacote , " Before the Spanish – American War , the Negroes , in spite of some mistakes , regarded McKinley as the best friend they ever had . " African Americans saw the onset of war in 1898 as an opportunity to display their patriotism ; and black soldiers fought bravely at El Caney and San Juan Hill . African Americans in the peacetime Army had formed elite units ; nevertheless they were harassed by whites as they traveled from the West to Tampa for embarkation to the war . Under pressure from black leaders , McKinley required the War Department to commission black officers above the rank of lieutenant . The heroism of the black troops did not still racial tensions in the South , as the second half of 1898 saw several outbreaks of racial violence ; 11 African Americans were killed in riots in Wilmington , North Carolina . McKinley toured the South in late 1898 , hoping for sectional reconciliation . In addition to visiting Tuskegee Institute and black educator Booker T. Washington , he addressed the Georgia legislature , wearing a badge of gray , and visited Confederate memorials . In his tour of the South , McKinley did not mention the racial tensions or violence . Although the President received a rapturous reception from Southern whites , many African Americans , excluded from official welcoming committees , felt alienated by the President 's words and actions .
According to Gould and later biographer Phillips , given the political climate in the South , with white legislatures passing segregationist laws such as that upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson , there was little McKinley could have done to improve race relations , and he did better than later presidents Theodore Roosevelt , who doubted racial equality , and Woodrow Wilson , who supported segregation . However , Gould concluded , " McKinley lacked the vision to transcend the biases of his day and to point toward a better future for all Americans " .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
After the retirement of Justice Stephen Johnson Field , McKinley appointed Attorney General Joseph McKenna to the Supreme Court of the United States in December 1897 . The appointment aroused some controversy as McKenna 's critics in the Senate said he was too closely associated with railroad interests and lacked the qualifications of a Supreme Court justice . Despite the objections , McKenna 's nomination was approved unanimously . McKenna responded to the criticism of his legal education by taking some courses at Columbia Law School for several months before taking his seat . Along with his Supreme Court appointment , McKinley appointed six judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 28 judges to the United States district courts .
= = = 1900 election = = =
Republicans were generally successful in state and local elections around the country in 1899 , and McKinley was optimistic about his chances at re @-@ election in 1900 . McKinley 's popularity in his first term assured him of renomination for a second . The only question about the Republican ticket concerned the vice presidential nomination ; McKinley needed a new running mate as Hobart had died in late 1899 . McKinley initially favored Elihu Root , who had succeeded Alger as Secretary of War , but McKinley decided that Root was doing too good a job at the War Department to move him . He considered other prominent candidates , including Allison and Cornelius N. Bliss , but none were as popular as the Republican party 's rising star , Theodore Roosevelt . After a stint as Assistant Secretary of the Navy , Roosevelt had resigned and raised a cavalry regiment ; they fought bravely in Cuba , and Roosevelt returned home covered in glory . Elected governor of New York on a reform platform in 1898 , Roosevelt had his eye on the presidency . Many supporters recommended him to McKinley for the second spot on the ticket , and Roosevelt believed it would be an excellent stepping stone to the presidency in 1904 . McKinley remained uncommitted in public , but Hanna was firmly opposed to the New York governor . The Ohio senator considered the New Yorker overly impulsive ; his stance was undermined by the efforts of political boss and New York Senator Thomas Platt , who , disliking Roosevelt 's reform agenda , sought to sideline the governor by making him vice president .
When the Republican convention began in Philadelphia that June , no vice presidential candidate had overwhelming support , but Roosevelt had the broadest range of support from around the country . McKinley affirmed that the choice belonged to the convention , not to him . On June 21 , McKinley was unanimously renominated and , with Hanna 's reluctant acquiescence , Roosevelt was nominated for vice president on the first ballot . The Democratic convention convened the next month in Kansas City and nominated William Jennings Bryan , setting up a rematch of the 1896 contest .
The candidates were the same , but the issues of the campaign had shifted : free silver was still a question that animated many voters , but the Republicans focused on victory in war and prosperity at home as issues they believed favored their party . Democrats knew the war had been popular , even if the imperialism issue was less sure , so they focused on the issue of trusts and corporate power , painting McKinley as the servant of capital and big business . As in 1896 , Bryan embarked on a speaking tour around the country while McKinley stayed at home , this time making only one speech , to accept his nomination . Roosevelt emerged as the campaign 's primary speaker and Hanna helped the cause working to settle a coal miners strike in Pennsylvania . Bryan 's campaigning failed to excite the voters as it had in 1896 , and McKinley never doubted that he would be re @-@ elected . On November 6 , 1900 , he was proven correct , winning the largest victory for any Republican since 1872 . Bryan carried only four states outside the solid South , and McKinley even won Bryan 's home state of Nebraska .
= = = Second term = = =
Soon after his second inauguration on March 4 , 1901 , William and Ida McKinley undertook a six @-@ week tour of the nation . Traveling mostly by rail , the McKinleys were to travel through the South to the Southwest , and then up the Pacific coast and east again , to conclude with a visit on June 13 , 1901 , to the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . However , the First Lady fell ill in California , causing her husband to limit his public events and cancel a series of speeches he had planned to give urging trade reciprocity . He also postponed the visit to the fair until September , planning a month in Washington and two in Canton before the Buffalo visit .
= = = Assassination and death throes = = =
Although McKinley enjoyed meeting the public , Cortelyou was concerned with his security due to recent assassinations by anarchists in Europe , such as the assassination of King Umberto I of Italy the previous year , and twice tried to remove a public reception from the President 's rescheduled visit to the Exposition . McKinley refused , and Cortelyou arranged for additional security for the trip . On September 5 , the President delivered his address at the fairgrounds , before a crowd of some 50 @,@ 000 people . In his final speech , McKinley urged reciprocity treaties with other nations to assure American manufacturers access to foreign markets . He intended the speech as a keynote to his plans for a second term .
One man in the crowd , Leon Czolgosz , hoped to assassinate McKinley . He had managed to get close to the presidential podium , but did not fire , uncertain of hitting his target . Czolgosz , since hearing a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman in Cleveland , had decided to do something heroic ( in his own mind ) for the cause . After his failure to get close enough on the fifth , Czolgosz waited the next day at the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds , where the President was to meet the public . Czolgosz concealed his gun in a handkerchief , and , when he reached the head of the line , shot McKinley twice in the abdomen .
McKinley urged his aides to break the news gently to Ida , and to call off the mob that had set on Czolgosz — a request that may have saved his assassin 's life . McKinley was taken to the Exposition aid station , where the doctor was unable to locate the second bullet . Although a primitive X @-@ ray machine was being exhibited on the Exposition grounds , it was not used . McKinley was taken to the Milburn House .
In the days after the shooting McKinley appeared to improve . Doctors issued increasingly optimistic bulletins . Members of the Cabinet , who had rushed to Buffalo on hearing the news , dispersed ; Vice President Roosevelt departed on a camping trip to the Adirondacks . Leech wrote ,
It is difficult to interpret the optimism with which the President 's physicians looked for his recovery . There was obviously the most serious danger that his wounds would become septic . In that case , he would almost certainly die , since drugs to control infection did not exist ... [ Prominent New York City physician ] Dr. McBurney was by far the worst offender in showering sanguine assurances on the correspondents . As the only big @-@ city surgeon on the case , he was eagerly questioned and quoted , and his rosy prognostications largely contributed to the delusion of the American public .
Unknown to the doctors , the gangrene that would kill him was growing on the walls of his stomach , slowly poisoning his blood . On the morning of September 13 , McKinley took a turn for the worse . Relatives and friends gathered around the death bed . At 2 : 15 a.m. on September 14 , President McKinley died . Theodore Roosevelt had rushed back and took the oath of office as president in Buffalo . Czolgosz , put on trial for murder nine days after McKinley 's death , was found guilty , sentenced to death on September 26 , and executed by electric chair on October 29 , 1901 .
= = Funeral , memorials , and legacy = =
= = = Funeral and resting place = = =
According to Gould , " The nation experienced a wave of genuine grief at the news of McKinley 's passing . " The stock market , faced with sudden uncertainty , suffered a steep decline — almost unnoticed in the mourning . The nation focused its attention on the casket that made its way by train , first to Washington , where it first lay in the East Room of the Executive Mansion , and then in state in the Capitol , and then was taken to Canton . A hundred thousand people passed by the open casket in the Capitol Rotunda , many having waited hours in the rain ; in Canton , an equal number did the same at the Stark County Courthouse on September 18 . The following day , a funeral service was held at the First Methodist Church ; the casket was then sealed and taken to the McKinley house , where relatives paid their final respects . It was then transported to the receiving vault at West Lawn Cemetery in Canton , to await the construction of the memorial to McKinley already being planned .
There was a widespread expectation that Ida McKinley would not long survive her husband ; one family friend stated , as William McKinley lay dying , that they should be prepared for a double funeral . This did not occur ; the former first lady accompanied her husband on the funeral train . Leech noted " the circuitous journey was a cruel ordeal for the woman who huddled in a compartment of the funeral train , praying that the Lord would take her with her Dearest Love " . She was thought too weak to attend the services in Washington or Canton , although she listened at the door to the service for her husband in her house on North Market Street . She remained in Canton for the remainder of her life , setting up a shrine in her house , and often visiting the receiving vault , until her death at age 59 on May 26 , 1907 . She died only months before the completion of the large marble monument to her husband in Canton , which was dedicated by President Roosevelt on September 30 , 1907 . William and Ida McKinley are interred there with their daughters , atop a hillside overlooking the city of Canton .
= = = Other memorials = = =
In addition to the Canton site there are many memorials to McKinley . There is a monument at his birthplace in Niles ; 20 Ohio schools bear his name . There are several schools in the United States named McKinley School . Nearly a million dollars was pledged by contributors or allocated from public funds for the construction of McKinley memorials in the year after his death . Phillips suggests the significant number of major memorials to McKinley in Ohio reflected the expectation among Ohioans in the years after McKinley 's death that he would be ranked among the great presidents . Statues to him may be found in more than a dozen states ; his name has been bestowed on streets , civic organizations , and libraries . McKinley 's name is also used in the large inner @-@ city Honolulu , Hawaii high school , President William McKinley High School .
Denali , in central Alaska , was named Mount McKinley in support of the then newly minted Republican nominee for President until The Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain to Denali in 1975 , which is how it was called by locals . The mountain 's name was changed to Denali on the federal level by the Department of the Interior as a part of a visit to Alaska by President Barack Obama in August 2015 ; its summit , at 20 @,@ 310 feet ( 6 @,@ 190 m ) , is the highest point in North America . Similarly , until its name was changed to Denali National Park on December 2 , 1980 , under congressional legislation signed by President Jimmy Carter , the park in which it is located was known as Mount McKinley National Park .
= = = Legacy and historical image = = =
McKinley 's biographer , H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history . However , the young , enthusiastic Roosevelt quickly captured public attention after his predecessor 's death . The new president made little effort to secure the trade reciprocity McKinley had intended to negotiate with other nations . Controversy and public interest surrounded Roosevelt throughout the seven and a half years of his presidency as memories of McKinley faded ; by 1920 , according to Gould , McKinley 's administration was deemed no more than " a mediocre prelude to the vigor and energy of Theodore Roosevelt 's " . Beginning in the 1950s , McKinley received more favorable evaluations ; nevertheless , in surveys ranking American presidents , he has generally been placed near the middle , often trailing contemporaries such as Hayes and Cleveland . Morgan suggests that this relatively low ranking is due to a perception among historians that while many decisions during McKinley 's presidency profoundly affected the nation 's future , he more followed public opinion than led it , and that McKinley 's standing has suffered from altered public expectations of the presidency .
There has been broad agreement among historians that McKinley 's election was at the time of a transition between two political eras , dubbed the Third and Fourth Party Systems . Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to a pro @-@ business , industrial , and modernizing program , represented by McKinley . Historian Daniel P. Klinghard argued that McKinley 's personal control of the 1896 campaign gave him the opportunity to reshape the presidency — rather than simply follow the party platform — by representing himself as the voice of the people . However , more recently , as Republican political official Karl Rove exalted McKinley as the agent of sweeping political realignment in the 2000s , some scholars , such as David Mayhew , questioned whether the 1896 election truly represented a realignment , thereby placing in issue whether McKinley deserves credit for it . Historian Michael J. Korzi argued in 2005 that while it is tempting to see McKinley as the key figure in the transition from congressional domination of government to the modern , powerful president , this change was an incremental process through the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Phillips writes that McKinley 's low rating is undeserved , and that he should be ranked just after the great presidents such as Washington and Lincoln . He pointed to McKinley 's success at building an electoral coalition that kept the Republicans mostly in power for a generation . Phillips believes that part of McKinley 's legacy is the men he included in his administration , who dominated the Republican Party for a quarter century after his death . These officials included Cortelyou , who served in three Cabinet positions under Roosevelt , and Dawes , who became vice president under Coolidge . Other McKinley appointees who later became major figures include Day , who Roosevelt elevated to the Supreme Court where he remained nearly twenty years , and William Howard Taft , whom McKinley had made Governor @-@ General of the Philippines and who succeeded Roosevelt as president .
A controversial aspect of McKinley 's presidency is territorial expansion and the question of imperialism — with the exception of the Philippines , granted independence in 1946 , the United States retains the territories taken under McKinley . The territorial expansion of 1898 is often seen by historians as the beginning of American empire . Morgan sees that historical discussion as a subset of the debate over the rise of America as a world power ; he expects the debate over McKinley 's actions to continue indefinitely without resolution , and notes that however one judges McKinley 's actions in American expansion , one of his motivations was to change the lives of Filipinos and Cubans for the better .
Morgan alludes to the rise of interest in McKinley as part of the debate over the more assertive American foreign policy of recent decades :
McKinley was a major actor in some of the most important events in American history . His decisions shaped future policies and public attitudes . He usually rises in the estimation of scholars who study his life in detail . Even those who disagree with his policies and decisions see him as an active , responsible , informed participant in charge of decision making . His dignified demeanor and subtle operations keep him somewhat remote from public perception . But he is once again at the center of events , where he started .
= = Administration and cabinet = =
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= The Bog People =
The Bog People : Iron @-@ Age Man Preserved is an archaeological study of the bog bodies of Northern Europe written by the Danish archaeologist P.V. Glob . First published in 1965 by Gyldendal under the Danish title of Mosefolket : Jernalderens Mennersker bevaret i 2000 År , it was translated into English by the English archaeologist Rupert Bruce @-@ Mitford and published by Faber and Faber in 1969 . In 1966 it was translated into German by Thyra Dohrenburg and published by Winkler Werlag Munich under the title Die Schläfer im Moor ( English : The Sleepers in the Bog ) .
The Bog People is divided into six chapters . The first is devoted to Tollund Man , and the second to Grauballe Man , two of the best known Iron Age bog bodies to have been discovered in Jutland , Denmark . The third and fourth chapters are devoted to the wider context of bog bodies first in Denmark and then in other parts of Europe . The final two chapters are devoted to a wider exposition of life and death in Iron Age Denmark .
Glob 's book received positive reviews from both Barry Cunliffe in Nature and Ralph M. Rowlett in American Anthropologist . They praised Glob 's arguments as well as his writing style and use of illustrations , alongside Bruce @-@ Mitford 's translation . In subsequent decades , it has received both praise and criticism from specialists in the field , who have lauded the publicity which it brought to the subject , but rejected many of Glob 's conclusions as being based on insufficient evidence .
= = Synopsis = =
Chapter one , " The Tollund Man " , is devoted to the bog body of the same name that was discovered in 1950 in Tollund Fell , Bjaeldskov Dal in Jutland , Denmark . Glob discusses the excavation of the corpse , and his own personal involvement with the operation . Outlining the find 's removal to the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen , he then outlines the manner in which the head was conserved for public display at the Silkeborg Museum . Alongside this he also discusses the archaeological context of Tollund Man , examining the manner in which he was executed , his clothing , and the contents of his last meal . The second chapter , entitled " The Grauballe Man " , deals with the eponymous bog body found in 1952 at Nebelgård Fen , located 11 miles ( 18 km ) east of Tolland . Like with the previous chapter , Glob discusses his own personal investigation into the body , outlining its discovery and conservation , as well as the context of his death and burial .
In the third chapter , " Bog People in Denmark " , Glob notes that there have been over 150 bog bodies found in Denmark , and proceeds to provide a number of examples including Haraldskær Woman and the Borremose bodies , in doing so highlighting the similarities that exist between them . Noting that many of these were discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries , he explains that little can be known for most of them because methods of archaeological investigation and conservation were unavailable at the time . Chapter four , " Bog People in Other Countries " , explores similar bog bodies which have been discovered in neighbouring Germany and the Netherlands , such as Windeby I , making reference to the cataloging project undertaken by the German archaeologist Alfred Dieck .
" How They Lived " is the title of the fifth chapter , and explores the wider context of life in Iron Age Denmark , dealing with such issues as class divisions , houses and garments . The final chapter , " When Death Came " , looks at the place of death in Iron Age Denmark , outlining ordinary funerary remains , which include both cremation and inhumation . Contrasting these methods of dealing with the dead to the corpses left in the bogs , he argues that the latter must represent evidence for a widespread tradition of human sacrifice devoted to a fertility goddess , citing the writings of Tacitus as evidence .
= = Reception = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
The Nature journal published a review provided by the English archaeologist Barry Cunliffe of the University of Southampton . He expresses only one disappointment with Glob 's work , that there is what he sees as a lack of information on the daily life and social structure of Iron Age Denmark . He nevertheless feels compensated by the final chapter , which he describes as representing Glob " at his best , building @-@ up , in detective @-@ style fashion " , a picture of ritual behavior in the Iron Age . Praising the use of photographs as " brilliant " , he refers to the " attractive " translation of Bruce @-@ Mitford , and considers the overall effect to be " stimulating and provocative " . Summarizing The Bog People , he labels it a " splendid book , full of detail and fascination " for both specialists and a wider readership interested in archaeology .
Ralph M. Rowlett of the University of Missouri wrote a review of The Bog People for the journal American Anthropologist . He began his review by describing his background interest in bog bodies , and highlighting that he had married one of Glob 's graduate students . He proceeds to note that there is much in the book that would be of interest to anthropologists , and he hoped that they would not be put off by its use of " gossip and anecdote " and its " intensely personal and culturally ultra @-@ Danish tone " , which he attributes to Glob 's attempts to reach a wider , non @-@ academic audience . Praising Glob 's use of ethnohistory and epic literature to illuminate the Early Iron Age , he claims that The Bog People represents " one of the best modern ethnographic descriptions of the North Germani of that era " and that it furthermore provides evidence in support of Tacitus ' claims . Rowlett goes on to praise Bruce @-@ Mitford 's translation , but believes that he has a " slight tendency to over @-@ translate " with place names , and also disagrees with his decision to convert centimeters into inches . Ending his review , Rowlett notes that along with Alfred Deick 's catalog of bog bodies , The Bog People represented " a starter for a by no means exhausted field . "
= = = Wider reception = = =
In an academic paper discussing the bog bodies which was published in 1995 , C.S. Briggs criticised Glob for jumping to conclusions that were not supported by the evidence , exclaiming " Can Glob 's book today actually pass muster as responsible popular scholarship ? " . In particular , they highlighted that he ascribed many bodies to the Iron Age when they had not been securely carbon dated and that he overconfidently proclaimed the Drumkeeragh Lady from Medieval Ireland to be a Danish Viking despite a lack of supporting evidence .
In his 1996 book on bog bodies , Wijnand Van der Sanden paid homage to Glob 's The Bog Bodies , describing it as a " highly accessible work " which had done more than any other to bring publicity to the bog cadavers . Exclaiming that he was filled with admiration for the work , he noted that he wished that he himself had written it 30 years before . In their 2007 edited volume on the reinvestigation of Grauballe Man , Pauline Asingh and Niels Lynnerup stated that Glob 's book had represented a " major contribution " to the study of bog bodies which " awoke many people 's interest in prehistory " .
In her 2009 study of the cultural and artistic reception of the bog bodies , Karin Sanders noted that she had first become interested in archaeology through reading a copy of Mosefolket in her primary school 's library , near to Copenhagen . Proceeding to describe the book as " a classic " , she noted that even in the 21st century , it continued to offer the " source book " for artistic expressions of bog bodies . Proceeding to explore the influence of Glob 's tome , she noted that many artists and writers had used it as a basis for learning more about the bog bodies , to whom their works were dedicated , and that Glob himself had successfully blended an engaging narrative with archaeological information , and that he was " profoundly influenced by the potentiality of interaction between fact and fiction . "
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= Trespass in English law =
Trespass in English law is an area of tort law broadly divided into three groups : trespass to the person , trespass to goods and trespass to land .
Trespass to the person comes in three variants : assault , which is " to act in such a way that the claimant believes he is about to be attacked " ; battery , " the intentional and direct application of force to another person " ; and false imprisonment , " depriving the claimant of freedom of movement , without a lawful justification for doing so " . All three require that the act be a direct and intentional act , with indirect or unintentional acts falling under the tort of negligence . Battery and assault require the claimant to establish that the defendant intended to act , while false imprisonment is a tort of strict liability . The guiding principle behind all three is based on the statement of Goff , LJ , who stated in Collins v Wilcock that " any person 's body is inviolate " , excepting normal , day @-@ to @-@ day physical contact .
Trespass to goods is defined as " wrongful physical interference with goods that are in the possession of another " , and is covered not only by the common law , but also by the Torts ( Interference with Goods ) Act 1977 . The " trespass " can be as little as touching or moving the goods , given the right circumstances . It is unknown whether intention is required for a claim under trespass to goods , as the matter has never gone to court ; the courts have confirmed that for damages to be awarded for harm suffered , the harm must have been reasonably foreseeable .
Trespass to land involves the " unjustifiable interference with land which is in the immediate and exclusive possession of another " ; it is both a tort and , in certain circumstances , a crime under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 . It is not necessary to prove that harm was suffered to bring a claim , and is instead actionable per se . While most trespasses to land are intentional , the courts have decided that it could also be committed negligently . Accidental trespass also incurs liability .
= = Trespass to the person = =
The general principle is that a trespass to the person must be a direct and intentional act , while if it was indirect or unintentional the tort of negligence is more appropriate , as established in Letang v Cooper . The tort of trespass to the person contains three possible types ; assault , battery and false imprisonment .
= = = Assault = = =
In English law , an assault means to act in such a way that the claimant or victim apprehends the application of immediate unlawful force upon themselves . The key elements of the tort are therefore that the defendant acts , and does so in such a way that the claimant is put in fear of " immediate physical violence " . There is no requirement that actual damage be caused . In R v Costanza , the courts held that threats made by a stalker could be assault , while in R v Ireland , the House of Lords said that in the right situation ( specifically , harassing phone calls ) silence could be enough . In some situations an act which would otherwise be assault can be mitigated by the language used . In Tuberville v Savage , the defendant reached for his sword and told the claimant that " if it were not [ court ] time , I would not take such language from you " ; it was held that despite the threatening gesture , this meant the claimant was not in immediate danger . The actions must give the claimant reasonable expectation that the defendant is going to use violence ; if a fist was raised in front of the claimant , it could be enough . If the fist was raised from inside a police van following arrest , it would not .
= = = Battery = = =
Battery is defined as " the intentional and direct application of force to another person " , and has three elements ; force , direct application and intent . The courts have also added a requirement of " hostility " or lack of consent in many cases . As with assault , there is no need to show that damage was caused . Any application of physical contact , regardless of harm caused , can constitute force . In Collins v Wilcock , a female police officer took hold of a woman 's arm , intending to talk to her on suspicion of soliciting contrary to the Street Offences Act 1959 . The woman scratched the female police officer 's arm . As the female police officer had gone beyond her duties in grabbing the woman ( since she did not intend to charge her with an offence , but was still using force ) it was held that this constituted " force " . Goff LJ wrote that the fundamental principle is that any person 's body is inviolate , except in situations where the bodily contact " [ falls ] within a general exception embracing all physical contact which is generally acceptable in the ordinary conduct of daily life " .
The defendant must intend to carry out the act which constitutes trespass for it to be valid . This does not require the defendant to intend harm ; in Nash v Sheen , a hairdresser who put a tone rinse on the claimant ( when the claimant had given permission for a perm ) was found liable in battery after it caused a rash . In Livingstone v Ministry of Defence , the defendant , a soldier , had intended to shoot someone with a baton round , which went wide and hit the claimant . Even though he had not intended to hit the claimant , it was held that because he had intended to fire the baton round in the first place , he was liable . The final element occasionally added to the tort is the hostility of the action ; in Wilson v Pringle , it was decided that the onus is on the claimant to show that the force was hostile , except in such situations where it is self @-@ evident . This was undermined by R v F , in which Goff wrote that he " respectfully doubts whether [ the requirement to show hostility ] is correct " , in line with his comment in Collins .
An extension to battery was given in Wilkinson v Downton , where emotional distress was considered a possible battery despite no physical force being used . The defendant told the claimant ( as a practical joke ) that her husband had been seriously injured . As a result the claimant suffered a nervous disorder and was thought to be suicidal for a time . It was held that such an action will be valid under battery where it is calculated to cause physical damage and does so . The principle was extended by Khorasandjian v Bush , in 1993 , where there was a risk that the defendant 's actions would cause physical or psychiatric damage . The tort set down in Wilkinson is normally considered a separate tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress .
= = = False imprisonment = = =
False imprisonment is defined as " depriving the claimant of freedom of movement , without a lawful justification for doing so " . Unlike assault and battery , false imprisonment is a tort of strict liability : no intention on the behalf of the defendant is needed , but the imprisonment must be caused by a deliberate act ( as decided in Sayers v Harlow Urban District Council , where a faulty lock , not a deliberate act from another party , caused a woman to become trapped in a public toilet ) and must be unlawful . The imprisonment of a lawfully convicted criminal is not false , nor is the arrest of a suspect if done in line with the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 and Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 .
Imprisonment is considered any restraint on the freedom of movement , for however short a time . In Austin and another v Metropolitan Police Commissioner , seven hours was considered a sufficient period of time to constitute false imprisonment ( although the claim was ultimately rejected due to the circumstances of a potentially hostile crowd of demonstrators ) . The requirement is complete restraint ; in Bird v Jones , the defendant fenced off part of a footpath for use as a viewing point for a boat race . The claimant , accustomed to walking across it , climbed into the enclosure ; the defendants refused to let him pass . They were found not liable for false imprisonment , as another way across existed . There is on the other hand no requirement that the claimant actually attempt to leave , as in Grainger v Hill , or even that he knows he is being prevented from leaving , as in Meering v Graham @-@ White Aviation Co Ltd .
= = = Defences = = =
There are many defences to trespasses against the person ; the stranger are the right of parents to commit assault and battery against their children for " chastisement " under the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 , and the right of the captain of a ship to discipline his crew , as in Hook v Cunard Steamship Co Ltd . There is also a right to eject a trespasser to land using reasonable force , and a defendant is also not liable for " inevitable accidents " , as in Stanley v Powell , where a ricocheting pellet was ruled to be accidental . Individuals and bodies will not be liable for imprisonment , battery or assault if doing so in line with statutory authorities , such as the Criminal Law Act 1967 .
A commonly used defence for the torts of trespass against the person is that of volenti non fit injuria , or consent . If a claimant participates in a sporting activity in which physical contact is ordinary conduct , such as rugby , they are considered to have consented . This is not the case if the physical contact went beyond what could be expected , as in R v Billinghurst , or where the injuries were suffered not from the claimant 's participation in the sport but inadequate safety measures taken , as in Watson v British Boxing Board of Control . The same general rule applies to people who voluntarily take part in fights , although only if the injuries caused are proportionate , as in Lane v Holloway . If the claimant is informed by a doctor of the broad risks of a medical procedure , there will be no claim under trespass against the person for resulting harm caused ; the claimant 's agreement constitutes " real consent " , as in Chatterton v Gerson . Consent for medical procedures is different in cases where the claimant does not have the mental capacity to consent . In F v West Berkshire Health Authority , it was held that in such situations the requirements are that there " must be a necessity to act when it is not practical to communicate with the assisted person ... [ and ] the action taken must be such as a reasonable person would in all the circumstances take , acting in the best interests of the assisted person " .
Self @-@ defence is also a valid defence to trespasses against the person , assuming that it constituted the use of " reasonable force which they honestly and reasonably believe is necessary to protect themselves or someone else , or property " . The force used must be proportionate to the threat , as ruled in Cockroft v Smith . If the action is undertaken to prevent a crime , Section 3 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 permits it assuming that it is " reasonable under the circumstances " .
= = Trespass to goods = =
Trespass to goods is defined as " wrongful physical interference with goods that are in the possession of another " . It is covered not only by the common law , but also by the Torts ( Interference with Goods ) Act 1977 , which was written to clear up the confusing rules on trespass to goods which had evolved over the centuries . It is similar to the tort of conversion , which covers the interference with goods in a way which is inconsistent with the rights of the owner . " Physical interference " is usually the taking or destroying of goods , but can be as minor as touching or moving them in the right circumstances . In Kirk v Gregory , the defendant moved jewellery from one room to another , where it was stolen . The deceased owner 's executor successfully sued her for trespass to goods . Goods cover almost any physical object , including animals , as in Slater v Swann , but not organs , as in AB & Ors v Leeds Teaching Hospital NHS Trust . " Possession " has the standard legal meaning , referring to the claimant 's right to use , control or deal with the item . This can include owners , but also bailees .
It is unknown what mental element is expected in cases of trespass to goods ; while trespass to the person requires intent , the requirements for trespass to goods have never been tested in court . The common remedy is damages , which may be awarded regardless of if any actual harm is suffered ; where there is damage , the defendant will only be liable if he could have reasonably foreseen it , as in Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Co ( No 5 ) . Valid defences are those of statutory authority , consent , where it is necessary to interfere with the goods , or jus tertii .
= = Trespass to land = =
In English law , trespass to land involves the " unjustifiable interference with land which is in the immediate and exclusive possession of another " . It is not necessary to prove that harm was suffered to bring a claim , and is instead actionable per se . While most trespasses to land are intentional , in League Against Cruel Sports v Scott , the courts decided that it could also be committed negligently . Accidental trespass also incurs liability , with an exception for entering land adjoining a road unintentionally ( such as in a car accident ) , as in River Wear Commissioners v Adamson . Although previously a pure tort , the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 created some circumstances in which trespass to land can also be a crime .
Land is defined as the surface , subsoil , airspace and anything permanently attached to the land , such as houses . The rights of landowners over airspace are not unlimited ; in Bernstein of Leigh v Skyviews & General Ltd , the action for trespass failed because the violation of airspace took place several hundred metres above the land . This was backed up by the Civil Aviation Act 1982 , which provides that it is not trespass if the aircraft is flying at a reasonable height . An overhanging crane can constitute trespass , as in Woolerton v Costain , as can an advertising sign , as in Kelsen v Imperial Tobacco Co . Possession does not necessarily mean the ownership of land , but the right to eject or exclude others from it .
= = = Interference = = =
The main element of the tort is " interference " . This must be both direct and physical , with indirect interference instead being covered by negligence or nuisance . " Interference " covers any physical entry to land , as well as the abuse of a right of entry . If the person has the right to enter the land but remains after this right expires , this is also trespass . It is also a trespass to throw anything on the land . For the purposes of trespass , the person who owns the land on which a road rests is treated as the owner ; it is not , however , a trespass to use that road if public . In Hickman v Maisey , it was established that any use of a road that went beyond using it for its normal purpose could constitute a trespass , but this was altered by DPP v Jones . Lord Irvine , giving the leading judgment , said that " the public highway is a public place which the public may enjoy for any reasonable purpose , providing that the activity in question does not amount to a public or private nuisance and does not obstruct the highway by reasonably impeding the primary right of the public to pass and repass ; within these qualifications there is a public right of peaceful assembly on the highway " .
= = = Defences = = =
There are several defences to trespass to land ; licence , justification by law , necessity and jus tertii . Licence is express or implied permission , given by the possessor of land , to be on that land . If a licence is lawfully revoked , a licence @-@ holder becomes a trespasser if they remain on the land . Justification by law refers to those situations in which there is statutory authority permitting a person to go onto land , such as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 , which allows the police to enter land for the purposes of carrying out an arrest . Jus tertii is where the defendant can prove that the land is not possessed by the claimant , but by a third party , as in Doe d Carter v Barnard . The exception to this defence is if the claimant is a tenant and the defendant a landlord who had no right to give the claimant his lease . Necessity is the situation in which it is vital to commit the trespass ; in Esso Petroleum Co v Southport Corporation , the captain of a ship committed trespass by allowing oil to flood a shoreline . This was necessary to protect his ship and crew , however , and the defence of necessity was accepted .
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= Tales of Wonder ( magazine ) =
Tales of Wonder was a British science fiction magazine which was launched in 1937 with Walter Gillings as editor . It was published by The World 's Work , a subsidiary of William Heinemann , as part of a series of genre titles that included Tales of Mystery and Detection and Tales of the Uncanny . GIllings was able to attract some good material , despite the low payment rates he was able to offer ; he also included many reprints from U.S. science fiction magazines . The magazine was apparently more successful than the other genre titles issued by The World 's Work , since Tales of Wonder was the only one to publish more than a single issue .
Arthur C. Clarke made his first professional sale to Tales of Wonder , with two science articles . Gillings also published William F. Temple 's first story , some early material by John Wyndham , and " The Prr @-@ r @-@ eet " by Eric Frank Russell . American writers who appeared in the magazine included Murray Leinster and Jack Williamson ; these were both reprints , but some new material from the U.S. did appear , including Lloyd A. Eshbach 's " Out of the Past " , and S.P. Meek 's " The Mentality Machine " . With the advent of World War II , paper shortages and Gillings ' call up into the army made it increasingly difficult to continue , and the sixteenth issue , dated Spring 1942 , was the last . Tales of Wonder was not the first British science fiction magazine , but it was the first one aimed at an adult market , and its success made it apparent that a science fiction magazine could survive in the U.K.
= = Publication history = =
The first U.S. science fiction ( sf ) magazine , Amazing Stories , was imported into the U.K. from its launch in 1926 , and other magazines from the U.S. market were also available from an early date . However , no British sf magazine appeared until 1934 , when Pearson 's launched Scoops , a weekly in tabloid format aimed at the juvenile market . Soon Haydn Dimmock , Scoops ' editor , began to receive more sophisticated stories , targeted at an adult audience ; he tried to change the magazine 's focus to include more mature fiction but within twenty issues falling sales led Pearson 's to kill the magazine . The failure of Scoops gave British publishers the impression that Britain could not support a science fiction publication .
Despite this failure , only a year later , George Newnes , Ltd . , the publisher of The Strand magazine , decided to launch a group of four genre pulp magazines , and to include a science fiction title . The editor , T. Stanhope Sprigg , had help from Walter Gillings , a British science fiction reader who had been active in fan circles since the early 1930s , in searching for good submissions , but the project was placed on hold after fifteen months . Gillings next approached The World 's Work , a subsidiary of William Heinemann , who were already publishing titles such as Tales of Mystery and Detection and Tales of the Uncanny , as part of their Master Thriller series . Gillings had heard that The World 's Work were planning a science fiction magazine ; as it turned out this was not the case , but Gillings was quickly able to persuade them to add science fiction to their list . He was asked to prepare a single issue of 80 @,@ 000 words to test the market . The World 's Work reprinted a good deal of American fiction and since they were only paying for reprint rights their rates were lower than was usual for new fiction . Gillings was given a budget of 10 / 6 ( ten shillings and sixpence ) per thousand words : the low rate discouraged those writers who could sell to the better @-@ paying American magazines . Newer writers were glad of the chance to develop a British market for their work , though most American writers were unimpressed .
The first issue of Tales of Wonder appeared in June 1937 . Sales were good enough for The World 's Work to continue publication , and from Spring 1938 the magazine appeared on a quarterly schedule , with occasional omissions . None of the other titles in the Master Thriller series ever turned into a separate magazine , so it was evidently selling well . The success of Tales of Wonder led Newnes to believe that they had been wrong to turn down Gillings , and in 1938 they launched Fantasy as a competitor .
The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 did not immediately lead to paper shortages , but paper began to be rationed in April 1940 , and the page count , which had already dropped from 128 to 96 , fell to 72 by 1941 . Gillings was called up for military service , and for a while he was able to edit the magazine from his army camp , but the magazine eventually ceased publication with the Spring 1942 issue .
= = Contents and reception = =
American science fiction magazines had by the mid @-@ 1930s begun to publish some more sophisticated stories than the straightforward adventure fiction that was a staple of the earliest years of the genre . Gillings decided that many British science fiction readers would not be familiar with most of the developments in American sf , and so he did not make a point of seeking innovative and original material . The first issue contained " The Perfect Creature " , an early story by John Wyndham , under the name " John Beynon " , as well as " The Prr @-@ r @-@ eet " , by Eric Frank Russell . The second issue included Wyndham 's novel Sleepers of Mars , and William F. Temple 's " Lunar Lilliput " , which was Temple 's first science fiction sale . " Stenographer 's Hands " , a story by David H. Keller , also appeared in the second issue , reprinted from a U.S. magazine ; Gillings claimed that this was to introduce British science fiction readers to American developments in sf , but in fact it was because he was having trouble obtaining good quality material from British writers .
Other reprints acquired by Gillings included Murray Leinster 's " The Mad Planet " and its sequel , " The Red Dust " , and two stories by Jack Williamson : his first sale , " The Metal Man " , along with " The Moon Era " ; these were both by American writers though Gillings tried to reprint stories from the U.S. markets by British writers when he could . Reprints were not restricted to American and British authors , or the U.S. pulp market , however : Gillings also ran " The Planet Wrecker " by R. Coutts Armour , an Australian writer who used the pseudonym " Coutts Brisbane " ; the story had originally appeared in The Red Magazine in 1914 . Some new stories from American writers did appear , including Lloyd A. Eshbach 's " Out of the Past " , and S.P. Meek 's " The Mentality Machine " . Gillings ran competitions for reader essays , one of which was won by Ken Bulmer , later a well @-@ known British science fiction writer , and he encouraged fans to contribute , with articles and fillers . The most significant writer introduced by Gillings was undoubtedly Arthur C. Clarke , whose first sales were to Gillings , for the science articles " Man 's Empire of Tomorrow " and " We Can Rocket to the Moon — Now ! " , which were published in the Winter 1938 and Summer 1939 issues .
Science fiction historian Mike Ashley regards Tales of Wonder as " a lively , entertaining and enjoyable magazine " . Its success demonstrated that there was a market in Britain for a magazine aimed at adult science fiction readers , despite the earlier failure of Scoops , and in 1938 George Newnes , Ltd. went ahead with their much @-@ delayed plans for an sf magazine , Fantasy , having seen the success of Tales of Wonder .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Tales of Wonder was published in pulp format for all 16 issues . It began at 128 pages ; this was cut to 96 pages with the Winter 1939 issue ; then to 80 pages with the Autumn 1940 issue ; and finally to 72 pages for the last three issues . It was edited throughout by Walter Gillings , and was priced at 1 / - . There was no volume numbering ; each issue was numbered consecutively .
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= Ed Hochuli =
Edward G. Hochuli ( / ˈhɒkjᵿli / ; born December 25 , 1950 ) is an attorney for the firm of Jones , Skelton & Hochuli , P.L.C. since 1983 , and has been an American football official in the National Football League ( NFL ) since the 1990 NFL season . His uniform number is 85 . Prior to his officiating career , he played college football for four seasons at the University of Texas at El Paso ( UTEP ) .
Hochuli has worked numerous playoff games , including two Super Bowls . He is best known for his athletic / muscular physique and for explaining on @-@ field rulings in a manner that is comprehensive yet also clear and concise . In a poll conducted by ESPN in 2008 , Hochuli tied fellow referee Mike Carey for " best referee " votes ( eight each ) among NFL head coaches . Completing his 26th season in the league and 24th as referee ( crew chief ) with the 2015 NFL season , Hochuli 's officiating crew for 2015 consisted of umpire Clay Martin , head linesman Pat Turner , line judge Rusty Baynes , field judge Adrian Hill , side judge Greg Meyer , and back judge Scott Helverson .
With the retirement of Gerald Austin and Larry Nemmers following the 2007 season , Hochuli became the NFL 's longest @-@ tenured referee .
= = Personal = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hochuli was born on December 25 , 1950 , in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , and lived there until age eight before his family moved to Tucson , Arizona . He was the second child of six . He attended and later graduated from Canyon del Oro High School in the Tucson suburb of Oro Valley , Arizona in 1969 . During his high school years , he participated in football ( earning all @-@ state honors twice ) , basketball , wrestling , and track . He attributes his competitive nature to having an older brother , Chip Hochuli . Ed Hochuli told Referee in a 2004 interview , " I was somebody who wanted to be good and I wanted my brother to be proud of me , and I wanted my parents to be proud of me . " Following high school , he earned his Bachelor of Arts degree with honors from UTEP in 1972 . While at UTEP , Hochuli played linebacker on the school 's football team from 1969 to 1972 . As a football player , he earned All @-@ Western Athletic Conference academic honors in 1972 . His father , Walter Hochuli , was involved with law as a wills and estate planner , which influenced Ed Hochuli to pursue a career in law . He earned his Juris Doctor from the University of Arizona Law School in 1976 . While in law school , Hochuli served as a law clerk for two years under United States District Judge Carl Muecke . Upon completion of his education , Hochuli was admitted to the State Bar of Arizona .
= = = Family = = =
Hochuli resides in the Phoenix metropolitan area with his wife Cathie . They have six children and 10 grandchildren . Of the six , Shawn Hochuli played college football at Pitzer College and is following his father 's profession as an official , working his first NFL season in 2014 as a side judge . Arena Football League , and arenafootball2 games . On August 13 , 2011 , a day after his father refereed a preseason game between the New England Patriots and Jacksonville Jaguars , Shawn was head referee for ArenaBowl XXIV between the Jacksonville Sharks and Arizona Rattlers . Scott Hochuli owns Hochuli Design & Remodeling Team . , a company that specializes in residential design and construction in the Phoenix area . His brother , Daniel Hochuli , is the town attorney for Sahuarita , Arizona , and his brother Peter Hochuli is a judge at the Pima County Juvenile Court in Tucson , Arizona .
= = = Attorney = = =
Hochuli is a trial lawyer and a partner in the Arizona law firm of Jones , Skelton and Hochuli , P.L.C. since it was founded in 1983 . The firm started with five partners and seven associates , and has expanded to over 80 attorneys . Hochuli specializes in civil litigation in the areas of Bad Faith and Extra @-@ Contractual Liability , Complex Litigation , Insurance Coverage and Fraud , Legal Malpractice and Professional Liability , Product Liability Defense , Trucking and Transportation Industry Defense , and Wrongful Death and Personal Injury Defense , and claims to be involved in 200 cases at any time . Hochuli finds interest in trying cases , calling it an " adrenaline rush " and adding , " You love that challenge -- the competition , if you will -- of it . It 's a game . It 's obviously a very important game to people , and I don 't mean to diminish the importance of it . ... You have to follow these rules , and there 's a win @-@ or @-@ lose outcome . You 're on a stage . "
He is admitted to practice in Arizona state and federal courts and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . His recognition as an attorney includes being named Best Lawyers in America since 2003 and Southwest Super Lawyers in 2007 . Super Lawyers includes only the top five percent of lawyers in a state based on point totals , as chosen by peers and through independent research by Law & Politics .
Comparing his law and officiating professions , he says " A trial is nothing , pressure @-@ wise , compared to the NFL . … I have that long [ snaps his fingers ] to make a decision with a million people watching and second @-@ guessing ( by video ) in slow @-@ motion . You 've got to be right or wrong . I love the satisfaction when you are right — and the agony when you are wrong . " Hochuli finds similarities between the football field and courtroom saying , " On the football field , people like that I 'm in charge and know what I 'm doing , but a lot of the time , it 's just appearance . I 'm going to sell you on my decision . It 's the same in the courtroom . You don 't stand in front of a jury and say , ' I think my client is innocent . ' You say , ' We 're right ! ' "
= = Officiating career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Hochuli began officiating Pop Warner football games as a law student to earn additional income , which was suggested by one of his former high school coaches as " a way to stay in touch with the game " . His interest in officiating carried over into baseball , where he was a Little League Baseball umpire from 1970 to 1973 . Progressing to the high school level in 1973 , he focused on football , and officiated games in the Tucson area until 1985 . In addition to high school officiating , he worked college football games for the Big Sky Conference and Pacific @-@ 10 Conference as a line judge during the 1980s .
= = = NFL career = = =
= = = = Rise to refereedom = = = =
Hochuli was hired by the NFL in 1990 as a back judge ( now field judge ) after applying to the league before the 1989 NFL season . His first game in the league was on August 11 , 1990 , at Lambeau Field in Green Bay , Wisconsin . During his first two years in the league , he was assigned to the officiating crew headed by referee Howard Roe . To gain additional experience as a back judge and eventually a referee , Hochuli participated in the NFL 's partnership with the World League of American Football ( WLAF ) , a spring developmental league , in 1991 and 1992 . Using his experience in the WLAF , as well as the organization , precision , and analytical skills he learned while working under Roe 's guidance , Hochuli desired to become a crew chief in the NFL . He was promoted to referee in 1992 when longtime referee Stan Kemp was diagnosed with Lou Gehrig 's Disease and forced to retire . Hochuli had worked a pre @-@ season game that year in Tokyo , Japan , as a back judge when he received a telephone call following the game from then @-@ Senior Director of Officiating , Jerry Seeman . Seeman asked Hochuli to work as referee for the first time when the Denver Broncos hosted the Cincinnati Bengals in a pre @-@ season game .
Since becoming a referee , Hochuli headed the officiating crews for Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXVIII , and he was selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XXXI , Super Bowl XXXVII , and Super Bowl XXXIX . In addition to working two Super Bowls , he has officiated five conference championship games as of the start of the 2007 NFL season . Every officiating game performance is graded by the league each week . These grades determine which officials are assigned playoff games , as well as the Super Bowl . Hochuli credits his mentor , Jerry Markbreit , a four @-@ time Super Bowl referee , as the greatest influence on his career .
= = = = 2001 officials ' strike = = = =
Hochuli has served as the head of the NFL Referees Association , the union which represents NFL game officials . The union was responsible for negotiating a new contract for the officials prior to the 2001 NFL season . At the time , salaries ranged from a first @-@ year official earning US $ 1 @,@ 431 a game to a veteran official with twenty years of experience making $ 4 @,@ 330 a game . Officials were looking for a 400 percent increase in salary while the league was offering just 40 percent . During the negotiations , Hochuli believed the issue in finding a resolution was to convince the league that officials are full @-@ time employees .
At the start of the season , officials had rejected a league offer of a 60 percent immediate increase in salary , followed by an 85 percent salary increase in 2002 , and a 100 percent increase in 2003 . For the first time in league history , replacement officials were used during the regular season . Hochuli had distributed an e @-@ mail to 1 @,@ 200 potential replacement officials warning them that " Working as a scab will actually hurt and likely kill any chances you would have of ever getting into the NFL . " He later regretted sending the letter to college football officials across the United States . The stalemate between the union and the league ended on September 19 , 2001 , when officials agreed to a six @-@ year deal from the league with an immediate increase in salary of 50 percent with a raise each year . Officials had been locked out since the final week of pre @-@ season games that year and returned to work on September 23 , 2001 , when the league resumed games following the September 11 , 2001 attacks .
= = = = Notable games = = = =
Hochuli has worked memorable games throughout his career . In his second year as referee , he worked the 1993 Thanksgiving Day game between the Dallas Cowboys and Miami Dolphins in Irving , Texas . During the final moments of the game , Miami placekicker Pete Stoyanovich had a field goal attempt blocked . The Cowboys ' Leon Lett inadvertently touched the loose ball before the Dolphins ' Jeff Dellenbach pounced on it . At the time , Hochuli had " no idea " what happened during the play and had to confer with three other officials to piece together the sequence of events . With the information gathered from the officials , he ruled that Miami retained possession of the football . Stoyanovich booted the ensuing winning field goal for the Miami win .
Hochuli was referee for 1995 's meeting between the Cowboys and the Eagles at Veteran 's Stadium ; the game saw the Cowboys try a 4th down conversion on their own 30 @-@ yard line ; the play was stopped but Hochuli blew the play dead saying the two @-@ minute warning had hit ; replay , though , indicated the play got off before the whistle blew . The Cowboys got another shot , tried another 4th down conversion , and it was stopped again . The Eagles kicked the winning field goal for the 20 @-@ 17 win .
Hochuli was referee for a November 1998 Monday Night Football meeting between the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins . A last @-@ second pass from Dan Marino was caught at midfield ; Jimmy Johnson claimed one second was left on the game clock but Hochuli ruled the clock had expired and the game was thus over .
Hochuli was referee for the 1999 AFC Divisional Playoff between the Miami Dolphins and Jacksonville Jaguars ; it was the final game in the careers of Dan Marino and Jimmy Johnson as the Jaguars won 62 @-@ 7 .
Hochuli was referee in the 2003 Divisional Playoffs between the Packers and the Eagles .
On October 2 , 2005 , he officiated the first regular @-@ season NFL game played outside the United States when the Arizona Cardinals played the San Francisco 49ers in Mexico City , Mexico as part of the league 's " Fútbol Americano " marketing campaign . On the first penalty announcement of the game , Hochuli gave the explanation in Spanish to pay respect to the host city and country .
Hochuli officiated the first regular season game at University of Phoenix Stadium on September 10 , 2006 , when the Cardinals hosted the 49ers .
He was the referee for the game between the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers , played December 17 , 2006 , that included Green Bay quarterback Brett Favre becoming the all @-@ time leader for pass completions among quarterbacks in the NFL . Favre was unaware that his 4 @,@ 968 pass completions were a record until he was informed during the game by Hochuli . Hochuli was the referee again for another Favre record @-@ breaking moment when Favre threw his 421st touchdown pass of his career on September 30 , 2007 at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis , Minnesota to break the record previously held by Dan Marino . He also reffed the Week 17 game in 2008 in which the Lions became the first , and as of today , the only team in the NFL to finish 0 @-@ 16 .
One of Hochuli 's notable explanations came during a 2007 regular season game between the San Diego Chargers and New England Patriots . While nullifying a holding infraction , he announced through his microphone , " There was no foul on the play . It was not a hold . The defender was just overpowered . "
= = = = Controversial calls = = = =
On September 14 , 2008 , Hochuli officiated a now @-@ infamous game between the San Diego Chargers and the Denver Broncos , which became notable for a highly controversial call near the end of regulation play . The call came with 1 : 17 left in the game , while Denver was in possession of the ball at the San Diego one @-@ yard line , trailing the Chargers by seven points . On a second @-@ down play , Denver quarterback Jay Cutler fumbled the ball , and it was recovered by San Diego linebacker Tim Dobbins . Ed Hochuli blew his whistle during the play , signaling that the play was dead and ruling an incomplete pass . Hochuli admitted his mistake and spotted the ball at the point of the fumble , but could not award possession to San Diego , and the play was not reviewable under then @-@ current instant replay rules . Chargers head coach Norv Turner later said after the game , " Ed came over to me and said he blew it . And that to me is not acceptable . " Hochuli responded to the situation , writing , " Affecting the outcome of a game is a devastating feeling . Officials strive for perfection – I failed miserably . " Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones was even fined $ 25 @,@ 000 for publicly criticizing Hochuli . The NFL passed a rule the following offseason allowing such plays to be reviewable under the instant replay rule for the 2009 NFL season . Speaking to Referee in November 2009 , Hochuli told the magazine , " It was really an easy play . I ’ ve thought many times why I did what I did . The best explanation is it was almost like dyslexia . I realized it was a fumble and did the wrong thing . I realized I was wrong but there was nothing I could do about it . "
= = Celebrity = =
Hochuli 's presence on the football field has created a cult following . His rise in popularity is believed to have been started by Phil Simms , a former NFL quarterback and current color commentator for the NFL on CBS , who made reference to the size of Hochuli 's arms during a telecast . On the Internet , websites that sell Hochuli merchandise as well as blogs with his namesake exist . He is often affectionately referred to as " Hochules " , a combination of his last name and " Hercules " , in homage to his large biceps . While he is aware of his celebrity status , Hochuli does not understand it . He said in a USA Today interview , " I get a kick out of the notoriety , because I 'm just a referee . I 'm not the players . The players are the game . They 're what this is all about . I get notoriety because I explain things , and I get notoriety because I have a decent physique , which is funny because I 'm a shrimp , a peewee compared to those players . Neither one of those things has anything to do with whether I 'm a good referee . " His recognition extends to the streets , in airports , and in the courtroom . He has been approached by notable athletes such as former National Basketball Association ( NBA ) player Charles Barkley at the airport . " It never ceases to amaze me , " Hochuli told the Arizona Daily Star . " The number of people that will just come up to me and recognize me . " He appreciates the attention , saying , " I enjoy the fact that there are people who like me as a referee . I hear from a lot of people and I enjoy that . Like anybody , I like praise . Probably because of my personality , I thrive on that more than other people . "
Hochuli 's career as an NFL official has been chronicled on the NFL Network 's Six Days to Sunday in 2005 . The half @-@ hour television program detailed the game preparations that Hochuli goes through from Monday to Saturday during the season . This preparation work includes fifteen hours of video tape game review , a " couple hours " completing administrative tasks for the NFL , reading the rulebook , taking a weekly written exam on rules , and communicating with league supervisors .
Hochuli 's celebrity status off the field includes being mentioned on the " Top Ten List " during the January 29 , 2002 edition of the Late Show with David Letterman . His likeness appears in the Madden NFL video game franchise starting with Madden NFL 06 .
Hochuli appeared on the cover of the October 8 , 2012 issue of Sports Illustrated .
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= Worship Music ( album ) =
Worship Music is the tenth studio album by American thrash metal band Anthrax . The album was released on September 12 , 2011 internationally , and on September 13 in the United States . It was the band 's first album of original material since We 've Come for You All ( 2003 ) , the first full @-@ length Anthrax album since 1990 's Persistence of Time to feature vocalist Joey Belladonna , and the final album with guitarist Rob Caggiano prior to his departure in January 2013 .
The album 's creation was a lengthy process , with work beginning as early as November 2008 . The album was delayed due to issues with the departure of vocalist Dan Nelson , and the re @-@ joining of John Bush who ultimately decided not to commit to the album . The band eventually reunited with Belladonna , and finished recording in April 2011 . Worship Music was positively received upon release , with critics describing it as " fresh and eruptive as ever " and qualified it as a return to form for the band . The record debuted at number 12 in the United States , their highest chart position since Sound of White Noise ( 1993 ) .
= = Background = =
In the December 2008 edition of his monthly SuicideGirls column , Food Coma , guitarist Scott Ian revealed that he had been in the studio working on the new Anthrax album since November 4 . Ian went on to say that drums , bass , and rhythm guitar had been arranged for 19 tracks , and that the process of recording the vocals had begun . " We should be mixing at the end of January and soon after that giving birth to a really pissed off , loud , fast and heavy child . " In a subsequent May 2009 Food Coma column , Ian announced that the album was being mixed by Dave Fortman , whose previous credits include albums by Evanescence and Slipknot .
The album was initially scheduled to feature Dan Nelson on vocals . However , following the events later that year , he was no longer a member of the band . When asked what would happen to the completed studio album featuring Nelson 's vocals , Ian said : " Until we have a new singer , I can 't tell you what will happen to the record . We 'll probably change a few things on it , including the vocals . " Ian also indicated that the album 's release could be delayed until 2010 . It was assumed that John Bush was going to record new vocals for the album after his reunion with the band . However , this did not happen . In an interview at the time , Bush said he was trying to re @-@ record vocals for some of the songs that had already been recorded .
Bush eventually decided that he did not want to recommit to Anthrax full @-@ time and left the group . As a result , the band reunited with Joey Belladonna . Following shows during the summer and fall of 2010 , the band returned to the studio . Some of the completed songs were left as is , adding Belladonna 's vocals , others were re – written , and some entirely new songs were composed with Belladonna . Drummer Charlie Benante suggested the album 's title after the eponymous TV show . Although Ian stated that the album name could be changed , this turned out not to be the case . In October 2010 at Nassau Coliseum , Anthrax performed the song " Fight ' Em ' Til You Can 't " for the first time . It was at this point that Ian said fans should expect the new record in late 2011 .
In December , Ian stated that the band had almost completed the new album and only had to re @-@ record two or three tracks . Ian further confirmed that all the material would feature vocals by Belladonna . Noisecreep reported that Worship Music had been shelved until Belladonna completed new vocal tracks . The band finished recording Worship Music in April 2011 , and called it their " most emotional album " . " Fight ' Em ' Til You Can 't " was released as the lead single on June 24 , 2011 . It was released for free download as a way of saying " thank you " to fans ' loyalty in waiting in anticipation for the album . Three days later , Ian announced that the band had started the mastering process for the upcoming album . The cover art was revealed the following month .
= = Lyrics = =
The songs " Earth on Hell " and " Revolution Screams " refer to democracy in the United States and around the world . According to Ian , at the time of the album 's release , these songs were " very much about people taking the power back " . Although the songs were written long before , he cited the 2011 Egyptian revolution and Occupy Wall Street demonstrations as examples of this phenomenon coming to pass . " The Devil You Know " , despite the line " Let the right one in " and the band 's history of using horror stories as subject matter , was not a reference to the 2004 Swedish vampire novel Let the Right One In ; it was about World War II veterans . " Fight ' Em ' Til You Can 't " is about a zombie apocalypse , and " In the End " was written as a tribute to the late Ronnie James Dio , an inspiration for the band , and Dimebag Darrell , a friend and collaborator on three Anthrax albums . " Judas Priest " was named as a tribute to the heavy metal band Judas Priest , and contains a bridge that references several well @-@ known Priest songs . " The Constant " is about the episode of the 2004 television series Lost of the same name , where a character travels through time until he finds his " constant " .
" I 'm Alive " was written when Dan Nelson was member of the band . Anthrax premiered the song live in 2008 , though it was titled " Vampires " at that time . It is notable for its tribal @-@ sounding introduction with clean guitars backed up by a marching drum beat , before taking off into a heavy riff and gradually breaking into a melodic chorus . In an album preview by Blabbermouth.net , " I 'm Alive " was described as " beautiful and grand with a build that demands audience participation " . The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance , the band 's fourth Grammy nomination .
= = Release = =
Worship Music was internationally released on September 12 , 2011 , and on September 13 in the United States . It sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release and debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 , the third highest position of their career ( the second being its successor , For All Kings , which charted at number 9 ) and the highest since Sound of White Noise ( 1993 ) , which peaked at number 7 . The band 's previous studio album , We 've Come for You All ( 2003 ) , opened with just under 10 @,@ 000 units to debut at number 122 . The album charted at number 13 in Germany and managed to break into the top 10 in Finland , reaching number 6 . By September 2012 , Worship Music sold about 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
When asked about a possible follow @-@ up to Worship Music , bassist Frank Bello said that the band intended to re @-@ release Worship Music with several bonus tracks . The bonus tracks were set to include covers of Rush and Boston songs . Bello stated that the plan was to release the reissue in the fall of 2012 . A few days later , band members announced that five covers were included : " Anthem " by Rush , " Smokin ' " by Boston , " Neon Knights " by Black Sabbath , " T.N.T. " by AC / DC , and " Keep on Runnin ' " by Journey . Although Scott Ian expected the reissue to be released by the end of the year , it was eventually postponed for 2013 . The special edition of Worship Music was released on March 22 , 2013 by Nuclear Blast . It consists of the original album and a bonus EP of cover songs , Anthems , which was also released separately on the same day in Europe , and three days earlier in North America .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the album was generally positive . AllMusic 's Greg Prato noted that in spite of the issues surrounding the departure of Dan Nelson , the album fits together " seamlessly " and called it the group 's finest studio recording since Persistence of Time ( 1990 ) . Jason Heller of The A.V. Club praised the album for being rid of the " nü @-@ metal stench " of the previous record and the " all @-@ around patchiness " from the other John Bush @-@ era albums . Heller noted that it brought the band back into the " youthful dynamic " . Classic Rock journalist Malcolm Dome observed that musically , Worship Music is a mixture of " the grinding power " of We 've Come for You All and the more " clear @-@ cut melodic approach " of Among The Living ( 1987 ) , resulting in an album that is " violently metallic yet sophisticated " .
Michael Christopher of The Boston Phoenix commented that Anthrax has learned from its past mistakes in making the album . He observed that the humor that characterized the previous albums was still present , and called this album a " fresh fistful of metal " . Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times compared Worship Music to Metallica 's Lulu , saying that Anthrax , unlike Metallica , opted to " reclaim ground " dominated by younger bands . Mark Fisher , writing in Metal Forces , highlighted the guitar performance , saying it reminded him of the sound Anthrax is mostly associated with . Although Fisher preferred the albums with John Bush on vocals , he remarked that Worship Music is a fine recording with a career @-@ defining performance by Joey Belladonna . Chad Bowar from About.com also praised Belladonna 's performance , noting that the vocal delivery was filled with angst and emotion . He opined that Anthrax sounded rejuvenated and qualified the album as a return to form .
Chad Grischow of IGN commented that the album sounded " as fresh and eruptive as ever " with the exception of " Crawl " , the " rare misstep on the otherwise fantastic album " . Loudwire 's Matthew Wilkening said that Belladonna 's 20 @-@ year absence from the band hasn 't affected the band 's chemistry at all . According to him , the album represented the maturity and musical growth of the band . PopMatters 's Chris Colgan described the music as a combination of the " later material with shades of their thrash beginnings " . He believes this wasn 't " the glorious comeback " for Anthrax , but called it a solid album with signs of progress for the group . Metal Rules chose Worship Music the best metal album of 2011 .
= = Touring = =
Anthrax spent the following two years touring in support of Worship Music . The band started the tour with the " big four " shows alongside Metallica , Slayer , and Megadeth , which took place in the summer of 2011 . Due to the birth of his child , Ian missed the European leg of the tour ; Sepultura guitarist Andreas Kisser acted as a fill @-@ in . Ian was able to make an appearance in Milan , Italy , joining the band and Kisser for half of the setlist . Anthrax continued touring in late 2011 . In October and November , Anthrax embarked on a 23 date US tour co @-@ headlining with Testament and openers Death Angel . These three bands resumed performing together in early 2012 . The trio announced further dates in the US and Canada in the fall of 2012 , with Testament promoting their then @-@ new album , Dark Roots of Earth . Anthrax teamed up with Motörhead for a ten show UK tour in November . In January 2013 , it was announced that Caggiano had left the band . He was replaced by Shadows Fall guitarist Jonathan Donais .
Anthrax was announced as the headliner for the third annual Metal Alliance US tour , which endured through March and April 2013 . Supporting acts included Exodus , Municipal Waste , and Holy Grail , with the headliner Anthrax performing Among the Living in its entirety . Charlie Benante has been taking time off from gigs outside the US because of personal reasons . His place was filled in by drummer Jon Dette during these shows . The group filmed their performance at Santiago , Chile , with Benante on drums , for the DVD album Chile On Hell . The tour ended with a show at San Bernardino , California , at the two @-@ year anniversary of the album 's release . After finishing the tour , the band took a short break before reconvening to start work on a new album .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Anthrax ( except " New Noise " , written and originally performed by Refused ) . Tracks 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 8 , 11 , 12 and 13 co @-@ written by Dan Nelson .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Anthrax = = =
Joey Belladonna – lead vocals
Rob Caggiano – lead guitar , backing vocals
Scott Ian – rhythm guitar , backing vocals
Frank Bello – bass , backing vocals
Charlie Benante – drums
= = = Additional musicians = = =
Dan Nelson - co author on tracks 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 @,@ 8 @,@ 11 @,@ 12 and 13 .
Alison Chesley – cello
= = = Technical personnel = = =
Rob Caggiano – producer
Jay Ruston – mixing and additional production
Asim Ali – engineer
Andy Lagis – assistant engineer
Alex Ross – artwork
Charlie Benante – cover concept
Douglas Heusser – artwork , design
Ross Halfin – photography
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= T48 Gun Motor Carriage =
The T48 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage was a self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank gun produced by the Diamond T company in 1943 for the United States . The design incorporated a 57 mm gun M1 , a US production of the British Ordnance QF 6 pounder , mounted on an M3 Half @-@ track .
A total of 962 vehicles were produced from 1942 to 1943 . It had originally been planned that Britain would receive all of the examples produced through Lend @-@ Lease , intending to use them in the Western Desert , but by the time they arrived the campaign was over . Additionally , the purpose @-@ built M10 tank destroyer , armed with a 3 @-@ inch gun ( and later a 17 @-@ pounder gun in British service ) had begun to enter production . As a result , the British transferred 650 half @-@ tracks to the Soviet Union under the Soviet Aid Program . Britain retained 30 and the remainder were taken by the US ; these British and American vehicles were converted back to standard M3 Half @-@ tracks , except for one kept by the U.S. Army .
The Soviets called it the SU @-@ 57 ( Samokhodnaya ustanovka 57 ) , and under this designation it served in Operation Bagration and other fighting on the Eastern Front during World War II .
= = Specifications = =
The T48 Gun Motor Carriage was 21 ft ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long , 7 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) wide , and 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high . It had a wheelbase of 135 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 44 m ) , and weighed 9 @.@ 45 tons ( 20 @,@ 800 lb ) . The suspension consisted of a leaf spring for the wheels , while the front tread had vertical volute springs . The vehicle had a maximum speed of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . With a fuel capacity of 60 US gallons ( 230 l ) , it had a range of 150 miles ( 240 km ) , and was powered by a 128 hp ( 95 kW ) White 160AX , 386 in3 ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , 6 @-@ cylinder gasoline engine with a compression ratio of 6 : 3 : 1 . The power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio was 15 @.@ 8 hp / ton . It also had 6 – 12 mm of armor , and was armed with a single 57 mm Gun M1 with 99 rounds of ammunition . It had a crew of five ( commander , gunner , driver , loader , and radio operator ) .
= = Development = =
The T48 originated from an Anglo @-@ American requirement for a self @-@ propelled 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank gun . The requirement was met by emplacing a 57 mm gun M1 – the U.S. production version of the British Ordnance QF 6 @-@ pounder – in the rear of an M3 Half @-@ track . The first production batch was ordered in April 1942 . The Americans dropped their requirements because of the design of another tank destroyer , the M10 . Afterwards it was intended solely to be supplied overseas under the terms of the Lend @-@ Lease Program ; the T48 was never officially type @-@ classified .
= = = Pilot model = = =
The pilot model was built at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in May 1942 . The 57 mm Gun M1 was mounted in the M12 recoil mechanism and installed on a tubular pedestal . The tubular pedestal was soon replaced with a conical structure that was designated the " 57 mm gun mount T5 " . The gun on the pilot model had a traverse of 27 @.@ 5 degrees either side of the centerline ( total of 55 degrees ) , while having an elevation of + 15 to -5 degrees . The short @-@ barrelled ( 43 caliber ) British Mark III 6 @-@ pounder gun was installed in the pilot , but the longer @-@ barrelled ( 50 caliber ) 57 mm Gun M1 was specified for the production models . The original travel lock – to hold the gun in a fixed position when the vehicle was moving – proved to be unsatisfactory , and was replaced by a travel lock on the front hood .
The original design used a gun shield taken from the T44 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage , but after the first tests were complete , a new shield was designed with 5 / 8 inch thick face @-@ hardened steel on the front and 1 / 4 inch thick on the sides and top . The shield extended over the crew with a relatively low silhouette of only 90 in ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) . Experience with the M3 Gun Motor Carriage in the Philippines Campaign , resulted in demountable headlights being used . The T48 was accepted for production in 1942 .
= = Service history = =
Deliveries of the T48 were made in 1942 and 1943 , with 50 arriving in 1942 followed by a further 912 in 1943 . The British ordered all of the T48s that were produced , intending to use them in the Western Desert Campaign . By the time the vehicles arrived in the theater in the summer of 1943 , the British had already won the war in the Western Desert . Meanwhile , the 57 mm gun was superseded by the 75 mm gun from the U.S. , and later the availability of the Ordnance QF 17 @-@ pounder gun , meant that the T48 became surplus to British requirements . As a result , the vehicles were almost immediately shipped to the Soviet Union under the terms of the Soviet Aid Program . Through this , the Soviets received 650 vehicles , which they designated the " SU @-@ 57 " ( Samokhodnaya ustanovka 57 ) . A small number were later passed to the Polish People 's Army .
Of the remainder , Britain accepted 30 , all of which were converted back into carriers , and the US took 282 vehicles . Of those retained by the US , all but one were converted back to M3A1 standard carriers in 1944 . The conversion took place at the Chester Tank Depot . The Wehrmacht also operated a number of T48s as carriers , having captured several from Britain and the Soviet Union .
The Soviets employed the T48 along the Eastern Front , mainly in Operation Bagration . The Soviet 16th Separate Tank Destroyer Brigade used a large number of T48s in 1943 during the offensive across the Dnieper River , and with the 19th Brigade during the Baranow bridgehead battle in August 1944 . The T48 also served with the Soviet 22nd Self @-@ Propelled Artillery Brigade . Some of these units also took part in the Berlin and Prague offensives . The Polish People 's Army used T48s assigned to the 7th Self @-@ Propelled Artillery Battery to support Soviet attacks into Germany and Poland .
In Soviet service , the vehicles were allocated to brigades at a scale of 60 per brigade . During the attack , the vehicles were used to provide mobile fire support , being placed behind the infantry , usually in a hull @-@ down position behind a ridge or a hill , to fire across a broad front to take advantage of the long range of the 57 mm gun .
= = Operators = =
British Army accepted 30 vehicles , later rebuilt as carriers .
Polish Army in the East received 15 vehicles operated previously by the Red Army .
Red Army operated T48 GMC under the designation SU @-@ 57 .
U.S. Army used T48s rebuilt as M3A1 Half @-@ tracks , in 1944 . Most rebuilt by the Chester Tank Depot . One T48 was integrated into the U.S. Army .
Wehrmacht units operated a small number of T48s captured from UK and the Soviet Union .
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= Irish phonology =
The phonology of the Irish language varies from dialect to dialect ; there is no standard pronunciation of Irish . Therefore , this article focuses on phenomena that pertain generally to most or all dialects , and on the major differences among the dialects . Detailed discussion of the dialects can be found in the specific articles : Ulster Irish , Connacht Irish , and Munster Irish .
Irish phonology has been studied as a discipline since the late 19th century , with numerous researchers publishing descriptive accounts of dialects from all regions where the language is spoken . More recently , Irish phonology has been the focus of theoretical linguists , who have produced a number of books , articles , and doctoral theses on the topic .
One of the most important aspects of Irish phonology is that almost all consonants come in pairs , with one having a " broad " pronunciation and the other a " slender " one . Broad consonants are velarized , that is , the back of the tongue is pulled back and slightly up in the direction of the soft palate while the consonant is being articulated . Slender consonants are palatalized , which means the tongue is pushed up toward the hard palate during the articulation . The contrast between broad and slender consonants is crucial in Irish , because the meaning of a word can change if a broad consonant is substituted for a slender consonant or vice versa . For example , the only difference in pronunciation between the words bó ( ' cow ' ) and beo ( ' alive ' ) is that bó is pronounced with a broad b sound , while beo is pronounced with a slender b sound . The contrast between broad and slender consonants plays a critical role not only in distinguishing the individual consonants themselves , but also in the pronunciation of the surrounding vowels , in the determination of which consonants can stand next to which other consonants , and in the behavior of words that begin with a vowel . This broad / slender distinction is similar to the hard / soft one of several Slavic languages , like Russian .
The Irish language shares a number of phonological characteristics with its nearest linguistic relatives , Scottish Gaelic and Manx , as well as with Hiberno @-@ English , the language with which it is most closely in contact .
= = History of the discipline = =
Until the end of the nineteenth century , linguistic discussions of Irish focused either on the traditional grammar of the language ( issues like the inflection of nouns , verbs and adjectives ) or on the historical development of sounds from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European through Proto @-@ Celtic to Old Irish . The first descriptive analysis of the phonology of an Irish dialect was Finck ( 1899 ) , which was based on the author 's fieldwork in the Aran Islands . This was followed by Quiggin ( 1906 ) , a phonetic description of the dialect of Meenawannia near Glenties , County Donegal . Pedersen ( 1909 ) is predominantly a historical account , but has some description of modern dialects as well . Alf Sommerfelt published early descriptions of both Ulster and Munster varieties ( Sommerfelt 1922 and Sommerfelt 1965 for the village of Torr in Gweedore , Sommerfelt 1927 for Munster , and Sommerfelt 1929 for the now extinct dialect of South Armagh ) . The dialect of Dunquin on the Dingle Peninsula was described by Sjoestedt ( 1931 ) . From 1944 to 1968 the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies published a series of monographs , each describing the phonology of one local dialect : Ó Cuív ( 1944 ) for West Muskerry in County Cork ( Ballyvourney , Coolea and vicinity ) , de Bhaldraithe ( 1966 ) ( first published 1945 ) for Cois Fhairrge in County Galway ( Barna , Spiddal , Inverin and vicinity ) , Breatnach ( 1947 ) for An Rinn , County Waterford , de Búrca ( 1958 ) for Tourmakeady in County Mayo , Wagner ( 1959 ) for Teelin , County Donegal , Mhac an Fhailigh ( 1968 ) for Erris in County Mayo . More recent descriptive phonology has been published by Lucas ( 1979 ) for Rosguill in northern Donegal , Hughes ( 1986 ) for Tangaveane and Commeen ( also near Glenties ) , Ó Curnáin ( 1996 ) for Iorras Aithneach in Connemara ( Kilkieran and vicinity ) , and Ó Sé ( 2000 ) for the Dingle Peninsula in County Kerry .
Research into the theoretical phonology of Irish began with Ó Siadhail & Wigger ( 1975 ) , which follows the principles and practices of The Sound Pattern of English and which formed the basis of the phonology sections of Ó Siadhail ( 1989 ) . Dissertations examining Irish phonology from a theoretical point of view include Ní Chiosáin ( 1991 ) , Green ( 1997 ) in optimality theory , and Cyran ( 1997 ) and Bloch @-@ Rozmej ( 1998 ) in government phonology .
= = Consonants = =
Most dialects of Irish contain at a minimum the consonant phonemes shown in the following chart ( see International Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols ) . The consonant / h / is neither broad nor slender .
= = = On- and offglides = = =
Broad ( velar or velarized ) consonants have a noticeable velar offglide ( a very short vowel @-@ like sound ) before front vowels , which sounds like the English w but made without rounding the lips . The IPA symbol for this sound is [ ɰ ] . Thus naoi / n ̪ ˠiː / ( ' nine ' ) and caoi / kiː / ( ' way , manner ' ) are pronounced [ n ̪ ˠɰiː ] and [ kɰiː ] , respectively . This velar offglide is labialized ( pronounced with lip @-@ rounding , like w ) after labial consonants , so buí / bˠiː / ( ' yellow ' ) is pronounced [ bˠwiː ] .
Similarly , slender ( palatal or palatalized ) consonants have a palatal offglide ( like English y ) before back vowels , e.g. tiubha / tʲuː / ( ' thick ' ) is pronounced [ tʲjuː ] .
When a broad consonant follows a front vowel , there is a very short vowel sound [ ə ̯ ] ( called an onglide ) just before the consonant , e.g. díol / dʲiːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' sell ' ) is pronounced [ dʲiːə ̯ l ̪ ˠ ] . Similarly , when a slender consonant follows a back vowel , there is an onglide [ i ̯ ] before the consonant , e.g. áit / aːtʲ / ( ' place ' ) is pronounced [ aːi ̯ tʲ ] , óil / oːlʲ / ( ' drinking ' gen . ) is pronounced [ oːi ̯ lʲ ] , meabhair / mʲəuɾʲ / ( ' understanding ' ) is [ mʲəui ̯ ɾʲ ] , and dúinn / d ̪ ˠuːn ̠ ʲ / ( ' to us ' ) is [ d ̪ ˠuːi ̯ n ̠ ʲ ] .
= = = Allophones = = =
/ w / ( which can be written as 〈 bh 〉 , 〈 mh 〉 , or 〈 v 〉 ) has two basic allophones : the labiovelar approximant [ w ] and the velarized voiced labiodental fricative [ vˠ ] . The distribution of these allophones varies from dialect to dialect . In Munster , generally only [ vˠ ] is found , and in Ulster generally only [ w ] is found . In Connacht , [ w ] is found word @-@ initially before vowels ( e.g. bhfuil [ wɪlʲ ] ' is ' ) and [ vˠ ] in other positions ( e.g. naomh [ n ̪ ˠiːvˠ ] ' saint ' , fómhar [ ˈfˠuːvˠəɾˠ ] ' autumn ' , and bhrostaigh [ ˈvˠɾˠɔsˠt ̪ ˠə ] ' hurried ' ) .
The remaining labial fricatives are typically labiodental [ fˠ , fʲ , vʲ ] , but they as well as the fricative allophone [ vˠ ] of / w / have bilabial allophones [ ɸˠ , ɸʲ , βˠ , βʲ ] in many dialects ; the distribution depends partly on environment ( bilabials are more likely to be found adjacent to rounded vowels ) and partly on the individual speaker .
Among the coronals , most are alveolar , but the broad stops and lateral are typically dental [ t ̪ ˠ , d ̪ ˠ , n ̪ ˠ , l ̪ ˠ ] , and the slender coronal fricative is typically postalveolar [ ʃ ] . The slender coronal stops / tʲ , dʲ / may be realized as alveolo @-@ palatal affricates [ tɕ , dʑ ] in a number of dialects , including Tourmakeady , Erris , and Teelin .
The slender dorsal stops / c , ɟ , ɲ / may be articulated as true palatals [ c , ɟ , ɲ ] or as palatovelars [ k ̟ , ɡ ˖ , ŋ ˖ ] .
The phoneme / j / has three allophones in most dialects : a palatal approximant [ j ] before vowels besides / iː / and at the ends of syllables ( e.g. dheas [ jasˠ ] ' nice ' , beidh [ bʲɛj ] ' will be ' ) ; a voiced ( post ) palatal fricative [ ʝ ] before consonants ( e.g. ghrian [ ʝɾʲiən ̪ ˠ ] ' sun ' ) ; and an intermediate sound [ j ˔ ] ( with more frication than [ j ] but less frication than [ ʝ ] ) before / iː / ( e.g. dhírigh [ j ˔ iːɾʲə ] ' straightened ' ) .
As in English , voiceless stops are aspirated ( articulated with a puff of air immediately upon release ) at the start of a word , while voiced stops may be incompletely voiced but are never aspirated . Voiceless stops are unaspirated after / sˠ / and / ʃ / ( e.g. scanradh [ sˠkauɾˠə ] 1 ' terror ' ) ; however , stops remain aspirated after the clitic is / sˠ / ( e.g. is cam [ sˠkʰaum ] ' it 's crooked ' ) . Several researchers ( e.g. Ó Cuív 1944 , Wagner 1959 , de Bhaldraithe 1966 , Mhac an Fhailigh 1968 , and Ó Sé 2000 ) use transcriptions like / sb sd sɡ xd / , etc . , indicating they consider the stops that occur after voiceless fricatives to be devoiced allophones of the voiced stops rather than unaspirated allophones of the voiceless stops ( as is actually the case in Scottish Gaelic ) , but this is a minority view .
= = = Fortis and lenis sonorants = = =
In Old Irish , the sonorants ( those spelled 〈 l n r m 〉 ) were divided not only into broad and slender types , but also into fortis and lenis types . The precise phonetic definition of these terms is somewhat vague , but the coronal fortis sounds ( those spelled 〈 l n r 〉 ) were probably longer in duration and may have had a larger area of contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth than the lenis sounds . Fortis m was probably a normal [ m ] , while lenis m was a nasalized semivowel [ w ̃ ] , perhaps tending towards a nasalized fricative [ ṽ ] or [ β ̃ ] when palatalized . By convention , the fortis coronals are transcribed with capital letters 〈 L N R 〉 , the lenis with lower case 〈 l n r 〉 ( some authors , such as Stifter 2006 , instead use Latin 〈 l n r m 〉 for fortis and Greek 〈 λ ν ρ μ 〉 for lenis ) . Thus Old Irish had four rhotic phonemes / Rˠ , Rʲ , rˠ , rʲ / , four lateral phonemes / Lˠ , Lʲ , lˠ , lʲ / , and four coronal nasal phonemes / Nˠ , Nʲ , nˠ , nʲ / . Fortis and lenis sonorants contrasted with each other between vowels and word @-@ finally after vowels in Old Irish , for example berraid / bʲeRˠɨðʲ / ( ' he shears ' ) vs. beraid / bʲerˠɨðʲ / ( ' he may carry ' ) ; coll / koLˠ / ( ' hazel ' ) vs. col / kolˠ / ( ' sin ' ) ; sonn / sˠoNˠ / ( ' stake ' ) vs. son / sˠonˠ / ( ' sound ' ) . Word @-@ initially , only the fortis sounds were found , but they became lenis in environments where morphosyntactically triggered lenition was found : rún / Rˠuːnˠ / ( ' mystery ' ) vs. a rún / a rˠuːnˠ / ( ' his mystery ' ) , lón / Lˠoːnˠ / ( ' provision ' ) vs. a lón / a lˠoːnˠ / ( ' his provision ' ) .
In the modern language , the four rhotics have been reduced to two in all dialects , / Rˠ , Rʲ , rˠ / having merged as / ɾˠ / . For the laterals and nasals , some dialects have kept all four distinct , while others have reduced them to three or two distinct phonemes , as summarized in the following table .
As for fortis and lenis m , in time the lenis version ( nasalized semivowel or labial fricative ) came to be pronounced as a regular semivowel or fricative along with nasalization of the preceding vowel . The later loss of / w / between vowels has resulted in phonemically nasalized vowels in some modern dialects ( see below ) , but these are not robustly maintained in any dialect ; the strong tendency is to eliminate the nasalization entirely . The original nasalized semivowel is still reflected as 〈 mh 〉 in the spelling , however .
= = Vowels = =
The vowel sounds vary from dialect to dialect , but in general Connacht and Munster at least agree in having the monophthongs / iː / , / ɪ / , / uː / , / ʊ / , / eː / , / ɛ / , / oː / , / ɔ / , / a / , / aː / , and schwa ( / ə / ) , which is found only in unstressed syllables ; and the falling diphthongs / əi / , / əu / , / iə / , and / uə / .
The vowels of Ulster Irish are more divergent and are not discussed in this article .
= = = Vowel backness = = =
The backness of vowels ( that is , the horizontal position of the highest point of the tongue ) depends to a great extent on the quality ( broad or slender ) of adjacent consonants . Some researchers ( e.g. Ó Siadhail & Wigger 1975 : 80 – 82 , Ó Siadhail 1989 : 35 – 37 , Ní Chiosáin 1994 ) have argued that [ ɪ ] and [ ʊ ] are actually allophones of the same phoneme , as are [ ɛ ] and [ ɔ ] , as in a vertical vowel system . Under this view , these phonemes are not marked at an abstract level as either front vowels or back vowels . Rather , they acquire a specification for frontness or backness from the consonants around them . In this article , however , the more traditional assumption that / ɪ , ʊ , ɛ , ɔ / are four distinct phonemes will be followed . The descriptions of the allophones in this section come from Ó Sé ( 2000 : 20 – 24 ) ; the pronunciations therefore reflect the Munster accent of the Dingle Peninsula . Unless otherwise noted , however , they largely hold for other Munster and Connacht accents as well .
= = = = Close vowels = = = =
The four close vowel phonemes of Irish are the fully close / iː / and / uː / , and the near @-@ close / ɪ / and / ʊ / . Their exact pronunciation depends on the quality of the surrounding consonants . / iː / is realized as a front [ iː ] between two slender consonants ( e.g. tír [ tʲiːrʲ ] ' country ' ) . Between a slender and a broad consonant , the tongue is retracted slightly from this position ( for which the IPA symbol is [ i ̠ ː ] ) , e.g. díol [ dʲi ̠ ːl ̪ ˠ ] ( ' sale ' ) , caoire [ ki ̠ ːɾʲə ] ( ' berry ' gen . ) . Between two broad consonants , the tongue is retracted even further , almost to the point of being a central vowel ( in IPA , [ ïː ] ) : caora [ kïːɾˠə ] ( ' sheep ' ) . / uː / is a fully back [ uː ] between broad consonants ( e.g. dún [ d ̪ ˠuːn ̪ ˠ ] ' fort ' ) , but between a broad and a slender consonant , the tongue is somewhat advanced ( IPA [ u ̟ ː ] ) , e.g. triúr [ tʲɾʲu ̟ ːɾˠ ] ( ' three people ' ) , súil [ sˠu ̟ ːlʲ ] ( ' eye ' ) . Between two slender consonants , it is advanced even further , to a centralized vowel ( IPA [ üː ] ) : ciúin [ cüːnʲ ] ( ' quiet ' ) .
The near @-@ close vowels / ɪ / and / ʊ / show a similar pattern . / ɪ / is realized between slender consonants as a front [ i ̞ ] , e.g. tigh [ tʲi ̞ ɟ ] ( ' house ' dat . ) . After a slender consonant and before a broad one , it is a near @-@ front [ ɪ ] , e.g. giota [ ˈɟɪt ̪ ˠə ] ( ' piece ' ) . After a broad consonant and before a slender one , it is a more retracted [ ɪ ̈ ] , e.g. tuigeann [ ˈt ̪ ˠɪ ̈ ɟən ̪ ˠ ] ( ' understands ' ) . Finally , between two broad consonants it is a central [ ɨ ̞ ] , e.g. goirt [ ɡɨ ̞ ɾˠtʲ ] 2 ( ' salty ' ) . / ʊ / is a near @-@ back [ ʊ ] when all adjacent consonants are broad , e.g. dubh [ d ̪ ˠʊvˠ ] ( ' black ' ) , and a more centralized [ ʊ ̟ ] after a slender consonant , e.g. giobal [ ˈɟʊ ̟ bˠəl ̪ ˠ ] ( ' rag ' ) .
= = = = Mid vowels = = = =
The realization of the long close @-@ mid vowels / eː / and / oː / varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants . / eː / is a front [ eː ] between two slender consonants ( e.g. béic [ bʲeːc ] ' yell ' ) , a centralized [ ëː ] between a broad and a slender consonant ( e.g. glaoigh [ ɡl ̪ ˠëːɟ ] ' call ' ) , and a more open centralized [ ɛ ̝ ̈ ː ] between two broad consonants ( e.g. baol [ bˠɛ ̝ ̈ ːl ̪ ˠ ] ' danger ' ) . / oː / ranges from a back [ oː ] between two broad consonants ( e.g. fód [ fˠoːd ̪ ˠ ] ' turf ' ) to an advanced [ o ̟ ː ] between a broad and a slender consonant ( e.g. fóid [ fˠo ̟ ːdʲ ] ' turf ' [ gen . ] ) to a centralized [ öː ] between two slender consonants ( e.g. ceoil [ cöːlʲ ] ' music ' [ gen . ] ) .
The short open @-@ mid vowels also vary depending on their environment . Short / ɛ / ranges from a front [ ɛ ̝ ] between slender consonants ( e.g. beidh [ bʲɛ ̝ ɟ ] ' will be ' ) to a retracted [ ɛ ̝ ̈ ] between a broad and a slender consonant ( e.g. bead [ bʲɛ ̝ ̈ d ̪ ˠ ] ' I will be ' , raibh [ ɾˠɛ ̝ ̈ vʲ ] ' was ' ) to a central [ ɘ ̞ ] when the only adjacent consonant is broad ( e.g. croich [ kɾˠɘ ̞ ] ' cross ' [ dat . ] ) . Short / ɔ / between two broad consonants is usually a back [ ɔ ̝ ] , e.g. cloch [ kl ̪ ˠɔ ̝ x ] ( ' stone ' ) , but it is a centralized [ ö ] adjacent to nasal consonants and labial consonants , e.g. ansan [ ən ̪ ˠˈsˠön ̪ ˠ ] ( ' there ' ) and bog [ bˠöɡ ] ( ' soft ' ) . Between a broad and a slender consonant , it is a more open [ ɔ ̝ ̈ ] : scoil [ skɔ ̝ ̈ lʲ ] ( ' school ' ) , deoch [ dʲɔ ̝ ̈ x ] ( ' drink ' ) .
Unstressed / ə / is realized as a near @-@ close , near @-@ front [ ɪ ] when adjacent to a palatal consonant , e.g. píce [ ˈpʲiːcɪ ] ( ' pike ' ) . Next to other slender consonants , it is a mid @-@ centralized [ ɪ ̽ ] , e.g. sáile [ ˈsˠaːlʲɪ ̽ ] ( ' salt water ' ) . Adjacent to broad consonants , it is usually a mid central [ ə ] , e.g. eolas [ ˈoːl ̪ ˠəsˠ ] ( ' information ' ) , but when the preceding syllable contains one of the close back vowels / uː , ʊ / , it is realized as a mid @-@ centralized back [ ʊ ̽ ] , e.g. dúnadh [ ˈd ̪ ˠuːn ̪ ˠʊ ̽ ] ( ' closing ' ) , muca [ ˈmˠʊkʊ ̽ ] ( ' pigs ' ) .
= = = = Open vowels = = = =
The realization of the open vowels varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants ; there is a significant difference between Munster dialects and Connacht dialects as well . In Munster , long / aː / and short / a / have approximately the same range of realization : both vowels are relatively back in contact with broad consonants and relatively front in contact with slender consonants . Specifically , long / aː / in word @-@ initial position and after broad consonants is a back [ ɑː ] , e.g. áit [ ɑːtʲ ] ( ' place ' ) , trá [ t ̪ ˠɾˠɑː ] ( ' beach ' ) . Between a slender and a broad consonant , it is a retracted front [ a ̠ ː ] , e.g. gearrfaidh [ ˈɟa ̠ ːɾˠhəɟ ] ( ' will cut ' ) , while between two slender consonants it is a fully front [ aː ] , e.g. a Sheáin [ ə çaːnʲ ] ( ' John ' voc . ) . In Dingle , the back allophone is rounded to [ ɒː ] after broad labials , e.g. bán [ bˠɒːn ̪ ˠ ] ( ' white ' ) , while in An Rinn , rounded [ ɒː ] is the usual realization of / aː / in all contexts except between slender consonants , where it is a centralized [ ɒ ̈ ː ] . Short / a / between two slender consonants is a front [ a ] , as in gairid [ ɟaɾʲədʲ ] 3 ( ' short ' ) . Between a broad and a slender consonant , it is in most cases a retracted [ a ̠ ] , e.g. fear [ fʲa ̠ ɾˠ ] ( ' man ' ) , caite and [ ˈka ̠ tʲə ] ( ' worn ' ) , but after broad labials and / l ̪ ˠ / it is a centralized front [ ä ] , e.g. baile [ bˠälʲə ] ( ' town ' ) , loit [ l ̪ ˠätʲ ] 4 ( ' injure ' ) . When it is adjacent only to broad consonants , it is a centralized back [ ɑ ̈ ] , e.g. mac [ mˠɑ ̈ k ] ( ' son ' ) , abair [ ɑ ̈ bˠəɾʲ ] ( ' say ' ) .
In Connacht varieties , the allophones of short / a / are consistently further front than the allophones of long / aː / . In Erris , for example , short / a / ranges from a near @-@ open front vowel [ æ ] before slender consonants ( e.g. sail [ sˠælʲ ] ' earwax ' ) to an open [ a ] after slender consonants ( e.g. geal [ ɟalˠ ] ' bright ' ) to a centralized back [ ɑ ̈ ] between broad consonants ( e.g. capall [ ˈkɑ ̈ pˠəl ̪ ˠ ] ' horse ' ) . Long / aː / , on the other hand , ranges from a back [ ɑː ] between broad consonants ( e.g. bád [ bˠɑːd ̪ ˠ ] ' boat ' ) to an advanced back [ ɑ ̟ ː ] before slender consonants ( e.g. fáil [ fˠɑ ̟ ːlʲ ] ' to get ' ) to a centralized back [ ɑ ̈ ː ] after slender consonants ( e.g. breá [ bʲɾʲɑ ̈ ː ] ' fine ' ) . In Tourmakeady , the back allophone is rounded to [ ɒː ] after broad labials , e.g. bán [ bˠɒːn ̪ ˠ ] ( ' white ' ) . In Connemara , the allophones of / a / are lengthened in duration , so that only vowel quality distinguishes the allophones of / a / from those of / aː / .
= = = = Diphthongs = = = =
The starting point of / əi / ranges from a near @-@ open central [ ɐ ] after broad consonants to an open @-@ mid centralized front [ ɛ ̈ ] after slender consonants , and its end point ranges from a near @-@ close near @-@ front [ ɪ ] before slender consonants to a centralized [ ɪ ̈ ] before broad consonants . Examples include cladhaire [ kl ̪ ˠɐɪɾʲə ] ( ' rogue ' ) , gadhar [ ɡɐɪ ̈ ɾˠ ] ( ' dog ' ) , cill [ cɛ ̈ ɪlʲ ] ( ' church ' ) , and leigheas [ lʲɛ ̈ ɪ ̈ sˠ ] ( ' cure ' ) .
The starting point of / əu / ranges from a near @-@ open central [ ɐ ] after broad consonants to an open @-@ mid advanced central [ ɜ ̟ ] after slender consonants , and its end point ranges from a near @-@ close near @-@ back [ ʊ ] before broad consonants to a centralized [ ʊ ̈ ] before slender consonants . Examples include bodhar [ bˠɐʊɾˠ ] ( ' deaf ' ) , feabhas [ fʲɜ ̟ ʊsˠ ] ( ' improvement ' ) , labhairt [ l ̪ ˠɐʊ ̈ ɾʲtʲ ] ( ' speak ' ) , and meabhair [ mʲɜ ̟ ʊ ̈ ɾʲ ] ( ' memory ' ) . In West Muskerry and the Dingle Peninsula , however , the starting point of / əu / is rounded and further back after broad consonants , e.g. gabhar [ ɡɔʊɾˠ ] ( ' goat ' ) .
The starting point of / iə / ranges from a close front [ i ] after slender consonants to a retracted [ i ̠ ] after word @-@ initial broad / ɾˠ / ( the only context in which it appears after a broad consonant ) . Its end point ranges from a mid central [ ə ] before broad consonants to a close @-@ mid centralized front [ ë ] before slender consonants . Examples include ciall [ ciəl ̪ ˠ ] ( ' sense ' ) , riamh [ ɾˠi ̠ əvˠ ] ( ' ever ' ) , and diabhail [ dʲiëlʲ ] ( ' devils ' ) .
The starting point of / uə / is consistently a close back [ u ] while the end point ranges from [ ɐ ] to [ ɪ ̽ ] : thuas [ huɐsˠ ] ( ' above ' ) , uan [ uən ̪ ˠ ] ( ' lamb ' ) , buail [ bˠuɪ ̽ lʲ ] ( ' strike ' ) .
= = = Nasalized vowels = = =
In general , vowels in Irish are nasalized when adjacent to nasal consonants . For some speakers , there are reported to be minimal pairs between nasal vowels and oral vowels , indicating that nasal vowels are also separate phonemes ; these generally result from an earlier nasalized semivowel [ w ̃ ] ( historically the lenited version of / m / ) , that has since been lost . However , the contrast is not robust in any dialect ; most published descriptions say that contrastively nasal vowels are present in the speech of only some ( usually older ) speakers . Potential minimal pairs include those shown in the table below .
In addition , where a vowel is nasalized because it is adjacent to a nasal consonant , it often retains its nasalization in related forms where the consonant is no longer nasal . For example , the nasal / m / of máthair [ ˈmãːhəɾʲ ] ( ' mother ' ) is replaced by nonnasal / w / in the phrase a mháthair [ ə ˈwãːhəɾʲ ] ( ' his mother ' ) , but the vowel remains nasalized . Similarly , in sneachta [ ˈʃnʲãxt ̪ ˠə ] ( ' snow ' ) the vowel after the / nʲ / is nasalized , while in an tsneachta [ ə ˈtʲɾʲãxt ̪ ˠə ] ( ' the snow ' gen . ) , the / nʲ / is replaced by / ɾʲ / in some northern dialects , but the nasalized vowel remains .
= = Phonotactics = =
The most interesting aspects of Irish phonotactics revolve around the behavior of consonant clusters . Here it is important to distinguish between clusters that occur at the beginnings of words and those that occur after vowels , although there is overlap between the two groups .
= = = Word @-@ initial consonant clusters = = =
Irish words can begin with clusters of two or three consonants . In general , all the consonants in a cluster agree in their quality , i.e. either all are broad or all are slender . Two @-@ consonant clusters consist of an obstruent consonant followed by a liquid or nasal consonant ( however , labial obstruents may not be followed by a nasal ) ; examples ( from Ní Chiosáin 1999 ) include bleán / bʲlʲaːnˠ / ( ' milking ' ) , breá / bʲɾʲaː / ( ' fine ' ) , cnaipe / ˈkn ̪ ˠapʲə / ( ' button ' ) , dlí / dʲlʲiː / ( ' law ' ) , gnáth / ɡn ̪ ˠaː / ( ' usual ' ) , pleidhce / ˈpʲlʲəicə / ( ' idiot ' ) , slios / ʃlʲɪsˠ / ( ' slice ' ) , sneachta / ˈʃnʲaxt ̪ ˠə / ( ' snow ' ) , tlúth / t ̪ ˠl ̪ ˠuː / ( ' poker ' ) , and tnúth / t ̪ ˠn ̪ ˠuː / ( ' long for ' ) . In addition , / sˠ / and / ʃ / may be followed by a voiceless stop , as in sparán / ˈsˠpˠaɾˠaːn ̪ ˠ / ( ' purse ' ) and scéal / ʃceːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' story ' ) . Further , the cluster / mˠn ̪ ˠ / occurs in the word mná / mˠn ̪ ˠaː / ( ' women ' ) and a few forms related to it . Three @-@ consonant clusters consist of / sˠ / or / ʃ / plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid . Examples include scliúchas / ˈʃclʲuːxəsˠ / ( ' rumpus ' ) , scread / ʃcɾʲad ̪ ˠ / ( ' scream ' ) , splanc / sˠpˠl ̪ ˠaŋk / ( ' flash ' ) , spraoi / sˠpˠɾˠiː / ( ' fun ' ) , and stríoc / ʃtʲɾʲiːk / ( ' streak ' ) .
One exception to quality agreement is that broad / sˠ / is found before slender labials ( and for some speakers in Connemara and Dingle before / c / as well ) . Examples include : sméara / sˠmʲeːɾˠə / ( ' berries ' ) , speal / sˠpʲal / ( ' scythe ' ) , spleách / sˠpʲlʲaːx / ( ' dependent ' ) , spreag / sˠpʲɾʲaɡ / ( ' inspire ' ) , and scéal / ʃceːl ̪ ˠ / ~ / sˠceːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' story ' ) .
In the environment of an initial consonant mutation , there is a much wider range of possible onset clusters ; for example , in a lenition environment the following occur : bhlas / wl ̪ ˠasˠ / ( ' tasted ' ) , bhris / vʲɾʲɪʃ / ( ' broke ' ) , chleacht / çlʲaxt ̪ ˠ / ( ' practiced ' ) , chrom / xɾˠɔmˠ / ( ' bent ' ) , ghreamaigh / ˈjɾʲamˠə / ( ' stuck ' ) , ghníomhaigh / ˈjnʲiːwə / ( ' acted ' ) , shleamhnaigh / hlʲəun ̪ ˠə / ( ' slipped ' ) , shnámh / hn ̪ ˠaːw / ( ' swam ' ) , shroich / hɾˠɪç / ( ' reached ' ) . In an eclipsis environment , the following are found : mbláth / mˠl ̪ ˠaː / ( ' flower ' ) , mbliana / ˈmʲlʲiən ̪ ˠə / ( ' years ' ) , mbrisfeá / ˈmʲɾʲɪʃaː / ( ' you would break ' ) , ndlúth / n ̪ ˠl ̪ ˠuː / ( ' warp ' ) , ndroichead / ˈn ̪ ˠɾˠɔhəd ̪ ˠ / ( ' bridge ' ) , ndréimire / ˈnʲɾʲeːmʲəɾʲə / ( ' ladder ' ) , ngléasfá / ˈɲlʲeːsˠaː / ( ' you would dress ' ) , ngreadfá / ˈɲɾʲat ̪ ˠaː / ( ' you would leave ' ) , ngníomhófá / ˈɲnʲiːwoːhaː / ( ' you would act ' ) .
In Donegal , Mayo , and Connemara dialects ( but not usually on the Aran Islands ) , the coronal nasals / nˠ , nʲ / can follow only / sˠ , ʃ / respectively in a word @-@ initial cluster . After other consonants , they are replaced by / ɾˠ , ɾʲ / : cnoc / kɾˠʊk / ( ' hill ' ) , mná / mˠɾˠaː / ( ' women ' ) , gnaoi / ɡɾˠiː / ( ' liking ' ) , tnúth / t ̪ ˠɾˠuː / ( ' long for ' ) .
Under lenition , / sˠn ̪ ˠ , ʃnʲ / become / hn ̪ ˠ , hnʲ / as expected in these dialects , but after the definite article an they become / t ̪ ˠɾˠ , tʲɾʲ / : sneachta / ʃnʲaxt ̪ ˠə / ( ' snow ' ) , shneachta / hnʲaxt ̪ ˠə / ( ' snow ' [ lenited form ] ) , an tsneachta / ə tʲɾʲaxt ̪ ˠə / ( ' the snow ' gen . ) .
= = = Post @-@ vocalic consonant clusters and epenthesis = = =
Like word @-@ initial consonant clusters , post @-@ vocalic consonant clusters usually agree in broad or slender quality . The only exception here is that broad / ɾˠ / , not slender / ɾʲ / , appears before the slender coronals / tʲ , dʲ , ʃ , nʲ , lʲ / : beirt / bʲɛɾˠtʲ / ( ' two people ' ) , ceird / ceːɾˠdʲ / ( ' trade ' ) , doirse / ˈd ̪ ˠoːɾˠʃə / ( ' doors ' ) , doirnín / d ̪ ˠuːɾˠˈnʲiːnʲ / ( ' handle ' ) , comhairle / ˈkuːɾˠlʲə / ( ' advice ' ) .
A cluster of / ɾˠ , ɾʲ / , / l ̪ ˠ , lʲ / , or / n ̪ ˠ , nʲ / followed by a labial or dorsal consonant ( except the voiceless stops / pˠ , pʲ / , / k , c / ) is broken up by an epenthetic vowel / ə / : borb / ˈbˠɔɾˠəbˠ / ( ' abrupt ' ) , gorm / ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ / ( ' blue ' ) , dearmad / ˈdʲaɾˠəmˠəd ̪ ˠ / ( ' mistake ' ) , dearfa / ˈdʲaɾˠəfˠə / ( ' certain ' ) , seirbhís / ˈʃɛɾʲəvʲiːʃ / ( ' service ' ) , fearg / ˈfʲaɾˠəɡ / ( ' anger ' ) , dorcha / ˈd ̪ ˠɔɾˠəxə / ( ' dark ' ) , dalba / ˈd ̪ ˠal ̪ ˠəbˠə / ( ' bold ' ) , colm / ˈkɔl ̪ ˠəmˠ / ( ' dove ' ) , soilbhir / ˈsˠɪlʲəvʲəɾʲ / ( ' pleasant ' ) , gealbhan / ˈɟal ̪ ˠəwən ̪ ˠ / ( ' sparrow ' ) , binb / ˈbʲɪnʲəbʲ / ( ' venom ' ) , Banba , / ˈbˠan ̪ ˠəbə / ( a name for Ireland ) , ainm / ˈanʲəmʲ / ( ' name ' ) , meanma / ˈmʲan ̪ ˠəmˠə / ( ' mind ' ) , ainmhí / ˈanʲəvʲiː / ( ' animal ' ) .
There is no epenthesis , however , if the vowel preceding the cluster is long or a diphthong : fáirbre / ˈfˠaːɾʲbʲɾʲə / ( ' wrinkle ' ) , téarma / ˈtʲeːɾˠmˠə / ( ' term ' ) , léargas / ˈlʲeːɾˠɡəsˠ / ( ' insight ' ) , dualgas / ˈd ̪ ˠuəl ̪ ˠɡəsˠ / ( ' duty ' ) . There is also no epenthesis into words that are at least three syllables long : firmimint / ˈfʲɪɾʲmʲəmʲənʲtʲ / ( ' firmament ' ) , smiolgadán / ˈsˠmʲɔl ̪ ˠɡəd ̪ ˠaːn ̪ ˠ / ( ' throat ' ) , caisearbhán / ˈkaʃəɾˠwaːn ̪ ˠ / ( ' dandelion ' ) , Cairmilíteach / ˈkaɾʲmʲəlʲiːtʲəx / ( ' Carmelite ' ) .
= = Phonological processes = =
= = = Vowel @-@ initial words = = =
Vowel @-@ initial words in Irish exhibit behavior that has led linguists to suggest that the vowel sound they begin with on the surface is not actually the first sound in the word at a more abstract level . Specifically , when a clitic ending in a consonant precedes a word beginning with the vowel , the consonant of the clitic surfaces as either broad or slender , depending on the specific word in question . For example , the n of the definite article an ( ' the ' ) is slender before the word iontais ( ' wonder ' ) but broad before the word aois ( ' age ' ) : an iontais / ənʲ ˈiːn ̪ ˠt ̪ ˠəʃ / ( ' the wonder ' gen . ) vs. an aois / ən ̪ ˠ ˈiːʃ / ( ' the age ' ) .
One analysis of these facts is that vowel @-@ initial words actually begin , at an abstract level of representation , with a kind of " empty " consonant that consists of nothing except the information " broad " or " slender " . Another analysis is that vowel @-@ initial words , again at an abstract level , all begin with one of two semivowels , one triggering palatalization and the other triggering velarization of a preceding consonant .
= = = Lengthening before fortis sonorants = = =
Where reflexes of the Old Irish fortis sonorants appear in syllable @-@ final position ( in some cases , only in word @-@ final position ) , they trigger a lengthening or diphthongization of the preceding vowel in most dialects of Irish . The details vary from dialect to dialect .
In Donegal and Mayo , lengthening is found only before rd , rl , rn , before rr ( except when a vowel follows ) , and in a few words also before word @-@ final ll , for example , barr / bˠaːɾˠ / ( ' top ' ) , ard / aːɾˠd ̪ ˠ / ( ' tall ' ) , orlach / ˈoːɾˠl ̪ ˠax / ( ' inch ' ) , tuirne / ˈt ̪ uːɾˠn ̠ ʲə / ( ' spinning wheel ' ) , thall / haːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' yonder ' ) .
In Connemara , the Aran Islands , and Munster , lengthening is found generally not only in the environments listed above , but also before nn ( unless a vowel follows ) and before m and ng at the end of a word . For example , the word poll ( ' hole ' ) is pronounced / pˠəul ̪ ˠ / in all of these regions , while greim ( ' grip ' ) is pronounced / ɟɾʲiːmʲ / in Connemara and Aran and / ɟɾʲəimʲ / in Munster .
Because vowels behave differently before broad sonorants than before slender ones in many cases , and because there is generally no lengthening ( except by analogy ) when the sonorants are followed by a vowel , there is a variety of vowel alternations between different related word @-@ forms . For example , in Dingle ceann ( ' head ' ) is pronounced / cəun ̪ ˠ / with a diphthong , but cinn ( the genitive singular of the same word ) is pronounced / ciːnʲ / with a long vowel , while ceanna ( the plural , meaning ' heads ' ) is pronounced / ˈcan ̪ ˠə / with a short vowel .
This lengthening has received a number of different explanations within the context of theoretical phonology . All accounts agree that some property of the fortis sonorant is being transferred to the preceding vowel , but the details about what property that is vary from researcher to researcher . Ó Siadhail & Wigger ( 1975 : 89 – 90 ) argue that the fortis sonorant is tense ( a term only vaguely defined phonetically ) and that this tenseness is transferred to the vowel , where it is realized phonetically as vowel length and / or diphthongization . Ní Chiosáin ( 1991 : 188 – 95 ) argues that the triggering consonant is underlyingly associated with a unit of syllable weight called a mora ; this mora then shifts to the vowel , creating a long vowel or a diphthong . Carnie ( 2002 ) expands on that analysis to argue that the fortis sonorants have an advanced tongue root ( that is , the bottom of the tongue is pushed upward during articulation of the consonant ) and that diphthongization is an articulatory effect of this tongue movement .
= = = Devoicing = = =
Where a voiced obstruent or / w / comes into contact with / h / , the / h / is absorbed into the other sound , which then becomes voiceless ( in the case of / w / , devoicing is to / fˠ / ) . Devoicing is found most prominently in the future of first conjugation verbs ( where the / h / sound is represented by the letter f ) and in the formation of verbal adjectives ( where the sound is spelled th ) . For example , the verb scuab / sˠkuəbˠ / ( ' sweep ' ) ends in the voiced consonant / bˠ / , but its future tense scuabfaidh / ˈsˠkuəpˠəɟ / ( ' will sweep ' ) and verbal adjective scuabtha / ˈsˠkuəpˠə / ( ' swept ' ) have the voiceless consonant / pˠ / .
= = = Sandhi = = =
Irish exhibits a number of external sandhi effects , i.e. phonological changes across word boundaries , particularly in rapid speech . The most common type of sandhi in Irish is assimilation , which means that a sound changes its pronunciation in order to become more similar to an adjacent sound . One type of assimilation in Irish is found when a coronal consonant ( one of d , l , n , r , s , t ) changes from being broad to being slender before a word that begins with a slender coronal consonant , or from being slender to being broad before a word that begins with a broad coronal consonant . For example , feall / fʲal ̪ ˠ / ( ' deceive ' ) ends with a broad ll , but in the phrase d 'fheall sé orm [ dʲal ̠ ʲ ʃə ɔɾˠəmˠ ] ( ' it deceived me ' ) , the ll has become slender because the following word , sé , starts with a slender coronal consonant .
The consonant n may also assimilate to the place of articulation of a following consonant , becoming labial before a labial consonant , palatal before a palatal consonant , and velar before a velar consonant . For example , the nn of ceann / can ̪ ˠ / ( ' one ' ) becomes [ mˠ ] in ceann bacach [ camˠ ˈbˠakəx ] ( ' a lame one ' ) and [ ŋ ] in ceann carrach [ caŋ ˈkaɾˠəx ] ( ' a scabbed one ' ) . A voiced consonant at the end of a word may become voiceless when the next word begins with a voiceless consonant , as in lúb sé [ l ̪ ˠuːpˠ ʃeː ] ( ' he bent ' ) , where the b sound of lúb / l ̪ ˠuːbˠ / ( ' bent ' ) has become a p sound before the voiceless s of sé .
= = Stress = =
= = = General facts of stress placement = = =
An Irish word normally has only one stressed syllable , namely the first syllable of the word . In IPA transcription , a stressed syllable is marked with the symbol [ ˈ ] to the left of the syllable . Examples include d 'imigh / ˈdʲɪmʲiː / ( ' left ' [ past tense of leave ] ) and easonóir / ˈasˠən ̪ ˠoːɾʲ / ( ' dishonor ' ) . However , certain words , especially adverbs and loanwords , have stress on a noninitial syllable , e.g. amháin / əˈwaːnʲ / ( ' only ' ) , tobac / təˈbak / ( ' tobacco ' ) .
In most compound words , primary stress falls on the first member and a secondary stress ( marked with [ ˌ ] ) falls on the second member , e.g. lagphórtach / ˈl ̪ ˠaɡˌfˠɔɾˠt ̪ ˠəx / ( ' spent bog ' ) . Some compounds , however , have primary stress on both the first and the second member , e.g. deargbhréag / ˈdʲaɾˠəɡˌvʲɾʲeːɡ / ( ' a terrible lie ' ) .
In Munster , stress is attracted to a long vowel or diphthong in the second or third syllable of a word , e.g. cailín / kaˈlʲiːnʲ / ( ' girl ' ) , achainí / axəˈnʲiː / ( ' request ' ) . In the now @-@ extinct accent of East Mayo , stress was attracted to a long vowel or diphthong in the same way as in Munster ; in addition , stress was attracted to a short vowel before word @-@ final ll , m , or nn when that word was also final in its utterance . For example , capall ( ' horse ' ) was pronounced [ kaˈpˠɞl ̪ ˠ ] in isolation or as the last word of a sentence , but as [ ˈkapˠəl ̪ ˠ ] in the middle of a sentence .
= = = The nature of unstressed vowels = = =
In general , short vowels are all reduced to schwa ( [ ə ] ) in unstressed syllables , but there are some exceptions . In Munster , if the third syllable of a word is stressed and the preceding two syllables are short , the first of the two unstressed syllables is not reduced to schwa ; instead it receives a secondary stress , e.g. spealadóir / ˌsˠpʲal ̪ ˠəˈd ̪ ˠoːɾʲ / ( ' scythe @-@ man ' ) . Also in Munster , an unstressed short vowel is not reduced to schwa if the following syllable contains a stressed / iː / or / uː / , e.g. ealaí / aˈl ̪ ˠiː / ( ' art ' ) , bailiú / bˠaˈlʲuː / ( ' gather ' ) . In Ulster , long vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened but are not reduced to schwa , e.g. cailín / ˈkalʲinʲ / ( ' girl ' ) , galún / ˈɡalˠunˠ / ( ' gallon ' ) .
= = Processes relating to / x / = =
The voiceless velar fricative / x / , spelled 〈 ch 〉 , is associated with some unusual patterns in many dialects of Irish . For one thing , its presence after the vowel / a / triggers behavior atypical of short vowels ; for another , / x / and its slender counterpart / ç / interchange with the voiceless glottal fricative / h / in a variety of ways , and can sometimes be deleted altogether .
= = = Behavior of / ax / = = =
In Munster , stress is attracted to / a / in the second syllable of a word if it is followed by / x / , provided the first syllable ( and third syllable , if there is one ) contains a short vowel ( Ó Cuív 1944 : 66 ) . Examples include bacach / bˠəˈkax / ( ' lame ' ) and slisneacha / ʃlʲəˈʃnʲaxə / ( ' chips ' ) . However , if the first or third syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong , stress is attracted to that syllable instead , and the / a / before / x / is reduced to / ə / as normal , e.g. éisteacht / ˈeːʃtʲəxt ̪ ˠ / ( ' listen ' ) , moltachán / ˌmˠɔl ̪ ˠhəˈxaːn ̪ ˠ / 5 ( ' wether ' ) .
In Ulster , unstressed / a / before / x / is not reduced to schwa , e.g. eallach / ˈal ̪ ˠax / ( ' cattle ' ) .
= = = Interaction of / x / and / ç / with / h / = = =
In many dialects of Irish , the voiceless dorsal fricatives / x / and / ç / alternate with / h / under a variety of circumstances . For example , as the lenition of / tʲ / and / ʃ / , / h / is replaced by / ç / before back vowels , e.g. thabharfainn / ˈçuːɾˠhən ̠ ʲ / 6 ( ' I would give ' ) , sheoil / çoːlʲ / ( ' drove ' ) . In Munster , / ç / becomes / h / after a vowel , e.g. fiche / ˈfʲɪhə / ( ' twenty ' ) . In Ring , / h / becomes / x / at the end of a monosyllabic word , e.g. scáth / sˠkaːx / ( ' fear ' ) . In some Ulster dialects , such as that of Tory Island , / x / can be replaced by / h / , e.g. cha / ha / ( ' not ' ) , and can even be deleted word @-@ finally , as in santach / ˈsˠan ̪ ˠt ̪ ˠah ~ ˈsˠan ̪ ˠt ̪ ˠa / ( ' greedy ' ) In other Ulster dialects , / x / can be deleted before / t ̪ ˠ / as well , e.g. seacht / ʃat ̪ ˠ / ( ' seven ' ) .
= = Samples = =
The following table shows some sample sentences from the Aran dialect .
The first eight chapters of Peadar Ua Laoghaire 's autobiography Mo Sgéal Féin at Wikisource include recordings of the text being read by a native speaker of Muskerry ( Munster ) Irish .
= = Comparison with other languages = =
= = = Scottish Gaelic and Manx = = =
Many of the phonological processes found in Irish are found also in its nearest relatives , Scottish Gaelic and Manx . For example , both languages contrast " broad " and " slender " consonants , but only at the coronal and dorsal places of articulation ; both Scottish Gaelic and Manx have lost the distinction in labial consonants . The change of / kn ̪ ˠ ɡn ̪ ˠ mn ̪ ˠ / etc. to / kɾˠ ɡɾˠ mɾˠ / etc. is found in Manx and in most Scottish dialects . Evidence from written manuscripts suggests it had begun in Scottish Gaelic as early as the sixteenth century and was well established in both Scottish Gaelic and Manx by the late 17th to early 18th century . Lengthening or diphthongization of vowels before fortis sonorants is also found in both languages . The stress pattern of Scottish Gaelic is the same as that in Connacht and Ulster Irish , while in Manx , stress is attracted to long vowels and diphthongs in noninitial syllables , but under more restricted conditions than in Munster .
Manx and many dialects of Scottish Gaelic share with Ulster Irish the property of not reducing unstressed / a / to / ə / before / x / .
= = = Hiberno @-@ English = = =
Irish pronunciation has had a significant influence on the features of Hiberno @-@ English . For example , most of the vowels of Hiberno @-@ English ( with the exception of / ɔɪ / ) correspond to vowel phones ( which may or may not be phonemes ) of Irish . The Irish stops [ t ̪ ˠ d ̪ ˠ ] have been taken over ( though without distinctive velarization ) into Hiberno @-@ English as common realizations of the English phonemes / θ ð / . Hiberno @-@ English also allows / h / to appear in positions where it is permitted in Irish but excluded in other dialects of English , such as before an unstressed vowel ( e.g. Haughey / ˈhɑhi / ) and at the end of a word ( e.g. McGrath / məˈɡɹæh / ) . Another feature of Hiberno @-@ English pronunciation taken from Irish is epenthesis in words like film [ ˈfɪləm ] and form [ ˈfɒːɹəm ] .
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= Kiliaen van Rensselaer ( merchant ) =
Kiliaen van Rensselaer ( Dutch : [ ˈkɪlijaːn vɑn ˈrɛnsəlaːr ] ; 1586 , Hasselt , Overijssel – buried 7 October 1643 , Amsterdam ) was a Dutch diamond and pearl merchant from Amsterdam who was one of the founders and directors of the Dutch West India Company , being instrumental in the establishment of New Netherland .
He was one of the first patroons , but the only one to become successful . He founded the Manor of Rensselaerswyck in what is now mainly New York 's Capital District . His estate remained throughout the Dutch and British colonial era and the American Revolution as a legal entity until the 1840s . Eventually , that came to an end during the Anti @-@ Rent War .
Kiliaen van Rensselaer was born in the province of Overijssel to Hendrick Kiliaensz van Rensselaer , a soldier from Nijkerk in the States army of the duke of Upper Saxony , and Maria Pafraet , descendant of a well @-@ known printers ' dynasty . To keep from risking his life in the army like his father , he apprenticed under his uncle , a successful Amsterdam jeweler . He too became a successful jeweler and was one of the first subscribers to the Dutch West India Company upon its conception .
The concept of patroonships may have been Kiliaen van Rensselaer 's ; he was likely the leading proponent of the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions , the document that established the patroon system . His patroonship became the most successful to exist , making full use of his business tactics and advantages , such as his connection to the Director of New Netherland , his confidantes at the West India Company , and his extended family members who were eager to emigrate to a better place to farm . Van Rensselaer married twice and had at least eleven children . When he died sometime after 1642 , two succeeded him as patroons of Rensselaerswyck .
Van Rensselaer had a marked effect on the history of the United States . The American van Rensselaers all descend from Kiliaen 's son Jeremias and the subsequent Van Rensselaer family is noted for being a very powerful and wealthy influence in the history of New York and the Northeastern United States , producing multiple State Legislators , Congressmen , and two Lieutenant Governors in New York .
= = Early years = =
Kiliaen van Rensselaer was born in Hasselt , Overijssel , Netherlands in 1586 . The exact day of his birth is unknown . He was the son of Hendrick van Rensselaer and Maria Pafraet . His father was a captain in the Dutch army until his death at the Siege of Ostend in early June 1602 .
With his father usually not home ( and eventually meeting his death ) because of a military career , van Rensselaer 's mother sent him to apprentice with his uncle , Wolfert van Bijler , a jeweler and diamond merchant . At the time , the gem trade was a prosperous enterprise to join , being a well @-@ developed craft . In those days , the diamond trade was nearly always combined with the trade in pearls , other articles of luxury , and rarities of every description . Dutch jewelers found a ready market for their valuable wares at the Dutch imperial court and the smaller German courts . This realm of work promoted van Rensselaer to a life of economic success .
Much of van Rensselaer 's early life is unknown to today 's historians , though in March 1608 it has been recorded that he was taking care of some business of van Bijler in Prague . It seems van Bijler gradually retired from his business , leaving it in the control of van Rensselaer . During his tenure at the helm of his uncle 's business , van Rensselaer proposed a merger with the firm of Jan van Wely , son of one of van Bijler 's sisters , who had an equally successful jewelry business . The firms combined under the name of Jan van Wely & Co. in February 1614 . Van Rensselaer 's name was not included in the name of the new company , since he contributed only one eighth of the investment capital , whereas van Wely contributed half ( 192 @,@ 000 guilders ) . In 1616 , van Wely was called on by Prince Maurice to meet at the Hague for a sale in jewels . He was murdered while waiting to meet with the Prince . The firm 's contract stipulated that at the death of Jan van Wely , the remaining members of the firm should continue the partnership for another six years . Van Wely 's murder , therefore , caused no change in the business , but it seems that at the expiration of that time , van Rensselaer began again on his own account , founding Kiliaen van Rensselaer & Co. with partner Jacques I 'Hermite .
= = Director of the Dutch West India Company = =
Some of van Rensselaer 's success as a jewel merchant came about due to trade made possible by the Dutch East India Company . The practical spirit of the Dutch merchant could not fail to recognize that the way to riches was through trade with the West Indies and Africa . During the Twelve Years ' Truce , Dutch merchants had sailed unmolested to the West Indies but also received no letters of marque to take prizes from the enemy .
Before the Eighty Years ' War began , people realized that the West Indies trade might bring great prosperity to the country and that more power might be developed against Spain . Rather than travel to the area singly on an armed ship or in the company of a few other vessels , traders could do business in the manner of the large and prosperous East India Company . A company for carrying on commerce in the West Indies and Africa could be organized , which might , like the sister company , act as the war @-@ waging power in those parts and be supported by the treasury , ships , and troops of the United Netherlands .
After long years of preparation , the Charter of the Dutch West India Company was granted by the States General on June 3 , 1621 , and the subscription list was opened . It is known that subscriptions did not come in very rapidly at first due to the exclusion of the salt trade from the charter . This barrier was overcome in a later amendment to the Charter , and the subscription rate increased .
With a capital of seven million florins , the West India Company was granted exclusive authority and trade privileges in the Dutch possessions of the two Americas , as well as the coast of Africa from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope . The objects of its creation were to establish an efficient and aggressive Atlantic maritime power in the struggle with Spain , as well as to colonize , develop , and rule the Dutch American dependencies — particularly New Netherland ( the modern states of New York and New Jersey ) , discovered by Henry Hudson in 1609 .
Van Rensselaer was one of the first subscribers to the West India Company . As with the other subscribers , he contributed 6000 guilders to be a member of one of its chambers . Having paid his way , he was welcomed to the Chamber of Amsterdam , one of five Chambers of the West India Company , each located in a principal Dutch city . The Chamber of Amsterdam was the largest with twenty members , mainly due to the city 's population , and represented four ninths of the management of the West India Company .
Due to the practical limitations of meetings with 74 members on a regular basis ( the total number of members from the five Chambers ) , the Charter called for a board of directors comprising nineteen members of the five Chambers . Van Rensselaer was chosen a member of this College of XIX , as it was called . It is said that care was exercised in the selection of the directors of each chamber , and only men of wealth and the highest known integrity were eligible for the trust . Van Rensselaer was apparently known as an unusually clear @-@ headed man and an able and practical merchant who did not limit himself to his own branch of trade . These qualities presumably garnered the trust needed to be elected to the College of XIX .
In its role supporting colonization of New Netherland , the West India Company had an executive board of nine members from the College of XIX to manage the concerns of their colony . Van Rensselaer was also a member of this group . In the early career of the Company , van Rensselaer was one of its mainstays , placing several of his vessels at its disposal and twice advancing money to save its credit . His name is conspicuously identified with all its measures of policy , including the original settlement of Manhattan Island , New Amsterdam .
= = Patroon = =
Unfortunately for the West India Company , the infant colony of New Netherland languished , the cautious Dutch people having very little inclination to emigrate to wild and uncultivated lands in which no substantial inducements were present . While the economic situation of the colony in the late 1620s could be considered a relatively good showing for a colony only newly started in a wilderness , its slow success was hardly sufficient to create much excitement among the directors of the West India Company . Within a few years , the Company realized that special measures which would afford a stimulus to colonization were indispensable .
It was for these reasons that the Company proposed the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions , which the States General ratified on June 7 , 1629 . This document was created to encourage settlement of New Netherland through the establishment of feudal patroonships purchased and supplied by members of the West India Company . With a total of 31 articles , the document spells out many requirements of these patroons , primarily stating that each patroon was required to purchase the land from the local Indians , and inhabit the land with 50 adults within four years , with at least one quarter arriving within one year . In return , the patroons were able to own the land and pass it to succeeding generations as a perpetual fiefdom , as well as receive protection and free African slaves from the Company .
It is believed that the system of patroonships was originally suggested by van Rensselaer himself . He was reportedly one of the first of the Company to perceive that the building up of New Netherland could not be carried on without labor , and that labor could not be procured without permanent settlers . " Open up the country with agriculture : that must be our first step , " was his urgent advice . The Company was not inclined to involve itself in further expense for colonization , and matters threatened to come to a halt , when someone — very likely van Rensselaer himself — evolved the plan of granting large estates to men willing to pay the cost of settling and operating them .
Van Rensselaer was quick to take part in the new endeavor : on January 13 , 1629 , he sent notification to the Directors of the Company that he , in conjunction with fellow Company members Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blommaert , had sent Gillis Houset and Jacob Jansz Cuyper to determine satisfactory locations for settlement . This took place even before the Charter was ratified , but was done in accordance with a draft of the Charter from March 28 , 1628 .
The report of the agents sent out had not been unfavorable . They had selected an extensive domain on both sides of the North River in the vicinity of Fort Orange for van Rensselaer , which extended 24 miles ( 39 km ) in length , 40 miles ( 64 km ) in breadth and covered an area of almost 1 @,@ 000 square miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km2 ) . The location relative to the fort was chosen with care — in case of danger , it would be a sure point of defense or retreat , and its garrison would be very likely to intimidate the natives . In this manner van Rensselaer employed the troops of the Company more or less as coadjutors to his colonizing plans . Furthermore , the fort would become an easily reached marketplace for the colonists , where they could maintain communication with the outside world . For that reason , van Rensselaer diligently maintained friendly relations with the commander of the garrison and the authorities within the walls .
His first act was to obtain possession of the land for his colony from the Mohican , the original owners , who had never been willing to sell their territory — not even the ground of Fort Orange . However , after they had been involved in a bloody war with their neighbors , the Mohawks , and were defeated in 1629 , they were found ready to dispose of their possessions . In April , two officers of the West India Company in Fort Orange , Sebastiaen Jansen Krol and Dirk Cornelisz Duyster , specially empowered by writing of January 12 , 1630 , purchased a large tract of land on the west side of the North River . Gillis Houset , one of the men initially sent to determine a settlement location , increased this territory in August by adding tracts of land on the right bank , located above and below Fort Orange , and also by adding land on the east side of the river . After the initial expansion , the territory was later further extended by deeds of purchase in May 1631 and April 1637 .
The most troubling aspect of colonizing the patroonships was enlisting the required number of colonists , so that the failure of many of the other proposed patroonships may in part be attributed to this fact . The patroons still dealt with the issues of a cautious people not caring to venture to an undeveloped world . As an owner of extensive lands in the sandy Gooi and of family estates in the not much more fruitful Veluwe , where several relatives were landowners and struggled to subsist on meager means , van Rensselaer had an advantage — his agents needed to employ little persuasion to induce some Gooiers and Veluwers to migrate to more fruitful regions where the farming would be less difficult . In addition , he could depend on the indirect support of his nephew Wouter van Twiller , who had been appointed Director of New Netherland in 1632 , and with whom he engaged in friendly correspondence at a time when Dutch directors opposed the patroons in every way . In 1634 he collaborated with Michael Reyniersz Pauw , the patroon of Pavonia on shipping cattle .
With that , van Rensselaer shipped out 37 immigrants on his ship Rensselaerswijck from Amsterdam on September 26 , 1636 . The vessel arrived on April 7 , 1637 . The population rose to more than 100 by 1642 and doubled that in the next ten years . The village of Beverwyck alone had more than 1000 inhabitants by 1660 and is said to have become urban by this point .
The good understanding between the patroons of the Amsterdam Chamber left nothing to be desired ; Burgh , Godyn , Blommaert , and van Rensselaer , before signifying to the directors their willingness to start colonies , made an agreement to work the projected colonies on joint account , each under the direction of one of them . Three of them would have a one @-@ fifth share in each colony , while the fourth would receive the remaining two fifths , taking the responsibility for its management and exercising patroon rights .
Only Rensselaerswyck was a successful patroonship . Van Rensselaer successively purchased Godyn 's share in the patroonship from his heirs , so that van Rensslaer soon became the owner of three fifths . The two other shares remained partly in the hands of Blommaert and partly in the hands of others : Adam Bessels owning Blommaert 's fifth , while Johannes de Laet and Toussaint Muyssaert split Burgh 's fifth between them .
Letters saved by the van Rensselaer family show that Kiliaen van Rensselaer never visited his colony in person .
= = Personal life = =
= = = First marriage = = =
Van Rensselaer married his cousin Hillegonda van Bijler , on July 23 , 1616 . As the sole heir of her father Wolfert van Bijler ( or Byllaer ) , she inherited 12 @,@ 000 guilders . Hillegonda van Bijler was born around 1598 , making her near the age of 18 at the time of her marriage to van Rensselaer . The same year , the young husband purchased a couple of lots on the east side of the recently dug Keizersgracht in Amsterdam , between Marten and Wolven streets , where he built a house .
Van Rensselaer and van Bijler had three children . The first was Hendrick , Kiliaen 's first son , believed to have died in childhood . Johan , their second son , was baptized on September 4 , 1625 . Maria , their last child , was buried on January 4 , 1627 . She died as an infant .
Hillegonda van Bijler is presumed to have died in late December 1626 , since she was buried on January 1 , 1627 , three days before her third child Maria . She was around the age of 28 and the couple had been married less than eleven years .
= = = Second marriage = = =
Van Rensselaer re @-@ married on December 14 , 1627 to Anna van Wely , daughter of van Rensselaer 's former business partner . Van Wely was born around 1601 , making her about 26 at the time of the marriage . The couple had eight children between 1629 and 1639 , four boys and four girls :
Van Wely outlived her husband , having died in Amsterdam in 1670 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Little is known about van Rensselaer 's death , and sources even disagree on the year . Van Rensselaer was interred in the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam . His memorial stone states he was buried in the church on October 7 , 1643 .
Van Rensselaer 's son Jeremias is the sole ancestor of the entire van Rensselaer family in America , and only because of Kiliaen 's purchase and development of the land in New Netherland . Included in the subsequent family tree is a very powerful and wealthy group of individuals over the course of American history . Within the paternal ( van Rensselaer ) lineage , the family has produced numerous New York State Assemblymen and Senators , two Lieutenant Governors of New York , and five Congressmen from New York between 1789 and 1842 .
Van Rensselaer is also the source of the names of the town of Rensselaerville , city of Rensselaer , and county of Rensselaer in upstate New York . Additionally , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy was founded in 1824 by Stephen Van Rensselaer III as the Rensselaer School . It is now a world @-@ renowned technical and engineering school . Notably , at the time of his death , Stephen III was worth about $ 10 million ( about $ 88 billion in 2007 dollars ) and is noted as being the tenth @-@ richest American in history .
Rensselaerswyck continued as a legal entity until the mid @-@ 1840s , having survived Dutch and British colonial times , even being given a special patent by Queen Anne to confirm the patroon 's fiefdom upon British takeover of the area . The end of the manor came with the Anti @-@ Rent War , when many tenants rose against the successors of Stephen Van Rensselaer III ( who had died in 1839 ) , having much influence on the Legislature elections of the time , and eventually intimidating the Van Rensselaer family enough to sell off most of its holdings .
The family records , many of which were translated and published in the Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts , reveal the personality of the man who figures prominently in the history of colonization as the founder of the only successful patroonship that ever existed in New Netherland . But beyond the fact that he managed this patroonship and that he was a merchant and director of the West India Company , practically nothing was known until the organization and translation of the family records in the early 1900s ( decade ) .
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= FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 =
The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009 ( Czech : Mistrovství světa v klasickém lyžování Liberec 2009 ) took place 18 February – 1 March 2009 in Liberec , Czech Republic . This was the fourth time these championships were hosted either in the Czech Republic or in Czechoslovakia , having done so at Janské Lázně ( 1925 ) and Vysoké Tatry ( both in 1935 and 1970 ) .
The biggest sports event in the country 's history , it hosted 589 athletes from 61 countries . Women 's ski jumping and Men 's Nordic combined 10 km mass start events debuted at theses championships , both won by Americans Lindsey Van and Todd Lodwick , respectively . Norway won the most medals with twelve and most golds with five , all in the men 's cross @-@ country skiing events , including three from Petter Northug . Germany finished second in the total medal count with nine though none of them were gold ( eight silver and one bronze ) . Finland finished third in the medal count with eight with three golds , all from Aino @-@ Kaisa Saarinen in women 's cross @-@ country skiing . Fourth in total medal count , but second in gold medal count was the United States with six , including four golds , who prior to these championships , had won only three medals in all of the previous championships combined , including four medals in Nordic combined ( Lodwick : two golds , Bill Demong : one gold and one bronze ) . Kikkan Randall became the first American woman to medal in cross country skiing at the world championships with her silver in the individual sprint .
Besides the debut of women 's ski jumping at these championships , the big winner in the jumping events was Austria with three medals and two each for Wolfgang Loitzl and Gregor Schlierenzauer . Adding the 10 km mass start , the Nordic combined format was changed from 7 @.@ 5 km sprint and 15 km individual Gundersen to 10 km individual large hill ( aka Large hill Gundersen ) and 10 km individual normal hill ( aka Normal hill Gundersen ) , respectively . Estonia 's Andrus Veerpalu became the oldest gold medalist at 38 when he won gold in the men 's 15 km event . Despite concern over the lack of snowfall that plagued event preparation prior to the championships , the championships themselves had an abundance of snowfall and wind that caused the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined mass start to be postponed for a day and the ski jumping individual large hill competition to be limited to one jump .
Attendance was between 180 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 , twice the number at the previous championships in Sapporo , but 35 to 40 percent lower than the 2005 championships in Oberstdorf . FIS President Gian Franco Kasper commented at the closing ceremonies of the 15 nations earning medals at these championships , along with the successes of the television coverage by Czech TV and the success of the women 's ski jumping at these championships would pave the way for inclusion into the 2014 Winter Olympics . A broadcast report from the European Broadcasting Union released on 4 June 2009 had total viewership of 666 million global viewers , higher than that of the 2005 championships and the 2001 championships .
= = Competition format changes = =
The initial schedule for the competition was approved at the FIS Council meeting in Portorož , Slovenia during the weekend of 25 – 28 May 2007 . Women 's ski jumping became an official event for the first time at these championships on the normal hill which took place 20 February . This was approved at the May 2006 FIS Congress in Vilamoura , Portugal . Cross country skiing events had its classical interval start events adjusted to include a 5 km qualification event for women and a 10 km qualification for men for the women 's 10 km and men 's 15 km event with the top 20 finishers in each qualification advancing to the main events . These events took place 18 – 20 February . Nordic combined had the greatest changes in it schedule with the debut of the 10 km mass start that was also approved at the 2006 Congress in Vilamoura , and the replacement of the 7 @.@ 5 km sprint and 15 km individual Gundersen events with two separate 10 km individual events . The first event , replacing the 15 km Gundersen , was a single jump from the individual normal hill followed by a 10 km cross country event using the Gundersen system while the second event , replacing the 7 @.@ 5 km sprint , was a single jump from the individual large hill followed by a 10 km cross country event also using the Gundersen system . The Nordic combined changes were approved at an autumn seasonal meeting in Zurich , Switzerland , the week of 29 September 2008 . Other changes listed in the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined team event was only one jump and being listed was the point @-@ time differential at 1 point equaling 1 @.@ 33 seconds .
= = History = =
= = = 2004 – June 2007 = = =
The host of the 2009 World championships was awarded at the 2004 FIS Congress in Miami , Florida , USA on 3 June 2004 . The opposing candidate city to Liberec was Oslo , Norway . Norwegian Ski President Sverre Seeberg stated to the Norwegian press before the voting started that he " thought it would be a close call , but not as close for FIS President Kasper to use his deciding vote . " The fact this was the fourth time in a row that Liberec applied for the championships , and that it was almost 40 years since it last was arranged in Eastern Europe ( 1970 in Vysoké Tatry , Czechoslovakia ) might give Liberec an advantage , according to Seeberg .
Liberec was selected 11 – 4 over Oslo , and since there were 17 FIS members , Kasper did not vote . Seeberg was ineligible to vote , even though he served in place of the late Jan Jensen . The Oslo committee quickly announced after the loss that they would apply for the 2011 championships , which they got awarded two years later .
Prior to being awarded the World championships in 2004 , Liberec had hosted a total of 40 cross country skiing , Nordic combined , and ski jumping competitions though it had not hosted a cross country World Cup event by June 2005 . At a 24 – 25 May 2005 meeting , a report was given by the Liberec committee to the FIS race directors on course inspection , including layout of the courses . On 10 May 2006 , a coordination group meeting was held led by Roman Kumpošt , the first organizing committee chair , regarding venue construction , television production , and construction within Liberec itself in preparation for the championships . A coordination meeting took place in Liberec 18 – 19 April 2007 to discuss venue information and event preparation .
= = = July - December 2007 = = =
Czech cross country skier and six @-@ time Winter Olympic medalist Kateřina Neumannová was originally an honorary vice president of the organizing committee . On 25 July 2007 , Neumannová was appointed as the new president of the organizing committee as approved by the organizing committee , replacing Kumpošt . She also served as a World Cup organizer for the second of the Tour de Ski events that took place in Prague on 30 December 2007 . During the week of 13 August 2007 , a delegation visited the FIS headquarters in Oberhofen , Switzerland and met with FIS President Kasper . This delegation included Liberec Mayor Jiří Kittner , Organizing Committee Secretary Marek Rejman , Czech Ski Association President Lukáš Sobotka , and its General Secretary Norbert Pelc , and all four confirmed the work toward the sites used for the championships were proceeding as planned with test events that occurred in February 2008 . Financing issues for the event were also clarified . The next scheduled update occurred at the FIS Autumn Meeting in Zurich during the week of 24 September 2007 . Progress was given by Organizing President Neumannová and Executive Director Marek Rejman while at Zurich , including updates on the venues ( shown in the next section ) , and focused on the sports organization ( including the technical directors ) ; and the marketing and promotion of the test events . Liberec had also confirmed their support of the governmental financing for the university campus which served as the village for the teams in 2009 .
= = = 2008 = = =
FIS President Kasper stated that the first test weekend of 8 – 9 February 2008 " went well " in terms of sports organization . Kasper also expressed concerns about the cost for accommodation for skiing officials and media for the upcoming events . A spring coordination meeting was held the week of 7 April 2008 that discussed preparations for the event . Among the participants were FIS , the EBU , and marketing partner APF , whom focused on lessons learned from the test events held in February 2008 . Coordination group members were pleased in what transpired during the February 2008 test events , including an athletes village that was constructed at the local university . Final competition schedule was confirmed by the FIS Council in its May 2008 meeting in Cape Town , followed by a final inspection on 13 October 2008 . Following the final inspection that day , a six @-@ hour press conference was held on the status of preparations . Detailed reports were given on the test events held in February 2008 and the lessons learned from them . FIS President Kasper expressed his support of the organizing committee 's efforts to present the best championships ever . Neumannová stated that the cross country skiing facility at Vesec was ready while the ski jumping facility at Ještěd was ready in the fall once construction of the access road and surrounding area was complete . The main concern of Neumannová 's was the weather given the problems with the test events in February and the need for snow making equipment . The Czech government gave the organizing committee an additional CZK 189 million ( € 7 @.@ 3 million ) in financial support . At the end of 2008 , the championships were the biggest sports event in the history of the Czech Republic . On 16 December 2008 , FIS Secretary General Lewis , FIS Event and Sponsor Manager Niklas Carlsson , Neumannová , and other key Organizing Committee staff met to discuss promotional activities for the event , including ceremonies , social events , and the accreditation system . That same day , an entire inspection of the team village took place at the Technical University of Liberec where the entire complex was renovated . The students at the university left at the end of January 2009 for the teams to arrive on campus in mid @-@ February .
= = = 2009 = = =
As of 21 January 2009 , there were a total of 600 competitors from 59 nations , both Championship records . Neumannová stated that the area had about 70 centimetres ( 28 in ) of snow at both testing areas . She also stated that Czech representatives had tested both Ještěd and Vesec and were satisfied with both areas . Free public transportation in Liberec and tram transfers from the neighboring town of Jablonec nad Nisou were organized . Doping programs that were successful at the previous World Championships in Sapporo continued with 78 EPO and 430 blood testing on athletes in the 1 – 15 February period prior to the 2009 championships . 450 pre @-@ competition blood tests were conducted with the top four finishers plus two randomly selected athletes of each event , totalling 120 for the championships . These tests were conducted by the Czech National Anti @-@ Doping Agency with assistance of the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency . Testing costs for the program were CHF 1 @.@ 5 million . As of 25 February , a total of 90 @,@ 000 spectators had attended the championships . Prior to the championships , there was concern of the lack of snowfall during the championships . During the championships , there was continuing snowfall . On 23 February , Czech Republic Senate Parliament chair Přemysl Sobotka presented FIS President Kasper with a silver commemorative medal of the Senate for his merits in the development of world skiing . Kasper lead the FIS delegation to this ceremony that took place in Liberec with Sobotka which included FIS officials and representative of all 61 teams . Included in this delegation were Milan Jirasek , FIS Council Member and Chair of the Czech Olympic Committee , and Neumannová
= = = Media accreditation and television coverage = = =
Media accreditation was available online until 17 October 2008 . Television coverage was provided by Czech Television ( CT ) , the host broadcaster . CT expected to produce over 60 hours of international coverage with a total of 54 TV cameras connected to 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) of cables . Over 1500 international media were onsite for the event . A total of 771 cumulative broadcast hours took place during the championship event , 70 @.@ 3 % shown live with the rest being tape @-@ delayed . 17 national broadcasters televised the championships along with 69 Eurosport and Eurosport Asia @-@ Pacific nations . , resulting in a total of 666 million global viewers The top events with the greatest naitional live audience was the men 's ski jumping individual large and normal hill event from Poland 's TVP1 with 5 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 4 million viewers respectively . Germany 's ZDF had the 2nd highest national event ratings with 4 @.@ 0 million viewers for the ski jumping men 's team large hill event .
= = = Mascot = = =
The mascot was announced by the Organizing Committee during the week of 30 June 2008 . It was a lion named Libi and it made its first appearance in the Czech Republic with Neumannová and Czech Republic prime minister Mirek Topolánek at a meeting that same week .
= = Social programs = =
Among the social programs involved during the event were the opening ceremonies at the Tipsport arena . Included were musical performances from the English rock band Deep Purple , who performed at the opening ceremony 18 February , and the Slovak band Elán , who performed on 20 February . Concerts took place on the Liberec main square where medal award ceremonies occurred . In addition , there were special themed days , including Italian Day , Czech Day , Norwegian Day and Slovak Day . One recurring theme of this was free beer for people from these countries in some pubs at happy hour . The most famous fans at the championships were the Norwegians , who were very numerous compared with the other countries .
= = World Cup discipline leaders prior to the World championships = =
As of 15 February 2009 , the top three World Cup positions were as follows :
Cross @-@ country skiing 's Tour de Ski winners were Finland 's Virpi Kuitunen for the women and Cologna for the men ; both got 400 World Cup points for their respective TdS victories . Loitzl won Ski jumping 's Four Hills Tournament .
= = Participants = =
589 athletes from 61 countries were entered to compete for the championships . These include 239 men and 155 women from 60 countries in cross country skiing , 77 athletes from 18 countries in Nordic combined , and 79 athletes from 22 countries in ski jumping . Additionally , 39 women from 13 countries competed in the premiere world championship ski jumping event . FIS President Kaspar hoped that the women 's ski jumping event did well enough for inclusion in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , Russia .
= = Venues = =
At a coordination group meeting on 18 – 19 April 2007 in Liberec , the event and facility preparations were discussed . A review was also done for what could have done better from the previous World Championships in Sapporo earlier that year . According to FIS Secretary General Lewis , she was pleased about the construction progress of both Ještěd ( ski jumping ) and Vesec ( cross country skiing ) and both venues were used as test events for the upcoming World Cup season . Organizing Committee chair Kumpošt stated that both venues would be completed by fall 2007 in order to ensure FIS certification . Also in attendance was the EBU and the organizing committee for the 2011 Championships in Oslo . Snowfall that started on 17 November 2008 made it possible to produce man @-@ made snow for the event , according to Vesec cross country skiing venue manager Robert Heczko . In ideal conditions , fourteen days of snow production were required to create the needed 60 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 2 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of snow to ensure coverage of all competition courses at Vesec . Over 20 snow cannons were used in the snow @-@ making process when temperatures dip below freezing according to Heczko .
= = = Cross country skiing = = =
The cross country skiing venue took place at Vesec which had two 3 @.@ 75 km loops in 2007 . These loops were shortened to 3 @.@ 3 km and 2 @.@ 5 km , and then combined . Four additional loops of 1 @.@ 2 km ( women 's sprint ) , 1 @.@ 3 km ( men 's sprint ) , 5 km , and 7 @.@ 5 km were also created . At the fall 2007 meeting in Zurich during the week of 24 September 2007 , it was announced that Vesec had completed paving the courses for roller skiing and in @-@ line skating , finalization of bridges , access roads , and permanent facilities ; and installing snow @-@ making equipment . The test event for cross country occurred during the weekend of 15 – 17 February 2008 . Because of warm weather and the lack of snow , the organizing committee was forced to bring snow from the mountains surrounding Liberec . As a result , the races were held on the paved roller skiing track . Initially on 16 February they were scheduled to be pursuit events , but were changed to interval start events . The winner of the 10 km women 's event was Norway 's Astrid Jacobsen while the winner of the 15 km men 's event was Jean Marc Gaillard of France . Team sprint winners on the 17th were both from Norway with the ladies going to Marit Bjørgen and Astrid Jacobsen and the men going to Martin Johnsrud Sundby and Simen Østensen Snow was lacking at the cross @-@ country course as of 16 December 2008 , but organizers were ready for expected cold temperatures from Christmas 2008 onward to prepare the courses for the championships . As of 14 January 2009 , about 50 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of snow had been produced using between 20 and 27 snow guns and two snow lances . Tracks were groomed , widen , and maintained in preparation of the Slavic Cup ( Czech Republic , Poland , and Slovakia ) events that took place the weekend of 17 – 18 January 2009 . Courses were covered with snow of 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) as of 11 February 2009 . Snow reserves guaranteed the best conditions even if warm weather hit the Jizera Mountains . Closing ceremonies of the championships were held at Vesec .
= = = Ski jumping = = =
The ski jumping venue took place at Ještěd which has two hills that were already to FIS specifications . The normal hill size ( HS ) was 100 m ( HS100 ) while the large hill size was 134 m ( HS134 ) . Both hills were used for FIS ski jumping World Cup venues with Finnish ski jumper Janne Ahonen holding the record jump of 139 m on the HS134 hill in 2004 . Modifications were done to the outrun and data was gathered on the wind flow within the ski jumping area from January to March for 2006 to 2009 . At the fall 2007 meeting in Zurich during the week of 24 September 2007 , it was announced by the Organizing Committee that construction was proceeding according to schedule , with completion in mid @-@ December 2007 . The test event for Jested took place on 8 – 9 February 2008 . A grandstand of 10 @,@ 000 spectators was constructed in order to have night time ski jumping the weekend of 9 – 10 February 2008 . The hill suffered a landslide caused by continuous rainfall around the hill during the week of 28 January 2008 , but the outrun was not affected by the event , according to Liberec mayor Jiri Kittner . On 1 February , Neumannová stated that the ski jumping events took place as scheduled . The lift to the ski jump that was not working during the FIS World Cup B Nordic combined event in January was fixed . The winners of the ski jumping test event at the HS134 hill were Thomas Morgenstern of Austria on 8 February and Anders Jacobsen of Norway on 9 February . An Alpen Cup competition took place on the weekend of 20 – 21 December 2008 to have final test procedures and infrastructure for the championships . As of 14 January 2009 , the main grandstand was complete while the teams worked on proper shaping of the hills for use . The large hill was closed while the normal hill was designated for ski jumper and Nordic combined athlete training . Further construction during the week of 19 January 2009 included spectator stairs on the side of the hill , mobile containers for the athletes and their service teams ; and a spectator catering tent was set up .
= = = Nordic combined = = =
The nordic combined events used both venues listed for cross country skiing and ski jumping . The test event for Nordic combined occurred during the weekend of 15 – 17 February 2008 . Because of the lack of snow and warm weather prior to the test event , the schedule for the test event was adjusted to the sprint event on 15 February , the Gundersen event on 16 February , and the sprint qualification event on 17 February . The sprint event on 15 February was cancelled to changing winds . Meanwhile , the Gundersen event on 16 February was changed to a mass start event won by Norway 's Petter Tande . Two unsuccessful attempts at the ski jumping part of the sprint qualification event to high winds on the 17th resulted in the event 's cancellation . A World Cup event leading up to the championships was to have taken place 13 – 14 December 2008 in the 10 km individual large hill event as a test event , but was cancelled on 6 December 2008 to warm weather and lack of snow . Neumannová stated that they had a second plan in getting snow from the Jizerske mountains higher elevations where there were better conditions for snowing . 10 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 350 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of snow at Bedřichov and Albrechtice were prepared for two nights . The third plan proposed two large parking places in the Krkonoše Mountains with natural snow collected for use in the Vesec area . Neumannová assured everyone " that the entire team is working very hard in order to deliver a successful FIS Nordic World Ski Championships . " and could not wait to " welcome all the teams , the international media , our guest , and of course , thousands of fans to Liberec in February . "
= = = Tipsport arena = = =
The Tipsport Arena in Liberec was used as the operational center for the championships . This included accreditation for the athletes , location of the organizing committee support staff , an international media center , and individual race offices . It also served as the site for the opening ceremonies of the championships .
= = Cross country skiing = =
The main winner in the cross country events was Norway with seven medals , including five golds , all in the men 's events . Petter Northug of Norway won three golds , earning them in the 15 km + 15 km double pursuit , 50 km , and 4 x 10 km relay . His teammate , Ola Vigen Hattestad , won golds in the individual and team sprint events . Estonia 's Andrus Veerpalu became the oldest winner at 38 in the men 's 15 km event . Kristin Størmer Steira was Norway 's only medal in the women 's events with a silver in the 7 @.@ 5 km + 7 @.@ 5 km double pursuit event . For the women 's events , the biggest winner was Finland 's Aino @-@ Kaisa Saarinen with four medals , including three golds ( Team sprint , 10 km , and 4 x 5 km relay ) and one bronze ( 7 @.@ 5 km + 7 @.@ 5 km double pursuit ) . Poland 's Justyna Kowalczyk won three medals at the championships with two golds ( 7 @.@ 5 km + 7 @.@ 5 km double pursuit and 30 km ) and a bronze ( 10 km ) . The only gold not awarded to either Kowalczyk or Saarinen was the women 's individual sprint won by Italy 's Arianna Follis . In that same event , Kikkan Randall became the first American woman to medal in cross country skiing at the world championships with her silver .
Medal table – men 's cross country skiing
Medal table – women 's cross country skiing
= = Men 's Nordic combined = =
The United States was the big winner at these championships with four medals . Todd Lodwick and Bill Demong each won two medals with two golds for Lodwick ( 10 km individual normal hill , 10 km mass start ) , and a gold ( 10 km individual large hill ) and a bronze ( 10 km individual normal hill ) for Demong . Demong 's disqualification in the ski jumping part of the 4 x 5 team event led to the United States withdrawal from the cross country part of the event . This led to a surprise gold medal for the Japanese in the team event , their first at the world championships in this event since 1995 .
Medal table
= = Ski jumping = =
Women 's ski jumping debuted at these championships which was won by American Lindsay Van . She was also the first North American to medal in ski jumping and the first American woman to medal at the championships . One the men 's side , Austria was the big winner with three medals and two each for Wolfgang Loitzl ( golds in men 's individual normal hill and team large hill events ) and Gregor Schlierenzauer ( gold in team large hill and silver in individual normal hill events ) . Both Loitzl and Schlierenzauer , World Cup leaders prior to the championships , joined Switzerland 's Simon Ammann in the podium of the individual normal hill event . Ammann 's teammate Andreas Küttel won gold in the individual large hill event in which only one jump was performed to unstable weather conditions . Norway also won three medals in the championships with a silver in the team large hill and bronzes from Anders Jacobsen ( individual large hill ) and Anette Sagen ( women 's individual normal hill ) .
Medal table – men 's ski jumping
Medal table – women 's ski jumping
= = Closing ceremonies = =
At the closing ceremonies of the championships , FIS President Kasper expressed great satisfaction with the championships , stating that it was the first time that a nation without any successful national favorites ( The Czech won only one medal , a silver by Bauer in the men 's 15 km ) had organized such a successful championship . According to Kasper , attendance reached between 180 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 in the 12 days of competition . The lack of snowfall concerns prior to the championships were more than made up for with continuous snowfall though that affected spectators and competitors alike . Praise was given by Kasper both to the venue managers and Czech TV for their efforts in their successful championships . 15 different nations reached the podium at the championships noted Kasper . Kasper also state the success of the women 's ski jumping event will hopefully push the International Olympic Committee to include the event for the 2014 Games in Sochi with a possible team event as well . Concerning the Nordic combined 10 km mass start , Kasper stated that the event will be thoroughly analyzed as part of an overall season assessment as part of the discipline 's current overhaul . Finally , Kasper wished everyone the best and looked forward to seeing everyone at Oslo for the next Nordic World Ski Championships .
= = Post @-@ event information = =
The organizing committee for the 2009 championships met in Oslo with the organizing committee of the 2011 championships on 20 April 2009 to discuss lessons learned . In the presentation was a comprehensive and frank analysis of the critical areas of Liberec 's organization . Key success factors were detailed and lessons learned were elaborated , including several recommendations to both the 2011 championships and the organizing committee for the 2013 championships in Val di Fiemme , Italy . Besides the 2009 , 2011 , and 2013 organizing committees in attendance , other attendees included the Norwegian Ski Federation , the European Broadcasting Union television , FIS , and the APF marketing partners .
Of the 73 skiers who won medals at these championships , 34 of them would medal at the Winter Olympics in Vancouver the following year . Three of the skiers who won the world championships in their respective events , Bill Demong in the nordic combined 10 km individual large hill , Justyna Kowalczyk in the cross @-@ country skiing women 's 30 km , and Petter Northug in the cross @-@ country skiing men 's 50 km , would win Olympic gold in those same events .
= = Medal table = =
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= This Too Shall Pass ( OK Go song ) =
" This Too Shall Pass " is an alternative rock song by OK Go from the album Of the Blue Colour of the Sky . The single was released in January 2010 . The band took the unorthodox route of creating two official music videos for the song , both of which premiered on YouTube . The first features a live performance of the song in collaboration with the University of Notre Dame Marching Band . The second features a giant Rube Goldberg machine , constructed to operate in time with the song . The popularity of the second music video of the song has been compared to that of the band 's video for " Here It Goes Again " , helping to boost live performances and single song sales for the group but did not significantly improve sales of the Colour album . Difficulties in marketing and distribution of the videos with their corporate label , EMI , led the band to form their own independent label shortly after the videos ' releases .
The song was featured in the films The Joneses , Freakonomics and The Vow . It was also featured in the video game Top Spin 4 . It was also used as the theme song for the U.S. version of The Inbetweeners .
= = Song = =
The lyrics to " This Too Shall Pass " are written to encourage its audience , burdened with some figurative weight , to " let it go , this too shall pass " in the near future instead of continuing to let the weight keep them from enjoying life , akin to the meaning of the original phrase , This too shall pass . The song continues much of the theme of Of the Blue Colour of the Sky , which , according to Damian Kulash , was about " searching for hope in hopeless times " ; " This Too Shall Pass " and other songs from the album were written at the onset of the late @-@ 2000s recession . Billboard considered the song to be a " psych @-@ pop anthem " , similar to MGMT 's " Kids " ; this is in part due to the album 's producer Dave Fridmann who had also worked with MGMT and The Flaming Lips and brought some of the same musical stylings along .
= = First music video : Marching Band = =
The first video for the song was released on YouTube on January 12 , 2010 , to coincide with the release of the album and the single . Directed by Brian L. Perkins , it was filmed in October , 2009 , in South Bend , Indiana . The video is somewhat unusual in that it does not feature the album version of the song . Rather , it features an original recording that was actually performed live during filming of the video . OK Go 's Tim Nordwind noted that the song lent itself well to large orchestration .
In the video , the members of OK Go are seen in a field wearing marching band garb . The uniforms were originally from Rochelle Township High School of Rochelle , Illinois . They begin to march , and as the song progresses , the band is joined by members of the University of Notre Dame 's Marching Band many of whom rise up camouflaged in ghillie suits . They are also joined in the final chorus by a children 's choir cobbled together from two local South Bend preschools . Like many of their other videos , the marching band video was shot in one take .
The marching band video was created to bridge the time between the release of the album and the expected completion of the Rube Goldberg video . The band had originally planned to release the marching band version after the debut of the Rube Goldberg video . However , they found time during October 2009 to work with the Notre Dame band , and realizing the length of time to complete the Rube Goldberg machine , went ahead and completed the marching band version .
= = Second music video : Rube Goldberg Machine = =
The second music video for " This Too Shall Pass " was directed by James Frost . Similar to the band 's video for " Here It Goes Again " , the " This Too Shall Pass " video features a four @-@ minute , apparent one shot sequence of the song being played in time to the actions of a giant Rube Goldberg machine built in a two @-@ story warehouse from over 700 household objects , traversing an estimated half @-@ mile course . As the song and machine operate , the members of the band are seen singing alongside the machine , with the members being shot at by paint guns at the song 's finale . Parts of the machine are synchronized in time with the music ; in one instance , glasses of water are used to repeat part of the song 's melody in the fashion of a glass harp . One part of the machine shows the " Here It Goes Again " video on a television before it is smashed by the machine . The MAKE magazine 1993 Ford Escort racecar , used for the 24 Hours of LeMons , appears in the video along with a miniature LEGO version of the car . Alongside the LEGO car , several LEGO mini @-@ figurines are displayed as a reference to the marching band video .
= = = Creation = = =
The video 's inspiration was from the band , who wanted " a giant machine that we dance with " , a long @-@ term aspiration of the band and inspired by other Rube Goldberg machines shown in videos on YouTube , including the interstitials used on the Japanese children 's show , PythagoraSwitch . While they considered the idea of the machine for each song on Of the Colour , they opted to use " This Too Shall Pass " to make the end result " majestic and epic " , even though it already duplicated the previous marching band video . They sought help through online science message boards , eventually coming in contact with Syyn Labs . From a pool of talent at a Syyn Labs @-@ hosted " Mindshare LA " gathering , about 55 to 60 people from Syyn Labs , the California Institute of Technology ( including some who work at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and participated in the Mars Exploration Rover program , hence the model rover seen in the video ) and MIT Media Lab helped to design and construct the machine . Damian Kulash 's father ( Damian Kulash Sr. ) also participated in the machine 's construction .
The team had to work on a limited budget , using recycled trash for many of the props in the device ; after filming , the total estimated cost was approximately $ 90 @,@ 000 . The team avoided the use of " magic " — automated devices like computers or motors — and instead focused on purely physical devices . The total time to create the video from conceptualization was about six months , with two months of planning and four months for design and filming . The warehouse where filming took place was in the Echo Park section of Los Angeles , and was secured by Syyn Labs in November 2009 . The final construction within the warehouse took over a month and a half during January and February 2010 . The band members helped in the last two weeks of construction , having spent the previous four months on tour .
Once the machine was completed , the filming , using a single Steadicam , took two days to complete on February 11 and 12 , with an estimated 60 takes for the machine to properly function . The first day of filming included 47 takes , none of which successfully completed the entire machine and necessitated a second day of filming . Many of the takes ended only 30 seconds into the process , at the start of the song 's chorus , where a tire would fail to roll properly into the next section of the machine . Syyn Labs had a group of 30 people to help reset the machine after each failed take , a process that took upwards of an hour depending on how far the machine ran . There were no significant injuries during filming ; Tim Nordwind once was hit hard with paint at the end , while the Steadicam operator nearly got hit with one of the barrels at the end of the mechanism in the shot used for the final video . His reaction may be seen in the released version of the video .
Several elements of the machine had to be properly adjusted to match the timing for the song . The group broke the song into sections , triggered when the machine passed certain gates , to account for small changes in timing that could occur ( up to 0 @.@ 5 sec , according to Brett Doar , one of the machine 's chief designers ) , allowing the band to continue to lip synch while the machine operated . Smaller objects like dominoes were found to be the trickiest to set , as their patterns would be less predictable than larger and bulkier objects , which are more predominant in the later parts of the machine . Once the machine transitioned to the downstairs portion , it would generally run the rest of the course untouched . Furthermore , the time of day and temperature would play a big factor in how some small components would behave , forcing the team to readjust the timing . Ball tracks and other features had to be wiped clear of dust and debris to prevent slowing down rolling objects . A carved wooden ball track shown early in the video was created to have motions timed to the music , but required a low inclined angle that would often cause the balls to skip out of the tracks .
Kulash noted that their largest " nightmare " for the machine was a set of mousetraps , triggered to release a display of colored flags ; they were found to be overly sensitive to earlier actions of the machine , such as the dropping of a piano , and redesign and padding were needed to prevent the traps from being set off prematurely . The timing had to take into account the movements of both the band members and the cameraman ; Damien Kulash estimated that though the machine was able to complete its opening at least three times , these shots were botched , because either the band members or the cameraman had fallen behind the action of the machine .
While the video was filmed as a single shot on at least three different occasions , they planned on using post @-@ editing to slow down or speed up certain parts of the take to keep it in time with the final soundtrack . There is a noted cut in the video , in which the camera passes through a set of curtains on the transition to the downstairs portion of the machine ; according to one of the machine designers , Hector Alvarez , this cut was introduced by the band , speculating it was introduced to avoid a shot of one of the band members or cameraman in frame or otherwise to keep the machine video synchronized to the machine . Both Tim Nordwind , bassist for the band , and Adam Sadowsky , president of Syyn Labs , said that while the machine worked in its entirety 3 times , and no cut was needed , the decision was made so a better result on the downstairs portion could be included in the final version . There was also a second cut which can be noticed by watching a piano against a wall as the camera passed behind some rods ; the piano can be seen apparently warping in shape and position .
= = Responses = =
The Rube Goldberg machine video premiered on YouTube on March 2 , 2010 . Within a day of the video 's premiere , it was viewed more than 900 @,@ 000 times . The video achieved 6 million views within six days , which was comparable to the popularity of the " Here It Goes Again " video , and was considered " instantly viral " by CNN . The video had more than 10 million views in its first month of release . As part of the success of both videos , the band has begun auctioning props from the videos , including uniforms worn by the band for the marching band video and the individual ping @-@ pong balls from the second video . The Rube Goldberg video was included in a shortlist of 125 entries out of 23 @,@ 000 for inclusion in " YouTube Play : A Biennial of Creative Video " , a showcase of the best user @-@ created videos from YouTube in conjunction with the Guggenheim Museums , but ultimately was not selected as one of the 25 winning videos .
Despite the success of the videos on the Internet , this has not translated into sales for the album Of the Blue Colour of the Sky which the song is a part of , selling only 40 @,@ 000 copies since its January release . Part of this is attributed to the " unremarkable " music on the album and for the video ; musician Max Tundra suggested that the band should " record an innovative , exciting piece of music – and make a plodding , nondescript video to go with it . " However , ticket sales for OK Go concerts have seen a surge since the video 's release , as well as sales of digital downloads of the song through services like iTunes . According to Nordwind , the band is not concerned with album sales , as their successes have come from " untraditional ways " through the band 's career . Kulash has stated that with the continued success of their music videos as viral videos as was the case for " This Too Shall Pass " , the band has seen more touring opportunities and an expanded audience they don 't believe they would have gotten with more traditional videos under corporate label control . This has led OK Go to " look at making videos like [ they ] look at making records — it 's part of the art of what [ they ] do " , according to Nordwind . In part of the success of " This Too Shall Pass " and their previous videos , OK Go won the 14th Annual Webby Special Achievement Award for Film and Video Artist of the Year . The video was named both " Video of the Year " and " Best Rock Video " at the 3rd annual UK Music Video Awards .
In May 2010 , after the band split with EMI , the single debuted at # 39 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart , their first appearance on the chart since " Here It Goes Again " in 2006 . The song eventually peaked at # 36 .
At the time of the creation of the video , Syyn Labs had just been formed ; the viral success of " This Too Shall Pass " brought the company to light for several similar creative projects involving the innovative combination of technology . When OK Go appeared on The Colbert Report on April 29 , 2010 in which they performed " This Too Shall Pass " , Stephen Colbert opened the show with another , shorter Rube Goldberg machine created by Syyn Lab 's Brett Doar , one of the chief creators of the " This Too Shall Pass " music video , using assorted props from the show . Syyn Labs have since created advertisements for Disney and Sears , and have been contacted for future work in music videos and movie opening sequences , and are considering a reality television show based on their creative process .
In February 2011 , music video blog Yes , We 've Got a Video ! ranked both the marching band video and the Rube Goldberg machine video at number 3 in their top 30 videos of 2010 . The latter in particular was praised for " the cleverness of it and the fact that you could always pick up something new upon each and every view . " The Song was also used as the theme for the American remake of British sitcom , The Inbetweeners .
= = Difficulties with EMI = =
The marching band video sparked much controversy online immediately after its release . Because of deals between the band 's label , EMI ( through Capitol Records ) , and YouTube , the video was not embeddable , nor was it viewable across the globe , frustrating many fans and music industry professionals who wanted to post the video on their blogs . The band , led by singer Damian Kulash , explained the label 's rationale via the band 's blog and through an op @-@ ed piece in The New York Times . According to Kulash , EMI disallowed the embeddable play of the video because they only receive royalties for views on the YouTube site itself . He further pleaded to allow embedding of their next video , citing a 90 % drop in viewership when EMI disabled embedding on existing videos , affecting the band 's own royalties from viewership .
The band was able to secure the rights to allow the " This Too Shall Pass " Rube Goldberg video to be distributed via embedding prior to its premiere , in part due to funding support from State Farm Insurance , which helped to settle issues with EMI ; in exchange , State Farm had some say in the creative process , and the video includes elements with the State Farm logo , including a toy truck that is used to start the machine . The video was completed a week later than expected ; according to sources close to the band , Capitol Records considered the window of opportunity for promoting the single to radio to be closed due to the delay , and would not be available again until June 2010 . The band has since decided to break away from the EMI label on amiable terms , due to a combination of the issues of video embedding and radio promotions , and has become its own independent recording label , Paracadute Recordings .
= = Charts = =
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= Martha MacKenzie =
Martha Jane MacKenzie ( also Stewart , previously Holden ) is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Jodi Gordon . Martha made her first on @-@ screen appearance on 8 September 1988 . She was originally played by Burcin Kapkin . In 2005 , the character returned to Home and Away , played by Jodi Gordon . Gordon was a model and she took acting lessons before auditioning for the role . Gordon won a Logie Award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " in 2006 and she earned several more award nominations for her portrayal of Martha . Martha returned on screen on 30 March 2005 .
Martha was described as being friendly , feisty and fun loving . Martha 's appearance has evolved throughout her time in the show : she was initially a tomboy who loved sport , but she later became a stylish woman . Upon her return in March 2005 , Martha 's storylines saw her surviving a helicopter crash , having an abortion and a miscarriage , battling alcoholism , being diagnosed with breast cancer and becoming a widow after her husband was shot . In a controversial storyline Martha worked as a pole dancer ; the scenes were criticised by the broadcasting regulator for their content . Whilst playing Martha , Gordon was at the center of a number of personal scandals , which put her future in the show in doubt . In January 2010 , it was announced that Gordon was leaving the show and Martha departed on 9 June 2010 .
= = Casting = =
The role of Martha was originally played by Burcin Kapkin upon her introduction in 1988 . In 2005 the character returned to the show , played by the model Jodi Gordon . Gordon took acting lessons before successfully auditioning for the role . Gordon later revealed that she was initially nervous about auditioning due to her lack of acting experience . However , producers gave her two months prior to filming so she could learn her scripts and gain more acting skills . Gordon said , " I 'd never done any acting . So I did a few little acting course things and then I kind of fluked the part " .
During March 2007 , Gordon was written out of the show indefinitely after her partner , Chris Burkhardt , died from cancer . The Home and Away writers had previously rewritten several scripts to allow Gordon to spend as much time as possible with Burkhardt .
In 2009 , Gordon became the center of media attention due to a series of scandals in her private life . The serial 's home network Channel Seven decided to support Gordon through the ordeals . The scandals cast doubt over whether Gordon would be staying with the serial and it was reported that she wanted to leave Australia for other roles . However , it was later confirmed she would be staying with the show and a spokesperson said , " Jodi is looking forward , not backward , and is hard at work on the set of Home and Away " . Gordon was backed by her fellow cast members and fans of her character , who voiced their support for her . At the time Gordon was signed to appear in the serial for another two years after she had signed to a three @-@ year contract .
In January 2010 , it was announced that Gordon had decided to leave the show . She asked Channel Seven to release her two years early from her contract . Producers and network executives had urged her to stay with the show because her character was popular with viewers . Gordon said , " I 've had a wonderful five years with Channel Seven and Home and Away — it 's been an amazing experience to be a part of this incredible show . I 've learnt so much . " Gordon filmed her final scenes at the end of February . Fellow Actor Ray Meagher who plays Martha 's grandfather Alf Stewart backed her decision to leave the show , but said he was sad that his character would be left on @-@ screen without any blood relatives .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Channel Seven described Martha as being " Friendly , straight down the line , and with a great enthusiasm for life " , and Jetstar magazine called Martha " a feisty addition to the Stewart family " . Gordon described Martha 's persona stating : " Martha 's pretty feisty all of the time but in the sense of always fighting for what 's right and keeping up a strong perspective on where I want to go , things like that . " Gordon says that she feels Martha always makes bad choices when it comes to her love life , because she never knows what she wants . Gordon said that Martha is " messed up " but with a " warm side " to her persona , and that overall Martha is " fun loving , easy going girl @-@ next @-@ door " type character . Of her portrayal , Gordon says that she enjoys the challenge of playing Martha because she gets to shout a lot when showing her crazy and fun side . Gordon later said that " There will always be a little bit of trouble attached to Martha . She will always be a little bit mischievous " . On the character 's appearance , RTÉ said " Martha was a self @-@ confessed tomboy , loving sport and anything physical . Now she has grown into a stylish woman with great taste in clothes which range from shorts and strappy tops to gorgeous summer dresses . "
= = = Relationship with Jack Holden = = =
Most of Martha 's storylines were central to her on @-@ off relationship with Jack Holden ( Paul O 'Brien ) . Viewers saw the couple go through marriage , divorce , a second marriage and Martha being widowed . Holy Soap said that Martha and Jack proved to be one of the " best loved couples " , before they married for the first time . However , their marriage does not last long and they split . Martha and Jack start to lead separate lives , but Jack is there for Martha after she has an abortion . Martha is feeling low at this point and kisses him ; Jack 's girlfriend Sam Tolhurst ( Jessica Chapnik ) sees this . O 'Brien stated : " I think Jack felt like ' Oh this is nice , but I 've moved on , I 've finally moved on and found someone ' , but deep down he still wants Martha . " Martha is left " shattered " after Jack plans to marry Sam . Martha was caught trying on Sam 's wedding dress as she tried to figure out if she still had feelings for Jack . Gordon said that from day one , Jack and Martha have wanted to be together , but " they 're never in the same headspace " . O 'Brien added that he believes Jack was always in love with Martha , even whilst he was in a relationship with Sam . Both O 'Brien and Gordon agreed that when Jack and Martha first broke up it was a bad time for Jack , as his life was spiraling out of control , he needed her , but she left him when he needed her the most . They later become friends ; O 'Brien believed it was hard to understand how Jack could be so forgiving toward her .
Although the characters were separated on screen , they had gained a fan base on the Internet that believed Martha should be with Jack and wanted the pair to reunite . Gordon herself backed the pairing , stating that she believed they should be together . She said : " I actually love Jack and Martha together , I 'm a sucker for romance so , I want want them to be together [ ... ] I want them to continue on , [ ... ] the timing is not right , they are not mature enough . Jack 's in a relationship with someone else as Martha is , there just seems to be things getting in the way of them getting back together all the time . " Gordon also hoped for a happy ending for the two characters if they were to ever leave the serial adding : " If I had it my way , and I got to write the scripts then I 'd make it happily ever after , Martha and Jack riding off into the sunset . " Gordon has spoken of her understanding from the audiences point of view , that together Jack and Martha are " the ultimate couple " . She also reiterated her belief that it would be to tough at the time of Martha 's downward spiral for them to work together , but if Martha is to get through her troubles and have a happy ending , that it would be with Jack . The Daily Telegraph commented on the Martha and Jack situation , saying it is played out in a " classic soapie technique " . They said " Bring the characters together , push them apart , but always leave open the possibility that they could get back together . It has worked for Days of Our Lives ' John Black and Marlena Evans " .
On @-@ screen Jack and Martha later reconcile , after he helps her through her hard times . Gordon believed that their relationship was at its strongest peak whilst Martha had breast cancer . She added that Martha would do anything to avoid jeopardising their happiness .
= = = Downward spiral and stripping = = =
One of the most notable story lines for Martha was her secret life as a pole dancer and subsequent road into alcoholism . This was a result of her abortion and failed relationships with Jack and Ash Nader ( Ben Geurens ) along with her new relationship with Cameron " Cam " Reynolds ( Ashley Lyons ) , who was leading her astray . The story line began playing out from the 2006 " cliffhanger " episode , when Ash reveals that he is married with children and leading a double life . Gordon branded Martha as ignorant to the situation she has got herself into : " I think she is so naive , she wants to believe that she 's found a great guy and she keeps giving him second chances . She wants to make it work . " Martha fails to cope with the situation , as Gordon describes : " It 's this whole emotional roller @-@ coaster that , if you don 't deal with your life , can be terrible . " Their relationship falls apart after Martha aborts Ash 's child , causing Martha to begin her transition into a party girl . Gordon commented that " I think everyone in this show begins as a scruffy bum and gradually they turn you into a glamour puss . "
Martha begins a downward spiral and is manipulated by new boyfriend Cam , who has a hold over her due to his power and money , and her vulnerable state - he " swept her off her feet " . Cam always got the better of Martha because " The worse it got with her family , the better it got with Cam . " O 'Brien , who played Jack , said that he felt that Martha was trying to reinvent herself as a different person .
Gordon pointed out that Martha was not stripping , just pole dancing . Gordon took pole dancing lessons for a period of a few weeks funded by Channel Seven , and found the experience embarrassing and physically challenging . She found it hard dancing in front of her fellow cast members , commenting that " There 's even one scene when all of the boys turn up at the club and they 're looking at me – it 's like having your mates seeing you half naked . It 's not very nice , a bit intimidating but it 's always exciting to have a challenging story line like that . It 's worth while in the end knowing that you 've put everything into it . " Gordon believed that the storyline was a turning point in Martha 's development , as she has to hit rock bottom to realise who she is and what she really wants from life .
After everyone finds out about Martha 's situation , they try to stop her working in the club . Kate Ritchie who plays on @-@ screen friend Sally Fletcher discussed how Martha would not take any advice from those closest to her and how Sally and Alf have to pick up the pieces for her in the end . She compared Martha 's pole dancing to many real life experiences ordinary people go through . Sally 's interference made Martha 's situation worse , of this Ritche added : " It 's been hard for Sally to realise and Alf as well , just that you just have to stand back and let it run its course and be there at the end . " Of Martha 's downward spiral and pushing her friends away , Gordon stated : " Now she 's found herself in this hole , she ruined all these relationships with her family , her friends , Jack , everyone 's trying to help her and she 's really against everyone , she 's in a really bad place at the moment " .
The broadcast scenes proved to be controversial in Australia after broadcasting regulator ACMA felt the scenes featured sexual content . They noted that " ACMA determined that pole @-@ dancing scenes contained in the programmes contained visual depictions of sexual behaviour , that their impact was higher than very mild , and that the episodes were not suitable for children to watch without supervision . " Channel Seven defended the scenes and stated that whereas most episodes of the serial are PG rated they would take extra care to inform viewers of G rated episodes and to include material more suitable for children . Two years after the storyline aired , Gordon was reported to be a regular visitor to strip clubs as a result of her earlier visits whilst filming the storyline .
= = = Pregnancy and breast cancer = = =
In 2008 , viewers saw Martha coming to terms with a second pregnancy . The storyline began after Martha left old boyfriend Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) for Jack . She was unsure of the child 's paternity , but kept it a secret from Jack . Gordon said this is " Because she doesn 't think he ever needs to know . Roman 's said he doesn 't want to be involved and he wants to say it 's Jack 's . And so does Martha ... " After Martha has a miscarriage scare , Roman wanted to know if the baby was his . Gordon explained that " Roman says he needs to know if he is or isn 't the baby 's father and Martha has to agree to do a DNA test . [ ... ] They wait till Jack 's out of the room then quickly arrange it . Martha 's so scared of losing Jack she wants the facts before deciding her next step . " Martha 's relationship with Jack was at its strongest at that time , but Gordon was concerned about Martha 's lies : " Martha and Jack have been through more than most and right now their relationship is as solid as it could be . But she 's taking a big chance not being honest about her pregnancy . " She described Roman being the baby 's father as " Martha 's worst nightmare " .
During the pregnancy storyline , Martha was also diagnosed with breast cancer . The storyline was introduced just over a year after Gordon 's partner , Chris Burkhardt , died from acute myeloid leukemia at the age of 23 . Gordon drew on her experience with Burkhardt to take on the storyline . Home and Away 's producer , Cameron Welsh , approached Gordon about the storyline and asked her if she would be comfortable doing it . Gordon called it an " amazing opportunity to be given " . Gordon said " The producer asked me if I wanted to do this storyline and made sure I was comfortable doing it based on what I had been through , I definitely think this one tops all of them " . Gordon added that anyone going through Martha 's ordeal would find it hard , but " you just look to your friends and family and do your best in that situation and then move on " .
Gordon and the writers researched the condition and made sure that the storyline " was pretty precise when it came to the medical and physical issues " . A couple of months before they started filming , everyone got together to discuss the storyline and map out the journey it would take . Viewers saw the character discovering a lump in her breast , going against doctors ' advice about terminating her pregnancy and subsequently going through with treatment for the cancer . Gordon later admitted that she found it " very tough " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
After falling pregnant by Brett Macklin ( Gerry Sont ) , Ruth Stewart ( Justine Clarke ) gave birth to Martha . However , she decided to give Martha up for adoption to a family called the MacKenzies . Martha grew up on her new family 's farm . Her adoptive parents died , leaving Martha with the farm and her adoptive brothers . Martha then went in search of her biological parents . Brett did not want to know her , but she managed to form a relationship with Ruth and went to live with her in New York . Her grandfather , Alf , and her great aunt , Morag ( Cornelia Frances ) , came to visit and Martha chose to return to Australia to live with her relatives .
= = = 2005 – 10 = = =
Martha stays in Summer Bay with Alf and she gets to know him and her cousin Ric Dalby ( Mark Furze ) . She begins dating Jesse McGregor ( Ben Unwin ) , but it does not last . She starts feuding with Jack Holden and they realise they are falling in love with each other . They later begin a relationship . Martha plays a joke on Jack , which goes wrong and he hits his head . At the hospital , Jack is told he is deaf . Jack blames Martha for the accident and they split up .
Martha then begins a relationship with Jack 's best friend , Corey Henderson ( Adam Saunders ) , after he saves her from a violent man . Corey begins a hate campaign against Irene Roberts ( Lynne McGranger ) and starts poisoning her with mercury , leading to her being sectioned . Martha finds out the truth about Corey and he chases her through the outback and holds her hostage . Jack saves her and Corey is sent to prison .
Martha becomes best friends with Tasha Andrews ( Isabel Lucas ) . Tasha gets involved in a cult called " The Believers " and she is later raped . Martha tries to help save Tasha but Jonah Abraham ( James Mitchell ) kidnaps her . Jonah is later sent to prison for kidnapping and rape . Jack and Martha get back together , become engaged and marry . At their wedding reception , ( Eve Jacobsen ( Emily Perry ) , causes an explosion . Most of the guests are injured and they are rushed to the hospital . Martha is part of a group with serious burns , that are taken by a helicopter , which crashes in the outback . Martha and the others are lost in the bush for days , but they are eventually found . Not long after , Martha 's marriage to Jack breaks down .
Martha meets and sleeps with a man called Ash . Jack decides he wants Martha back , but when Martha reveals she has slept with Ash , Jack is heartbroken because Ash turns out to be his former best friend . As Martha and Ash take their relationship further she is shocked to find out he is married with children . He tells Martha he has left his wife , but Martha finds out that his wife is pregnant with their third child . Martha ends their relationship and she finds out that she is pregnant . Martha has an abortion , which leads her to start drinking heavily .
Martha starts dating Cam Reynolds and he encourages her to work at his pole dancing club . Martha becomes the star pole dancer at the venue after Cam manipulates her . Peter Baker ( Nicholas Bishop ) has a stag night at the venue and Martha is caught pole dancing by Jack , Ric and Tony Holden ( Jon Sivewright ) . Jack is annoyed with Martha 's new life and tries to convince her to leave Cam . Cam sets fire to his club and Martha is left trapped inside until Jack saves her . Jack and Martha become good friends once more , until they sign their divorce papers . Jack then begins a relationship with Sam Tolhurst which devastates Martha .
Martha bumps into Jonah , who is now going by the name of Michael . Martha tries to get him out of town , vandalises his van and verbally abuses him . She falls into a mine shaft with him and he saves her . They grow closer and later they start a relationship , which no one approves of . Martha looks after Jack while he is in a coma after he is shot . Jack reveals he still loves her , but he decides to stand by Sam . Martha realises she loves Jack as well as Michael . She and Michael leave town , but Martha returns days later to stop Jack and Sam 's wedding , but she fails .
Sam commits suicide by taking heroin and Martha is suspected of her murder , but she is later proved innocent . Jack and Martha grow close again , but Martha begins seeing Roman . Martha and Jack later get back together and decide to marry . Martha discovers she is pregnant , but she is not sure if the father is Jack or Roman . Following a paternity test , it is revealed that the baby is Roman 's . Martha is diagnosed with breast cancer and is told she needs a termination for her own health . She decides not to and Jack is angry because it means she might die . Jack and Martha decide to get married again . Martha collapses and has to be resuscitated . She also discovers that she has lost the baby . Martha begins to recover and later goes into remission .
Martha then suffers the pain of losing Jack when he is accidentally shot by Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . Whilst grieving , Jack 's cousins , Xavier ( David Jones @-@ Roberts ) and Hugo Austin ( Bernard Curry ) arrive in Summer Bay for the funeral and she takes them into her home . Martha later falls for Hugo and they begin a relationship . A few months later , Martha is led to believe that Hugo is going to propose to her , but instead he ends their relationship , leaving Martha confused and upset . Martha is then kidnapped by Hugo 's ex @-@ wife Suzy Sudiro ( Tasneem Roc ) . Angelo saves Martha and she assists him with the capture and arrest of Derrick Quaid ( John Atkinson ) .
Martha discovers that Hugo is part of a people smuggling racket and she tells him that she wants nothing more to do with him . Martha then believes that she has witnessed Hugo 's murder . She later discovers that he is alive and that he went into a witness protection programme . Some criminals come after Hugo and his family . Martha , Xavier and Gina Austin ( Sonia Todd ) are captured and held hostage . Hugo and Tony manage to overcome the criminals and the others manage to free themselves from drowning in a tank at Martha 's farm .
Detective Gordon Eaves ( Lewis Fitz @-@ Gerald ) is sent to the Bay . Hugo , who is hiding at Martha 's farm , overhears him and recognises him as the cop that he and the others paid off when he was involved in the people smuggling racket . Martha makes this aware to Angelo who agrees to go to Martha 's farm with Eaves . On the way , Eaves threatens Angelo to go along with his plans . Eaves shoots Hugo and then flees the scene . Hugo is rushed indoors and Martha phones local doctor , Rachel Armstrong ( Amy Mathews ) . Eaves is caught by Angelo , Tony and Charlie Buckton ( Esther Anderson ) . Angelo then arrests both Hugo and Martha . As Angelo is driving them to the police station , he suddenly stops and lets them out . He tells Hugo to punch him to make it look like he and Martha had overpowered him and escaped . Martha thanks Angelo for letting them leave together . Hugo and Martha use Angelo 's police car to escape and they flee the Bay , leaving behind their family and friends .
= = Reception = =
Gordon has earned various awards nominations for her portrayal of Martha . In 2006 , Gordon won a Logie Award for " Most Popular New Female Talent " . The 2009 ceremony saw Gordon nominated for " Most Popular Actress " . Gordon was nominated for the " Best Newcomer " Award and " Best Couple " with co @-@ star Paul O 'Brien at the 2006 Inside Soap Awards . Gordon was nominated for " Sexiest Female " and " Best Storyline " for Jack and Martha 's wedding day at the 2007 Inside Soap Awards . The following year , Gordon was again nominated for " Sexiest Female " , she was also nominated for " Best Couple " along with co @-@ star Paul O 'Brien once more . Gordon was once again nominated for " Sexiest Female " in 2009 . At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards , Gordon was nominated for " Sexiest Female " and " Best On @-@ Screen Partnership " with O 'Brien . At the 2009 Australian Cosmopolitan " Fun , Fearless Female Women of the Year awards " , Gordon was nominated in the TV category .
Holy Soap describe Martha 's most memorable moments as finding out she has cancer and that Jack ( whom in their opinion was her true love ) had been shot . Martha and Jack were included in Virgin Media 's feature on the " Soaps ' sexiest couples " . Virgin Media said that the couple " loved getting hitched so much that they did it twice " , and that they " had more hurdles to overcome than an Olympic athlete " .
Jaci Stephen of British newspaper , the Daily Mail was negative towards Matha 's love life , saying on one occasion " Guys get involved with Martha at their peril " . She later said that " Martha forms an attachment with anything " . In February 2010 , Stephen commented on Martha 's brief romance with Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) . She said that Martha wastes no time in recovering from her personal tragedies , as she asks Liam to move in with her after he works on some fencing . Stephen added " It ’ s lucky women like Martha weren ’ t around when the Great Wall of China was being built . They ’ d still be on phase one " . After Martha is blown up , lost in the bush and kidnapped ; Stephen said " oh , for goodness sake , this is ridiculous - how much can one woman take ? "
In 2010 , it was announced that an episode of Home and Away featuring Martha and Liam had been was deemed too " raunchy " for New Zealand television . The Broadcasting Standards Authority decided to uphold a complaint about a scene between the characters , which saw them sharing a passionate kiss before Martha showed her bra . The scene was said to be too " sexually charged " for its G rating . This was the first time that a complaint about Home and Away 's sexual content had been upheld . Ray Meagher later defended the scenes stating he didn 't understand what all the fuss was about , branding it as tame compared to the scenes involving guns that aired previously .
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= M ( James Bond ) =
M is a fictional character in Ian Fleming 's James Bond book and film series ; the character is the Head of the Secret Intelligence Service — also known as MI6 — and is Bond 's superior . Fleming based the character on a number of people he knew who commanded sections of British intelligence . M has appeared in the novels by Fleming and seven continuation authors , as well as appearing in twenty @-@ four films . In the Eon Productions series of films , M has been portrayed by four actors : Bernard Lee , Robert Brown , Judi Dench and Ralph Fiennes , the incumbent ; in the two independent productions , M was played by John Huston , David Niven and Edward Fox .
= = Background = =
Fleming based much of M 's character on Rear Admiral John Godfrey , who was Fleming 's superior at the Naval Intelligence Division during the Second World War . After Fleming 's death , Godfrey complained " He turned me into that unsavoury character , M. "
Other possible inspirations include Lieutenant Colonel Sir Claude Dansey , the deputy head of MI6 and head of the wartime Z network , who achieved different interpretations of his character from those who knew him : Malcolm Muggeridge thought him " the only professional in MI6 " , while Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper considered Dansey to be " an utter shit , corrupt , incompetent , but with a certain low cunning " . A further inspiration for M was Maxwell Knight , the head of MI5 , who signed his memos as " M " and whom Fleming knew well . The tradition of the head of MI6 signing their name with a single letter came from Mansfield Smith @-@ Cumming , who would sign his initial " C " with green ink .
Another possibility for the model of M was William Melville , an Irishman who became the head of the Secret Service Bureau , the forerunner to both MI5 and MI6 : Melville was referred to within government circles as M. Melville recruited Sidney Reilly into government service and foiled an assassination plot against Queen Victoria on her 1887 Golden Jubilee . Fleming 's biographer John Pearson also hypothesised that Fleming 's characterisation of M reflects memories of his mother :
= = Novels = =
Fleming 's third Bond novel , Moonraker , establishes M 's initials as " M * * * * M * * * * * * * " and his first name is subsequently revealed to be Miles . In the final novel of the series , The Man with the Golden Gun , M 's full identity is revealed as Vice Admiral Sir Miles Messervy KCMG ; Messervy had been appointed to head of MI6 after his predecessor had been assassinated at his desk .
A naval theme runs throughout Fleming 's description of M and his surroundings , and his character was described by journalist and Bond scholar Ben Macintyre as " every inch the naval martinet " . Macintyre also notes that in his study of Fleming 's work , Kingsley Amis outlined the way Fleming had described M 's voice , being : angry ( three times ) ; brutal , cold ( seven times ) ; curt , dry ( five times ) ; gruff ( seven times ) ; stern , testy ( five times ) .
Over the course of twelve novels and two collections of short stories , Fleming provided a number of details relating to M 's background and character . In On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6 @,@ 500 a year , ( £ 122 @,@ 749 in 2016 pounds ) £ 1 @,@ 500 of which comes from retired naval pay . Although his pay is good for the 1950s and 1960s , it is never explained how M received or can afford his membership at Blades , an upscale private club for gentlemen he frequents in London to gamble and dine . Blades has a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen and all must be able to show £ 100 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 888 @,@ 453 in 2016 pounds ) in cash or gilt @-@ edged securities . Kingsley Amis noted in his study , The James Bond Dossier , that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling . As a personal favour to M , the staff at Blades keeps a supply of cheap red wine from Algeria on hand but does not include it on the wine list . M refers to it as " Infuriator " and tends only to drink it in moderate quantities unless he is in a very bad mood .
The academic Paul Stock argues that M 's office is a metonym for England and a stable point from which Bond departs on a mission , whilst he sees M as being an iconic representative of England and Englishness .
In the first post @-@ Fleming book , Colonel Sun , M is kidnapped from Quarterdeck , his home , and Bond goes to great lengths to rescue him . The later continuation books , written by John Gardner , retain Sir Miles Messervy as M , who protects Bond from the new , less aggressive climate in the Secret Service , saying that at some point Britain will need " a blunt instrument " . In Gardner 's final novel , COLD , M is kidnapped and rescued by Bond and finishes the book by retiring from MI6 . Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson 's 1998 novel The Facts of Death continued Messervy 's retirement , where he still resides in Quarterdeck . The book also introduces a new M , Barbara Mawdsley .
= = Films = =
= = = Eon Productions films = = =
= = = = Bernard Lee : 1962 – 79 = = = =
M was played by Bernard Lee from the first Bond film , Dr. No , until Moonraker ( 1979 ) . In Dr. No , M refers to his record of reducing the number of operative casualties since taking the job , implying someone else held the job recently before him . The film also saw M refer to himself as head of MI7 ; Lee had originally said MI6 , but was overdubbed with the name MI7 prior to the film 's release . Earlier in the film , the department had been referred to as MI6 by a radio operator .
A number of Bond scholars have noted that Lee 's interpretation of the character was in line with the original literary representation ; Cork and Stutz observed that Lee was " very close to Fleming 's version of the character " , while Rubin commented on the serious , efficient , no @-@ nonsense authority figure . Smith and Lavington , meanwhile , remarked that Lee was " the very incarnation of Fleming 's crusty admiral . "
Lee died of cancer in January 1981 , four months into the filming of For Your Eyes Only and before any of his scenes could be filmed . Out of respect , no new actor was hired to assume the role , due to Broccoli refusing to have the character recast and , instead , the script was re @-@ written so that the character is said to be on leave , with his lines given to either his Chief of Staff Bill Tanner or the Minister of Defence , Sir Frederick Gray . Later films referred to Lee 's tenure as head of the service , with a painting of him as M in MI6 's Scottish headquarters during the 1999 instalment The World Is Not Enough .
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The likeness of Lee was used in the 2005 James Bond video game adaptation of James Bond 007 : From Russia with Love for the role of M by EA Games .
= = = = Robert Brown : 1983 – 89 = = = =
After Lee 's death in 1981 , the producers hired actor Robert Brown to play M in Octopussy . Brown had previously played Admiral Hargreaves , Flag Officer Submarines , in the 1977 film , The Spy Who Loved Me . Bond scholars Steven Jay Rubin , John Cork , and Collin Stutz all consider Admiral Hargreaves would have been appointed to the role of M , rather than Brown playing a different character as M.
Pfeiffer and Worrall considered that whilst Brown looks perfect , the role had been softened from that of Lee ; they also considered him " far too avuncular " , although in Licence to Kill they remarked that he came across as being very effective as he removed Bond 's double @-@ 0 licence . Continuation author Raymond Benson agrees , noting that the M role was " once again under written , and Brown is not allowed the opportunity to explore and reveal his character traits " ; Benson also considered the character to be " too nice " .
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= = = = Judi Dench : 1995 – 2012 = = = =
After the long period between Licence to Kill and GoldenEye , the producers brought in Dame Judi Dench to take over as the new M replacing Robert Brown . The character is based on Stella Rimington , the real @-@ life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996 . For GoldenEye , Dench 's M is cold , blunt and initially dislikes Bond , whom she calls a " sexist , misogynist dinosaur , a relic of the Cold War . " Tanner , her Chief of Staff , refers to her during the film as " the Evil Queen of Numbers " , given her reputation at that stage for relying on statistics and analysis rather than impulse and initiative .
Following Pierce Brosnan 's departure from the role , Dench continued playing M for the 2006 film Casino Royale , which rebooted the series with Daniel Craig playing Bond . In this new continuity , M has worked for MI6 for some time , at one point muttering , " Christ , I miss the Cold War " . According to Skyfall , M was previously in charge of MI6 's operations in Hong Kong during the 1990s . Her ability to run MI6 has been questioned several times ; in Casino Royale , she is the subject of a review when Bond is caught shooting an unarmed prisoner and blowing up a foreign embassy on camera ; in Quantum of Solace , the Foreign Secretary orders her to personally withdraw Bond from the field in Bolivia and to stop any investigations into Dominic Greene 's eco @-@ terrorist organisation ; and in Skyfall , she is the subject of a public inquiry when MI6 loses a computer hard drive containing the identities of undercover agents around the world . Skyfall marks Dench 's final appearance as M , where she is targeted by former MI6 agent Raoul Silva , whom she left to die during a mission in order to save six other agents . She is shot and killed in the film , making her the only M to die in the Eon Bond films . Dench 's M makes a cameo appearance in Spectre in a video will , giving Bond a final order to hunt down and terminate someone , which ultimately leads him to the film 's titular criminal organisation .
There have also been brief references to M 's family : in GoldenEye , she responds to Tanner 's " Evil Queen of Numbers " jibe by telling him that when she wants to hear sarcasm she will listen to her children . Quantum of Solace director Marc Forster suggested that Dench 's casting gave the character maternal overtones in her relationship with Bond , overtones made overt in Skyfall , in which Silva repeatedly refers to her as " Mother " and " Mommy " [ sic ] . In Skyfall she is also revealed to be a widow .
Unlike the M played by other actors , Dench 's M was never referred to by name on @-@ screen . However , a prop from the final scene of Skyfall , where M bequeaths some of her possessions to Bond following her death , revealed that her character was given the name " Olivia Mansfield " . As the character was never directly referred to by this name , its canonicity is unresolved .
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= = = = Ralph Fiennes : 2012 – = = = =
After the death of Judi Dench 's M at the end of Skyfall , she is succeeded by Gareth Mallory , played by Ralph Fiennes . Mallory had been the Chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee prior to heading up MI6 , and is a former lieutenant colonel in the British Army . He served in Northern Ireland with the Special Air Service during the Troubles , where he had been held hostage by the Irish Republican Army for three months . In Spectre , the 00 Section of MI6 is briefly dismantled and Mallory demoted . He assists Bond in the field when it is revealed that the Nine Eyes initiative is part of Spectre 's plan for world domination .
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= = = Non @-@ Eon films = = =
= = = = John Huston / David Niven : 1967 = = = =
The 1967 satire Casino Royale featured not one but two Ms. The first is played by John Huston , who also co @-@ directed . In this film , M 's real name is McTarry and he is accidentally killed when , in order to get Bond out of retirement , he orders the military to fire mortars at Bond 's mansion when the retired spy refuses to return to duty . The first quarter of the film features Bond 's subsequent visit to McTarry Castle in Scotland , on a quest to return the only piece of M 's remains recovered after the attack — his bright red toupée . Subsequently , Bond — played by David Niven — becomes the new M and proceeds to order that all MI6 agents , male and female , be renamed " James Bond 007 " in order to confuse the enemy .
= = = = Edward Fox : 1983 = = = =
In 1983 's Never Say Never Again , Edward Fox played M as a bureaucrat , contemptuous of Bond — far removed from the relationship shared between Bernard Lee 's M and Sean Connery 's Bond ; the academic Jeremy Black notes that the contempt felt for the 00 section by Fox 's M was reciprocated by Connery 's Bond . Fox 's M is also younger than any of the previous incarnations . The media historian James Chapman notes that whilst M considers Bond to be an out @-@ dated relic , the Foreign Secretary orders the 00 section to be re @-@ activated .
= = Outside the regular Bond @-@ continuity = =
Alan Moore and Kevin O 'Neill 's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen comic series establishes that the 1898 @-@ era League ( led by Mina Harker ) was directed by Campion Bond ( James Bond 's grandfather ) , who served under a master called M. This M was later revealed to be none other than James Moriarty in disguise , using the League to win a gang war against Fu Manchu . After the death of Moriarty , Sherlock Holmes 's older brother Mycroft Holmes assumed the role of M. In the sequel volume The Black Dossier , set during a moribund and dystopian 1950s post @-@ war Britain , the head of the British secret service , M , is Harry Lime , from Graham Greene 's The Third Man . In the final volume of Century , spanning from 1910 to 2009 , the M of 2009 is an elderly Emma Peel from The Avengers . In the 2003 film adaptation of the series , M is once again Moriarty , and played by Richard Roxburgh .
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= Incoming =
Incoming is a 3D shooter video game developed by Rage Software and published by Interplay . The game was first released for the PC in late 1998 , and was followed by a Sega Dreamcast version , which was released in Japan on December 17 , 1998 , in Europe on October 14 , 1999 , and in North America on November 30 , 1999 . Set in the near @-@ future of 2009 , the game primarily revolves around controlling vehicles and turrets to fight alien invaders of Earth in one of the Campaign modes , the Arcade mode , and with or against another player . Some levels include brief real @-@ time strategy segments .
Praised for its then @-@ advanced graphics and sound , the game was generally well @-@ received on the PC , though the critical response was less positive for the Dreamcast version . A sequel entitled Incoming Forces was released in 2002 exclusively for the PC . An arcade version of the game , utilising a unique hardware interface , was released in 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Primarily a vehicle simulation game , the player controls one of a number of possible vehicles in order to complete objectives . The vehicle used could be an aerial craft , defence emplacement , or surface craft , and is usually armed with a primary weapon ( with infinite ammunition ) and sometimes secondary weapons ( with either a limited or infinite supply ) . Incoming was also noted for its arcade style ; in particular , the logging of high scores and a " life " system .
There are three different game modes . The campaign mode follows the main storyline in which the player must complete a series of objectives to neutralise the alien threat . Typical goals include transporting cargo and defending allied convoys . Two variants of the campaign exist : " campaign action " purely consists of the simulation missions ; " campaign tactics " features the same main missions as campaign action , but with some extra sub @-@ missions . These sub @-@ missions take place in the " tactical display " , where the player controls several vehicles and gun emplacements in a similar manner to real @-@ time strategy games .
Either campaign consists of ten missions ( referred to as " phases " in the game ) in each of the six locations . These locations can also be accessed in the arcade mode . This mode sees the player fight off alien craft while picking up as many " power @-@ ups " ( items which confer some advantage upon the player , such as temporary invulnerability and upgraded weaponry ) as is possible . The same mechanics apply to the multiplayer mode , with some slight variations depending on the game type selected . Multiplayer is available in split @-@ screen mode on both platforms in addition to networking and Internet options on the PC version .
= = Story = =
Acknowledged by critics for having a simple storyline , Incoming is set in 2009 over a period of fifteen days . An increasing number of UFO sightings culminate in attacks on the international lunar base and other locations on Earth ; and the construction of a base in the Arctic . Secret work is started on an " ADATA " ( Anomaly Detection And Tracking Array ) near Mount Kilimanjaro . The events of the game take place after an attack on the ADATA facility is initiated by alien forces .
The game is set in six locations : Kenya , defending the ADATA facility ; the Arctic , attacking an alien base while defending a human one ; the North Atlantic Ocean , where the player must defend oil rigs and attack a second alien base ; California , where parts of a fleet to invade the alien 's moon base must be defended ; the Moon , attacking a further alien base ; and a planet in the Crab Nebula , assaulting the planet from which the alien attackers came .
If the player has completed these in the Campaign Action mode , then in addition to these ten missions in each location , there are bonus " virus " scenarios , with one level in each location . Shortly before these missions , the aliens launched four virus bombs which impacted in the four location on Earth the player had previously visited . All buildings in these areas must be destroyed by the player to prevent the virus from spreading further .
= = Technology and releases = =
Rage Software , developers of Incoming , were known for their cutting @-@ edge graphics and effects . Incoming was no exception . The game utilized the 3dfx technology , and was included in some retail versions of the Voodoo2 graphics card . Critics were praising the game 's visuals on its 1998 PC release . In particular , the explosions , similar special effects and cut scenes using the main game engine were noted for their quality . The Dolby Surround @-@ encoded sound was a further source of acclaim . The reception , however , was less positive when the game was ported to the Dreamcast . A release title for Sega 's console , critics complained that the graphics were not top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ range at the time of its late 1999 release , with the draw distance being cited as a specific hindrance on gameplay . An arcade version followed in 2003 , running on the Vortek V3 Global VR arcade board , utilising the system 's unique virtual reality hardware interface .
= = Critical reception = =
The PC version of Incoming was generally well @-@ received , with a GameSpot review aggregate score of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . British magazine PC Zone gave the game a glowing score of 90 % , describing it as " bloody good , " with " some modest simulation elements . " PC Zone praised the setting of the game : " a refreshing change from the deep space of most futuristic combat sims , and something which definitely has a positive effect on gameplay . " The review concluded by saying that " it 's as fun as it looks . Just for once , all those people who don 't read reviews and buy games purely on the strength of pretty pictures on the packaging are gonna find themselves playing a very , very enjoyable game . "
Though considering the game " pretty darn tough , " IGN praised the game 's variety and length . It also praised the sound and graphics , though the latter was a source of criticism : " Incoming 's got it all ... but it all comes at a high price : getting this game to run on our PCs was one big pain in the butt . " Despite calling it " an outstanding @-@ looking and great playing game , " IGN only gave the game a " decent " 7 @.@ 0 / 10 because of the system problems . Conversely , GameSpot 's review noted none of these hardware issues , praising the visuals as " some of the finest ... of any action game " . The reviewer , however , described the game design as " strong yet slightly flawed ... [ it ] definitely pulls you in , but leaves a little to be desired as far as keeping you there , " complaining that " what [ the developer ] have presented gets tiresome quickly . " Rating the game 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , GameSpot summarised the game as " a fine game and a definite must @-@ have for arcade fans ... What it lacks is a realization that computer games have moved beyond this simplistic style of gameplay " .
The Dreamcast port of Incoming received a mixed reaction from critics , with a Game Rankings average score of 63 % . IGN opened their review by saying that " although the game is lacking in many areas , there 's more than enough here for the hardcore shooting fans out there to have their requisite blast of shooting action . " Though criticizing the graphics ' ability to " get in the way at times , " the " very vague " mission briefings and the " odd flying model for the planes , " the reviewer conceded that " if you 're a hardcore shooting fan , and you 're looking for a good challenge , you 'll probably want to look into Incoming . " The game was given as score of 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . GameSpy 's review was harsher , describing the plot as " the same recycled garbage used in tons of other games of this type , " the multiplayer split screen mode as " lame " and the objectives as " mundane . " The reviewer also noted graphical issues , clipping problems and poor controls . Though dismissing the graphics as " a bit dated , " the reviewer did acknowledge the " nifty special effects . " Giving the game a score of 6 / 10 , it was admitted that " Incoming may be worth a rental ... [ it ] is only slightly better than mediocre . "
In a rare positive review for the Dreamcast version , GameVortex rated the game 9 / 10 . The reviewer described the visuals as " some of the most breathtaking visuals you 'll find in any game . " Though describing the multiplayer as " fun " , it considered " by far , the best [ mode to be ] Campaign mode . " The review concluded by describing the game as " lots of fun and highly recommended . "
= = Incoming Trilogy Digital Re @-@ Release = =
On March 12 , 2015 , Funbox Media , Ltd , owners of the Incoming brand , revealed that the Jordan Freeman Group was the only firm in the industry able to successfully convert the Incoming Subversion Expansion Pack for modern PCs . Incoming Trilogy comes bundled with the original Incoming , Incoming Forces , and the aforementioned , Incoming Subversion Expansion Pack . Incoming Trilogy comes bundled with its original soundtracks and original manuals . The Incoming Trilogy is being distributed exclusively via JFG 's ZOOM @-@ Platform.com.
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= German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee =
Admiral Graf Spee was a Deutschland @-@ class " Panzerschiff " ( armored ship ) , nicknamed a " pocket battleship " by the British , which served with the Kriegsmarine of Nazi Germany during World War II . The two sister @-@ ships of her class , Deutschland and Admiral Scheer , were reclassified as heavy cruisers in 1940 . The vessel was named after Admiral Maximilian von Spee , commander of the East Asia Squadron that fought the battles of Coronel and the Falkland Islands , where he was killed in action , in World War I. She was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven in October 1932 and completed by January 1936 . The ship was nominally under the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limitation on warship size imposed by the Treaty of Versailles , though with a full load displacement of 16 @,@ 020 long tons ( 16 @,@ 280 t ) , she significantly exceeded it . Armed with six 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns in two triple gun turrets , Admiral Graf Spee and her sisters were designed to outgun any cruiser fast enough to catch them . Their top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) left only the few battlecruisers in the Anglo @-@ French navies fast enough and powerful enough to sink them .
The ship conducted five non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War in 1936 – 1938 , and participated in the Coronation Review of King George VI in May 1937 . Admiral Graf Spee was deployed to the South Atlantic in the weeks before the outbreak of World War II , to be positioned in merchant sea lanes once war was declared . Between September and December 1939 , the ship sank nine ships totaling 50 @,@ 089 gross register tons ( GRT ) , before being confronted by three British cruisers at the Battle of the River Plate on 13 December . Admiral Graf Spee inflicted heavy damage on the British ships , but she too was damaged , and was forced to put into port at Montevideo . Convinced by false reports of superior British naval forces approaching his ship , Hans Langsdorff , the commander of the ship , ordered the vessel to be scuttled . The ship was partially broken up in situ , though part of the ship remains visible above the surface of the water .
= = Design = =
Admiral Graf Spee was 186 meters ( 610 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 65 m ( 71 @.@ 0 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 34 m ( 24 @.@ 1 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 14 @,@ 890 t ( 14 @,@ 650 long tons ; 16 @,@ 410 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 16 @,@ 020 long tons ( 16 @,@ 280 t ) , though the ship was officially stated to be within the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Treaty of Versailles . Admiral Graf Spee was powered by four sets of MAN 9 @-@ cylinder double @-@ acting two @-@ stroke diesel engines . The ship 's top speed was 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) , at 54 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 40 @,@ 000 kW ) . At a cruising speed of 18 @.@ 69 knots ( 34 @.@ 61 km / h ; 21 @.@ 51 mph ) , the ship had a range of 16 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 30 @,@ 200 km ; 18 @,@ 800 mi ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 33 officers and 586 enlisted men , though after 1935 this was significantly increased to 30 officers and 921 – 1 @,@ 040 sailors .
Admiral Graf Spee 's primary armament was six 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in two triple gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The ship carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns in single turrets grouped amidships . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery originally consisted of three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 guns , though in 1935 these were replaced with six 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 78 guns . In 1938 , the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed , and six 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns were installed in their place . The ship also carried a pair of quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo launchers placed on her stern . The ship was equipped with two Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Admiral Graf Spee 's armored belt was 60 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 17 to 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 77 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick faces and 80 mm thick sides . Radar consisted of a FMG G ( gO ) " Seetakt " set ; Admiral Graf Spee was the first German warship to be equipped with radar equipment .
= = Service history = =
Admiral Graf Spee was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . Ordered as Ersatz Braunschweig , Admiral Graf Spee replaced the reserve battleship Braunschweig . Her keel was laid on 1 October 1932 , under construction number 125 . The ship was launched on 30 June 1934 ; at her launching , she was christened by the daughter of Admiral Maximilian von Spee , the ship 's namesake . She was completed slightly over a year and a half later on 6 January 1936 , the day she was commissioned into the German fleet .
Admiral Graf Spee spent the first three months of her career conducting extensive sea trials to ready the ship for service . The ship 's first commander was Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Conrad Patzig ; he was replaced in 1937 by KzS Walter Warzecha . After joining the fleet , Admiral Graf Spee became the flagship of the German Navy . In the summer of 1936 , following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , she deployed to the Atlantic to participate in non @-@ intervention patrols off the Republican @-@ held coast of Spain . Between August 1936 and May 1937 , the ship conducted three patrols off Spain . On the return voyage from Spain , Admiral Graf Spee stopped in Great Britain to represent Germany in the Coronation Review at Spithead for King George VI on 20 May .
After the conclusion of the Review , Admiral Graf Spee returned to Spain for a fourth non @-@ intervention patrol . Following fleet manoeuvres and a brief visit to Sweden , the ship conducted a fifth and final patrol in February 1938 . In 1938 , KzS Hans Langsdorff took command of the vessel ; she conducted a series of goodwill visits to various foreign ports throughout the year . These included cruises into the Atlantic , where she stopped in Tangier and Vigo . She also participated in extensive fleet manoeuvres in German waters . She was part of the celebrations for the reintegration of the port of Memel into Germany , and a fleet review in honour of Admiral Miklós Horthy , the Regent of Hungary . Between 18 April and 17 May 1939 , she conducted another cruise into the Atlantic , stopping in the ports of Ceuta and Lisbon . On 21 August 1939 , Admiral Graf Spee departed Wilhelmshaven , bound for the South Atlantic .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of war between Germany and the Allies in September 1939 , Adolf Hitler ordered the German Navy to begin commerce raiding against Allied merchant traffic . Hitler nevertheless delayed issuing the order until it became clear that Britain would not countenance a peace treaty following the conquest of Poland . The Admiral Graf Spee was instructed to strictly adhere to prize rules , which required raiders to stop and search ships for contraband before sinking them , and to ensure that their crews are safely evacuated . Langsdorff was ordered to avoid combat , even with inferior opponents , and to frequently change position . On 1 September , the cruiser rendezvoused with her supply ship Altmark southwest of the Canary Islands . While replenishing his fuel supplies , Langsdorff ordered superfluous equipment transferred to the Altmark ; this included several of the ship 's boats , flammable paint , and two of her ten 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns , which were installed on the tanker .
On 11 September , while still transferring supplies from Altmark , Admiral Graf Spee 's Arado floatplane spotted the British heavy cruiser HMS Cumberland approaching the two German ships . Langsdorff ordered both vessels to depart at high speed , successfully evading the British cruiser . On 26 September , the ship finally received orders authorizing attacks on Allied merchant shipping . Four days later Admiral Graf Spee 's Arado located Booth Steam Ship Co 's cargo ship Clement off the coast of Brazil . The cargo ship transmitted an " RRR " signal ( " I am under attack by a raider " ) before the cruiser ordered her to stop . Admiral Graf Spee took Clement 's captain and chief engineer prisoner but let the rest of her crew to abandon ship in the lifeboats . The cruiser then fired 30 rounds from her 28 cm and 15 cm guns and two torpedoes at the cargo ship , which broke up and sank . Langsdorff ordered a distress signal sent to the naval station in Pernambuco to ensure the rescue of the ship 's crew . The British Admiralty immediately issued a warning to merchant shipping that a German surface raider was in the area . The British crew later reached the Brazilian coast in their lifeboats .
On 5 October , the British and French navies formed eight groups to hunt down Admiral Graf Spee in the South Atlantic . The British aircraft carriers HMS Hermes , Eagle , and Ark Royal , the French aircraft carrier Béarn , the British battlecruiser Renown , and French battleships Dunkerque and Strasbourg , and 16 cruisers were committed to the hunt . Force G , commanded by Commodore Henry Harwood and assigned to the east coast of South America , comprised the cruisers Cumberland and Exeter . Force G was reinforced by the light cruisers Ajax and Achilles ; Harwood detached Cumberland to patrol the area off the Falkland Islands while his other three cruisers patrolled off the River Plate .
On the same day as the formation of the Anglo @-@ French hunter groups , Admiral Graf Spee captured the steamer Newton Beech . Two days later , she encountered and sank the merchant ship Ashlea . On 8 October , the following day , she sank Newton Beech , which Langsdorff had been using to house prisoners . Newton Beech was too slow to keep up with Admiral Graf Spee , and so the prisoners were transferred to the cruiser . On 10 October , she captured the steamer Huntsman , the captain of which had not sent a distress signal until the last minute , as he had mistakenly identified Admiral Graf Spee as a French warship . Unable to accommodate the crew from Huntsman , Admiral Graf Spee sent the ship to a rendezvous location with a prize crew . On 15 October , Admiral Graf Spee rendezvoused with Altmark to refuel and transfer prisoners ; the following morning , the prize Huntsman joined the two ships . The prisoners aboard Huntsman were transferred to Altmark and Langsdorff then sank Huntsman on the night of 17 October .
On 22 October , Admiral Graf Spee encountered and sank the steamer Trevanion . At the end of October , Langsdorff sailed his ship into the Indian Ocean south of Madagascar . The purpose of that foray was to divert Allied warships away from the South Atlantic , and to confuse the Allies about his intentions . By this time , Admiral Graf Spee had cruised for almost 30 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 56 @,@ 000 km ; 35 @,@ 000 mi ) and needed an engine overhaul . On 15 November , the ship sank the tanker Africa Shell , and the following day , she stopped an unidentified Dutch steamer , though did not sink her . Admiral Graf Spee returned to the Atlantic between 17 and 26 November to refuel from Altmark . While replenishing supplies , the crew of Admiral Graf Spee built a dummy gun turret on her bridge and erected a dummy second funnel behind the aircraft catapult to alter her silhouette significantly in a bid to confuse allied shipping as to her true identity .
Admiral Graf Spee 's Arado floatplane located the merchant ship Doric Star : Langsdorff fired a shot across her bow to stop the ship . Doric Star was able to send out a distress signal before she was sunk , which prompted Harwood to take his three cruisers to the mouth of the River Plate , which he estimated would be Langsdorff 's next target . On the night of 5 December , Admiral Graf Spee sank the steamer Tairoa . The next day , she met with Altmark and transferred 140 prisoners from Doric Star and Tairoa . Admiral Graf Spee encountered her last victim on the evening of 7 December : the freighter Streonshalh . The prize crew recovered secret documents containing shipping route information . Based on that information , Langsdorff decided to head for the seas off Montevideo . On 12 December , the ship 's Arado 196 broke down and could not be repaired , depriving Graf Spee of her aerial reconnaissance . The ship 's disguise was removed , so it would not hinder the ship in battle .
= = = = Battle of the River Plate = = = =
At 05 : 30 on the morning of 13 December 1939 , lookouts spotted a pair of masts off the ship 's starboard bow . Langsdorff assumed this to be the escort for a convoy mentioned in the documents recovered from Tairoa . At 05 : 52 , however , the ship was identified as HMS Exeter ; she was accompanied by a pair of smaller warships , initially thought to be destroyers but quickly identified as Leander @-@ class cruisers . Langsdorff decided not to flee from the British ships , and so ordered his ship to battle stations and to close at maximum speed . At 06 : 08 , the British spotted Admiral Graf Spee ; Commodore Harwood divided his forces up to split the fire of Admiral Graf Spee 's 28 cm guns . The German ship opened fire with her main battery at Exeter and her secondary guns at the flagship Ajax at 06 : 17 . At 06 : 20 , Exeter returned fire , followed by Ajax at 06 : 21 and Achilles at 06 : 24 . In the span of thirty minutes , Admiral Graf Spee had hit Exeter three times , disabling her two forward turrets , destroying her bridge and her aircraft catapult , and starting major fires . Ajax and Achilles moved closer to Admiral Graf Spee to relieve the pressure on Exeter .
Langsdorff thought the two light cruisers were making a torpedo attack , and turned away under a smokescreen . The respite allowed Exeter to withdraw from the action ; by now , only one of her gun turrets was still in action , and she had suffered 61 dead and 23 wounded crew members . At around 07 : 00 , Exeter returned to the engagement , firing from her stern turret . Admiral Graf Spee fired on her again , scored more hits , and forced Exeter to withdraw again , this time with a list to port . At 07 : 25 , Admiral Graf Spee scored a hit on Ajax that disabled her aft turrets . Both sides broke off the action , Admiral Graf Spee retreating into the River Plate estuary , while Harwood 's battered cruisers remained outside to observe any possible breakout attempts . In the course of the engagement , Admiral Graf Spee had been hit approximately 70 times ; 36 men were killed and 60 more were wounded , including Langsdorff , who had been wounded twice by splinters while standing on the open bridge .
= = = = Scuttling = = = =
As a result of battle damage and casualties , Langsdorff decided to put into Montevideo , where repairs could be effected and the wounded men could be evacuated from the ship . Most of the hits scored by the British cruisers caused only minor structural and superficial damage but the oil purification plant , which was required to prepare the diesel fuel for the engines , was destroyed . Her desalination plant and galley were also destroyed , which would have increased the difficulty of a return to Germany . A hit in the bow would also have negatively affected her seaworthiness in the heavy seas of the North Atlantic . Admiral Graf Spee had fired much of her ammunition in the engagement with Harwood 's cruisers .
After arriving in port , the wounded crewmen were taken to local hospitals and the dead were buried with full military honours . Captive Allied seamen still aboard the ship were released . Repairs necessary to make the ship seaworthy were expected to take up to two weeks . British naval intelligence worked to convince Langsdorff that vastly superior forces were concentrating to destroy his ship , if he attempted to break out of the harbour . The Admiralty broadcast a series of signals , on frequencies known to be intercepted by German intelligence . The closest heavy units — the carrier Ark Royal and battlecruiser Renown — were some 2 @,@ 500 nmi ( 4 @,@ 600 km ; 2 @,@ 900 mi ) away , much too far to intervene in the situation . Believing the British reports , Langsdorff discussed his options with commanders in Berlin . These were either to break out and seek refuge in Buenos Aires , where the Argentine government would intern the ship , or to scuttle the ship in the Plate estuary .
Langsdorff was unwilling to risk the lives of his crew , so he decided to scuttle the ship . He knew that although Uruguay was neutral , the government was on friendly terms with Britain and if he allowed his ship to be interned , the Uruguayan Navy would allow British intelligence officers access to the ship . Under Article 17 of the Hague Convention , neutrality restrictions limited Admiral Graf Spee to a period of 72 hours for repairs in Montevideo , before she would be interned for the duration of the war . On 17 December 1939 , Langsdorff ordered the destruction of all important equipment aboard the ship . The ship 's remaining ammunition supply was dispersed throughout the ship , in preparation for scuttling . On 18 December , the ship , with only Langsdorff and 40 other men aboard , moved into the outer roadstead to be scuttled . A crowd of 20 @,@ 000 watched as the scuttling charges were set ; the crew was taken off by an Argentine tug and the ship was scuttled at 20 : 55 . The multiple explosions from the munitions sent jets of flame high into the air and created a large cloud of smoke that obscured the ship which burned in the shallow water for the next two days .
On 20 December , in his room in a Buenos Aires hotel , Langsdorff shot himself in full dress uniform and lying on the ship 's battle ensign . In late January 1940 , the neutral American cruiser USS Helena arrived in Montevideo and the crew was permitted to visit the wreck of Admiral Graf Spee . The Americans met the German crewmen , who were still in Montevideo . In the aftermath of the scuttling , the ship 's crew were taken to Argentina , where they were interned for the remainder of the war .
= = = Wreck = = =
The wreck was partially broken up in situ in 1942 – 1943 , though parts of the ship are still visible ; the wreck lies at a depth of only 11 m ( 36 ft ) . The salvage rights were purchased from the German Government by the British , for £ 14 @,@ 000 , using a Montevideo engineering company as a front . The British had been surprised by the accuracy of the shooting and expected to find a radar range finder and were not disappointed . They used the knowledge thus acquired to try to develop countermeasures , under the leadership of Fred Hoyle at the British radar project . The Admiralty complained about the large sum paid for the salvage rights .
In February 2004 , a salvage team began work raising the wreck of Admiral Graf Spee . The operation was in part being funded by the government of Uruguay , in part by the private sector as the wreck was a hazard to navigation . The first major section — a 27 metric tons ( 27 long tons ; 30 short tons ) gunnery range @-@ finding telemeter — was raised on 25 February . On 10 February 2006 , the 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) , 400 kg eagle and swastika crest of Admiral Graf Spee was recovered from the stern of the ship ; it was stored in a Uruguayan naval warehouse following German complaints about exhibiting " Nazi paraphernalia " .
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= Sesame Street =
Sesame Street is a long @-@ running American children 's television series created by Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett . The program is known for its educational content , and images communicated through the use of Jim Henson 's Muppets , animation , short films , humor , and cultural references . The series premiered on November 10 , 1969 , to positive reviews , some controversy , and high viewership ; it has aired on the U.S. ' s national public television provider ( PBS ) since its debut , with its first run moving to premium channel HBO on January 16 , 2016 .
The show has undergone significant changes throughout its history . The format of Sesame Street consists of a combination of commercial television production elements and techniques which have evolved to reflect the changes in American culture and the audience 's viewing habits . With the creation of Sesame Street , producers and writers of a children 's television show used , for the first time , educational goals and a curriculum to shape its content . It was also the first time a show 's educational effects were studied .
Shortly after creating Sesame Street , its producers developed what came to be called the " CTW model " ( named for the show 's production company , the Children 's Television Workshop ) , a system of television show planning , production , and evaluation based on collaborations between producers , writers , educators , and researchers . The show was initially funded by government and private foundations but has become somewhat self @-@ supporting due to revenues from licensing arrangements , international sales , and other media . By 2006 , there were independently produced versions , or " co @-@ productions " , of Sesame Street broadcast in twenty countries . In 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of various international versions of Sesame Street , and by the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , it was broadcast in more than 140 countries .
By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was the fifteenth @-@ highest rated children 's television show in the United States . A 1996 survey found that 95 % of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old . In 2008 , it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children . As of 2014 , Sesame Street has won 159 Emmy Awards and 8 Grammy Awards — more than any other children 's show .
= = History = =
Sesame Street was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Foundation vice president Lloyd Morrisett . Their goal was to create a children 's television show that would " master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them " , such as helping young children prepare for school . After two years of research the newly formed Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) received a combined grant of US $ 8 million ( $ 52 million in 2016 dollars ) from the Carnegie Foundation , the Ford Foundation , and the U.S. Federal Government to create and produce a new children 's television show . The program premiered on public television stations on November 10 , 1969 . It was the first preschool educational television program to base its contents and production values on laboratory and formative research . Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews , some controversy , and high ratings . By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries , and 20 international versions had been produced .
Sesame Street has evolved from its initial inception . According to writer Michael Davis , by the mid @-@ 1970s the show had become " an American institution " . The cast and crew expanded during this time , with emphasis on the hiring of women crew members and the addition of minorities to the cast . The show 's success continued into the 1980s . In 1981 , when the federal government withdrew its funding , CTW turned to , and expanded , other revenue sources , including its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing , and foreign broadcast income . Sesame Street 's curriculum has expanded to include more affective topics such as relationships , ethics , and emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast , and crew , most notably , the 1982 death of Will Lee — who played Mr. Hooper — and the marriage of Luis and Maria in 1988 .
In recent years Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges , including changes in viewing habits of young children , competition from other shows , the development of cable television , and a drop in ratings . After the turn of the 21st century , Sesame Street made major structural changes . For example , starting in 2002 , its format became more narrative and included ongoing storylines . After its thirtieth anniversary in 1999 and due to the popularity of the Muppet Elmo , the show also incorporated a popular segment known as " Elmo 's World " . Upon its fortieth anniversary in 2009 , the show received a Lifetime Achievement Emmy at the 36th Daytime Emmy Awards .
On August 13 , 2015 , as part of a five @-@ year programming and development deal , Sesame Workshop announced that first @-@ run episodes of Sesame Street would move to premium television service HBO beginning with season 46 , which premiered on January 16 , 2016 . HBO will hold first @-@ run rights to all newer episodes of the series , after which they will air on PBS member stations following a nine @-@ month exclusivity window , with no charge to the stations for airing the content . The agreement also gives HBO exclusive rights to stream past and future Sesame Street episodes on HBO Go and HBO Now – assuming those rights from Amazon Video and Netflix ; on August 14 , Sesame Workshop announced that it would phase out its in @-@ house subscription streaming service , Sesame Go , as a standalone service ; the service will remain in operation , likely with its offerings reduced to a slate content available for free or serving as a portal for Sesame Street 's website . The deal came in the wake of cutbacks that had affected the series in recent years , the changing viewer habits of American children in the previous ten years , and Sesame Workshop 's dependence upon revenue from DVD sales .
= = Format = =
From its first episode , Sesame Street has structured its format by using " a strong visual style , fast @-@ moving action , humor , and music , " as well as animation and live @-@ action short films . When Sesame Street premiered , most researchers believed that young children did not have long attention spans , therefore the new show 's producers were concerned that an hour @-@ long show would not hold their audience 's attention . At first , the show 's " street scenes " — the action taking place on its set — consisted of character @-@ driven interactions and were not written as ongoing stories . Instead , they consisted of individual , curriculum @-@ based segments which were interrupted by " inserts " consisting of puppet sketches , short films , and animations . This structure allowed the producers to use a mixture of styles and characters , and to vary the show 's pace . By season 20 , research had shown that children were able to follow a story , and the street scenes , while still interspersed with other segments , became evolving storylines .
Upon recommendations by child psychologists , the producers initially decided that the show 's human actors and Muppets would not interact because they were concerned it would confuse young children . When the CTW tested the appeal of the new show , they found that although children paid attention to the shows during the Muppet segments , their interest was lost during the " Street " segments . The producers requested that Henson and his team create Muppets such as Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch to interact with the human actors , and the Street segments were re @-@ shot . Sesame Street 's format remained intact until the show 's later decades , when the changing audience required that producers move to a more narrative format . In 1998 the popular segment " Elmo 's World " , a 15 @-@ minute long segment hosted by the Muppet Elmo , was created . Starting in 2014 , during the show 's 45th season , the producers introduced a bonus half @-@ hour version of the program . The new version , which complemented the full @-@ hour series , was both broadcast weekday afternoons and streamed on the internet .
= = Educational goals = =
As author Malcolm Gladwell has stated , " Sesame Street was built around a single , breakthrough insight : that if you can hold the attention of children , you can educate them " . Gerald S. Lesser , the CTW 's first advisory board chair , went even further , saying that the effective use of television as an educational tool needed to capture , focus , and sustain children 's attention . Sesame Street was the first children 's show to structure each episode , and the segments within them , to capture children 's attention , and to make , as Gladwell put it , " small but critical adjustments " to keep it . According to CTW researchers Rosemarie Truglio and Shalom Fisch , Sesame Street was one of the few children 's television programs to utilize a detailed and comprehensive educational curriculum , garnered from formative and summative research .
The creators of Sesame Street and their researchers formulated both cognitive and affective goals for the show . Initially , they focused on cognitive goals , while addressing affective goals indirectly , in the belief that doing so would increase children 's self @-@ esteem and feelings of competency . One of their primary goals was preparing very young children for school , especially children from low @-@ income families , using modeling , repetition , and humor to fulfill these goals . They made changes in the show 's content to increase their viewers ' attention and to increase its appeal , and encouraged " co @-@ viewing " to entice older children and parents to watch the show by including more sophisticated humor , cultural references , and celebrity guest appearances .
After Sesame Street 's first season , its critics forced its producers and researchers to address more overtly such affective goals as social competence , tolerance of diversity , and nonaggressive ways of resolving conflict . These issues were addressed through interpersonal disputes among its Street characters . During the 1980s , the show incorporated the real @-@ life experiences of the show 's cast and crew , including the death of Will Lee ( Mr. Hooper ) and the pregnancy of Sonia Manzano ( Maria ) to address affective concerns . In later seasons , Sesame Street addressed real @-@ life disasters such as the September 11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina .
The show 's goals for outreach were addressed through a series of programs that first focused on promotion and then , after the first season , on the development of educational materials used in preschool settings . Innovative programs were developed because their target audience , children and their families in low @-@ income , inner @-@ city homes , did not traditionally watch educational programs on television and because traditional methods of promotion and advertising were not effective with these groups .
= = Funding = =
As a result of Cooney 's initial proposal in 1968 , the Carnegie Institute awarded her an $ 8 million ( $ 52 million in 2016 dollars ) grant to create a new children 's television program and establish the CTW , renamed in June 2000 to Sesame Workshop ( SW ) . Cooney and Morrisett procured additional multimillion @-@ dollar grants from the U.S. federal government , The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations , CPB , and the Ford Foundation . Davis reported that Cooney and Morrisett decided that if they did not procure full funding from the beginning , they would drop the idea of producing the show . As Lesser reported , funds gained from a combination of government agencies and private foundations protected them from the economic pressures experienced by commercial broadcast television networks , but created challenges in procuring future funding .
After Sesame Street 's initial success , its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources . From the first season , they understood that the source of their funding , which they considered " seed " money , would need to be replaced . The 1970s were marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government ; in 1978 , the U.S. Department of Education refused to deliver a $ 2 million check until the last day of CTW 's fiscal year . As a result , the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements with toy companies and other manufacturers , publishing , and international sales for their funding .
In 1998 , the CTW accepted corporate sponsorship to raise funds for Sesame Street and other projects . For the first time , they allowed short advertisements by indoor playground manufacturer Discovery Zone , their first corporate sponsor , to air before and after each episode . Consumer advocate Ralph Nader , who had previously appeared on Sesame Street , called for a boycott of the show , saying that the CTW was " exploiting impressionable children " .
= = Production = =
= = = Research = = =
Producer Joan Ganz Cooney has stated , " Without research , there would be no Sesame Street " . In 1967 , when Cooney and her team began to plan the show 's development , combining research with television production was , as she put it , " positively heretical " . Shortly after creating Sesame Street , its producers began to develop what came to be called " the CTW model " , a system of planning , production , and evaluation that did not fully emerge until the end of the show 's first season . According to Morrow , the CTW model consisted of four parts : " the interaction of receptive television producers and child science experts , the creation of a specific and age @-@ appropriate curriculum , research to shape the program directly , and independent measurement of viewers ' learning " .
Cooney credited the show 's high standard in research procedures to Harvard professors Gerald S. Lesser , whom the CTW hired to design the show 's educational objectives , and Edward L. Palmer , who was responsible for conducting the show 's formative research and for bridging the gap between the show 's producers and researchers . The CTW conducted research in two ways : in @-@ house formative research that informed and improved production , and independent summative evaluations , conducted by the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) during the show 's first two seasons , which measuring its educational effectiveness . Cooney stated , " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " . Cooney also described the collaboration as an " arranged marriage " .
= = = Writing = = =
Sesame Street has used many writers in its long history . As Dave Connell , one of Sesame Street 's original producers , has stated , it was difficult to find adults who could identify a preschooler 's interest level . Fifteen writers a year worked on the show 's scripts , but very few lasted longer than one season . Norman Stiles , head writer in 1987 , reported that most writers would " burn out " after writing about a dozen scripts . According to Gikow , Sesame Street went against the convention of hiring teachers to write for the show , as most educational television programs did at the time . Instead , Cooney and the producers felt that it would be easier to teach writers how to interpret curriculum than to teach educators how to write comedy . As Stone stated , " Writing for children is not so easy " . Long @-@ time writer Tony Geiss agreed , stating in 2009 , " It 's not an easy show to write . You have to know the characters and the format and how to teach and be funny at the same time , which is a big , ambidextrous stunt " .
The show 's research team developed an annotated document , or " Writer 's Notebook " , which served as a bridge between the show 's curriculum goals and script development . The notebook was a compilation of programming ideas designed to teach specific curriculum points , provided extended definitions of curriculum goals , and assisted the writers and producers in translating the goals into televised material . Suggestions in the notebook were free of references to specific characters and contexts on the show so that they could be implemented as openly and flexibly as possible .
The research team , in a series of meetings with the writers , also developed " a curriculum sheet " that described the show 's goals and priorities for each season . After receiving the curriculum focus and goals for the season , the writers met to discuss ideas and story arcs for the characters , and an " assignment sheet " was created that suggested how much time was allotted for each goal and topic . When a script was completed , the show 's research team analyzed it to ensure that the goals were met . Then each production department met to determine what each episode needed in terms of costumes , lights , and sets . The writers were present during the show 's taping , which for the first twenty @-@ four years of the show took place in Manhattan , and after 1992 , at the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens to make last @-@ minute revisions when necessary .
= = = Media = = =
Early in their history Sesame Street and the CTW began to look for alternative funding sources and turned to creating products and writing licensing agreements . They became , as Cooney put it , " a multiple @-@ media institution " . In 1970 , the CTW created a " non @-@ broadcast " division responsible for creating and publishing books and Sesame Street Magazine . They decided that all materials their licensing program created would " underscore and amplify " the show 's curriculum . In 2004 , over 68 % of Sesame Street 's revenue came from licenses and products such as toys and clothing . By 2008 , the Sesame Street Muppets accounted for between $ 15 million and $ 17 million per year in licensing and merchandising fees , split between the Sesame Workshop and The Jim Henson Company .
Jim Henson , the creator of the Muppets , owned the trademarks to those characters , and was reluctant to market them at first . He agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys , books , computer games , and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW and its outreach efforts . Even though Cooney and the CTW had very little experience with marketing , they demanded complete control over all products and product decisions . Any product line associated with the show had to be educational and inexpensive , and could not be advertised during the show 's airings . As Davis reported , " Cooney stressed restraint , prudence , and caution " in their marketing and licensing efforts .
Director Jon Stone , talking about the music of Sesame Street , said : " There was no other sound like it on television " . For the first time in children 's television , the show 's songs fulfilled a specific purpose and supported its curriculum . In order to attract the best composers and lyricists , the CTW allowed songwriters like Sesame Street 's first musical director Joe Raposo to retain the rights to the songs they wrote , which earned them lucrative profits and helped the show sustain public interest . By 1991 , Sesame Street and its songwriters had received eight Grammys .
Sesame Street used animations and short films commissioned from outside studios , interspersed throughout each episode , to help teach their viewers basic concepts like numbers and letters . Jim Henson was one of the many producers to create short films for the show . Shortly after Sesame Street debuted in the United States , the CTW was approached independently by producers from several countries to produce versions of the show at home . These versions came to be called " co @-@ productions " . By 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of all international versions of Sesame Street , and in 2006 , there were twenty co @-@ productions around the world . By the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was broadcast in more than 140 countries . In 2005 , Doreen Carvajal of The New York Times reported that income from the co @-@ productions and international licensing accounted for $ 96 million .
= = Cast , crew and characters = =
Shortly after the CTW was created in 1968 , Joan Ganz Cooney was named its first executive director . She was one of the first female executives in American television . Her appointment was called " one of the most important television developments of the decade " . She assembled a team of producers , all of whom had previously worked on Captain Kangaroo . Jon Stone was responsible for writing , casting , and format ; Dave Connell took over animation ; and Sam Gibbon served as the show 's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team . Cameraman Frankie Biondo worked on Sesame Street from its first episode .
Jim Henson and the Muppets ' involvement in Sesame Street began when he and Cooney met at one of the curriculum planning seminars in Boston . Author Christopher Finch reported that Stone , who had worked with Henson previously , felt that if they could not bring him on board , they should " make do without puppets " . Henson was initially reluctant , but he agreed to join Sesame Street to meet his own social goals . He also agreed to waive his performance fee for full ownership of the Sesame Street Muppets and to split any revenue they generated with the CTW . As Morrow stated , Henson 's puppets were a crucial part of the show 's popularity and it brought Henson national attention . Davis reported that Henson was able to take " arcane academic goals " and translate them to " effective and pleasurable viewing " . In early research , the Muppet segments of the show scored high , and more Muppets were added during the first few seasons . Morrow reported that the Muppets were effective teaching tools because children easily recognized them , they were stereotypical and predictable , and they appealed to adults and older siblings .
Although the producers decided against depending upon a single host for Sesame Street , instead casting a group of ethnically diverse actors , they realized that a children 's television program needed to have , as Lesser put it , " a variety of distinctive and reliable personalities " , both human and Muppet . Jon Stone , whose goal was to cast white actors in the minority , was responsible for hiring the show 's first cast . He did not audition actors until Spring 1969 , a few weeks before the five test shows were due to be filmed . Stone videotaped the auditions , and Ed Palmer took them out into the field to test children 's reactions . The actors who received the " most enthusiastic thumbs up " were cast . For example , Loretta Long was chosen to play Susan when the children who saw her audition stood up and sang along with her rendition of " I 'm a Little Teapot " . As Stone said , casting was the only aspect of the show that was " just completely haphazard " . Most of the cast and crew found jobs on Sesame Street through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers .
According to the CTW 's research , children preferred watching and listening to other children more than to puppets and adults , so they included children in many scenes . Dave Connell insisted that no child actors be used , so these children were nonprofessionals , unscripted , and spontaneous . Many of their reactions were unpredictable and difficult to control , but the adult cast learned to handle the children 's spontaneity flexibly , even when it resulted in departures from the planned script or lesson . CTW research also revealed that the children 's hesitations and on @-@ air mistakes served as models for viewers . According to Morrow , this resulted in the show having a " fresh quality " , especially in its early years . Children were also used in the voice @-@ over commentaries of most of the live @-@ action films the CTW produced .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
When Sesame Street premiered in 1969 , it aired on only 67 @.@ 6 % of American televisions , but it earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , which totaled 1 @.@ 9 million households . By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , 9 million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . According to a 1993 survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education , out of the show 's 6 @.@ 6 million viewers , 2 @.@ 4 million kindergartners regularly watched it . 77 % of preschoolers watched it once a week , and 86 % of kindergartners and first- and second @-@ grade students had watched it once a week before starting school . The show reached most young children in almost all demographic groups .
The show 's ratings significantly decreased in the early 1990s , resulting from changes in children 's viewing habits and in the television marketplace . The producers responded by making large @-@ scale structural changes to the show . By 2006 , Sesame Street had become " the most widely viewed children 's television show in the world " , with 20 international independent versions and broadcasts in over 120 countries . A 1996 survey found that 95 % of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old . In 2008 , it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children . By the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show on television .
= = = Influence = = =
As of 2001 , there were over 1 @,@ 000 research studies regarding Sesame Street 's efficacy , impact , and effect on American culture . The CTW solicited the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) to conduct summative research on the show . ETS 's two " landmark " summative evaluations , conducted in 1970 and 1971 , demonstrated that the show had a significant educational impact on its viewers . These studies have been cited in other studies of the effects of television on young children . Additional studies conducted throughout Sesame Street 's history demonstrated that the show continued to have a positive effect on its young viewers .
Lesser believed that Sesame Street research " may have conferred a new respectability upon the studies of the effects of visual media upon children " . He also believed that the show had the same effect on the prestige of producing shows for children in the television industry . Historian Robert Morrow , in his book Sesame Street and the Reform of Children 's Television , which chronicled the show 's influence on children 's television and on the television industry as a whole , reported that many critics of commercial television saw Sesame Street as a " straightforward illustration for reform " . Les Brown , a writer for Variety , saw in Sesame Street " a hope for a more substantial future " for television .
Morrow reported that the networks responded by creating more high @-@ quality television programs , but that many critics saw them as " appeasement gestures " . According to Morrow , despite the CTW Model 's effectiveness in creating a popular show , commercial television " made only a limited effort to emulate CTW 's methods " , and did not use a curriculum or evaluate what children learned from them . By the mid @-@ 1970s , commercial television abandoned their experiments with creating better children 's programming . Other critics hoped that Sesame Street , with its depiction of a functioning , multicultural community , would nurture racial tolerance in its young viewers . It was not until the mid @-@ 1990s when a children 's television educational program , Blue 's Clues , used the CTW 's methods to create and modify their content . The creators of Blue 's Clues were influenced by Sesame Street , but wanted to use research conducted in the 30 years since its debut . Angela Santomero , one of its producers , said , " We wanted to learn from Sesame Street and take it one step further " .
As critic Richard Roeper has stated , perhaps one of the strongest indicators of the influence of Sesame Street has been the enduring rumors and urban legends surrounding the show and its characters , especially those concerning Bert and Ernie .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sesame Street was praised from its debut in 1969 . Newsday reported that several newspapers and magazines had written " glowing " reports about the CTW and Cooney . The press overwhelmingly praised the new show ; several popular magazines and niche magazines lauded it . In 1970 , Sesame Street won twenty awards , including a Peabody Award , three Emmys , an award from the Public Relations Society of America , a Clio , and a Prix Jeunesse . By 1995 , the show had won two Peabody Awards and four Parents ' Choice Awards . In addition , it was the subject of retrospectives at the Smithsonian Institution and the Museum of Modern Art .
Sesame Street was not without its detractors , however . In May 1970 , a state commission in Mississippi , the state Henson was actually from , voted to ban Sesame Street because of its " highly integrated cast of children " which " the commission members felt ... Mississippi was not yet ready for " . According to Children and Television , Lesser 's account of the development and early years of Sesame Street , there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere , but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season . Historian Robert W. Morrow speculated that much of the early criticism , which he called " surprisingly intense " , stemmed from cultural and historical reasons in regards to , as he put it , " the place of children in American society and the controversies about television 's effects on them " .
According to Morrow , the " most important " studies finding negative effects of Sesame Street were conducted by educator Herbert A. Sprigle and psychologist Thomas D. Cook during its first two seasons . Social scientist and Head Start Program founder Urie Bronfenbrenner criticized the show for being too wholesome . Psychologist Leon Eisenberg saw Sesame Street 's urban setting as " superficial " and having little to do with the problems confronted by the inner @-@ city child . Head Start director Edward Zigler was probably Sesame Street 's most vocal critic in the show 's early years .
In spite of their commitment to multiculturalism , the CTW experienced conflicts with the leadership of minority groups , especially Latino groups and feminists , who objected to Sesame Street 's depiction of Latinos and women . The CTW took steps to address their objections . By 1971 , the CTW hired Hispanic actors , production staff , and researchers , and by the mid @-@ 1970s , Morrow reported that " the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members , films about Mexican holidays and foods , and cartoons that taught Spanish words " . As The New York Times has stated , creating strong female characters " that make kids laugh , but not ... as female stereotypes " has been a challenge for the producers of Sesame Street . According to Morrow , change regarding how women and girls were depicted on Sesame Street occurred slowly . As more female Muppets performers like Fran Brill , Pam Arciero , Carmen Osbahr , Stephanie D 'Abruzzo , Jennifer Barnhart , and Leslie Carrara @-@ Rudolph were hired and trained , stronger female characters like Rosita and Abby Cadabby were created .
In 2002 , Sesame Street was ranked No. 27 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time . It also won another Peabody Award in 2009 for sesamestreet.org. In 2013 , TV Guide ranked the series No. 30 on its list of the 60 Best Series . As of 2016 , Sesame Street has received 167 Emmy Awards , more than any other television series .
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= Vegetable =
In everyday usage , a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a savory meal . The term " vegetable " is somewhat arbitrary , and largely defined through culinary and cultural tradition . It normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits , nuts and cereal grains , but includes seeds such as pulses . The original meaning of the word vegetable , still used in biology , was to describe all types of plant , as in the terms " vegetable kingdom " and " vegetable matter " .
Originally , vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter @-@ gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world , probably during the period 10 @,@ 000 BC to 7 @,@ 000 BC , when a new agricultural way of life developed . At first , plants which grew locally would have been cultivated , but as time went on , trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types . Nowadays , most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits , and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations . China is the largest producer of vegetables , and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries . The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food , to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single @-@ product crops . Depending on the type of vegetable concerned , harvesting the crop is followed by grading , storing , processing and marketing .
Vegetables can be eaten either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition , being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates , but high in vitamins , minerals and fiber . Many governments encourage their citizens to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables , five or more portions a day often being recommended .
= = Etymology = =
The word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century . It comes from Old French , and was originally applied to all plants ; the word is still used in this sense in biological contexts . It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis " growing , flourishing " ( i.e. of a plant ) , a semantic change from a Late Latin meaning " to be enlivening , quickening " .
The meaning of " vegetable " as a " plant grown for food " was not established until the 18th century . In 1767 , the word was specifically used to mean a " plant cultivated for food , an edible herb or root " . The year 1955 noted the first use of the shortened , slang term " veggie " .
As an adjective , the word vegetable is used in scientific and technical contexts with a different and much broader meaning , namely of " related to plants " in general , edible or not — as in vegetable matter , vegetable kingdom , vegetable origin , etc .
= = Terminology = =
The exact definition of " vegetable " may vary simply because of the many parts of a plant consumed as food worldwide – roots , tubers , bulbs , corms , stems , leaf stems , leaf sheaths , leaves , buds , flowers , fruits and seeds . The broadest definition is the word 's use adjectivally to mean " matter of plant origin " to distinguish it from " animal " , meaning " matter of animal origin " . More specifically , a vegetable may be defined as " any plant , part of which is used for food " , a secondary meaning then being " the edible part of such a plant " . A more precise definition is " any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed , but including mature fruits that are eaten as part of a main meal " . Falling outside these definitions are mushrooms and other edible fungi , as well as edible seaweed which , although not parts of green plants , are often treated as vegetables .
In everyday language , the words " fruit " and " vegetable " are mutually exclusive . " Fruit " has a precise botanical meaning , being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant . This is considerably different from the word 's culinary meaning . While peaches , plums , and oranges are " fruit " in both senses , many items commonly called " vegetables " , such as eggplants , bell peppers and tomatoes , are botanically fruits . The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893 . The court ruled unanimously in Nix v. Hedden that a tomato is correctly identified as , and thus taxed as , a vegetable , for the purposes of the Tariff of 1883 on imported produce . The court did acknowledge , however , that , botanically speaking , a tomato is a fruit .
= = History = =
Before the advent of agriculture , humans were hunter @-@ gatherers . They foraged for edible fruit , nuts , stems , leaves , corms and tubers , scavenged for dead animals and hunted living ones for food . Forest gardening in a tropical jungle clearing is thought to be the first example of agriculture ; useful plant species were identified and encouraged to grow while undesirable species were removed . Plant breeding through the selection of strains with desirable traits such as large fruit and vigorous growth soon followed . While the first evidence for the domestication of grasses such as wheat and barley has been found in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East , it is likely that various peoples around the world started growing crops in the period 10 @,@ 000 BC to 7 @,@ 000 BC . Subsistence agriculture continues to this day , with many rural farmers in Africa , Asia , South America and elsewhere using their plots of land to produce enough food for their families , while any surplus produce is used for exchange for other goods .
Throughout recorded history , the rich have been able to afford a varied diet including meat , vegetables and fruit , but for poor people , meat was a luxury and the food they ate was very dull , typically comprising mainly some staple product made from rice , rye , barley , wheat , millet or maize . The addition of vegetable matter provided some variety to the diet . The staple diet of the Aztecs in Central America was maize and they cultivated tomatoes , avocados , beans , peppers , pumpkins , squashes , peanuts and amaranth seeds to supplement their tortillas and porridge . In Peru , the Incas subsisted on maize in the lowlands and potatoes at higher altitudes . They also used seeds from quinoa , supplementing their diet with peppers , tomatoes and avocados .
In Ancient China , rice was the staple crop in the south and wheat in the north , the latter made into dumplings , noodles and pancakes . Vegetables used to accompany these included yams , soya beans , broad beans , turnips , spring onions and garlic . The diet of the ancient Egyptians was based on bread , often contaminated with sand which wore away their teeth . Meat was a luxury but fish was more plentiful . These were accompanied by a range of vegetables including marrows , broad beans , lentils , onions , leeks , garlic , radishes and lettuces .
The mainstay of the Ancient Greek diet was bread , and this was accompanied by goat 's cheese , olives , figs , fish and occasionally meat . The vegetables grown included onions , garlic , cabbages , melons and lentils . In Ancient Rome a thick porridge was made of emmer wheat or beans , accompanied by green vegetables but little meat , and fish was not esteemed . The Romans grew broad beans , peas , onions and turnips and ate the leaves of beets rather than their roots .
= = Some common vegetables = =
= = Nutrition and health = =
Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition . Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling . They supply dietary fibre and are important sources of essential vitamins , minerals and trace elements . Particularly important are the antioxidant vitamins A , C and E. When vegetables are included in the diet , there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer , stroke , cardiovascular disease and other chronic ailments . Research has shown that , compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day , those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke . The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably ; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat , and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A , vitamin K and vitamin B6 , provitamins , dietary minerals and carbohydrates . Vegetables contain a great variety of other phytochemicals ( bioactive non @-@ nutrient plant compounds ) , some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant , antibacterial , antifungal , antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties .
However , vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients which interfere with the absorption of nutrients . These include α @-@ solanine , α @-@ chaconine , enzyme inhibitors ( of cholinesterase , protease , amylase , etc . ) , cyanide and cyanide precursors , oxalic acid and others . These toxins are natural defenses , used to ward off the insects , predators and fungi that might attack the plant . Some beans contain phytohaemagglutinin , and cassava roots contain cyanogenic glycoside as do bamboo shoots . These toxins can be deactivated by adequate cooking . Green potatoes contain glycoalkaloids and should be avoided .
Fruit and vegetables , particularly leafy vegetables , have been implicated in nearly half the gastrointestinal infections caused by norovirus in the United States . These foods are commonly eaten raw and may become contaminated during their preparation by an infected food handler . Hygiene is important when handling foods to be eaten raw , and such products need to be properly cleaned , handled and stored to limit contamination .
= = = Dietary recommendations = = =
The USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming five to nine servings of fruit and vegetables daily . The total amount consumed will vary according to age and gender , and is determined based upon the standard portion sizes typically consumed , as well as general nutritional content . Potatoes are not included in the count as they are mainly providers of starch . For most vegetables and vegetable juices , one serving is half of a cup and can be eaten raw or cooked . For leafy greens , such as lettuce and spinach , a single serving is typically a full cup . A variety of products should be chosen as no single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients needed for health .
International dietary guidelines are similar to the ones established by the USDA . Japan , for example , recommends the consumption of five to six servings of vegetables daily . French recommendations provide similar guidelines and set the daily goal at five servings . In India , the daily recommendation for adults is 275 grams ( 9 @.@ 7 oz ) of vegetables per day .
= = Production = =
= = = Cultivation = = =
Vegetables have been part of the human diet from time immemorial . Some are staple foods but most are accessory foodstuffs , adding variety to meals with their unique flavors and at the same time , adding nutrients necessary for health . Some vegetables are perennials but most are annuals and biennials , usually harvested within a year of sowing or planting . Whatever system is used for growing crops , cultivation follows a similar pattern ; preparation of the soil by loosening it , removing or burying weeds and adding organic manures or fertilisers ; sowing seeds or planting young plants ; tending the crop while it grows to reduce weed competition , control pests and provide sufficient water ; harvesting the crop when it is ready ; sorting , storing and marketing the crop or eating it fresh from the ground .
Different soil types suit different crops , but in general in temperate climates , sandy soils dry out fast but warm up quickly in the spring and are suitable for early crops , while heavy clays retain moisture better and are more suitable for late season crops . The growing season can be lengthened by the use of fleece , cloches , plastic mulch , polytunnels and greenhouses . In hotter regions , the production of vegetables is constrained by the climate , especially the pattern of rainfall , while in temperate zones , it is constrained by the temperature and day length .
On a domestic scale , the spade , fork and hoe are the tools of choice while on commercial farms a range of mechanical equipment is available . Besides tractors , these include ploughs , harrows , drills , transplanters , cultivators , irrigation equipment and harvesters . New techniques are changing the cultivation procedures involved in growing vegetables with computer monitoring systems , GPS locators and self @-@ steer programmes for driverless machines giving economic benefits .
= = = Harvesting = = =
When a vegetable is harvested , it is cut off from its source of water and nourishment . It continues to transpire and loses moisture as it does so , a process most noticeable in the wilting of green leafy crops . Harvesting root vegetables when they are fully mature improves their storage life , but alternatively , these root crops can be left in the ground and harvested over an extended period . The harvesting process should seek to minimise damage and bruising to the crop . Onions and garlic can be dried for a few days in the field and root crops such as potatoes benefit from a short maturation period in warm moist surroundings during which time wounds heal and the skin thickens up and hardens . Before marketing or storage , grading needs to be done to remove damaged goods and select produce according to its quality , size , ripeness and color .
= = = Storage = = =
All vegetables benefit from proper post harvest care . A large proportion of vegetables and perishable foods are lost after harvest during the storage period . These losses may be as high as thirty to fifty percent in developing countries where adequate cold storage facilities are not available . The main causes of loss include spoilage caused by moisture , moulds , micro @-@ organisms and vermin .
Storage can be short @-@ term or long @-@ term . Most vegetables are perishable and short @-@ term storage for a few days provides flexibility in marketing . During storage , leafy vegetables lose moisture , and the vitamin C in them degrades rapidly . A few products such as potatoes and onions have better keeping qualities and can be sold when higher prices may be available , and by extending the marketing season , a greater total volume of crop can be sold . If refrigerated storage is not available , the priority for most crops is to store high @-@ quality produce , to maintain a high humidity level and to keep the produce in the shade .
Proper post @-@ harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficient cold chain application . Cold storage is particularly useful for vegetables such as cauliflower , eggplant , lettuce , radish , spinach , potatoes and tomatoes , the optimum temperature depending on the type of produce . There are temperature @-@ controlling technologies that do not require the use of electricity such as evaporative cooling . Storage of fruit and vegetables in controlled atmospheres with high levels of carbon dioxide or high oxygen levels can inhibit microbial growth and extend storage life .
The irradiation of vegetables and other agricultural produce by ionizing radiation can be used to preserve it from both microbial infection and insect damage , as well as from physical deterioration . It can extend the storage life of food without noticeably changing its properties .
= = = Preservation = = =
The objective of preserving vegetables is to extend their availability for consumption or marketing purposes . The aim is to harvest the food at its maximum state of palatability and nutritional value , and preserve these qualities for an extended period . The main causes of deterioration in vegetables after they are gathered are the actions of naturally @-@ occurring enzymes and the spoilage caused by micro @-@ organisms . Canning and freezing are the most commonly used techniques , and vegetables preserved by these methods are generally similar in nutritional value to comparable fresh products with regards to carotenoids , vitamin E , minerals and dietary fiber .
Canning is a process during which the enzymes in vegetables are deactivated and the micro @-@ organisms present killed by heat . The sealed can excludes air from the foodstuff to prevent subsequent deterioration . The lowest necessary heat and the minimum processing time are used in order to prevent the mechanical breakdown of the product and to preserve the flavor as far as is possible . The can is then able to be stored at ambient temperatures for a long period .
Freezing vegetables and maintaining their temperature at below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) will prevent their spoilage for a short period , whereas a temperature of − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) is required for longer @-@ term storage . The enzyme action will merely be inhibited , and blanching of suitably sized prepared vegetables before freezing mitigates this and prevents off @-@ flavors developing . Not all micro @-@ organisms will be killed at these temperatures and after thawing the vegetables should be used promptly because otherwise , any microbes present may proliferate .
Traditionally , sun drying has been used for some products such as tomatoes , mushrooms and beans , spreading the produce on racks and turning the crop at intervals . This method suffers from several disadvantages including lack of control over drying rates , spoilage when drying is slow , contamination by dirt , wetting by rain and attack by rodents , birds and insects . These disadvantages can be alleviated by using solar powered driers . The dried produce must be prevented from reabsorbing moisture during storage .
High levels of both sugar and salt can preserve food by preventing micro @-@ organisms from growing . Green beans can be salted by layering the pods with salt , but this method of preservation is unsuited to most vegetables . Marrows , beetroot , carrot and some other vegetables can be boiled with sugar to create jams . Vinegar is widely used in food preservation ; a sufficient concentration of acetic acid prevents the development of destructive micro @-@ organisms , a fact made use of in the preparation of pickles , chutneys and relishes . Fermentation is another method of preserving vegetables for later use . Sauerkraut is made from chopped cabbage and relies on lactic acid bacteria which produce compounds that are inhibitory to the growth of other micro @-@ organisms .
= = = Top producers = = =
In 2010 , China was the largest vegetable producing nation , with over half the world 's production . India , the United States , Turkey , Iran and Egypt were the next largest producers . China had the highest area of land devoted to vegetable production , while the highest average yields were obtained in Spain and the Republic of Korea .
= = Standards = =
The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) sets international standards to ensure that products and services are safe , reliable and of good quality . There are a number of ISO standards regarding fruits and vegetables . ISO 1991 @-@ 1 : 1982 lists the botanical names of sixty @-@ one species of plants used as vegetables along with the common names of the vegetables in English , French and Russian . ISO 67 @.@ 080 @.@ 20 covers the storage and transport of vegetables and their derived products .
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= Teaneck , New Jersey =
Teaneck / ˈtiːnɛk / is a township in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States , and a suburb in the New York metropolitan area . As of the 2010 United States Census , the township 's population was 39 @,@ 776 , reflecting an increase of 516 ( + 1 @.@ 3 % ) from the 39 @,@ 260 counted in the 2000 Census , which had in turn increased by 1 @,@ 435 ( + 3 @.@ 8 % ) from the 37 @,@ 825 counted in the 1990 Census . As of 2010 it was the second @-@ most populous among the 70 municipalities in Bergen County , behind Hackensack , which had a population of 43 @,@ 010 .
Teaneck was created on February 19 , 1895 by an act of the New Jersey Legislature from portions of Englewood Township and Ridgefield Township , both of which are now defunct ( despite existing municipalities with similar names ) , along with portions of Bogota and Leonia . Independence followed the result of a referendum held on January 14 , 1895 , in which voters favored incorporation by a 46 – 7 margin . To address the concerns of Englewood Township 's leaders , the new municipality was formed as a township , rather than succumbing to the borough craze sweeping across Bergen County at the time . On May 3 , 1921 , and June 1 , 1926 , portions of what had been Teaneck were transferred to Overpeck Township .
Teaneck lies at the junction of Interstate 95 and the eastern terminus of Interstate 80 . The township is bisected into north and south portions by Route 4 and east and west by the CSX Transportation River Subdivision . Commercial development is concentrated in four main shopping areas , on Cedar Lane , Teaneck Road , DeGraw Avenue , West Englewood Avenue and Queen Anne Road , more commonly known as " The Plaza " .
Teaneck 's location at the crossroads of river , road , train and other geographical features has made it a site of many momentous events across the centuries . After the American defeat at the Battle of Fort Washington , George Washington and the troops of the Continental Army retreated across New Jersey from the British Army , traveling through Teaneck and crossing the Hackensack River at New Bridge Landing , which has since been turned into a state park and historic site commemorating the events of 1776 and of early colonial life . In 1965 , Teaneck voluntarily desegregated its public schools , after the Board of Education approved a plan to do so by a 7 – 2 vote on May 13 , 1964 . Teaneck has a diverse population , with large Jewish and African American communities , and growing numbers of Hispanic and Asian residents .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The origin and meaning of the name " Teaneck " is not known , but speculation is that it could come from various Dutch or English words , or it could be Native American in origin , meaning " the woods " . An alternative is from the Dutch " Tiene Neck " meaning " neck where there are willows " ( from the Dutch " tene " meaning willow ) .
The earliest uses of the word " Teaneck " were in reference to a series of Lenni Lenape Native American camps near the ridge formed by what became Queen Anne Road . Chief Oratam was the leader of a settlement called " Achikinhesacky " that existed along Overpeck Creek in the area near what became Fycke Lane .
A neighborhood variously called East Hackensack or New Hackensack was established along a ridge on the east bank of the Hackensack River , site of a Native American trail that followed the river 's path along what is now River Road , with the earliest known buildings constructed dating back as far as 1704 . Other early European settlements were established along what became Teaneck Road , which is the site of a number of Dutch stone houses that remain standing since their construction in the 1700s , several of which have been added to the National Register of Historic Places .
= = = Revolutionary War period = = =
During November 1776 , General George Washington passed through Teaneck in the aftermath of the Battle of Fort Lee , as part of the hasty retreat of ragtag Colonial forces from Fort Lee on the Hudson River in the wake of the successful British invasion and defeat of Continental Army forces in Manhattan on the opposite side of the river during the Battle of Fort Washington . Early on the morning of November 20 , 1776 , Washington rode by horseback from his headquarters in Hackensack through Teaneck and across Overpeck Creek to Fort Lee . There he watched as 6 @,@ 000 British troops travel up the river by boat . He had his troops abandon their position on the Palisades in a poorly organized retreat in which most of their supplies were abandoned , with Washington 's troops moving inland across Overpeck Creek and through Teaneck to New Bridge Landing ( in what is now Brett Park ) and crossing the bridge , one of the few available at the time . The soldiers , many poorly dressed , ill @-@ equipped and without shoes , faced the cold rain , leading Thomas Paine to compose the pamphlet , The American Crisis , in which he captured the depth of the defeat by describing those days with the words " These are the times that try men 's souls " . Throughout the war , both British and American forces occupied local homesteads at various times , and Teaneck citizens played key roles on both sides of the conflict .
After the war , Teaneck returned to being a quiet farm community . Fruits and vegetables grown locally were taken by wagon to markets in nearby Paterson and New York City . New growth and development were spurred in the mid @-@ 19th century by the establishment of railroads throughout the area . Wealthy New Yorkers and others purchased large properties on which they built spacious mansions and manor houses . They traveled daily to work in New York City , thus becoming Teaneck 's first suburban commuters .
= = = Phelps Estate = = =
The largest estate built in Teaneck belonged to William Walter Phelps , the son of a wealthy railroad magnate and New York City merchant . In 1865 , Phelps arrived in Teaneck and enlarged an old farmhouse into a large Victorian mansion on the site of the present Municipal Government Complex . Phelps ' " Englewood Farm " eventually encompassed nearly 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) of landscaped property within the central part of Teaneck , on which some 600 @,@ 000 trees were planted . Subsequent development and house construction were focused along the perimeters of the township , with the central part of the community remaining a large property crisscrossed by roads and trails .
= = = Township formed = = =
The Township of Teaneck was established on February 19 , 1895 and was composed of portions of Englewood Township , Ridgefield Township and Bogota . Teaneck 's choice to incorporate as a township was unusual in an era of " Boroughitis " , in which a flood of new municipalities were being formed using the borough form of government . The other two municipalities formed in Bergen County in 1895 were both boroughs , in addition to the 26 boroughs that were formed in the county in 1894 alone .
At a referendum held on January 14 , 1895 , 46 of 53 voters approved incorporation as a Borough . Citizens of Englewood Township challenged the creation of a borough , but accepted the new municipality as a township , given its more rural character . A bill supporting the creation of the Township of Teaneck was put through the New Jersey General Assembly on February 18 , 1895 , and the New Jersey Senate on the next day . Governor of New Jersey George Werts signed the bill into law , and Teaneck was an independent municipality .
At its incorporation , Teaneck 's population was 811 . William W. Bennett , overseer of the Phelps Estate , was selected as chairman of the first three @-@ man Township Committee , which focused in its early years on " construction of streets and street lamps ( originally gaslights ) , trolley lines ( along DeGraw Avenue ) , telephones and speeding traffic . "
= = = Growth in early 20th century = = =
The opening of the Phelps Estate in 1927 led to substantial population growth . The George Washington Bridge was completed in 1931 , and its connection to Teaneck via Route 4 brought thousands of new home buyers . From 1920 and 1930 , Teaneck 's population nearly quadrupled , from 4 @,@ 192 to 16 @,@ 513 .
Rapid growth led to financial turmoil , and inefficiencies in the town government resulted in the adoption of a new nonpartisan Council @-@ Manager form of government under the 1923 Municipal Manager Law in a referendum on September 16 , 1930 . A full @-@ time Town Manager , Paul A. Volcker , Sr. ( father of future Chairman of the Federal Reserve Paul A. Volcker , Jr . ) , was appointed to handle Teaneck 's day @-@ to @-@ day business affairs . During his 20 @-@ year term , from 1930 to 1950 , Volcker implemented prudent financial management practices , a development plan that included comprehensive zoning regulations , along with a civil service system for municipal employees and a professional fire department .
The New Jersey Supreme Court issued a ruling in 1942 upholding a Teaneck ordinance that had banned pinball machines on the grounds that they were gambling devices rather than a form of amusement .
= = = Development after World War II = = =
Teaneck was selected in 1949 from over 10 @,@ 000 communities as America 's model community . Photographs were taken and a film produced about life in Teaneck , which were shown in Occupied Japan as a part of the United States Army 's education program to show democracy in action .
After World War II , there was a second major spurt of building and population growth . The African American population in the northeast corner of Teaneck grew substantially starting in the 1960s , accompanied by white flight triggered by blockbusting efforts of township real estate agencies . In 1965 , after a struggle to address de facto segregation in housing and education , Teaneck became the first community in the nation where a white majority voluntarily voted for school integration , without a court order requiring the district to implement the change . The sequence of events was the subject of a book titled Triumph in a White Suburb written by township resident Reginald G. Damerell ( New York : William Morrow & Company , Inc . , 1968 ) .
As de facto racial segregation increased , so did tensions between residents of the northeast and members of the predominantly white male Teaneck Police Department . On the evening of April 10 , 1990 , the Teaneck Police Department responded to a call from a resident complaining about a teenager with a gun . After an initial confrontation near Bryant School and a subsequent chase , Phillip Pannell , an African American teenager , was shot and killed by Gary Spath , a white Teaneck police officer . Spath said he thought Pannell had a gun and was turning to shoot him . Witnesses said Pannell was unarmed and had been shot in the back . Protest marches , some violent , ensued ; most African Americans believed that Pannell had been killed in cold blood , while other residents insisted that Spath had been justified in his actions . Testimony at the trial claimed that Pannell was shot in the back , and that he was carrying a gun . A police officer testified to finding a modified starter 's pistol with eight cartridges in Pannell 's jacket pocket . Spath was ultimately acquitted on charges of reckless manslaughter in the shooting . Some months after Spath had been cleared , he decided to retire from law enforcement . The incident was an international news event that brought Reverend Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson to the community and inspired the 1995 book Color Lines : The Troubled Dreams of Racial Harmony in an American Town , by Mike Kelly .
Teaneck , and the neighboring communities of Bergenfield and New Milford , has drawn a large number of Modern Orthodox Jews who have established at least fourteen synagogues and four yeshivas ( three high schools and one for young men ) . It is the functional center of the northern New Jersey Orthodox community , with nearly twenty kosher shops ( restaurants , bakeries and supermarkets ) . It is within ten minutes ' driving time of Yeshiva University in New York City . This community tends to be involved with Religious Zionist causes and offers strong support of Israel .
= = = Historic homes = = =
Several homes in Teaneck date back to the colonial era or the period subsequent to American Revolutionary War and have been preserved and survive to this day . Teaneck sites on the National Register of Historic Places and ( other historic homes ) include :
John Ackerman House – 1286 River Road ( constructed 1734 – 1787 )
Banta @-@ Coe House – 884 Lone Pine Lane ( c . 18th century , added 1983 )
Brinkerhoff @-@ Demarest House – 493 Teaneck Road ( c . 1728 , added 1983 )
Christian Cole House – 1617 River Road ( constructed c . 1860 )
Draw Bridge at New Bridge – Main Street and Old New Bridge Road over Hackensack River ( constructed 1888 , added 1989 )
Adam Vandelinda House – 586 Teaneck Road ( constructed 1830 , added 1983 )
James Vandelinda House – 566 Teaneck Road ( constructed 1805 – 1820 , added 1983 )
Caspar Westervelt House – 20 Sherwood Road ( constructed 1763 , added 1983 )
Zabriskie @-@ Kipp @-@ Cadmus House – 664 River Road ( c . 1751 , added 1978 )
The William Thurnauer house – Designed by Edward Durell Stone , 628 North Forest Drive ( constructed 1949 )
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the township had a total area of 6 @.@ 226 square miles ( 16 @.@ 127 km2 ) , including 6 @.@ 006 square miles ( 15 @.@ 557 km2 ) of land and 0 @.@ 22 square miles ( 0 @.@ 57 km2 ) of water ( 3 @.@ 54 % ) .
Teaneck is bordered to the west by River Edge and Hackensack which lie across the Hackensack River , to the north by New Milford and Bergenfield , to the east by Englewood and Leonia , and to the south by Ridgefield Park and Bogota .
Unincorporated communities , localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include New Bridge and West Englewood .
= = Demographics = =
English is spoken by 74 @.@ 3 % of residents . Other languages ( accounting for more than 1 % of residents ) include Spanish ( 10 @.@ 5 % ) , Hebrew ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) , Tagalog ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) , Urdu ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) and Russian ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) .
= = = 2010 Census = = =
At the 2010 United States Census , there were 39 @,@ 776 people , 13 @,@ 470 households , and 10 @,@ 129 families residing in the township . The population density was 6 @,@ 622 @.@ 2 per square mile ( 2 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . There were 14 @,@ 024 housing units at an average density of 2 @,@ 334 @.@ 8 per square mile ( 901 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the township was 53 @.@ 33 % ( 21 @,@ 214 ) White , 27 @.@ 69 % ( 11 @,@ 013 ) Black or African American , 0 @.@ 28 % ( 113 ) Native American , 9 @.@ 11 % ( 3 @,@ 622 ) Asian , 0 @.@ 06 % ( 25 ) Pacific Islander , 6 @.@ 04 % ( 2 @,@ 403 ) from other races , and 3 @.@ 48 % ( 1 @,@ 386 ) from two or more races . Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 16 @.@ 53 % ( 6 @,@ 575 ) of the population .
There were 13 @,@ 470 households , of which 34 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 58 @.@ 0 % were married couples living together , 13 @.@ 4 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 24 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 20 @.@ 8 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 10 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 88 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 37 .
In the township , 25 @.@ 0 % of the population were under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 4 % from 18 to 24 , 23 @.@ 1 % from 25 to 44 , 27 @.@ 7 % from 45 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 39 @.@ 3 years . For every 100 females there were 89 @.@ 0 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 84 @.@ 7 males .
The Census Bureau 's 2006 – 2010 American Community Survey showed that ( in 2010 inflation @-@ adjusted dollars ) median household income was $ 92 @,@ 107 ( with a margin of error of + / - $ 3 @,@ 556 ) and the median family income was $ 108 @,@ 777 ( + / - $ 5 @,@ 024 ) . Males had a median income of $ 74 @,@ 055 ( + / - $ 5 @,@ 587 ) versus $ 54 @,@ 959 ( + / - $ 4 @,@ 129 ) for females . The per capita income for the township was $ 42 @,@ 335 ( + / - $ 2 @,@ 061 ) . About 5 @.@ 7 % of families and 6 @.@ 9 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 8 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 7 @.@ 2 % of those age 65 or over .
Same @-@ sex couples headed 126 households in 2010 , an increase from the 80 counted in 2000 .
= = = 2000 Census = = =
As of the 2000 United States Census , there were 39 @,@ 260 people , 13 @,@ 418 households , and 10 @,@ 076 families residing in the township . The population density was 6 @,@ 486 @.@ 2 people per square mile ( 2 @,@ 505 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . There were 13 @,@ 719 housing units at an average density of 2 @,@ 266 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 875 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the township was 56 @.@ 3 % White , 28 @.@ 8 % African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 7 @.@ 1 % Asian , < 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 4 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 5 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10 @.@ 5 % of the population .
There were 13 @,@ 418 households out of which 34 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 59 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 24 @.@ 9 % were non @-@ families . 21 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 86 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 34 .
In the township the population was spread out with 25 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 8 @.@ 5 % from 18 to 24 , 26 @.@ 1 % from 25 to 44 , 25 @.@ 3 % from 45 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 2 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 38 years . For every 100 females there were 89 @.@ 9 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 84 @.@ 9 males .
The median income for a household in the township was $ 74 @,@ 903 , and the median income for a family was $ 84 @,@ 791 . Males had a median income of $ 53 @,@ 327 versus $ 40 @,@ 085 for females . The per capita income for the township was $ 32 @,@ 212 . About 2 @.@ 4 % of families and 4 @.@ 2 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 3 @.@ 7 % of those under age 18 and 6 @.@ 7 % of those age 65 or over .
Ancestry information reported in the 2000 Census reflects the diversity of Teaneck residents , with no single country accounting for more than a small fraction of the population . Residents listed Italian ( 6 @.@ 2 % ) , German ( 6 @.@ 0 % ) , Russian ( 5 @.@ 3 % ) , Irish ( 5 @.@ 1 % ) and Polish ( 4 @.@ 2 % ) as the most common countries of ancestry , and an additional 4 @.@ 3 % listed United States . 6 @.@ 3 % of residents identified themselves as being of West Indian ancestry , of which 3 @.@ 4 % were from Jamaica .
= = = Historical population = = =
After its founding as a township , Teaneck saw rapid growth in its population during the first half of the 20th century . As Teaneck changed from a sparsely populated rural area into a suburb , particularly after development of property that had been part of the Phelps Estate started in the late 1920s , Teaneck 's population grew rapidly , far outpacing the growth of Bergen County .
After World War II , the 1950 Census showed growth in Teaneck ( 33 @.@ 6 % ) pacing Bergen County overall ( 31 @.@ 6 % ) . Starting in 1960 , a substantial decline in the rate of growth compared to Bergen County occurred as Teaneck reached the limits of developable land , and the township neared its peak population . Population growth in the 1970 Census was small , but positive , with Teaneck reaching its historical maximum of 42 @,@ 355 . Absolute declines in population followed in both the 1980 ( − 7 @.@ 9 % ) and 1990 ( − 3 @.@ 0 % ) data . The 2000 Census showed recovery in Teaneck 's population to 39 @,@ 260 , though growth ( 3 @.@ 8 % ) was smaller than in Bergen County overall ( 7 @.@ 1 % ) .
With almost no land left to develop for housing , Teaneck 's population is likely to remain stable for the foreseeable future . A reluctance to permit high @-@ rise development as a means to increase population density also places a limit on growth . Changes in family size and the possibility of zoning changes to allow denser construction are some of the few influences that may affect population over time .
= = = Crime = = =
According to the FBI 's 2011 Uniform Crime Report , there were 604 crimes in the township in 2011 ( vs. 678 in 2010 ) , of which 70 were violent crimes ( vs. 79 in 2010 ) and 534 non @-@ violent crimes ( vs. 599 in the previous year ) . The 2011 total crime rate per thousand residents was 15 @.@ 2 ( vs. 17 @.@ 0 in 2010 ) , compared to 13 @.@ 6 in Bergen County and 24 @.@ 7 statewide . The violent crime rate was 1 @.@ 8 per thousand in 2011 ( down from 2 @.@ 0 in the previous year ) , while the rate was 1 @.@ 0 in the county and 3 @.@ 1 in New Jersey .
Gang violence hit Teaneck in July 2006 with the death of Ricky Lee Smith , Jr . , a teenager shot outside a house party by a member of the Bloods gang who had attended the party . In June 2007 , the Township Council approved the hiring of five additional officers after the Chief of Police had requested the addition of 14 new officers to Teaneck 's existing 98 @-@ member police force to establish a gang unit .
Teaneck has received attention in the media due to sexual crimes committed against minors by New Jersey educators . Joseph White , former principal of Teaneck High School , pleaded guilty to official child endangerment in June 2006 and was sentenced to one year in prison . White had been charged in 2002 with fondling a 17 @-@ year @-@ old student and was subsequently acquitted . James Darden , an award @-@ winning former eighth grade teacher at Thomas Jefferson Middle School , was charged with sexual assault and misconduct in June 2007 . He pleaded guilty on December 2007 to a charge of aggravated sexual assault and faces up to 8 ½ years in prison when sentenced on January 18 , 2008 .
The December 1975 murder of Jean Diggs and her four children has never been solved . Police reported in 1977 that they had been unable to identify a perpetrator after two years and thousands of hours spent investigating the crime .
A pair of killings hit Teaneck in 2010 , with council watcher Joan Davis and software engineer Robert Cantor both killed in their homes , in cases that had not been solved in more than a year after the incidents .
= = Economy = =
Major institutions in Teaneck include Holy Name Medical Center and the Metropolitan Campus of Fairleigh Dickinson University , the largest private university in the state . The Teaneck Armory is the home of the New Jersey National Guard 's 50th Main Support Battalion .
Cognizant Technology Solutions Corporation , a major multinational provider of high @-@ technology services , maintains its global headquarters operations in Teaneck , located in the Glenpointe Centre , Teaneck 's largest single group of commercial ratable entities , which includes a 350 @-@ room Marriott Hotel and 650 @,@ 000 square feet ( 60 @,@ 000 m2 ) of Class A office space at the intersection of Interstate 95 and Interstate 80 .
Teaneck has four main commercial districts : Cedar Lane , north Teaneck Road , West Englewood Avenue / The Plaza and Queen Anne Road / DeGraw Avenue . Cedar Lane underwent a $ 3 @.@ 9 million Streetscape project , completed in 2006 , designed to attract additional business to the area through new sidewalk paving with brick edging , bump @-@ outs to allow easier pedestrian crossing , old @-@ fashioned lamp posts and street plantings .
The Givaudan Fragrances Corporation Creative Fragrances Centre , a division of Givaudan , was constructed in 1972 from a design by Der Scutt , architect of the Trump Tower . Givaudan Roure vacated the building in 2009 and the facility was acquired by World of Wings , which renovated the building for use as a butterfly exhibition aimed at families .
= = Arts and culture = =
The Puffin Foundation and its Puffin Cultural Forum have been leading supporters and producers of art in Teaneck , sponsoring plays and art exhibitions at it location on Puffin Way .
Teaneck is home to the Ethical Culture Society of Bergen County , founded in 1953 . The Bergen Society is a member organization of the American Ethical Union .
The Teaneck Community Band presents a series of outdoor band concerts at the Votee Park Bandshell each summer . The 69th annual series , in 2013 , was sponsored by the Puffin Foundation .
2013 – 14 will mark the 78th season of the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra , which performs in the auditorium of Benjamin Franklin Middle School , having been founded in 1938 as the Teaneck Symphony Orchestra .
The now @-@ defunct Teaneck Cultural Arts Coalition had organized many community @-@ wide cultural events , including an annual First Night community celebration of the arts held for several years through New Year 's 2005 .
The Garage Theatre Group , Bergen County 's first non @-@ profit , professional theatre company , stages fully professional productions , with members of Actors Equity , as well as youth conservatory productions at the Becton Theatre on the campus of Farleigh Dickinson University .
Teaneck New Theatre , founded in 1986 , performs productions at St. Mark 's Church in Teaneck and at the Hackensack Cultural Arts Center .
Black Box Studios is a theater group based in Congregation Beth Shalom , that has a relationship with the Bergen PAC in Englewood . The actors are mostly children and teens ages 10 – 16 , with a 7 – 9 year old workshop , and an adult workshop . There are two to three performances presented in the first two or three weeks of January , and the first two weeks of June . Drama and musical theatre summer camps are offered .
Cedar Lane Cinema had been the township 's lone movie theater , and had also hosted live performances on its stage by local performance groups , until it closed its doors in November 2012 , with theater operator Majestic Entertainment citing costs that could run to as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 to modernize the projection systems on all four screens to use digital technology rather than 35mm reels of film . New owner Matthew Latten signed a lease in April 2013 and undertook extensive renovations that included new seating , modern digital projection systems and digital signage . After hosting the Teaneck International Film Festival in November , the reopening of the renamed Teaneck Cineams was delayed until December 2013 , with added time needed to complete the work needed to add modern features and conveniences while retaining the Art Deco character of a theater first constructed in 1937 .
Teaneck has been the site of many films , including The Family Man , the 2000 film starring Nicolas Cage . The Teaneck Armory has been used for films including Sweet and Lowdown , and for interior scenes of You 've Got Mail .
In 2007 , two non @-@ fiction volumes appeared dealing , inter alia , with Teaneck 's Orthodox Jewish community . In Foreskin 's Lament , writer Shalom Auslander describes living in Teaneck and finding the Jewish community stifling and claustrophobic . In contrast , Rifka Rosenwein , in Life in the Present Tense , describes the close @-@ knit community as a gift she couldn 't imagine when living in Manhattan .
= = Sports = =
The Brooklyn Nets NBA pro basketball team were founded as the New Jersey Americans in Teaneck for the 1967 – 68 season , as charter members of the American Basketball Association . The team played their home games at the Teaneck Armory for that one season , and was scheduled to play a one @-@ game playoff at the armory . However , the circus had been booked for the week , and the game was relocated to a court in Commack , New York that was unplayable , and the game had to be forfeited . After the one season in Teaneck , the team relocated to Long Island and was renamed the New York Nets . Following the Long Island run , the Nets moved back to New Jersey in 1977 to be named as the New Jersey Nets until 2012 before they became the Brooklyn Nets .
Portions of Fairleigh Dickinson University 's Metropolitan Campus are located in Teaneck , with most of the school 's athletic facilities are located across the river in Hackensack . The school 's University Stadium , home for its men 's and women 's soccer teams , lies on the Hackensack River , just north of Route 4 . The 1 @,@ 100 @-@ seat stadium has hosted NCAA Men 's Soccer Tournament games in recent years . The natural grass field was resurfaced with FieldTurf in 2004 .
The Naimoli Family Baseball Complex is situated between Route 4 and University Stadium . Fairleigh Dickinson received a $ 1 million bequest from FDU alumnus Vince Naimoli , founding owner of the Tampa Bay Rays , to establish a 500 @-@ seat stadium with artificial turf and lighting on the site of the current facility .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Teaneck has 24 municipal parks , of which 14 are developed . Votee Park , the township 's largest , covers 40 @.@ 51 acres ( 16 @.@ 39 ha ) , surrounded by Queen Ann Road , Palisade Avenue , Court Street and Colonial Court . Including baseball fields , soccer fields , playgrounds and the township 's inground swimming facility , the park was renamed in honor of former mayor Milton Votee in 1958 . A Sportsplex was opened at the southern end of Votee Park in 2014 , which includes two synthetic turf full @-@ size soccer fields , one of which is also lined for use for football .
The Friends of the Hackensack River Greenway Through Teaneck work to preserve and develop the 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) greenway along the Hackensack River from Terhune Park at the Bogota border in the south north to Brett Park on the New Milford border , encouraging the growth of native plants and providing a verdant area along the river for residents and visitors . A series of 16 laminated signs were created by Teaneck artist Richard Mills along the Greenway , depiciting details of history and the flora and fauna of the river in a series called " Hackensack River Stories " that was installed in 2000 . The Greenway in Teaneck became the fourth National Recreation Trail in the state when it received the designation by the United States Department of the Interior at ceremonies held in Brett Park in June 2009 .
Established in 2001 in conjunction with the Puffin Foundation , the Teaneck Creek Conservancy has restored a plot of degraded land east of Teaneck Road near the intersection of Interstates 80 and 95 , removing decades of debris and creating a network of 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) of trails .
Overpeck County Park , along the shores of Overpeck Creek , a tributary of the Hackensack River , is more than 800 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 km2 ) in size , of which about 500 were donated by Teaneck , and which is also in portions of Englewood , Leonia , Ridgefield Park and Palisades Park .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
Teaneck is governed within the Faulkner Act ( formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law ) under the Council @-@ Manager form of government ( Plan 12 ) , implemented by direct petition as of July 1 , 1988 . Following its founding in 1895 , Teaneck used the traditional township form of government , led by a three @-@ member Township Committee ( later expanded to five seats ) elected on a partisan basis . On September 16 , 1930 , Teaneck residents voted to establish a nonpartisan Council @-@ Manager form of government under the terms of the 1923 Municipal Manager Law , with five members elected concurrently on an at @-@ large basis . In 1962 , the Council expanded to its current size of seven members and the position of Deputy Mayor was created . In 1987 , a referendum to alter the form to a Faulkner Act Council @-@ Manager form of government was approved , providing for staggered terms for the Council . With this change , Council elections now take place in even years on the second Tuesday in May . The Council 's seven members are elected at @-@ large in nonpartisan elections to serve staggered , four @-@ year terms of office . The four seats elected in 2010 will expire in 2014 and the seats of the three who took office in 2012 will expire in 2016 , etc .
The Township Council serves as Teaneck 's governing body , setting policies and passing ordinances . It adopts an annual budget and approves contracts and agreements for services . The Council appoints the Manager , Clerk , Auditor , Attorney , Magistrate and Assessor . The Council appoints seven members of the Planning Board , the members of the Board of Adjustment , and all other statutory and advisory boards .
As of 2013 , members of the Teaneck Township Council are Mayor Mohammed Hameeduddin ( term as mayor ends June 30 , 2014 ; term as council member ends June 30 , 2016 ) , Deputy Mayor Adam Gussen ( 2014 ) , Elie Y. Katz ( 2014 ) , Lizette Parker ( 2014 ) , Henry Pruitt ( 2016 ) , Mark Schwartz ( 2016 ) and Yitz Stern ( 2014 ) .
In May 2000 , three women ran for Township Council , and all three , incumbent Jackie Kates and newcomers Marie Warnke and Deborah Veach , were elected . Kates , Warnke and Veach completed their four @-@ year terms and then ran for re @-@ election in May 2004 . Jackie Kates and Deborah Veach were re @-@ elected and became Mayor and Deputy Mayor , respectively . Ms. Veach resigned her position in October 2005 and was appointed to be the Township 's Municipal Prosecutor , a position in which she continues to serve .
On May 13 , 2008 , the township voted to re @-@ elect Monica Honis to the council ( with 2 @,@ 981 votes ) . Elnatan Rudolph ( 2 @,@ 852 ) lost his bid for re @-@ election , falling 38 votes behind his running mate . Barbara Toffler ( leading the voting with 3 @,@ 356 votes ) and Mohammed Hameeduddin ( 2 @,@ 890 ) were elected and took office on July 1 , 2008 , filling the seats left by Rudolph and former @-@ mayor Jackie Kates , who did not run for re @-@ election .
In the 2010 municipal elections , Adam Gussen , Elie Katz and Lizette Parker were re @-@ elected to office , with former councilmember Yitz Stern taking the seat vacated by former @-@ mayor Kevie Feit , who did not run for a second term . At its July 1 , 2010 , reorganization meeting the council selected Mohammed Hameeduddin to serve as mayor , making him one of the state 's first Muslim mayors , while Adam Gussen was chosen as deputy mayor .
In the May 2012 municipal election , Mohammed Hameeduddin won a second term in office ( with 4 @,@ 374 votes ) and was the only incumbent to win re @-@ election , with challengers Mark Schwartz ( 3 @,@ 150 ) and Henry Pruitt ( 2 @,@ 872 ) taking the seats of Barbara Toffler ( 2 @,@ 526 ) and Monica Honis ( 2 @,@ 238 ) , who lost their bids for re @-@ election and came in fourth and fifth respectively , while Alexander Rashin came in sixth ( 1 @,@ 049 ) .
On July 1 , following a municipal election , the Township Council holds an Organizational Meeting where the candidates elected ( or re @-@ elected ) to serve on the Council are sworn in and begin their terms of office . The newly inducted council selects one of its members to serve as Mayor , and another to serve as Deputy Mayor , who presides in the absence of the Mayor .
The Mayor , elected by the Council from among its members after each biennial election , serves for a two @-@ year term of office which expires upon the selection of a mayor at the subsequent reorganization meeting . The Mayor presides over all meetings and votes on every issue as a regular member . The Mayor is an ex officio member of the Planning Board and the Library Board . The Mayor appoints the members of the Library Board , and one member of the Planning Board . The Mayor executes bonds , notes , contracts and written obligations of the Township and is empowered to perform marriages .
The Municipal Manager is appointed by the Council to serve as a full @-@ time professional chief executive officer . The Manager implements Council policies , enforces ordinances and coordinates the activities of all departments and employees and is responsible for preparing and submitting a budget to the Council . The Manager makes recommendations to the Council on relevant matters , appoints and removes Township employees and investigates and acts on complaints . The Manager appoints the Municipal Courts Prosecutor and Public Defender , members of the Rent Board and one member of the Teaneck Economic Development Corporation , and one member of the Civilian Complaint Review Board .
= = = Federal , state and county representation = = =
Teaneck is split between the 5th and 9th Congressional Districts and is part of New Jersey 's 37th state legislative district . Prior to the 2010 Census , all of Teaneck had been part of the 9th Congressional District , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013 , based on the results of the November 2012 general elections , making Teaneck one of 14 municipalities ( and the only one in Bergen County ) to be split across districts , down from the 29 that had been split after the 2000 Census . As part of the redistricting that took effect in 2013 , 32 @,@ 023 ( about 80 % ) of Teaneck residents were placed in the new 5th District , with the remaining 7 @,@ 753 residents ( about 20 % ) mostly in areas of the township east of Teaneck Road and south of Bedford Avenue placed in the 9th District .
New Jersey 's Fifth Congressional District is represented by Scott Garrett ( R , Wantage Township ) . New Jersey 's Ninth Congressional District is represented by Bill Pascrell ( D , Paterson ) . New Jersey is represented in the United States Senate by Cory Booker ( D , Newark , term ends 2021 ) and Bob Menendez ( D , Paramus , 2019 ) .
For the 2016 – 2017 session ( Senate , General Assembly ) , the 37th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the State Senate by Loretta Weinberg ( D , Teaneck ) and in the General Assembly by Valerie Huttle ( D , Englewood ) and Gordon M. Johnson ( D , Englewood ) . The Governor of New Jersey is Chris Christie ( R , Mendham Township ) . The Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is Kim Guadagno ( R , Monmouth Beach ) .
Bergen County is governed by a directly elected County Executive , with legislative functions performed by a seven @-@ member Board of Chosen Freeholders . As of 2015 , the County Executive is James J. Tedesco III ( D , Paramus ; term ends December 31 , 2018 ) . The seven freeholders are elected at @-@ large in partisan elections on a staggered basis , with two or three seats coming up for election each year , with a Chairman , Vice Chairman and Chairman Pro Tempore selected from among its members at a reorganization meeting held each January . Bergen County 's Freeholders are Freeholder Chairwoman Joan Voss ( D , 2017 ; Fort Lee ) , Vice Chairman Steve Tanelli ( D , 2015 ; North Arlington ) Chairman Pro Tempore John A. Felice ( R , 2016 ; River Edge ) , David L. Ganz ( D , 2017 ; Fair Lawn ) , Maura R. DeNicola ( R , 2016 ; Franklin Lakes ) Thomas J. Sullivan Jr . , ( D , Montvale , 2015 ; serving the unexpired term of office that had been occupied by James Tedesco before he was sworn in as County Executive ) and Tracy Silna Zur ( D , 2015 ; Franklin Lakes ) . Countywide constitutional officials are County Clerk John S. Hogan ( D , Northvale ) , Sheriff Michael Saudino ( R ) and Surrogate Michael R. Dressler ( D , Cresskill ) .
= = = Politics = = =
As of March 23 , 2011 , there were a total of 24 @,@ 862 registered voters in Teaneck Township , of which 12 @,@ 646 ( 50 @.@ 9 % vs. 31 @.@ 7 % countywide ) were registered as Democrats , 2 @,@ 332 ( 9 @.@ 4 % vs. 21 @.@ 1 % ) were registered as Republicans and 9 @,@ 872 ( 39 @.@ 7 % vs. 47 @.@ 1 % ) were registered as Unaffiliated . There were 12 voters registered to other parties . Among the township 's 2010 Census population , 62 @.@ 5 % ( vs. 57 @.@ 1 % in Bergen County ) were registered to vote , including 83 @.@ 4 % of those ages 18 and over ( vs. 73 @.@ 7 % countywide ) .
In the 2012 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama received 13 @,@ 875 votes ( 71 @.@ 5 % vs. 54 @.@ 8 % countywide ) , ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 5 @,@ 256 votes ( 27 @.@ 1 % vs. 43 @.@ 5 % ) and other candidates with 136 votes ( 0 @.@ 7 % vs. 0 @.@ 9 % ) , among the 19 @,@ 394 ballots cast by the township 's 27 @,@ 145 registered voters , for a turnout of 71 @.@ 4 % ( vs. 70 @.@ 4 % in Bergen County ) . In the 2008 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama received 14 @,@ 785 votes ( 71 @.@ 6 % vs. 53 @.@ 9 % countywide ) , ahead of Republican John McCain with 5 @,@ 621 votes ( 27 @.@ 2 % vs. 44 @.@ 5 % ) and other candidates with 95 votes ( 0 @.@ 5 % vs. 0 @.@ 8 % ) , among the 20 @,@ 642 ballots cast by the township 's 26 @,@ 294 registered voters , for a turnout of 78 @.@ 5 % ( vs. 76 @.@ 8 % in Bergen County ) . In the 2004 presidential election , Democrat John Kerry received 13 @,@ 254 votes ( 69 @.@ 4 % vs. 51 @.@ 7 % countywide ) , ahead of Republican George W. Bush with 5 @,@ 672 votes ( 29 @.@ 7 % vs. 47 @.@ 2 % ) and other candidates with 78 votes ( 0 @.@ 4 % vs. 0 @.@ 7 % ) , among the 19 @,@ 088 ballots cast by the township 's 24 @,@ 466 registered voters , for a turnout of 78 @.@ 0 % ( vs. 76 @.@ 9 % in the whole county ) .
In the 2013 gubernatorial election , Democrat Barbara Buono received 57 @.@ 8 % of the vote ( 6 @,@ 197 cast ) , ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 41 @.@ 4 % ( 4 @,@ 439 votes ) , and other candidates with 0 @.@ 8 % ( 90 votes ) , among the 10 @,@ 991 ballots cast by the township 's 25 @,@ 615 registered voters ( 265 ballots were spoiled ) , for a turnout of 42 @.@ 9 % . In the 2009 gubernatorial election , Democrat Jon Corzine received 9 @,@ 347 ballots cast ( 71 @.@ 8 % vs. 48 @.@ 0 % countywide ) , ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 3 @,@ 242 votes ( 24 @.@ 9 % vs. 45 @.@ 8 % ) , Independent Chris Daggett with 343 votes ( 2 @.@ 6 % vs. 4 @.@ 7 % ) and other candidates with 41 votes ( 0 @.@ 3 % vs. 0 @.@ 5 % ) , among the 13 @,@ 027 ballots cast by the township 's 25 @,@ 513 registered voters , yielding a 51 @.@ 1 % turnout ( vs. 50 @.@ 0 % in the county ) .
= = = Taxation = = =
The Tax Foundation determined that Bergen County had the third @-@ highest median property tax burden in the nation ( $ 8 @,@ 708 vs. a New Jersey median of $ 6 @,@ 579 and a national median of $ 1 @,@ 917 ) and the fourth @-@ highest level of property taxes as a percentage of median income ( 8 @.@ 59 % vs. 7 @.@ 45 % statewide and 3 @.@ 03 % nationally ) , based on an analysis of data from the 2009 American Community Survey conducted by the United States Census Bureau for all 792 counties in the United States with more than 20 @,@ 000 residents . As of 2010 , Teaneck 's effective tax rate of $ 2 @.@ 492 per $ 100 of equalized value was the 12th @-@ highest of the 70 municipalities in Bergen County , which had a countywide median effective rate of $ 2 @.@ 115 per $ 100 , ranging from a low of $ .596 in Alpine to a high of $ 3 @.@ 005 in Ridgefield Park .
As of 2013 , just under 55 % of a Teaneck property owner 's real estate taxes goes to support the local school system , 36 @.@ 7 % goes to municipal taxes ( including an open space tax ) and the remaining 8 @.@ 4 % to cover county services ( which also assesses an open space tax ) . In the decade from 2003 to 2013 , municipal taxes had risen at an annual rate of just over 4 @.@ 5 % and school taxes by almost 2 @.@ 8 % , while the Consumer Price Index for the New York @-@ Northern New Jersey @-@ Long Island area had gone up 2 @.@ 6 % during that time span .
The 2013 tax rate was set at $ 2 @.@ 486 per $ 100 of assessed value ( an overall increase of 3 @.@ 7 % from 2012 ) , which is composed of school taxes of $ 1 @.@ 365 ( up almost 3 @.@ 3 % ) , municipal taxes of $ 0 @.@ 871 ( an increase of 5 @.@ 8 % ) , a library tax of $ .031 ( down 3 @.@ 1 % ) and county taxes of $ 0 @.@ 206 ( down 0 @.@ 5 % ) , plus a municipal open space tax of $ 0 @.@ 010 and a county open space tax of $ 0 @.@ 003 ( both unchanged ) . The owner of a median @-@ valued home in Teaneck , assessed at $ 465 @,@ 300 , paid 2011 property taxes of $ 11 @,@ 190 , which would include $ 6 @,@ 244 in school taxes , $ 3 @,@ 992 in municipal taxes and $ 949 to the county ( including open space levies ) .
During 2006 , Teaneck underwent a revaluation of all privately owned real estate , as required periodically by the state . This revaluation adjusted property values to market prices , ensuring that taxes are equitably allocated . The average property in Teaneck was assessed at approximately $ 417 @,@ 900 , an increase of 132 @.@ 1 % from the prior year 's average . The new valuations took effect for the 2007 tax year . In the wake of the revaluation implemented in 2007 , a wave of tax appeals hit the township , resulting in a loss of about $ 110 million in ratables and costs to the township of $ 2 @.@ 2 million for the 2012 tax year . The township agreed to complete a revaluation by October 2014 that would go into effect in 2015 , awarding a $ 710 @,@ 000 contract to perform the necessary home visits and determine property values .
The Teaneck Public Schools had a Budgetary Per Pupil Cost of $ 18 @,@ 417 in its 2012 – 13 budget , 26 @.@ 8 % higher than the average of $ 14 @,@ 519 budgeted that year by districts in the same grouping of grades and enrollment , ranked as the 101st highest among the 106 K @-@ 12 districts in the state with more than 3 @,@ 500 students .
At the April 2006 school elections , voters rejected the proposed $ 84 @.@ 8 million budget for the Teaneck Public Schools for the 2006 – 07 school year by a 1 @,@ 644 to 1 @,@ 336 margin . Based on recommendations specified by the Township Council , the Board of Education approved $ 544 @,@ 391 in cuts . The school budget was rejected again in 2009 , with the Council cutting $ 1 million from the $ 94 @.@ 8 million originally proposed . After the 2010 school budget failed , the Township Council removed $ 6 @.@ 1 million from the $ 95 million budget proposed by the school district , zeroing out what would have been an 8 @.@ 2 % increase in the school tax levy . The school board eliminated 77 positions to meet the cuts approved by the council .
= = Education = =
= = = Public schools = = =
The Teaneck Public Schools serves students in pre @-@ Kindergarten through twelfth grade . As of the 2011 – 12 school year , the district 's 7 schools had an enrollment of 3 @,@ 845 students and 333 @.@ 8 classroom teachers ( on an FTE basis ) , for a student – teacher ratio of 11 @.@ 52 : 1 . Schools in the district ( with 2011 – 12 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics ) are Bryant School ( 344 students ; pre @-@ K and Kindergarten ) , Hawthorne School ( 344 ; 1 – 4 ) , Lowell School ( 313 ; 1 – 4 ) , Whittier School ( 368 ; 1 – 4 ) , Benjamin Franklin Middle School ( 570 ; 5 – 8 ) , Thomas Jefferson Middle School ( 598 ; 5 – 8 ) and Teaneck High School with 1 @,@ 308 students in grades 9 – 12 .
Longfellow Elementary school was closed in 1998 . Other elementary schools that closed prior to 1998 included Emerson and Eugene Field School , which is used by the Board of Education for its Central Administrative Offices .
2011 – 12 total spending for the district was $ 91 @,@ 382 @,@ 911 , a Total Spending per Pupil of $ 22 @,@ 894 based on 3 @,@ 991 @.@ 6 students , ranking 96th highest of the 106 K @-@ 12 districts statewide with more than 3 @,@ 500 students , with the average district spending $ 18 @,@ 047 per pupil . Based on the 2012 – 13 budget , the district planned to spend a Budgetary Per Pupil Cost of $ 18 @,@ 417 ( a measure that excludes out @-@ of @-@ district tuition payments for special education , transportation costs , legal judgments and certain other expenditures ) , ranking 101st highest among its grouping of districts , compared to a statewide average of $ 14 @,@ 519 . Of the 2012 – 13 Budgetary Per Pupil Cost , $ 11 @,@ 394 per student was allocated to classroom instruction ( 104th highest of K – 12 districts in the state with more than 3 @,@ 500 students , with a statewide average of $ 8 @,@ 588 ) , $ 3 @,@ 012 per student to Total Support Services ( ranked 96th , average of $ 2 @,@ 338 ) , $ 1 @,@ 662 to Total Administrative Costs ( ranked 93rd , average of $ 1 @,@ 448 ) and $ 2 @,@ 031 to Total Operations and Maintenance of Plant ( ranked 89th , average of $ 1 @,@ 787 ) . The district 's 2012 – 13 Median Classroom Teacher Salary of $ 77 @,@ 614 is ranked 98th in the state in its grouping , the Median Support Service Salary was $ 92 @,@ 539 ( 97th ) , while the Median Administrator Salary was $ 140 @,@ 497 ( 95th ) .
As of the 2010 No Child Left Behind ( NCLB ) Report , Teaneck High School had satisfied the Adequate Yearly Progress measure and had a graduation rate of 97 @.@ 0 % for the class of 2009 – 10 , compared to a statewide average of 94 @.@ 7 % . On the High School Proficiency Assessment ( HSPA ) , 9 @.@ 4 % were partial proficient , 79 @.@ 5 % proficient and 11 @.@ 1 % advanced proficient in Language Arts Literacy ( vs. statewide averages of 10 @.@ 3 % partial , 75 @.@ 7 % proficient and 14 % advanced ) . In Mathematics , 24 @.@ 8 % were partial proficient , 61 @.@ 8 % proficient and 13 @.@ 4 % advanced proficient ( vs. statewide averages of 18 @.@ 4 % partial , 57 @.@ 9 % proficient and 23 @.@ 7 % advanced ) .
The Teaneck Community Charter School ( TCCS ) had a 2011 – 12 enrollment of 306 students in Kindergarten through eighth grade with 26 @.@ 0 classroom teachers ( on an FTE basis ) , for a student – teacher ratio of 11 @.@ 77 : 1 . TCCS is a charter school that operates independently of the Teaneck Public Schools under a charter granted by the Commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Education , which was renewed for five years in 2012 . Admission is open to the public for available slots ( after returning students and siblings of existing students are entered ) and offers an after school program and summer camp . As the school is a public school , no tuition is charged . Funding comes from the Teaneck Public Schools ( and the home districts of non @-@ resident students ) , which provides 90 % of its cost per pupil in the district ; the balance of funding comes directly from the state of New Jersey . The school moved to a new building at 563 Chestnut Avenue in the 2009 – 10 school year , from a space it had rented on Palisade Avenue .
2009 – 10 total spending for the TCCS was $ 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 613 , a Total Spending per Pupil of $ 16 @,@ 614 based on 304 students , ranking 51st highest of the 77 charter schools statewide , with the average district spending $ 17 @,@ 836 per pupil . Based on the 2010 – 11 budget , the TCCS planned to spend a Budgetary Per Pupil Cost of $ 14 @,@ 210 , ranking 54th highest among the 77 districts , compared to a statewide average of $ 13 @,@ 609 . Of the 2010 – 11 Budgetary Per Pupil Cost , $ 8 @,@ 112 per student goes to classroom instruction ( 57th highest of charter schools in the state , with a statewide average of $ 8 @,@ 004 ) , $ 1 @,@ 124 per student to Total Support Services ( ranked 14th , average of $ 2 @,@ 116 ) , $ 1 @,@ 690 to Total Administrative Costs ( ranked 4th , average of $ 1 @,@ 453 ) and $ 3 @,@ 282 to Total Operations and Maintenance of Plant ( ranked 70th , average of $ 1 @,@ 698 ) . The district 's 2010 – 11 Median Classroom Teacher Salary of $ 55 @,@ 860 is ranked 57th in the state in its grouping , the Median Support Service Salary is $ 82 @,@ 433 ( 54th ) , while the Median Administrator Salary is $ 103 @,@ 750 ( 56th ) .
Public school students from the township , and all of Bergen County , are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the Bergen County Technical Schools , which include the Bergen County Academies in Hackensack , and the Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro or Paramus . The district offers programs on a shared @-@ time or full @-@ time basis , with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student 's home school district .
= = = Private schools = = =
Teaneck is home to the Metropolitan Campus of Fairleigh Dickinson University , which straddles the Hackensack River in Teaneck and Hackensack . The campus served 4 @,@ 114 undergraduates and 2 @,@ 350 graduate students .
Private Orthodox Jewish day schools include the Torah Academy of Bergen County ( for boys in grades 9 – 12 ) which completed an $ 8 million expansion project at the start of the 2013 – 14 school year that doubled the size of the school , adding new classrooms and an additional gym to accommodate the record enrollment of 293 students , with room for expansion for the several years ahead . Ma 'ayanot Yeshiva High School serves girls in grades 9 – 12 . Yeshivas Heichal HaTorah , another high school , opened in September 2013 at the Teaneck Jewish Center with an initial enrollment of 17 students .
The Community School is a private school , founded in 1968 to serve the bright child with learning and attentional disabilities . Both the lower school and high school are in Teaneck .
Teaneck was home to the Metropolitan Schechter High School , a co @-@ ed Conservative Jewish high school , which closed its doors in August 2007 due to fundraising problems .
Al @-@ Ghazaly High School , a co @-@ ed religious day school for seventh through twelfth grades founded in 1984 , was located on 441 North Street , serving the Muslim community from the greater Teaneck area . The school relocated to a larger facility in Wayne and opened its doors to students in September 2013 , with the Teaneck facility repurposed to serve students in pre @-@ Kindergarten through third grade .
= = Media = =
Although licensed to Oakland , a community in Western Bergen County , radio station WVNJ operating at 1160 kHz on the AM dial maintains its studios at 1086 Teaneck Road . WFDU FM @-@ 89 @.@ 1 operates from studios at Fairleigh Dickinson University , and there was a defunct AM Carrier Current version of WFDU on 640 through some time in the 1980s .
= = Public services = =
The Teaneck Police Department had 96 sworn officers in 2012 , in addition to 13 civilian employees , three parking enforcement officers and 25 school crossing guards out of a total of 106 authorized uniformed positions . Robert Wilson was named Chief as of July 2008 , filling the acting chief role previously held by Deputy Chief Fred Ahearn , who had been serving in that position after the departure of Paul Tiernan in 2007 . The department hired its first two officers in 1914 ; Freddie Greene , its first African @-@ American officer , joined the department on September 15 , 1962 , and its first female officer began serving on January 4 , 1981 . In 2012 , the Teaneck Police Department received accreditation from the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies ( CALEA ) , following a two @-@ year @-@ long process that documented the department 's compliance with 112 standards established by the organization as best practices . The department became the ninth in the state to receive CALEA accreditation .
The Teaneck Fire Department is a career fire department that has 91 uniformed members , out of a total of 99 authorized uniformed positions , including 31 officers and 60 firefighters . Teaneck 's four fire stations are staffed around the clock by paid full @-@ time fire fighters . Teaneck is one of four municipalities in Bergen County with a paid fire department , joining Englewood , Hackensack and Ridgewood . Robert J. Montgomery was named Chief of Department as of June 1 , 2006 , and retired in March 2010 , when he was succeeded by Anthony Verley . The department operates four Engine Companies out of four strategically placed firehouses . Additionally , a Tower Ladder , Rescue Truck and Command vehicle responds out of the main Fire Headquarters on Teaneck Road . Reserve apparatus include two Engines , a Rescue and a Ladder Truck that can be manned as required during high service demands . The department responds to approximately 4 @,@ 000 calls per year involving structure fires , vehicle fires , electrical emergencies , natural gas releases , carbon monoxide incidents , explosions , rescues , outside fires , vehicle extrications and first responder medical calls . The department celebrated its 100th anniversary in October 2015 . The Box 54 Canteen Unit provides canteen and other support services at fire scenes , offering water , coffee and other snacks where firefighters have an extended presence . The unit was created in 1952 .
The Teaneck Volunteer Ambulance Corps ( TVAC ) was created in 1939 to serve the residents of Teaneck . TVAC has always been Teaneck 's only emergency ambulance service and includes over 100 volunteers and four ambulances , serving Teaneck and its residents around the clock , without pay . In 2011 , TVAC responded to over 4 @,@ 300 emergency calls , routinely saving lives and reducing suffering with their rapid response and application of Basic Life Support skills . Throughout the last 70 years , TVAC has never charged a patient nor the patient 's family for service . The services of the Corps are entirely free of charge , whether the patients are residents of Teaneck , visitors , or individuals who need medical service while passing through the town . The Corps also renders service in nearby towns as part of a mutual aid system , again without charge .
The Richard Rodda Community Center , located near Route 4 at the south end of Votee Park , is a 50 @,@ 900 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 730 m2 ) community and recreation center completed in 1998 . The facility includes two full sized gyms , a dance studio , a kitchen and several multipurpose rooms of different sizes . The Teaneck Recreation Department offers educational , sports and arts programs throughout the year . The Rodda Center is home to the Senior Citizens Service Center , which offers educational and fitness activities for adults ages 55 and up , and serves hot lunch daily , provided by the Bergen County Division of Senior Services . The Community Center also provides a WiFi access point , which resulted in a police investigation in January 2012 after its identifying name was changed to a racist slur .
Holy Name Medical Center is a fully accredited , not @-@ for @-@ profit community hospital . Founded and sponsored by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Peace in 1925 , the hospital has grown to become a comprehensive 361 @-@ bed medical center . Affiliation with NewYork @-@ Presbyterian Healthcare System further brings the advantages of large urban hospitals to the community , with access to clinical trials and expanded education for its physicians . Holy Name Medical Center has undertaken an ambitious effort to provide comprehensive health care services to underinsured and uninsured Korean patients from a wide area with its growing " Korean Medical Program " , including attracting 1 @,@ 500 people to its annual seventh annual Korean health fair in 2014 . To accommodate the township 's Orthodox Jewish community , the hospital offers a Shabbat elevator , a room prepared for families of patients staying at the hospital during Shabbat and Jewish holidays , as well as a lounge offering kosher food .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Roads and highways = = =
Teaneck is situated along a number of major transportation routes , including the New Jersey Turnpike ( a portion of Interstate 95 ) and Interstate 80 . As of May 2010 , the township had a total of 119 @.@ 41 miles ( 192 @.@ 17 km ) of roadways , of which 103 @.@ 95 miles ( 167 @.@ 29 km ) were maintained by the municipality , 10 @.@ 70 miles ( 17 @.@ 22 km ) by Bergen County , 3 @.@ 47 miles ( 5 @.@ 58 km ) by the New Jersey Department of Transportation , and 1 @.@ 29 miles ( 2 @.@ 08 km ) by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority .
Teaneck is the eastern terminus of Interstate 80 , which stretches west to San Francisco since the dedication of a segment in Salt Lake City on August 22 , 1986 , marking the completion of the first transcontinental portion of the Interstate Highway System . As the second @-@ longest Interstate route , the highway stretches nearly coast @-@ to @-@ coast for 2 @,@ 899 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @,@ 666 @.@ 3 km ) , shorter than only Interstate 90 . The easternmost 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of Interstate 80 runs from Bogota to the junction with Interstate 95 .
NJ Route 4 traverses east @-@ west through Teaneck , running 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) from Hackensack to Englewood . Unlike all other municipalities situated along the highway , there is no commercial development or billboards , with the open space along the highway maintained by the Township Council 's Preserve the Greenbelt Committee . Route 4 narrows from three lanes in each direction on a section between Belle Avenue and Englewood , causing rush @-@ hour traffic backups that may extend for miles . The New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) has discussed a series of proposed replacement projects for bridges over the highway , pending completion of feasibility studies and design work . While the township has indicated its willingness to cede space along the Greenbelt for a third lane , the lack of space for a shoulder may preclude the creation of a full three @-@ lane route through Teaneck . In November 2013 , NJDOT informed Teaneck officials that it had no plans to widen the highway , as the need to focus the limited funds available on replacing and repairing deteriorating bridges and infrastructure precluded the implementation of a widening project .
Interstate 95 heads north for 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) through Teaneck from Ridgefield Park to Leonia . New Jersey 's other main trunk route , the Garden State Parkway , can be reached just a few miles west of Teaneck . Access to New York City is available for motorists by way of the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee ( via Route 4 or Interstate 95 ) , or through the Lincoln Tunnel in Hudson County ( via the NJ Turnpike ) into Midtown Manhattan .
County roads in Teaneck include Teaneck Road , Queen Anne Road , River Road and Fort Lee Road . Cedar Lane , another county road , crosses the Hackensack River and connects to Hackensack over the Anderson Street Bridge .
= = = Public transportation = = =
New Jersey Transit bus service is available in Teaneck , with frequent service on Teaneck Road , Route 4 and Cedar Lane , and less @-@ frequent service on other main streets . NJTransit bus service is offered to the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan on the 155 , 157 , 165R , 167 and 168 routes ; to the George Washington Bridge Bus Station in Upper Manhattan on the 171 , 175 , 178 , 182 and 186 routes ; and to other New Jersey communities served on the 83 , 751 , 753 , 755 , 756 , 772 and 780 routes . Scheduled bus service is also available from Rockland Coaches to the Port Authority Bus Terminal , on the 21T from New Milford and on the 11T / 11AT from Stony Point , New York . Saddle River Tours / Ameribus provides service to the George Washington Bridge Bus Station on route 11C . Spanish Transportation and several other operators provide frequent jitney service along Route 4 between Paterson , New Jersey and the George Washington Bridge Bus Station
While there is currently no passenger train operation in Teaneck , train service is available across the Hackensack River at the New Bridge Landing station in River Edge and at the Anderson Street station in Hackensack . NJTransit 's Pascack Valley Line runs north @-@ south to Hoboken Terminal , with connections to the PATH train from the Hoboken PATH station , and with NJT connecting service to Penn Station in Midtown Manhattan via the Secaucus Junction transfer station . At Hoboken Terminal , connections are also available to NY Waterway ferry service ( to the World Financial Center and other destinations ) and to the Hudson @-@ Bergen Light Rail system ( serving locations along the Hudson River in Hudson County ) .
Teaneck is split east and west by railroad tracks , which currently provide freight service by CSX Transportation . Until 1959 , passenger train service was provided on these same tracks by the West Shore Railroad , with Teaneck stations at Cedar Lane and West Englewood Avenue . Commuter service was available from these stations , with 44 passenger trains operating daily to and from Weehawken , where Hudson River ferry service was available to New York City at 42nd Street and at the Financial District in Lower Manhattan . Train service from Teaneck was also available north to Albany , along the west shore of the river . Efforts are ongoing to restore some passenger train service on this line for commuters heading toward New York City , including extension of the Hudson @-@ Bergen Light Rail service via the Northern Branch to Englewood or Tenafly .
Teaneck 's closest airport in New Jersey with scheduled passenger service is Newark Liberty International Airport , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away ( about 27 minutes ) in Newark / Elizabeth . New York City 's LaGuardia Airport is 15 miles ( 24 km ) away in Flushing , Queens via the George Washington Bridge , an estimated 22 minutes in ideal conditions . John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens is 26 miles ( 42 km ) and 34 minutes from Teaneck . Teterboro Airport offers general aviation service , and is a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) drive ( about 13 minutes ) .
= = Notable people = =
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= Super Mario RPG =
Super Mario RPG ( Japanese : スーパーマリオＲＰＧ , Hepburn : Sūpā Mario Āru Pī Jī ) , subtitled Legend of the Seven Stars in its North American release , is a role @-@ playing game developed by Square ( now Square Enix ) and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . It was originally released on March 9 , 1996 , in Japan and on May 13 , 1996 , in North America . Nintendo ported the game , with minor differences , to the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2008 and to the Wii U 's Virtual Console service by late June 2016 to regions around the world . It is the first role @-@ playing video game in the Mario series . The game contains fundamental gameplay similarities and inspirations to other Square role @-@ playing video games , such as the Final Fantasy series , with a story and action @-@ based gameplay derived from the Super Mario Bros. series .
The story focuses on Mario and his party as they seek to eliminate the game 's main antagonist , Smithy . Smithy has stolen the seven star pieces of Star Road where all the world 's inhabitants ' wishes become Wish Stars , and Mario must return the pieces so these wishes may again be granted . The game features five permanent playable characters . Super Mario RPG was directed by Yoshihiko Maekawa and Chihiro Fujioka and produced by Shigeru Miyamoto . Yoko Shimomura composed the game 's score , which was released on a soundtrack album in Japan shortly after the game 's debut .
Square did much of the development of Super Mario RPG under direct guidance from producer Shigeru Miyamoto . The game was well @-@ received upon release , praised particularly for its 3D @-@ rendered graphics and humor . The game spawned the Mario RPG series , and two successive RPG @-@ themed spiritual sequels followed : the Paper Mario and Mario & Luigi series , both of which use certain conventions established in the original .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario RPG contains token similarities to other Square @-@ developed video games , such as the Final Fantasy series , along with a story and gameplay based on the Super Mario Bros. series of platform games . Like most traditional JRPGs , there are two main sections to the game : adventuring and turn @-@ based battle sequences . Much of Super Mario RPG 's gameplay is outside monster battles and plays like an isometric 3D platformer , in which traditional Mario elements such as punching floating question blocks from below are prominent . There are no random encounters and as such enemies are visible in the field ; a battle ensues only if Mario comes in contact with one . This allows the player to evade unnecessary battles .
The player controls only Mario at the journey 's beginning . Ultimately , the player will gain a party of five characters , though only three members can be used during a battle at any given time . Mario is always in the player 's party , but the other two characters can be selected before battles . Each of the five characters has a unique set of attacks and techniques . For example , Princess Toadstool 's abilities are primarily healing techniques , whereas Geno and Bowser have offensive attacks that deal high amounts of damage . The combat is based on a traditional turn based battle system with the addition of action commands that amplify a move 's effects . The action command consists of timed button presses during an attack , special move , defense , or item usage . This is one of the more innovative features of gameplay , becoming a mainstay of later Mario RPGs .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters and setting = = =
The game world is set in a geographically diverse land , which includes mountains and bodies of water . Each region has distinct characteristics held by its inhabitants ; Mushroom Kingdom is inhabited by Toads , Moleville is inhabited by moles , Monstro Town is populated by reformed monsters , Yo 'ster Isle is where Yoshi and his eponymous species reside , and Nimbus Land is an area inhabited by cloud people . Bowser 's Castle is another prominent location in the game , as it holds the portal to the main antagonist 's home world .
As in most Mario series games , the main protagonist is Mario , whose initial goal is to rescue Princess Peach ( Toadstool ) from Bowser . However , the story takes on an unusual and very important twist . Soon after the start of his journey , the Smithy Gang invades the world . While attempting to stop the group , Mario is joined by Mallow , a cloud boy who thinks he is a tadpole ; Geno , a doll possessed by a celestial spirit from the Star Road ; Bowser , whose armies have deserted him out of fear of the Smithy Gang ; and Princess Toadstool , who was lost in the turmoil that occurred when the Smithy Gang arrived . The Smithy Gang is led by Smithy , a robotic blacksmith from an alternate dimension with aspirations of world domination .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins when Mario enters Bowser 's Castle to rescue Princess Toadstool . During the battle , a giant sword falls from the sky , breaks through the Star Road ( a pathway that helps grant people 's wishes ) , and crashes into Bowser ’ s castle , sending Mario , Princess Toadstool , and Bowser flying in different directions , as well as scattering seven star fragments . Mario makes his way to the Mushroom Kingdom , where the mushroom chancellor insists that Mario recover the Princess and discover the purpose of the giant sword , but once he returns to Bowser 's castle , the giant sword ( who reveals that it can talk ) destroys the bridge , preventing him from entering . Upon returning , Mario encounters Mallow , a " tadpole " who has lost a frog coin to Croco , a local thief . Mario agrees to help him , but when they return to the castle , he finds that the kingdom is overrun by creatures from the Smithy Gang led by an evil robotic blacksmith king named Smithy . He and Mallow enter the castle and are met by the first boss in the game , a giant knife and spring @-@ like creature named Mack . When Mack is defeated , they find a mysterious Star Piece , which Mario takes .
Mallow accompanies Mario as they travel through the Kero Sewers and after they defeat a monster named Belome , they reach Tadpole Pond where they meet Mallow 's grandfather , who reveals that Mallow isn 't really a tadpole and claims that his real parents are waiting for him to return home . The duo travel to Rose Town where they meet a star spirit who has taken control of a doll named Geno . After battling the bow @-@ like creature , Bowyer , who is immobilizing residents of Rose Town with his arrows , they retrieve another Star Piece and Geno joins Mario and tells him that the Star Piece is a part of the shattered Star Road , where he resides . Geno has been tasked with repairing Star Road and defeating Smithy , so that the world 's wishes may again be heard , and he must find the seven pieces held by members of the Smithy gang . The three retrieve the third Star Piece from Punchinello , and continue to Booster Tower where they encounter Bowser , who is trying to reassemble his forces . Though former enemies , they join forces to fight a common enemy as Bowser wishes to reclaim his castle . The new team intercepts the princess , just before she is forcibly married to the eccentric amusement @-@ venue owner , Booster , but it turns out that the wedding wasn 't real and that Booster only wanted the wedding cake . After her rescue , the princess initially returns to Mushroom Kingdom but later joins the party as its final member . After recovering six of the Star Pieces , Mario 's group learns that the final piece is held by Smithy in Bowser 's castle . Upon battling their way through the assembled enemies and returning to the giant sword , they discover that it is actually a gateway to Smithy 's factory and they fight it to gain access to the factory , where Smithy mass @-@ produces his army . In the end , Smithy is defeated , the giant sword disappears , and the collected Star Pieces are used to repair the Star Road .
= = Development = =
Yoshio Hongo of Nintendo explained the game 's origins : " Square 's RPGs sold well in Japan but not overseas . There have been calls from all ages , and from young girls , for another character to which they could become attached . Mario was the best , but had not been in an RPG . Nintendo 's director , Mr. Miyamoto also wanted to do an RPG using Mario . There happened to be a chance for both companies to talk , which went well . "
The game was officially unveiled by both Mario creator and producer Shigeru Miyamoto and co @-@ director Chihiro Fujioka at the 1995 V @-@ Jump Festival event in Japan . Miyamoto led teams at Nintendo and Square , who spent over a year developing the graphics . The story takes place in a newly rendered Mushroom Kingdom based on the Super Mario Bros. series . Square reported that the game was about 70 % complete in October 1995 . The developers created the interior elements such as columns , stairways , and exterior elements with advanced computer modeling techniques . Special lighting effects were used to create shadows and reflections that were meant to improve the 3D elements . With guidance from Miyamoto , Square developed the game , combining role @-@ playing aspects of previous Square games like Final Fantasy VI with the platforming elements of Nintendo 's games . Square 's Final Fantasy series was the model for the battle sequences , while the tradition of Super Mario Bros. games demanded a lot of action . Mario 's ability to jog in eight directions and jump up or down in three – quarter perspective gave him a ( comparatively ) large range of motion . At 70 % completion , the mix of adventure and action game play elements placed it in a category closer to The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past .
When Nintendo of America received a 60 % complete version in November , the staff were surprised at the inclusion of an RPG battle system . The battle screens , using pre @-@ rendered sprites as in the rest of the game , included attack animations of equipped weapons . In December , further development and improvements to the gameplay delayed the translation of the game . For example , the Chancellor , who was named the Mushroom Retainer in Japan , was called the " Minister " in North America . Plans continued through February for the North American version , changing the release date forecast from winter to spring .
Super Mario RPG : Legend of the Seven Stars is one of only seven SNES games released outside Japan to use the Nintendo SA @-@ 1 chip . Compared with standard SNES games , the additional microprocessor allows higher clock speeds ; faster access to the random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) ; greater memory mapping capabilities , data storage , and compression ; new direct memory access ( DMA ) modes , such as bitmap to bit plane transfer ; and built @-@ in CIC lockout for piracy protection and regional marketing control . When asked about the possibility of a European release , Nintendo representatives said there were no plans for one , and remarked that preparing an RPG for release in Europe is far more difficult than other regions due to the need to optimize the game for PAL TV systems and translate it into multiple languages .
= = = Music = = =
Yoko Shimomura , best known for her previous work in Street Fighter II , composed the game 's music . As part of the score , she incorporated arrangements of music by Koji Kondo from Super Mario Bros. and three tracks by Nobuo Uematsu from Final Fantasy IV . Shimomura regards the Super Mario RPG soundtrack as one of the turning points in her career as a composer . The music from the game was released as a soundtrack album , titled Super Mario RPG Original Sound Version ( スーパーマリオＲＰＧ オリジナル ・ サウンド ・ ヴァージョン , Sūpā Mario Āru Pī Jī Orijinaru Saundo Vuājon ) . NTT Publishing released it in Japan on March 25 , 1996 . The two @-@ disc set contains 61 of the game 's 73 songs .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario RPG received universal acclaim and has appeared on reader @-@ selected " best game of all time " lists , such as 26th on GameFAQs and 30th at IGN . Japanese audiences received Super Mario RPG well with 1 @.@ 47 million copies sold , making it the third highest @-@ selling game in Japan in 1996 .
Though various aspects of Super Mario RPG have received mixed reviews , the game garnered praise for the quality of the graphics and for the humor in particular . Nintendo Power 's review commented that the " excellent " 3D graphics helped the game appeal to a much wider audience than most traditional RPGs . In March 1997 , Nintendo Power nominated the game for several awards , including " Best Graphics " , in a player 's choice contest , though Super Mario 64 won " Best Graphics " . Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the graphics , stating that they are " the best seen on the Super NES " . 1UP.com stated that the graphic element is " strong enough to resemble a Mario title but still retains the role @-@ playing theme at the same time " , and Electronic Gaming Monthly commented that the graphics are " typical of Nintendo , using clean and colorful graphics along with nice animation " . RPGamer editor Derek Cavin called the backgrounds " beautiful " and stated that they " perfectly bring the Mushroom Kingdom and surrounding areas into 3D " . Skyler Miller from Allgame stated that the graphics are " absolutely outstanding , with colorful , 3D rendered visuals that once seemed impossible on the Super NES . This is definitely the high watermark for 3D graphics on any 16 @-@ bit system " . The editor also called the music " quite extraordinary " and that the songs " match the mood of the surrounding environment " . In the Virtual Console re @-@ release , IGN 's Lucas Thomas 's review of Super Mario RPG stated that the game 's experience " completes itself with a compelling story , a humorous attitude and a variety of interspersed mini @-@ games that break up the adventuring action " . The publication also stated that the soundtrack is " spectacular and a joy to listen to " and the graphics " took full advantage of the system 's 16 @-@ bit technology and looks great " .
Despite the praise , Cavin noted that most of the battle system mechanics " aren 't very original " and also noting the " lack of a unified storyline " which is " far from great " . Miller commented that after engaging in many battles , " the battle music becomes monotonous " and that after the game is beaten , " There aren 't any surprises to be discovered the second time around " . While 1UP.com stated that " The characters seem too childish for older gamers " .
= = Legacy = =
Super Mario RPG does not have a direct sequel . Nintendo originally announced a game entitled Super Mario RPG 2 , but was changed to " Paper Mario " before release . Considered to be its thematic and spiritual sequels , two successive RPG @-@ themed Mario series , Paper Mario as well as Mario & Luigi , followed conventions established in the original . This includes the use of Flower Points as a shared party resource instead of each character having their own pool of Magic Points , timed action commands during battles , and , in the original Paper Mario , the collection of the seven stars . Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga features the Geno doll , with a mention of Square Enix as the copyright holder of the character in the end credits . Various locations and characters from the game appear in the children 's book Mario and the Incredible Rescue released by Scholastic in 2006 .
On May 30 , 2008 , Nintendo announced that Super Mario RPG was to be released on the Virtual Console in Japan the following month . On June 13 , 2008 , the OFLC rated the game for release in Australia . On June 24 , 2008 , it was released on the Virtual Console in Japan . On August 22 , 2008 , the game was released for the first time in Europe and Australia , as part of the third Hanabi Festival alongside a release of Super Mario Bros : The Lost Levels on the European Virtual Console after being available for a limited period during the first Hanabi Festival . Certain animations , namely those for the Flame Wall and Static E ! attacks , were dimmed to reduce the potential for triggering sensitive players ' seizures , and colors were adjusted . On September 1 , 2008 , it was released on the Virtual Console in North America , under the distinction of being the 250th Virtual Console game released in that region . Super Mario RPG was released on Wii U 's Virtual Console in Japan and Europe in 2015 , and in North America on June 30 , 2016 . Geno , one of the main characters originating in this game , is a downloadable Mii Fighter costume in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
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= 1929 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1929 Atlantic hurricane season was among the least active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic on record – featuring only five tropical cyclones . Of these five tropical systems , three of them intensified into a hurricane , with one strengthening further into a major hurricane ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ) . The first tropical cyclone of the season developed in the Gulf of Mexico on June 27 . Becoming a hurricane on June 28 , the storm struck Texas , bringing strong winds to a large area . Three fatalities were reported , while damage was conservatively estimated at $ 675 @,@ 000 ( 1929 USD ) .
The second storm , nicknamed the Bahamas hurricane , developed north of the Lesser Antilles . It was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , peaking as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) . The storm moved through the Bahamas at this intensity and later struck Florida while slightly weaker . Overall , this hurricane resulted in 59 deaths and at least $ 2 @.@ 36 million in damage . The next three tropical cyclones did not impact land , with the last transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on October 22 . Until HURDAT reanalysis in 2010 , the final two systems were considered the same tropical cyclone .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 48 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
After barometric pressures in the western Gulf of Mexico had been low for several days , the steamship Chester O. Swain encountered a disturbance of " probably moderate intensity " offshore Texas on June 28 . A tropical storm developed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on the previous day . The storm was abnormally small , having a diameter of only about 20 mi ( 32 km ) . It moderately intensified and by early on June 28 , the storm became a hurricane . While offshore Texas , the hurricane peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Shortly after making landfall near Matagorda Bay , a minimum barometric pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) was reported . The storm then accelerated westward across the Southwestern United States and weakened to a tropical storm early on June 29 . However , it was still of " considerable intensity " while passing near El Paso about 24 hours later . Thus , the system was thought to have remained a tropical storm until early on June 30 . Several hours later , the storm dissipated over Arizona .
The storm brought hurricane @-@ force winds to portions of Texas , including as far inland as Yorktown in DeWitt County . Additionally , a 60 to 80 mi ( 95 to 130 km ) path observed gale force winds as far from the coast as Bexar , Kendall , Kerr , and Medina counties . Wind impacts were significant , with a " conservative " estimate of $ 310 @,@ 000 in damage inflicted on crops , while buildings , windmills , power , telephone , and telegraph lines suffered about $ 365 @,@ 000 in damage . There were three deaths in Wharton County , as well as several injuries . Outside of the area of wind damage , rainfall was considered " highly beneficial " to crops and range .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
The second storm of the season originated from a tropical wave that developed in the vicinity of Cape Verde on September 11 . The wave became a tropical depression at 00 : 00 UTC on September 19 , while located about 300 mi ( 480 km ) north @-@ northeast of Anegada in the British Virgin Islands . The depression drifted just north of due west while strengthening slowly , becoming a tropical storm early on September 22 . Later that day , the storm curved northwestward . Around midday on September 23 , it intensified into a hurricane . While turning southwestward on the following day , the hurricane began to undergo rapid deepening . Late on September 25 , the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , an estimate based on pressure @-@ wind relationship , with a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) .
While crossing through the Bahamas , the storm struck Eleuthera and Andros , on September 25 and September 26 , respectively . Late on September 27 , the system weakened to a Category 3 hurricane and re @-@ curved northwestward . At 13 : 00 UTC the next day , the hurricane made landfall near Tavernier , Florida . The storm then entered the Gulf of Mexico and continued weakening , falling to Category 2 intensity late on September 28 . While approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States , the hurricane weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on October 1 , it made landfall near Panama City Beach , Florida . A few hours later , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm and then became extratropical over southwestern Georgia shortly thereafter . The remnants continued northeastward up the East Coast of the United States , until entering Canada and dissipating over Quebec early on October 5 .
In the Bahamas , the hurricane brought strong winds and large waves to the archipelago . At Nassau , a weather station observed a wind gust of 164 mph ( 264 km / h ) . Within the city alone , 456 houses were destroyed , while an additional 640 houses suffered damage . On Abaco Islands , 19 homes were demolished . The hurricane damaged or destroyed 63 homes and buildings on Andros . Telegraph service was disrupted . There were 48 deaths in the Bahamas . Throughout the Bahamas and the Florida Keys , numerous boats and vessels were ruined or damaged . At the latter , strong winds were observed , with a gust up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) in Key Largo . However , damage there was limited to swamped fishing boats and temporary loss of electricity and communications . Farther north , heavy rains flooded low @-@ lying areas of Miami . A devastating tornado in Fort Lauderdale damaged a four story hotel , a railway office building , and several cottages . In the Florida Panhandle , storm surge destroyed several wharves and damaged most of the oyster and fishing warehouses and canning plants . Overall , there was approximately $ 2 @.@ 36 million in damage and three deaths in Florida ; eight others drowned offshore .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
Historical weather maps indicate that a low pressure area was embedded within a west to east oriented stationary front over the northwestern Atlantic Ocean on September 24 . The low quickly detached from the stationary front and acquired a closed circulation while tracking across sea surface temperatures of 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Early on September 25 , a tropical depression formed just west of Bermuda and strengthened into a tropical storm later that day . Around 02 : 00 UTC on September 26 , a ship observed a barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) – the lowest while the storm was tropical . Four hours later , sustained winds peaked at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm eventually curved northward , before becoming extratropical at 06 : 00 UTC on September 27 , while located about 240 mi ( 390 km ) south @-@ southeast of Nantucket , Massachusetts . The extratropical remnants accelerated northeastward and then east @-@ northeastward , before dissipating east @-@ southeast of Newfoundland on September 29 .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
Early on October 15 , a low pressure area developed into a tropical storm , while located about 625 mi ( 1 @,@ 005 km ) southwest of Flores Island in the Azores . The storm moved west @-@ southwestward and slowly strengthened . At 12 : 00 UTC on October 17 , the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) ; the latter was observed by a few ships . Early on October 18 , it curved northwestward and began to accelerate . Late the next day , the storm became extratropical , while located about 535 mi ( 860 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The extratropical remnants of the storm continued northeastward , until dissipating well southeast of Newfoundland on October 20 .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
A trough extending southward from the previous system developed into a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on October 19 , while located about 890 mi ( 1 @,@ 430 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . Moving eastward , the depression intensified into a tropical storm early the next day . Later on October 20 , it curved northeastward and accelerated . The storm intensified into a hurricane at 12 : 00 UTC on October 21 . Strengthening further , the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on October 22 , the hurricane became extratropical , while situated about 665 mi ( 1 @,@ 070 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The remnants moved north @-@ northwestward and dissipated early on October 23 .
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= Wellingborough =
Wellingborough is a market town and borough in Northamptonshire , England , situated 11 miles ( 18 km ) from the county town of Northampton . The town is situated on the north side of the River Nene , most of the older town is sited on the flanks of the hills above the river 's current flood plain . Due to frequent flooding by the River Nene , the town was mostly built above the current level of the flood plain . Originally named " Wendelingburgh " , the settlement was established in the Saxon period and is mentioned in the Domesday Book under the name of " Wendelburie " . The town was granted a royal market charter in 1201 , by King John of England .
As of 2011 the census states the borough has a population of 75 @,@ 400 , which the town itself accounts for 49 @,@ 087 . The town of Wellingborough is governed by The Borough Council of Wellingborough , with their office located in the town centre . The town is twinned with Niort in France , and with Wittlich in Germany .
The town is predicted to grow by around 30 percent under the Milton Keynes South Midlands ( MKSM ) study , as the British government has identified Wellingborough as one of several towns in Northamptonshire where growth will be directed over the next 30 years . The study allocates 12 @,@ 800 additional homes mainly to the east of the town . The town has also a growing commuter population as it is located on the Midland Main Line railway , operated by East Midlands Trains , which has InterCity trains to London St Pancras International station taking under an hour , giving an interchange with Eurostar services .
= = History = =
The town was established in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period and was called ' Wendelingburgh ' . It is surrounded by five wells : Red Well , Hemming Well , Witche 's Well , Lady 's Well and Whyte Well , which appear on its coat of arms .
The medieval town of Wellingborough housed a modest monastic grange – now the Jacobean Croyland ' Abbey ' – which was an offshoot of the larger monastery of Croyland Abbey , near Peterborough , some 30 miles ( 48 km ) down @-@ river . This part of the town is now known as ' Croyland ' .
All Hallows Church is the oldest existing building in Wellingborough and dates from c . 1160 . The manor of Wellingborough belonged to Crowland Abbey Lincolnshire , from Saxon times and the monks probably built the original church . The earliest part of the building is the Norman doorway opening in from the later south porch . The church was enlarged with the addition of more side chapels and by the end of the 13th century had assumed more or less its present plan . The west tower , crowned with a graceful broach spire rising to 160 feet ( 49 m ) , was completed about 1270 , after which the chancel was rebuilt and given the east window twenty years later . The church was restored in 1861 by Edmund Francis Law . The 20th @-@ century Church of St Mary was built by Ninian Comper .
Wellingborough was given a Market Charter dated 3 April 1201 when King John granted it to the " Abbot of Croyland and the monks serving God there " continuing , " they shall have a market at Wendligburg ( Wellingborough ) for one day each week that is Wednesday " .
In the Elizabethan era the Lord of the Manor , Sir Christopher Hatton was a sponsor of Sir Francis Drake 's expeditions ; Drake renamed one of his ships the Golden Hind after the heraldic symbol of the Hatton family . A hotel in a Grade II listed building built in the 17th century , was known variously as the Hind Hotel and later as the Golden Hind Hotel .
During the Civil War the largest substantial conflict in the area was the Battle of Naseby in 1645 , although a minor skirmish in the town resulted in the killing of a parliamentarian officer Captain John Sawyer . Severe reprisals followed which included the carrying off to Northampton of the parish priest , Thomas Jones , and 40 prisoners by a group of Roundheads . However , after the Civil War Wellingborough was home to a colony of Diggers . Little is known about this period .
Wellingborough was bombed once during World War II . The bomb fell where the town centre McDonald 's restaurant used to be located . The town was also used for evacuated children from London .
Originally the town had two railway stations : the first called Wellingborough London Road , opened in 1845 and closed in 1966 , linked Peterborough with Northampton . The second station , Wellingborough Midland Road , is still in operation with trains to London and the East Midlands . Since then the ' Midland Road ' was dropped from the station name . The Midland Road station opened in 1857 with trains serving Kettering and a little later Corby , was linked in 1867 to London St Pancras . In 1898 in the Wellingborough rail accident six or seven people died and around 65 were injured . In the 1880s two businessmen held a public meeting to build three tram lines in Wellingborough , the group merged with a similar company in Newport Pagnell who started to lay tram tracks , but within two years the plans were abandoned due to lack of funds .
= = Governance = =
Wellingborough is part of the Borough Council of Wellingborough which is , as of July 2010 , a Conservative borough . The borough council covers 20 settlements including the town together with Bozeat , Earls Barton , Easton Maudit , Ecton , Finedon , Great Doddington , Great Harrowden , Grendon , Hardwick , Irchester , Isham , Little Harrowden , Little Irchester , Mears Ashby , Orlingbury , Strixton , Sywell , Wilby , and Wollaston .
The electoral wards in the town comprise : Brickhill , Castle , Croyland , Hemmingwell , North , Queensway , Redwell East , Redwell West , South , Swanspool West while other , non @-@ political divisions , are areas in Wellingborough such as : Gleneagles , Hatton Park , Hemmingwell , Kingsway , Queensway , Redhill Grange , and Redwell .
Wellingborough is part of the Wellingborough Constituency which includes the town , surrounding villages and other urban areas . The current MP is Peter Bone . Most wards in the Borough Council of Wellingborough are covered by the constituency and also include the wards in East Northamptonshire , the wards are : Brickhill , Castle , Croyland , Finedon , Great Doddington and Wilby , Hemmingwell , Higham Ferrers Lancaster , Higham Ferrers Chichele , Irchester , North , Queensway , Redwell East , Redwell West , Rushden Hayden , Rushden Spencer , Rushden Bates , Rushden Sartoris , Rushden Pemberton , South , Swanspool , and Wollaston .
For European representation , Wellingborough is part of the East Midlands constituency with five MEPs .
= = Geography = =
= = = Geology = = =
The town is sited on the hills adjoining the flood plain of the River Nene . In the predominantly agrarian medieval period , this combination of access to fertile , if flood @-@ prone , valley bottom soils and drier ( but heavier and more clay @-@ rich ) hillside / hilltop soils seems to have been good for a mixed agricultural base . The clay @-@ rich hilltop soils are primarily a consequence of blanketing of the area with boulder clay or glacial till during the recent glaciations . On the valley sides and valley floor however , these deposits have been largely washed away in the late glacial period , and in the valley bottom extensive deposits of gravels were laid down , which have largely been exploited for building aggregate in the last century .
= = = Iron ore = = =
The most economically important aspect of the geology of the area is the Northampton Sands ironstone formation . This is a marine sand of Jurassic age ( Bajocian stage ) , deposited as part of an estuary sequence and overlain by a sequence of limestones and mudrocks . Significant amounts of the sand have been replaced or displaced by iron minerals giving an average ore grade of around 25 wt % iron . To the west the iron ores have been moderately exploited for a very long time , but their high phosphorus content made them difficult to smelt and produced iron of poor quality until the development of the Bessemer steel making process and the " basic slag " smelting chemistry , which combine to make high quality steelmaking possible from these unprepossessing ores . The Northampton Sands were a strategic resource for the United Kingdom in the run @-@ up to World War II , being the best developed bulk iron producing processes wholly free from dependence on imported materials . However , because the Northampton Sands share in the regional dip of all the sediments of this part of Britain to the east @-@ south @-@ east , they become increasingly difficult to work as one progresses east across the county .
= = = Climate = = =
Wellingborough experiences an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification ) which is similar to most of the British Isles .
= = = Compass = = =
Wellingborough 's nearest towns are Rushden , Higham Ferrers and Irthlingborough .
= = Demography = =
Wellingborough 's population expanded rapidly from 26 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 in the 1960s and 1970s as agreements were signed between the Urban District Council and London County Council and the Greater London Council for the town to re @-@ house over @-@ spill population from London . Following the post World War II arrival of immigrants from the Commonwealth group of nations into Britain , a sizeable Black Caribbean and Indian / Pakistani community grew up in this small market town , and now represents 7 % of the population in the Borough and to 11 % within the town .
= = Economy = =
Wellingborough has approximately 2 @,@ 500 registered businesses within its boundaries . Much of the town centre was redeveloped during the 1970s , when it grew rapidly from London overspill . The Borough Council has adopted a ' Town Centre Action Plan ' . The former traditional economic structure based on footwear and engineering is gradually diversifying with wholesale , logistics , and service sectors providing new opportunities for employment .
As a market town , Wellingborough has major high street chains mainly located in the town centre . The only shopping centre , Swansgate , previously known as the Arndale Centre , was built in the 1970s . Since 2009 the Borough Council has been looking at rebuilding the centre and major stores want bigger floor @-@ spaces . The Britannica Fund , which owns Swansgate shopping centre is currently in administration , and decision on the future of the centre is expected in early 2013 . Supplementing the town centre shops are several out @-@ of @-@ town retail parks and supermarkets including a Sainsbury 's , four Tesco stores , an Aldi store and a Morrisons store in the town centre . The town has a market three times a week and a weekly privately organised market .
Other businesses operating within the town include motorsport , high performance engineering , distribution , engineering , environmental technology and renewable energy , digital and creative media , financial and business services , and global brands , once such brand being Cummins UK at Park Farm , and major park home manufacturer Tingdene Homes Ltd at Finedon Road Industrial Estate . There are several industrial estates in the town , these include Park Farm , Denington , Leyland and Finedon Road .
Future developments
As part of its Milton Keynes South Midlands ( MKSM ) study , the government has identified Wellingborough as one of several towns in Northamptonshire into which growth will be directed over the next thirty years . It allocates 12 @,@ 800 additional homes to Wellingborough , and will also create additional facilities , further improve the town centre , improve infrastructure and increase employment opportunities . A jobs growth target of 12 @,@ 400 jobs has been set to accompany the large scale housing growth . A plan for 3 @,@ 000 homes north of the town has been accepted by the British Government after an appeal by Bee Bee Developments . The plan was first refused by Wellingborough Borough Council .
As a result , plans have been made for a major urban extension in the town , mainly to the east of the railway station . When finished , the town would be around 30 % larger and 3 @,@ 200 new homes would be built on ' Stanton Cross ' site , with new schools , bus stops , community centres , shops , a doctor 's surgery and new open spaces . The railway station would be developed into an ' interchange ' with local buses and trains . The upgrade would provide a new platform , footbridge and new station buildings . Outside the station a new road bridge from Midland Road over the railway line is also planned with a new footbridge to reach the new development . Other plans to include the development of the High Street , Shelley Road and the north of the town areas are also being considered .
= = Transport = =
The A45 dual carriageway skirting to the south , links the town with the A14 , and M1 which also allows links to the east and west of the country . The A45 links Wellingborough with Northampton , Rushden , Higham Ferrers , Raunds , Thrapston , Oundle and Peterborough .
The town is served by a bus network provided by Stagecoach in Northants , Centrebus and Soul Brothers with local Wellingborough buses W1 , W2 , W3 and W4 linking the town centre ( Church Street ) with local suburbs and villages . Departing every 30 minutes the X4 service also links the town with Milton Keynes , Northampton , Kettering , Corby , Oundle and Peterborough . Other routes include 45 , X46 and X47 .
East Midlands Trains operate direct trains to London St Pancras International from Wellingborough railway station , departing every 30 minutes , with an average journey time of around 55 minutes . The railway line also connects Wellingborough with Bedford , Luton , Kettering , Corby , Leicester , Nottingham , Derby , Sheffield and Leeds . Just north of the railway station is a GB Railfreight location , usage is for London Underground maintenance and other freight services .
Several UK airports are within two hours ' drive of the town , including London Luton , East Midlands , Birmingham and London Stansted . Luton can be reached directly by train while East Midlands and Stansted can be reached by one change at Leicester . Sywell Aerodrome , located 5 miles northwest of Wellingborough , caters for private flying , flight training and corporate flights .
= = Education = =
Fourteen government controlled primary schools feed the secondary schools that include : Wellingborough School , an independent , fee @-@ paying school with a cadet force , and the state secondary schools of Sir Christopher Hatton School , Weavers Academy ( formerly the Technical Grammar School & then Weavers School ) , Wrenn School ( formerly the Wellingborough Grammar School ) , and Friars School .
The Tresham College of Further and Higher Education has a main campus in Wellingborough , and outreach locations in Kettering , Oakham and Corby . It provides further education and offers vocational courses , GCSEs and A Levels . In collaboration with several universities the college also offers Higher Education options .
The University of Northampton in Northampton , with around 10 @,@ 000 students on two campuses , offers courses from foundation and undergraduate levels to postgraduate , professional and doctoral qualifications . Subjects include traditional arts , humanities and sciences subjects , as well as entrepreneurship , product design and advertising .
= = Culture = =
The Castle Theatre was opened in 1995 on the site of Wellingborough 's old Cattle Market . It brings not only a theatre to the area but other facilities for local people . Most rooms are used on a daily basis by the local community , users include the Castle Youth Theatre and Youth Dance .
Wellingborough has a public library in the corner of the market square . The Wellingborough Museum , an independent museum run by the Winifred Wharton Trust , located next door to The Castle Theatre , has exhibitions which show the past of Wellingborough and the surrounding villages . The museum is housed in a Victorian swimming pool ( " Dulley 's Baths " ) built in 1892 , from 1918 to 1995 it was Cox 's shoe factory . Accompanying the exhibitions and articles is a souvenir shop and cafe . Free entry .
In 1959 : The residents of Wellingborough , England woke to find a trail of white footprints painted along the main street of their town . At the end of the trail were the words , " I must fly . " Police had later identified the individual as none other than " local scumbag " Frederick Hatton Gherkins . Related : • April Fool 's Day Street Pranks http : / / www.museumofhoaxes.com / hoax / aprilfool / P30 /
= = Sport = =
Wellingborough is home to two football clubs : Wellingborough Town and Wellingborough Whitworth . In 2009 the town 's rugby club was the first club to be awarded the RFU Whole Club Seal of Approval in the East Midlands . Harrowden Hall , a 17th @-@ century building in Great Harrowden village just on the outskirts of the town , is the clubhouse of a privately owned golf course . The four leisure centres and health clubs in Wellingborough include Bannatyne 's , Redwell , Waendel and Weavers ( which is part of Weavers school ) .
Wellingborough was also served for many years by Club Diana . Club Diana was closed by administrators on 1 June 2011 . However it has now been reopened and is available once again . It has a swimming pool , 5 squash courts and a bar and restaurant .
Waendal is home to the local swimming club : WASC . ( Wellingborough Amateur Swimming Club ) . They also train at Wollaston , Oundle , and Rushden .
Wellingborough Phoenix is one of the United Kingdom 's largest basketball clubs ; the men 's first team currently play in EBL Division 3 and the women play in EBL Division 2 . Youth teams also play in the EBL ; ages ranging from u13 to u16 .
= = Services = =
Several NHS centres provide health care facilities , with Isebrook Hospital being equipped for procedures such as large X @-@ Rays and neurological investigations , and long @-@ term care , that are not catered for by primary care surgeries . Accident & Emergency ( A & E ) , maternity , and surgical issues are mainly covered by Kettering General Hospital . The Air Ambulance is provided by Warkshire and Northamptonshire Air Ambulance service . A petition signed by thousands of local residents in the towns of Wellingborough and Rushden for a new A & E to be built in Wellingborough has been handed to 10 Downing Street ( when Prime Minister Gordon Brown was in power ) , by local MP Peter Bone on 10 February 2010 .
Other emergency services are provided by the Northamptonshire Fire and Rescue Service and the Northamptonshire Police . Wellingborough Prison was located just outside the town , but closed in 2012 .
= = Landmarks = =
The railway station is a Grade II Listed building , and among the many unusual and other listed buildings in Wellingborough is the 600 @-@ year @-@ old Grade I listed steeple that forms part of All Hallows Church .
The Three Silver Ladies is one of two identical sculptures installed on the Harrowden Road , They depict local Roman history , the river , and the townspeople working together .
= = Wellingburians = =
Ryan Carter , of Wild Things fame , was born and raised in Wellingborough .
Wellingborough is the birthplace and residence of many notable people , including the former world champion snooker player Peter Ebdon , and Sir David Frost , OBE , a broadcaster who attended Wellingborough Grammar School , whose campus is now occupied by the Wrenn School . The winner of Britain 's Strongest Man contest in 2002 , Marc Iliffe , lives in the town .
Scientist Kenneth Mees , and Frederic Henry Gravely an arachnologist , entomologist , and zoologist were born in the town . Paul Pindar , an ambassador of King James I to the Ottoman Empire , was born and grew up in the town , and attended Wellingborough School .
The town has sports people such as Rory McLeod and Jamie O 'Neill both snooker players , born in the town , and football players Trevor Benjamin and Bill Perkins both grew up in the town . Perkins played for a number of teams including Liverpool Football Club , Kettering Town and Northampton Town . Fanny Walden was born in the town , formerly playing for Northampton Town and Tottenham Hotspur . Brian Hill , referee , was also born in the town . Anita Neal , 100m olympic sprinter , lived in the town and went to John Lea School England Rugby captain Bob Taylor and player Jeff Butterfield both taught at Wellingborough Grammar School . Infamous football hooligan colloquially known as the Pig of Marseille is also from the town .
Wellingborough is home to singers Peter Murphy of Bauhaus who lived a large portion of his early life here , Thom Yorke of Radiohead , musician Robin Rimbaud aka Scanner , and politicians Alfred Dobbs , Arthur Allen ( for the Labour Party ) and Brian Binley ( for the Conservative Party ) .
Authors connected with the town include Lesley Glaister who was born in Wellingborough , while Stephen Elboz was born and currently lives in the town . Journalist and whisky writer Jim Murray also lives here . Author and historian Bruce Quarrie lived in the town before his death in 2004 . A school in Wellingborough is named after Sir Christopher Hatton , and high scoring WWI fighter pilot Edward Mannock ( Major ' Mick ' Mannock ) lived in the town and is mentioned on the Wellingborough War Memorial and has a road named after him .
= = Twin towns = =
Wellingborough is twinned with :
Niort , France ( 1977 )
Wittlich , Germany .
and also has relations with Willingboro , township in Burlington County , New Jersey , United States , while Irchester and Grendon , two of the villages within the Borough of Wellingborough , have twin town partners at Coulon near Niort , and Bois @-@ Bernard near Arras .
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= Persoonia levis =
Persoonia levis , commonly known as the broad @-@ leaved geebung , is a shrub native to New South Wales and Victoria in eastern Australia . It reaches 5 m ( 16 ft ) in height and has dark grey papery bark and bright green asymmetrical sickle @-@ shaped leaves up to 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long and 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) wide . The small yellow flowers appear in summer and autumn ( December to April ) , followed by small green fleshy fruit , which are classified as drupes . Within the genus Persoonia , it is a member of the Lanceolata group of 58 closely related species . P. levis interbreeds with several other species where they grow together .
Found in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone @-@ based nutrient @-@ deficient soils , P. levis is adapted to a fire @-@ prone environment ; the plants resprout epicormic buds from beneath their thick bark after bushfires , and can live for over 60 years . Regeneration also takes place after fire by a ground @-@ stored seed bank . The longtongue bee Leioproctus carinatifrons is a pollinator of the flowers , and the fruit are consumed by vertebrates such as kangaroos , possums and currawongs . Despite its horticultural appeal , P. levis is rare in cultivation as it is very hard to propagate , either by seed or cuttings .
= = Description = =
Persoonia levis grows as a tall shrub to small tree , and can reach 5 m ( 16 ft ) in height . The flaky soft bark is dark grey on the surface , while deeper layers are reddish in colour . Within the bark are epicormic buds , which sprout new growth after bushfire . The new growth is smooth to slightly hairy . The large green leaves measure 6 to 14 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) in length , and 1 @.@ 3 to 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 in ) in width , and are oblong or sickle @-@ shaped ( falcate ) . The asymmetrical shape helps distinguish the species from P. lanceolata . The bright green foliage , particularly of new growth , stands out against the more subdued tones of the surrounding vegetation and the stems , which are reddish in colour . The yellow flowers appear in summer and autumn ( December to April ) , and peak over December to February . They are arranged on short axillary racemes along the branchlets . Each individual flower consists of a cylindrical perianth , consisting of tepals fused for most of their length , within which are both male and female parts . The central style is surrounded by the anther , which splits into four segments ; these curl back and resemble a cross when viewed from above . They provide a landing area for insects attending to the stigma , which is located at the tip of the style . The smooth fleshy fruit , known as a drupe , is green and more or less round , measuring 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) by 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter . It contains two seeds , and has a spike at the end . The drupe is juicy but stringy when unripe , and the seeds and skin are inedible .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Persoonia levis was described and given the name Linkia levis by Antonio José Cavanilles in 1798 . His description was based on plant material collected by Luis Née in the vicinity of Port Jackson ( Sydney ) in April 1793 during the Malaspina Expedition . The species was placed in the genus Persoonia by Karel Domin in 1921 . The genus names Linkia and Persoonia had been coined in 1798 , but the latter was officially conserved . The species name is the Latin adjective levis , meaning " smooth " , and refers to the hairless foliage . Christiaan Hendrik Persoon coined the name Persoonia salicina for it in his 1805 work Synopsis Plantarum , and queried whether Cavanilles ' Linkia levis was in fact P. lanceolata . Robert Brown used Persoon 's name in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen , and echoed Persoon 's thoughts on Cavanilles ' original name and specimen . In the 1995 Flora of Australia revision of the genus , Peter John Weston reviewed the mounted material of Linkia levis , and found that Cavanilles had mounted material from both P. levis and P. lanceolata . He set one specimen of the three , which was clearly P. levis , as the lectotype , which aligned the material with the description . Common names include broad @-@ leaved geebung , willow geebung and smooth geebung . The term geebung is derived from the Dharug language word geebung .
Like most other members of the genus , Persoonia levis has seven chromosomes that are large compared to those of other Proteaceae . In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Persoonia in Volume 5 of his landmark Flora Australiensis . He divided the genus into three sections , placing P. levis ( which he called P. salicina ) in P. sect . Amblyanthera . The 1995 Flora of Australia revision of the genus saw it classified in the Lanceolata group , a group of 58 closely related species with similar flowers but very different foliage . These species will often interbreed with each other where two members of the group occur , and hybrids with P. acerosa , P. lanceolata , P. linearis , P. mollis subsp. ledifolia , P. myrtilloides subsp. myrtilloides ( in the Upper Blue Mountains , these plants resemble P. lanceolata ) , P. oxycoccoides , and P. stradbrokensis have been recorded . Robert Brown initially described the hybrid with P. linearis as a species " Persoonia lucida " , which is now known as Persoonia × lucida , and has been recorded from the southeast forests of the New South Wales south coast .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Persoonia levis is found from the Macleay River catchment on the New South Wales mid north coast to the Cann River in far eastern Victoria . It is found in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone @-@ based nutrient @-@ deficient soils , from sea level to an altitude of 1000 m ( 3500 ft ) . There it grows in sunny or lightly shaded areas in open woodland , associated with such trees as Eucalyptus piperita , E. sieberi , E. sclerophylla , E. radiata , E. smithii , Angophora costata and Corymbia gummifera , and shrubs such as Conospermum longifolium , Grevillea buxifolia , G. phylicoides , Hakea laevipes , Symphionema montanum and Telopea speciosissima , as well as Persoonia hirsuta and P. mollis . Coastal forms are smaller with broader leaves than inland forms . The annual rainfall of the area it occurs in the Sydney Basin is 900 – 1 @,@ 400 mm ( 35 – 55 in ) . It is considered adequately protected in the Sydney region , and is found in Georges River , Cattai , Wollemi , Bouddi , Brisbane Water , Marramarra , Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai Chase , Garigal , Lane Cove , Sydney Harbour , Botany Bay and Budderoo National Parks .
= = Ecology = =
Persoonia levis is one of several species of Persoonia that regenerate by resprouting from the trunk after bushfire , an adaptation to the fire @-@ prone habitat in which it grows . Its thick papery bark shields the underlying epicormic buds from the flames . Plants also regenerate by seedlings that arise from a seedbank in the soil after fire , although they may take up to 12 months to germinate . One study of sclerophyll forest unburnt for thirty years showed P. levis had declined over time . P. levis plants can live for over 60 years , and their leaves have a lifespan of up to 6 years .
Vesicles indicating a mycorrhizal association have been found on the roots of Persoonia levis , the Proteaceae not previously noted for forming mycorrhizal associations . Infection by the fungal species Anthracostroma persooniae results in leaf spot disease . P. levis is the food plant of the larvae of the weevil species Eurhynchus laevior .
Colletid bees of the genus Leioproctus subgenus Cladocerapis exclusively forage on and pollinate flowers of many species of Persoonia . Bees of subgenus Filiglossa in the same genus that also specialise in feeding on Persoonia flowers do not appear to be effective pollinators . Particular species recorded on P. levis include the longtongue bee Leioproctus carinatifrons . Weighing 1700 mg ( 0 @.@ 60 oz ) , the fruit are adapted to be eaten by vertebrates , such as kangaroos and possums , as well as currawongs and other large birds . The flowers of P. levis are self @-@ incompatible — that is , they are unable to fertilise themselves and require outcrossing to another plant .
= = Cultivation = =
Persoonia levis is rarely seen in cultivation , mainly because of difficulties in propagation ; seed germination is unpredictable , and cuttings have been nearly impossible to strike . Nevertheless , its colourful bark and leaves are attractive horticultural features . Well @-@ drained sandy soils in sun or part shade are needed for the plant in a garden situation . Once established , it tolerates moderate frosts and dry spells and grows fairly readily , albeit slowly , in suitable conditions . Plantsmen in England germinated seed as early as 1795 .
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= Forth Road Bridge =
The Forth Road Bridge is a suspension bridge in east central Scotland . The bridge , opened in 1964 , spans the Firth of Forth , connecting Edinburgh , at Queensferry , to Fife , at North Queensferry . It replaced a centuries @-@ old ferry service to carry vehicular traffic , cyclists , and pedestrians across the Forth ; rail crossings are made by the adjacent and historic Forth Bridge .
Issues regarding the continued tolling of the bridge , and those over its deteriorating condition and proposals to have it replaced or supplemented by an additional crossing , caused it to become something of a political football for the Scottish Parliament , which voted to scrap tolls on the bridge from 11 February 2008 .
On 4 December 2015 , the bridge was closed to all vehicular traffic , pedestrians and cyclists due to structural issues . The bridge reopened to all traffic except heavy goods vehicles ( HGVs ) on 23 December 2015 , and it was reopened to HGVs on 20 February 2016 .
= = History = =
The first crossing at what is now the site of the bridge was established in the 11th century by Margaret , queen consort of King Malcolm III , who founded a ferry service to transport religious pilgrims from Edinburgh to Dunfermline Abbey and St Andrews . Its creation gave rise to the port towns of Queensferry and North Queensferry , which remain to this day ; and the service remained in uninterrupted use as a passenger ferry for over eight hundred years . As early as the 1740s there were proposals for a road crossing at the site , although their viability was only considered following the construction of the Forth Bridge in 1890 .
The importance of the crossing to vehicular traffic was underpinned when the Great Britain road numbering scheme was drawn up in the 1920s . The planners wished the arterial A9 road to be routed across the Forth here , although the unwillingness to have a ferry crossing as part of this route led to the A90 number being assigned instead .
There was a period of renewed lobbying for a road crossing in the 1920s and 1930s , at which time the only vehicle crossing was a single passenger and vehicle ferry . Sir William Denny championed the expansion of that service in the 1930s , providing and operating on behalf of the London and North Eastern Railway two additional ferries that aimed to supplement the services of the adjacent railway bridge . Their success allowed for the addition of two more craft in the 1940s and 1950s , by which time the ferries were making 40 @,@ 000 crossings annually , carrying 1 @.@ 5 million passengers and 800 @,@ 000 vehicles .
= = = Design = = =
With the then newest and nearest bridge spanning the Forth ( the Kincardine Bridge , built in 1936 ) still around 15 miles ( 24 km ) upstream , the upsurge in demand for a road crossing between Edinburgh and Fife prompted the UK Government to establish the Forth Road Bridge Joint Board ( FRBJB ) by Act of Parliament in 1947 to oversee the implementation of a new bridge to replace the ferry service . In 1955 the authorities on either side investigated and drew up an alternative scheme for a tunnel beneath the estuary . This was known as the Maunsell Scheme , and was projected to run somewhat closer to the rail bridge than the present road bridge . The scheme was abandoned as being too ambitious and reverted to a bridge concept .
= = = Construction = = =
The final construction plan was accepted in February 1958 and work began in September of that year . Mott , Hay and Anderson and Freeman Fox and Partners carried out the design work and a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co . , Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long constructed the bridge at a cost of £ 11 @.@ 5 million , while the total cost of the project including road connections and realignments was £ 19 @.@ 5 million .
It was the longest steel suspension bridge in Europe . 210 @,@ 000 tons of concrete were involved in its construction , with nine miles of grade @-@ separated dual @-@ carriageway approach roads . Reed and Mallik ( known for Reema construction of houses ) of Salisbury , Wiltshire , built the approach viaducts .
There were twenty four individual bridges built for the approach roads . The 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile southern approach road of the A90 began at Cramond Bridge , over the River Almond on the western outskirts of Edinburgh , near Craigiehall . There were two @-@ level interchanges built at Burnshot , Dolphington ( B924 ) and the Echline junction ( A904 and B800 ) . At Dalmeny there was a bridge over the railway . The southern approach roads were built by A.M. Carmichael Ltd . The 4 @-@ mile northern approach road had three two @-@ level junctions at Ferry Toll ( for the B980 ) , Admiralty ( for Rosyth Dockyard via the A985 , and Inverkeithing via the A921 ) and at Mastertown / Masterton ( for what would be the fledgling M90 southern terminus ) . The Masterton junction was an octopus junction , a variation of a clover @-@ leaf junction , having six bridges and a 600 ft viaduct . There were fifteen bridges built for this approach road . The northern approach road terminated as the A823 ( M ) at a roundabout with the A823 south of Dunfermline , next to Rosyth railway station . The northern approach roads were built by Whatlings Ltd of Glasgow , later bought by Alfred McAlpine .
Seven lives were lost during construction before the bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh on 4 September 1964 . The ferry service was discontinued as of that date .
= = = Operation = = =
The bridge 's management was delegated to the FRBJB , and remained so until 2002 when its operation was transferred to a new body with a wider remit , the Forth Estuary Transport Authority .
On 1 December 2010 the bridge was closed for the first time due to heavy snow . After several accidents meant snowploughs were unable to clear the carriageways , the bridge was closed in both directions at 6 @.@ 40 a.m. and remained closed for several hours . As part of celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the bridge 's operation , artist Kate Downie was commissioned to create a print of the bridge and hold an exhibition of works portraying it .
On 1 June 2015 Amey took over the maintenance and operating of the bridge on behalf of Transport Scotland from the Forth Estuary Transport Authority and are now called the Forth Bridges Unit .
= = Statistics = =
The bridge 's central main span is 1 @,@ 006 metres ( 3 @,@ 301 ft ) long , its two side spans are each 408 metres ( 1 @,@ 339 ft ) long , and the approach viaducts are 252 metres ( 827 ft ) on the north side and 438 metres ( 1 @,@ 437 ft ) on the south side . At a total length of 2 @,@ 512 metres ( 8 @,@ 241 ft ) , it was the longest suspension bridge span outside the United States and the fourth @-@ longest span in the world at the time of its construction . The bridge comprises 39 @,@ 000 tonnes of steel and 115 @,@ 000 cubic metres of concrete . The towers reach 156 metres ( 512 ft ) above mean water level . Its width comprises a dual carriageway road with two lanes in each direction bounded by cycle / footpaths on each side . The main strung cables are 590 millimetres ( 23 in ) in diameter , comprising 11 @,@ 618 high tensile wires , each five millimetres in diameter , and each cable carries 13 @,@ 800 tonnes of the bridge 's load .
The bridge forms a crucial part of the corridor between south @-@ east and north @-@ east Scotland , linking Edinburgh to Perth , Dundee and Aberdeen by the A90 road and its sister M90 motorway , which begins 1 @.@ 67 miles ( 2 @.@ 69 km ) north of the bridge 's northern terminus . The bridge carried around 2 @.@ 5 million vehicles in its first year but the annual figure has risen steadily over time to around 21 @.@ 4 million vehicles in 2008 . The bridge carried its 250 millionth vehicle in 2002 .
It was awarded Historic Scotland 's Category A listed structure status in 2001 .
= = Structural issues = =
There has been concern at FETA over the structural wear of the bridge . The planned theoretical capacity for the bridge ( 30 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in each direction ) is routinely exceeded as traffic levels have outstripped predictions . The Scottish Government stated in 2006 that 60 @,@ 000 vehicles travel on more than half the days in a year . This raised concerns about the lifespan of the bridge , originally planned at 120 years .
2003 saw an inspection programme launched ( at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 2 million ) to assess the condition of the main suspension cables after corrosion was discovered in a number of older bridges in the United States of a similar design and size . The study , which was completed in 2005 , found that the main cables had suffered an 8 – 10 % loss of strength . Future projections highlighted the likelihood of an accelerating loss of strength , with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst @-@ case scenario , followed by full closure by 2020 .
Further monitoring and remedial work is now under way . An acoustic monitoring system , commissioned in August 2006 , uses listening devices to monitor any further strands snapping and pinpoint their location within the main cables .
Given the significance of the findings of the first internal inspection , in November 2005 the Scottish Executive appointed Flint & Neill Partnership to audit the results . Flint & Neill appointed New York – based Ammann & Whitney to act as sub @-@ consultants providing specialist advice using experience gained from inspections and assessments carried out in America . In January 2006 , an audit report to the Scottish Executive concluded that FETA 's consultant had performed the initial internal inspection and cable strength calculation in accordance with accepted practice . The audit report suggested that traffic restrictions could be required as early as 2013 .
Several options are being implemented to increase the bridge 's lifespan . These include an extensive dehumidification programme to slow the rate of corrosion in the main cables by installing a system that will keep the air in the voids between the strands that make up the main cables at a humidity level of below 40 % . Engineering consultants Faber Maunsell began work on the project in 2006 . The works are planned to take two and a half years at a cost of £ 7 @.@ 8 million . As part of the works , some of the corroded cable strands are to be spliced .
The southbound carriageway of the bridge was closed on 1 December 2015 due to the discovery of steelwork defects during routine inspections . Subsequently a 7 @.@ 5 tonne weight limit was put in place ( public service buses were not included ) . On 4 December , the bridge was fully closed because of structural faults and was initially not expected to reopen until the new year following further inspections and repair work . Following the closure , Transport Scotland began work to lay on extra trains and buses and consider whether to reintroduce a ferry service to mitigate the impact on travellers . The closure resulted in tailbacks approaching the Kincardine Bridge , the alternative route across the Forth from Fife to Edinburgh . On 22 December it was announced that the Road Bridge would reopen the following day for all traffic except heavy goods vehicles ( HGVs ) , with an expectation that the bridge will reopen to HGVs around mid @-@ February .
On 4 February , It was announced the date had been pushed back to March for full restrictions to be taken off , due to further problems with the truss end link pins in the southern towers , which require preventative works to be carried out . Trials began to allow 600 HGVs to cross northbound between 23 : 00 and 04 : 00 each night , subject to weather conditions . The HGVs are controlled by traffic signals and released onto the bridge at a rate of one every 30 seconds .
= = = 2016 public inquiry = = =
On 20 January Scottish Parliament began its inquiry led by the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee ( ICI ) , to determine the circumstances that led to the discovery of a cracked truss in the bridge 's undercarriage . Evidence was heard from ; Forth Estuary Transport Authority ( Feta ) , Transport minister Derek Mackay , engineers and officials from Amey along with a number of other experts and key personnel .
On the first day , Richard Hornby , of engineering consulting firm Arup , stated , since 2001 , the truss end in question had been inspected 23 times and there was no fault found . It was revealed a pin had seized up , which was cause of the truss end to crack , and was only the quality of the steel which had stopped its cracking appearing earlier . Hornby also made clear even if the seized pin had been picked up earlier it was " virtually impossible " to lubricate the bearing .
Several witnesses defended a decision by previous operator Forth Estuary Transport Authority ( Feta ) not to proceed with a £ 15 million truss end link replacement project in 2010 . This claim was disputed by Barry Colford , former chief engineer and bridgemaster at the Forth Estuary Transport Authority . Lesley Hinds , Feta ’ s former convener , pointed out that the bridge budget had been cut by 58 % in 2011 , while senior staff at Feta had “ deep concerns ” about the transfer of bridge management to a private company .
= = Tolling issues = =
On 11 February 2008 tolls were abolished on the bridge .
Initially , it was suggested that tolling would cease once the original cost of construction plus the accrued interest was repaid – this was done in 1993 and it was planned that tolls would not be levied after May 1995 . However , the legislation enabling the levying of tolls was instead renewed by Parliament ( originally that of the UK but now the responsibility of the Scottish Parliament ) on three separate occasions in 1998 , 2003 and 2006 .
Originally , a toll was paid for each direction of travel with sets of toll booths on both carriageways . In 1997 , a decision was made to double the northbound toll ( then 40p , to 80p ) and remove the southbound toll . The belief was that almost all traffic makes a return journey across the bridge , and that the removal of the southbound toll would result in a reduction of congestion for southbound traffic without reducing overall toll revenues .
The Forth Estuary Transport Authority ( FETA ) justified the continued use of tolls by suggesting they were necessary to fund maintenance and improvement works . These included the construction of defences around the submerged piers forming the bases of the main towers in the event of collision in the Firth . The main towers were also strengthened with internal steel columns ( the original tower structure was hollow ) and had hydraulic rams jack up these sections to transfer a portion of the load to the new steelwork . Also , the vertical cables suspending the deck had their bolts replaced after a single detected failure . A new paint system required development for the bridge ( the original was phased out due to environmental concerns ) .
= = = Variable tolling proposals = = =
In late 2005 , FETA 's committee approved a proposal for a complete revamp of the system of toll levies . The minimum toll would be set to the existing £ 1 figure , but would increase dependent on the time of day , rising to a maximum of £ 4 for evening rush hour travel . All tolls would be halved for cars with more than one occupant , as an incentive to drivers to share cars and make fewer journeys . According to FETA 's chairman Lawrence Marshall , the system would provide the most efficiency , claiming that 80 % of peak @-@ time journeys are made by single @-@ occupant vehicles . The proposal , passed with the chairman 's casting vote after the committee was deadlocked , was referred to the Scottish Executive in December 2005 , and implementation planned for October 2007 subject to approval by transport minister Tavish Scott . Environmental groups welcomed the proposal , although local politicians condemned it as simply a means of raising capital . At the same time , a counter @-@ argument was tabled by Fife councillors proposing the complete removal of tolls .
The Scottish Parliament debated the proposals in January 2006 , and the affair became a major political issue after Westminster @-@ based MPs Gordon Brown and Alistair Darling ( Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Scotland respectively ) were seen to describe the variable tolling plan as " dead in the water " . Scottish First Minister Jack McConnell insisted his Labour Party colleagues were misquoted and himself refused to rule out the plan , receiving considerable condemnation from the opposition Scottish National Party .
The political situation was particularly important given that by late January 2006 , campaigning was under way for the Dunfermline and West Fife by @-@ election , 2006 scheduled to take place for the Westminster constituency in which the north end of the bridge is situated . The by @-@ election , scheduled for 9 February , was contested by - in addition to the major political parties in Scotland - an Abolish Forth Bridge Tolls Party . It was won by Liberal Democrat candidate Willie Rennie , overturning a large Labour majority on a 16 % swing .
In the aftermath of the by @-@ election defeat , media speculation suggested the Executive had turned against the proposals , and Tavish Scott eventually confirmed their rejection and the retention of the existing toll structure on 1 March 2006 . FETA condemned the decision , while local opposition MSPs charged the minister that his tolling review short @-@ changed Fifers as tolls were axed on the Erskine Bridge leaving tolls on only the Forth and Tay Road Bridge .
= = = Abolition = = =
Following the formation of an SNP minority government after the Scottish parliamentary election of May 2007 , a new debate on the abolition of tolls was opened by Transport Minister Stewart Stevenson on 31 May 2007 , where it was agreed by a large majority . Toll levies at that point totalled £ 16 million annually .
The Abolition of Bridge Tolls ( Scotland ) Bill , required to revoke legislation mandating toll collection on the bridge , was introduced to the Scottish Parliament on 3 September 2007 , passed on 20 December 2007 , and received royal assent on 24 January 2008 . The tolls were removed on 11 February 2008 at 00 : 01 GMT . This immediately followed a major upgrade and reconfiguration of the tolls on the northbound carriageway ( the toll on the southbound carriageway had been removed some years before , simplifying the arrangement as most journeys were , and remain , two @-@ way ) .
= = Additional crossing at Queensferry = =
The strategic transport importance of the road bridge and the threat of closure by 2020 if major structural work were not undertaken led to fears of serious economic consequences , especially as work on any new crossing could take a decade .
Increasing traffic levels across the Firth of Forth had also led to the construction of the Clackmannanshire Bridge adjacent to the existing Kincardine Bridge . This bridge opened in November 2008 .
Proposals for a second road crossing at Queensferry had been made in the 1990s , but were subsequently shelved , despite preliminary work on route selection . Following the discovery of potentially serious structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 the proposals were revisited and plans advanced . The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007 , and it was announced the following year that the existing bridge would be retained , as a public transport link . The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011 , and construction began in September 2011 . The Queensferry Crossing is being constructed as a cable @-@ stayed bridge , with an overall length of 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) . Around 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of new connecting roads are being built , including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife , South Queensferry , and Junction 1a on the M9 . The new bridge will continue the M90 motorway , ( extending its southern terminus ) from Admiralty to the M9 junction 1a ( re @-@ numbering the M9 spur ) .
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= Telenor Arena =
Telenor Arena , sometimes referred to as Fornebu Arena , is a multi @-@ purpose indoor arena located at Fornebu in Bærum , outside Oslo , Norway . It serves as a venue for a variety of events , including concerts , exhibitions , action shows , family shows , TV and sport . It has a capacity for 15 @,@ 000 spectators for sports and 23 @,@ 000 for concerts , including 40 luxury boxes and club seating for 1 @,@ 200 . The venue has a fixed roof and an asphalt floor . The venue was opened ahead of the 2009 Norwegian football season as a replacement for Nadderud Stadion . It cost 585 million Norwegian kroner ( NOK ) to build , of which NOK 300 million was for the sports venue .
During the 2000s , Nadderud was below standards for play in the top national league . Fornebu was at the time undergoing an urban redevelopment ; after several years of negotiations and public grants , Stabæk secured a lot in 2004 . Construction started in 2007 . In 2010 , a disagreement arose between the club and venue @-@ owner Kjell Chr . Ulrichsen , with the latter demanding that the team leave the venue to allow for more event revenue . Telenor Arena has hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 , as well as concerts by artists and bands of international fame , such as Adele , Muse , Foo Fighters , Roger Waters ( the Wall tour ) , Rihanna , Lady Gaga , Beyoncé , Jay @-@ Z , Kanye West , Metallica , AC / DC , Black Sabbath , The Rolling Stones . Telenor holds the naming rights .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
Stabæk traditionally has played their home games at Nadderud Stadion , a municipal multi @-@ purpose stadium at Bekkestua . Following the club 's rapid ascent from lower divisions to the top league during the first half of the 1990s , Nadderud became in need of upgrades , resulting in a new main grandstand opening in 1996 . The stadium remained severely lacking adequate facilities for professional football , and fell short of increasing requirements from the Football Association of Norway ( NFF ) .
Originally , a redevelopment of Nadderud was proposed , but in 1999 Stabæk players launched the idea of building a new stadium at Fornebu , which became subject to an urban redevelopment project after the 1998 closing of Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The initial proposal was named Blue Dream Arena , would have seating for 25 @,@ 000 spectators , blue artificial turf and a retractable roof . Other proposed amenities were movable seating which would also allow the stadium to both host athletics and be configured as an intimate football stadium . The idea called for Bruce Springsteen to hold a concert before the first match , which would be played against Barcelona . Several of the initial concepts of the stadium were never materialized . International rules disallowed blue artificial turf ; instead , the flooring in the boxes were made in a blue , artificial turf @-@ inspired material . Also the idea of having a retractable roof was discarded , both because of technical difficulties and cost issues .
In May 2001 , Oslo City Council voted to sell their properties at Fornebu to Fornebu Boligspar ( FB ) , which again had agreements to sell a lot for the stadium to Stabæk . In November 2002 , Borgarting Court of Appeal concluded that Norrønafly had the right to continue leasing a hangar — located at the planned location of the venue — until 2014 . In June 2003 , Stabæk was in financial difficulties , and investor Kjell Chr . Ulrichsen bought shares for NOK 10 million to avoid bankruptcy ; these shares had the option to be converted to shares in the arena company .
Fornebu Boligspar later determined that it was more profitable to build apartments at the arena site . Negotiations started between the club , the property company and Mayor Odd Reinsfelt . In November 2003 , it was announced that a compromise was reached whereby Fornebu Boligspar would give the lot free to Stabæk , in exchange for a lot nearby . Two weeks later the compromise was rejected by FB . A new compromise was announced on 29 June 2004 , whereby FB would give 50 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and a lot free to Stabæk in exchange for the commercial properties which would be part of the stadium . However , the following day the parties announced that they were not able to agree on the risk , as Stabæk demanded that FB take the full risk in the project .
Instead , Stabæk started negotiating with IT Fornebu to take over a lot they owned . They needed a 300 hectares ( 740 acres ) lot which would have a market value of between NOK 60 and 80 million , and Reinsfelt stated that the municipality was willing to help by " maneuver in gray areas within the margins " . The club was further pressured by NFF , who were going to limit the exceptions allowed for Nadderud and other stadiums not meeting their criteria . On 29 October , FB and Stabæk signed an agreement whereby Stabæk received a free lot and NOK 50 million , in exchange for FB taking over the commercial properties . The condition was that the municipality allowed a more dense use of the rest of FB 's area . This would require a re @-@ regulation of the area , and Reinsfelt estimated that it would not be possible for construction to start until 2006 . In November , UEFA changed the rules for artificial turf to state that it had to be green . Until Stabæk 's proposal was made , UEFA had not though that anyone would build a pitch with a non @-@ green turf , and representatives stated that it was because of Stabæk the rule change was made . The plans were nearly terminated in October 2006 , after discussion about the planned Fornebu Line — a people mover which would connect Fornebu to Lysaker — stopped the regulation plan . However , in November the final permissions were granted by Bærum Municipality . On 22 December , Stabæk announced that the financing was secured .
= = = Construction = = =
Architects were HRTB and the main contractor was NCC Construction . While domed stadiums have been common in North America , no such stadiums of comparable size of Telenor Arena had previously been built for football in Europe . Construction started by demolishing a hangar , which was completed in February 2007 . However , because of the building boom , concrete elements needed for construction to start meant that the rest of the construction was delayed . The cornerstone was laid on 5 September .
In June 2008 , Stabæk announced they had signed an eleven @-@ year sponsorship agreement with the telecommunications company Telenor , where the latter would pay up to NOK 115 million for the sole naming rights for the arena , in addition to tickets and access to executive boxes . In March 2009 , the retailing property was sold from Scandinavian Property Development to KLP Eiendom . The plans called for twenty to twenty @-@ five football games , four to eight concerts , three to four large sports events and two other large events and conventions per year . Because of larger seating capacity , an all @-@ seating arrangement , higher attendance and VIP facilities , Stabæk is able to generate three times the matchday revenue from Telenor Arena as Nadderud . The stadium is plagued with traffic problems on matchdays , with large crews hired to create temporary barriers to direct the crowds . The bus stops closest to the venue are closed , and a large number of police officers have to direct the traffic . These are costs which have to be carried by the arena company , and contrasts to matches at the nearly twice as large Ullevaal , where no such measures are necessary .
= = = Football versus event controversy = = =
In October 2009 , ten individuals bought the operation company of the club and signed a 40 @-@ year lease for the use of the arena for Stabæk 's home matches , as well as the right to use the facility for certain other activities . This contract has a revenue of NOK 9 million per year . In 2009 , Stabæk Holding had a deficit of NOK 66 @.@ 1 million , while Stabæk Fotball lost NOK 23 @.@ 6 million . To keep the operating company running , Ulrichsen increased the company 's share capital by NOK 73 million from late 2009 through late 2010 .
On 4 November 2010 , Stabæk Holding stated that they were near a bankruptcy , and that they intended to throw out Stabæk as a tenant , remove the turf and instead use the venue exclusively for events . Chair Diderik Schnitler in Stabæk Holding stated that the business model was not sustainable . The football schedule was not made until early in the year , while in the event business , bookings were common one to two years in advance . It was therefore difficult to secure lucrative events , as large parts of the year had to be held in reserve in case the venue was needed for yet @-@ to @-@ be scheduled matches . The holding company stated that they might have to file for bankruptcy . Stabæk Fotball stated that they had a 40 @-@ year contract to use the venue .
Stabæk 's director of sports , Inge André Olsen , stated that returning to Nadderud was not an option , as it had too little capacity and insufficient facilities . Should Nadderud be used , it would have to be rebuilt , with new grandstands under roofs , VIP seating , a new parking house and new change room , which would cost NOK 100 million . Because of building permits , construction would take two to three years . Nadderud is also not approved to host games in the Premier League , so Stabæk would have to either play their games at Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo or Marienlyst Stadion in Drammen . Telenor stated that if Stabæk moved , they would have to re @-@ negotiate the naming rights agreement for the arena , as the value of the contract was largely based on the naming exposure of Stabæk playing in the Premier League . The company also stated that they had difficulty understanding the argumentation from the holding company , as there was no football being played October and March , but that the venue , which has the largest capacity for indoor concerts in the Oslo area , failed to attract large artists , such as Rihanna , during the winter months .
On 4 December , Stabæk Fotball stated that they were willing to move their training , Norwegian Football Cup and UEFA matches to either Nadderud or Ullevaal , as a compromise to free up more available time in the arena . This was rejected by NFF , who stated that the licensing rules required that a club 's main arena be available for all league , cup and UEFA matches , and that a general exemption would not be given for the cup . In mid @-@ December , Stabæk Fotball started the process of a judicial registration of the right to lease the venue , which was permitted according to the contract . This would grant Stabæk Fotball the right to continue to lease the venue even if the holding company went bankrupt . A preliminary injunction for this was granted by Asker and Bærum District Court .
In a 16 December statement , three Stabæk Fotball officials said that they suspected that Ulrichen 's plan all along was to convert the venue to a pure convention center , and that the use as a football venue was a decoy to get a free lot worth up to NOK 200 million plus grants worth NOK 50 million . The book value of the venue was NOK 303 million at the end of 2010 , although a statement from the district court stated that the value of the venue was significantly lower than that . The bank DnB NOR held at the time a mortgage with security in the property worth NOK 260 million , while Ulrichsen through his investment company held a mortgage worth NOK 60 @.@ 1 million .
On 7 January 2011 , the parts announced that they had reached a compromise . Stabæk would remain at Telenor Arena for at least the 2011 season . In addition , the club held an option to take over the responsibility for events at the venue . Stabæk Fotball had until 30 June to accept the option , which would allow the club to remain at the venue on a permanent basis . This would require them to invest NOK 20 million in an event administration , which would increase event revenue , but at the same time move the risk from Stabæk Holding to Stabæk Fotball . If the club declined the option , they would not be allowed to play at the venue from the 2012 season . On 30 June , Stabæk announced that they would not fulfill the option to continue renting the stadium . The necessary NOK 35 million would entail a risk the club was not willing to take . The club stated that they hoped they could remain at the stadium by establishing a foundation which could purchase the venue form Ulrichsen . If this does not work out , the club will have to relocate from the 2012 season . The club is then considering relocating back to Nadderud , to Ullevaal or to Marienlyst . The club estimates that any relocation would result in the club losing half their revenue . Stabæk played its last match at Fornebu Arena on 20 November 2011 , losing 1 – 2 against Haugesund . Subsequently the pitch was removed , and Stabæk returned to Nadderud from the 2012 season .
The Norwegian Handball Federation announced in May 2013 that the arena would be used for a four @-@ nation men 's handball tournament , Bring Cup , in November . The federation stated that they would use the tournament to evaluate if the venue was suitable as a new national arena for handball . The venue received mixed reviews . The tournament saw low attendance and Danish commentator Bent Nyegaard criticized the arena for being too large . The federation was happy with the arena , and stated that were planning on using it for finals in their bid for future World and European Handball Championships . Telenor Arena is part of the Oslo bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics , in which it has been proposed used for short track speed skating and figure skating .
= = Facilities = =
The venue is located at Fornebu , a peninsula in Bærum , located 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the city center of Oslo . The venue is owned and operated by Fornebu Arena AS , which is again owned by Stabæk Holding , which also owns Stabæk Fotball . Telenor , Norway 's largest telecommunications company , holds the naming rights for the stadium . The venue has seating for 15 @,@ 000 spectators for football , and 23 @,@ 000 for concerts . This includes club seating for 1 @,@ 200 , 40 luxury boxes and a restaurant which can seat 800 . The arena is entirely indoors , and has a height clearance of 23 meters ( 75 ft ) to the beams and 33 meters ( 108 ft ) to the roof . The floor surface is 120 by 82 meters ( 394 by 269 ft ) , while the pitch is 105 by 60 meters ( 344 by 197 ft ) . The venue has a considerably lower heating cost than similar conventional halls because the warm air is stored in the building 's concrete and steel elements , and using the inert energy created by the spectators . The venue is the largest indoor stadium in Northern Europe . The retailing area of 2 @,@ 600 square metres ( 28 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in the complex is owned by Arena Handel AS , a subsidiary of KLP Eiendom .
The venue is owned and operated by a conglomerate of six companies all owned by Kjell Christian Ulrichsen . The mother company for the other companies is Stabæk Holding AS . Fornebu Arena AS is the actual owner of the real estate . Fornebu Event AS is responsible for renting out the venue for concerts , conventions and other non @-@ sporting events . FA Leie AS partially leases and partially owns installed facilities in the venue . Sameiedrift Widerøeveien nr . 1 AS is the management company for the property as a whole . Arena Idrett AS hold the rental guarantee given to Fornebu Arena by the renters of the commercial properties and Sameiedrift Widerøeveien nr . 1 .
= = Transport = =
Ruter bus 31 is a high @-@ frequency service which runs from the city center of Oslo via Lysaker Station to Fornebu . During regular schedule it stops just outside the stadium ; however , on matchdays it stops further away because of traffic . Lysaker Station is served by both the Oslo Commuter Rail and selected intercity and regional trains . Dedicated football buses are operated by Ruter to Stabæk home games . There are 1 @,@ 500 parking spaces immediately near the venue , although additional parking is available at IT Fornebu and at Lysaker , which are a seven- and fifteen @-@ minute walk away , respectively . The Fornebu Line is under planning , and would be built either as a light rail or a rapid transit , which would allow rail transport from the city center of Oslo and Lysaker to the stadium .
= = Events = =
Telenor Arena was the home ground for Stabæk Fotball , which plays in the Norwegian Premier League . The first match was a friendly against Sweden 's IFK Göteborg on 24 January 2009 . The official opening took place on 8 March , when it was host of Superfinalen 2009 , a pre @-@ season match between Stabæk as league champions and Vålerenga as cup champions .
Stabæk has played four UEFA tournament matches at Fornebu : against Tirana and Copenhagen during the qualification for the 2009 – 10 UEFA Champions League , against Valencia in the play @-@ off for the 2009 – 10 UEFA Europa League , and against Dnepr Mogilev in the qualification for the 2010 – 11 UEFA Europa League . Stabæk 's record attendance at Telenor Arena dates from 13 September 2009 , when 13 @,@ 402 people saw a league game against Rosenborg . The record in a UEFA game was 12 @,@ 560 , who saw the match against Copenhagen .
The following list shows the average , maximum and minimum attendance for Stabæk 's home games in the Premier League . It also gives the rank among the average attendance for the Premier League teams .
Telenor Arena is often used as a concert arena when international superstars visits Norway . The other big concert arena in Norway is Oslo Spektrum . Madonna visited Telenor Arena with her The MDNA Tour on 15 August 2012 . Rihanna visited Telenor Arena with her Diamonds World Tour on 25 July 2013 . The arena when filled could get very hot and the organisers where criticized for the water priced at 44 NOK ( approximately $ 7 @,@ 2 ) for a cup with water.Justin Bieber visited Norway and Telenor Arena with his Believe Tour 16 @,@ 17 and 18 April 2013 . The three concerts were all full seated . Other major concerts held at the venue include AC / DC with their Black Ice World Tour and Tina Turner with her 50th Anniversary Tour in 2009 , Andrea Bocelli in 2010 , Metallica for two nights on their World Magnetic Tour in 2010 , , Bruce Springsteen for two nights of the Wrecking Ball World Tour in 2013 and Iron Maiden on The Final Frontier World Tour in 2011 . Kylie Minogue will perform in 2015 as part of her Kiss Me Once Tour . Telenor Arena was the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 on 25 , 27 and 29 May 2010 . During the proceeding weeks , Stabæk had to play their home matches at Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo . Other events at the venue include the Solberg Extreme Motorshow , Oslo International Horse Show and Sensation .
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= Cheek to Cheek ( album ) =
Cheek to Cheek is a collaborative album by American singers Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga . It was released on September 19 , 2014 , by Interscope Records and Columbia Records . In 2011 , Bennett and Gaga first met at the Robin Hood Foundation gala in New York City . After these two later recorded a rendition of " The Lady Is a Tramp " , they began discussing plans for working on a jazz project . Cheek to Cheek consists of jazz standards by popular jazz composers such as George Gershwin , Cole Porter , Jerome Kern , and Irving Berlin . The album was inspired by Bennett and Gaga 's desire to introduce the songs to a younger generation , since they believed that these tracks had universal appeal .
In January 2013 , it was announced by both artists and started recording , after Gaga recovered from her hip surgery . The album was recorded in New York City , where Bennett and Gaga were accompanied by a live band and jazz musicians associated with both artists . Gaga deviated from her previous contemporary pop albums , while wanting instead to create a jazz record . The release date of the album was delayed multiple times , and the final date was announced by Bennett and Gaga on The Today Show . The full @-@ length track listing and the cover artwork was released thereafter ; including the track lists for many alternate editions . The artists promoted Cheek to Cheek through multiple performances in and around New York , a " behind the scenes " program detailing the recording of the album on Home Shopping Network ( HSN ) , and a televised concert , titled Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek Live ! , which aired on PBS in October 2014 . The album was preceded by the release of two singles : " Anything Goes " and " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " . They both reached number one on Billboard 's Jazz Digital Songs Chart .
Cheek to Cheek received generally positive reviews upon release , with critics praising Gaga 's vocals . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards , the album won a Grammy for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . Cheek to Cheek debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , with 131 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan , and has since sold 717 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album became Bennett 's second number @-@ one album and Gaga 's third consecutive number @-@ one album in the US ; Gaga became the first female artist in the 2010 decade to have three number @-@ one albums , while Bennett extended his record as the oldest person to achieve a number @-@ one album on the chart . The album also reached the top ten in Greece , the United Kingdom , Canada , Japan , and Australia .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga first met , after she had performed a rendition of Nat King Cole 's " Orange Colored Sky " , at the Robin Hood Foundation gala in New York City . Bennett then asked Gaga to sing a duet with him on his album Duets II , and these two have recorded " The Lady Is a Tramp " for the album . In September 2012 , Bennett confirmed to Rolling Stone that Gaga wanted to record a jazz album with him and there was a well @-@ known composer associated with the project , and although not on a par with songwriters like George Gershwin or Cole Porter , he had had several hits to his name . Swing band and composer Marion Evans were also under consideration for collaborating on the album ; Bennett confirmed recording sessions would start soon after .
In January 2013 , Evans confirmed that he would have a fairly significant part in the making of the album , stating " I don 't know at this point exactly how many songs will be on the CD , but I 'm sure we 'll have about four or five different @-@ sized orchestras or bands . It 'll turn into a giant panic , I can assure you . That 's just how this business is . " Later that month , Gaga , after her performance with Bennett at the final inaugural ball of President Obama 's second inauguration , announced the album formally through her Twitter . " And here 's me and my handsome date , I simply cannot wait for our album together , he 's my darling ! " she wrote as a caption for a photo tweeted of the pair , along with revealing the title of the album as Cheek to Cheek . In September 2013 , Bennett explained that for the album , they recorded " all great standards , quality songs ; George Gershwin , Cole Porter , Jerome Kern , Irving Berlin , songs like that . With a big swingin ' band and great , great , jazz artists playing . " He told Chicago Tribune that his main intention of recording the album with Gaga was to introduce the jazz standards to a younger audience , believing that the tracks had a " universal appeal " and " timeless quality " about them . Gaga told The Daily Telegraph that with her earlier releases like The Fame ( 2008 ) , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , and Born This Way ( 2011 ) , she felt unable to achieve her full vocal potential . She described Cheek to Cheek as a " rebellious " and " liberating " album for her because she was able to sing without worrying about record producers engineering it for radio .
Bennett said that Gaga had written an original song for the album titled " Paradise " . It also contained solo performances along with the duets ; Gaga later clarified that the album contained only standards . The songs were handpicked by Bennett and Gaga ; they selected tracks from the Great American Songbook including " Anything Goes " , a Porter song , " It Don 't Mean a Thing ( If It Ain 't Got That Swing ) " and " Sophisticated Lady " by Duke Ellington , " Lush Life " by Billy Strayhorn , and the title track by Berlin . In an interview with French newspaper La Presse , Bennett said :
I do not understand why [ Gaga ] had to make contemporary music ! When she sings great standards , she does it with such emotion ... It will surprise people by the quality of her voice when making quality songs . We sing a duet again on the album , but also separately . With this album , I think she will become bigger than Elvis Presley ! Of course we recorded the album in New York . As the saying goes : ' If you can make it in New York , you 'll make it anywhere .
= = Recording and composition = =
Although the project was in development and discussions were taking place as early as September 2012 , the recording did not start until the Spring of 2013 , being delayed by Gaga 's hip surgery and cancellation of her Born This Way Ball tour . The recording took place over a year in New York City , and featured jazz musicians associated with both artists . Bennett 's quartet was present , including Mike Renzi , Gray Sargent , Harold Jones and Marshall Wood as well as pianist Tom Lanier . Along with Evans , jazz trumpeter Brian Newman , a long @-@ time friend and colleague of Gaga , played on the album with his New York City based jazz quintet . Tenor saxophonist Joe Lovano and flautist Paul Horn were also enlisted as musicians .
According to Gaga , Bennett wanted her to sing different songs and was impressed by her vocals during " Lush Life " , referring to the Billy Strayhorn written standard that has been recorded by everyone from Nancy Wilson and Sarah Vaughan to Donna Summer and Linda Ronstadt . Gaga explained that she was nervous about recording with Bennett . " I just wanted him to hear I have an authentic jazz voice and that I studied that ... If he can hear that , I 'm okay . If he can 't hear it , I 'm not an authentic jazz voice , " she added . Inspiration for singing came from jazz singer Amy Winehouse , who died in July 2011 ; Gaga added " I thought of her almost every day in the studio . I wish she was still here . She was jazz to her core " . The songs were recorded live with the band , and during the recording process Gaga asked for carpets to be placed on the studio floor , so that it looked like a film set and it could be photographed .
In Cheek to Cheek , Gaga sings solo on " Lush Life " , " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " and " Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye " , while Bennett 's solo includes " Don 't Wait Too Long " and " Sophisticated Lady " . According to Gaga , " Lush Life " and " Sophisticated Lady " complemented each other ; for Bennett , the complement came from the fact that Duke Ellington wrote " Sophisticated Lady " and later collaborated with Strayhorn for " Lush Life " . Gaga sang " Lush Life " in her school choir , but it was only later she understood the lyrical interpretation of the track , about failure and heartache . During Cheek to Cheek 's recording , she was emotionally upset about her professional and personal conflicts during the Artpop era ; Bennett had to support and guide her through the process . Newman recalled that " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " was recorded during the taping of the duo 's show at Lincoln Center . Gaga had informed the musicians about performing the song , and piano player Alex Smith made the necessary musical arrangements the night before the concert . They did not rehearse it , and recorded it live when Gaga performed the song in front of the audience .
The first song , " Anything Goes " , was recorded by Bennett for his 1959 collaboration with Count Basie and his Orchestra , Strike Up the Band , and Gaga first came to know about it when she was 13 years old . Gaga thought that " Anything Goes " was a funny track with a " real sexy , powerful vibe to it , and it 's just because we 're having fun singing it . " The version on Cheek to Cheek finds Bennett and Gaga swapping the lyrics between themselves , and was described by Bobby Olivier , from The Star @-@ Ledger , as " smooth as silk " . The syllables are pronounced strongly by Gaga in syncopation while her vibrato complemented Bennett 's characteristic jazz vocals and swing . Olivier added , " Gaga 's voice , when stripped of its bells and whistles , showcases a timelessness that lends itself well to the genre . " " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " was originally written in 1928 by Jimmy McHugh and Dorothy Fields for the Broadway revue , Blackbirds of 1928 . The version on Cheek to Cheek opens with the sound of high @-@ hat and an electronic organ . Gaga alters the lyrics to sing " Gee , I 'd like to say you 're looking swell , Tony " , who later rejoins with the line " Diamond bracelets won 't work , doesn 't sell , Gaga " . " Nature Boy " was first released as a single in 1948 by Cole , and it became a commercial success for him . Written by eccentric songwriter eden ahbez , the song about a " strange enchanted boy " features instrumentation from flutes and drums , and has an orchestral arrangement . A loungier version , Gaga sings in a Liza Minnelli inspired voice with a breathy range , followed by Bennett complimenting her with the story of meeting the titular character .
= = Release and artwork = =
On December 12 , 2013 , Bennett revealed to CNN that the album 's release was delayed and the final release date was confirmed as March 18 , 2014 . Edna Gunderson from USA Today reported that the album had been delayed and was expected to be released in late 2014 . Later in April 2014 , during the Museum of the Moving Image 's salute to Kevin Spacey , Bennett told a reporter that the album would be released during September . On July 29 , 2014 , Bennett and Gaga appeared on The Today Show to formally announce their collaboration and confirmed the final release date in the US as September 23 , 2014 . The album was first released in Australia and Germany on September 19 , 2014 .
Photographer Steven Klein shot the album covers , and was responsible for the artistic ideas behind the packaging of the release . He also developed the cover art for " Anything Goes " . On August 18 , 2014 , Gaga released the official cover art for the album , which showed the singer with Bennett , sitting and holding hands . The singer explained that she and Bennett were sitting and talking when Klein had suddenly photographed them . For the standard edition , Bennett and Gaga are shown in a New York newspaper with the album name atop the image , while the deluxe edition just features the same image . Gaga 's look with her massive black curls in the image was compared by Kirthana Ramisetti from New York Daily News to singer Cher 's character in the 1987 American romantic comedy Moonstruck .
The complete track list for the album was also revealed alongside the cover arts . The standard edition consists of 11 tracks while the deluxe edition has 15 songs listed . Along with the standard and deluxe editions in digital and CD formats , there were exclusive releases to Home Shopping Network ( HSN ) and Target . A 180 grams ( 0 @.@ 40 lb ) vinyl edition of the album was also released to Amazon.com. The album was sold at Starbucks stores with unique cover artwork . In October 2014 , Gaga announced a Collector 's Box Set to be released in December 2014 . It would include limited edition items , like personal snapshots , Cheek to Cheek sheet music autographed by Bennett , 8 × 10 art prints housed in a vellum envelope and others .
Bennett told Billboard that they were also inspired by Porter 's 1936 musical , Red , Hot and Blue , for a possible sequel to Cheek to Cheek . He wanted to see how Cheek to Cheek fared after its release , but Gaga wanted to start working on the collaboration " right away " . Bennett added : " we 're gonna do two albums in a row with her . We 'll have to try and do that as soon as possible , just as a follow @-@ up for a second album . "
= = Promotion = =
= = = Live performances = = =
In June 2014 , Gaga began promoting the album through a series of public appearances with and without Bennett , the first of them being at the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in New York City . At the school , which was founded by Bennett and his wife Susan Crow , the pair performed as a duo and individually , and fielded questions from the audience . They concluded their engagement by watching a performance from the school 's choir . Two days after her performance at the school , Gaga showed a new tattoo of a Miles Davis trumpet she had gotten earlier . The singer posted a picture to her Instagram account of her getting the tattoo with Newman , announcing his involvement on the album while proclaiming , " It 's jazz time , world " . Gaga also performed with Bennett at the Montreal International Jazz Festival , and starred in a holiday commercial for retail company H & M , directed by Johan Renck and featuring " It Don 't Mean A Thing ( If I Ain 't Got That Swing ) " . The artists announced the news on Instagram . At the 2014 New York Fashion Week party , Gaga performed " Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye " , dedicating it to her boyfriend , actor Taylor Kinney .
On September 13 and 14 , 2014 , HSN broadcast a special titled Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek . The music special gave fans an exclusive look behind @-@ the @-@ scenes at the making of the album , as well as never @-@ before @-@ seen footage of the two artists collaborating in the recording studio . It also showcased their song selection process from the Great American Songbook . Following the announcement of the release , a short concert was held at the Rose Theater of Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts . Titled Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek Live ! , the concert aired on PBS as part of their Great Performances series on October 24 , 2014 . It was watched by an audience consisting of invited guests and students from New York schools . Set and lighting was created by Robert Wilson , while David Horn directed it . Bennett and Gaga were joined onstage by 39 @-@ piece orchestra conducted by Jorge Calandrelli , soloists Chris Botti on trumpet and David Mann on tenor sax , and jazz musicians associated with both artists . On January 20 , 2015 , the DVD was released .
Three songs from the album were used by ESPN during the advertisements for the 2014 Tennis US Open . The channel 's vice president Jamie Reynolds explained that their decision to incorporate the " classic swing vibe of New York " led them to use the Cheek to Cheek songs . Universal Music provided the videos for the songs , which were then mixed with tennis shots and used in the ads . It also used original content like Bennett in his Manhattan apartment , and Gaga on tour in Australia with ArtRave : The Artpop Ball . On September 13 , 2014 , Bennett joined Gaga onstage at the ArtRave tour in Tel Aviv , Israel to sing selected tracks from the album . Gaga 's vocals on " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " drew praise for her range and control . On September 22 , Bennett and Gaga performed a short set list of songs from Cheek to Cheek at the Grand Place of Brussels , Belgium . Their performance received positive reviews , with The Daily Telegraph 's Anne Bilson giving it four out of five stars , complimenting their vocals saying " Bennett had the lungs to compensate , and Gaga had the moves . " Promotional videos were released for " Anything Goes " ( from Brussels performance ) and " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " ( from the PBS special ) on September 27 , 2014 .
While touring with ArtRave in the United Kingdom , Gaga appeared with Bennett on the twelfth season of British television show , Strictly Come Dancing , performing two songs from the album , " Anything Goes " and " It Don 't Mean a Thing ( If It Ain 't Got That Swing ) " . Following the tour 's completion the duo performed the title track on talk shows The View and The Colbert Report . For the Christmas Tree lighting at Rockefeller Center , Bennett and Gaga performed a rendition of " Winter Wonderland " . A few days later on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon , they performed " Cheek to Cheek " and " It Don 't Mean A Thing ( If I Ain 't Got That Swing ) " and Gaga singing solo on " Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye " .
= = = Cheek to Cheek Tour = = =
Bennett had confirmed that he and Gaga would tour jazz festivals in 2015 , supporting Cheek to Cheek . According to him , Gaga was tired from playing bigger venues , and wanted to have the tour visit smaller venues for at least three @-@ four days , or for three @-@ six weeks . Bennett also explained that he was accustomed to playing in acoustic music halls and outdoor theaters , so Gaga had been looking at such options . " I 'm not interested in playing to 45 @,@ 000 people a night , so [ Gaga 's ] finding places where we could work for three or four days , or three or four weeks , in one place at a time . That 's how she wants to work with me . , " the singer concluded . On New Year 's Eve 2014 , the duo started the Cheek to Cheek Tour by performing at the Cosmopolitan Casino of Las Vegas , making it their first concert in US following the album 's release . They also performed at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards and its scheduled a post @-@ Grammy concert on February 8 , 2015 , at the Wiltern Theatre in Los Angeles , just after the conclusion of the ceremony . More shows were scheduled in 2015 , including Hollywood Bowl on May 30 ; the Royal Albert Hall in London on June 8 ; and Radio City Music Hall in New York City on June 19 . Jesse Lawrence from Forbes reported that there was high demand for the tickets , leading to additional dates being added to the itinerary . He also noted that the concerts had a much higher ticket price than the average , especially in the secondary markets .
= = = Singles = = =
" Anything Goes " was released as the first single from the album on July 29 , 2014 , to digital retailers , followed by the release of its music video to Gaga 's YouTube and Vevo accounts . The video showed Bennett and Gaga recording " Anything Goes " as well as other songs from Cheek to Cheek . In the United Kingdom , " Anything Goes " debuted at number 174 on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending August 9 , 2014 . It also charted at number 132 on the sales chart of the Official Charts Company . In Spain it debuted within the top @-@ fifty of the PROMUSICAE singles chart at number 40 . " Anything Goes " debuted outside the top 100 of the French Singles Chart , at number 178 . On the Billboard Jazz Digital Songs chart , the track debuted at the top , becoming Gaga 's second entry on that chart , following " The Lady is a Tramp " . The song was Bennett 's 15th entry on the Jazz Digital Songs chart , and his third number @-@ one single . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Anything Goes " sold 16 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US up to the week ending August 3 , 2014 . The song dropped to number three on Jazz Digital Songs chart the next week .
" I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " was released as the second single from the album on August 19 , 2014 . Gaga announced the release on Twitter , accompanied by the single 's cover art . An official music video for the song was released on August 26 , 2014 . The video was shot in the recording studio and the first half showed Gaga in numerous outfits and wigs , while recording the song and roaming around . Bennett joins the studio sessions later on , singing the song . The final chorus finds the two singers belting together , described as " join [ ing ] forces for a peculiar , yet potent blend of styles that transcends generations and genres " . Jon Blistein from Rolling Stone complimented the video , saying that it " proves [ Bennett and Gaga ] exude a unique , adorable brand of musical chemistry " . After its release , " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " debuted at number @-@ one on the Jazz Digital Songs chart of Billboard , on the week ending September 6 , 2014 , and the French Singles Chart at number 173 .
Additionally , " Nature Boy " was released for streaming on Gaga 's Vevo channel from September 16 , 2014 . Gaga had previously tweeted about the background of the song , as well as about the death of flautist Horn . The song debuted on the Billboard Trending 140 Chart at number five and quickly rose to number one . After Cheek to Cheek 's release , " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " debuted at number one on the Jazz Digital Songs chart , which became Gaga 's first entry as a solo artist .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from music critics , Cheek to Cheek received an average score of 64 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " , based on 12 reviews . MTV News 's Gil Kaufman praised the album , calling Bennett and Gaga " a match made in heaven " . He added that the singers were able to " flawlessly " merge their unique vocals , that was reflected in their in @-@ studio rapport , and thus onto the songs on Cheek to Cheek . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian awarded the album with four out of five stars , claiming that " Gaga is a wonder " . She also praised that " Cheek to Cheek reveals the considerable warmth and depth of her voice " . The Times critic Will Hodgkinson praised the album giving it a rating of four out of five stars . He added that Gaga could have been a " habitué of Upper Manhattan piano bars and supper clubs .. as Stefani Germanotta , classy singer of standards " . Jazz critic Marc Myers reviewed the album for The Wall Street Journal , claiming that " the biggest surprise on the album is Gaga 's solo vocal on ' Lush Life ' , a difficult song that has troubled even the most seasoned jazz @-@ pop singers , including Frank Sinatra . Her lower register is warm and her phrasing is heartfelt . " In his favorable review , Chicago Tribune critic Howard Reich wrote that " Cheek to Cheek serves up the real thing , start to finish ... Both singers revel in swing rhythm , eager to buoy from one offbeat to the next and the next . They achieve considerable energy . But it 's when things slow down that you can hear what these artists are capable of as interpreters , alone and together . "
Jazz author Ted Gioia , who reviewed the album for The Daily Beast , was surprised by Gaga 's ability to sing jazz , saying that " in all fairness to Lady Gaga , any singer who matches up with Tony Bennett needs to get loud and assertive ... Her voice projects an appealing innocence [ on ] ' But Beautiful ' and ' Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye ' " . Rating it four out of five stars , Lewis Corner from Digital Spy complimented the vocal mix on the album , adding that " Cheek to Cheek may not be the glittering spectacle we 've come to expect from Lady Gaga , but with Tony Bennett 's guidance the pair have delivered an authentic and solid jazz record that respects the genre 's generous history . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars and praised Gaga 's vocals . Dolan felt the album " proves she can be a sophisticated lady " . Charles J. Gan from Associated Press also praised Bennett and Gaga 's singing , writing that " Had she been born in an earlier era , Gaga would have been right at home in an MGM musical " . Idolator 's Bianca Gracie described the album as " a refreshing listen that highlights the undeniable talent of both Bennett and Gaga and how well they work together " . Writing for the National Post , Mike Doherty observed that Gaga took " liberties with the beat , bends notes , purrs and whoops away " with the vocals , while Bennett was able to complement with his characteristic " dapper approach " .
With three and a half stars out of five , Kenneth Partridge from Billboard opined that Gaga sometimes sounded too " forcibly " and definitely she needed Bennett more than he needed her on the recording of the album , but overall they had a " blast together and both will benefit from this pairing " . Another three and a half star rating came from Lydia Jenkin of The New Zealand Herald , who declared the album as " seamless standard renditions " . Jim Farber from New York Daily News awarded the album with four out of five stars , claiming that " Gaga has always been a power singer " and " She has a lot of Liza Minnelli in her " . Bennett received great review from the site about the agility and pluck he is able to sing the songs . James Reed from The Boston Globe praised the album and felt that both singers " bring out the best in each other " . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph gave the album a rating of three stars out of five , writing " If you take this album in the spirit of throwaway fun in which it seems to have been concocted , it is harmlessly engaging " . Giving Cheek to Cheek a rating of A – , Glenn Gamboa from Newsday declared the album as " straightforward jazz , gorgeous and well crafted " . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly commented that Bennett and Gaga are " in – if not quite heaven , then at least a pretty swell piano bar " and gave the album B + .
In a mixed review , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic declared that " Cheek to Cheek is a record where the music and even the songs take a backseat to the personalities " . Alexa Camp from Slant Magazine gave the album a rating of two out of five stars . Camp criticized Bennett and Gaga 's vocals in the album , adding that " If not for the session musicians ' top @-@ notch work ... much of Cheek to Cheek , which drags at an economical 45 minutes , would sound like glorified karaoke . " San Francisco Chronicle writer Aidin Vaziri was disappointed with Bennett and Gaga not " highlight [ ing ] each other 's wildly distinguishing features " , adding that " the background music is far more exciting than the people singing over it " . Mikael Wood from Los Angeles Times complimented Gaga 's vocals in the album but panned her " cheap exploitation : of a bunch of important songs she brings nothing to ; of an 88 @-@ year @-@ old legend with whom she has zero chemistry ; and , most disappointingly , of our eagerness to follow her down an unlikely creative path . " At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2015 , Cheek to Cheek won a Grammy for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album .
= = Commercial performance = =
Cheek to Cheek debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with 131 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan , earning Gaga her third consecutive number @-@ one album and the second for Bennett . It also topped the Jazz Albums and Traditional Jazz Albums charts . Bennett beat his own record — previously achieved in 2011 with Duets II — as the oldest living act to earn a number one album in the US . The debut also made Gaga the first female artist in the 2010 decade to have three number @-@ one albums . Along with the Billboard 200 and Jazz Albums , Cheek to Cheek also entered at number four on the Top Digital Albums chart . As of April 17 , 2016 , the album has sold more than 717 @,@ 000 copies in the country , becoming Bennett 's seventh half @-@ million album since Nielsen began tracking data in 1991 , and Gaga 's fifth . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . Cheek to Cheek debuted at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart selling 10 @,@ 000 copies per SoundScan . It was certified Platinum by the Music Canada ( MC ) for shipment of 80 @,@ 000 copies of the album .
In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number ten on the UK Albums Chart with sales of 10 @,@ 469 copies , making it Gaga 's fifth top ten album and Bennett 's third . Cheek to Cheek dropped to number 24 in its second week , selling 4 @,@ 081 copies . Due to Bennett and Gaga 's appearance on Strictly Come Dancing and Gaga 's ArtRave tour , the album rebounded to number 12 on the chart in its fifth week , selling 6 @,@ 257 copies . In November 2015 , the album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for selling over 60 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland the album debuted outside the top @-@ ten of the Irish Albums Chart , at number 12 , dropping to number 24 the next week . In its fifth week , Cheek to Cheek again climbed from number 50 to number 24 on the chart .
In Australia , Cheek to Cheek debuted at number seven on the ARIA Albums Chart , becoming the second top @-@ ten album for Tony in Australia out of 56 albums released ; it was the fourth top @-@ ten album for Gaga . It dropped to number ten the next week before moving to its peak again in the third week . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified it Gold for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies in the country . In New Zealand it debuted at number 13 on the albums chart , peaking at number three in its fourth week . In Japan , it debuted at number seven on the Oricon albums chart with sales of 11 @,@ 397 copies , dropping one spot the next week with another 7 @,@ 371 copies sold . Cheek to Cheek was Gaga 's fourth top @-@ ten album in France , where it debuted at number nine and has sold 40 @,@ 000 copies according to the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . On the Greek Albums Chart , the album reached a peak of number two on its third week . In Russia , the album debuted at the top of the albums chart , with sales of 38 @,@ 018 copies as reported by Billboard Russia . For Gaga , it was her sixth chart topper , making her the foreign artist with the most number @-@ one albums in the country .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Dae Bennett .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Cheek to Cheek Australia CD liner notes .
Management
Recorded at KAS Music and Sound , Kaufman , Astoria Studios , Astoria , New York , Manhattan Center Studios , Manhattan , Avatar Studios , New York
Mixed at Avatar Studios , New York
Mastered at Sterling Sound Studios , New York
Sennheiser and Neumann provided the microphones for Tony Bennett
RPM Productions representative for Bennett : Sandi Rogers , Dawn Olejar , Sylvia Weiner , Hadley Spanier , Erica Fagundes , John Callahan , Seth Ferris
Sony Music Entertainment representative for Bennett : Doug Morris , Rob Stringer , Nancy Marcus @-@ Sekhir
Personnel
Orchestra
Instruments
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway =
The Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) , also known as the Hampstead tube , was a railway company established in 1891 that constructed a deep @-@ level underground " tube " railway in London . Construction of the CCE & HR was delayed for more than a decade while funding was sought . In 1900 it became a subsidiary of the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) , controlled by American financier Charles Yerkes . The UERL quickly raised the funds , mainly from foreign investors . Various routes were planned , but a number of these were rejected by Parliament . Plans for tunnels under Hampstead Heath were authorised , despite opposition by many local residents who believed they would damage the ecology of the Heath .
When opened in 1907 , the CCE & HR 's line served 16 stations and ran for 7 @.@ 67 miles ( 12 @.@ 34 km ) in a pair of tunnels between its southern terminus at Charing Cross and its two northern termini at Archway and Golders Green . Extensions in 1914 and the mid @-@ 1920s took the railway to Edgware and under the River Thames to Kennington , serving 23 stations over a distance of 14 @.@ 19 miles ( 22 @.@ 84 km ) . In the 1920s the route was connected to another of London 's deep @-@ level tube railways , the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , and services on the two lines were merged into a single London Underground line , eventually called the Northern line .
Within the first year of opening , it became apparent to the management and investors that the estimated passenger numbers for the CCE & HR and the other UERL lines had been over @-@ optimistic . Despite improved integration and cooperation with the other tube railways , and the later extensions , the CCE & HR struggled financially . In 1933 the CCE & HR and the rest of the UERL were taken into public ownership . Today , the CCE & HR 's tunnels and stations form the Northern line 's Charing Cross branch from Kennington to Camden Town , the Edgware branch from Camden Town to Edgware , and the High Barnet branch from Camden Town to Archway .
= = Establishment = =
= = = Origin , 1891 – 1893 = = =
In November 1891 , notice was given of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the construction of the Hampstead , St Pancras & Charing Cross Railway ( HStP & CCR ) . The railway was planned to run entirely underground from Heath Street in Hampstead to Strand in Charing Cross . The route was to run beneath Hampstead High Street , Rosslyn Hill , Haverstock Hill and Chalk Farm Road to Camden Town and then under Camden High Street and Hampstead Road to Euston Road . The route then continued south , following Tottenham Court Road , Charing Cross Road and King William Street ( now William IV Street ) to Agar Street adjacent to Strand . North of Euston Road , a branch was to run eastwards from the main alignment under Drummond Street to serve the main line stations at Euston , St Pancras and King 's Cross . Stations were planned at Hampstead , Belsize Park , Chalk Farm , Camden Town , Seymour Street ( now part of Eversholt Street ) , Euston Road , Tottenham Court Road , Oxford Street , Agar Street , Euston and King 's Cross . Although a decision had not been made between the use of cable haulage or electric traction as the means of pulling the trains , a power station was planned on Chalk Farm Road close to the London and North Western Railway 's Chalk Farm station ( later renamed Primrose Hill ) which had a coal depot for deliveries .
The promoters of the HStP & CCR were inspired by the recent success of the City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) , the world 's first deep @-@ tube railway . This had opened in November 1890 and had seen large passenger numbers in its first year of operation . Bills for three similarly inspired new underground railways were also submitted to Parliament for the 1892 legislative session , and , to ensure a consistent approach , a Joint Select Committee was established to review the proposals . The committee took evidence on various matters regarding the construction and operation of deep @-@ tube railways , and made recommendations on the diameter of tube tunnels , method of traction , and the granting of wayleaves . After preventing the construction of the branch beyond Euston , the Committee allowed the HStP & CCR bill to proceed for normal parliamentary consideration . The rest of the route was approved and , following a change of the company name , the bill received royal assent on 24 August 1893 as the Charing Cross , Euston , and Hampstead Railway Act , 1893 .
= = = Search for financing , 1893 – 1903 = = =
Although the company had permission to construct the railway , it still had to raise the capital for the construction works . The CCE & HR was not alone ; four other new tube railway companies were looking for investors – the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) , the Waterloo & City Railway ( W & CR ) and the Great Northern & City Railway ( GN & CR ) ( the three other companies that put forward bills in 1892 ) and the Central London Railway ( CLR , which had received assent in 1891 ) . Only the W & CR , which was the shortest line and was backed by the London and South Western Railway with a guaranteed dividend , was able to raise its funds without difficulty . For the CCE & HR and the rest , much of the remainder of the decade saw a struggle to find investors in an uninterested market . A share offer in April 1894 had been unsuccessful and in December 1899 only 451 out of the company 's 177 @,@ 600 £ 10 shares had been part sold to eight investors .
Like most legislation of its kind , the act of 1893 imposed a time limit for the compulsory purchase of land and the raising of capital . To keep the powers granted by the act alive , the CCE & HR submitted a series of further bills to Parliament for extensions of time . Extensions were granted by the Charing Cross Euston and Hampstead Railway Acts , 1897 , 1898 , 1900 , and 1902 .
A contractor was appointed in 1897 , but funds were not available and no work was started . In 1900 , foreign investors came to the rescue of the CCE & HR : American financier Charles Yerkes , who had been lucratively involved in the development of Chicago 's tramway system in the 1880s and 1890s , saw the opportunity to make similar investments in London . Starting with the purchase of the CCE & HR in September 1900 for £ 100 @,@ 000 , he and his backers purchased a number of the unbuilt tube railways , and the operational but struggling Metropolitan District Railway ( MDR ) .
With the CCE & HR and the other companies under his control , Yerkes established the UERL to raise funds to build the tube railways and to electrify the steam @-@ operated MDR . The UERL was capitalised at £ 5 million with the majority of shares sold to overseas investors . Further share issues followed , which raised a total of £ 18 million ( equivalent to approximately £ 1 @.@ 74 billion today ) to be used across all of the UERL 's projects .
= = = Deciding the route , 1893 – 1903 = = =
While the CCE & HR raised money , it continued to develop the plans for its route . On 24 November 1894 , a bill was announced to purchase additional land for stations at Charing Cross , Oxford Street , Euston and Camden Town . This was approved as the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1894 on 20 July 1895 . On 23 November 1897 , a bill was announced to change the route of the line at its southern end to terminate under Craven Street on the south side of Strand . This was enacted as the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1898 on 25 July 1898 .
On 22 November 1898 , the CCE & HR published another bill to add an extension and to modify part of the route . The extension was a branch from Camden Town to Kentish Town where a new terminus was planned as an interchange with the Midland Railway 's Kentish Town station . Beyond the terminus , the CCE & HR line was to come to the surface for a depot on vacant land to the east of Highgate Road ( occupied today by the Ingestre Road Estate ) . The modification changed the Euston branch by extending it northwards from Euston to connect to the main route at the south end of Camden High Street . The section of the main route between the two ends of the loop was omitted . Included in the bill were powers to purchase a site in Cranbourn Street for an additional station ( Leicester Square ) . It received royal assent as the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1899 on 9 August 1899 .
On 23 November 1900 , the CCE & HR announced its most wide @-@ ranging modifications to the route . Two bills were submitted to Parliament , referred to as No. 1 and No. 2 . Bill No. 1 proposed the continuation of the railway north from Hampstead to Golders Green , the purchase of land and properties for stations and the construction of a depot at Golders Green . Also proposed were minor adjustments to route alignments previously approved . Bill No. 2 proposed two extensions : from Kentish Town to Brecknock Road , Archway Tavern , Archway Road and Highgate in the north and from Charing Cross to Parliament Square , Artillery Row and Victoria station in the south .
The extension to Golders Green would take the railway out of the urban and suburban areas and into open farmland . While this provided a convenient site for the CCE & HR 's depot it is believed that underlying the decision was Yerkes ' plan to profit from the sale of development land previously purchased in the area that would rise in value when the railway opened .
The CCE & HR 's two bills were submitted to Parliament at the same time as a large number of other bills for underground railways in the capital . As it had done in 1892 , Parliament established a joint committee under Lord Windsor to review the bills . By the time the committee had produced its report , the parliamentary session was almost over and the promoters of the bills were asked to resubmit them for the following 1902 session . Bills No. 1 and No. 2 were resubmitted in November 1901 together with a new bill – bill No. 3 . The new bill modified the route of the proposed extension to Golders Green and added a short extension running beneath Charing Cross main line station to the Victoria Embankment where it would provide an interchange with the existing MDR station ( then called Charing Cross ) .
The bills were again examined by a joint committee , this time under Lord Ribblesdale . The sections which dealt with the proposed north @-@ eastern extension from Archway Tavern to Highgate and the southern extension from Charing Cross to Victoria were deemed to not comply with parliamentary standing orders and were struck @-@ out .
= = = = Hampstead Heath controversy = = = =
A controversial element of the CCE & HR 's plans was the extension of the railway to Golders Green . The route of the tube tunnels took the line under Hampstead Heath and strong opposition was raised , concerned about the effect that the tunnels would have on the ecology of the Heath . The Hampstead Heath Protection Society claimed that the tunnels would drain the sub @-@ soil of water and the vibration of passing trains would damage trees . Taking its lead from the Society 's objections , The Times published an alarmist article on 25 December 1900 claiming that " a great tube laid under the heath will , of course , act as a drain ; and it is quite likely that the grass and gorse and trees on the Heath will suffer from the loss of moisture ... Moreover , it seems to be established beyond question that the trains passing along these deep @-@ laid tubes shake the earth to its surface , and the constant jar and quiver will probably have a serious effect upon the trees by loosening their roots . "
In fact , the tunnels were to be excavated at a depth of more than 200 feet ( 61 m ) below the surface , the deepest of any on the London Underground . In his presentation to the joint committee , the CCE & HR 's counsel disparagingly refuted the objections : " Just see what an absurd thing ! Disturbance of the water when we are 240 feet down in the London clay – about the most impervious thing you can possibly find ; almost more impervious than granite rock ! And the vibration on this railway is to shake down timber trees ! Could anything be more ludicrous than to waste the time of the Committee in discussing such things presented by such a body ! "
A second railway company , the Edgware & Hampstead Railway ( E & HR ) , also had a bill before Parliament which proposed tunnels beneath the Heath as part of its planned route between Edgware and Hampstead . The E & HR had planned to connect to the CCE & HR at Hampstead but , to avoid the needless duplication of tunnels between Golders Green and Hampstead , the two companies agreed that the E & HR would instead connect to the CCE & HR at Golders Green .
The Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead had initially objected to the line but gave consent on the condition that a station be constructed between Hampstead and Golders Green to provide access for visitors to the Heath . A new station was added to the plans at the northern edge of the Heath at North End where it could also serve a new residential development planned for the area . Once Parliament was satisfied that the extension would not damage the Heath , the CCE & HR bills jointly received royal assent on 18 November 1902 as the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1902 . On the same date , the E & HR bill received its assent as the Edgware and Hampstead Railway Act , 1902 .
= = = Construction , 1902 – 1907 = = =
With the funds available from the UERL and the route decided , the CCE & HR started site demolitions and preparatory works in July 1902 . On 21 November 1902 , the CCE & HR published another bill which sought compulsory purchase powers for additional buildings for its station sites , planned the take @-@ over of the E & HR and abandoned the permitted but redundant section of the line from Kentish Town to the proposed depot site near Highgate Road . This bill was approved as the Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1903 on 21 July 1903 .
Tunnelling began in September 1903 . Stations were provided with surface buildings designed by architect Leslie Green in the UERL house @-@ style . This consisted of two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed buildings faced with red glazed terracotta blocks with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . Each station was provided with two or four lifts and an emergency spiral staircase in a separate shaft .
While construction proceeded , the CCE & HR continued to submit bills to Parliament . The Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1904 , which received assent on 22 July 1904 , granted permission to buy additional land for the station at Tottenham Court Road , for a new station at Mornington Crescent and for changes at Charing Cross . The Charing Cross , Euston and Hampstead Railway Act , 1905 received assent on 4 August 1905 . It dealt mainly with the acquisition of the subsoil under part of the forecourt of the South Eastern Railway 's Charing Cross station so that the CCE & HR 's station could be excavated during the 3 months closure following the recent roof collapse .
The sale of the building land at North End to conservationists to form the Hampstead Heath extension in 1904 , meant a reduction in the number of residents who might use the station there . Work continued below ground at a reduced pace , and the platform tunnels and some passenger circulation tunnels were excavated , but North End station was abandoned in 1906 before the lift and stair shafts were dug and before a surface building was constructed .
Tunnelling was completed in December 1905 , after which work continued on the construction of the station buildings and the fitting @-@ out of the tunnels with tracks and signalling equipment . As part of the UERL group , the CCE & HR obtained its electricity from the company 's Lots Road Power Station , originally built for the electrification of the MDR ; the proposed Chalk Farm generating station was not built . The final section of the approved route between Charing Cross and the Embankment was not constructed , and the southern terminus on opening was Charing Cross . After a period of test running , the railway was ready to open in 1907 .
= = Opening = =
The CCE & HR was the last of the UERL 's three tube railways to open and was advertised as the " Last Link " . The official opening on 22 June 1907 was made by David Lloyd George , President of the Board of Trade , after which the public travelled free for the rest of the day . From its opening , the CCE & HR was generally known by the abbreviated names Hampstead Tube or Hampstead Railway and the names appeared on the station buildings and on contemporary maps of the tube lines .
The railway had stations at :
Charing Cross
Leicester Square
Oxford Street ( now Tottenham Court Road )
Tottenham Court Road ( now Goodge Street )
Euston Road ( now Warren Street )
Euston
Mornington Crescent
Camden Town
Golders Green branch
Chalk Farm
Belsize Park
Hampstead
Golders Green
Highgate branch
South Kentish Town ( closed 1924 )
Kentish Town
Tufnell Park
Highgate ( now Archway )
The service was provided by a fleet of carriages manufactured for the UERL by the American Car and Foundry Company and assembled at Trafford Park in Manchester . These carriages were built to the same design used for the BS & WR and the GNP & BR and operated as electric multiple unit trains without the need for separate locomotives . Passengers boarded the trains via folding lattice gates at each end of cars which were operated by Gate @-@ men who rode on the outside platform and announced station names as trains arrived . The design became known on the Underground as the 1906 stock or Gate stock .
= = Co @-@ operation and consolidation , 1907 – 1910 = =
Despite the UERL 's success in financing and constructing the Hampstead Railway in only seven years , its opening was not the financial success that had been expected . In the Hampstead Tube 's first twelve months of operation it carried 25 million passengers , just half of the 50 million that had been predicted during the planning of the line . The UERL 's pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers for its other new lines proved to be greatly over @-@ optimistic , as did the improvement in passenger numbers expected on the newly electrified MDR – in each case achieving only around fifty per cent of their targets .
The lower than expected passenger numbers were partly due to competition between the tube and sub @-@ surface railway companies , but the introduction of electric trams and motor buses , replacing slower , horse @-@ drawn road transport , took a large number of passengers away from the trains . The problem was not limited to the UERL ; all of London 's seven tube lines and the sub @-@ surface MDR and Metropolitan Railway were affected to a degree and the reduced revenues generated from the lower numbers of passengers made it difficult for the UERL and the other railways to pay back the capital borrowed and pay dividends to shareholders .
In an effort to improve the financial situation , the UERL together with the C & SLR , the CLR and the GN & CR began , from 1907 , to introduce fare agreements . From 1908 , they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground . The W & CR was the only tube railway that did not participate in the arrangement as it was owned by the mainline London and South Western Railway .
The UERL 's three tube railway companies were still legally separate entities with their own management and shareholder and dividend structures . There was duplicated administration between the three companies and , to streamline the management and reduce expenditure , the UERL announced a bill in November 1909 that would merge the Hampstead Tube , the Piccadilly Tube and the Bakerloo Tube into a single entity , the London Electric Railway ( LER ) , although the lines retained their own individual branding . The bill received assent on 26 July 1910 as the London Electric Railway Amalgamation Act , 1910 .
= = Extensions = =
= = = Embankment , 1910 – 1914 = = =
In November 1910 , the LER published notice of a bill to revive the unused 1902 permission to continue the line from Charing Cross to Embankment . The extension was planned as a single tunnel , running in a loop under the Thames , connecting the ends of the two existing tunnels . Trains were to run in one direction around the loop stopping at a single @-@ platform station constructed to provide an interchange with the BS & WR and MDR at Embankment station . The bill received assent as the London Electric Railway Act , 1911 on 2 June 1911 . The loop was constructed from a large excavation north @-@ west of the MDR station and was connected to the sub @-@ surface line with escalators . The station opened on 6 April 1914 as :
Charing Cross ( Embankment ) ( now Embankment )
= = = Hendon and Edgware , 1902 – 1924 = = =
In the decade after the E & HR received royal assent for its route from Edgware to Hampstead , the company continued to search for finance and revised its plans in conjunction both with the CCE & HR and a third railway company , the Watford & Edgware Railway ( W & ER ) which had plans to build a line linking the E & HR to Watford .
Following the enactment of the Watford and Edgware Railway Act , 1906 , the W & ER briefly took over the powers of the E & HR to construct the line from Golders Green to Edgware . Struggling to find funds , the W & ER attempted a formal merger with the E & HR through a bill submitted to Parliament in 1906 , with the intention of constructing and operating the whole of the route from Golders Green to Watford as a light railway but the bill was rejected by Parliament and , when the W & ER 's powers lapsed , control returned to the CCE & HR .
The E & HR company had remained in existence and had obtained a series of acts to preserve and develop its plans . The Edgware and Hampstead Railway Acts , 1905 , 1909 and 1912 granted extensions of time , approved changes to the route , gave permissions for viaducts and a tunnel and allowed the closure and re @-@ routeing of roads to be crossed by the railway 's tracks . It was intended that the CCE & HR would provide and operate the trains and this was formalised by the London Electric Railway Act , 1912 , which approved the LER 's take over of the E & HR .
No immediate effort was made to start the works and they were postponed indefinitely when World War I started . With wartime restrictions in place , construction work for the railway was prevented . Yearly extensions to the earlier E & HR acts were granted under special wartime powers each year from 1916 until 1922 , giving a final date by which compulsory purchases had to be made of 7 August 1924 . Although the permissions had been maintained , the UERL could not raise the money needed for the works . Construction costs had increased considerably during the war years and the returns produced by the company could not cover the cost of repaying loans .
The project was made possible when the government introduced the Trade Facilities Act , 1921 by which the Treasury underwrote loans for public works as a means of alleviating unemployment . With this support , the UERL raised the funds and work began on extending the Hampstead tube to Edgware . The UERL group 's Managing Director / Chairman , Lord Ashfield , ceremonially cut the first sod to begin the works at Golders Green on 12 June 1922 .
The extension crossed farmland , meaning it could be constructed on the surface more easily and cheaply than a deep tube line below the surface . A viaduct was constructed across the Brent valley and a short section of tunnel was required at The Hyde , Hendon . Stations were designed in a suburban pavilion style by the UERL 's architect Stanley Heaps . The first section opened on 19 November 1923 with stations at :
Brent ( now Brent Cross )
Hendon Central
The remainder of the extension opened on 18 August 1924 with stations at :
Colindale
Burnt Oak ( opened 27 October 1924 )
Edgware
= = = Kennington , 1922 – 1926 = = =
On 21 November 1922 , the LER announced a bill for the 1923 parliamentary session . It included the proposal to extend the line from its southern terminus to the C & SLR 's station at Kennington where an interchange would be provided . The bill received royal assent as the London Electric Railway Act , 1923 on 2 August 1923 .
The work involved the rebuilding of the below ground parts of the CCE & HR 's former terminus station to enable through running and the loop tunnel was abandoned . Tunnels were extended under the Thames to Waterloo station and then to Kennington where two additional platforms were constructed to provide the interchange to the C & SLR . Immediately south of Kennington station , the CCE & HR tunnels connected to those of the C & SLR . The new service was opened on 13 September 1926 to coincide with the opening of the extension of the C & SLR to Morden . The Charing Cross to Kennington link had stations at :
Waterloo
Kennington
The C & SLR had been under the control of the UERL since its purchase by the group in 1913 . An earlier connection between the CCE & HR and the C & SLR had been opened in 1924 linking the C & SLR 's station at Euston with the CCE & HR 's at Camden Town . With the opening of the Kennington extension , the two railways began to operate as an integrated service using the newly built Standard Stock trains . On tube maps the combined lines were shown in a single colour although the separate names continued in use into the 1930s .
= = Move to public ownership , 1923 – 1933 = =
Despite improvements made to other parts of the network , the Underground railways were still struggling to make a profit . The UERL 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the UERL group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole UERL group .
In an effort to protect the UERL group 's income Lord Ashfield lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . Starting in 1923 , a series of legislative initiatives were made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP and Minister of Transport ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the UERL group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . After seven years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation that would take control of the UERL , the Metropolitan Railway and all bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , the LER and the other Underground companies were liquidated .
= = Legacy = =
For a history of the line after 1933 see Northern line
Finding a suitable name for the combined CCE & HR and C & SLR routes proved a challenge for the LPTB and a number of variations were used including Edgware , Morden & Highgate Line in 1933 and Morden @-@ Edgware Line in 1936 . In 1937 , Northern line was adopted in preparation for the uncompleted Northern Heights plan . Today , the Northern line is the busiest on the London Underground system , carrying 206 @.@ 7 million passengers annually , a level of usage which led it to be known as the Misery line during the 1990s due to overcrowding and poor reliability .
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= Cultivated plant taxonomy =
Cultivated plant taxonomy is the study of the theory and practice of the science that identifies , describes , classifies , and names cultigens — those plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity . Cultivated plant taxonomists do , however , work with all kinds of plants in cultivation .
Cultivated plant taxonomy is one part of the study of horticultural botany which is mostly carried out in botanical gardens , large nurseries , universities , or government departments . Areas of special interest for the cultivated plant taxonomist include : searching for and recording new plants suitable for cultivation ( plant hunting ) ; communicating with and advising the general public on matters concerning the classification and nomenclature of cultivated plants and carrying out original research on these topics ; describing the cultivated plants of particular regions ( horticultural floras ) ; maintaining databases , herbaria and other information about cultivated plants .
Much of the work of the cultivated plant taxonomist is concerned with the naming of plants as prescribed by two plant nomenclatural Codes . The provisions of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( Botanical Code ) serve primarily scientific ends and the objectives of the scientific community , while those of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants ( Cultivated Plant Code ) are designed to serve both scientific and utilitarian ends by making provision for the names of plants used in commerce — the cultigens that have arisen in agriculture , forestry and horticulture . These names , sometimes called variety names , are not in Latin but are added onto the scientific Latin names , and they assist communication among the community of foresters , farmers and horticulturists .
The history of cultivated plant taxonomy can be traced from the first plant selections that occurred during the agrarian Neolithic Revolution to the first recorded naming of human plant selections by the Romans . The naming and classification of cultigens followed a similar path to that of all plants until the establishment of the first Cultivated Plant Code in 1953 which formally established the cultigen classification category of cultivar . Since that time the classification and naming of cultigens has followed its own path .
= = Distinctive characteristics = =
Cultivated plant taxonomy has been distinguished from the taxonomy of other plants in at least five ways . Firstly , there is a distinction made according to where the plants are growing — that is , whether they are wild or cultivated . This is alluded to by the Cultivated Plant Code which specifies in its title that it is dealing with cultivated plants . Secondly , a distinction is made according to how the plants originated . This is indicated in Principle 2 of the Cultivated Plant Code which defines the scope of the Code as " ... plants whose origin or selection is primarily due to the intentional actions of mankind " — plants that have evolved under natural selection with human assistance.Thirdly , cultivated plant taxonomy is concerned with plant variation that requires the use of special classification categories that do not conform with the hierarchy of ranks implicit in the Botanical Code , these categories being the cultivar , Group and grex ( which are only loosely equivalent to ranks in the Botanical Code ) . This feature is also referred to in the Preamble to the Cultivated Plant Code which states that " The purpose of giving a name to a taxon is not to indicate its characters or history , but to supply a means of referring to it and to indicate to which category it is assigned . " Fourthly , cultivated plant taxonomy serves a particular community of people : the Botanical Code focuses on the needs of plant taxonomists as they attempt to maintain order and stability for the scientific names of all plants , while the Cultivated Plant Code caters for the needs of people requiring names for plants used in the commercial world of agriculture , forestry and horticulture . Finally , the difference between cultivated plant taxonomy and the taxonomy of other plants has been attributed to the purpose for which the taxonomy has been devised , it being plant @-@ centred in the Botanical Code and human @-@ centred in the Cultivated Plant Code .
= = Scientific and anthropocentric classification = =
The key activities of cultivated plant taxonomy relate to classification ( taxonomy ) and naming ( nomenclature ) . The rules associated with naming plants are separate from the methods , principles or purposes of classification , except that the units of classification , the taxa , are placed in a nested hierarchy of ranks – like species within genera , and genera within families . There are three classification categories used in the Cultivated Plant Code , the cultivar and the Group and the grex , but they are only loosely equivalent to ranks in the Botanical Code .
From the time of the ancient world , at least , plants have been classified in two ways . On the one hand there is the detached academic , philosophical or scientific interest in plants themselves : this groups plants by their relationship to one another according to their similarities and differences in structure and function . Then there is the practical , utilitarian or anthropocentric interest which groups plants according to their human use . Cultivated plant taxonomy is concerned with the special classification categories needed for the plants of agriculture , horticulture and forestry as regulated by the Cultivated Plant Code . This Code serves not only the scientific interests of formal nomenclature , it also caters for the special utilitarian needs of people dealing with the plants of commerce . Those cultigens given names governed by the Cultivated Plant Code fulfill three criteria : they have special features considered of sufficient importance to warrant a name ; the special features are the result of deliberate human breeding or selection and are not found in wild populations ( except in rare cases where the special features represent desirable part of natural variation found in wild populations that is not covered by a scientific name ) ; it is possible to perpetuate the desirable features by propagation in cultivation .
The terms cultigen and cultivar may be confused with each other . Cultigen is a general @-@ purpose term for plants that have been deliberately altered or specially selected by humans , while cultivar is a formal classification category . Cultigens include not only plants with cultivar names but also those with names in the classification categories of grex and Group . The Cultivated Plant Code points out that cultigens are : deliberately selected plants that may have arisen by intentional or accidental hybridization in cultivation , by selection from existing cultivated stocks , or from variants within wild populations that are maintained as recognizable entities solely by continued propagation . Included within the group of plants known as cultigens are genetically modified plants , plants with binomial Latin names that are the result of ancient human selection , and any plants that have been altered by humans but which have not been given formal names . In practice most cultigens are cultivars .
The following account of the historical development of cultivated plant taxonomy traces the way cultigens have arisen and been incorporated into botanical science ; it also demonstrates how two approaches to plant nomenclature and classification have led to the present @-@ day International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants .
= = Historical development = =
The history of cultigen nomenclature has been discussed by William T. Stearn and Brandenberg , Hetterscheid and Berg . It has also been examined from a botanical perspective and from the origin of the Cultivated Plant Code in 1953 until 2004 .
The early development of cultigen taxonomy follows that of plant taxonomy in general as the early listing and documentation of plants made little distinction between those that were anthropogenic and those that were natural wild kinds . Formal botanical nomenclature and classification evolved from the simple binomial system of folk taxonomy and it was not until the mid @-@ 19th century that the nomenclatural path of cultigens began to diverge from mainstream plant taxonomy .
= = = 10 @,@ 000 to 400 BCE – plant domestication = = =
William T. Stearn ( 1911 – 2001 ) , taxonomic botanist , classical scholar and author of the book Botanical Latin has commented that " cultivated plants [ cultigens ] are mankind 's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity " . Cultigens of our most common economic plants probably date back to the first settled communities of the Neolithic Revolution 10 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 years ago although their exact time and place of true origin will probably remain a mystery . In the Western world among the first cultigens would have been selections of the cereals wheat and barley that arose in the early settlements of the Fertile Crescent ( the fertile river valleys of the Nile , Tigris and Euphrates ) in the Western Mediterranean . Food plant selections would also have been made in the ten or so other centres of settlement that occurred around the world at this time . Confining crops to local areas gave rise to landraces ( selections that are highly adapted to local conditions ) although these are now largely replaced by modern cultivars . Cuttings are an extremely effective way of perpetuating desirable characters , especially of woody plants like grapes , figs and olives so it is not surprising that these are among the first known plant selections perpetuated in cultivation in the West . Migrating people would take their plant seeds and cuttings with them ; there is evidence of early Fertile Crescent cereal cultigens being transferred from Western Asia to surrounding lands .
= = = 400 BCE to 1400 – the ancient world : Greco @-@ Roman influence to the Middle Ages = = =
As early as the 5th century BCE the Greek philosopher Hippo expressed the opinion that cultigens ( as we call them now ) were produced from wild plants as the result of the care bestowed on them by man , a revolutionary view at a time when they were regarded as the special creation and gift of the gods . In devising ways of classifying organisms the philosopher Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BCE ) established the important idea of a fundamentum divisionis — the principle that groups can be progressively subdivided . This has been assumed in biological classification ever since and is congruent with the relatively recent idea of evolution as descent with modification . All biological classification follows this principle of groups within groups , known as a nested hierarchy , but this form of classification does not necessarily presuppose evolution .
The earliest scientific ( rather than utilitarian ) approach to plants is attributed to Aristotle 's student Theophrastus ( 371 – 286 BCE ) , known as the " father of botany " . In his Enquiry into Plants Theophrastus described 480 kinds of plant , dividing the plant kingdom into trees , shrubs , undershrubs and herbs with further subdivision into wild and cultivated , flowering and non @-@ flowering , deciduous or evergreen .
The utilitarian approach , classifying plants according to their medicinal properties , is exemplified by the work of Roman nobleman , scientist and historian , Pliny the Elder ( 29 – 79 CE ) author of Naturalis historiae . " Cultivars " listed here are named after people , places or special plant characteristics . Most notable is the work of Dioscorides ( ca.40 – ca.90 CE ) a Greek doctor who worked with the Roman army . His five @-@ volume Materia Medica was a forerunner of the herbal which led to the modern pharmacopoeia . This work was endlessly plagiarised by later herbals including those printed between about 1470 and 1670 CE : it listed 600 to 1000 different kinds of plants including the cultigens Gallica , Centifolia , the rose of uncertain origin known as Alba and other rose cultivars grown by the Romans .
The first record of a named cultigen occurs in De Agri Cultura. written about 160 BCE by Roman statesman Cato the Elder ( 234 – 149 BCE ) in a list that includes 120 kinds ( cultivars ) of figs , grapes , apples and olives . The names are presented in a way that implies that they would have been familiar to fellow Romans . The " cultivar " names were mostly of one word and denoted the provenance of the cultivar ( the geographical origin of the place where the plant selections were made ) . Writers up to the 15th century added little to this early work . In the Middle Ages the book of hours , early herbals , illuminated manuscripts and economic records indicate that plants grown by the Romans found their way into monastery gardens . For example , in 827 CE the following herbs were mentioned in the poem Hortulus by Walafrid Strabo as growing in the monastery garden of St Gallen in Switzerland : sage , rue , southernwood , wormwood , horehound , fennel , German iris , lovage , chervil , Madonna lily , opium poppy , clary , mint , betony , agrimony , catmint , radish , gallica rose , bottle gourd and melon . It seems likely that aromatic and culinary herbs were quite widespread and similar lists of plants occur in records of plants grown in Villa gardens at the time of Charlemagne ( 742 – 814 CE ) .
= = = 1400 to 1700 – Renaissance , imperial expansion , herbals = = =
The revival of learning during the Renaissance reinvigorated the study of plants and their classification . From about 1400 CE European expansion established Latin as the common language of scholars and it was adopted for biological nomenclature . Then , from about 1500 CE , the publication of herbals ( books often illustrated with woodcuts describing the appearance , medicinal properties , and other characteristics of plants used in herbal medicine ) extended the formal documentation of plants and by the late 16th century the number of different plant kinds described in Europe had risen to about 4 @,@ 000 . In 1623 Gaspard Bauhin published his Pinax theatre botanici an attempt at a comprehensive compilation of all plants known at that time : it included about 6000 kinds . The combined works of a German physician and botanist Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 CE ) which were published in 1562 included many named " cultivars " including 30 apples and 49 pears , presumably local German selections . English herbalist John Parkinson 's Paradisi in Sole ... ( 1629 ) lists 57 apple " cultivars " , 62 pears , 61 plums , 35 cherries and 22 peaches .
With increasing trade in economic and medicinal plants the need for a more comprehensive classification system increased . Up to about 1650 CE plants had been grouped either alphabetically or according to utilitarian folk taxonomy – by their medicinal uses or whether they were trees , shrubs or herbs . Between 1650 and 1700 CE there was a move from the utilitarian back to a scientific natural classification based on the characters of the plants themselves .
= = = 1700 to 1750 – dawn of scientific classification = = =
In 1700 French botanist J.P. de Tournefort although still using the broad groupings of " trees " and " herbs " for flowering plants , began to use flower characteristics as distinguishing features and , most importantly , provided a clear definition of the genus as a basic unit of classification . In Institutiones Rei Herbariae he listed about 10 @,@ 000 different plants , which he called species , organised into 698 genera with illustrations . The establishment of this precursor of scientific classification vastly improved the organisation of plant variation into approximately equivalent groups or ranks and many of his genera were later taken up by Carl Linnaeus . There was still at this time no common agreement on the way to present plant names so they ranged in length from one word to lengthy descriptive sentences . As the number of recorded plants increased this naming system became more unwieldy .
In England the tradition of documenting garden plants was established long before Linnaeus ' Species Plantarum starting with the herbals , but the most prominent early chronicler was Philip Miller ( 1691 – 1771 ) who was a master gardener in charge of the Chelsea Physic Garden in London from 1722 to 1770 . New plants were coming into Western Europe from southern Europe and the overseas colonies of the Dutch , British and French . These new plants came largely to the botanic gardens of Amsterdam , Leiden , Chelsea and Paris and they needed recording . In 1724 Miller produced a two @-@ volume compendium of garden plants called The Gardeners and Florists Dictionary or a complete System of Horticulture . The first edition was in 1724 , subsequently revised and enlarged until the last and 8th edition in 1768 by which time he had adopted Linnaean binomials . For a while this publication was taken as the starting point for " horticultural " nomenclature equivalent to Linnaeus ' Species Plantarum which is now taken as the starting point for botanical nomenclature in general . Miller 's Dictionary was the first of many English horticultural compendia whose history has been traced by William Stearn .
= = = 1750 to 1800 – Linnaeus and binomial nomenclature = = =
In the early 18th century colonial expansion and exploration created a demand for the description of thousands of new organisms . This highlighted difficulties in communication about plants , the replication of their descriptions , and the importance of an agreed way of presenting , publishing and applying their names .
It was the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus who finally put order into this situation as he attempted to name all the known organisms of his day . In 1735 his Systema Naturae , which included animals ( the tenth edition became the starting point for zoological nomenclature ) was followed by Critica Botanica in 1737 , and Philosophia Botanica in 1751 . But it was his most comprehensive work on plants , the 1753 publication Species Plantarum that formalised the name of a genus with a single epithet to form the name of a species as two words , the binomial thus making secure the biological system of binomial nomenclature . In these works Linnaeus used a third name as a variety within a species . These varieties included both wild and horticultural variants . The horticultural varieties were still written in Latin and some have persisted to this day .
Linnaeus had very definite and uncomplimentary views about cultigens , regarding them as inferior plants for the amusement of those people he disparagingly called anthophiles ( flower @-@ lovers ) ; these were plants not deserving the attention of serious botanists . His views revealed both his prejudice , his stance on special creation , and his recognition of the difficulties entailed in cultivated plant taxonomy :
= = = 1800 to 1900 – global plant trade = = =
The natural distribution of plants across the world has determined when and where cultigens have been produced . The botanical and horticultural collection of economically important plants , including ornamentals , was based in Europe . Although economic herbs and spices had a long history in trade , and there are good records of cultivar distribution by the Romans , European botanical and horticultural exploration rapidly increased in the 19th century with the colonial expansion taking place at the time . New plants were brought back to Europe while , at the same time , valuable economic plants , including those from the tropics , were distributed among the colonies . This plant trade has provided the common global heritage of economic and ornamental cultigens that we use today and which formed the stock for modern plant selection , breeding , and genetic engineering . The plant exchange that occurred as a result of European trade can be divided into several phases :
to 1560 mostly within Europe
1560 – 1620 Near East ( esp. bulbous plants from Turkey – " tulipomania " )
1620 – 1686 Canada and Virginia herbaceous plants
1687 – 1772 Cape of South Africa
1687 – 1772 North American trees and shrubs
1772 – 1820 Australia , Tasmania , New Zealand
1820 – 1900 Tropical glasshouse plants ; hardy Japanese plants
1900 – 1930 West China
1930 Intensive breeding and selection programs
= = = 1900 to 1950 – the Botanical Code and cultigen nomenclature = = =
As the community of people dealing with the cultigens of commerce grew so , once again , the divergence between taxonomy serving scientific purposes and utilitarian taxonomy meeting human needs re @-@ emerged . In 1865 German botanist Karl Koch , who became General Secretary of the Berlin Horticultural Society , expressed resentment at the continued use of Latin for cultigen names . Many proposals to deal with this were made , perhaps the most prominent being the Lois de la nomenclature botanique submitted in 1867 to the fourth Horticultural and Botanical Congress by Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle who , in Article 40 stated :
" Seedlings , half @-@ breeds ( métis ) of unknown origin or sports should receive from horticulturists fancy names ( noms de fantaisie ) in common language , as distinct as possible from the Latin names of species or varieties . "
This Article , making provision for the cultigens of horticultural nomenclature was to remain in the Botanical Code ( with a minor amendment in 1935 suggesting the use of the letter ' c ' before the horticultural name and antedating formal recognition of the cultivar ) through 1906 , 1912 and 1935 until the separation , in 1953 , of the Horticultural Code , precursor to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants ( Cultivated Plant Code ) . In 1900 there was the first International Botanical Congress and in 1905 at the second Congress in Vienna an agreed set of nomenclatural rules was established , the Vienna Rules , which became known from then on as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature ( now the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ) . After World War II the responsibility for the Botanical Code was taken up by the International Association for Plant Taxonomy and meetings to discuss revisions are held at six @-@ yearly intervals , the latest being in 2005
In horticulture at this time there existed all the problems that had confronted botanists in the 19th century – a plethora of names of various length , written and published in many languages with much duplication . The period between 1867 and 1953 was an uneasy time in which American horticulturists and other groups in Europe , such as the specialist orchid community , made attempts to put order into this chaos within their particular group of interest and devising their own rules for naming the plants of commerce . Friedrich Alefeld ( 1820 – 1872 ) , who used Latin variety names , in a monographic study of beans , lentils and other legumes distinguished three infraspecific taxonomic categories : Unterart ( subspecies ) , Varietäten Gruppe and Kultur @-@ Varietät , all with Latin names . In doing this he was probably laying the ground for the later establishment of the cultigen classification categories cultivar and Group . In conjunction with the Brussels International Botanical Congress of 1910 there was an International Horticultural Congress having a horticultural nomenclature component .
As a result of general dissatisfaction and a submission from the Royal Horticultural Society the Règles de Nomenclature Horticole was established . The use of simple descriptive Latin names ( e.g. compactus , nanus , prostratus ) for horticultural variants was accepted and so too were names in the local language – which were not to be translated and should preferably consist of one word and a maximum of three . This first Horticultural Code consisted of 16 Articles . With the intercession of a World War I it was not until the 9th Horticultural Congress in London in 1930 that the rules of a Horticulture Nomenclature Committee were agreed and added as an appendix to the 1935 Botanical Code . The rules established in 1935 were accepted but needed to be extended to include the cultigens of agriculture and forestry , but it was only a result of discussions at the 1950 International Botanical Congress in Stockholm and the 18th International Horticultural Congress in London in 1952 the first International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants was published in 1953 . The American horticultural botanist Liberty Hyde Bailey was responsible for coining the word cultigen in 1918 and cultivar in 1923 , the word cultivar only coming into general circulation with the new Code of 1953 . The use of these two terms belies the multitude of classification terms and categories that had been suggested as designations for cultigens .
= = = 1953 – the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants = = =
The first Cultivated Plant Code ( Wageningen ) , which was published in 1953 , has been followed by eight subsequent editions – in 1958 ( Utrecht ) , 1961 ( update of 1958 ) , 1969 ( Edinburgh ) , 1980 ( Seattle ) , 1995 ( Edinburgh ) , 2004 ( Toronto ) and 2009 ( Wageningen ) .
Following the structure of the Botanical Code the Cultivated Plant Code is set out in the form of an initial set of Principles followed by Rules and Recommendations that are subdivided into Articles . Amendments to the Cultivated Plant Code are prompted by international symposia for cultivated plant taxonomy which allow for rulings made by the International Commission on the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants . Each new Cultivated Plant Code includes a summary of the changes made to the previous version and these have also been summarised for the period 1953 to 1995 .
= = International Association for Cultivated Plant Taxonomy = =
Recent concerns have focused on international communication on cultivated plant taxonomy , organisation of international symposia , and general communication on topics of interest . In 1988 a Horticultural Taxonomy Group ( Hortax ) was formed in the UK and a parallel organisation , the Nomenclature and Registration Working Group of the Vaste Keurings Commissie in the Netherlands . One development promoting discussion was the newsletter Hortax News which was superseded in February 2006 by the first issue of Hanburyana , a journal produced by the Royal Horticultural Society in London and dedicated to horticultural taxonomy . This filled a gap left when the American journal Baileya ceased publication in the early 1990s . Another development was the launch , in 2007 , at the Sixth Symposium on the Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants at Wageningen of the International Association for Cultivated Plant Taxonomy . Hortax also publishes Plant Names : A Guide for Horticulturists , Nurserymen , Gardeners and Students .
= = Presenting cultigen names = =
Most cultigens have names consisting of a Latin name that is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants e.g. Malus domestica , to which is added a cultigen epithet , enclosed in single quotes e.g. Malus domestica ' Granny Smith ' . The formation and use of the three classification categories ( ranks ) used for cultigens , the cultivar , Group and grex , is regulated by the ICNCP . Examples of acceptable ways to present cultigen names are given below :
Prunus serrata Sato @-@ zakura Group
Prunus serrata ( Sato @-@ zakura Group ) ' Ojochin'
Prunus ' Ojochin'
Flowering cherry ' Ojochin'
= = Contemporary issues = =
Current challenges for cultivated plant taxonomists include : the use of large plant name databases ; ways of dealing with the use of non @-@ scientific names in commerce ( known as trade designations ) , especially for plant labels in nurseries ; intellectual property and plants ; adapting modern technology , in particular molecular techniques , to the creation and identification of cultivars ; maintaining germplasm collections of cultivars , including herbaria ; the recording and registration of cultivars .
The ways in which the plant variation resulting from human activity is named and classified remains contentious . The replacement of the expression " cultivated plant " with the word " cultigen " is not universally accepted . The debate continues concerning the notions of ranks and taxa as applied to cultigens . Is it appropriate to call the highly modified transgenic products of human artificial selection " taxa " in the same way we do for the products of natural selection in the wild ? To overcome this difficulty the term culton ( pl. culta ) has been suggested to replace the word taxon when speaking about cultigens .
Then , most " wild " plants fit neatly into the nested hierarchy of ranks used in Linnaean classification ( species into genera , genera into families etc . ) which aligns with Darwinian descent with modification . Choosing classification categories for cultigens is not clear @-@ cut . Included among cultigens are : simple selections taken from plants in the wild or in cultivation ; artificial hybrids produced both by accident and intention ; plants produced by genetic engineering ; clonal material reproduced by cuttings , grafting , budding , layering etc . ; graft @-@ chimaeras ; selections from the wild ; ancient selections of crops that date back thousands of years ; selections of aberrant growth such as witches brooms ; the results of deliberate repeatable single crosses between two pure lines to produce plants of a particular general appearance that is desirable for horticulture , but which are not genetically identical . The question remains as to whether the classification categories of cultivar , Group and grex are the most appropriate and efficient way to deal with this broad range of plant variation .
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= The Girls He Left Behind Him and The Iron Clad Lover =
The Girls He Left Behind Him and The Iron Clad Lover are two 1910 American silent short comedies produced by the Thanhouser Company . Both films were originally released together on a single reel and are two distinct and separate subjects . The Girls He Left Behind Him focuses on a young man , Jack Redfern , who receives a letter from an old sweetheart of his . This prompts him to reminiscence about all the girls he has had affections for on the eve of his wedding . All the old sweethearts of his life then appear at his wedding to wish him well . The Iron Clad Lover concerns two suitors who are vying for the affections of Bessie . Tom , who plays a game of chess with her father , ends up quarreling with him and he is thrown out of the house . The next day , Tom attempts to bring flowers and candy for Bessie 's birthday , but is dismissed by the angry father . Tom decides to dress up in a suit of armor and ends up breaking a vase when trying to announce himself . The suit of armor is thrown out and Bessie and the other suitor chase down the junk dealer to free Tom from the suit of armor . Both films were released on December 9 , 1910 and were met with positive reviews by The Moving Picture World and The New York Dramatic Mirror . Both films are presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the films are presumed lost , the synopsis of both film survive in The Moving Picture World from December 10 , 1910 . The plot of the The Girls He Left Behind Him follows Jack Redfern , a young bachelor , who is soon to be married . Jack receives a letter in feminine handwriting from an " old sweetheart " of his , stating how glad she is to hear of his approaching marriage . Jack goes through visions , remembering the various girls of his life and his interactions with each of them . Betty , Kate , Tootsie , Elizabeth , Clara , Jeanette , and Helen . According to the synopsis , the last vision he has is of all the old sweethearts of his waving good luck to him as he marries Mary . Though a review states that he awakes and is obliged to hurry to his wedding . Bowers believes the synopsis to be in error and that the film actually concluded with all the girls present at the wedding , rather than it being a " vision " .
For the Iron Clad Lover : " Dick makes love to Bessie while Tom plays a game of chess with her father . Tom , naturally nervous , plays such a poor game that he and the old man quarrel and Tom is ordered from the house . Next day is Bessie 's birthday . Tom brings a bouquet and a box of candy . But he is turned away from the house and has the gifts thrown at his head by Bessie 's father . Dick arrives and is welcomed . Tom , in desperation , buys a suit of armor , puts it on and has himself delivered to the house as a present to Bessie . Dick finds out that Tom is inside the armor and makes life miserable for him , blowing cigar smoke through the visor and making love to Bessie . Tom , unable to stand this , tries to announce himself , but only succeeds in stumbling over and breaking a valuable vase . Bessie 's pa has the ' armor ' thrown out . Dick 's conscience makes him tell Bessie that Tom was in the armor and they started the rescue . They were horrified to learn that the old man has sold the armor to a junk dealer ; and Dick and Bessie have an exciting chase before the junk man is rounded up , when it takes combined efforts of a policeman , locksmith , and plumber to release Tom from his iron suit . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenarios are unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film directors are unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil and / or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits of both films are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
= = Release and reception = =
The Girls He Left Behind Him and The Iron Clad Lover were released together on a single reel , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet in length , on December 9 , 1910 . Both films are comedies , but Thanhouser advertisements refer to The Girls He Left Behind Him as a drama . The individual lengths of the reels are not known for certain , but the Thanhouser Company Film Preservation lists The Girls He Left Behind Him as being three @-@ quarters of a reel and The Iron Clad Lover as half a reel in length . This is listed as an approximation of the relative expected lengths of the production , which could have been about 625 feet and 400 feet in length and still be a single reel . Very few advertisements for the films have been found , but the films likely had a wide national release . One advertisement featuring both films was found in Missouri , but The Girls He Left Behind Him was advertised without its other half and with slightly different spellings in Wisconsin and another Missouri theater . Selig would release a similarly titled work The Girl He Left Behind in 1912 .
The Girls He Left Behind Him received praise from the reviewer from The Moving Picture World who stated , " [ It is a ] comedy , not by any means original , but with a sentimental touch , ... this excellent film has placed in visible form these visions of the past which often haunt the middle aged or the younger person who about to take some important step . The mechanical work is well done and the audience follows the picture with interest . " The New York Dramatic Mirror also gave it faint praise by stating that " The picture has some novelty and interest . " For The Iron Clad Lover received minor praise from both publications for being a novel even if the story was impossible .
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= Bowes Castle =
Bowes Castle was a medieval castle in the village of Bowes in County Durham , England . Built within the perimeter of the former Roman fort of Lavatrae , the early timber castle on the site was replaced by a more substantial stone structure between 1170 and 1174 on the orders of Henry II . A planned village was built alongside the castle . Bowes Castle withstood Scottish attack during the Great Revolt of 1173 @-@ 74 but was successfully looted by rebels in 1322 . The castle went into decline and was largely dismantled after the English Civil War . The ruins are now owned by English Heritage and run as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 12th century = = =
Bowes Castle was built within the ruins of the Roman fort of Lavatrae . The route was one of the few upland passes to link England and Scotland and had remained strategically important during the medieval period . The castle site lay within the Honour of Richmond , a grouping of lands traditionally owned by the Counts of Brittany during the early medieval period , but the land itself was a demesne estate , owned by the Crown .
Around 1136 , Alan de Bretagne , the Count of Brittany , built a timber castle in the north @-@ west corner of the old fort . The use made of the older Roman fortification at Bowes was similar to that at the nearby castles of Brough and Malton . This castle was inherited by his son , Conan , and when he in turn died in 1171 , it was claimed by Henry II .
Royal concerns over security led to Henry II investing heavily in a new castle structure on the site between 1171 and 1174 . It was unusual for a new royal castle to be built in this part of England during the 12th century , and Henry appears to have been driven by the military threat from Scotland before and during the Great Revolt of 1173 to 1174 . Henry II spent almost £ 600 on the castle between 1170 and 1187 , most of it in the first few years , rebuilding the older structure under the supervision of the Count of Brittany 's local tenants , Torfin , Osbert and Stephen of Barningham .
The rebuilt castle featured a hall @-@ keep , an uncommon design in English castles ; built of stone , this was a three @-@ storied structure 82 feet ( 25 m ) long , 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide and 50 feet ( 15 m ) high . Internally the keep was divided to form a long hall and a solar and was lit by large , rounded windows . The keep had architectural similarities to various nearby castles in the region , but in particular to those at Middleham and Outhgill . A ditch formed an inner defensive bailey around the keep , with the ramparts of the old fort forming a larger , outer bailey . A mill , then an essential part of any castle , was built by the River Greta to supply flour for the garrison . The village of Bowes was built after the castle and formed a planned site running up to the castle , complete with a church and a market place ; this form of planned village is again unusual in England .
In England , the Great Revolt against Henry 's rule involved a coalition of rebel barons , bolstered by support from the King of Scotland and European allies . William the Lion pushed south from Scotland in 1173 and Bowes Castle was damaged in the raids ; work was carried out in anticipation of further attacks the following year , including repairs to the chamber , gates and the construction of bulwarks around the keep . The next year William of Scotland directly besieged the castle , but was he forced to retreat after the arrival of a relief force led by Henry 's illegitimate son Geoffrey , then the Bishop of Lincoln .
= = = 13th - 14th centuries = = =
Henry II was successful in quelling the Great Revolt , imprisoning William the Lion until a peace treaty was agreed , extending Henry 's authority north into Scotland . In the subsequent years the security situation in the north of England improved significantly . King John gave control of Bowes Castle to Robert de Vieuxpont , an important administrator in the north , in 1203 and he retained control of the fortification until 1228 . John stayed there himself in 1206 and in 1212 , and the castle was also used briefly to hold John 's niece Eleanor of Brittany , who had been placed under the custody of Vieuxpont . Henry III granted it briefly to William de Blockley and Gilbert de Kirketon , until it was given to Duke Peter of Brittany in 1232 , and then to William de Valence . In 1241 Peter II , the Count of Savoy was made the Earl of Richmond and was then given Bowes by the king .
The castle remained in the hands of the Earls of Richmond until 1322 , by when it was in a poor state of repair . Edward II then gave Bowes Castle to John de Scargill instead ; the local tenants of the Earl of Richmond rebelled and attacked the castle . The lord of the castle was away at the time , and the attackers burnt part of a hall , drank four tuns of wine and stole armour , springalds and other goods . Conflict with Scotland led to further raids against the castle and the surrounding manor ; the neighbouring fields were abandoned as a result and by 1340 the castle was in ruins and the manor worth nothing .
= = = Later history = = =
Still ruined , Bowes Castle was reclaimed by the Crown in 1361 ; between 1444 and 1471 it was controlled by the Neville family , powerful regional landowners , before reverting to the Crown once again . James I sold the castle in the early 17th century and the remaining fortifications were dismantled in the mid @-@ 17th century after the English Civil War . By 1928 , the castle was in a poor condition , with little interest being shown in it from locals or its owner , Lady Lorna Curzon @-@ Howe . Facing death duties on her estate , Curzon @-@ Howe agreed to pass the castle into the care of the Office of Works in 1931 .
In the 21st century , the castle is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction . The ruins of the keep survive , largely intact , and are protected as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument .
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= Mani Ratnam =
Gopala Ratnam Subramaniam ( born 2 June 1955 ) , commonly known by his screen name Mani Ratnam , is an Indian film director , screenwriter , and producer who predominantly works in Tamil cinema . Cited by the media as one of India 's most acclaimed and influential filmmakers , Mani Ratnam is widely credited with revolutionising the Tamil film industry and altering the profile of Indian cinema . Although working in the mainstream medium , his films are noted for their realism , technical finesse , and craft . The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Shri , acknowledging his contributions to film in 2002 .
Despite being born into a film family , Mani Ratnam did not develop any interest towards films when he was young . Upon completion of his post graduation in management , he started his career as a consultant . He entered the film industry through the 1983 Kannada film Pallavi Anu Pallavi . The failure of his subsequent films would mean that he was left with little offers . However , his fifth directorial outing , Mouna Ragam ( 1986 ) , established him as a leading filmmaker in Tamil cinema . He followed that with the Godfatheresque Nayagan ( 1987 ) , which is regarded as a cult film over the years . Mani Ratnam is well known for his " Political trilogy " consisting of Roja ( 1992 ) , Bombay ( 1995 ) , and Dil Se .. ( 1998 ) . The commercial and critical success of Roja established him as a leading filmmaker in Indian cinema .
Mani Ratnam is married to Tamil actress Suhasini and has a son with her . He has won several film awards , including six National Film Awards , Six Filmfare Awards South and three bollywood Filmfare Awards , and a few awards at various international film festivals .
= = Early and personal life = =
Mani Ratnam was born on 2 June 1955 , as the second child of a family that was closely associated with film production . His father S. Gopala Ratnam was a film distributor who worked for Venus Pictures , and his uncle " Venus " Krishnamurthy was a film producer . His elder brother G. Venkateswaran would go on to produce some of his films . His younger brother , G. Srinivasan , who like Venkateswaran would co @-@ produce some of his films . Mani Ratnam grew up in Madras ( now Chennai ) , along with his siblings and cousins in a joint @-@ family . Despite being a film family , the children were not allowed to watch films as the elders considered it a " taboo " . " As a youngster , films seemed like a waste of time " , he claimed in a 1994 interview ; however , he started watching films more actively when he was studying in the Besant Theosophical School , Adyar , Madras . During this time , he developed an admiration towards actors like Sivaji Ganesan and Nagesh , and watched all their films . By the time when he was 15 , he got to know about director K. Balachander , and became a fan of his . Upon completing his schooling , he graduated with a degree in commerce from the Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College , affiliated to the Madras University . Later , he did his Master of Business Administration in finance from Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies , Mumbai . After finishing his post @-@ graduation in 1977 , he was employed in a firm in Madras as a management consultant , and continued to work there for sometime .
Mani is married to Suhasini , an established actress in South Indian cinema then . The two first met in 1988 and got married the same year . The couple have a son Nandhan ( born 1992 ) . The family resides in Alwarpet , Chennai , where he runs his production company , Madras Talkies .
= = Film career = =
= = = Beginnings : 1977 – 1983 = = =
Mani Ratnam was not satisfied with his job as a consultant as he found it to be a mere extension of his academics . During this time his friend Ravi Shankar , son of director B. R. Panthulu , was in the process of making his first film , in Kannada . Mani Ratnam had accompanied Ravi Shankar along with another friend called Raman , son of filmmaker S. Balachander , to complete the script of the film . Mani Ratnam took a sabbatical from his job in order to ensure his participation in the making of the film . Being inexperienced , the makers were largely dependent upon the American Cinematographer magazine . The principal cast included Vishnuvardhan , Srinath , Ambarish , Lakshmi , and Roja Ramani . When the filming was about to begin in Kolar , Karnataka , Mani Ratnam left his consulting job and joined the crew . The film , however , did not take off and was eventually shelved . Nevertheless , he was firm in his idea of becoming a film @-@ maker . Although not pleased with the films made in Tamil cinema till then , he was " amazed " at P. Bharathiraja 's 16 Vayathinile ( 1977 ) , and J. Mahendran 's Mullum Malarum ( 1978 ) and Uthiripookkal ( 1979 ) . During this time , he befriended a group of people namely P. C. Sreeram , Santhana Bharathi , and P. Vasu , who shared common interests of entering into the film industry .
With a script in hand , Mani Ratnam had an idea to either get a producer for his film or to narrate the script to a " celebrated " film @-@ maker , so that he could get a chance to work along with them and get to know about the various aspects involved in film @-@ making . He chose three directors — Balachander , Bharathiraja , and Mahendran . As the attempts to meet and convince all the three proved to be unsuccessful , he decided to look out for a producer . In the process , he along with P. C. Sreeram — who would collaborate with him in most of his future projects — met around 20 people ; however , all the efforts turned out to be unsuccessful .
= = = Early years and struggle : 1983 – 1986 = = =
Mani Ratnam developed a script — originally written in English — into a film and named it Pallavi Anu Pallavi . His uncle Krishnamurthy agreed to produce the film but imposed a condition that it should be made under a limited budget in Kannada , to which he agreed . As a debutant , Mani Ratnam wanted to make sure that the technical aspects of the film are good . He persuaded Balu Mahendra to do the cinematography as he found the latter 's work to be very impressive . He managed to get other crew members B. Lenin ( for editing ) , Thotta Tharani ( for art direction ) and Ilaiyaraaja ( for music composer music ) , all leading craftsmen in their respective fields then . For the male lead , he cast Anil Kapoor after watching his performance in the Telugu film Vamsa Vruksham ( 1980 ) . Lakshmi who was a leading actress then , was signed up as the female lead . The film explored the relationship between a young man and an older woman . Although an average grosser at the box @-@ office , the film fetched Mani Ratnam the Best Screenplay Award from the Karnataka State Government for the year 1983 . After watching Pallavi Anu Pallavi , N. G. John , a Malayalam film producer , offered him a chance to direct a film in Malayalam . Scripted by T. Damodaran , Unaru was about the corruption in labour unions of Kerala . The film was completed with in two months and got released in April 1984 . Mani Ratnam attributed the failure of the film to the conflict of interests that he and the producer had . Following this , he entered Tamil cinema when G. Thyagarajan of Sathya Jyothi Films offered him a chance to direct Pagal Nilavu ( 1985 ) . The film had Murali and Revathi playing lead roles . It was different from his previous two films in a way that it included dance sequences and a " comedy track " . However , the film turned out to be another failure for him . The same year , he directed another Tamil film Idaya Kovil , a romantic drama . He remodeled a ready made script on the lines of Charlie Chaplin 's Limelight ( 1952 ) . Described by himself as an unsatisfied work , the film was a major box @-@ office success . The phase between 1983 and 1986 was the toughest of his career with only Pallavi Anupallavi being a satisfiable film ; the rest three were done with a lot of " compromises " .
= = = Breakthrough : 1986 – 1991 = = =
In 1986 , Mani directed the Tamil romantic drama Mouna Ragam , which starred Revathi and Mohan . The film was critically acclaimed for portraying urban Tamils in a " realistic " manner . Specifically , it told the story of the friction between a newly @-@ wed couple . The score by Ilaiyaraaja was appreciated and became popular upon release . Mouna Raagam was subsequently dubbed into Telugu under the same title and became a hit in Andhra Pradesh as well . The film elevated Mani 's status as a director , and won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil at the 34th National Film Awards . He won his first Filmfare Award for directing the film .
In 1987 , Mani directed Nayagan starring Kamal Haasan , and the film became a huge success and brought him recognition at the national level . Inspired by the 1972 American crime film , The Godfather , the film was based on the real @-@ life story of underworld don Varadarajan Mudaliar , and tells the story of an orphaned slum @-@ dweller and his rise to top of the Mumbai underworld hierarchy , was included in Time magazine 's All @-@ Time 100 Greatest Movies in 2005 . Satyajit Ray 's The Apu Trilogy and Guru Dutt 's Pyaasa are the only other Indian films that have appeared in the list . Indian critics dubbed the film as India 's answer to The Godfather . Nayagan was both commercially successful and critically acclaimed winning three National Awards — Best Actor , Best Cinematography and Best Art Direction — at the 35th National Film Awards . The film was India 's official entry to the Oscars for Best Foreign Language Film at the 60th Academy Awards .
Following these two commercial successes , Mani wrote and directed Agni Natchathiram in 1988 . The film deals with the story of step @-@ brothers played by Prabhu and Karthik and is notable for its use of new techniques in camera framework , especially during the songs . The film had a successful run in the box office .
In 1989 , Mani opted to make his next project Geethanjali , his maiden venture in Telugu . Starring Nagarjuna in the lead role , the film told the story of an ill @-@ fated couple , both of whom are suffering from terminal diseases . Geethanjali was critically acclaimed and won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment in 1990 . In addition , it won the Best Director and Nandi Award for Best Story Writer for Mani . Mani maintained a momentum of making emotional stories of under @-@ served people through the film Anjali in 1990 , which starred Raghuvaran and told the story of an autistic child who changed the lives of people around her . The film proved to be a commercial success and was nominated as India 's official entry to the Oscars in the Best Foreign Language Film category at the 63rd Academy Awards . Following Anjali 's release , Mani later made another underworld @-@ themed Tamil film , Thalapathi ( 1991 ) , starring Rajinikanth and Mammootty . The film was an adaptation of Mahabharata , dealt with the friendship between Karna and Duryodhana portrayed by Rajinikanth and Mammmooty respectively . The film met with both critical acclaim and commercial success upon release . Ilaiyaraaja 's musical score and Mani 's work were highly appreciated as they both went on to win the Music Director and Best Director awards respectively at the 39th Filmfare Awards .
= = = International acclaim : 1992 – 99 = = =
With Thalapathi , Mani ended his long @-@ term association with music director Ilaiyaraaja , bringing in debutant music director A. R. Rahman to score his Tamil classic Roja ( 1992 ) . The venture was successful , earning Mani various awards . Roja , a romantic film , was about terrorism in the Kashmir region . Starring Arvind Swamy and Madhoo , it was nominated for the Golden St. George Award at the 18th Moscow International Film Festival . It became highly popular , gaining an iconic status in Indian cinema and was dubbed into other languages and met similar success in other regions . Mani took a more light @-@ hearted approach with his next film — Thiruda Thiruda ( 1993 ) . Scripted by Ram Gopal Varma , the film was a fun filled caper , which was a departure from Mani 's previous style and fared moderately well at the box office . Thiruda Thiruda was premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 1994 .
Mani again teamed up with Ram Gopal Varma to provide the screenplay for the latter 's Telugu film Gaayam , a socio @-@ politico film loosely based on The Godfather . In 1995 , Mani returned to Tamil language drama through Bombay starring Arvind Swamy and Manisha Koirala , which told the story of a Hindu @-@ Muslim couple in the midst of the 1993 religious Bombay riots and bombings . It was also the first Indian film to focus on marriage between Hindu and Muslim people . The film met with controversy and censorship upon release , was subsequently dubbed into Hindi and was commercially successful and appreciated by critics . It won a number of awards , such as Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration , Special Award from the Political Film Society , In the Spirit of Freedom Award at the Jerusalem International Film Festival and the Gala Award at the Edinburgh International Film Festival .
Mani produced his wife 's directorial debut film , Indira , and the critical success Iruvar with Mohanlal , Aishwarya Rai , Tabu and Prakash Raj in the lead , his next film as director . Iruvar was honoured the Best Film at the " Festival of the Auteur Films " at the FEST film festival held in Belgrade . In 1998 came the third part of his " terrorism trilogy " , named Dil Se .. and starring Shahrukh Khan and Manisha Koirala , with the latter fabricating the second collaboration . It showed the relationship between a young man and a dangerous , disturbed woman . Although they fall in love , she is unable to take the romance further due to her bleak past . The soundtrack album , again composed by A. R. Rahman , gained mass appeal and gave Rahman his next Filmfare Award for Best Music Direction in 1999 . Unlike his previous two projects , Dil Se .. opened with well note among the film critics and the film poorly performed in the domestic market , despite being a success overseas . It was screened in many international film festivals , and won the Netpac award ( Ex @-@ Aqueo ) in the Berlin International Film Festival . In 2000 , Mani directed the romantic drama Alaipayuthey that starred R. Madhavan and Shalini . The film focussed on marriage and explored relationships and their consequences , and garnered critical recognition . It was also screened at the Berlin International Film Festival .
Along with Vasanth , he was instrumental in organizing Netru , Indru , Naalai , a stage musical that marked the first theatre production , with numerous other artistes , to aid The Banyan , an organization that rehabilitates women and children with mental illness .
= = = Kannathil Muthamittal and onwards : 2002 – present = = =
Mani 's next film , Kannathil Muthamittal , dealt with the story of a child of Sri Lankan Tamil parentage adopted by Indian parents , who wishes to meet her biological mother during the Sri Lankan Civil War . The film was critically acclaimed and commercially successful , winning six National Film Awards , Filmfare Award for Best Direction in Tamil , In the Spirit of Freedom Award at the Jerusalem Film Festival , and an award at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles . In 2004 , he made Aaytha Ezhuthu , which tells the story of how one incident sends the lives of three youths on a collision course and received positive reviews . Mani made the film simultaneously in Hindi as Yuva , his second venture into Bollywood . Ajay Devgn , Abhishek Bachchan , and Vivek Oberoi replaced Surya Sivakumar , R. Madhavan , and Siddharth , respectively in the Hindi version . Unlike Yuva , Aaytha Ezhuthu was appreciated by critics . Mani suffered his first heart attack while shooting for Aaytha Ezhuthu .
In 2007 , Mani made Guru , a biographical film based on the life of Dhirubhai Ambani , a business magnate from India . The film starred Abhishek Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai , through his production house , Madras Talkies . The film is set in the early 1950s , became a box office success , and received critical acclaim . Guru was screened at the Tous Les Cinemas du Monde ( World Cinema ) section of the 2007 Cannes Film Festival . In 2010 , Mani worked on a bilingual film , titled Raavanan in Tamil where in the film look was unveiled at 2010 Cannes Film Festival , as part of its marketing campaign. and Raavan in Hindi . The Tamil version was dubbed into Telugu and titled Villain . The film was released worldwide on 18 June 2010 .
The film is loosely based on the Hindu epic Ramayana ; its narrative occurs over 14 days when a revolutionist named Veera , who lives in a forest , kidnaps a policeman 's wife to avenge his sister 's death . The Tamil version received positive reviews from the critics compared to its other versions . The New York Times called the movie a " critics ' pick " . However , the reviewers of the Hindi version panned the film ; Rajeev Masand said it was " a crushing bore of a film , a disappointment on virtually every count " The Tamil version was declared a box office success .
Mani 's film , Kadal was released worldwide on 1 February 2013 to mixed reviews from critics and became a box office failure . Later the distributor of the film filed a police complaint against Mani on account of the huge losses suffered by him .
His film , romantic drama O Kadhal Kanmani starring Dulquer Salmaan and Nithya Menen as the lead pair , was released in April 2015 . The cinematography and editing of the film was handled by P.C. Sreeram and A. Sreekar Prasad respectively , while music was scored by A. R. Rahman . The film depicted the life of a young couple in a live @-@ in relationship in Mumbai , and was said to be a " reflection of the modern mindset of urban India " , dealing with issues such as marriage and traditional values . Made at a small budget of 6 crores , the film achieved widespread critical acclaim and commercial success . His next film is Kaatru Veliyidai , starring Karthi , Aditi Rao Hydari and RJ Balaji .
= = Craft , style , and technical collaborations = =
Mani Ratnam grew up watching the films of K. Balachander , Guru Dutt and Sivaji Ganesan . He is greatly influenced by the film @-@ making styles of Akira Kurosawa , Martin Scorsese , Krzysztof Kieślowski , Ingmar Bergman and J. Mahendran .
Unlike most of his contemporaries , Mani Ratnam did not assist anybody in film @-@ making prior to entering the industry . He is credited with revolutionizing the Tamil film industry and is referred for bringing new dimension to the South Asian cinema . A majority of his films are characterized by a string of socio @-@ political themes . Because of his idea of combining art and commercial elements , most of his films garnered both critical acclaim and commercial success . Nayagan , Bombay and Iruvar were inspired from real @-@ life incidents , while Thalapathi and Raavan were based on Indian epics .
Mani Ratnam handled screenplays for a majority of his films . Lauded for his casting in each of his films , he claimed in an interview that " I am not a director who performs and shows . I discuss the role , the scene with my actors and let them bring life to it " . Right from the beginning of his career , his works were noted for their technical expertise in areas such as cinematography , art direction , editing and background score . For his debut film , he managed to handpick Balu Mahendra , Thotta Tharani , B. Lenin , and Ilaiyaraaja , leading craftsmen in their respective fields . As his career progressed , he worked with his childhood friend P. C. Sreeram and continued his collaborations with him until Geethanjali . In 1991 for his film Thalapathi , he chose Santosh Sivan and Suresh Urs — both newcomers to the Tamil film industry — to do cinematography and editing respectively . Both would later go onto become a part of his regular crew . While working on Raavan , Santosh Sivan noted " any cameraman can hone his skills just working with [ Mani ] " and described Mani Ratnam 's films as difficult to film . From his debut project till Thalapathi , Ilaiyaraaja was his regular composer . The duo split due to some creative differences after the film . For his next film Roja ( 1992 ) , he collaborated with debutant A. R. Rahman , who has been his regular composer for all his films till date . He has also worked with Rajiv Menon and Ravi K. Chandran , while switching between Sreeram and Santosh Sivan . Since Alaipayuthey , Sreekar Prasad has been his regular film editor .
= = Awards and honours = =
Mani is well recognized outside India with a retrospective of his films held at various film festivals around the world such as Toronto International Film Festival , Pusan International Film Festival , Tokyo Filmex and Birmingham International Film Festival . His films are being screened regularly at many film festivals such as Venice Film Festival , Rotterdam Film Festival , Montreal Film Festival and Palm Springs International Film Festival .
The Government of India honoured Mani with Padma Shri in 2002 . He has won several National Film Awards , Filmfare Awards , Filmfare Awards South and state awards . Apart from these awards , many of his films have been screened at various film festivals and have won numerous accolades . Geethanjali , directed by him won the Golden Lotus Award for Best Popular Film at the 37th National Film Awards . Other films like Mouna Ragam , Anjali , and Kannathil Muthamittal have won the Best Regional Film awards at the National Film Awards . Two of his films , Roja and Bombay have won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration . The former was also nominated for Best Film category at the 18th Moscow International Film Festival . In 2010 , Mani was honoured with Jaeger @-@ Lecoultre Glory to the Filmmaker at the 67th Venice International Film Festival . In July 2015 , he was honoured with the Sun Mark Lifetime Achievement Award at the Bagri Foundation London Indian Film Festival for his esteemed contribution to international cinema . Around the same time , the Museum of the Moving Image , New York , paid a special tribute to Mani . His films Roja , Bombay , and Dil Se were screened at the museum as a retrospective .
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= Major General George B. McClellan =
Major General George B. McClellan is an equestrian statue in Washington , D.C. that honors politician and Civil War general George B. McClellan . The monument is sited on a prominent location in the Kalorama Triangle neighborhood due to efforts made by area residents . The statue was sculpted by American artist Frederick William MacMonnies , a graduate of the École des Beaux @-@ Arts whose best known work is a statue of Nathan Hale in New York City . MacMonnies was chosen to design the statue following a lengthy competition organized by a statue commission , led by then Secretary of War William Howard Taft . The monument was dedicated in 1907 , with prominent attendees at the ceremony including President Theodore Roosevelt , New York City mayor George B. McClellan , Jr . , politicians , generals and thousands of military personnel .
The sculpture is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The bronze statue , which rests on a tall granite base adorned with emblems and bronze reliefs , is surrounded by a small public park bounded by California Street , Columbia Road and Connecticut Avenue NW . The monument and park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
George B. McClellan ( 1826 – 1885 ) rose to prominence as a major general during the Civil War who organized the Army of the Potomac . Although he was unsuccessful in early battles , the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam temporarily halted the Confederate invasion of the northern states . He was later removed from his post by President Abraham Lincoln , whom he unsuccessfully ran against in the 1864 presidential election . McClellan ran again for public office after the war , serving as the 24th Governor of New Jersey .
Shortly after McClellan 's death in 1885 , the Society of the Army of the Potomac , a fraternal organization consisting of Union veterans , began plans to erect a monument honoring the general . It wasn 't until March 3 , 1901 , that Congress appropriated $ 50 @,@ 000 for the erection of the statue of McClellan . The following month a statue commission , originally led by Secretary of War Elihu Root , Senator George P. Wetmore and General George D. Ruggles , was formed to oversee the project . An advisory committee , composed of sculptors Daniel Chester French and Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , and architect Charles Follen McKim , was also formed to provide recommendations to the commission . A resolution adopted at one of the first commission meetings stated : " That the monument of Gen. McClellan be an equestrian statue , and that this resolution be communicated by the secretary to any commission hereinafter appointed to execute the work . "
In 1902 , a design competition was held at the Corcoran Gallery of Art with a bonus of $ 500 for each of the four sculptors who submitted the best models of the McClellan statue . Twenty @-@ three designs were submitted by May 1 , which was later narrowed down to four finalists : Austin Hays , Charles Henry Niehaus , Attilio Piccirilli and Thomas Waldo Story . The four sculptors were later asked to submit larger models for further review by the advisory committee . The model submitted by Story was favored by McClellan 's widow , Nelly . In 1903 , the committee rejected three of the designs , citing a lack of individuality and symbolism . The fourth design , by Niehaus , was reluctantly approved by the committee , though the commission rejected all of the designs stating " no model submitted upon the competition is satisfactory . "
In August 1903 , the commission chose Frederick William MacMonnies ( 1863 – 1937 ) , an American artist and sculptor who lived in Paris , to create the statue . MacMonnies was a graduate of the École des Beaux @-@ Arts who had apprenticed with Saint @-@ Gaudens for four years beginning at the age of seventeen . His previous works included a statue of Nathan Hale in New York City , Columbian Fountain at the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago and Bacchante and Infant Faun at the Boston Public Library . MacMonnies ' other well @-@ known Civil War work is the sculptural groupings on the Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Arch in Brooklyn , New York . After his initial design was rejected due to costs overruns , he submitted a new design to the committee , which was later approved by the officials and Nelly McClellan . The accepted design reflected the influence of MacMonnies ' teacher in Paris , Alexandre Falguière , rather than Saint @-@ Gaudens . James Crocroft was chosen to design the monument while the statue was founded by Edmond Gruet Jeune . The Society of the Army of the Potomac paid for the costs associated with improving the monument site .
The site chosen for the monument changed several times throughout the planning process . Suggested locations included the intersection of Florida Avenue and Massachusetts Avenue NW , Sheridan Circle ( current site of the General Philip Sheridan statue ) and the intersection of N Street and Connecticut Avenue NW ( current site of the Doctor John Witherspoon statue ) . In 1906 , residents of the Kalorama Triangle neighborhood , then called Washington Heights , represented by cartoonist Clifford K. Berryman and Rear Admiral Thomas Oliver Selfridge , Jr . , asked the statue commission to consider placing the monument in their neighborhood . The commission , then led by Secretary of War and future President William Howard Taft , Senator Wetmore and General Horatio Collins King , approved the suggested site at the intersection of Connecticut Avenue and Columbia Road NW , describing it as a " more satisfactory and imposing " location . An additional factor that led to the site 's approval was that the area had been a Union camp during the summer of 1861 when McClellan arrived in Washington , D.C.
= = = Dedication = = =
The dedication of the monument was first planned for October 18 , 1906 , to coincide with the 37th annual reunion of the Society of the Army of the Potomac . A fire at MacMonnies ' polishing works prevented him from finishing the pedestal in time , so the dedication and reunion were rescheduled for the following May . During the delay , MacMonnies exhibited the statue at the 1906 Salon d 'Automne in Paris before shipping it to the United States . The reunion began on May 1 , 1907 , with opening events held at the Belasco Theater ( present site of the Howard T. Markey National Courts Building ) , Corcoran Gallery of Art and Thomas Jefferson Building .
The dedication took place on Thursday , May 2 , at 2 : 30 pm . Prior to the ceremony , around 700 veterans gathered at the intersection of 18th Street and Columbia Road NW , and marched down Columbia Road in a military parade to the dedication site . Veterans who were unable to march were seated in reviewing stands . The area surrounding the monument included a temporary stand and viewing boxes decorated with bunting , large flags , flowers and shields , while the statue was draped with two American flags . Prominent attendees at the ceremony included the main speaker , President Theodore Roosevelt , New York City mayor and McClellan 's son , George B. McClellan , Jr . , William Howard Taft , New Jersey governor Edward C. Stokes , Generals George Lewis Gillespie , Jr . , Frederick Dent Grant and Wallace F. Randolph , and Nelly McClellan . Additional attendees included members of Congress , foreign diplomats , members of the president 's cabinet and thousands of citizens . The event was led by Brigadier General Henry C. Dwight , president of the Society of the Army of the Potomac .
Following an invocation by Episcopal bishop Henry Y. Satterlee , a brief history of the statue was given by General Horatio Collins King . McClellan , Jr. then unveiled the statue to cheers and applause from the crowd . After the unveiling , the Fourth Battery of the Field Artillery saluted as " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " was played by the Marine Band . After a military parade consisting of thousands of troops led by General J. Franklin Bell passed the statue and the reviewing stands , the main speech by Roosevelt was given . Roosevelt 's remarks , which covered various topics including war , peace , national pride and family , included the following : " Modern statuary has added a new terror to death . But I wish on behalf of those who live in the capital of the nation to express my very profound acknowledgment to those who had the good taste to choose a great sculptor to do this work . I thank them for having erected here in so well a chosen site a statue which , not only because of the man it commemorates , but because of its intrinsic worth , adds to the nobility and beauty of the capital city of the country . " Following the president 's remarks , an overture from Semiramide , " On the Field of Glory " , was played . General Oliver O. Howard then spoke about his interactions with McClellan and General Grenville M. Dodge read a letter from General Daniel Sickles ( who was ill at the time ) that discussed his personal experiences with McClellan General Dwight 's speech included the statement : " Statues may crumble to dust . Veterans ' graves will be obliterated by time , but the grandest monument of the service of valor of the soldiers and sailors of the Civil War , the United States of America , the hope and joy of the world , consecrated to liberty by the blood and treasure of the nation , the undying testimonial of the patriotism of her people , will continue years and years . " The benediction was given by William R. Jenvey , Episcopal archdeacon of Jersey City , followed by the band closing the ceremony with " My Country , ' Tis of Thee . "
= = = Later history = = =
The statue is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . It is also designated a contributing property to the Kalorama Triangle Historic District , listed on the NRHP on May 4 , 1987 . The monument and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service ( NPS ) , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
In 2009 , the monument underwent a $ 114 @,@ 000 restoration by Kreilick Conservation supervised by NPS architectural conservator Catherine Dewey . It was the first major conservation of the statue since its dedication in 1907 . Scaffolding and nylon mesh were installed around the monument for several months during the restoration , which included cleaning , painting and waxing the statue . Damage to the monument that was repaired during the process included removing spray paint from the base , removing water leakage inside the horse 's legs and stomach , and replicating a bronze shield that was missing from the pedestal .
= = Design and location = =
The monument is sited on a prominent location at the intersection of California Street , Columbia Road and Connecticut Avenue NW , on the southern edge of the Kalorama Triangle Historic District . The statue faces south down Connecticut Avenue toward Dupont Circle and downtown Washington , D.C. It is surrounded by a small public park . Adjacent landmarks include the Churchill Hotel to the west , Lothrop Mansion to the north and Washington Hilton to the east .
The bronze statue is 13 @.@ 6 feet ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) tall . It depicts McClellan dressed in his Union Army military uniform , including gauntlets , a hat , sash and sword , while riding a horse . He is holding the horse 's reins with the left hand while the right hand is placed on his hip . The granite pedestal , which measures 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) tall and 9 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) long , rests on a base measuring 44 ft ( 13 m ) long and 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide . Near the top of the pedestal are eight shield @-@ shaped emblems noting Civil War battles McClellan led : Antietam , Fair Oaks , Gaines 's Mill , Malvern Hill , Mechanicsville , South Mountain , Williamsburg and Yorktown . On the east and west sides of the pedestal are bronze reliefs composed of cannons , eagles , flags and swords . A bronze oak and laurel garland runs along the base of the pedestal between bronze eagles on each corner .
Inscriptions on the monument include the following :
( front of the pedestal ) MAJOR GENERAL / GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN / 1826 @-@ 1885
( rear of the pedestal ) ERECTED BY THE / GRAND ARMY OF THE POTOMAC / AND THE / CONGRESS OF THE VNITED STATES / 1907
( relief on proper left side ) MAC MONNIES / E. GRUET JNE FONDEUR
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= Chatteris =
Chatteris / ˈtʃætɛrɪs / is a civil parish and one of four market towns in the Fenland district of Cambridgeshire , England , situated in The Fens between Huntingdon , March and Ely . The town is in the North East Cambridgeshire parliamentary constituency .
The parish of Chatteris is large , covering 6 @,@ 099 hectares , and for much of its history was a raised island in the low @-@ lying wetland of the Fens . Mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 , the town has evidence of settlement from the Neolithic period . After several fires in the 18th and 19th centuries , the majority of the town 's housing dates from the late Victorian period onwards , with the tower of the parish church the only medieval building remaining .
Following the draining of the Fens , beginning in the 17th century and completed in the 19th century , the town 's economy has been based on agriculture and related industry . Due to its proximity to Cambridge , Huntingdon and Peterborough , the town has emerged as a commuter town . The town had a population of 10 @,@ 453 at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy and early history = = =
Chatteris 's name probably derives from the Celtic Cedrid - Ced meaning a wood and Rid , a ford , although it may also derive from " cader " , meaning hill fort , suggesting a similar site to the nearby Stonea Camp . The town was mentioned in the Domesday Book as " Cetriz " and " Cateriz " .
Archaeological evidence has been found of Neolithic , Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements in the area , and Chatteris possesses what has been interpreted as the only upstanding Neolithic boundaries in Fenland . Saxon evidence is less well preserved , although in 679 , Hunna , the chaplain to Æthelthryth of Ely built a hermitage on Honey Hill . More apocryphically , Chatteris is reputed to have been the last refuge of Boudica as she fled from the Romans .
= = = Medieval period = = =
The miraculous story of the first known parishioner of the town , Bricstan , is documented in the Historia Ecclesiastica by the Chronicler Orderic Vitalis ( 1075 - c.1142 ) . According to the legend , Bricstan was a pious free tenant from the town who had joined the monastery at Ely Cathedral in 1115 to begin training as a monk . However , he was accused of theft and imprisoned in London . The legend recounts that one night he had a vision of Saint Etheldreda coming towards him , and as if by a miracle , his heavy chains fell from him and he was shackled no longer . When he awoke from his dream , he discovered that this was indeed true and he was free of his chains . The wife of Henry I , Matilda of Scotland , heard of the miracle , and she assured herself that he was no rogue or thief , issued a writ of pardon and declared him a free man .
During the Medieval period , the town was dominated by Chatteris Abbey , a small Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St Mary , built in 980 by Alfwen the niece of King Edgar and one of only eight nunneries mentioned in the Domesday Book . Throughout its existence , the abbey was comparatively poor compared to other foundations , due to a lack of royal patronage and a consequent lack of tithe estates . As a result , the abbey survived the first wave of closures during the Dissolution of the Monasteries , but was surrendered to the king 's commissioners in 1538 , by which time there were eleven nuns in residence .
At this date fourteen local families still used the abbey church as parochial but this , unusually , did not save it from demolition , the parishioners being transferred to nearby St Peter and St Paul 's Church in the area . It has been conjectured that due to the short space between them , the parish church may have been the abbey church , although Claire Breay 's Cartulary of Chatteris Abbey discounts this idea , citing that historical documentation clearly defines two separate churches . A range of the cloister buildings survived as part of a mansion known as Park House . This was demolished in 1847 and the site has now completely vanished beneath streets and housing , although the " Park Streets " of Chatteris mark the boundary of its walls and several buildings contain stone originating from the abbey . A large portion of the town was destroyed by a great fire in 1310 , which destroyed the nunnery and a large portion of the church , leaving only sections of the base of the tower .
= = = Early modern and contemporary = = =
Later fires in 1706 and 1864 destroyed most medieval and Georgian architecture , and a large proportion of the town 's listed buildings date from the Victorian period onwards . However , many of the pasture fields on the outskirts of the town have evidence of ridge and furrow farming practices , although these are under threat by current building proposals .
To the north of the town runs the Forty Foot Drain , a large river also called Vermuyden 's Drain , after the Dutch engineer whose name is associated with the fen drainage works of the middle of the 17th century . Several of the older buildings of the town show evidence of the Dutch architectural style .
Chatteris is a market town and has possessed this designation since 1834 , although an earlier market existed in the town , which was discontinued due to poor roads in 1808 . A small market is still held every Friday . Following the Beeching Axe , Chatteris railway station , formerly on the St. Ives extension of the Great Eastern Railway was closed in March 1967 .
= = Governance = =
The town is in the North East Cambridgeshire parliamentary constituency , with the incumbent MP being the Conservative Stephen Barclay . The constituency is now considered a safe Conservative seat , although the Liberal MP Clement Freud held the seat from 1973 to 1987 . The town is locally governed by Cambridgeshire County Council , Fenland District Council and Chatteris Town Council , each performing separate functions .
The town is historically part of the Isle of Ely , once under the secular jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely , a power ended by the Liberty of Ely Act , 1837 . After various changes throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , following the recommendations of the Local Government Commission for England , on 1 April 1965 the bulk of the area was merged to form Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely , and since the Local Government Act 1972 , Chatteris has been part of the wider Cambridgeshire County Council .
Under the Police Act 1964 and local government reform in 1974 , the Isle of Ely Constabulary became part of the present Cambridgeshire Constabulary . A small police station is situated in East Park Street , but it is no longer open to the public .
= = Geography = =
Chatteris is situated between Huntingdon , St Ives , Peterborough , March and Ely , in the middle of The Fens — the lowest @-@ lying area in the United Kingdom — with most of the land surrounding the town being below sea level , although the highest point in the Fens ( 36 feet above sea level ) is within Chatteris 's parish boundaries . The peaty land surrounding the town is largely used for agriculture , drained by numerous ditches and dykes , and there are two large drainage rivers near the town - the Forty Foot Drain , also known as Vermuyden 's Drain , and the Sixteen Foot Drain .
Chatteris is a key turning point on the A141 road ( known as the Isle of Ely way ) and the starting point of the A142 road to Ely and Suffolk ( known as Ireton 's Way ) . The town also has important links to Cambridge and the A14 via the B1050 to Bar Hill . The town centre traffic was bypassed in 1986 , with the disused route of the former St Ives extension of the Great Eastern Railway being used to build the A141 to March and Guyhirn .
There are no Met Office recording stations in the Fens , but an indication of rainfall and temperature of the county town Cambridge on the edge of the Fens shows that rainfall is below the national average , and in a wider study of East Anglia , the region had temperatures comparable with London , the warmest part of the UK .
= = Demography = =
The United Kingdom Census 2011 found the population of Chatteris to be 10 @,@ 453 . This was an increase of 1163 since 2001 which recorded 8 @,@ 820 people living in 3 @,@ 809 households , with the average number of people per dwelling 2 @.@ 31 . The 2001 census found that 98 @.@ 9 % of the population of the town were of the white ethnic group . The parish of Chatteris is large , covering 6 @,@ 099 hectares , equalling an average population density of 1 @.@ 45 , although most of the dwellings are concentrated in a smaller area , the outskirts of the town consisting of farmland .
= = Economy = =
Chatteris is sited in particularly fertile agricultural land , and as such , the town 's local economy is largely based on this industry . Alan Bartlett and Songs Ltd , a major British grower and packer of root vegetables has a large facility in the town with over 2 @,@ 500 hectares under cultivation , much of it growing parsnips and the Chantenay and Bushytops carrot . The company is a demerger of Albert Bartlett & Sons , which are now based in Scotland . Rustler Produce Ltd , also based in Chatteris , is another major player in this industry , and a number of smaller vegetable producers and processors operate in the Chatteris area .
Another major employer in the town is Metalcraft ( Stainless Metalcraft ( Chatteris ) Ltd ) . The company was established in the town in the late 19th century and over the years has manufactured diamond mining equipment and overhead cranes . The company is now part of the Avingtrans Group and specialises in creating engineered products for the oil , gas , nuclear and medical industries .
The town 's main retail outlets are situated in Market Hill and High Street . The town centre has a post office , a branch of Barclays , a large Aldi supermarket on Bridge Street and a small Budgens supermarket in the High Street . The town centre generally features more specialist non @-@ branch shops in the centre . In 2007 , the Petrou Brothers fish and chip shop in West Park Street won the National Chip Shop of the Year competition . The Cross Keys , The George Inn and The Bramley House are the town 's main hotel and bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast establishments , all located in the High Street or Market Hill . In addition to the Cross Keys and George , there are two further pubs ; The Ship in Bridge Street and The Honest John in South Park Street , and a number of small restaurants and tea shops .
A large Tesco supermarket was constructed on the outskirts of Chatteris at a cost of £ 22 million . It was due to be opened in November 2014 , but has been left unopened and empty following the company 's decision to halt the opening of 49 out @-@ of @-@ town supermarkets following poor financial results . As of April 2016 , Tesco are looking for another retailer to take over the store , which remains mothballed .
= = Religion = =
The 2001 Census found that 6 @,@ 596 ( 74 @.@ 8 % ) of people in the town stated Christian to be their religion , with 54 ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) of other religions and 2163 ( 24 @.@ 5 % ) as having no religion .
The parish church of St Peter & St Paul is situated in the centre of the town . A church has been on the site since at least 1162 , although the current tower dates from 1352 . The building had fallen into disrepair during the 19th century , and the majority of the building is the result of an intensive restoration in 1910 . This included restoring a pitched roof and adding new aisles , although the nave arches are original . In 1935 , a new two manual Harrison & Harrison organ was installed , a fine example of a pneumatic action instrument . Recent years have seen the construction of several new facilities , such as the Bricstan room extension . The church lists itself as being of the low church branch of the Church of England . The church also hosts the town 's Catholic congregation .
The Emmanuel Church in East Park Street was created through the union of the Methodist , United Reformed and Baptist Union churches in Chatteris in 1990 . It is based in the former United Reformed building in East Park Street , although several of the former chapel buildings still exist around the town . The town also has a Salvation Army citadel , also in East Park Street .
= = Education = =
The town has two primary schools , Kingsfield Primary School ( created in 2003 by the amalgamation of the former Burnsfield School and King Edward School ) and Glebelands School , which opened in the early months of 1994 . The town 's secondary school is Cromwell Community College , founded in 1939 . The school became an academy in 2012 . The Isle College used to have a presence in the town , with a base in Grove House . However , this closed following the College 's merger with the College of West Anglia . The town has a library run by Cambridgeshire County Council .
= = Sport and leisure = =
The town 's football club , Chatteris Town , was founded in 1920 and currently play in the Kershaw Premier Division of the Cambridgeshire Football Association County League . The town also has a cricket club , Chatteris Cricket Club , which was founded in 1879 . The club has five senior teams and four youth teams that compete in both the Fenland and Cambridgeshire leagues . Chatteris CC won the St Ivo Midweek League in 2008 and 2009 going both seasons unbeaten . The town also has a bowls club and a tennis club ( St Peters ) . Chatteris Airfield is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north @-@ northeast , which is mainly used for skydiving , and is the base of the North London Skydiving Centre . A flying school is also based at the airfield .
The town has one swimming pool , the Empress , which is privately owned and is a registered charity run by three trustees . It is open to members and can be booked for private hires or group sessions . It is home of the Chatteris Kingfishers swimming club , who after successes in 2008 compete in Division One of the 2009 " Cambs Cup " competition . Plans for a public swimming pool and leisure centre have been proposed by the council since 1990 , but have yet to be approved . Proposals for the development of Cromwell Community College under the government 's BSF programme include significant leisure provisions and these are expected to start in 2010 . A new gym situated in the grounds of Cromwell Community College opened in 2013 .
= = Culture and community = =
The town is noted for its annual display of Christmas lights , which are entirely funded by community donations and have been featured on BBC Look East . In 2008 , a medieval @-@ themed Historical Festival replaced the town 's traditional festival week .
The town has a museum run by volunteers , with several permanent exhibitions about local history , the Fens , Victoriana and the Railways . Chatteris also has a Scout club , an Army Cadet force and a youth football team .
Chatteris has morning and evening Women 's Institutes , which both meet at the King Edward Centre , and a Rotary Club which meet at the local fire station , and put on an annual firework display , plus other events in the town . The town 's annual entry in the " Anglia in Bloom " competition was awarded a Silver Gilt in 2008 , and achieved a Gold in 2009 . The town also has a brass band , founded in 1882 , which competes in the East Anglian Brass Band Association .
In 2005 , British indie band Half Man Half Biscuit – perhaps best known for " The Trumpton Riots " and " Dickie Davies Eyes " – included a song entitled " For What Is Chatteris ... " on their award @-@ winning Achtung Bono album . The song extolled the virtues of the town , offset against how unsatisfying the best place in the world can suddenly become when the one you love is no longer there : " a market town that lacks quintessence / that 's Chatteris without your presence " . News of the song made the headlines of the Cambridgeshire Times and the Peterborough Evening Telegraph during September 2005 , a month before the album 's official release .
A Chatteris fish and chip shop won the 2006 National Fish and Chip Shop of the Year competition . The Petrou Brothers owners were presented with the award by chef Ainsley Harriott .
= = Notable residents = =
Eric Boon , boxer ; British Lightweight Champion 1938 @-@ 1944 .
George William Burdett Clare , Victoria Cross recipient for whom the doctors ' surgery is named .
Sir George Herbert Farrar , South African mining magnate , politician and soldier .
John Percy Farrar , English soldier and mountaineer . President of the Alpine Club from 1917 to 1919 and a member of the Mount Everest Committee .
Dave Boy Green , boxer .
Dominic Mohan ( former resident ) Editor of The Sun newspaper .
Joe Perry , snooker player
Joseph Ruston , engineer and MP .
Lindsay Shilling , Principal Trombonist at the Royal Opera House .
= = Transport = =
Chatteris is well served by local bus routes , with regular buses to the nearby towns of March , St Ives , Ely and the city of Cambridge . There are also occasional services to Huntingdon and Peterborough .
The nearest railway stations are in March and Manea .
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= Mayer – Vietoris sequence =
In mathematics , particularly algebraic topology and homology theory , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is an algebraic tool to help compute algebraic invariants of topological spaces , known as their homology and cohomology groups . The result is due to two Austrian mathematicians , Walther Mayer and Leopold Vietoris . The method consists of splitting a space into subspaces , for which the homology or cohomology groups may be easier to compute . The sequence relates the ( co ) homology groups of the space to the ( co ) homology groups of the subspaces . It is a natural long exact sequence , whose entries are the ( co ) homology groups of the whole space , the direct sum of the ( co ) homology groups of the subspaces , and the ( co ) homology groups of the intersection of the subspaces .
The Mayer – Vietoris sequence holds for a variety of cohomology and homology theories , including singular homology and singular cohomology . In general , the sequence holds for those theories satisfying the Eilenberg – Steenrod axioms , and it has variations for both reduced and relative ( co ) homology . Because the ( co ) homology of most spaces cannot be computed directly from their definitions , one uses tools such as the Mayer – Vietoris sequence in the hope of obtaining partial information . Many spaces encountered in topology are constructed by piecing together very simple patches . Carefully choosing the two covering subspaces so that , together with their intersection , they have simpler ( co ) homology than that of the whole space may allow a complete deduction of the ( co ) homology of the space . In that respect , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is analogous to the Seifert – van Kampen theorem for the fundamental group , and a precise relation exists for homology of dimension one .
= = Background , motivation , and history = =
Like the fundamental group or the higher homotopy groups of a space , homology groups are important topological invariants . Although some ( co ) homology theories are computable using tools of linear algebra , many other important ( co ) homology theories , especially singular ( co ) homology , are not computable directly from their definition for nontrivial spaces . For singular ( co ) homology , the singular ( co ) chains and ( co ) cycles groups are often too big to handle directly . More subtle and indirect approaches become necessary . The Mayer – Vietoris sequence is such an approach , giving partial information about the ( co ) homology groups of any space by relating it to the ( co ) homology groups of two of its subspaces and their intersection .
The most natural and convenient way to express the relation involves the algebraic concept of exact sequences : sequences of objects ( in this case groups ) and morphisms ( in this case group homomorphisms ) between them such that the image of one morphism equals the kernel of the next . In general , this does not allow ( co ) homology groups of a space to be completely computed . However , because many important spaces encountered in topology are topological manifolds , simplicial complexes , or CW complexes , which are constructed by piecing together very simple patches , a theorem such as that of Mayer and Vietoris is potentially of broad and deep applicability .
Mayer was introduced to topology by his colleague Vietoris when attending his lectures in 1926 and 1927 at a local university in Vienna . He was told about the conjectured result and a way to its solution , and solved the question for the Betti numbers in 1929 . He applied his results to the torus considered as the union of two cylinders . Vietoris later proved the full result for the homology groups in 1930 but did not express it as an exact sequence . The concept of an exact sequence only appeared in print in the 1952 book Foundations of Algebraic Topology by Samuel Eilenberg and Norman Steenrod where the results of Mayer and Vietoris were expressed in the modern form .
= = Basic versions for singular homology = =
Let X be a topological space and A , B be two subspaces whose interiors cover X. ( The interiors of A and B need not be disjoint . ) The Mayer – Vietoris sequence in singular homology for the triad ( X , A , B ) is a long exact sequence relating the singular homology groups ( with coefficient group the integers Z ) of the spaces X , A , B , and the intersection A ∩ B. There is an unreduced and a reduced version .
= = = Unreduced version = = =
For unreduced homology , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence states that the following sequence is exact :
<formula>
Here the maps i : A ∩ B ↪ A , j : A ∩ B ↪ B , k : A ↪ X , and l : B ↪ X are inclusion maps and <formula> denotes the direct sum of abelian groups .
= = = Boundary map = = =
The boundary maps ∂ * lowering the dimension may be made explicit as follows . An element in Hn ( X ) is the homology class of an n @-@ cycle x which , by barycentric subdivision for example , can be written as the sum of two n @-@ chains u and v whose images lie wholly in A and B , respectively . Thus ∂ x |
= ∂ ( u + v ) =
0 so that ∂ u |
= − ∂ v. This implies that the images of both these boundary ( n − 1 ) -cycles are contained in the intersection A ∩ B. Then ∂ * ( [ x ] ) is the class of ∂ u in Hn − 1 ( A ∩ B ) . Choosing another decomposition x =
u ′ + v ′ does not affect [ ∂ u ] , since ∂ u + ∂ v |
= ∂ x =
∂ u ′ + ∂ v ′ , which implies ∂ u − ∂ u ′ |
= ∂ ( v ′ − v ) , and therefore ∂ u and ∂ u ′ lie in the same Homology class ; nor does choosing a different representative x ′ , since then ∂ x ′ =
∂ x = 0 . Notice that the maps in the Mayer – Vietoris sequence depend on choosing an order for A and B. In particular , the boundary map changes sign if A and B are swapped .
= = = Reduced version = = =
For reduced homology there is also a Mayer – Vietoris sequence , under the assumption that A and B have non @-@ empty intersection . The sequence is identical for positive dimensions and ends as :
<formula>
= = = Analogy with the Seifert – van Kampen theorem = = =
There is an analogy between the Mayer – Vietoris sequence ( especially for homology groups of dimension 1 ) and the Seifert – van Kampen theorem . Whenever A ∩ B is path @-@ connected the reduced Mayer – Vietoris sequence yields the isomorphism
<formula>
where , by exactness ,
<formula>
This is precisely the abelianized statement of the Seifert – van Kampen theorem . Compare with the fact that H1 ( X ) is the abelianization of the fundamental group π1 ( X ) when X is path @-@ connected .
= = Basic applications = =
= = = k @-@ sphere = = =
To completely compute the homology of the k @-@ sphere X = Sk , let A and B be two hemispheres of X with intersection homotopy equivalent to a ( k − 1 ) -dimensional equatorial sphere . Since the k @-@ dimensional hemispheres are homeomorphic to k @-@ discs , which are contractible , the homology groups for A and B are trivial . The Mayer – Vietoris sequence for reduced homology groups then yields
<formula>
Exactness immediately implies that the map ∂ * is an isomorphism . Using the reduced homology of the 0 @-@ sphere ( two points ) as a base case , it follows
<formula>
where δ is the Kronecker delta . Such a complete understanding of the homology groups for spheres is in stark contrast with current knowledge of homotopy groups of spheres , especially for the case n > k about which little is known .
= = = Klein bottle = = =
A slightly more difficult application of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is the calculation of the homology groups of the Klein bottle X. One uses the decomposition of X as the union of two Möbius strips A and B glued along their boundary circle ( see illustration on the right ) . Then A , B and their intersection A ∩ B are homotopy equivalent to circles , so the nontrivial part of the sequence yields
<formula>
and the trivial part implies vanishing homology for dimensions greater than 2 . The central map α sends 1 to ( 2 , − 2 ) since the boundary circle of a Möbius band wraps twice around the core circle . In particular α is injective so homology of dimension 2 also vanishes . Finally , choosing ( 1 , 0 ) and ( 1 , − 1 ) as a basis for Z2 , it follows
<formula>
= = = Wedge sums = = =
Let X be the wedge sum of two spaces K and L , and suppose furthermore that the identified basepoint is a deformation retract of open neighborhoods U ⊂ K and V ⊂ L. Letting A |
= K ∪ V and B =
U ∪ L it follows that A ∪ B |
= X and A ∩ B =
U ∪ V , which is contractible by construction . The reduced version of the sequence then yields ( by exactness )
<formula>
for all dimensions n . The illustration on the right shows X as the sum of two 2 @-@ spheres K and L. For this specific case , using the result from above for 2 @-@ spheres , one has
<formula>
= = = Suspensions = = =
If X is the suspension SY of a space Y , let A and B be the complements in X of the top and bottom ' vertices ' of the double cone , respectively . Then X is the union A ∪ B , with A and B contractible . Also , the intersection A ∩ B is homotopy equivalent to Y. Hence the Mayer – Vietoris sequence yields , for all n ,
<formula>
The illustration on the right shows the 1 @-@ sphere X as the suspension of the 0 @-@ sphere Y. Noting in general that the k @-@ sphere is the suspension of the ( k − 1 ) -sphere , it is easy to derive the homology groups of the k @-@ sphere by induction , as above .
= = Further discussion = =
= = = Relative form = = =
A relative form of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence also exists . If Y ⊂ X and is the union of C ⊂ A and D ⊂ B , then the exact sequence is :
<formula>
= = = Naturality = = =
The homology groups are natural in the sense that if ƒ is a continuous map from X1 to X2 , then there is a canonical pushforward map ƒ ∗ of homology groups ƒ ∗ : Hk ( X1 ) → Hk ( X2 ) , such that the composition of pushforwards is the pushforward of a composition : that is , <formula> . The Mayer – Vietoris sequence is also natural in the sense that if X1 |
= A1 ∪ B1 to X2 =
A2 ∪ B2 and the mapping ƒ satisfies ƒ ( A1 ) ⊂ A2 and ƒ ( B1 ) ⊂ B2 , then the connecting morphism ∂ ∗ of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence commutes with ƒ ∗ . That is , the following diagram commutes ( the horizontal maps are the usual ones ) :
<formula>
= = = Cohomological versions = = =
The Mayer – Vietoris long exact sequence for singular cohomology groups with coefficient group G is dual to the homological version . It is the following :
<formula>
where the dimension preserving maps are restriction maps induced from inclusions , and the ( co- ) boundary maps are defined in a similar fashion to the homological version . There is also a relative formulation .
As an important special case when G is the group of real numbers R and the underlying topological space has the additional structure of a smooth manifold , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence for de Rham cohomology is
<formula>
where { U , V } is an open cover of X , ρ denotes the restriction map , and Δ is the difference . The map d ∗ is defined similarly as the map ∂ ∗ from above . It can be briefly described as follows . For a cohomology class [ ω ] represented by closed form ω in U ∩ V , express ω as a difference of forms ωU - ωV via a partition of unity subordinate to the open cover { U , V } , for example . The exterior derivative dωU and dωV agree on U ∩ V and therefore together define an n + 1 form σ on X. One then has d ∗ ( [ ω ] ) = [ σ ] .
= = = Derivation = = =
Consider the long exact sequence associated to the short exact sequences of chain groups ( constituent groups of chain complexes )
<formula>
where α ( x ) |
= ( x , − x ) , β ( x , y ) =
x + y , and Cn ( A + B ) is the chain group consisting of sums of chains in A and chains in B. It is a fact that the singular n @-@ simplices of X whose images are contained in either A or B generate all of the homology group Hn ( X ) . In other words , Hn ( A + B ) is isomorphic to Hn ( X ) . This gives the Mayer – Vietoris sequence for singular homology .
The same computation applied to the short exact sequences of vector spaces of differential forms
<formula>
yields the Mayer – Vietoris sequence for de Rham cohomology .
From a formal point of view , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence can be derived from the Eilenberg – Steenrod axioms for homology theories using the long exact sequence in homology .
= = = Other homology theories = = =
The derivation of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence from the Eilenberg – Steenrod axioms does not require the dimension axiom , so in addition to existing in ordinary cohomology theories , it holds in extraordinary cohomology theories ( such as topological K @-@ theory and cobordism ) .
= = = Sheaf cohomology = = =
From the point of view of sheaf cohomology , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is related to Čech cohomology . Specifically , it arises from the degeneration of the spectral sequence that relates Čech cohomology to sheaf cohomology ( sometimes called the Mayer – Vietoris spectral sequence ) in the case where the open cover used to compute the Čech cohomology consists of two open sets . This spectral sequence exists in arbitrary topoi .
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= U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck =
U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Truck ( US 1 @-@ 9 Truck ) is a United States highway in the northern part of New Jersey that stretches 4 @.@ 11 mi ( 6 @.@ 61 km ) from the eastern edge of Newark to the Tonnele Circle in Jersey City . It is the alternate road for U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 ( US 1 @-@ 9 ) that trucks must use because they are prohibited from using the Pulaski Skyway , which carries the main routes of US 1 @-@ 9 . It also serves traffic accessing the New Jersey Turnpike , Route 440 , and Route 7 . The route is a four- to six @-@ lane road its entire length , with portions of it being a divided highway , that runs through urban areas . From its south end to about halfway through Kearny , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck is freeway @-@ standard , with access to other roads controlled by interchanges .
While the US 1 @-@ 9 Truck designation was first used in 1953 , the roadway comprising the route was originally designated as an extension of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 in 1922 , a route that in its full length stretched from Trenton to Jersey City . US 1 @-@ 9 was designated along the road in 1926 and one year later , in 1927 , this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 was replaced with Route 25 as well as with a portion of Route 1 north of the Communipaw Avenue intersection . Following the opening of the Pulaski Skyway in 1932 , US 1 @-@ 9 and Route 25 were realigned to the new skyway . After trucks were banned from the skyway in 1934 , the portion of Route 25 between Newark and Route 1 was designated as Route 25T . In 1953 , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck was designated in favor of Route 25T and Route 1 along this segment of road . The portion of the truck route north of Route 7 is being rebuilt as part of a $ 271 @.@ 9 million project to construct new approach roads to connect Route 1 & 9T , Route 7 , the Pulaski Skyway , Route 139 , and Route 1 & 9 north of Tonnele Circle and local streets in Jersey City . Construction , which started in late 2008 , is expected to be complete in late 2012 .
= = Route description = =
US 1 @-@ 9 Truck begins at an interchange with access to and from the southbound direction US 1 @-@ 9 , the Pulaski Skyway , in the Ironbound section of the city of Newark in Essex County . The truck route is meant to bypass the portion of US 1 @-@ 9 along the Pulaski Skyway , which trucks are restricted from . It merges onto Raymond Boulevard , which continues west from the US 1 @-@ 9 and US 1 @-@ 9 Truck interchange into downtown Newark . The truck restriction on Route 1 @-@ 9 is for the " safety and welfare of the public " according to the New Jersey Department of Transportation , not a specific bridge defect . At this point , the truck route becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway , heading to the east . A short distance later , the road comes to an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) and Doremus Avenue before crossing over the Passaic River on a vertical lift bridge . Here , the route enters Kearny in Hudson County and continues east into industrial areas as the Lincoln Highway . The road has a right @-@ in / right @-@ out in both directions that provides access to Jacobus Avenue before it comes to an interchange with County Route 659 . From here , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway and comes to an at @-@ grade intersection with Hackensack Avenue . Past this intersection , the road crosses the Hackensack River on a vertical lift bridge and enters Jersey City . Upon entering Jersey City , the road becomes Communipaw Avenue and intersects the northern terminus of Route 440 near the Hudson Mall .
At this intersection , Communipaw Avenue continues to the east and US 1 @-@ 9 Truck turns to the north , becoming an unnamed four @-@ lane undivided road. bisecting Lincoln Park before coming to an intersection with County Route 605 . Here , the road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway again , passing some urban business areas before running between wetlands to the west and Holy Name Cemetery to the east . The route heads into more commercial areas again before passing urban residences , coming to an intersection that provides access to the Pulaski Skyway . Here , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck turns east on Broadway , running through a business district . A short distance later , it turns north onto an unnamed road with County Route 642 continuing east on Broadway . The route passes under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line and PATH 's Newark – World Trade Center Line before crossing under the Pulaski Skyway . Immediately after , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck intersects the eastern terminus of Route 7 and turns to the east , with County Route 645 continuing north at this intersection . The truck route becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road that runs to the north of the Pulaski Skyway and passes through industrial sectors , crossing over a railroad line and County Route 646 , known as St. Paul 's Avenue , on a viaduct . A short distance later , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck comes to the Tonnele Circle with US 1 @-@ 9 and Route 139 , where it ends .
The East Coast Greenway runs along the north side of the highway .
= = History = =
What is now U.S. 1 @-@ 9 Truck between Newark and Jersey City was originally the Newark Plank Road ; in 1913 this became the first segment of the Lincoln Highway . The current route of US 1 @-@ 9 Truck was designated to be an extension of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 in 1922 , a route that was to run from Trenton to Jersey City .
When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , the current truck route became a part of the US 1 @-@ 9 concurrency . A year later , in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 25 was designated to run along the entire length of the route along with US 1 @-@ 9 as part of its journey from the Benjamin Franklin Bridge in Camden to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City , while Route 1 was also designated along the portion north of Communipaw Avenue in Jersey City as a part of its routing from Bayonne to Rockleigh .
Following the opening of the Pulaski Skyway in 1932 , US 1 @-@ 9 and Route 25 were moved to the new bridge . After trucks were banned from the Pulaski Skyway in 1934 , the portion of Route 25 between Newark and Route 1 was designated as Route 25T . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck was designated to replace all of Route 25T as well as the portion of Route 1 between Route 25T and the Tonnele Circle .
Beginning in late 2008 the New Jersey Department of Transportation replaced the viaduct that carries the route over St. Paul 's Avenue , which was built in 1928 and determined structurally deficient . The $ 271 @.@ 9 million replacement was completed in September 2011 . In addition to replacing the St. Paul 's Avenue viaduct , the approaches to US 1 @-@ 9 Truck between Route 7 and the Tonnele Circle were improved .
In anticipation of a general increase of activity in Port of New York and New Jersey and new development on West Side and Hackensack Riverfront studies are being conducted to make the intersection with Route 440 a multi @-@ level traffic circle and northern and southern ( Route 440 ) approaches to it into a multi @-@ use urban boulevard that includes grade separations and additional medians .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Sholes and Glidden typewriter =
The Sholes and Glidden typewriter ( also known as the Remington No. 1 ) was the first commercially successful typewriter . Principally designed by the American inventor Christopher Latham Sholes , it was developed with the assistance of fellow printer Samuel W. Soule and amateur mechanic Carlos S. Glidden . Work began in 1867 , but Soule left the enterprise shortly thereafter , replaced by James Densmore , who provided financial backing and the driving force behind the machine 's continued development . After several short @-@ lived attempts to manufacture the device , the machine was acquired by E. Remington and Sons in early 1873 . An arms manufacturer seeking to diversify , Remington further refined the typewriter before finally placing it on the market on July 1 , 1874 .
During its development , the typewriter evolved from a crude curiosity into a practical device , the basic form of which became the industry standard . The machine incorporated elements which became fundamental to typewriter design , including a cylindrical platen and a four @-@ rowed QWERTY keyboard . Several design deficiencies remained , however . The Sholes and Glidden could print only upper @-@ case letters — an issue remedied in its successor , the Remington No. 2 — and was a " blind writer " , meaning the typist could not see what was being written as it was entered .
Initially , the typewriter received an unenthusiastic reception from the public . Lack of an established market , high cost , and the need for trained operators slowed its adoption . Additionally , recipients of typewritten messages found the mechanical , all upper @-@ case writing to be impersonal and even insulting . The new communication technologies and expanding businesses of the late 19th century , however , had created a need for expedient , legible correspondence , and so the Sholes and Glidden and its contemporaries soon became common office fixtures . The typewriter is credited with assisting the entrance of women into the clerical workplace , as many were hired to operate the new devices .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
The Sholes and Glidden typewriter had its origin in a printing machine designed in 1866 by Christopher Latham Sholes to assist in printing page numbers in books , and serial numbers on tickets and other items . Sholes , a Wisconsin printer , formed a partnership with Samuel W. Soule , also a printer , and together they began development work in Charles F. Kleinsteuber 's machine shop , a converted mill in northern Milwaukee . Carlos S. Glidden , an inventor who frequented the machine shop , became interested in the device and suggested that it might be adapted to print alphabetical characters as well . In July 1867 , Glidden read an article in Scientific American describing " the Pterotype " , a writing machine invented by John Pratt and recently featured in an issue of London Engineering . Glidden showed the article to Sholes , who thought the machine " complicated and liable to get out of order " , and was convinced that a better machine could be designed . To that point , several dozen patents for printing devices had been issued in the United States and abroad . None of the machines , however , had been successful or effective products .
In November 1866 , following their successful collaboration on the numbering machine , Sholes asked Soule to join him and Glidden in developing the new device . Mathias Schwalbach , a German clockmaker , was hired to assist with construction . To test the proposed machine 's feasibility , a key was taken from a telegraph machine and modified to print the letter " W " ; by September 1867 , a model with a full alphabet , numbers , and rudimentary punctuation had been completed , and it was used to compose letters to acquaintances in the hope of selling the invention , or procuring funds for its manufacture . One recipient , James Densmore , immediately bought a 25 % interest for $ 600 , the cost of the machine 's development to that date . Densmore saw the machine for the first time in March 1868 , and was unimpressed ; he thought it clumsy and impractical , and declared it " good for nothing except to show that its underlying principles were sound " . Among other deficiencies , the device held paper in a horizontal frame , which limited the thickness of the paper that could be used and made alignment difficult . A patent for the " Type @-@ Writer " was granted on June 23 , 1868 , and , despite the device 's flaws , Densmore rented a building in Chicago in which to begin its manufacture . Fifteen units were produced before a lack of funds forced the venture back to Milwaukee .
= = = Refinement = = =
During 1869 , an improved model was designed which , unlike the previous version , drew upon work done by other inventors . A machine patented in 1833 by Charles Thurber , for example , used a cylindrical platen . Sholes adapted the idea and implemented a rotating drum to which the paper was clipped , replacing the frame of the previous model . Soule and Glidden did not assist development of the new platen and , as their interest in the venture was waning , sold their rights to the original machine to Sholes and Densmore . Prototypes were sent to professionals in various fields , including James O. Clephane , a stenographer whose heavy use destroyed several machines . Clephane 's feedback , although " caustic " , led to the development of an additional 25 to 30 prototypes , each an improvement on its predecessor . In summer 1870 , Densmore traveled to New York to demonstrate the machine to Western Union , which was looking for a method to record telegrams . Western Union ordered several machines , but declined to purchase the rights , as it believed a superior device could be developed for less than Densmore 's asking price of $ 50 @,@ 000 .
To supply the orders and to repay debts , Densmore began to manufacture the machine in summer 1871 . During this time , the machine was revised to improve durability and the platen was redesigned after feedback from Western Union , which wanted the ability to print on a continuous roll , indicated that clipping paper to the platen was impractical . The new design , however , infringed a patent granted to Charles A. Washburn in November 1870 ; Washburn , consequently , received royalties on future production . In 1872 , to manufacture the new machine in earnest , a former wheelwright shop was secured along with several employees . Although the machines worked well , the lack of economies of scale prevented the venture from yielding a profit . In exchange for funding the ventures , Densmore had been acquiring an ever increasing ownership interest . Sholes was eventually bought out for a cash payment of $ 12 @,@ 000 . Glidden kept his one @-@ tenth right of the patent . Densmore consulted with George W. N. Yost , a manufacturer with whom he had been acquainted , who suggested showing the machine to E. Remington and Sons . Remington , an arms manufacturer seeking to diversify after the Civil War , possessed the machining equipment and skilled machinists necessary to further develop the complex machine . A typewritten letter was sent to Remington , where executive Henry H. Benedict was impressed by the novelty and encouraged company president Philo Remington to pursue the device .
= = = Start of an industry = = =
Following a demonstration at Remington 's offices in New York , the company contracted on March 1 , 1873 , to manufacture 1 @,@ 000 machines , with the option to produce an additional 24 @,@ 000 . Although the agreement required Densmore to give Remington $ 10 @,@ 000 and royalty rights , a marketing firm to be formed by Densmore and Yost was allowed to serve as the exclusive sales agent . Remington dedicated a wing of its factory to the typewriter , and spent several months retooling and re @-@ engineering the device ; production began in September and the machine entered the market on July 1 , 1874 . Typewriter production was largely overseen by Jefferson Clough and William K. Jenne , manager of Remington 's sewing machine division . The redesigned machine was sturdier and more reliable than Sholes ' model , but it had taken on some of the characteristics of a sewing machine , including a japanned case with floral ornamentation and a stand with a treadle to operate the carriage return . The typewriter , however , had been rushed into production with insufficient testing , and early models were soon returned for adjustments and repair .
By December 1874 , only 400 typewriters had been sold , due in part to their high price and poor reliability . As businesses were slow to adopt the machine , authors , clergymen , lawyers and newspaper editors were the targeted customers . Individuals , however , generally did not write enough to justify the machine 's price of about $ 125 , the average annual income per person at the time . There were exceptions , however ; Mark Twain was among the first to purchase the machine , which he termed a " curiosity breeding little joker " . Although the machine was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 , it was overshadowed by Alexander Graham Bell 's telephone . Several design and manufacturing improvements followed — including replacing the treadle with a hand lever — and 4 @,@ 000 machines had been sold by 1877 . In 1878 , Remington outsourced marketing to E. & T. Fairbanks & Company , a scale manufacturer , as marketing to that point had produced only lackluster sales .
An improved model , the Remington No. 2 , was also introduced in 1878 . The new machine was able to type upper and lowercase characters , thus remedying a significant drawback of its predecessor . As the only typewriter manufacturer , Remington maintained a monopoly position until the American Writing Machine Company introduced a typewriter to compete with the Remington machines in 1881 . In response to the new competition , Remington lowered the price of the Sholes and Glidden ( referred to in sales literature as the Remington No. 1 ) to $ 80 , and negotiated an agreement with the marketing firm Wyckoff , Seamans & Benedict to take all the machines produced . The arrangement marked the beginning of the typewriter 's commercial success , as the agency 's marketing prowess led to the sale of 1 @,@ 200 machines in its first year . By 1884 , more competitors had appeared , including the Hammond Typewriter Company , the Crandall Type @-@ Writer Company and the Hall Typewriter Company ; in the decade since the introduction of the Sholes and Glidden , a " thriving typewriter industry " had developed .
= = Design = =
The Sholes and Glidden typewriter incorporated several components adapted from existing devices , such as escapement ( a mechanism governing carriage movement ) adapted from clockwork , keys adapted from telegraph machines and type hammers adapted from the piano . In developing the first model , however , Sholes and Soule had not investigated printing machines created by other inventors and , consequently , developed several poor designs which could have been avoided . The failure to research earlier designs also led to the reinvention of features which had already been developed . Soule , for example , suggested a circular typebar orientation . A circular arrangement had been used more than 30 years earlier in a machine designed by Xavier Progin in 1833 .
In the machine 's original 1868 design , paper was placed horizontally on the top of the machine , held in place by a movable square frame ( to provide line and letter spacing ) . Above the paper and centered on the device , an arm held an inked ribbon which crossed over a small metal plate . Depressing a key caused a typebar to rise from underneath the paper , pressing the paper upwards against the ribbon and thus printing an inked character . This method of imprinting required use of very thin , nonstandard paper ( such as tissue paper ) . Two variants were produced with alternative methods of actuating the typebars : one in which the keys and typebars were connected by a series of wires and one in which the keys directly " kicked " the typebars upwards .
The arm and frame components were replaced with a cylindrical platen in 1869 . Unlike modern typewriters , the revised machine entered letters around the cylinder , with axial rotation providing letter spacing and horizontal shifting providing line spacing . Paper was clipped directly to the cylinder , which limited its length and width to the dimensions of the apparatus . The platen was again redesigned in early 1872 to allow the use of paper of any length . The redesigned platen also introduced the modern spacing functionality ( horizontal and axial movement providing letter and line spacing , respectively ) . The cylindrical platen became " an indispensable part of every standard [ typewriter ] " .
By the end of 1872 , the appearance and function of the typewriter had assumed the form that would become standard in the industry and remain largely unchanged for the next century . Although the machine possessed a cylindrical platen and what was essentially a QWERTY keyboard , two design elements that would later become essential were lacking : the ability to write in upper and lowercase letters and " visible " print . Although the former was implemented in the Remington No. 2 , the machine was fundamentally an " upstrike " design , meaning the typebars struck upwards against the underside of the platen . As this occurred inside the machine , the operator could not see what was being entered as it was typed . Although competing brands , such as the Oliver and Underwood , began to market " visible " typewriters in the 1890s , a Remington @-@ branded model did not appear until the Remington No. 10 in 1906 .
= = = QWERTY keyboard = = =
The QWERTY keyboard , so named for the first six characters of the uppermost alphabetic row , was invented during the course of the typewriter 's development . The first model constructed by Sholes used a piano @-@ like keyboard with two rows of characters arranged alphabetically as follows :
3 5 7 9 N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
2 4 6 8 . A B C D E F G H I J K L M
Schwalbach later replaced the piano @-@ like keys with " buttons " and positioned them into four banked rows . The mechanics of the machine , however , made the alphabetical arrangement problematic . The typebars were attached to the circumference of a metal ring , forming a " basket " . When a key was pressed , the corresponding typebar would swing upwards , causing the print head to strike at the center of the ring . Gravity would then return the typebar to its initial position . The implication of this design , however , was that pressing adjoining keys in quick succession would cause their typebars to collide and jam the machine . To mitigate this problem , keys were reordered using analysis of letter frequency and trial and error . Densmore asked his son @-@ in @-@ law , a Pennsylvania school superintendent , what letters and combinations of letters appeared most often in the English language . Typebars corresponding to letters in commonly occurring alphabetical pairs , such as S and T , were placed on opposite sides on the ring . The keyboard ultimately presented to Remington was arranged as follows :
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - ,
Q W E . T Y I U O P
Z S D F G H J K L M
A X & C V B N ? ; R
After it purchased the device , Remington made several adjustments — including switching the period and " R " keys — which created a keyboard with what is essentially the modern QWERTY layout .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Sholes and Glidden was the first commercially successful typewriter . Industrialization and corporate growth in the late 19th century produced a business environment for which the device was well suited . New communications technologies , such as the telegraph and telephone , facilitated geographic expansion and increased the speed with which business was conducted . The resulting increase in the volume of correspondence required messages to be produced quickly and legibly . Before the typewriter , clerks and copyists could write relatively quickly in shorthand or longhand . The comprehension of these scripts , however , required either special training or close concentration . Typesetting was used when legibility was important , but it was a slow and expensive process . The typewriter succeeded because it simultaneously addressed both issues .
The public was initially skeptical of the typewriter , and reactions included apathy and antagonism . Outside of large companies , letters generally did not need to be composed quickly ; as the device was reliant upon its operator , it offered no automation . In business settings involving customer interaction , the unfamiliar machines were viewed with suspicion ( as there existed the perception that mechanical devices could be rigged by unscrupulous merchants ) and the presence of such a large object between the customer and employee " interrupted the ' personal touch ' " . Individuals receiving typewritten letters often found them insulting ( as type implied they could not read handwriting ) or impersonal , problems exacerbated by the all upper @-@ case writing . The typewriter also precipitated privacy concerns , as recipients of letters of a personal nature believed a third @-@ party operator or typesetter must have been involved in their composition .
= = = Women and the typewriter = = =
The association of women with the typewriter may be linked to the way in which it was marketed . Before the typewriter was acquired by Remington , Sholes ' daughter was employed to demonstrate the device and to appear in promotional images , which served as the basis for early advertisements . Remington 's sales agents later marketed the machine with tactics including the use of attractive women to demonstrate the device at trade shows and in hotel lobbies . Depictions of female operators suggested the device was " easy enough for a woman " and suited for domestic use . Although also designed to allow Remington to maintain manufacturing efficiencies with its sewing machine division , the typewriter 's aesthetics ( the sewing machine stand and floral ornamentation ) were further intended to facilitate its acceptance into the household .
A " major consequence " of the typewriter 's development was the entrance of women into the clerical work force . Although women were already employed in factories and certain service industries in the 1880s , the typewriter facilitated an influx of women into office settings . Before the Young Women 's Christian Association ( YWCA ) established the first typing school in 1881 , women were trained by the manufacturer and their typing services provided to customers along with the machine . The expansion of correspondence and paper work that demanded the efficiency of typewriters , however , also created demand for additional clerical workers . The low wages accepted by women — often 50 % ( or less ) of those paid to a man — made them more attractive economically to businesses when filling the new positions . As typing and stenography positions could pay up to ten times more than those in factories , women were attracted in large numbers to office work . In 1874 , less than 4 % of clerical workers in the United States were women ; by 1900 , the number had increased to approximately 75 % . Before his death , Sholes remarked of the typewriter , " I do feel that I have done something for the women who have always had to work so hard . This will enable them more easily to earn a living . "
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= Marrakesh =
Marrakesh ( also known by the French spelling Marrakech ( / məˈrækɛʃ / or / ˌmærəˈkɛʃ / ; Arabic : مراكش , Murrākuš ; Berber : Meṛṛakec , ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⴽⵓⵛ ) is a major city of the Kingdom of Morocco . It is the fourth largest city in the country , after Casablanca , Fes and Tangier . It is the capital city of the mid @-@ southwestern region of Marrakesh @-@ Safi . Located to the north of the foothills of the snow @-@ capped Atlas Mountains , Marrakesh is located 580 km ( 360 mi ) southwest of Tangier , 327 km ( 203 mi ) southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat , 239 km ( 149 mi ) south of Casablanca , and 246 km ( 153 mi ) northeast of Agadir .
Marrakesh is possibly the most important of Morocco 's four former imperial cities ( cities that were built by Moroccan Berber empires ) . The region has been inhabited by Berber farmers since Neolithic times , but the actual city was founded in 1062 by Abu Bakr ibn Umar , chieftain and cousin of Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin . In the 12th century , the Almoravids built many madrasas ( Koranic schools ) and mosques in Marrakesh that bear Andalusian influences . The red walls of the city , built by Ali ibn Yusuf in 1122 – 1123 , and various buildings constructed in red sandstone during this period , have given the city the nickname of the " Red City " or " Ochre City " . Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural , religious , and trading centre for the Maghreb and sub @-@ Saharan Africa ; Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa is the busiest square in Africa .
After a period of decline , the city was surpassed by Fes , but in the early 16th century , Marrakesh again became the capital of the kingdom . The city regained its preeminence under wealthy Saadian sultans Abu Abdallah al @-@ Qaim and Ahmad al @-@ Mansur , who embellished the city with sumptuous palaces such as the El Badi Palace ( 1578 ) and restored many ruined monuments . Beginning in the 17th century , the city became popular among Sufi pilgrims for Morocco 's seven patron saints , who are entombed here . In 1912 the French Protectorate in Morocco was established and T 'hami El Glaoui became Pasha of Marrakesh and held this position nearly throughout the duration of the protectorate until the role was dissolved upon independence of Morocco and the reestablishment of the monarchy in 1956 . In 2009 , Marrakesh mayor Fatima Zahra Mansouri became the second woman to be elected mayor in Morocco .
Like many Moroccan cities , Marrakesh comprises an old fortified city packed with vendors and their stalls ( the medina ) , bordered by modern neighborhoods , the most prominent of which is Gueliz . Today it is one of the busiest cities in Africa and serves as a major economic centre and tourist destination . Tourism is strongly advocated by the reigning Moroccan monarch , Mohammed VI , with the goal of doubling the number of tourists visiting Morocco to 20 million by 2020 . Despite the economic recession , real estate and hotel development in Marrakesh has grown dramatically in the 21st century . Marrakesh is particularly popular with the French , and numerous French celebrities own property in the city . Marrakesh has the largest traditional market ( souk ) in Morocco , with some 18 souks selling wares ranging from traditional Berber carpets to modern consumer electronics . Crafts employ a significant percentage of the population , who primarily sell their products to tourists .
Marrakesh is served by Ménara International Airport and the Marrakesh railway station , which connects the city to Casablanca and northern Morocco . Marrakesh has several universities and schools , including Cadi Ayyad University . A number of Moroccan football clubs are located here , including Najm de Marrakech , KAC Marrakech , Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech . The Marrakesh Street Circuit hosts the World Touring Car Championship , Auto GP and FIA Formula Two Championship races .
= = Etymology = =
The exact meaning of the name is debated . The probable origin of the name Marrakesh is from the Berber ( Amazigh ) words amur ( n ) akush ( ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵛ ) , which means " Land of God " . According to historian Susan Searight , however , the town 's name was first documented in an 11th @-@ century manuscript in the Qarawiyyin library in Fez , where its meaning was given as " country of the sons of Kush " . The word mur is used now in Berber mostly in the feminine form tamurt . The same word " mur " appears in Mauretania , the North African kingdom from antiquity , although the link remains controversial as this name possibly originates from μαύρος mavros , the ancient Greek word for black . The common English spelling is " Marrakesh " , although " Marrakech " ( the French spelling ) is also widely used . The name is spelled Mṛṛakc in the Berber Latin alphabet , Marraquech in Spanish , and " Mer @-@ reksh " in Moroccan Arabic .
From medieval times until around the beginning of the 20th century , the entire country of Morocco was known as the " Kingdom of Marrakesh " , as the kingdom 's historic capital city was often Marrakesh . The name for Morocco is still " Marrakesh " to this day in Persian and Urdu ( مراكش ) as well as many other South Asian languages . Various European names for Morocco ( Marruecos , Marrocos , Maroc , Marokko , etc . ) are directly derived from the Berber word Murakush . Conversely , the city itself was in earlier times simply called Marocco City ( or similar ) by travelers from abroad . The name of the city and the country diverged after the Treaty of Fez made Morocco a French and Spanish protectorate , but the old interchangeable usage lasted widely until about the interregnum of Mohammed Ben Aarafa ( 1953 – 1955 ) . The latter episode set in motion the country 's return to independence , when Morocco officially became al @-@ Mamlaka al @-@ Maġribiyya ( المملكة المغربية ) ( " The Maghreb Kingdom " ) , its name no longer referring to the city of Marrakesh . Marrakesh is known by a variety of nicknames , including the " Red City " , the " Ochre City " and " the Daughter of the Desert " , and has been the focus of poetic analogies such as one comparing the city to " a drum that beats an African identity into the complex soul of Morocco . "
= = History = =
The Marrakesh area was inhabited by Berber farmers from Neolithic times , and numerous stone implements have been unearthed in the area . Marrakesh was founded in 1062 ( 454 in the Hijri calendar ) by Abu Bakr ibn Umar , chieftain and second cousin of the Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin ( c . 1061 – 1106 ) . Under the Almoravids , pious and learned warriors from the desert , numerous mosques and madrasas ( Koranic schools ) were built , developing the community into a trading center for the Maghreb and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural and religious center , supplanting Aghmat , which had long been the capital of Haouz . Andalusian craftsmen from Cordoba and Seville built and decorated numerous palaces in the city , developing the Umayyad style characterized by carved domes and cusped arches . This Andalusian influence merged with designs from the Sahara and West Africa , creating a unique style of architecture which was fully adapted to the Marrakesh environment . Yusuf ibn Tashfin completed the city 's first mosque ( the Ben Youssef mosque , named after his son ) , built houses , minted coins , and brought gold and silver to the city in caravans . The city became the capital of the Almoravid Emirate , stretching from the shores of Senegal to the center of Spain and from the Atlantic coast to Algiers .
Marrakesh is one of the great citadels of the Muslim world . The city was fortified by Tashfin 's son , Ali ibn Yusuf , who in 1122 – 1123 built the ramparts which remain to this day , completed further mosques and palaces , and developed an underground water system in the city known as the rhettara to irrigate his new garden . In 1125 , the preacher Ibn Tumert settled in Tin Mal in the mountains to the south of Marrakesh . He preached against the Almoravids and influenced a revolt which succeeded in bringing about the fall of nearby Aghmat , but stopped short of bringing down Marrakesh following an unsuccessful siege in 1130 . The Almohads , Masmouda tribesmen from the High Atlas mountains who practiced orthodox Islam , took the city in 1147 under leader Abd al @-@ Mu 'min . After a long siege and the killing of some 7 @,@ 000 people , the last of the Almoravids were exterminated apart from those who sought exile in the Balearic Islands . As a result , almost all the city 's monuments were destroyed . The Almohads constructed a range of palaces and religious buildings , including the famous Koutoubia Mosque ( 1184 – 1199 ) , and built upon the ruins of an Almoravid palace . It was a twin of the Giralda in Seville and the unfinished Hassan Tower in Rabat , all built by the same designer . The Kasbah housed the residence of the caliph , a title borne by the Almohad rulers from the reign of Abd al @-@ Mu 'min , rivaling the far eastern Abbasid Caliphate . The Kasbah was named after the caliph Yaqub al @-@ Mansur . The irrigation system was perfected to provide water for new palm groves and parks , including the Menara Garden . As a result of its cultural reputation , Marrakesh attracted many writers and artists , especially from Andalusia , including the famous philosopher Averroes of Cordoba .
The death of Yusuf II in 1224 began a period of instability . Marrakesh became the stronghold of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and the ahl ad @-@ dar ( descendants of Ibn Tumart ) , who sought to claw power back from the ruling Almohad family . Marrakesh was taken , lost and retaken by force multiple times by a stream of caliphs and pretenders , such as during the brutal seizure of Marrakesh by the Sevillan caliph Abd al @-@ Wahid II al @-@ Ma 'mun in 1226 , which was followed by a massacre of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and their families and a public denunciation of Ibn Tumart 's doctrines by the caliph from the pulpit of the Kasbah mosque . After al @-@ Ma 'mun 's death in 1232 , his widow attempted to forcibly install her son , acquiring the support of the Almohad army chiefs and Spanish mercenaries with the promise to hand Marrakesh over to them for the sack . Hearing of the terms , the people of Marrakesh sought to make an agreement with the military captains and saved the city from destruction with a sizable payoff of 500 @,@ 000 dinars . In 1269 , Marrakesh was conquered by nomadic Zenata tribes who overran the last of the Almohads . The city then fell into a state of decline , which soon led to the loss of its status as capital to rival city Fes .
In the early 16th century , Marrakesh again became the capital of the kingdom , after a period when it was the seat of the Hintata emirs . It quickly reestablished its status , especially during the reigns of the Saadian sultans Abu Abdallah al @-@ Qaim and Ahmad al @-@ Mansur . Thanks to the wealth amassed by the Sultans , Marrakesh was embellished with sumptuous palaces while its ruined monuments were restored . El Badi Palace , built by Ahmad al @-@ Mansur in 1578 , was a replica of the Alhambra Palace , made with costly and rare materials including marble from Italy , gold dust from Sudan , porphyry from India and jade from China . The palace was intended primarily for hosting lavish receptions for ambassadors from Spain , England and the Ottoman Empire , showcasing Saadian Morocco as a nation whose power and influence reached as far as the borders of Niger and Mali . Under the Saadian dynasty , Marrakesh regained its former position as a point of contact for caravan routes from the Maghreb , the Mediterranean and sub @-@ Saharan African .
For centuries Marrakesh has been known as the location of the tombs of Morocco 's seven patron saints ( sebaatou rizjel ) . When sufism was at the height of its popularity during the late 17th century reign of Moulay Ismail , the festival of these saints was founded by Abu Ali al @-@ Hassan al @-@ Yusi at the request of the sultan . The tombs of several renowned figures were moved to Marrakesh to attract pilgrims , and the pilgrimage associated with the seven saints is now a firmly established institution . Pilgrims visit the tombs of the saints in a specific order , as follows : Sidi Yusuf Ali Sangadji ( 1196 – 97 ) , a leper ; Kadi Iyad or Kadi of Cueta ( 1083 – 1149 ) , a theologian and author of Ash @-@ Shifa ( treatises on the virtues of Muhammad ) ; Sidi Bel Abbas ( 1130 – 1204 ) , known as the patron saint of the city and most revered in the region ; Sidi Muhammad al @-@ Jazuli ( 1465 ) , a well known Sufi who founded the Djazuli brotherhood ; Abdelaziz al @-@ Tebaa ( 1508 ) , a student of Djazuli ; Abdallah al @-@ Ghazwani ( 1528 ) , known as Mawla ; and Sidi Abu al @-@ Qasim Al @-@ Suhayli , ( 1185 ) , also known as Imam Al Suhyani . Until 1867 , European Christians were not authorized to enter the city unless they acquired special permission from the sultan ; east European Jews were permitted .
During the early 20th century , Marrakesh underwent several years of unrest . After the premature death in 1900 of the grand vizier Ba Ahmed , who had been designated regent until the designated sultan Abd al @-@ Aziz became of age , the country was plagued by anarchy , tribal revolts , the plotting of feudal lords , and European intrigues . In 1907 , Marrakesh caliph Moulay Abd al @-@ Hafid was proclaimed sultan by the powerful tribes of the High Atlas and by Ulama scholars who denied the legitimacy of his brother , Abd al @-@ Aziz . It was also in 1907 that Dr. Mauchamp , a French doctor , was murdered in Marrakesh , suspected of spying for his country . France used the event as a pretext for sending its troops from the eastern Moroccan town of Oujda to the major metropolitan center of Casablanca in the west . The French colonial army encountered strong resistance from Ahmed al @-@ Hiba , a son of Sheikh Ma al- ' Aynayn , who arrived from the Sahara accompanied by his nomadic Reguibat tribal warriors . On 30 March 1912 , the French Protectorate in Morocco was established . After the Battle of Sidi Bou Othman , which saw the victory of the French Mangin column over the al @-@ Hiba forces in September 1912 , the French seized Marrakesh . The conquest was facilitated by the rallying of the Imzwarn tribes and their leaders from the powerful Glaoui family , leading to a massacre of Marrakesh citizens in the resulting turmoil .
T 'hami El Glaoui , known as " Lord of the Atlas " , became Pasha of Marrakesh , a post he held virtually throughout the 44 @-@ year duration of the Protectorate ( 1912 – 1956 ) . Glaoui dominated the city and became famous for his collaboration with the general residence authorities , culminating in a plot to dethrone Mohammed Ben Youssef ( Mohammed V ) and replace him with the Sultan 's cousin , Ben Arafa . Glaoui , already known for his amorous adventures and lavish lifestyle , became a symbol of Morocco 's colonial order . He could not , however , subdue the rise of nationalist sentiment , nor the hostility of a growing proportion of the inhabitants . Nor could he resist pressure from France , who agreed to terminate its Moroccan Protectorate in 1956 due to the launch of the Algerian War ( 1954 – 1962 ) immediately following the end of the war in Indochina ( 1946 – 1954 ) , in which Moroccans had been conscripted to fight in Vietnam on behalf of the French Army . After two successive exiles to Corsica and Madagascar , Mohammed Ben Youssef was allowed to return to Morocco in November 1955 , bringing an end to the despotic rule of Glaoui over Marrakesh and the surrounding region . A protocol giving independence to Morocco was then signed on 2 March 1956 between French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau and M ’ Barek Ben Bakkai .
Since the independence of Morocco , Marrakesh has thrived as a tourist destination . In the 1960s and early 1970s the city became a trendy " hippie mecca " . It attracted numerous western rock stars and musicians , artists , film directors and actors , models , and fashion divas , leading tourism revenues to double in Morocco between 1965 and 1970 . Yves Saint Laurent , The Beatles , The Rolling Stones and Jean @-@ Paul Getty all spent significant time in the city ; Laurent bought a property here and renovated the Majorelle Gardens . Expatriates , especially those from France , have invested heavily in Marrakesh since the 1960s , and developed many of the riads and palaces . Old buildings were renovated in the Old Medina , new residences and commuter villages were built in the suburbs , and new hotels began to spring up .
United Nations agencies became active in Marrakesh beginning in the 1970s , and the city 's international political presence has subsequently grown . In 1985 , UNESCO declared the old town area of Marrakesh a UNESCO World Heritage Site , raising international awareness of the cultural heritage of the city . In the 1980s , Patrick Guerand @-@ Hermes purchased the 30 acres ( 12 ha ) Ain el Quassimou , built by the family of Leo Tolstoy . On 15 April 1994 , the Marrakesh Agreement was signed here to establish the World Trade Organization , and in March 1997 Marrakesh served as the site of the World Water Council 's first World Water Forum , which was attended by over 500 international participants .
In the 21st century , property and real estate development in the city has boomed , with a dramatic increase in new hotels and shopping centres , fuelled by the policies of Mohammed VI of Morocco , who aims to increase the number of tourists annually visiting Morocco to 20 million by 2020 . In 2010 , a major gas explosion occurred in the city . On 28 April 2011 , a bomb attack took place in the Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa square , killing 15 people , mainly foreigners . The blast destroyed the nearby Argana Cafe . Police sources arrested three suspects and claimed the chief suspect was loyal to Al @-@ Qaeda , although Al @-@ Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb denied involvement .
= = Geography = =
By road , Marrakesh is located 580 kilometres ( 360 mi ) southwest of Tangier , 327 kilometres ( 203 mi ) southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat , 239 kilometres ( 149 mi ) southwest of Casablanca , 196 kilometres ( 122 mi ) southwest of Beni Mellal , 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) east of Essaouira , and 246 kilometres ( 153 mi ) northeast of Agadir . The city has expanded north from the old centre with suburbs such as Daoudiate , Diour El Massakine , Yamama , Sidi Abbad , Sakar , and Malizia , to the southeast with Sidi Youssef Ben Ali , to the west with Massima , and southwest to Hay Annahda , Berradi and beyond the airport . On the P2017 road leading south out of the city are large villages such as Douar Lahna , Touggana , Lagouassem , and Lahebichate , leading eventually through desert to the town of Tahnaout at the edge of the High Atlas , the highest mountainous barrier in North Africa . The average elevation of the snow @-@ covered High Atlas lies above 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . It is mainly composed of Jurassic limestone . The mountain range runs along the Atlantic coast , then rises to the east of Agadir and extends northeast into Algeria before disappearing into Tunisia .
The Ourika River valley is located about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) south of Marrakesh . The " silvery valley of the Ourika river curving north towards Marrakesh " , and the " red heights of Jebel Yagour still capped with snow " to the south are sights in this area . David Prescott Barrows , who describes Marrakesh as Morocco 's " strangest city " , describes the landscape in the following terms : " The city lies some fifteen or twenty miles from the foot of the Atlas mountains , which here rise to their grandest proportions . The spectacle of the mountains is superb . Through the clear desert air the eye can follow the rugged contours of the range for great distances to the north and eastward . The winter snows mantle them with white , and the turquoise sky gives a setting for their grey rocks and gleaming caps that is of unrivaled beauty . "
With 130 @,@ 000 hectares of greenery and over 180 @,@ 000 palm trees in its Palmeraie , Marrakesh is an oasis of rich plant variety . Throughout the seasons , fragrant orange , fig , pomegranate and olive trees display their color and fruits in Agdal Garden , Menara Garden and other gardens in the city . The city 's gardens feature numerous native plants alongside other species that have been imported over the course of the centuries , including giant bamboos , yuccas , papyrus , palm trees , banana trees , cypress , philodendrons , rose bushes , bougainvilleas , pines and various kinds of cactus plants .
= = = Climate = = =
A hot semi @-@ arid climate ( Köppen : BSh ) predominates at Marrakesh . Average temperatures range from 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) in the winter to 32 – 45 ° C ( 90 – 113 ° F ) in the summer . The relatively wet winter and dry summer precipitation pattern of Marrakesh mirrors precipitation patterns found in Mediterranean climates . However , the city receives less rain than is typically found in a Mediterranean climate , resulting in a semi @-@ arid climate classification . Between 1961 and 1990 the city averaged 281 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation annually . Barrows says of the climate , " The region of Marrakesh is frequently described as desert in character , but , to one familiar with the southwestern parts of the United States , the locality does not suggest the desert , but rather an area of seasonal rainfall , where moisture moves underground rather than by surface streams , and where low brush takes the place of the forests of more heavily watered regions . The location of Marrakesh on the north side of the Atlas , rather than the south , forbids its from being described as a desert city , but it remains the northern focus of the Saharan lines of communication , and its history , its types of dwellers , and its commerce and arts , are all related to the great south Atlas spaces that reach further into the Sahara desert . "
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2014 census , the population of Marrakesh was 928 @,@ 850 against 843 @,@ 575 in 2004 . The number of households in 2014 was 217 @,@ 245 against 173 @,@ 603 in 2004 .
= = Economy = =
Marrakesh is a vital component to the economy and culture of Morocco . Improvements to the highways from Marrakesh to Casablanca , Agadir and the local airport have led to a dramatic increase in tourism in the city , which now attracts over two million tourists annually . Because of the importance of tourism to Morocco 's weak economy as a whole , King Mohammed VI has vowed to attract 20 million tourists a year to Morocco by 2020 , doubling the number of tourists from 2012 . The city is popular with the French , and many French celebrities have bought property in the city , including fashion moguls Yves St Laurent and Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier . In the 1990s very few foreigners lived in the city , but real estate developments have dramatically increased in the last 15 years ; by 2005 over 3 @,@ 000 foreigners had purchased properties in the city , lured by its culture and the relatively cheap house prices . It has been cited in French weekly magazine Le Point as the second St Tropez : " No longer simply a destination for a scattering of adventurous elites , bohemians or backpackers seeking Arabian Nights fantasies , Marrakech is becoming a desirable stopover for the European jet set . " However , despite the tourism boom , the majority of the city 's inhabitants are still poor , and as of 2010 , some 20 @,@ 000 households still have no access to water or electricity . Many enterprises in the city are facing colossal debt problems .
Despite the global economic crisis that began in 2007 , investments in real estate progressed substantially in 2011 both in the area of tourist accommodation and social housing . The main developments have been in facilities for tourists including hotels and leisure centres such as golf courses and health spas , with investments of 10 @.@ 9 billion dirham ( US $ 1 @.@ 28 billion ) in 2011 . The hotel infrastructure in recent years has experienced rapid growth . In 2012 , alone , 19 new hotels were scheduled to open , a development boom often compared to Dubai . Royal Ranches Marrakech , one of Gulf Finance House 's flagship projects in Morocco , is a 380 hectares ( 940 acres ) resort under development in the suburbs and one of the world 's first five star Equestrian Resorts . The resort is expected to make a significant contribution to the local and national economy , creating many jobs and attracting thousands of visitors annually ; as of April 2012 it was about 45 % complete . The Avenue Mohammed VI , formerly Avenue de France , is a major city thoroughfare . It has seen rapid development of residential complexes and many luxury hotels . Avenue Mohammed VI contains what is claimed to be Africa 's largest nightclub : Pacha Marrakech , a trendy club that plays house and electro house music . It also has two large cinema complexes , Le Colisée à Gueliz and Cinéma Rif , and a new shopping precinct , Al Mazar .
Trade and crafts are extremely important to the local tourism @-@ fueled economy . There are 18 souks in Marrakesh , employing over 40 @,@ 000 people in pottery , copperware , leather and other crafts . The souks contain a massive range of items from plastic sandals to Palestinian @-@ style scarves imported from India or China . Local boutiques are adept at making western @-@ style clothes using Moroccan materials . The Birmingham Post comments : " The souk offers an incredible shopping experience with a myriad of narrow winding streets that lead through a series of smaller markets clustered by trade . Through the squawking chaos of the poultry market , the gory fascination of the open @-@ air butchers ' shops and the uncountable number of small and specialist traders , just wandering around the streets can pass an entire day . " Marrakesh has several supermarkets including Marjane Acima , Asswak Salam and Carrefour , and three major shopping centers , Al Mazar Mall , Plaza Marrakech and Marjane Square ; a branch of Carrefour opened in Al Mazar Mall in 2010 . Industrial production in the city is centred in the neighborhood of Sidi Ghanem Al Massar , containing large factories , workshops , storage depots and showrooms . Ciments Morocco , a subsidiary of a major Italian cement firm , has a factory in Marrakech . The AeroExpo Marrakech International Exhibition of aeronautical industries and services is held here , as is the Riad Art Expo .
= = Politics and administration = =
Marrakesh , the regional capital , constitutes a prefecture @-@ level administrative unit of Morocco , Marrakech Prefecture , forming part of the region of Marrakech @-@ Safi . Marrakesh is a major centre for law and jurisdiction in Morocco and most of the major courts of the region are located here . These include the regional Court of Appeal , the Commercial Court , the Administrative Court , the Court of First Instance , the Court of Appeal of Commerce , and the Administrative Court of Appeal . Numerous organizations of the region are based here , including the regional government administrative offices , the Regional Council of Tourism office , and regional public maintenance organizations such as the Governed Autonomous Water Supply and Electricity and Maroc Telecom .
Testament to Marrakesh 's development as a modern city , on 12 June 2009 , Fatima @-@ Zahra Mansouri , a then 33 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer and daughter of a former assistant to the local authority chief in Marrakesh , was elected the first female mayor of the city , defeating outgoing Mayor Omar Jazouli by 54 votes to 35 in a municipal council vote . Mansouri became the second woman in the history of Morocco to obtain a mayoral position , after Asma Chaabi , mayor of Essaouira . The Secretary General of her Authenticity and Modernity Party ( PAM ) , Mohamed Cheikh Biadillah , stated that " her election reflects the image of a modern Morocco . " Her appointment was shrouded in controversy and resulted in her temporarily losing her seat the following month after a court ruled that the election had been fixed . The court found that " some ballots were distributed before the legal date and some vote records were destroyed . " Her party called for a 48 @-@ hour strike to " protest the plot against the democratic process . " On 7 July 2011 , Mansouri presented her resignation from the city council of Marrakesh , but reconsidered her decision the next day .
Since the legislative elections in November 2011 , the ruling political party in Marrakesh has , for the first time , been the Justice and Development Party or PDJ which also rules at the national level . The party , which advocates Islamism and Islamic democracy , won five seats ; the National Rally of Independents ( RNI ) took one seat , while the PAM won three . In the partial legislative elections for the Guéliz Ennakhil constituency in October 2012 , the PDJ under the leadership of Ahmed El Moutassadik was again declared the winner with 10 @,@ 452 votes . The PAM , largely consisting of friends of King Mohammed VI , came in second place with 9 @,@ 794 votes .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa = = =
The Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa is one of the best @-@ known squares in Africa and is the centre of city activity and trade . It has been described as a " world @-@ famous square " , " a metaphorical urban icon , a bridge between the past and the present , the place where ( spectacularized ) Moroccan tradition encounters modernity . " It has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage site since 1985 . The name roughly means " the assembly of trespassers " or malefactors . Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa was renovated along with much of the Marrakech city , whose walls were extended by Abu Yaqub Yusuf and particularly by Yaqub al @-@ Mansur in 1147 – 1158 . The surrounding mosque , palace , hospital , parade ground and gardens around the edges of the marketplace were also overhauled , and the Kasbah was fortified . Subsequently with the fluctuating fortunes of the city , Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa saw periods of decline and renewal . Historically this square was used for public decapitations by rulers who sought to maintain their power by frightening the public . The square attracted dwellers from the surrounding desert and mountains to trade here , and stalls were raised in the square from early in its history . The square attracted tradesmen , snake charmers ( " wild , dark , frenzied men with long disheveled hair falling over their naked shoulders " ) , dancing boys of the Chleuh Atlas tribe , and musicians playing pipes , tambourines and African drums . Richard Hamilton said that Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa once " reeked of Berber particularism , of backward @-@ looking , ill @-@ educated countrymen , rather than the reformist , pan @-@ Arab internationalism and command economy that were the imagined future . " Today the square attracts people from a diversity of social and ethnic backgrounds and tourists from all around the world . Snake charmers , acrobats , magicians , mystics , musicians , monkey trainers , herb sellers , story @-@ tellers , dentists , pickpockets , and entertainers in medieval garb still populate the square .
= = = Souks = = =
Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market in Morocco and the image of the city is closely associated with its souks . Paul Sullivan cites the souks as the principal shopping attraction in the city : " A honeycomb of intricately connected alleyways , this fundamental section of the old city is a micro @-@ medina in itself , comprising a dizzying number of stalls and shops that range from itsy kiosks no bigger than an elf 's wardrobe to scruffy store @-@ fronts that morph into glittering Aladdin 's Caves once you 're inside . " Historically the souks of Marrakesh were divided into retail areas for particular goods such as leather , carpets , metalwork and pottery . These divisions still roughly exist but with significant overlap . Many of the souks sell items like carpets and rugs , traditional Muslim attire , leather bags , and lanterns . Haggling is still a very important part of trade in the souks .
One of the largest souks is Souk Semmarine , which sells everything from brightly coloured bejewelled sandals and slippers and leather pouffes to jewellery and kaftans . Souk Ableuh contains stalls which specialize in lemons , chilis , capers , pickles , green , red , and black olives , and mint , a common ingredient of Moroccan cuisine and tea . Similarly , Souk Kchacha specializes in dried fruit and nuts , including dates , figs , walnuts , cashews and apricots . Rahba Qedima contains stalls selling hand @-@ woven baskets , natural perfumes , knitted hats , scarves , tee shirts , Ramadan tea , ginseng , and alligator and iguana skins . Criee Berbiere , to the northeast of this market , is noted for its dark Berber carpets and rugs . Souk Siyyaghin is known for its jewellery , and Souk Smata nearby is noted for its extensive collection of babouches and belts . Souk Cherratine specializes in leatherware , and Souk Belaarif sells modern consumer goods . Souk Haddadine specializes in ironware and lanterns .
Ensemble Artisanal is a government @-@ run complex of small arts and crafts which offers a range of leather goods , textiles and carpets . Young apprentices are taught a range of crafts in the workshop at the back of this complex .
= = = City walls and gates = = =
The ramparts of Marrakesh , which stretch for some 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) around the medina of the city , were built by the Almoravids in the 12th century as protective fortifications . The walls are made of a distinct orange @-@ red clay and chalk , giving the city its nickname as the " red city " ; they stand up to 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high and have 20 gates and 200 towers along them . Bab Agnaou was built in the 12th century during the Almohad dynasty . The Berber name Agnaou , like Gnaoua , refers to people of Sub @-@ Saharan African origin ( cf . Akal @-@ n @-@ iguinawen – land of the black ) . The gate was called Bab al Kohl ( the word kohl also meaning " black " ) or Bab al Qsar ( palace gate ) in some historical sources . The corner @-@ pieces are embellished with floral decorations . This ornamentation is framed by three panels marked with an inscription from the Quran in Maghrebi script using foliated Kufic letters , which were also used in Al @-@ Andalus . Bab Agnaou was renovated and its opening reduced in size during the rule of sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah . Bab Aghmat is located east of the Jewish and Muslim cemeteries , and is near the tomb of Ali ibn Yusuf . Bab Berrima with its solid towers stands near the Badi Palace . Bab er Robb ( meaning " Lord 's gate " ) is a southern exit from the city , near Bab Agnaou . Built in the 12th century , it provides access to roads leading to the mountain towns of Amizmiz and Asni . Bab el Khémis , situated in the medina 's northeastern corner , is one of the city 's main gates and features a man @-@ made spring .
= = = Gardens = = =
The Menara gardens are located to the west of the city , at the gates of the Atlas mountains . They were built around 1130 by the Almohad ruler Abd al @-@ Mu 'min . The name menara derives from the pavilion with its small green pyramid roof ( menzeh ) . The pavilion was built during the 16th century Saadi dynasty and renovated in 1869 by sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco , who used to stay here in summertime .
The pavilion and a nearby artificial lake are surrounded by orchards and olive groves . The lake was created to irrigate the surrounding gardens and orchards using a sophisticated system of underground channels called a qanat . The basin is supplied with water through an old hydraulic system which conveys water from the mountains located approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) away from Marrakesh . There is also a small amphitheater and a symmetrical pool where films are screened . Carp fish can be seen in the pond .
The Majorelle Garden , on Avenue Yacoub el Mansour , was at one time the home of the landscape painter Jacques Majorelle . Famed designer Yves Saint Laurent bought and restored the property , which features a stele erected in his memory , and the Museum of Islamic Art , which is housed in a dark blue building . The garden , open to the public since 1947 , has a large collection of plants from five continents including cacti , palms and bamboo .
The Agdal Gardens , located south of the medina and also built in the 12th century , are royal orchards surrounded by pise walls . Measuring 400 hectares ( 990 acres ) in size , the gardens feature citrus , apricot , pomegranate , olive and cypress trees . Sultan Moulay Hassan 's harem resided at the Dar al Baida pavilion , which was situated within these gardens . This site is also known for its historic swimming pool , where a Sultan is said to have drowned .
The Koutoubia Gardens are situated behind the Koutoubia Mosque . They feature orange and palm trees , and are frequented by storks . The Mamounia Gardens , more than 100 years old and named after Prince Moulay Mamoun , have olive and orange trees as well as a variety of floral displays .
= = = Palaces and Riads = = =
The historic wealth of the city is manifested in palaces , mansions and other lavish residences . The main palaces are El Badi Palace , the Royal Palace and Bahia Palace . Riads ( Moroccan mansions ) are common in Marrakesh . Based on the design of the Roman villa , they are characterized by an open central garden courtyard surrounded by high walls . This construction provided the occupants with privacy and lowered the temperature within the building . Buildings of note inside the Medina are Riad Argana , Riad Obry , Riad Enija , Riad el Mezouar , Riad Frans Ankone , Dar Moussaine , Riad Lotus , Riad Elixir , Riad les Bougainvilliers , Riad Dar Foundouk , Dar Marzotto , Dar Darma , and Riad Pinco Pallino . Others of note outside the Medina area include Ksar Char Bagh , Amanjena , Villa Maha , Dar Ahlam , Dar Alhind and Dar Tayda .
= = = = El Badi Palace = = = =
The El Badi Palace flanks the eastern side of the Kasbah . It was built by Saadian sultan Ahmad al @-@ Mansur after his success against the Portuguese at the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578 . The lavish palace , which took around a quarter of a century to build , was funded by compensation from the Portuguese and African gold and sugar cane revenue . This allowed Carrara marble to be brought from Italy and other materials to be shipped from France , Spain and India . It is a larger version of the Alhambra 's Court of the Lions . Although the palace is now a ruin with little left but the outer walls , the site has become the location of the annual Marrakech Folklore Festival and other events .
= = = = Royal Palace = = = =
The Royal Palace , also known as Dar el @-@ Makhzen , is located next to the Badi Palace . The Almohads built the palace in the 12th century on the site of their kasba , and it was partly remodeled by the Saadians in the 16th century and the Alaouites in the 17th century . Historically it was one of the palaces owned by the Moroccan king , who employed some of the most talented craftsmen in the city for its construction . The palace is not open to the public , and is now privately owned by French businessman Dominique du Beldi . The rooms are large , with unusually high ceilings for Marrakesh , with zellij ( elaborate geometric terracotta tile work covered with enamel ) and cedar painted ceilings .
= = = = Bahia Palace = = = =
The Bahia Palace , set in extensive gardens , was built in the late 19th century by the Grand Vizier of Marrakesh , Si Ahmed ben Musa ( Bou @-@ Ahmed ) . Bou Ahmed resided here with his four wives , 24 concubines and many children . With a name meaning " brilliance " , it was intended to be the greatest palace of its time , designed to capture the essence of Islamic and Moroccan architectural styles . Bou @-@ Ahmed paid special attention to the privacy of the palace in its construction and employed architectural features such as multiple doors which prevented passers @-@ by from seeing into the interior . The palace took seven years to build , with hundreds of craftsmen from Fes working on its wood , carved stucco and zellij . The palace is set in a two @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 000 m ² ) garden with rooms opening onto courtyards . The palace acquired a reputation as one of the finest in Morocco and was the envy of other wealthy citizens . Upon the death of Bou @-@ Ahmed in 1900 , the palace was raided by Sultan Abd al @-@ Aziz .
= = = Mosques = = =
= = = = Koutoubia Mosque = = = =
Koutoubia Mosque is the largest mosque in the city , located in the southwest medina quarter of Marrakesh alongside the square . It was completed under the reign of the Almohad Caliph Yaqub al @-@ Mansur ( 1184 – 1199 ) , and has inspired other buildings such as the Giralda of Seville and the Hassan Tower of Rabat . The mosque is made of red stone and brick and measures 80 metres ( 260 ft ) long and 60 metres ( 200 ft ) wide . The minaret was designed to prevent a person at the top of the tower from viewing activity within the king 's harems . The Umayyad @-@ style minaret is constructed from sandstone and stands 77 metres ( 253 ft ) high . It was originally covered with Marrakshi pink plaster , but in the 1990s experts opted to remove the plaster to expose the original stone work . The spire atop the minaret is decorated with gilded copper balls that decrease in size towards the top , a style unique to Morocco .
= = = = Ben Youssef Mosque = = = =
Ben Youssef Mosque , distinguished by its green tiled roof and minaret , is located in the medina and is Marrakesh 's oldest mosque . It was originally built in the 12th century by the Almoravid Sultan Ali ibn Yusuf in honor of Yusuf ibn Ali al @-@ Sanhaji . When built it was the city 's largest mosque but today it is half its original size . It was rebuilt in the 1560s by Saadian Sultan Abdallah al @-@ Ghalib , as the original had fallen into ruin . He also built a madrasa with a large library beside the mosque , but this also deteriorated over time , leaving only the 19th @-@ century mosque intact . The Almoravid Koubba Ba ’ adiyn , a two @-@ storied kiosk , was discovered in a sunken location on the mosque site in 1948 . In the Moroccan architectural style , its arches are scalloped on the first floor , while those on the second floor bear a twin horseshoe shape embellished with a turban motif . The dome of the kiosk is framed by a battlement decorated with arches and seven @-@ pointed stars . The interior of the octagonally arched dome is decorated with distinctive carvings bordered by a Kufic frieze inscribed with the name of its patron , Sultan Ali ibn Yusuf . The quinches at the corners of the dome are covered with muqarnas . The kiosk has motifs of pine cones , palms and acanthus leaves which are also replicated in the Ben Youssef Madrasa .
= = = = Mouassine Mosque = = = =
The Mouassine Mosque ( also known as the Al Ashraf Mosque ) was built by the Marinids in the 14th century in the style popularized by the Almohads . It is located in Mouassine and is part of the Mouassine complex , which includes a library , hamman , madrasa ( school ) and the Mouassine Fountain , the largest and most important in the city . Located on a small square to the north of the mosque , it is a triple @-@ arched fountain of Saadian origin . It is decorated with geometric patterns and calligraphy .
= = = Tombs = = =
= = = = Saadian Tombs = = = =
The Saadian Tombs were built in the 16th century as a mausoleum to bury numerous Saadian rulers and entertainers . It was lost for many years until the French rediscovered it in 1917 using aerial photographs . The mausoleum comprises the corpses of about sixty members of the Saadi Dynasty that originated in the valley of the Draa River . Among the graves are those of Saadian sultan Ahmad al @-@ Mansur and his family ; al @-@ Mansur buried his mother in this dynastic necropolis in 1590 after enlarging the original square funeral structure . It is located next to the south wall of the Almohad mosque of the Kasba , in a cemetery that contains several graves of Mohammad 's descendants . His own tomb , richly embellished with decorations , was modeled on the Nasrid mausoleum in Granada , Spain . The building is composed of three rooms ; the best known has a roof supported by twelve columns and encloses the tomb of al @-@ Mansur 's son . The room exemplifies Islamic architecture with floral motifs , calligraphy , zellij and carrara marble , and the stele is in finely worked cedar wood and stucco . Outside the building are a garden and the graves of soldiers and servants .
= = = = Tombs of the Seven Saints = = = =
The Medina holds the tombs of the seven patron saints of Morocco , which are visited every year by pilgrims during the week @-@ long ziara pilgrimage . According to tradition , it is believed that these saints are only sleeping and will awaken one day to resume their good deeds . A pilgrimage to the tombs offers an alternative to the hajj to Mecca and Medina for people of western Morocco who could not visit Arabia due to the arduous and costly journey involved . Circumambulation of the tombs is undertaken by devotees to achieve inner purity . This ritual is performed on Fridays in the following ordained sequence : Sidi Yusuf ibn Ali Sanhaji , Sidi al @-@ Qadi Iyyad al @-@ Yahsubi , Sidi Bel Abbas , Sidi Mohamed ibn Sulayman al @-@ Jazouli , Sidi Abdellaziz Tabba 'a , Sidi Abdellah al @-@ Ghazwani , and lastly , Sidi Abderrahman al @-@ Suhayli . The most important of the seven tombs is the shrine of Sidi Bel Abbas .
= = = Mellah = = =
The old Jewish Quarter ( Mellah ) is situated in the kasbah area of the city 's medina , east of Place des Ferblantiers . It was created in 1558 by the Saadians at the site where the sultan 's stables were previously located . At the time , the Jewish community consisted of a large portion of the city 's bankers , jewelers , metalworkers , tailors and sugar traders . During the 16th century , the Mellah had its own fountains , gardens , synagogues and souks . Until the arrival of the French in 1912 , Jews could not own property outside of the Mellah ; all growth was consequently contained within the limits of the neighborhood , resulting in narrow streets , small shops and higher residential buildings . The Mellah , today reconfigured as a mainly residential zone renamed Hay Essalam , currently occupies an area smaller than its historic limits and has an almost entirely Muslim population . The Alzama Synagogue , built around a central courtyard , is located in the Mellah . The Jewish cemetery here is the largest of its kind in Morocco . Characterized by white @-@ washed tombs and sandy graves , the cemetery is located within the Medina on land adjacent to the Mellah .
= = = Hotels = = =
As one of the principal tourist cities in Africa , Marrakesh has over 400 hotels . Mamounia Hotel is a five @-@ star hotel in the Art Deco @-@ Moroccan fusion style , built in 1925 by Henri Prost and A. Marchis . It is considered the most eminent hotel of the city and has been described as the " grand dame of Marrakesh hotels . " The hotel has hosted numerous internationally renowned people including Winston Churchill , Prince Charles of Wales and Mick Jagger . Churchill used to relax within the gardens of the hotel and paint there . The 231 @-@ room hotel , which contains a casino , was refurbished in 1986 and again in 2007 by French designer Jacques Garcia . Other hotels include Eden Andalou Hotel , Hotel Marrakech , Sofitel Marrakech , Palm Plaza Hotel & Spa , Royal Mirage Hotel , Piscina del Hotel , and Palmeraie Golf Palace . In March 2012 , Accor opened its first Pullman @-@ branded hotel in Marrakech , Pullman Marrakech Palmeraie Resort & Spa . Set in a 17 hectares ( 42 acres ) olive grove at La Palmeraie , the hotel has 252 rooms , 16 suites , six restaurants and a 535 square metres ( 5 @,@ 760 sq ft ) conference room .
= = Culture = =
= = = Museums = = =
= = = = Marrakech Museum = = = =
The Marrakech Museum , housed in the Dar Menebhi Palace in the old city centre , was built at the end of the 19th century by Mehdi Menebhi . The palace was carefully restored by the Omar Benjelloun Foundation and converted into a museum in 1997 . The house itself represents an example of classical Andalusian architecture , with fountains in the central courtyard , traditional seating areas , a hammam and intricate tilework and carvings . It has been cited as having " an orgy of stalactite stucco @-@ work " which " drips from the ceiling and combines with a mind @-@ boggling excess of zellij work . " The museum holds exhibits of both modern and traditional Moroccan art together with fine examples of historical books , coins and pottery produced by Moroccan Jewish , Berber and Arab peoples .
= = = = Dar Si Said Museum = = = =
Dar Si Said Museum , also known as the Museum of Moroccan Arts is located to the north of the Bahia Palace . It was the townhouse of Sidi Said , brother to Grand Vizier Bow Ahmad , and was constructed at the same time as Ahmad 's own Palace De La Bahia . The townhouse was the envy of reigning sultan Abd al @-@ Aziz , and after the Vizier ’ s death the sultan had this house ransacked . The collection of the museum is considered to be one of the finest in Morocco , with " jewellery from the High Atlas , the Anti Atlas and the extreme south ; carpets from the Haouz and the High Atlas ; oil lamps from Taroudannt ; blue pottery from Safi and green pottery from Tamgroute ; and leatherwork from Marrakesh . "
= = = = Museum of Islamic Art = = = =
The Museum of Islamic Art ( Musée d 'Art Islamique ) is a blue @-@ coloured building located in the Marjorelle Gardens . The private museum was created by Yves Saint Laurent and Pierre Bergé in the home of Jacques Majorelle , who had his art studio there . Recently renovated , its small exhibition rooms have displays of Islamic artifacts and decorations including Irke pottery , polychrome plates , jewellery , and antique doors .
= = = Music , theatre and dance = = =
Two types of music are traditionally associated with Marrakesh . Berber music is influenced by Andalusian classical music and typified by its oud accompaniment . By contrast , Gnaoua music is loud and funky with a sound reminiscent of the Blues . It is performed on handmade instruments such as castanets , ribabs ( three @-@ stringed banjos ) and deffs ( handheld drums ) . Gnaoua music 's rhythm and crescendo take the audience into a mood of trance ; the style is said to have emerged in Marrakesh and Essaouira as a ritual of deliverance from slavery . More recently , several Marrakesh female music groups have also risen to popularity .
The Théâtre Royal de Marrakesh , the Institut Français and Dar Chérifa are major performing arts institutions in the city . The Théâtre Royal , built by Tunisian architect Charles Boccara , puts on theatrical performances of comedy , opera , and dance in French and Arabic . A greater number of theatrical troupes perform outdoors and entertain tourists on the main square and the streets , especially at night . Christopher Hudson of the Daily Mail noted that " men dressed as women performed bawdy street theatre , to the delight of a ring of onlookers of all ages . "
= = = Crafts = = =
The arts and crafts of Marrakesh have had a wide and enduring impact on Moroccan handicrafts to the present day . Riad décor is widely used in carpets and textiles , ceramics , woodwork , metal work and zelij . Carpets and textiles are weaved , sewn or embroidered , sometimes used for upholstering . Moroccan women who practice craftsmanship are known as Maalems ( expert craftspeople ) and make such fine products as Berber carpets and shawls made of sabra ( cactus silk ) . Ceramics are in monochrome Berber @-@ style only , a limited tradition depicting bold forms and decorations .
Wood crafts are generally made of cedar , including the riad doors and palace ceilings . Orange wood is used for making ladles known as harira ( lentil soup ladles ) . Thuya craft products are made of caramel coloured thuya , a conifer indigenous to Morocco . Since this species is almost extinct , these trees are being replanted and promoted by the artists ' cooperative Femmes de Marrakech .
Metalwork made in Marrakesh includes brass lamps , iron lanterns , candle holders made from recycled sardine tins , and engraved brass teapots and tea trays used in the traditional serving of tea . Contemporary art includes sculpture and figurative paintings . Blue veiled Tuareg figurines and calligraphy paintings are also popular .
= = = Festivals = = =
Festivals , both national and Islamic , are celebrated in Marrakesh and throughout the country , and some of them are observed as national holidays . Cultural festivals of note held in Marrakesh include the National Folklore Festival , the Marrakech Festival of Popular Arts ( in which a variety of famous Moroccan musicians and artists participate ) , and the Berber Festival . The International Film Festival of Marrakech , which aspires to be the North African version of the Cannes Film Festival , was established in 2001 . The festival , which showcases over 100 films from around the world annually , has attracted Hollywood stars such as Martin Scorsese , Francis Ford Coppola , Susan Sarandon , Jeremy Irons , Roman Polanski and many European , Arabic and Indian film stars . The Marrakech Bienniale was established in 2004 by Vanessa Branson as a cultural festival in various disciplines , including visual arts , cinema , video , literature , performing arts , and architecture .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Surrounded by lemon , orange , and olive groves , the city 's culinary characteristics are rich and heavily spiced but not hot , using various preparations of Ras el hanout ( which means " Head of the shop " ) , a blend of dozens of spices which include ash berries , chilli , cinnamon , grains of paradise , monk ’ s pepper , nutmeg , and turmeric . A specialty of the city and the symbol of its cuisine is tanjia marrakshia a local tajine prepared with beef meat , spices and " smen " and slow @-@ cooked in a traditional oven in hot ashes . Tajines can be prepared with chicken , lamb , beef or fish , adding fruits , olives and preserved lemon , vegetables and spices , including cumin , peppers , saffron , turmeric , and ras el hanout . The meal is prepared in a tajine pot and slow @-@ cooked with steam . Another version of tajine includes vegetables and chickpeas seasoned with flower petals . Tajines may also be basted with " smen " moroccan ghee that has a flavour similar to blue cheese .
Shrimp , chicken and lemon @-@ filled briouats are another traditional specialty of Marrakesh . Rice is cooked with saffron , raisins , spices , and almonds , while couscous may have added vegetables . A pastilla is a filo @-@ wrapped pie stuffed with minced chicken or pigeon that has been prepared with almonds , cinnamon , spices and sugar . Harira soup in Marrakesh typically includes lamb with a blend of chickpeas , lentils , vermicelli , and tomato paste , seasoned with coriander , spices and parsley . Kefta ( mince meat ) , liver in crépinette , merguez and tripe stew are commonly sold at the stalls of Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa .
The desserts of Marrakesh include chebakia ( sesame spice cookies usually prepared and served during Ramadan ) , tartlets of filo dough with dried fruit , or cheesecake with dates .
The Moroccan tea culture is practiced in Marrakesh ; green tea with mint is served with sugar from a curved teapot spout into small glasses . Another popular non @-@ alcoholic drink is orange juice . Under the Almoravids , alcohol consumption was common ; historically , hundreds of Jews produced and sold alcohol in the city . In the present day , alcohol is sold in some hotel bars and restaurants .
= = Education = =
Marrakesh has several universities and schools , including Cadi Ayyad University ( also known as the University of Marrakech ) , and its component , the École nationale des sciences appliquées de Marrakech ( ENSA Marrakech ) , which was created in 2000 by the Ministry of Higher Education and specializes in engineering and scientific research , and the La faculté des sciences et techniques @-@ gueliz which known to be number one in Morocco in its kind of faculties . Cadi Ayyad University was established in 1978 and operates 13 institutions in the Marrakech Tensift Elhaouz and Abda Doukkala regions of Morocco in four main cities , including Kalaa of Sraghna , Essaouira and Safi in addition to Marrakech . Sup de Co Marrakech , also known as the École Supérieure de Commerce de Marrakech , is a private four @-@ year college that was founded in 1987 by Ahmed Bennis . The school is affiliated with the École Supérieure de Commerce of Toulouse , France ; since 1995 the school has built partnership programs with numerous American universities including the University of Delaware , University of St. Thomas , Oklahoma State University , National @-@ Louis University , and Temple University .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
International schools include :
Lycée Victor Hugo ( French secondary school )
École Auguste Renoir ( French primary school )
Groupe Scolaire Jacques Majorelle ( French primary and secondary school )
American School of Marrakesh
= = = Ben Youssef Madrasa = = =
The Ben Youssef Madrasa , located to the north of the Medina , was an Islamic college in Marrakesh named after the Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf ( 1106 – 1142 ) who expanded the city and its influence considerably . It is the largest madrasa in all of Morocco and was one of the largest theological colleges in North Africa , at one time housing as many as 900 students .
The college , which was affiliated with the neighbouring Ben Youssef Mosque , was founded during the Marinid dynasty in the 14th century by Sultan Abu al @-@ Hassan .
This education complex specialized in Koranic law and was linked to similar institutions in Fez , Taza , Tale , and Meknes . The Madrasa was re @-@ constructed by the Saadian Sultan Abdallah al @-@ Ghalib ( 1557 – 1574 ) in 1564 as the largest and most prestigious madrasa in Morocco . The construction ordered by Abdallah al @-@ Ghalib was completed in 1565 , as attested by the inscription in the prayer room . Its 130 student dormitory cells cluster around a courtyard richly carved in cedar , marble and stucco . In accordance with Islam , the carvings contain no representation of humans or animals , consisting entirely of inscriptions and geometric patterns . One of the school 's best known teachers was Mohammed al @-@ Ifrani ( 1670 – 1745 ) . After a temporary closure beginning in 1960 , the building was refurbished and reopened to the public as a historical site in 1982 .
= = Sports = =
Football clubs based in Marrakesh include Najm de Marrakech , KAC Marrakech , Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech . The city contains the Circuit International Automobile Moulay El Hassan a race track which hosts the World Touring Car Championship and from 2017 FIA Formula E. The Marrakech Marathon is also held here . Roughly 5000 runners turn out for the event annually .
Golf is a popular sport in Marrakech . The city has three golf courses , located just outside the city limits and played almost through the year . The three main courses are the Golf de Amelikis on the road to Ourazazate , the Palmeraie Golf Palace near the Palmeraie , and the Royal Golf Club , the oldest of the three courses .
= = Transport and communications = =
= = = Rail = = =
The Marrakesh railway station is linked by several trains running daily to other major cities in Morocco such as Casablanca , Tangiers , Fez , Meknes and Rabat . A modern high @-@ speed rail system has been planned .
In 2015 , a tramway is proposed .
= = = Road = = =
The main road network within and around Marrakesh is well paved . The major highway connecting Marrakesh with Casablanca to the south is A7 , a toll expressway , 210 km ( 130 mi ) in length . The road from Marrakesh to Settat , a 145 km ( 90 mi ) stretch , was inaugurated by King Mohammed VI in April 2007 , completing the 558 km ( 347 mi ) highway to Tangiers . Highway A7 connects also Marrakesh to Agadir , 233 km ( 145 mi ) to the south @-@ west .
= = = Air = = =
The Marrakesh @-@ Menara Airport ( RAK ) is 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) southwest of the city centre . It is an international facility that receives several European flights as well as flights from Casablanca and several Arab nations . The airport is located at an elevation of 471 metres ( 1 @,@ 545 ft ) at 31 ° 36 ′ 25 ″ N 008 ° 02 ′ 11 ″ W. It has two formal passenger terminals , but these are more or less combined into one large terminal . A third terminal is being built . The existing T1 and T2 terminals offer a space of 42 @,@ 000 m2 ( 450 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and have a capacity of 4 @.@ 5 million passengers per year . The blacktopped runway is 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) long and 45 m ( 148 ft ) wide . The airport has parking space for 14 Boeing 737 and four Boeing 747 aircraft . The separate freight terminal has 340 m2 ( 3 @,@ 700 sq ft ) of covered space .
= = Healthcare = =
Marrakesh has long been an important centre for healthcare in Morocco , and the regional rural and urban populations alike are reliant upon hospitals in the city . The psychiatric hospital installed by the Merinid Caliph Ya 'qub al @-@ Mansur in the 16th century was described by the historian ' Abd al @-@ Wahfd al- Marrakushi as one of the greatest in the world at the time . A strong Andalusian influence was evident in the hospital , and many of the physicians to the Caliphs came from places such as Seville , Zaragoza and Denia in eastern Spain .
A severe strain has been placed upon the healthcare facilities of the city in the last decade as the city population has grown dramatically . Ibn Tofail University Hospital is one of the major hospitals of the city . In February 2001 , the Moroccan government signed a loan agreement worth eight million U.S. dollars with The OPEC Fund for International Development to help improve medical services in and around Marrakesh , which led to expansions of the Ibn Tofail and Ibn Nafess hospitals . Seven new buildings were constructed , with a total floor area of 43 @,@ 000 square metres ( 460 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . New radiotherapy and medical equipment was provided and 29 @,@ 000 square metres ( 310 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of existing hospital space was rehabilitated .
In 2009 , king Mohammed VI inaugurated a regional psychiatric hospital in Marrakesh , built by the Mohammed V Foundation for Solidarity , costing 22 million dirhams ( approximately 2 @.@ 7 million U.S. dollars ) . The hospital has 194 beds , covering an area of 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) . Mohammed VI has also announced plans for the construction of a 450 million dirham military hospital in Marrakesh .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – sister cities = = =
Marrakesh is twinned with :
Granada , Spain
Marseille , France
Clermont @-@ Ferrand , France
Timbuktu , Mali
Ajaccio , France
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= Inocybe cookei =
Inocybe cookei , commonly known as the straw fibrecap , is a species of mushroom in the Inocybaceae family . It was first described in 1892 by Giacomo Bresadola , and is named in honour of Mordecai Cubitt Cooke . The species can be found in Europe , Asia and North America . It produces small mushrooms of an ochre colour , with a prominent umbo , fibres on the cap and a distinctive bulb at the base of the stem . It grows from soil in mixed woodland , and is encountered in summer and autumn , though is not common . Ecologically , it feeds through use of ectomycorrhiza . Inocybe cookei has been described as both toxic and non @-@ toxic , but either way , is not advised for consumption .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Inocybe cookei was first described by Giacomo Bresadola in 1892 ; the specific epithet cookei honours the British mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke . Mycologists J. Stangl and J. Veselský described Inocybe kuthanii in 1979 , which was later described as a variety of Inocybe cookei ( Inocybe cookei var. kuthanii ) by Thom Kuyper in 1986 , but MycoBank now lists both names as synonyms of I. cookei . The mushroom is commonly known as the straw fibrecap .
Within Inocybe , it is placed within the subgenus Inosperma , and was previously categorised within the section Rimosae . However , phylogenetic analysis has shown that section Rimosae as formerly defined does not form a monophyletic group ( that is , descended from a single exclusive ancestor ) , and former Rimosae species are better grouped into two clades , Maculata and Rimosae . Phylogenetic analysis has placed the species in the clade Maculata . Other species joining I. cookei in the Maculata clade include I. maculata , I. quietiodor , I. rhodiola , I. adaequata , and I. erubescens .
= = Description = =
Inocybe cookei has a conical or bell @-@ shaped cap of between 2 and 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 and 1 @.@ 97 in ) in diameter . As the mushrooms age , the cap becomes flatter , and an umbo becomes prominent . The margin of the cap frequently cracks towards the centre . The cap is an ochre colour , and the upper surface is covered in long fibres . The silky fibres thickly cover the cap , starting and the centre and extending to the cap 's margin . The species has a whitish or ochre stem of 30 to 60 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height by 4 to 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) in thickness . There is a distinctive marginate bulb at the base of the stem , and no ring . The flesh is white , becoming yellow with age . Inocybe cookei mushrooms have closely packed adnexed gills ( gills that are attached to the stem only on part of their depth ) . Gills on young mushrooms are whitish , then become a grey @-@ tinged pale ochre before becoming cinnamon yellow .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Inocybe cookei leaves a snuff @-@ brown spore print . The spores themselves are bean @-@ shaped , measuring from 5 @.@ 5 to 10 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00022 to 0 @.@ 00039 in ) by 4 to 6 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00016 to 0 @.@ 00024 in ) . The walls of the spores ( which are around 0 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 in ) thick ) can be smooth or slightly wrinkled , and there is a distinct depression just above the hilum ( the scar where the spore was once attached to the basidium ) . The basidia are four @-@ spored , and the thin @-@ walled , gill @-@ edge cheilocystidia are pear @-@ shaped .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species can be differentiated from the similar I. praetervisa by its spores ; the latter " has irregular , lumpy spores " . Inocybe rimosa , the split fibrecap , is also similar in appearance ; the rarer I. cookei can be differentiated by the smell of honey and the marginate bulb . The colouration , as well as the thick stem with a bulb , are features shared by two other species of Inocybe ; I. mixtilis and I. cryptocystis . Another fragrant Inocybe is I. pyriodora , which has an odor resembling cinnamon , or ripe pears in mature specimens ; unlike I. cookei , it lacks a bulb at the base of its stem , and bruises a reddish colour when handled or with age .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Inocybe cookei is an occasional to frequent mushroom , found growing in mixed woodland on the ground . It is ectomycorrhizal , and grows from summer to late autumn , solitarily or in " trooping groups " . It has been recorded in Europe , Russia , China , Mexico , and the United States .
= = Toxicity and edibility = =
Inocybe cookei has been described as both poisonous ( due to the presence of muscarine compounds ) and non @-@ toxic . Consumption of mushrooms containing muscarine compounds could lead to a number of physiological effects , including : excess salivation , lacrimation , uncontrolled urination or defecation , gastrointestinal problems and emesis ( vomiting ) ; this array of symptoms may also be known by the acronym SLUDGE . Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure , sweating and death due to respiratory failure . The flesh of the mushroom has a mild taste and a slight smell of honey . Regardless of its actual toxicity or edibility , it is considered " best avoided " .
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