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= Assaf dynasty = The Assaf dynasty ( also called Banu Assaf ) were a Sunni Muslim and ethnic Turkmen dynasty of chieftains based in the Keserwan region of Mount Lebanon . They came to the aforementioned area in 1306 after being assigned by the Bahri Mamluks to guard the coastal region between Beirut and Jbeil and to check the power of the mostly Shia Muslim population at the time . During this period , they established their headquarters in Ghazir , which served as the Assafs ' base throughout their rule . Under the leadership of Emir Assaf , they were confirmed as the rulers of Keserwan by Sultan Selim I following the Ottoman conquest in 1516 . Emir Assaf died two years later and was succeeded by his son Hasan , who was in turn killed by his brother Qa 'itbay . The latter ruled Keserwan until his death without progeny in 1523 , after which he was succeeded by Hasan 's son Mansur . Mansur had a long reign and was accorded by the Ottomans numerous districts in Mount Lebanon and its environs as tax farms . He eliminated many of his Sunni rivals , and his local power relied on a Maronite support base and his Maronite agents , namely members of the Hubaysh clan , who served as a check on the Shia Muslim sheikhs of Keserwan . At the peak of his power , Mansur 's realm stretched from Beirut to Homs . Mansur was dismissed in 1579 and replaced by his son Muhammad , who was imprisoned by the authorities in 1584 for alleged involvement in a looting raid against an Istanbul @-@ bound caravan . He was restored to Keserwan in 1585 and was given tax collection authority over the rural districts of Tripoli Eyalet ; this brought him into conflict with the Sayfa clan , the Assafs ' erstwhile Turkmen clients , one of whose members , Yusuf Pasha Sayfa , was governor of Tripoli . The Assaf realm dissipated in 1591 when Muhammad was killed while attempting to collect taxes from the Sayfas in Akkar . Afterward , Yusuf Pasha Sayfa married Muhammad 's widow and inherited the Assaf realm . = = History = = = = = Mamluk era = = = The Assafs were Sunni Muslims and ethnic Turkmens . In 1306 , the Mamluks installed the Assaf tribe as the lords of Keserwan after defeating the Shia Muslims who politically dominated Keserwan and were the majority population in the area . The Assafs @-@ based themselves in the Keserwani village of Ghazir , which became the tribe 's headquarters . The Assaf were entrusted by the Mamluks of maintaining a 300 @-@ strong cavalry unit to patrol the region between Beirut and Jbeil and to guard entry into the Keserwan from Beirut . Historian Kamal Salibi asserts that Turkmen tribesmen were settled in Keserwan after the Mamluk conquest in 1305 , but does not specify that it was the Assaf tribe that became lords of the region . Under Assaf or Turkmen lordship , Shia influence in Keserwan dwindled ; they remained the majority in the region due to continual immigration from the Beqaa Valley , but were forced out of the coastal areas of Keserwan and their population declined . In addition , the Alawite population in the region largely disappeared under Assaf lordship . In 1382 , the Mamluk emir Barquq usurped the throne in Cairo , establishing the Burji regime . The latter were ethnic Circassians unlike their Turkmen Bahri predecessors , which resulted in frayed relations between the Turkmens of Keserwan and the new rulers . The tensions between the Turkmens of Keserwan and the Burji authorities contrasted with the Turkmens ' principal rivals in Mount Lebanon , the Druze Buhturids , who embraced Sultan Barquq . When the latter was briefly toppled in a Bahri revolt in 1389 , the Buhturids fought against the Bahri rebels in Damascus , while the Turkmen tribesmen assaulted the Druze Tanukhi tribesmen in Beirut and the surrounding hills . In those engagements and the executions that followed , the Turkmens killed seven of the eight Tanukhi Abi al @-@ Jaysh Arslan emirs , Druze allies of the Buhturids . Barquq was restored to power in 1390 , after which the Turkmen tribesmen raided the hills around Beirut once more , although they were unable to capture the villages of Ainab and Aramoun . Under Barquq 's direction , the Mamluks mobilized their army troops , Druze warriors , and tribesmen from the Beqaa Valley and dealt a heavy blow against the Turkmens of Keserwan . Nonetheless , Barquq decided to keep the Turkmen emirs as the lords of Keserwan , albeit in a weakened state . Barquq likely kept the Turkmens in place to avoid giving the Buhturids too much power in Mount Lebanon or to avoid over @-@ extending Buhturid forces . According to Salibi , only four Turkmen emirs have been named in primary sources : a certain Sa 'id who ruled in 1361 , his brother and successor Isa , and a certain Ali ibn al @-@ A 'ma and his brother Umar ibn al @-@ A 'ma . The latter two were the Turkmen emirs involved in the rebellion against Barquq . Ali was killed in Barquq 's punitive expedition , while Umar was imprisoned and released . = = = Ottoman era = = = = = = = Reigns of Assaf and Hasan = = = = According to historian Muhammad Adnan Bakhit , reliable information about the Assafs in the early 16th century is relatively scarce . A certain Emir Assaf from among the Turkmen tribesmen of Keserwan was appointed by Ottoman sultan Selim I as governor of the Keserwan nahiya ( subdistrict ; pl. nawahi ) of the Safad Sanjak ( Beirut Sanjak ) after the Ottomans took control of the Levant from the Mamluks in 1516 . Sultan Selim I assigned the Assafs as his chief agents in the region between Beirut and Tripoli , confirming their control of Keserwan , and awarding them tax farms in the nawahi of Jbeil and Beirut . While Emir Assaf had lived in Aintoura in the winter and elsewhere along the Nahr al @-@ Kalb ridge prior to the Ottoman conquest , in 1517 , he moved his headquarters to Ghazir . The move to the latter village in Keserwan 's interior and away from the Turkmen @-@ dominated coastal area likely contributed to a steady deterioration of ties between the Assafs and their fellow Turkmens . At the same time , it brought the Assafs closer to the Maronites who lived in the interior areas of Keserwan . Coiniciding to the Assafs ' relocation to Ghazir , Hubaysh ibn Musa moved to the village from Yanouh . The Assaf and Hubaysh clans thereafter developed strong ties , with members of the latter serving as agents of the Assafs and becoming their chief intermediaries with the local Maronites . In Tripoli , the Assafs had their own chief agent , Muhammad Agha Shu 'ayb , who was their subordinate tax collector for the countryside of Tripoli , including the Akkar plains . Meanwhile , the Buhturids were stripped of power in 1518 when their leader was imprisoned by the authorities for failure to submit allegiance to Selim I. Thus , the Ottomans restored the Assafs to their former prominence in Mount Lebanon . In the historical account of the 17th @-@ century Maronite patriarch and historian , Istifan al @-@ Duwayhi , Emir Assaf died in 1518 , and was succeeded by his son Hasan . Hasan and his brother Husayn had previously served as managers of their father 's affairs . = = = = Reign of Qa 'itbay = = = = Assaf 's other son from a different wife , Qa 'itbay , sought to usurp power from his brothers . In the ensuing power struggle , Qa 'itbay was forced to flee and received refuge in Choueifat , before relocating to Beirut ; there , he accrued funds to bribe the governor of Damascus , Janbirdi al @-@ Ghazali , to replace Hasan as the tax farmer of Keserwan . Hasan and Husayn sought to reconcile with their half @-@ brother , but as they entered Beirut , they were killed in an ambush ordered by Qa 'itbay . In his subsequent assertion of control over Keserwan , Jbeil and Beirut , Qa 'itbay was backed by Janbirdi al @-@ Ghazali , the ex @-@ Mamluk Ottoman governor of Damascus Eyalet . Despite al @-@ Ghazali 's revolt against the Ottomans and its subsequent suppression in 1521 , the authorities did not punish Qa 'itbay for his alliance with al @-@ Ghazali . However , the death of al @-@ Ghazali represented the loss of a major political patron of the emir . After al @-@ Ghazali 's downfall , the Hubaysh clan , who had since been forced out by Qa 'itbay and settled in Lassa , sought to oust Qa 'itbay . They kidnapped Hasan 's son Mansur , who Qa 'itbay had spared from execution due to Qa 'itbay 's lack of male progeny , and organized a revolt against Qa 'itbay in Mansur 's name . The revolt quickly spread through Qa 'itbay 's territories , but after marshaling financial resources to mobilize military support from the Bedouin Ibn al @-@ Hansh tribe of the Beqaa Valley , he managed to drive his opponents back to Lassa . Qa 'itbay died without a male heir in 1523 , and was succeeded by Hasan 's son Mansur , who Qa 'itbay had spared from execution due to Qa 'itbay 's lack of male progeny . = = = = Reign of Mansur = = = = In Ottoman administrative records , a certain Emir Musa Bey is noted as the local authority in Keserwan between Qa 'itbay 's death in 1523 and 1548 , not Mansur . However , nothing else is written about Emir Musa , prompting Bakhit to suggest that by dint of Musa 's title , " emir " , that Musa was a member of the Assaf clan who led the dynasty as a virtual regent during the years of Mansur 's years as a minor . In Duwayhi 's account , only Mansur is mentioned as leader . Mansur was regularly assigned the tax farms of the nawahi of Keserwan , Jbeil , Batroun , Bsharri , Kura and Dinniyah . Mansur installed members of the Hubaysh clan as his chief agents in Keserwan , particularly investing sheikhs Yusuf and Sulayman Hubaysh as his stewards . Mansur also became the patron of the Turkmen Sayfa clan , who entered the region as Ottoman levend ( auxiliary troops ) in 1528 . He installed the Sayfas as his subordinate tax farmers in Akkar , provoking opposition from Muhammad Shu 'ayb , who was killed by Mansur later that year . Mansur subsequently had Shu 'ayb replaced with Yusuf Sayfa as his chief agent in Tripoli . Mansur proceeded to eliminate his Muslim rivals between then and 1541 . Among those killed were the Kurdish Ottoman official in charge of Batroun , a couple of Shia sheikhs from Keserwan , a rival Turkmen clan in Keserwan and the sheikhs of the Bedouin Ibn al @-@ Hansh tribe ; the latter were executed at a reception held by Mansur in Ghazir . Mansur encouraged Maronite settlement in Keserwan , who he viewed as less of a threat to his rule than his Sunni rivals and as a counterweight to the Shia Muslim clans of Keserwan ; the Maronites were the majority population in the nawahi that Mansur tax farmed . In the 1540s , he lowered taxes and reduced property prices in Keserwan , attracting Maronite settlement in that nahiya . With the likely influence of the Hubaysh , who sought to oust the Shia from Keserwan , Maronite families from Jbeil village of Jaj , namely the Khazens , Gemayels and Kumayds , settled in the Keserwani villages of Ballouneh , Bikfaya and Ghazir 's ridge , respectively , in 1545 . With Yusuf Hubaysh as his chief deputy , Mansur managed to control a virtual principality between Beirut to Homs , and built palatial residences for himself in Ghazir , Beirut and Jbeil . Historian William Harris asserts that Mansur 's principality was the " precursor of the Druze lordship of Fakhr ad @-@ Din Ma 'n " . Although Mansur timely delivered taxes to the authorities , the Ottomans became wary of his power in Mount Lebanon and importing of arms from Venice . In 1579 , Sultan Murad III established the Tripoli Eyalet , which was centered in Tripoli and included all of the nawahi north of Keserwan that were ostensibly under Assaf lordship . The authorities assigned Mansur 's client Yusuf Sayfa as Tripoli 's governor , making him independent of Mansur . Yusuf Pasha Sayfa 's elevation also gave him tax rights over the Mansur 's former and predominantly Maronite nawahi . = = = = Reign of Muhammad = = = = Complaints lodged to the authorities against Mansur ultimately led to his dismissal in 1579 . He was replaced with his son Muhammad . Mansur died in 1580 . According to Duwayhi , Muhammad was alleged by the authorities to have participated in the looting of an Istanbul @-@ bound caravan from Egypt while it was passing through the Akkar and was consequently imprisoned in Istanbul . However , Ottoman sources mention that the caravan arrived safely in Istanbul and that the commander of the caravan , Ibrahim Pasha , backed by a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army , arrested Muhammad and Qurqumaz Ma 'an while suppressing rebel activity in Mount Lebanon en route to Istanbul . About a year later , Muhammad was released and assigned the tax farm for Tripoli Eyalet 's rural districts , not including Tripoli itself , which remained under Yusuf Sayfa . The Ottoman authorities were content with Muhammad 's rule , but were vexed by the Maronites in his retinue . Muhammad 's taxation was considered exploitative by Tripoli Eyalet 's inhabitants . Yusuf Sayfa refused to pay taxes to Muhammad , prompting the latter to attempt collecting them through military means . However , while en route to the Akkar to pressure the Sayfas , Muhammad was shot dead outside of Tripoli on Yusuf Sayfa 's orders in 1591 . Muhammad 's death with no male heirs marked the end of Assaf rule . Following his death , Yusuf Sayfa was transferred control of the Assafs ' nawahi in Tripoli Eyalet , and he expelled the Hubaysh clan , promoting his Shia Muslim Hamade allies from Jbeil at their expense . In 1593 , Yusuf Sayfa wed Muhammad 's widow and thus acquired the Assafs ' wealth . He concurrently took control over Keserwan and Assaf properties in Beirut . = = List of Assaf emirs during Ottoman rule = =
= Love , Inc . ( TV series ) = Love , Inc. is an American television sitcom , created by Andrew Secunda , which originally aired on United Paramount Network ( UPN ) from September 22 , 2005 to May 11 , 2006 , lasting one season . With an ensemble cast led by Busy Philipps , Vince Vieluf , Reagan Gomez @-@ Preston , Ion Overman , and Holly Robinson Peete , the show revolves around five matchmakers working in a dating agency . The series was produced by Chase TV , the Littlefield Company , Burg / Koules Television , and Paramount Television , and distributed by UPN in its original run and later by LivingTV and Nelonen in the United Kingdom and Sweden respectively . The executive producers were Adam Chase , Warren Littlefied , Mark Burg , and Oren Koules . Originally developed under the working title Wingwoman , Love , Inc. was intended to be a vehicle for Shannen Doherty . It would have marked her first role in a sitcom . Though picked up by UPN , Doherty was removed from the project at the request of the network due to her poor reception by preview audiences ; Doherty was replaced by Philipps . It was set in New York , but the filming took place at Paramount Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles and California . UPN heavily promoted the show to attract an " urban " audience , and to that end , paired it with Everybody Hates Chris and included contemporary hip hop music . The series suffered low viewership despite its high ratings among young Hispanic women ; it was cancelled following UPN 's merger with the WB to launch the CW in 2006 . The cancellation of the series , along with that of other black sitcoms , was criticized by media outlets for reducing representation of African American characters and roles for African American actors on television . Critical response to Love , Inc. was mixed : some critics praised its multiethnic cast , while other cited the storylines and characters as unoriginal and Philipps ' portrayal of her character as unsympathetic . It was never made available on Blu @-@ ray or DVD . = = Premise = = Set in New York City , the dating agency Love , Inc. features a staff of single friends desperately looking for love . Newly divorced Clea Lavoy , the creator and owner of the company , seeks out the help of her friend and employee Denise Johnson to reignite her romantic life . She continually struggles to find love despite Denise 's best attempts . The future of the agency is put into jeopardy considering that its success and advertising relied on Clea 's " successful " , nearly decade @-@ long marriage . Love , Inc. also includes the receptionist Viviana , the style expert Francine , and the technician and photographer Barry . Episodes typically depict the inner workings of the agency , such as their first experience with a lesbian client , a consultation with a former priest , and marketing strategies to appeal to geeks and agoraphobes . Hired as wingmen for their clients , the employees act as " guardian angels for the conversationally challenged " . Each of the five characters have various comedic and romantic adventures outside the agency , like Viviana 's search for an eligible United States citizen to marry in order to secure a green card and Denise 's inability to find true love despite her talent in matching her clients with their " seemingly unattainable soulmates " . = = Characters = = The series features five main characters throughout its run : Busy Philipps as Denise Johnson , a dating consultant and self @-@ described expert at matchmaking , who provides her clients with " come @-@ on lines to use and avoid ; wardrobe and grooming hints , and conversation starters and stoppers " . Despite being characterized as " the Kung Fu master at setting up freaks , " she struggles with finding her own true love . After being contacted by her ex @-@ boyfriend to find the perfect match , she becomes cynical about dating and love , saying " I ’ ve been Wing Womaning my butt off " . Philipps described the character 's love life as a " complete disaster " . Vince Vieluf as Barry , Denise 's roommate and co @-@ worker who serves as the agency 's technician and photographer . Described as an " idiot savant " , he is characterized as a conspiracy theorist who experiences paranoia about everything from dentists to toothpaste companies . He frequently communicates through " head @-@ scratching non sequiturs " , leading to the characters perceiving him as " operat [ ing ] on a whole other level ... and sometimes on a whole other planet " . Vieluf said the character was pitched as " the only guy on the show " and " the luckiest guy in the world " . Reagan Gomez @-@ Preston as Francine , the agency style expert who encourages her clients to use and trust their fashion as a way to find a partner . She is introduced as criticizing Clea 's outfit as belonging to a coach for a women 's basketball team and is characterized as the hip worker at the agency . Francine 's storylines were not fully developed and " remain [ ed ] a bit of a mystery " by the end of the show . According to Vieluf , Francine communicates through a " whole different language " and has a special bond with Barry due to their different approaches to life . Ion Overman as Viviana , an Argentinian receptionist who " solicits personal information in a rather startling way " . She is constantly searching for an eligible American citizen to marry in order to secure a green card . Her heavy accent is written as a source of humor on the show , which led to critics accusing the writers of reducing the character to an ethnic stereotype . Holly Robinson Peete as Clea Lavoy , the founder and owner of the Love , Inc. dating agency . Clea is " thrust into the dating world " following the end of her nearly decade @-@ long marriage , in which her husband has an affair with a younger woman . = = Production = = Love , Inc. was developed under the working title Wing Woman and promoted as a " new ' Hitch ' -esque comedy " . The show 's concept was based on an article from The New York Times that discussed dating services . Production was handled by Chase TV , the Littlefield Company , Burg / Koules Television , and Paramount Television . The Littlefield Company suggested that the show 's creator Andrew Secunda collaborate with executive producer Adam Chase , who had previously worked on Friends . The series was Secunda 's first experience creating a television sitcom . Marta Kauffman , Liz Tuccillo , and Mark Burg and Oren Koules also contributed to the series as executive producers . On April 12 , 2005 , UPN announced that Doherty was in talks for the lead role while Reagan Gomez @-@ Preston was being considered for the role of the lead character 's " longtime friend , co @-@ worker and roommate " and Ion Overman for an unspecified part . Overman said she was attracted to part since she was searching for a job and viewed the series as a " very cool concept " . On April 18 , Holly Robinson Peete was confirmed to have joined the cast as the boss to Doherty 's character . The series was originally designed as a star vehicle for Doherty , who portrayed Denise Johnson in the unaired pilot . Denise was Doherty 's first role in a television sitcom . Doherty said she immediately loved the script for the pilot , which she described as " hysterical , " but felt intimidated by the role given her inexperience with comedy . The series was initially marketed as featuring Doherty and Peete , before United Paramount Network ( UPN ) announced it would pick it up on the condition Doherty was removed and the character was recast . According to TV Guide , Doherty was poorly received by preview audiences . When queried by an interviewer about the removal of Doherty from the show , executive producer Warren Littlefield said the actress was " fabulous " in the role . According to Littlefield , Doherty actively wanted to change her negative reputation from leaving Beverly Hills , 90210 and Charmed through acting on the show . Peete praised Doherty 's performance on the show , saying " we had so much fun and such a great vibe " . UPN Entertainment president cited the rationale behind Doherty 's departure through the " standard going @-@ in @-@ a @-@ different @-@ direction reason " . Rachel Cericola of TV Fodder listed Love , Inc. as one the " four promising sitcoms for the upcoming TV season " due to the behind the scenes drama involving Doherty 's replacement . UPN announced that Busy Philipps was cast as Denise on July 25 , and later billed as the show 's star . According to Vince Vieluf , the casting change from Doherty to Philipps led to the series being retooled as an ensemble show featuring all the members of the agency rather than focusing on Denise . Vieluf said the alterations in the series ' premise were due to concerns that " people would get tired of a show that was only about the mishaps of one person ’ s love life " . Page Kennedy reported that he was considered for a part on the show , but rejected it for the role of Caleb Applewhite on the second season of the ABC drama Desperate Housewives . Retired Los Angeles Lakers player Rick Fox guest starred in three episodes as David , one of Clea 's love interests . The casting of racially diverse actors was identified with UPN 's position as " the only network to actively program for an African American audience " . Tim Good of the San Francisco Chronicle pointed to the show 's casting as the only way in which it acts as a " positive reference " . Even though the show was set in New York City , filming took place in the Bluhdorn Building at Paramount Studios in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California , and used the multiple @-@ camera format . Transitions between scenes feature images of New York City set to contemporary music , such as The Black Eyed Peas ' single " Don 't Phunk with My Heart " and Kelis ' single " Milkshake " . Todd R. Ramlow of PopMatters described the music as a further attempt to appeal to " an ' urban , ' black @-@ white audience , " and praised the musical choices as a " nice try at crossover for a network whose shows usually target a black demographic " . Aaron Korsh wrote the nineteenth episode as freelance work . = = Episodes = = The title for each episode references a popular sitcom . = = Reception = = = = = Broadcast history = = = On August 6 , 2005 , UPN officially ordered the series for thirteen episodes . The network later ordered a full season of twenty @-@ two episodes of the show on November 7 , 2005 amid speculation that it would be cancelled . In 2006 , LivingTV broadcast the series in the United Kingdom , and it was broadcast by Nelonen in Sweden in 2008 . UPN paired the series with Everybody Hates Chris , Eve , and Cuts in order to attract an " urban " audience . The network moved WWE SmackDown to Fridays in favor of scheduling Thursdays as focused on sitcoms . This decision was made to establish a " night of scripted programming " and draw more attention from film studios to purchase advertising space for their upcoming releases . Critics questioned the network 's belief that Love , Inc. and Everybody Hates Chris would appeal to the same viewership , and noted the difference in quality between the two , with Love , Inc. frequently cited as the inferior show . While the series initially retained 59 % of the audience from Everybody Hates Chris , the marketing strategy proved unsuccessful when it lost a majority of the viewership in later episodes . Cericola reported that Love , Inc. earned an average of 3 @.@ 6 million viewers per episode and an article in The Hollywood Reporter stated that the series garnered an average of 1 @.@ 0 / 3 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . It ranked 141st among broadcast television networks in the 2005 @-@ 2006 television season . According to the Nielsen Company , the show achieved high ratings among " Latina adolescents Ages 12 @-@ 17 " and earned 3 @.@ 4 million viewers in that demographic for 2005 . It ranked above two other UPN sitcoms : One on One and Half & Half for Latin women in the 12 @-@ 17 age demographic , and in " the top half of all UPN series " for total viewership . The series premiere saw a 6 % increase in the 18 – 49 age range , 53 % in women between 18 and 34 , and 118 % in women between 18 and 49 from the show that aired in the same time period during the last television season . The show , as well as a majority of UPN 's programs , were officially cancelled due to the network 's merger with the WB Television Network ( the WB ) to form the CW in 2006 . Fern Gillespie of The Crisis was critical of UPN 's decision to cancel the series given how the network " in one swoop , wiped out five of its eight African American comedies " for the creation of the CW . Gillespie expressed disappointment at the lack of African American sitcoms on the three major networks by saying : " Without that opportunity for some of the younger artists to hone and develop their skills , it will potentially have a generational impact . " Critic Tim Goodman identified Love , Inc. as one of six shows " geared for an African American audience " and featuring " an African American lead actress " that were cancelled during the merger . He equated these cancellations as a sign of networks " eliminat [ ing ] niche programming " . The series was never made available on Blu @-@ ray or DVD . = = = Critical response = = = Love , Inc. received mixed critical feedback . Ebony 's Zondra Hughes praised the show as one of the shows " the networks promise will keep you spellbound " and identified Peete and Overman as its primary " star appeal " . While reviewing its broadcast on LivingTV , a reviewer from Daily Record listed the show as its " pick of the day " and suggested it for viewers who would " fancy a giggle " . Diane Werts of Newsday found the characters to be " vibrantly well @-@ defined " and the writing " smart , with a light touch " . Peete received a nomination for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series in the 37th NAACP Image Awards , but lost to Tichina Arnold who starred in Everybody Hates Chris . The Futon Critic 's Brian Ford Sullivan praised Vieluf as the standout despite his limited role , but felt the execution of the matchmaking premise was inferior to that done in the 2005 film Hitch . Variety 's Laura Fries wrote that the series had " a quirky vibe , personable cast and snappy writing , " but likened it to the " proverbial old maid " by determining that the storylines and characters required more original material . Jon Bonné and Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of Today commended the series for its multiethnic cast , but wrote that it " struggles to salvage some screechingly bad jokes " . Bonné and Cooper called the show one of the network 's " most vulnerable properties " following the reports of UPN 's closure . Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 28 out of 100 based on 17 reviews , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " . Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times criticized the writing for being " unsparkly and sometimes labored " and relying too much on sitcom conventions . Paul Brownfield of the Los Angeles Times criticized the series for being " unintentionally unfunny " , comparing it to the fictional sitcom " Rom and Bored " featured in the HBO comedy @-@ drama The Comeback . The Sun @-@ Sentinel 's Tom Jicha wrote that Love , Inc. was a " lethal combination of a stupid show and a suicidal time slot " . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan called the series a " grating comedy " that is " destined to be a footnote in history as the show that premiered after ' Everybody Hates Chris , ' and most likely faded shortly thereafter " . Miami Herald 's Glenn Garvin summarized the show as " humdrum " , and Doug Elfman of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times dismissed it as " negligible " . Mike Duffy of the Detroit Free Press found the series to be a " trite little laugh @-@ track factory " . Common Sense Media 's Jill Murphy called the show an " unoriginal look at finding love " filled with " stereotypical clients " , and Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune criticized it for being " neither funny nor particularly youthful " . Critics negatively responded to the character of Denise and Philipps ' performance , and cited both as annoying and unsympathetic . Heffernan described Denise as having a " smug fix @-@ it type " personality similar to Cher Horowitz from the 1995 film Clueless without the charm or charisma . USA Today 's Robert Bianco gave the series a half of a point out of four and called it on the " worst and laziest " comedies of 2005 . Bianco was critical of Philipps ' performance , which was described as " constant motion ; her face contorting , body twitching , voice braying " and transforming the show into something " truly unbearable " . Orlando Sentinel 's Hal Boedeker felt that Phillip 's character was an " overbearing know @-@ it @-@ all " . Matthew GIlbert of The Boston Globe called the show a " one @-@ joke affair " and wrote the premise behind Denise had the " same irony that failed to make Alicia Silverstone 's Miss Match very interesting " . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen favored Doherty 's portrayal of the character , which he described as " brimming with self @-@ confidence , " and criticized Philipps ' Denise as a " dizzyingly neurotic nutcase " . Ramlow called the series " boringly un @-@ hip " and wrote that the women were " needy and desperate " and " one @-@ shtick ponies " in comparison to those from Sex and the City .
= Adult Swim in a Box = Adult Swim in a Box is a seven @-@ disc DVD box set produced by Williams Street and released by Warner Home Video on October 27 , 2009 . The box set contains various seasonal volume releases from Adult Swim series , as well as several pilots that were pitched to the network . The box set was first announced by Warner Home Video on July 31 , 2009 , to be released in October of the same year . The set was promoted as having a roughly threefold value , totaling 21 hours and 20 minutes of content . An Australian version titled the Adult Swim Meat Tray Collection was released on November 28 , 2012 ; a Region 2 version of Adult Swim in a Box had been released a year earlier . Critical reception for Adult Swim in a Box was mixed , with some reviewers confused as to the selection of content or recommending fans who have already purchased the shows on the set passing it on . = = Release = = Adult Swim in a Box was first announced by Warner Home Video on July 31 , 2009 , to be released on October 27 of the same year . The set was promoted as having a roughly threefold retail value ( US $ 180 or $ 160 to $ 69 @.@ 98 ) , containing " 4 of the 5 best selling Adult Swim series . " It consists of seven discs , totaling 21 hours and 20 minutes of content . According to the network 's now @-@ defunct online shopping site , the set was chosen to harken to the experience of purchasing an entire album " because you knew you liked at least one song . " = = Contents = = = = = Series = = = The second season volume release of Aqua Teen Hunger Force The third season volume release of Space Ghost Coast to Coast The first season volume release of Moral Orel The second season volume release of Robot Chicken The first season volume release of Metalocalypse The second season volume release of Sealab 2021 = = = Pilots = = = The following pilots are contained on one disc : Totally for Teens Cheyenne Cinnamon and the Fantabulous Unicorn of Sugar Town Candy Fudge Korgoth of Barbaria Welcome to Eltingville The pilot episode of Perfect Hair Forever = = Australian equivalent = = A similar box set was released for Region 4 markets in Australia . Entitled the Adult Swim Meat Tray Collection , it consists of six discs containing the first and only season of Lucy , the Daughter of the Devil and the entirety of 12 oz . Mouse and Tom Goes to the Mayor . The set was released on November 28 , 2012 . A Region 2 version of Adult Swim in a Box had been released a year earlier on October 19 . = = Critical reception = = The box set received mixed critical reception ; R.L. Shaffer of IGN was critical in his review of it , calling the release was " a complete waste " and the bonus disc " roughly 80 minutes of mediocre entertainment " . He recommended fans purchase " the shows you like instead , and start in the proper place , with the first season . " He ultimately gave the release an eight out of ten , however , stating " while this set is certainly well rated " in its content , he could not " find a reason to recommend it " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club expressed confusion over the selection of material , suggesting to the network to release a " straight @-@ up Adult Swim best @-@ of set with rarities " . DVD Verdict 's Mac McEntire felt the set was not " good enough to warrant you re @-@ buying them all " , should buyers already own all six season volume releases . He gave the release an 85 out of 100 , remarking the pilots as showing " just how tough it must be to create a pilot , one that not only introduces characters and settings , but also promises a potential for weeks and perhaps years of additional stories . " DVD Talk 's Casey Burchby called the release " sloppy " , stating that fans who already owned DVD releases from their favorite programming on the network " can safely skip the release " , though the set " does fairly represent the insanely creative , off @-@ the @-@ wall nature of the network . " Jeff Niesel of the Cleveland Scene found the physical build of the set " a bit flimsy , but that 's to be expected for such an affordably priced set . " The Austin Chronicle 's James Renovitch dubbed the release " the anti @-@ box @-@ set " that keeps " with the spirit of Adult Swim " , while John Scott Lewinski of Wired called it " a sort of survival kit " for desperate fans of the network . Writing for Filter , Erik Nowlan rated it 90 percent , ensuring fans of Adult Swim will be " in pig heaven " upon its release . Nick Zaino of AOL TV praised the inclusion of Sealab 2021 and Metalocalypse , but called the pilots disc " a mixed bag , but mostly good . " PopMatters ' W. Scott Poole felt that the selection of series was " odd " , stating that while the series included " belong in any selection of Adult Swim bests " , so did others , naming The Venture Bros. and Harvey Birdman , Attorney at Law as deserving candidates that were not included . = = = Work cited = = = Shaffer , R.L. ( November 3 , 2009 ) . " Adult Swim in a Box DVD Review " . IGN. pp. 1 – 2 . Retrieved February 17 , 2014 .
= Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu – Tanambogo = The Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu – Tanambogo was a land battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II , between the forces of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Allied ( mainly United States ( U.S. ) Marine ) ground forces . It took place from 7 – 9 August 1942 on the Solomon Islands , during the initial Allied landings in the Guadalcanal campaign . In the battle , U.S. Marines , under the overall command of U.S. Major General Alexander Vandegrift , successfully landed and captured the islands of Tulagi , Gavutu , and Tanambogo among which the Japanese Navy had constructed a naval and seaplane base . The landings were fiercely resisted by the Japanese Navy troops who , outnumbered and outgunned by the Allied forces , fought and died almost to the last man . At the same time that the landings on Tulagi and Gavutu – Tanambogo were taking place , Allied troops were also landing on nearby Guadalcanal , with the objective of capturing an airfield under construction by Japanese forces . In contrast to the intense fighting on Tulagi and Gavutu , the landings on Guadalcanal were essentially unopposed . The landings on both Tulagi and Guadalcanal initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign and a series of combined @-@ arms battles between Allied and Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands area . = = Background = = On 7 December 1941 , the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , initiating a state of war between the two nations . The attack crippled much of the U.S. battleship fleet . The initial goals of Japanese leaders in the war were to neutralize the U.S. fleet , seize possessions rich in natural resources , and establish strategic military bases to defend Japan 's empire in Asia and the Pacific . In support of these goals , Japanese forces attacked and took control of the Philippines , Thailand , Malaya , Singapore , the Dutch East Indies , Wake Island , Gilbert Islands , New Britain , and Guam . Two attempts by the Japanese to extend their defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific were thwarted in the battles of Coral Sea ( May 1942 ) and Midway ( June 1942 ) . These two strategic victories for the Allies provided them with an opportunity to take the initiative and launch an offensive against the Japanese somewhere in the Pacific . The Allies chose the Solomon Islands , specifically the southern Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida as the location for their first offensive . As part of an operation that resulted in the Coral Sea battle , the Japanese Navy sent troops to occupy Tulagi and nearby islands in the southern Solomons . These troops — mainly members of the 3d Kure Special Naval Landing Force — occupied Tulagi on 3 May 1942 , and constructed a seaplane , ship refueling , and communications base on Tulagi and the nearby islands of Gavutu , Tanambogo and Florida , all of which were soon operational . Aware of the Japanese efforts on Tulagi , the Allies ' concern increased in early July 1942 when the Japanese Navy began constructing a large airfield near Lunga Point on nearby Guadalcanal . By August 1942 , the Japanese had about 900 troops on Tulagi and nearby islands , and 2 @,@ 800 personnel ( many of whom were Korean and Japanese construction specialists and laborers ) on Guadalcanal . The airfield — when complete — would protect Japan 's major base at Rabaul , threaten Allied supply and communication lines , and establish a staging area for possible future offensives against Fiji , New Caledonia , and Samoa ( Operation FS ) . The Allied plan to attack the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Admiral Ernest King , Commander in Chief , United States Fleet . He proposed the offensive to deny the use of the southern Solomon Islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to use them as starting points for a campaign with the objective of capturing or neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign , with the eventual goal of opening the way for the U.S. to retake the Philippines . U.S Admiral Chester Nimitz — Allied commander @-@ in @-@ chief for Pacific forces — created the South Pacific theater — with U.S. Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley in command — to direct the Allied offensive in the Solomons . In preparation for the offensive , in May 1942 , U.S. Major General Alexander Vandegrift was ordered to move his 1st Marine Division from the U.S. to New Zealand . Other Allied land , naval , and air force units were sent to establish bases in Fiji , Samoa , and New Caledonia . Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides was selected as the headquarters and main base for the impending offensive — codenamed Operation Watchtower — with the commencement date set for 7 August 1942 . At first , the Allied offensive was planned just for Tulagi and the Santa Cruz Islands , omitting Guadalcanal . However , after Allied reconnaissance discovered the Japanese airfield construction efforts on Guadalcanal , capture of that airfield was added to the plan and the Santa Cruz operation was dropped . The Allied Watchtower expeditionary force of 75 warships and transports , which included vessels from both the U.S. and Australia , assembled near Fiji on 26 July , and engaged in one rehearsal landing prior to leaving for Guadalcanal on July 31 . Vandegrift was the overall commander of the 16 @,@ 000 Allied ( primarily U.S. Marine ) ground forces involved in the landings and personally commanded the assault on Guadalcanal . In command of the 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines set to land on Tulagi and the nearby islands of Florida , Gavutu , and Tanambogo was U.S. Brigadier General William H. Rupertus on the transport ship USS Neville . = = Prelude = = Bad weather allowed the Allied expeditionary force to arrive in the vicinity of Guadalcanal unseen by the Japanese on the morning of 7 August . The Japanese detected the radio traffic from the incoming Allied invasion force and prepared to send scout aircraft aloft at daybreak . The landing force ships split into two groups , with one group assigned for the assault on Guadalcanal and the other tasked with the assault on Tulagi , Florida , and Gavutu – Tanambogo . Aircraft from the aircraft carrier USS Wasp dive @-@ bombed Japanese installations on Tulagi , Gavutu , Tanambogo , and Florida and strafed and destroyed 15 Japanese seaplanes floating in the anchorages near the islands . Several of the seaplanes were warming their engines in preparation for takeoff and were lost with their aircrews and many of their support personnel . The cruiser USS San Juan and destroyers USS Monssen ( DD @-@ 436 ) and Buchanan bombarded planned landing sites on Tulagi and Florida Island . To cover the assaults on Tulagi , Gavutu , and Tanambogo , U.S. Marines from the 1st Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment made an unopposed landing on Florida Island at 07 : 40 . They were guided to their objective by several Australians , such as Lieutenant Frank Stackpool ( later Captain , British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force ) , who were familiar with the Tulagi @-@ Florida area from having previously lived and worked in the area . = = Battle = = = = = Tulagi = = = At 08 : 00 on August 7 , 1942 , two battalions of U.S. Marines , including the 1st Raider Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson ( Edson 's Raiders ) , and the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marines ( 2 / 5 ) made an unopposed landing on the western shore of Tulagi about halfway between the two ends of the oblong @-@ shaped island . Beds of coral near the shore kept the landing craft from reaching the shoreline . The Marines , however , were able to wade the remaining 100 m ( 110 yd ) without hindrance from the Japanese forces , who were apparently taken by surprise by the landings and had yet to begin any organized resistance . At this time , the Japanese forces on Tulagi and Gavutu , a detachment of the 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force ( SNLF ) plus members of the Yokohama Air Group — commanded by Captain Shigetoshi Miyazaki — signaled their commander at Rabaul — Captain Sadayoshi Yamada — that they were under attack , were destroying their equipment and papers , and signed off with the message , " Enemy troop strength is overwhelming , We will defend to the last man . " Masaaki Suzuki , commander of the SNLF unit , ordered his troops into pre @-@ prepared defensive positions on Tulagi and Gavutu . Marines of 2 / 5 secured the northwest end of Tulagi without opposition and then joined Edson 's Raiders in their advance towards the southeastern end of the island . The Marines advanced towards the southeast end of the island throughout the day while defeating a few isolated pockets of Japanese resistance . Around noon , Suzuki repositioned his main defenses into a line 9 ° 6 ′ 26 ″ S 160 ° 8 ′ 56 ″ E on a hill — called Hill 281 ( Hill 280 in some sources ) by U.S. forces based on its elevation — and a nearby ravine located at the southeast end of the island . The Japanese defenses included dozens of tunneled caves dug into the hill 's limestone cliffs and machinegun pits protected by sandbags . The Marines reached these defenses near dusk , realized that they did not have enough daylight left for a full @-@ scale attack , and dug in for the night . During the night , the Japanese attacked the Marine lines five times , beginning at 22 : 30 . The attacks consisted of frontal charges along with individual and small group infiltration efforts towards Edson 's command post that at times resulted in hand to hand combat with the Marines . The Japanese temporarily broke through the Marine lines and captured a machine gun , but were thrown back soon after . After taking a few more casualties , the Marine lines held throughout the rest of the night . The Japanese suffered heavy losses in the attacks . During the night , one Marine — Edward H. Ahrens — killed 13 Japanese who assaulted his position before he was killed . Describing the Japanese attacks that took place during the night , eyewitness raider Marine Pete Sparacino said : " ... full darkness set in . There was movement to the front ... you could hear them jabbering . Then , the enemy found a gap and began running through the opening . The gap was ( sealed ) when another squad closed the gate . Some Japanese had crawled within 20 yards of ( Frank ) Guidone 's squad . Frank began throwing grenades from a prone position . His grenades were going off 15 yards from our position ( and ) we had to duck as they exploded . The enemy was all around . It was brutal and deadly . We had to be careful not to kill our comrades . We were tired but had to stay awake or be dead . " At daybreak on 8 August , six Japanese infiltrators hiding under the porch of the former British colonial headquarters shot and killed three Marines . Within five minutes , other Marines killed the six Japanese with grenades . Later that morning , the Marines , after landing reinforcements in the form of the 2nd Battalion , 2nd Marines ( 2 / 2 ) , surrounded Hill 281 and the ravine , pounded both locations with mortar fire throughout the morning , and then assaulted the two positions , utilizing improvised explosive charges to kill the Japanese defenders taking cover in the many caves and fighting positions spread throughout the hill and ravine . Employing the improvised explosives , the individual Japanese fighting positions were destroyed . Significant Japanese resistance ended by the afternoon , although a few stragglers were found and killed over the next several days . In the battle for Tulagi , 307 Japanese and 45 U.S. troops died . Three Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner . = = = Gavutu – Tanambogo = = = The nearby islets of Gavutu and Tanambogo housed the Japanese seaplane base as well as 536 Japanese naval personnel from the Yokohama Air Group and 3rd Kure Special Naval Landing Force and Korean and Japanese civilian technicians and laborers from the 14th Construction Unit . The two islets were basically mounds of coral — both about 42 m ( 138 ft ) high — and connected to each other by a 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) -long causeway . The hills on Gavutu and Tanambogo were called Hills 148 and 121 respectively by the Americans because of their height in feet . The Japanese on both islets were well entrenched in bunkers and caves constructed on and in the two hills . Also , the two islets were mutually supportive since each was in machine gun range of the other . The U.S. mistakenly believed that the islets were garrisoned by only 200 naval troops and construction workers . At 12 : 00 on 7 August , Gavutu was assaulted by the U.S. Marine 1st Parachute Battalion consisting of 397 men . The assault was scheduled for noon because there were not enough aircraft to provide air cover for the Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Gavutu landings at the same time . The preceding naval bombardment had damaged the seaplane ramp , forcing the naval landing craft to land the Marines in a more exposed location on a nearby small beach and dock at 9 ° 6 ′ 53 @.@ 30 ″ S 160 ° 11 ′ 19 @.@ 20 ″ E. Japanese machine gun fire began inflicting heavy casualties , killing or wounding one in ten of the landing Marines as they scrambled inland in an attempt to get out of the crossfire coming from the two islets . Surviving Marines were able to deploy two M1919 Browning machine guns to provide suppressing fire on Gavutu 's caves , allowing more Marines to push inland from the landing area . Seeking cover , the Marines became scattered and were quickly pinned down . Captain George Stallings — the battalion operations officer — directed Marines to begin suppressive fire with machine guns and mortars on the Japanese machine gun emplacements on Tanambogo . Shortly thereafter , American dive bombers dropped several bombs on Tanambogo , diminishing some of the volume of fire from that location . After about two hours , Marines reached and climbed Hill 148 . Working from the top , the Marines began clearing the Japanese fighting positions on the hill , most of which still remained , with explosive charges , grenades , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . From the top of the hill , the Marines were also able to put increased suppressive fire on Tanambogo . The Marine battalion commander on Gavutu radioed General Rupertus with a request for reinforcements before attempting to assault Tanambogo . Most of the 240 Japanese defenders on Tanambogo were aircrew and maintenance personnel from the Yokohama Air Group . Many of these were aircraft maintenance personnel and construction units not equipped for combat . One of the few Japanese soldiers captured recounts fighting armed with only hand sickles and poles . Rupertus detached one company of Marines from the 1st Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment on Florida Island to assist in assaulting Tanambogo , in spite of advice from his staff that one company was not enough . Incorrectly believing that Tanambogo was only lightly defended , this company attempted an amphibious assault directly on Tanambogo shortly after dark on 7 August . Illuminated by fires started during a U.S. naval bombardment of the islet , the five landing craft carrying the Marines were hit by heavy fire as they approached the shore , with many of the U.S. Navy boatcrews being killed or wounded , as well as heavily damaging three of the boats . Realizing the position was untenable the Marine company commander ordered the remaining boats to depart with the wounded marines , and he and 12 men who had already landed sprinted across the causeway to cover on Gavutu . The Japanese on Tanambogo suffered 10 killed in the day 's fighting . Throughout the night , as the Japanese staged isolated attacks on the marines on Gavutu under the concealment of heavy thunderstorms , Vandegrift prepared to send reinforcements to assist with the assault on Tanambogo . The 3rd Battalion 2nd Marines ( 3 / 2 ) , still embarked on ships off Guadalcanal , was notified to prepare to assault Tanambogo on August 8 . The 3rd Battalion began landing on Gavutu at 10 : 00 on 8 August and assisted in destroying the remaining Japanese defenses on that islet , which was completed by 12 : 00 . Then the 3rd Battalion prepared to assault Tanambogo . The Marines on Gavutu provided covering fire for the attack . In preparation for the assault , U.S. carrier @-@ based dive bombers and naval gunfire bombardment were requested . After the carrier aircraft twice accidentally dropped bombs on the U.S. Marines on Gavutu , killing four of them , further carrier aircraft support was canceled . San Juan , however , placed its shells on the correct island and shelled Tanambogo for 30 minutes . The Marine assault began at 16 : 15 , both by landing craft and across the causeway , and , with assistance from two marine Stuart light tanks , began making headway against the Japanese defenses . One of the tanks which became stuck on a stump and isolated from its infantry support was surrounded by a " frenzied mob " of about 50 Japanese airmen . The Japanese set fire to the tank , killing two of its crew and severely beat the other two crewmembers before most of them were killed by Marine rifle fire . The Marines later counted 42 Japanese bodies around the burned @-@ out hulk of the tank , including the corpses of the Yokohama executive officer and several of the seaplane pilots . One of the Japanese survivors of the attack on the tank reported , " I recall seeing my officer , Lieutenant Commander Saburo Katsuta of the Yokohama Air Group , on top of the tank . This was the last time I saw him " . The overall commander of troops on Tanambogo was Captain ( naval rank ) Miyazaki @-@ san who blew himself up inside his dugout on the late afternoon of 8 August . Throughout the day , the Marines methodically dynamited the caves , destroying most of them by 21 : 00 . The few surviving Japanese conducted isolated attacks throughout the night , with hand to hand engagements occurring . By noon on 9 August , all Japanese resistance on Tanambogo ended . In the battle for Gavutu and Tanambogo , 476 Japanese defenders and 70 U.S. Marines or naval personnel died . Of the 20 Japanese prisoners taken during the battle , most were not actually Japanese combatants but Korean laborers belonging to the Japanese construction unit . = = = Landings on Guadalcanal = = = In contrast to Tulagi , Gavutu , and Tanambogo , the landings on Guadalcanal encountered much less resistance . At 09 : 10 on 7 August , General Vandegrift and 11 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines came ashore on Guadalcanal between Koli Point and Lunga Point . Advancing towards Lunga Point , they encountered no resistance except for " tangled " rain forest , and halted for the night about 1 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) from the Lunga Point airfield . The next day , again against little resistance , the Marines advanced all the way to the Lunga River and secured the airfield by 16 : 00 on 8 August . The Japanese naval construction units had abandoned the airfield area , leaving behind food , supplies , and intact construction equipment and vehicles . = = Aftermath = = During the battle , about 80 Japanese escaped from Tulagi and Gavutu – Tanambogo by swimming to Florida Island . They were , however , all hunted @-@ down and killed by Marine and British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force patrols over the next two months . The Allies quickly turned the Tulagi anchorage , one of the finest natural harbors in the South Pacific , into a naval base and refueling station . During the Guadalcanal and Solomon Islands campaigns , Tulagi served as an important base for Allied naval operations . Since the Japanese exerted control over the nearby seas at night throughout the Guadalcanal campaign , any Allied ships in the Guadalcanal area that could not depart by nightfall often took refuge in Tulagi 's harbor . Allied ships damaged in the naval battles that occurred between August and December 1942 in the vicinity of Guadalcanal usually anchored in Tulagi 's harbor for temporary repairs before heading to rear @-@ area ports for permanent repairs . Later in the campaign , Tulagi also became a base for U.S. PT boats that attempted to interdict " Tokyo Express " missions by the Japanese to resupply and reinforce their forces on Guadalcanal . A seaplane base was also established on nearby Florida Island . Except for some troops left to build , garrison , operate , and defend the base at Tulagi , however , the majority of the U.S. Marines that had assaulted Tulagi and the nearby islets were soon relocated to Guadalcanal to help defend the airfield , later called Henderson Field by Allied forces , located at Lunga Point , for it was to be on Guadalcanal where all of the future , crucial , land battles in the Guadalcanal campaign would be fought . The U.S. Navy escort carrier USS Tulagi — in commission from 1943 to 1946 — was named for the fighting on Tulagi .
= Typhoon Lee ( 1981 ) = Typhoon Lee , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Dinang , was the second storm to affect the Philippines during December 1981 . Lee originated from an area of thunderstorm activity near the Truk Atoll towards the end of December . Following an increase in organization , the system was classified as a tropical cyclone on December 22 . After becoming a tropical storm , Lee began to slowly strengthen , and attained typhoon status on December 24 . While turning west towards the Philippines , Lee began to intensify more rapidly . It is estimated to have reached peak intensity the next day , with winds of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) . At peak intensity , the storm moved ashore the central Philippines later on December 25 . Lee emerged into the South China Sea the following day as a tropical storm . Initially , the storm maintained its intensity , but soon began to weaken due to increased wind shear . By December 28 , all of the thunderstorm activity was removed from the center , and on December 29 , Lee dissipated . However , the remnants of the cyclone was last noted a few hundred kilometers south of Hong Kong . Across the Philippines , Typhoon Lee killed 188 people . In addition , 674 @,@ 619 people were directly affected by the typhoon . Furthermore , 76 @,@ 169 dwellings were demolished while 39 @,@ 586 families , or 208 @,@ 336 people , were rendered as homeless . A total of 53 @,@ 314 houses were partially damaged . Also , 548 @,@ 525 people sought refuge in shelters . Additionally , 1 @,@ 586 individuals were injured due to Lee . Overall , damage totaled to $ 74 @.@ 1 million ( 1981 USD ) , $ 46 @.@ 4 million of which was from infrastructure and an additional $ 2 @.@ 2 million came from agriculture . The island of Samar sustained the worst damage caused by the storm . There , 82 fatalities were reported and 56 were injured . A total of 19 @,@ 390 people were displaced ; roughly 8 @,@ 000 families or 48 @,@ 000 people was forced to move to evacuation centers . Elsewhere , in the coastal town of Calapan , 5 @,@ 600 dwellings received damage , and 85 % of the coastal town 's residents were displaced from their homes . = = Meteorological history = = On December 21 , 1981 , an area of convection began to organize west of the Truk Atoll . Despite strong wind shear , Hurricane Hunter aircraft data yielded winds of near @-@ gale force and a barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) the next day . Initially , the aircraft did not find any evidence of a closed low @-@ level circulation . At 1000 UTC on December 22 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) for the system . Two hours later , the JTWC upgraded the disturbance into Tropical Depression 29 following the discovery of a closed surface circulation by Hurricane Hunters . By that evening , thunderstorm activity had become more concentrated towards the center ; as such , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) first classified the system as a tropical cyclone . Following a further increase in organization , both the JMA and JTWC upgraded the cyclone into Tropical Storm Lee early on December 23 . Meanwhile , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Dinang . Initially , Lee veered west @-@ northwest due to a mid @-@ latitude trough exiting off the Asia mainland . At 0600 UTC on December 23 , the JTWC classified Lee as a typhoon . At 0000 UTC on December 24 , the JMA upgraded Lee into a severe tropical storm . Six hours later , the agency classified Lee as a typhoon . Around this time , the JTWC predicted that Lee would turn north after entering the South China Sea due to the influence of an extratropical cyclone . However , as the storm turned west because the trough had moved away , the JTWC kept prolonging the northward turn . Moving in the general direction of the Philippines , Lee began to rapidly intensify . At 0600 UTC on December 25 , the JTWC reported winds of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . According to the JTWC , this would be the storm 's peak intensity . Meanwhile , the JMA estimated peak intensity of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . That afternoon , the typhoon made landfall along the central portion of the Philippines . After landfall , rapid weakening occurred , and when the storm entered the South China Sea on December 26 , the JTWC reduced the winds of Lee to 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Despite this , data from the JMA suggests that system was stronger , with winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Based on additional reports from Hurricane Hunters , the JTWC revised its forecast and now anticipated the tropical cyclone to move on a westerly course and strike central Vietnam . Moving into an area of decreased monsoonal flow , Lee maintained its intensity for 18 hours . Satellite imagery showed a banding @-@ type eye . However , by December 27 , Lee began to feel the effects of an extratropical cyclone located to the north of the storm ; consequently , Lee began to make a gradual turn towards the northwest . Lee began to encounter increased vertical wind shear , and early on December 27 , the JMA lowered the intensity of Lee to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Later that day , a Hurricane Hunter investigation recorded a pressure of 998 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) as the storm began to turn towards the north , exiting PAGASA 's warning zone . By 0000 UTC on December 28 , all of the deep convection was displaced from the center . Six hours later , the JMA estimated that Lee weakened to winds below tropical storm force . By midday , satellite imagery suggested that Lee was no longer a tropical cyclone ; however , the JTWC continued to issue warnings on the system until 0000 UTC on December 29 . At 1800 UTC , the JMA stopped watching the system . The remnants of Lee were last noted by the JTWC roughly 275 km ( 170 mi ) south of Hong Kong . = = Preparations and impact = = Prior to landfall , twelve provinces , including some in Luzon , were placed on typhoon alert . Upon moving through the central Philippines , Typhoon Lee affected some of the same areas devastated by Typhoon Irma earlier that month , which was considered the strongest storm to affect the island since 1970 . Lee knocked out communications and left many coconut @-@ producing areas isolated . Railway services to and from Manila was suspended . Even though nine domestic flights were canceled , the Manila International Airport remained open throughout the passage of the typhoon . Across Manila , some flooding was reported and high winds tore off some Christmas decorations in hotels along the bay . The Sorsogon Province was one of the hardest hit areas by the typhoon ; 20 casualties happened there because of flooding . In the coastal region of Legaspi , home to a large volcano , 150 houses were demolished due to storm surge , 25 of which were swept out at sea . Telephone lines were also cut off for four days in the city . Storm surge was also noted in coastal towns in the Sorsogon , Masbate , and Albay provinces . In the latter , three villages were damaged . Just south of the capital city of Manila , in the coastal town of Calapan on Mindoro Island , 5 @,@ 600 houses were damaged , and 20 @,@ 000 persons or 85 % of the town 's residents were left without a home . Two fatalities were reported in the city . In the fishing village of San Fernando on Masbate Island , 50 thatched huts were flattened . Elsewhere , four people were killed and three others injured in Naujan , where 86 homes were either damaged or destroyed . According to officials , 82 people were killed on the island of Samar . Throughout the island , the system destroyed schools , residences , an airport terminal , the government house in Catarman , and a jail , enabling 11 prisoners to escape . Most of damage to Samar was caused by collapsing houses and uprooted coconut trees hurled by the gusty winds . A total of 19 @,@ 390 people were displaced ; roughly 8 @,@ 000 families or 48 @,@ 000 people of which were forced to move to evacuation centers . An additional 56 people were hurt province @-@ wide . Ten homes were washed away along a coastal village in the Marinduque Province . One person also perished due to electrocution outside of Naga City . One hundred eighty @-@ eight people were killed , primarily due to drownings . Another 674 @,@ 619 people were directly affected by the typhoon . A total of 76 @,@ 169 dwellings were demolished , and 39 @,@ 586 families , or 208 @,@ 336 people , were displaced . This total included approximately 6 @,@ 000 people in the provinces of Romblon , Quezon , and Albay . Overall , a total of 53 @,@ 314 homes were partially damaged . Moreover , 548 @,@ 525 people sought refuge in shelters . Additionally , 1 @,@ 586 persons were injured due to Lee . Overall , damage totaled to $ 74 @.@ 1 million , including $ 46 @.@ 4 million from infrastructure and $ 2 @.@ 2 million from agriculture . Damage was estimated at $ 44 million in Samar . = = Aftermath = = Within a few days after the passage of Typhoon Lee , relief agencies were deployed to distribute food and medicines to families temporarily housed in schools , town halls and churches . Philippine President Ferdinand E. Marcos declared an emergency and a " state of calamity " in the provinces of Northern Samar , Masbate , Mindoro Oriental , and Romblon . He subsequently released $ 1 @.@ 8 million in order to repair roads , bridges and schools . Several evacuation centers were opened up in schools and town halls .
= Inocybe maculata = Inocybe maculata , commonly known as the frosty fibrecap , is a species of mushroom in the Inocybaceae family . First described by Jean Louis Émile Boudier in 1885 , I. maculata can be found throughout Europe , Asia and North America . It is a medium @-@ sized brown mushroom with a fibrous , brown cap with white remnants of a universal veil in the middle . The stem is cream or brown . The species is ectomycorrhizal and grows at the base of various trees , including beech . Inocybe maculata is poisonous , containing muscarine . Possible symptoms after consumption of I. maculata mushrooms are salivation , lacrimation , urination , defecation , gastrointestinal problems and vomiting , with the possibility of death due to respiratory failure . = = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = = The species was given its specific epithet , " maculata " ( from the Latin for " spotted " ) , by Jean Louis Émile Boudier in 1885 in an article in the Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France . Within the genus Inocybe , it has placed within the subgenus Inosperma and section Rimosae . However , Phylogenetic analysis , has shown that section Rimosae as formerly defined does not form a monophyletic group ( that is , descended from a single exclusive ancestor ) , and former Rimosae species are better grouped into two clades , Maculata and Rimosae . Other species joining I. maculata in the Maculata clade include I. cookei , I. quietiodor , I. rhodiola , I. adaequata , and I. erubescens . Inocybe maculata has no generally recognised synonyms . However , there has been some debate about its status as a single species ; due to the wide geographic and morphological variation of the species , some authors have proposed multiple species and varieties . In response , mycologist Thom Kuyper has listed over thirty specific names and varieties as synonyms of Inocybe lacera , which is still generally recognised . It has also been suggested that Inocybe lanatodisca is a synonym , but where the species occur together , they can be distinguished from each other , and so it is still recognised as distinct . The form I. maculata f. fulva was named and described in 1991 by Marcel Bon in France . Inocybe maculata is commonly known as the frosty fibrecap . = = Description = = Inocybe maculata has a conical or bell @-@ shaped cap which is up to 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . As the mushrooms age , the cap becomes flatter , and the broad umbo becomes prominent . The centre of the cap has white remains of the universal veil , especially on younger mushrooms . The cap is covered in fibres which extend from the centre of the cap to the margin ( which is usually split ) . The cap is typically a chestnut brown in colour , though it is paler towards the margin . As well as chestnut , the camp has been described as " Buckthorn brown " , " snuff brown " , " tawny olive " and " Saccardo 's umber " . Both cap colour and the presences of veil remnants are known to be very variable . In appearance , Inocybe maculata f. fulva has a lighter cap colour ( typically more yellow to reddish @-@ brown ) and less ( or even no ) remnants of the veil on the cap . The gill attachment is adnate , meaning that the gills are attached to the stem along their entire depth . The gills are crowded , with white edges that are finely toothed . Younger mushrooms have gills that are greyish @-@ white that eventually mature to an olive @-@ brown colour . The stem is up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in length , and generally cylindrical in shape , though it is often thicker towards the base . While the stem is initially solid , it later becomes hollow . There is often a small bulb at the base of the stem . The stem has cream colouration , becoming gradually browner with age . The base sometimes white and powdery . The flesh is white . = = = Microscopic features = = = Inocybe maculata has thin @-@ walled cheilocystidia , which are clavate ( club @-@ shaped ) , lack encrustation at the apex , and are colourless . The basidia are also clavate , and can be two- , three- or four @-@ spored , and measure from 15 to 30 micrometres ( μm ) by 5 to 9 μm . The sterigmata ( the narrow horns on the end of the basidia which hold the spores ) are 4 to 5 μm long . It lacks pleurocystidia . The species leaves a snuff @-@ brown spore print . The spores themselves are smooth and bean shaped ; they have a yellow @-@ brown to rusty brown colouration , and measure from 9 to 11 μm by 4 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 μm . The hyphae can have clamp connections , but can also lack them . = = = Similar species = = = Inocybe maculata is similar to the variable Inocybe lacera , the split fibrecap , but it can be differentiated by the darker colouration of the cap , and the white remains of the veil in the centre of the cap . The species is also similar in appearance to Inocybe lanatodisca , but can be readily distinguished by odour ( I. lanatodisca has a characteristic sweet , green @-@ corn smell ) and the colour of the cap ( I. lanatodisca has a fulvous cap ) . It is closely related to Inocybe fastigiata , but can again be distinguished by colour ; I. fastigiata has lighter coloured fibrils . = = Distribution and habitat = = Inocybe maculata is an ectomycorrhizal species , with a wide ecological range . It can be found in all biomes from low @-@ lying deciduous woodland to arctic @-@ alpine areas . It typically grows on the ground in deciduous ( or mixed ) woodland , favouring beech . It grows best on chalky soil , among leaf litter . In North America , it favours sandy soil , clay or moss . It is also encountered on pathsides . As well as beech , the species has been recorded growing in association with hornbeam , hazel , oak and lime . Inocybe maculata f. fulva favours birch , spruce , pine , Populus , willow , ( as well as Dryas and Polygonum in alpine regions ) . Mushrooms grow individually or in scattered groups . Though widespread in the areas it is found , it is not a common species . It can be found from western Europe to eastern Asia ; and in North America , from where it was first collected in the 1960s . Inocybe maculata f. fulva was first identified in France , and has since been found elsewhere in Europe . = = Edibility = = The flesh has a mild taste , and a strong , pungent , fruity smell . The mushroom is poisonous , containing muscarine compounds . Consumption of the mushroom could lead to a number of physiological effects , including : salivation , lacrimation , urination , defecation , gastrointestinal problems and emesis ( vomiting ) ; this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE . Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure , sweating and death due to respiratory failure .
= The Food Wife = " The Food Wife " is the fifth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 13 , 2011 , and was seen by around 7 @.@ 5 million people during this broadcast . In the episode , Homer feels left out when Marge , Bart , and Lisa join a group of foodies . Their personal blog quickly becomes popular and the trio is invited to a molecular gastronomy restaurant . Feeling pity toward Homer , Marge invites him along . However , after beginning to worry that he will reclaim his position as the parent perceived as the most fun by the children , she sends him to the wrong address . Homer unknowingly arrives at a meth lab , where a gunfight starts as the police burst in . The episode was written by Matt Selman . It contains several references to different foods and famous chefs , and is largely devoted to the foodie culture , which Selman has said that he " always thought was funny and fascinating . The idea of food as not only something you enjoy eating , but as something that you are so passionate about that you 're kind of bragging about it . " Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim , the stars and creators of Tim and Eric Awesome Show , Great Job ! , guest starred in the episode as two foodies and performed a hip hop song that makes fun of foodies . Chefs and media personalities Anthony Bourdain , Gordon Ramsay , and Mario Batali also guest starred in the episode , but as themselves in a dream sequence . Although " The Food Wife " has received generally positive reviews from television critics , particularly for the hip hop song , it has also attracted criticism from certain food critics . = = Plot = = Homer takes Bart and Lisa to a video game convention for another fun Saturday . Upon their return home , Marge feels upset that Homer gets to be the " fun dad " , while she is stuck doing unexciting things with the children , not helped by Homer being a sexist stating that 's how it should be . The next Saturday , she decides to take Bart and Lisa to an " X @-@ Games " convention , thinking it will be something fun . However , when they arrive , they are disappointed to find out that it is a Christian event , and the actual name of the convention is " † ( Cross ) Games " . The car engine dies on the way back and they are forced to stop in the neighborhood of Little Ethiopia , where the three go into a restaurant serving Ethiopian food . Although initially averse to the exotic delicacies , Marge is reminded of the fact that she wants to be a fun mom and therefore asks for the most authentic dish on the menu for her and her children . All three of them enjoy the food . At the restaurant , Marge , Bart , and Lisa bump into a group of foodies , who encourage them to start their own food blog , " The Three Mouthketeers " . The blog quickly becomes popular and the three spend much time together trying out new food and writing about it . A jealous Homer makes a quick announcement of his dislike for trying new foods and dishes over dining on such pedestrian , reliable fare as fast food and leftovers , causing the kids to call him narrow minded and boring . When the trio gets an invitation to an exclusive molecular gastronomy restaurant called El Chemistri , Homer learns the truth and confronts Marge . Realizing that the kids would rather spend time with Marge and having no one respect him , Homer sadly retreats in the garage making baseball bats . Marge invites Homer out of pity , which makes him happy . After announcing this to Bart and Lisa , he reclaims his " fun dad " title , leaving Marge worried about losing her new bond with the children . In one of her dreams that night , she and the children are trying out new food together with chef Anthony Bourdain when Homer jumps in on a hop ball and eats up everything , taking away the children 's attention from Marge . Homer , Bart , Lisa , Bourdain , and other famous chefs that have shown up ( like Mario Batali and Swedish Chef ) then jump away from Marge on hop balls , leaving her by herself . Afterwards , Gordon Ramsay appears next to her , using profanity while telling her that she should not have invited Homer . Before removing her from his dream , Gordon tells Marge to find a way to keep Homer from stealing her thunder by misleading him away from El Chemistri . The next day , she deliberately gives Homer the wrong address to the restaurant . Bart and Lisa learn the truth and confront Marge about her actions . When Marge and the children arrive at El Chemistri , Homer unknowingly arrives at an illegal meth lab that he thinks is the actual restaurant . While the trio eat their meal ( deconstructed Caesar salad ) with the other foodies clearly enjoying themselves , Marge feels guilty about misdirecting Homer . Meanwhile , Homer meets the meth dealer and other drug addicts , whom he believes to be food hipsters . Just as he is about to have a taste of the meth ( which he thinks is food produced with the help of molecular gastronomy ) , the police burst in and a gunfight ensues between them and the drug addicts . Homer realizes that he had been duped by Marge and is caught up in the fracas . At El Chemistri , Marge receives a panicked text message from Homer requesting help , and she asks the other foodies to help save her husband . They refuse , so she and the kids run off the meth lab . After arriving , Marge throws apple pie from her doggie bag into the mouth of the meth dealer . This causes a flashback inside his mind to his childhood days when his mother used to make apple pie . With the help of this distraction , the police subdue him . Marge apologizes to Homer and though angry with her for leaving him out , he is grateful and promises to let her be the fun parent once in a while . The Simpsons have a family fun day at Krustyland . There , Homer keeps his promise to Marge and giving the kids $ 50 to enjoy themselves , while he spends quality time with her . = = Production = = " The Food Wife " was written by executive producer of The Simpsons Matt Selman . The writing process began around September 2010 . According to Selman , the episode mainly revolves around Homer and Marge competing about who is perceived as the most fun by Bart and Lisa , a situation that he thinks parents can identify with in real @-@ life . The episode also focuses heavily on foodies and food blogs . Selman said in an interview with New York magazine 's Grub Street publication that the foodie culture is " just a world that I always thought was funny and fascinating . The idea of food as not only something you enjoy eating , but as something that you are so passionate about that you 're kind of bragging about it . ' I 'm the one who discovered this particular Korean pork @-@ neck soup restaurant , ' and you can kind of claim that as yours . The blogging just feeds into that kind of territorial element that I always thought was inherently funny . And when I write Simpsons episodes , I try to start with a world I think is funny , and think , ' What 's a good story we can tell in that world , using the characters that we have ? ' " Describing himself as " sort of a foodie " , Selman has said that food is constantly on his mind and that he particularly likes reading food critic Jonathan Gold 's reviews in LA Weekly . He told LA Weekly 's Squid Ink food blog that he likes foodies , despite making fun of them in " The Food Wife " . He commented that on the show , he has often " taken something that I love , found the one little weird , bad thing about it and harped on that " , giving foodies as an example and writing : " You can make fun of them for being pretentious or snobby or taking the fun out of eating . That you 'd rather photograph something than taste it is a funny nuance of the phenomenon . That it 's more about sticking your flag in something than actually enjoying it . We kind of make fun of foodies , but in real life we actually love them . " Selman was pleased with the finished result of the episode . He noted in the interview with Grub Street that Marge starting to blog about food " does not sound inherently exciting , but the episode itself is actually very exciting , and I 'm super thrilled with the way it 's turned out . " Selman thinks a strong thing about the episode is the fact that , despite Homer 's love for food , Homer is not the one that becomes a foodie as one might expect . He explained that this is because although Homer loves eating , " he 's kind of a blue @-@ collar kind of guy who doesn 't like foreign food , weird food , savoring food , intellectualizing food , blogging about it , photographing it – he just wants to be stuffed all the time . " = = = Cultural references = = = Selman wanted to include things in the episode that " only really hard @-@ core foodies would have any idea what we were talking about . This was like a love letter to foodie culture . " Food references featured in the episode include jokes about sriracha sauce and sous @-@ vide cooking , referrals to chefs Wylie Dufresne , Frank Bruni , and Ruth Reichl , a mention of the soup phở from Vietnam and how to pronounce it correctly , and the inclusion of the El Chemistri owner who is based on the Spanish chef José Andrés ( known for using molecular gastronomy ) . Selman has commented that food produced with the help of molecular gastronomy " lends itself to comedy quite nicely . There ’ s a dish [ at El Chemistri ] , for instance , called Regret . The waiter cries into your soup when he serves it . The human tear is the final ingredient . " The fictional character Swedish Chef is also seen in the episode , and the scene where the meth dealer is reminded of his childhood after eating the apple pie is a reference to the Pixar film Ratatouille , which was written and directed by former Simpsons consultant Brad Bird . In addition to the foodie culture , " The Food Wife " parodies the video game industry and references games such as Assassin 's Creed , God of War , Half @-@ Life , BioShock , Call of Duty , Medal of Honor , Madden NFL , and Angry Birds . In the episode , Homer , Bart , and Lisa visit a video game convention called the Expensive Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E4 ) , which is a reference to the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) that is presented annually in the United States by the Entertainment Software Association . This marked the first time that the family visited a video game convention in The Simpsons . Selman and other staff members on the show had previously visited E3 during the release of The Simpsons video games such as The Simpsons Game . While appearing on GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley on November 11 , 2011 , Selman commented that " We 've been to so many [ E3s ] and we 've been pushed around , and knocked around , and seen so many PR guys [ talk ] about how hard it was working on their game . We 've seen how expensive the food is , and how nuts it is , and the bloggers , and the photos , and just the noises [ ... ] We had to do it on the show . " In the episode , Homer and his children want to see the unveiling of a new Funtendo console called Zii Zu , which is a reference to Nintendo 's Wii U console . As he and the children make their way through the crowded convention to get to the unveiling , the screen turns into a first @-@ person shooter game through the eyes of Homer . He uses Frisbees and a fire extinguisher as weapons to get forward . According to Selman , the inspiration for this came from the fact that " if you 've been to E3 , you know it 's insane , it 's super @-@ crowded , it 's super @-@ loud , and walking through it feels like a video game , like a nightmarish first @-@ person video game of bloggers and nerds . You just want to get the thing that you want to get to . " = = = Guest appearances = = = Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim , the stars and creators of the American sketch comedy television series Tim and Eric Awesome Show , Great Job ! , guest starred in the episode as foodies Amus Bruse and Fois Garth , respectively . These two characters are among the foodies that Marge , Bart , and Lisa meet at the Ethiopian restaurant . In the episode , they rhyme a hip hop song that according to Selman is " all bragging about how awesome and cool you are as a foodie . " It was co @-@ written by the duo , and was inspired by the song " Empire State of Mind " . Selman has commented that " In animated TV shows , whenever you 're trying to show people having fun doing their new thing [ in this case , Marge and the children creating content for their blog ] , it just kind of becomes a boring montage . And we 've done so many montages on The Simpsons over 25 years , it 's like , oh , God , no more montages . [ ... ] So we were like , ' Why not do a silly rap song ? ' Rapping is sort of inherently boastful , and there 's something about being a foodie that 's inherently boastful . It 's like the boastfulness links those things . So Tim and Eric perform a food rap song in the show — an extremely silly rap song , and the name is intentionally silly : ' Blogging a Food Blog . ' " American chef Anthony Bourdain guest starred in the episode as himself . Selman wanted him on the show because he is a big fan and he thinks Marge would have a liking for him . Bourdain 's appearance was cut short because the episode ended up being too long , and as a result , his " bad boy persona is not fully explored , " Selman told Squid Ink . In addition to Bourdain , guest stars in the episode include chefs and media personalities Gordon Ramsay and Mario Batali as themselves . These three all appear in Marge 's dream . When asked by Digital Spy about his appearance , Ramsay said that " I grew up watching The Simpsons and love that they 're foodies , " and joked that " For God 's sake , I had to promise Marge a spot on MasterChef to get on the bloody show ! " Selman wishes that he could have given Batali more than one line , but has admitted that " You just can 't fit everything into a 21 @-@ minute show . " = = Release = = The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 13 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately 7 @.@ 5 million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 3 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating ( down five percent from the previous episode ) and an eight percent share . The Simpsons became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing before new episodes of Family Guy , American Dad ! , and Allen Gregory . For the week of November 7 – 13 , " The Food Wife " finished seventeenth in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic . = = = Critical reviews = = = Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Ology 's Josh Harrison gave it an eight out of ten rating , writing that " You gotta love these Simpsons episodes that really get into the heart of a subculture . Diving head @-@ first into the world of foodies and food blogging ( after a hilarious geeky pit @-@ stop at a video game expo ) , ' The Food Wife ' shish @-@ kabobs gourmet diehards while highlighting a very real problem between Homer and Marge . " He concluded that the episode is " a definite swing for the fences , and I think it hits its mark completely . " The scenes at the video game convention were praised by Anthony Severino of Game Revolution as well . He commented that the writers " nailed it . Everything from the massive displays , long lines , and even the look of the Los Angeles Convention Center was spot on . The best was how they portrayed people with ' VIP passes ' , you know those things that we journalists get , as douches who think they 're better than the regulars . " In his review of " The Food Wife " , HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall commended it for " stay [ ing ] true to the characters . Of course the kids would consider Homer to be the fun dad on those occasions when he 's actually making an effort , and of course Marge would feel jealous of this . And if she goes too far in trying to keep this as her special thing , she also recognizes it immediately , feels guilty throughout the meal and then heads off to save the day , complete with a great homage to the climax of Ratatouille . " Sepinwall also praised the episode for being " packed with great jokes " , such as Heidecker and Wareheim 's hip hop song and the scenes at the video game convention where the screen turns into a first @-@ person shooter game . Similarly , Haydens Childs of The A.V. Club praised the episode as " funny and well @-@ observed " , giving it a B + grade , and cited the hip hop song as the highlight of the episode . He also praised Bourdain , Batali , and Ramsay , and stated that he wished Bourdain would have gotten a bigger part in the episode . Childs further wrote that " The best thing about this episode is that it doesn ’ t try to stuff any outlandish plot mechanics or out @-@ of @-@ character character moments down the viewers ’ throats . It sticks to the basics : the family dynamic combined with gentle mocking of a still @-@ current fad . I say ' still @-@ current ' because although it is probably true that food blogging is a bit past its expiration date in some cities , I don ’ t think that it has been overdone everywhere . " = = = Response from food critics = = = Reception of " The Food Wife " from food critics has been mixed . Before the episode aired , Robert Sietsema of The Village Voice disapproved of it for being outdated . He commented that " this show should have been done , say , two or three years ago , when food blogging was hot . By now , many food bloggers of our acquaintance have out @-@ migrated to paying gigs , and the concept of the food blog has been co @-@ opted by every major media outlet , rendering real food blogs – the old @-@ fashioned kind , where someone stood alone in their kitchen cooking things , or wandered the hinterlands seeking out unique deliciousness – nearly obsolete . " Sietsema also criticized the scenes showcasing molecular gastronomy because he thought they were out of date , since molecular gastronomy is , " by now , long past its prime " . Chris Shott , a food critic for Washington City Paper 's Young & Hungry column and blog , wrote negatively about the character that owns El Chemistri and is a parody of José Andrés . He commented that " For one thing , the character seems far more subdued than the kooky , wild @-@ eyed power drill @-@ wielding cook we saw on Conan recently . The satire here , involving a deconstructed Caesar salad of foams , gels and airs , is more a riff on molecular gastronomy in general than a send @-@ up of Andrés ' over @-@ the @-@ top personality . " Food critic Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press ' criticized the episode for giving what she thought was an inaccurate depiction of foodies , as people that are " tacky , snotty , slightly racist , hoarders of food experiences that you gather like rare gems and patronizingly hold over other people 's heads . " Shilcutt added that she found it upsetting that what she believes to be the moral of the episode is that " Educated , passionate people are elitists . It reduces all the hard work that people put into creating good , honest food into a joke , and not a terribly funny one . There was no balance in the episode between smug , arrogant , obnoxious foodies and those who have a genuine , guileless interest in food and all its important permutations in our lives . " Other food critics have written positively about " The Food Wife " . Lesley Balla of LA Weekly 's Squid Ink blog listed her ten favorite quotes from the episode , placing the entire hip hop song about foodies and food blogging at the top . She commented that " Plenty of insider jokes at foodies ' expense season the episode . So was it as funny to a non @-@ food @-@ world person as it was to someone who could identify each culinary personality in Marge 's dream [ ... ] ? Safe to say , yes ; it is still The Simpsons , after all . For foodists , the whole episode is entirely quotable — we 're sure it will be in the food blogosphere for years to come . " Laine Doss , a food blogger for the Miami New Times and New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach , commented that she " loved Lisa Simpson 's list of cutest vegetarians [ that appears on the blog ] , which included Paul McCartney , Russell Brand , and Edward Cullen . " Doss , as well as Elizabeth Gunnison of Esquire 's Eat Like a Man blog , also commended the hip hop song .
= Ickenham = Ickenham is a suburban area centred on an old village in Greater London , part of the London Borough of Hillingdon . While no major historical events have taken place in Ickenham , settlements dating back to the Roman occupation of Britain have been discovered during archaeological surveys , and the area appears in the Domesday Book . Buildings from the 14th , 15th and 16th centuries remain standing and have been restored in recent years . The village was originally split into four manors , which became two : Ickenham and Swakeleys . The old manorial home of Swakeleys , a 17th @-@ century Jacobean mansion Swakeleys House still stands , and much of the Swakeleys estate was sold for housing in the 1920s . Ickenham 's manorial home , Manor Farm , now forms part of Long Lane Farm . A military station , RAF West Ruislip , was opened in 1917 . Its final use was for the Navy Exchange of the U.S. Naval Activities , United Kingdom command between 1975 and 2006 . According to the 1901 Census , Ickenham at that time had a population of 329 , which by the 2001 Census had reached 9 @,@ 933 , although census figures show a marked population decline during the 1960s and 1970s . By the 2011 Census , the population had reached 10 @,@ 387 . When Ickenham obtained a railway station on the Metropolitan Railway 's line between Harrow and Uxbridge , it brought with it a rail link to London . A great deal of residential development commenced in the village and it gradually became part of the London commuter belt . Ickenham expanded with the sale and development of much of the Swakeleys estate in 1922 and became part of what was later termed " Metro @-@ land " . = = History = = = = = Toponymy = = = Ickenham appears in the Domesday Book three times under the name " Ticheham " . Translated from Latin , the second entry reads : Manor Ickenham answers for 9 ½ hides . 3 men @-@ at @-@ arms and 1 Englishman hold it from Earl Roger . Land for 6 ploughs ; 4 ploughs there ; a further 2 possible . 6 villagers with 1 hide ; 2 others with 1 hide and 1 virgate ; 2 others with 2 virgates ; 4 smallholders with 20 acres ; 3 cottages . Meadow for 4 ploughs ; pasture for the village livestock ; woodland , 200 pigs . Total value £ 4 ; when acquired the same ; before 1066 £ 6 . The Domesday Book describes the land as being predominantly flat and composed of London clay with the exception of alluvium along the banks of the River Pinn . Of the few archaeological surveys of Ickenham carried out , one in 1994 by the Museum of London found a system of Roman fields , dating back to the 1st and 2nd centuries along with pottery fragments . Research suggest that the area may have been abandoned for a period following the departure of the Romans from Britain around AD 410 . = = = Early developments = = = Ickenham was originally divided into the four manors of Ickenham , Tykenham , Swalcliff ( Swakeleys ) and Herses ( Hercies ) . Tykenham and Herses were within the parish of Hillingdon , though Herses subsequently became part of the manor of Swalcliff . These manors were eventually merged to form the main manors of Ickenham and Swakeleys . The original lord of the manor of Ickenham was Geoffrey de Mandeville , from whom it passed to William de Brock and then , in 1334 , to John Charlton whose son John owned Swakeleys from 1350 . By the mid @-@ 14th century , Ickenham was owned by the Shorediche family who retained possession until 1819 . The Crosier family , major landowners in north @-@ west Middlesex , moved to Ickenham in the 16th century . They established their manorial home as Sherwyns , and owned Home Farm and Sears house in 1624 . After the Shorediche family Milton Farm was bought by William Crosier in 1685 . Edward Hilliard become the direct descendent of the final member of the Crosier family , John Crosier . Under the Hilliards , Milton Farm was sold to become part of the Swakeleys estate in 1816 , and Hill Farm become Northolt Aerodrome in 1916 . The Shorediche family built their manor house on a track off Long Lane . Originally called Ickenham Hall , it was let out to farmers in 1818 and renamed Manor Farm , at which point the Crosier family renamed their manorial home from Sherwyns to Ickenham Hall . Swakeleys manor , subordinate to Ickenham , was named after Robert Swalcliffe , who owned the manor with his wife Joan in the 14th century . He appears in records as Robert de Swalclyve and Robert de Wykeham , reflecting his ownership of Swakeleys and Wickham Park in Oxfordshire . In 1347 , he owed £ 40 to a money lender , Roger Rikeman , which he was unable to pay , and so his land in Ickenham was passed by Rikeman in 1350 to John de Charlton . A descendent of John de Charlton , the first Sir Thomas de Charlton , died in 1448 whereupon Swakeleys passed to his son , also named Sir Thomas , who became Speaker of the House of Commons and Member of Parliament for Middlesex . He died in 1465 , at which point his son Sir Richard became owner of the manor . Sir Richard was killed fighting on the side of Richard III during the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 . The victor of the battle , Henry VII , named him in his Act of Attainder , though he granted Sir Richard 's wife Elizabeth a life interest in the manor . However , Sir Thomas Bourchier was subsequently granted the manor of Swakeleys and Covelhall ( Cowley ) . Upon Sir Thomas ' death in 1510 , the manor passed to Sir John Peeche as his executor . Sir John had no children , so Swakeleys passed to the Earl of Devon , Henry Courteney in 1521 . The Earl granted a licence to control Swakeleys to Sir William Fitzwilliam in 1531 , who was acting as trustee for Ralph Pexall . The lords of the manor of Swakeleys resided at Swakeleys House , though the house that stands today was not the first on the site . The original dated to around the 14th century and was probably constructed of wattle and timber . It was subject to extensive remedial work , much lamented at the time , while under the ownership of John Bingley . Bingley later sold the estate to Sir Edmund Wright , a future Lord Mayor of London , in 1629 , and the current house was built of brick in 1638 . A church in Ickenham is not mentioned in the Domesday Book and it is likely that residents travelled to nearby Harefield for services . The original nave and chancel of St Giles ' church have been dated to 1335 while the nave was extended west in 1959 . The bell turret was built in the 15th century and a brick aisle added in 1575 . 'The Pump ' is a significant local landmark . Donated to the village by Charlotte Gell , this water pump stands close to the village pond at the intersection of Swakeleys Road and Long Lane . After Gell 's death in 1863 , under the provisions of her will a water pump was sunk for the benefit for the community in 1866 . The village pond next to the pump was dug at the same time as the 144 @-@ foot ( 44 m ) well for the pump was sunk to accommodate waste from the construction . An older pond on the other side of the village was filled in with the excavated earth from the new one . In 1857 Gell had also donated some of her land near St Giles 's Church for five almshouses to be built for longstanding servants of the Gell household or Ickenham residents who were members of the Church of England . No more than three people were allowed to live in the houses at one time . The cottages remain and are maintained by the local church . Next to the pump stands the Coach & Horses public house , first licensed for the sale of alcohol in 1759 but of 16th @-@ century origin . The house was used for manorial courts throughout the 19th century until the last was held in 1878 . = = = Urban development = = = On 25 September 1905 , following lobbying by Ickenham Parish Council , the Metropolitan Railway opened a small halt on their line between Harrow and Uxbridge . The railway company had been reluctant to open a station in the area due to a perceived lack of demand , and so a compromise was reached with the construction of the halt . The new stop brought with it travellers from London seeking a day out in rural surroundings . Nearby villagers sold flowers from their gardens and served teas to the visitors . The parish council later requested shelters for passengers on the platforms , which were built in December 1905 , followed by a booking hut in 1910 . The original platforms , too short to align with all train carriages , were extended in 1922 . Ickenham Halt was rebuilt as a station in the 1970s . The marathon event of the 1908 Summer Olympics in London passed through Ickenham and Uxbridge on its way to the White City Stadium . As a result of the railway , more commuters gradually moved to Ickenham and travelled to work in London . On 5 July 1922 , 1 @,@ 382 acres ( 559 ha ) of the Swakeleys estate was auctioned for development , thereby significantly reducing its size . Roads laid out for the new development were Warren Road , Swakeleys Drive , Court Road , Milton Road , Ivy House Road , The Avenue and Thornhill Road ( originally named Park Road ) . Other land bordering the River Pinn was designated as public open land . Shops were built around Swakeleys Road , while houses were constructed along its length . The road was widened to become a dual carriageway in 1937 . Milton Farm , one of the farms on the former Swakeleys estate was demolished in 1939 . The farm 's pond and listed barn were cleared to make way for housing in what became Milton Road and Milton Court , though marketed as " Ickenham Garden City " . A military station , operated by the Royal Air Force and later the United States Navy , was opened on part of Home Farm close to the parish boundary with Ruislip in 1917 , later becoming known as RAF West Ruislip . The site was used originally for the British No. 4 Maintenance Unit , together with the RAF Records division . It became involved in the repair of aircraft equipment and later in the servicing of American vehicles from RAF South Ruislip . Between 1955 and 1975 the United States Air Force was based at the Ruislip station , before the U.S. Naval Activities , United Kingdom command leased the site from the Ministry of Defence for the American Naval Exchange . The original village school was built on Ickenham High Road in 1866 , although by 1920 it had become overcrowded . Older children were moved to the village hall in 1928 under the name Ickenham Temporary Council School . In 1929 the village school closed and its infant pupils also moved to the village hall . The road was widened in 1934 necessitating demolition of the school building along with the original Fox & Geese public house . The village pump remained in use until December 1914 , while the handle was removed in 1921 by the local council for safe keeping but was never returned . The pump was restored in 2004 in partnership with a local building company , and a similar handle was fitted during the works . Breakspear Primary School was built in 1937 , followed by Glebe Primary in 1952 on the other side of the railway line . The Roman Catholic secondary school Douay Martyrs was built in 1962 and later expanded onto the former site of Swakeleys School nearby . Swakeleys School had opened in 1929 for older children from the village school . In 1952 the boys moved to the newly opened Abbotsfield School and Swakeleys became a girls ' secondary modern school . The girls ' school moved from Ickenham to share the site of Abbotsfield School for Boys in Hillingdon in 1973 . Vyners School opened as a grammar school on 12 January 1960 and later became a comprehensive . Delays in building work meant the first intake of pupils were taught at St Mary 's Grammar School in Northwood Hills from 9 September 1959 . The village hall , designed by Clifton Davy , was built on part of Church Farm in 1926 . Opened by Princess Victoria , as well as becoming the temporary village school the hall also became a restaurant during the Second World War and went on to be used as a bank and a polling station . A police telephone box was constructed next to the Pump in February 1936 , and became operational on 4 May 1936 . Church Farm opposite St Giles ' church was demolished after the Second World War and replaced with shops , while new roads were built in the area . By 1951 the population of Ickenham had reached 7 @,@ 107 , and this had risen to 10 @,@ 370 by 1961 and 11 @,@ 214 by 1971 . The ford over the River Pinn on Swakeleys Drive , nicknamed " The Splash " , was replaced in 1957 by a road bridge . Middlesex County Council bought Ickenham Hall and its grounds in 1948 in order to convert it into a youth centre . In 1968 a theatre was built behind the hall , later named the Compass Theatre by the Theatre Director John Sherratt . A new building connecting the two was built in 1976 . During the Second World War Swakeleys House was requisitioned by the military and a searchlight battery established in the grounds . The house was Grade I listed in 1956 , and the head gardener 's cottage on the junction of Swakeleys Road and The Avenue was Grade II listed in 1959 . The village library opened in 1962 on the site of the 16th century cottage and tea garden , The Orchard . Uxbridge Borough Council installed a three @-@ sided clock commemorating the 1953 coronation of Elizabeth II in the library 's tower , having been persuaded not to add it to the eight @-@ sided village pump . In the 1980s , St Giles ' church celebrated its 650th anniversary and formed a covenant with the neighbouring United Reformed Church . The United Reformed Church moved to its current building in 1936 after the previous chapel building proved too small for the growing congregation . It is now used by a local company as a wood and scrap metal yard . Nearby , many buildings on the RAF station were demolished to make way for a new housing estate named Brackenbury Village . The US Navy eventually left in 2006 and the base was permanently closed . The site was cleared in 2007 and is currently undergoing redevelopment as residential housing under the " Ickenham Park " name . The local library was closed for a complete refurbishment in 2009 and reopened in March 2010 . A garden commemorating the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II was opened in September 2012 in Swakeleys Park . The garden , featuring a landscaped area and benches around a stone obelisk , was designed by the local council 's Green Spaces Team . The opening had been scheduled for 26 May 2012 , although this was postponed after vandals destroyed the stone obelisk overnight shortly after it had been installed . = = Local government = = Ickenham had a parish council but came within the Uxbridge Rural District until 1925 , when this was absorbed into the Municipal Borough of Uxbridge . This remained until 1965 , when the borough was included in the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon . Within the borough of Hillingdon , Ickenham has its own ward , with Conservative Councillors John Hensley , Raymond Puddifoot and David Simmons representing it . Ickenham was within the Uxbridge constituency until boundary changes at the 2010 general election meant it became part of the new Ruislip , Northwood and Pinner constituency , represented by Nick Hurd MP . = = Demography = = 72 % of the population is White British , according to the 2011 census . = = Education = = Primary schools in Ickenham include Breakspear School , Breakspear Junior School , and Glebe Primary School . Secondary schools include Douay Martyrs School and Vyners School . = = Sports clubs and societies = = Sports clubs in Ickenham include Ickenham Cricket Club and Ickenham Rugby Club . Hillingdon Athletics Club ( an amalgamation of the Ruislip @-@ Northwood and Uxbridge clubs ) , has attracted many athletes from Ickenham since its foundation in the 1960s . The Ickenham and District Society of Model Engineers was formed in September 1948 and originally met in the old ARP huts , before moving to Ickenham Hall . On 14 May 1949 , the society held their first exhibition of miniature locomotives in a field off Swakeleys Road . A new society clubhouse opened on 18 June 1955 on a site near the Coach & Horses public house where it remains . The miniature railway is open to the public on the first Saturday of each month . Ickenham 's residents ' association was established in 1924 , and it plays an active role within the community ; in recent years the association has been involved in preventing developments by Tesco and IKEA , which in the association 's view would have adversely affected the town . = = Transport = = Ickenham tube station is served by the Metropolitan and Piccadilly lines . West Ruislip station ( opened as Ruislip & Ickenham ) is on the border of Ruislip and Ickenham and is served by the Central line and Chiltern Main Line . The London Buses routes U1 and U10 serve Ickenham . B467 ( Swakeleys Road ) and B466 ( Long Lane ) intersect in the centre of Ickenham . They link the Ickenham area with Harefield , Hillingdon and Ruislip . = = Landmarks and events = = = = = Pynchester Moat = = = The Pynchester Moat is a Scheduled Ancient Monument on the River Pinn just east of Copthall Road West . Although usually dry in the summer months , the moat surrounding the location of a manor house can still be seen . Excavations of the site between 1966 and 1969 found pottery and an oven dating back to the 14th or 15th century . It is believed the manor house at the centre of the moat was " Pynchester " , a building owned by the Hastings family in the 16th century . The moat is a point of interest on the Celandine Route , a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) walk along the River Pinn from Pinner to the Grand Union Canal at Cowley . = = = Swakeleys House = = = Built between 1629 and 1638 for Sir Edmund Wright , the house replaced an existing structure dating back to the 14th century . In later years the Foreign & Commonwealth Office Sports Association bought the house , followed by the London Postal Region Sports Club . Cricket matches between the club and local teams from Ickenham and Uxbridge were played within the grounds . The house was bought by three local residents in the 1980s and restored , whereupon it was leased to Bristol @-@ Myers Squibb for 25 years . Since the expiry of the lease in 2009 , the house has been open to the public for one day a year as part of Open House London . = = = Ickenham Festival = = = The biennial Ickenham Festival has taken place in the town since 1976 , originally with the aim of highlighting the variety of societies and groups in the area . The festival normally centres on a charity gala day in June , when various groups including Scouts , church groups and schools parade through the town , finishing with a large fête in the grounds of Swakeleys House . Fireworks mark the end of the festival in the evening . The festival Gala moved to the grounds of Vyners School in 2014 after a dispute with the owner of Swakeleys House .
= 2004 Atlantic hurricane season = The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record until surpassed by the following year . More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . Due to a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average . The first storm , Alex , developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31 . It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid @-@ Atlantic , causing one death and $ 7 @.@ 5 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Several storms caused only minor damage , including tropical storms Bonnie , Earl , Hermine , and Matthew . In addition , hurricanes Danielle , Karl , and Lisa , Tropical Depression Ten , Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones . Hurricane Charley made landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) , causing $ 15 @.@ 1 billion in damage in the United States alone . Later in August , Hurricane Frances struck the Bahamas and Florida , causing at least 49 deaths and $ 9 @.@ 5 billion in damage . The most intense storm , and the one that caused the most damage , was Hurricane Ivan . It was a Category 5 hurricane that devastated multiple countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , before entering the Gulf of Mexico and causing catastrophic destruction on the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Alabama and Florida . Throughout the countries it passed through , Ivan left 129 fatalities and over $ 23 @.@ 33 billion in damage . The most significant tropical cyclone in terms of deaths was Hurricane Jeanne . In Haiti , torrential rainfall in the mountainous areas resulted in mudslides and severe flooding , causing at least 3 @,@ 006 fatalities . Jeanne also struck Florida , inflicting extensive destruction . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 8 @.@ 1 billion in damage and 3 @,@ 042 deaths . Collectively , the storms of this season caused at least 3 @,@ 270 deaths and about $ 57 @.@ 37 billion in damage , making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane season at the time , until the following season . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996 . However , that record would also be surpassed in 2005 , with seven major hurricanes that year . In the spring of 2005 , four names were retired : Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This tied the then @-@ record most names retired with 1955 and 1995 , while five were retired in 2005 . = = Seasonal forecasts = = Since 1984 , forecasts of hurricane activity have been issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , and separately by forecasters with the U.S. Government 's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . According to CSU , the average season between 1950 and 2000 had 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , and 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of which 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength and 2 @.@ 7 become major hurricanes . CSU released its first prediction on December 5 , 2003 , which projected an above average season , with 13 named storms , seven hurricanes , and three major hurricanes . This forecast was adjusted upward slightly on April 2 . On May 17 , prior to the start of the season , NOAA forecasters predicted a 50 % probability of activity above the normal range , with twelve to fifteen tropical storms , six to eight of those becoming hurricanes , and two to four those hurricanes reaching major intensity . Dr. Gray released a prediction on May 28 that was similar , with 14 named storms , eight reaching hurricane strength , and three becoming major hurricanes . After the season began , Dr. Gray announced he had revised his predictions slightly downwards on August 6 , citing mild El Niño conditions . His new forecast was thirteen named storms , seven hurricanes , and three reaching major hurricane intensity . On August 10 , NOAA released an updated prediction as well , with a 90 % probability of above @-@ to @-@ near normal activity , but the same number of storms forecast . CSU issued another forecast on September 3 , indicating sixteen tropical storms , eight hurricanes , and five major hurricanes . The season ended up with sixteen tropical depressions , fifteen named storms , nine hurricanes , and six major hurricanes , which matched CSU 's final prediction on October 1 . = = Seasonal summary = = = = = Activity = = = The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 2004 . However , the first system , Hurricane Alex , did not develop until July 31 . It was an above average season in which 16 tropical cyclones formed . All but one tropical depression attained tropical storm status , and nine of these became hurricanes . Six hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . Due to a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average . Five hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 3 @,@ 270 deaths and about $ 57 @.@ 37 billion in damage . Additionally , Hurricanes Alex and Tropical Storm Earl also caused losses and fatalities , though neither struck land . The season officially ended on November 30 , 2004 . Tropical cyclogenesis began at the end of July , with the development of Hurricane Alex on July 31 . However , it did not become a named storm until the following day , which was the fifth @-@ latest start since the 1952 season . August was an unusually active month , with eight named storms , including Alex , Bonnie , Charley , Danielle , Earl , Frances , Gaston , and Hermine . This broke the record for the most named storms in the month of August set in 1933 and 1995 . This new record was tied in 2012 . On average , there are only three tropical storms and one to two hurricanes in August . Of the eight systems that month , five became hurricanes and three strengthened further into major hurricanes . A total of five tropical cyclones developed in September , including the most intense system of the season , Hurricane Ivan . Activity decreased further in October , with the formation of only two systems , Tropical Storm Matthew and Subtropical Storm Nicole . The season then went dormant for over a month and a half , until Tropical Storm Otto developed on November 29 . Otto was the final tropical cyclone of the season and degenerated into a remnant low pressure on December 3 . = = = Impact = = = The 2004 season was very deadly , with about 3 @,@ 270 fatalities overall . Nearly all of the deaths were reported in Haiti following the floods and mudslides caused by Tropical Storm Jeanne . The other tropical cyclones that caused fatalities include Hurricane Alex , Charley , Frances , Gaston , and Ivan , and Tropical Storms Bonnie and Earl . Because four out of the six major hurricanes made several landfalls , the season was also extremely damaging , with losses estimated at about $ 36 @.@ 1 billion , over half of which was caused by Hurricanes Charley and Ivan . A few other tropical cyclones caused light to moderate damage , including Hurricanes Alex and Gaston and Tropical Storms Bonnie and Matthew . In addition to the 16 tropical cyclones of the season , a tropical low in May brought torrential flooding to Haiti and the Dominican Republic , killing 2 @,@ 000 people and causing extensive damage . Though the system was not officially classified as a tropical storm , it did have a circulation with loosely organized convection , resembling a subtropical cyclone . = = = Records = = = The 2004 season had numerous unusual occurrences . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1964 , a record which would be surpassed in 2005 . Florida was severely impacted by four hurricanes during the season – Hurricane Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This was the first time four tropical cyclones produced hurricane @-@ force winds in one state during a single season since four hurricanes made landfall in Texas in 1886 . There were many other hurricanes in the season that were individually unusual . Hurricane Alex was the strongest hurricane on record to intensify north of 38 ° N latitude . Hurricane Ivan was the most unusual storm of the season . Ivan became the first major hurricane in the Atlantic on record to form as low as 10 ° N latitude . A 91 ft ( 28 m ) wave , possibly the largest ever recorded , was attributed to Ivan ; this wave may have been as high as 131 ft ( 40 m ) . Additionally , hurricanes Charley and Ivan ranked as the third and second costliest hurricanes in the United States at the time , respectively , behind only Hurricane Andrew . With $ 57 @.@ 37 billion in damage , this was the costliest season at the time , until 2005 . = = = Accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) = = = The season 's activity was reflected with a accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 227 , one of the highest values on record in the Atlantic basin . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . = = Storms = = = = = Hurricane Alex = = = The interaction between a trough and tropical wave resulted in the development of a tropical depression on July 31 , while centered about 200 mi ( 320 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . After initially being poorly organized , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Alex late on August 1 . The storm tracked northeastward and became a hurricane on August 3 . As Alex moved out to sea , it intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and peaked with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Alex reached major hurricane status second farthest north in the Atlantic , after Hurricane Ellen in 1973 . Eventually , Alex weakened due to cooler sea surface temperatures . The hurricane fell to tropical storm intensity around 12 : 00 UTC on August 6 . Six hours later , it became extratropical while located about 955 mi ( 1 @,@ 540 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland , and was soon absorbed by a large extratropical cyclone . Rough seas and a storm surge up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) on the Outer Banks of North Carolina caused minor beach erosion and washed out portions of a highway in Cape Fear . A man drowned near Nags Head due to these conditions . Strong winds also pelted the area , with sustained winds reaching 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) and gusts up to 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) in Hatteras . As a result , 10 @,@ 000 buildings and houses were left without electricity . The combination of strong winds and the storm surge damaged more than 100 buildings and houses . At Ocracoke , coastal flooding was considered the worst since Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . Additionally , rainfall up to 7 @.@ 55 in ( 192 mm ) on the Outer Banks flooded nearly 500 cars . Damage in North Carolina reached about $ 7 @.@ 5 million . In Rehoboth Beach , Delaware , three people were injured by rip currents , while five others were hospitalized in New Jersey . = = = Tropical Storm Bonnie = = = A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two on August 3 , while located about 315 mi ( 505 km ) east of Barbados . The depression crossed the Lesser Antilles on August 4 , before degenerating back into a tropical wave . The remnants traversed the Caribbean Sea , and re @-@ developed into Tropical Depression Two on August 8 . The depression strengthened further upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie on August 9 . A break in a mid @-@ level ridge re @-@ curved Bonnie northward on August 10 and then northeastward on August 11 . Later that day , the storm peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , before wind shear began weakening it . At 14 : 00 UTC on August 12 , Bonnie made landfall near Apalachicola , Florida with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm rapidly weakened inland and degenerated as a remnant low offshore of New Jersey on August 14 . In the Lesser Antilles , the storm brought light winds and mostly localized flooding to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . The regenerated system brought light rainfall to the Yucatan Peninsula . In North Florida , scattered power outages were reported , and rainfall and storm surge flooded roads , especially in Taylor County . A tornado in Jacksonville damaged several businesses and homes . Tornadoes were also reported in The Carolinas , and Virginia , with one in North Carolina destroying 17 homes and impacting 59 others . It also caused three deaths and $ 1 @.@ 27 million in damage . In Greenville County , South Carolina , a few roads were washed out , while portions of U.S. Route 501 were inundated with 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Minor flooding also occurred in Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . In Atlantic Canada , basement and road flooding was reported , especially in Edmundston , New Brunswick . Slick roads caused one death in that area . = = = Hurricane Charley = = = A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Three on August 9 to the south @-@ southeast of Barbados . Early on August 10 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Charley , before reaching hurricane intensity south of Jamaica on August 11 . Charley continued to strengthen after curving northwestward and was a 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane when it made landfall near Alquízar , Cuba on August 13 . After emerging into the Straits of Florida , Charley weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . However , the storm abruptly strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane later on August 13 , with winds peaking at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . At 19 : 45 UTC on August 13 , Charley made landfall at Cayo Costa , Florida , followed by another landfall in Punta Gorda about an hour later . Charley rapidly weakened over Florida , falling to Category 1 by early on August 14 . Later that day , the storm emerged into the Atlantic , before making two more landfalls in Cape Romain and Myrtle Beach , South Carolina as a minimal hurricane . Late on August 14 , Charley weakened to a tropical storm over southeastern North Carolina , shortly before becoming extratropical near Virginia Beach , Virginia . The storm brought rainfall and strong winds to the island of Jamaica . In Westmoreland Parish , flooding inundated several homes and damaged roadways . Winds in the parish caused a large tree to fall on a house , resulting in significant damage to the home . In Kingston , high winds damaged power lines and homes . Widespread power outages occurred due to numerous downed trees and power lines . The storm left $ 4 @.@ 1 million in damage and one fatality in Jamaica . Winds up to 118 mph ( 190 km / h ) in Cuba left all of Pinar del Río Province and more than 50 % of La Habana Province without electricity for several days . At least 70 @,@ 290 homes and about 3 @,@ 000 agricultural buildings were either damaged or destroyed . Roughly 95 % of sugar cane , bean , and banana crops were ruined . There were four deaths and $ 923 million in damage . Impact in Florida was extreme : strong winds caused 2 million power outages and destroyed more than 2 @,@ 439 structures and impacted over 26 @,@ 749 others . Charley caused 24 deaths and 792 injuries . Agricultural losses were heavy , especially to oranges . Damage to agriculture totaled about $ 2 @.@ 2 billion . In South Carolina , 2 @,@ 231 houses were damaged , with 2 @,@ 317 of those severely damaged and 40 were destroyed . Approximately 141 @,@ 00 people were left without electricity . Winds up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) in North Carolina downed trees and power lines , and left 65 @,@ 000 homes without power . Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2 @,@ 231 other homes in the state . Throughout the United States , the storm caused $ 15 @.@ 1 billion in damage , with nearly of all of it in Florida . The remnants of Charley produced light rainfall in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . = = = Hurricane Danielle = = = A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four while south @-@ southeast of Cape Verde on August 31 . Although sea surface temperatures were only marginally warm , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Danielle early on August 14 . Further intensification occurred and by early on August 15 , Danielle reached hurricane status . The storm deepened significantly over the next 24 hours and became a Category 2 hurricane . Later on August 16 , Danielle peaked as strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 964 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . At the time of peak intensity on August 16 , Danielle was heading northward to north @-@ northwestward because of a subtropical ridge . Shortly thereafter , southwesterly vertical shear began increasing , causing the hurricane to weaken . Mid @-@ level flow associated with a diffluent trough caused Danielle to move northeastward on August 18 . Later that day Danielle deteriorated to a Category 1 hurricane , hours before being downgraded to a tropical storm . On August 19 , Danielle became nearly stationary and moved erratically while southwest of the Azores . Eventually , the storm curved west @-@ southwestward and weakened to a tropical depression on August 20 . About 24 hours later , Danielle degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The remnant low moved westward and then to the north @-@ northwest , before dissipating about 795 mi ( 1 @,@ 280 km ) west @-@ southwest of the westernmost islands of the Azores . = = = Tropical Storm Earl = = = By August 13 , a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five while located about 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The depression headed westward between 21 and 29 mph ( 34 and 47 km / h ) due to a strong subtropical ridge located to its north . After developing banding features and an increase in Dvorak intensity estimates , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Earl at 18 : 00 UTC on August 14 . The storm strengthened slightly further and on the following day , it reached maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Later on August 15 , Earl crossed the Windward Islands and passed just south of Grenada . Although Earl appeared well @-@ organized , it unexpectedly degenerated into a tropical wave on August 16 , after a reconnaissance aircraft reported no closed circulation . The remnants eventually reached the Pacific Ocean and developed into Hurricane Frank on August 23 . Tropical storm force winds and heavy rainfall in Grenada damaged at least 34 homes and a nursing home and toppled several trees and electrical poles . Damage on other islands was confined to a few impacted homes , moderate crop losses , and widespread power outages , especially in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Tobago . One fatality occurred and 19 people were listed as missing . = = = Hurricane Frances = = = Around 00 : 00 UTC on August 24 , a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six , while located about 755 mi ( 1 @,@ 215 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances later that day . Frances reached hurricane status late on August 25 while curving northwestward . By August 28 , the storm reached a primary peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Late the following day , Frances weakened to a Category 3 hurricane during an eyewall replacement cycle . However , by August 31 , the storm re @-@ intensified into a Category 4 hurricane and attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . While approaching the Bahamas , wind shear and increasing westerly winds aloft caused Frances to weaken to a Category 3 hurricane late on September 2 . At 19 : 30 UTC on September 2 , the system made landfall on San Salvador Island with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . Early the next day , Frances struck Cat Island while somewhat weaker . The system decelerated and weakened slightly to a Category 2 hurricane before landfall in Eleuthera hours later . By September 4 , Frances made another landfall on Grand Bahama with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Moving slowly west @-@ northwestward , the hurricane made landfall in Hutchinson Island , Florida at the same intensity , early on September 5 . Rapidly weakening , Frances fell to Category 1 intensity around midday and deteriorated to a tropical storm about six hours later . On September 6 , the storm emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near New Port Richey , before another landfall at the mouth of the Aucilla River with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Early on September 7 , Frances weakened to a tropical depression over Georgia . By late the next day , the system became extratropical , though the remnants persisted until dissipation over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence on September 11 . In the Bahamas , about 75 % of residents lost electricity . Between 13 and 17 percent of the non @-@ native Australian pine on San Salvador Island experienced damage , primarily from snapping , though some browning from salt spray was noted . Several feet of water flooded the international airport at Freeport . Insured losses reached about $ 300 million . Severe damage was also dealt to banana , corn , and pineapple crops . About 4 @,@ 160 homes received minor damage , while 2 @,@ 522 houses were rendered uninhabitable or destroyed . About 700 people were left homeless . Additionally , sea walls , schools , bridges , roads , and docks suffered damage . Strong winds brought severe damage to Florida , especially counties along the east coast . Hundreds of homes , mobile homes , and businesses were destroyed in Indian River , Martin , and St. Lucie counties , and damage was inflicted on thousands of other structures there . In the tri @-@ county area alone , damage totaled approximately $ 4 @.@ 5 billion . Palm Beach County also suffered particularly severely , with 15 @,@ 000 houses and 2 @,@ 400 businesses damaged there . About 4 @.@ 27 million customers were left without electricity in Florida . Frances and its remnants brought extensive flooding to other states , especially in Georgia , North Carolina , Ohio , and Pennsylvania . The storm spawned 101 tornadoes in the United States , with 45 in South Carolina alone . Damage in the United States totaled approximately $ 9 @.@ 5 billion , placing Frances among the costliest hurricanes in the country . Overall , the storm caused 49 deaths , two each in the Bahamas and Ohio , eight in Georgia , and thirty @-@ seven in Florida . = = = Hurricane Gaston = = = A frontal low pressure area developed into Tropical Depression Seven at 12 : 00 UTC on August 27 , while located about 130 mi ( 210 km ) east @-@ southeast of Charleston , South Carolina . The depression gradually strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gaston early on August 28 . Initially , Gaston tracked slowly , moving southeastward and then westward , before a developing mid- to upper @-@ level ridge re @-@ curved the storm northwestward . Gaston strengthened and became a hurricane at 120 : 00 UTC on August 29 . Two hours later , the storm made landfall near Awendaw , South Carolina with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Gaston weakened rapidly inland and was only a tropical depression by early on August 30 . Gaston re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm while located over eastern Virginia on August 31 , just hours before emerging into the Atlantic . Gaston re @-@ intensified slightly further , but became extratropical near Sable Island on September 1 . In South Carolina , an unofficial measurement indicated wind gusts up to 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) in South Capers Island , which is near Parris Island . Strong winds destroyed eight homes , damaged more than 3 @,@ 000 buildings , and left more than 150 @,@ 000 people without power . Additionally , flash flooding further inland severely damaged or destroyed at least 20 homes in Berkeley County . In North Carolina , widespread street flooding occurred , including inundation of portions of Interstates 40 and 95 . Several trees were downed by strong winds , especially in Chatham and Johnston counties . A tornado in Hoke County damaged several homes . Severe flooding occurred in east @-@ central Virginia due to rainfall amounts up to 12 @.@ 6 in ( 320 mm ) . In Chesterfield , Dinwiddie , Hanover , Henrico , and Prince George counties , 350 homes and 230 businesses were damaged or destroyed , and many roads were closed due to high water . In Richmond , more than 120 roads were closed , including a portion of Interstate 95 . There were nine fatalities . Throughout the United States , Gaston caused about $ 130 million in damage . The remnants produced light rainfall in Nova Scotia , Newfoundland , and Sable Island . = = = Tropical Storm Hermine = = = The frontal zone that spawned Hurricane Gaston developed an area of convection south of Bermuda on August 25 . After detaching from the front and developing a circulation , the system became a tropical depression at 18 : 00 UTC on August 27 . It initially remained weak while the convection fluctuated , until intensifying into Tropical Storm Hermine at 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 . Later that day , wind shear exposed the circulation to the north of the convection , though the storm was able to a peak as a 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) tropical storm on August 30 . The storm turned northward under the steering currents of a subtropical ridge . Increased wind shear from Gaston weakened Hermine . By late on August 30 , the circulation was entirely exposed from the convection . Early on August 31 , Hermine made landfall near New Bedford , Massachusetts as a minimal tropical storm . It rapidly weakened while moving northward , and after becoming extratropical , Hermine was absorbed by a frontal zone later that day . The storm brought tropical storm force winds and light rainfall to eastern Massachusetts , reaching about 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) in Cape Cod . The remnants of Hermine tracked across New Brunswick and produced locally heavy rainfall , peaking at about 2 @.@ 36 in ( 60 mm ) . In Moncton , minor basement flooding and street closures were reported . = = = Hurricane Ivan = = = A westward @-@ moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 2 , before becoming Tropical Storm Ivan on the following day . After reaching hurricane intensity on September 5 , the storm strengthened significantly , becoming a Category 4 hurricane on September 6 . It subsequently weakened , though it reached major hurricane status again the next day . Late on September 7 , Ivan passed close to Grenada while heading west @-@ northwestward . While located near the Netherlands Antilles on September 9 , Ivan briefly became a Category 5 hurricane . During the next five days , Ivan fluctuated between a Category 4 and 5 hurricane . The storm passed south of Jamaica on September 11 and then the Cayman Islands on the next day . While curving northwestward , Ivan brushed western Cuba as a Category 5 hurricane on September 14 . Shortly after moving to the west of Cuba on September 14 , Ivan entered the Gulf of Mexico . Over the next two days , the storm gradually weakened while tracking north @-@ northwestward and northward . At 06 : 50 UTC on September 16 , Ivan made landfall near Gulf Shores , Alabama with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . It quickly weakened inland , falling to tropical storm status later that day and tropical depression strength by early on September 17 . The storm curved northeastward and eventually reached the Delmarva Peninsula , where it became extratropical on September 18 . The remnants of Ivan moved southward and then southwestward , crossing Florida on September 21 and re @-@ entering the Gulf of Mexico later that day . Late on September 22 , the remnants regenerated into Ivan in the central Gulf of Mexico as a tropical depression , shortly before re @-@ strengthening into a tropical storm . After reaching winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , wind shear weakened Ivan back to a tropical depression on September 24 . Shortly thereafter , Ivan made a final landfall near Holly Beach , Louisiana with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and subsequently dissipated hours later . Throughout the Lesser Antilles and in Venezuela , Ivan caused 44 deaths and slightly more than $ 1 @.@ 15 billion in losses , with nearly all of the damage and fatalities in Grenada . While Ivan was passing south of Hispaniola , the outer bands of the storm caused four deaths in the Dominican Republic . In Jamaica , high winds and heavy rainfall left $ 360 million in damage and killed 17 people . The storm brought strong winds to the Cayman Islands , resulting in two deaths and $ 3 @.@ 5 billion in damage . In Cuba , a combination of rainfall , storm surge , and winds resulted in $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in damage , but no fatalities . Heavy damage was reported along the Gulf Coast of the United States . Along the waterfront of Escambia and Santa Rosa counties in Florida , nearly every structure was impacted . In the former , 10 @,@ 000 roofs were damaged or destroyed . About 4 @,@ 600 homes were demolished in the county . Similar impact occurred in Alabama . Property damage was major along Perdido Bay , Big Lagoon , Bayou Grande , Pensacola Bay and Escambia Bay . A number of homes were completely washed away by the high surge . Further inland , thousands of other houses were damaged or destroyed in many counties . Ivan produced a record tornado outbreak , with at least 119 twisters spawned collectively in nine states . Throughout the United States , the hurricane left 54 fatalities and slightly more than $ 18 @.@ 8 billion in damage . Six deaths were also reported in Atlantic Canada . = = = Tropical Depression Ten = = = A tropical wave accompanied with a well @-@ organized area of convection emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 29 . Performing a slow curve over the eastern Atlantic , the wave became increasingly less @-@ defined over subsequent days as a result of strong southwesterly wind shear . Following the development of shower and thunderstorm activity near the center , the system acquired enough organization to be deemed a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on September 7 , while positioned about 725 mi ( 1 @,@ 165 km ) southwest of the southernmost Azores . Hostile environmental conditions caused the depression to remain below tropical storm intensity and instead degenerate into a remnant low by 12 : 00 UTC on September 9 after the center decoupled from the remainder of the convective activity . The low @-@ level circulation persisted near the Azores until dissipating the following day . = = = Hurricane Jeanne = = = Tropical Depression Eleven developed from a tropical wave at 18 : 00 UTC on September 13 , while located about 70 mi ( 110 km ) east @-@ southeast of Guadeloupe . After crossing the island while moving west @-@ northwestward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Jeanne around midday on September 14 . It strengthened further in the Caribbean Sea , before making landfall near Guayama , Puerto Rico with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) at 16 : 00 UTC the following day . Hours later , Jeanne emerged into the Mona Passage and resumed deepening , becoming at Category 1 hurricane at midday on September 16 . Around the time , the hurricane made another landfall at the eastern tip of Dominican Republic with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . By early on September 17 , Jeanne weakened to a tropical storm due to its slow movement over the rough terrain of Hispaniola , and briefly fell to tropical depression intensity at 18 : 00 UTC . After re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic , the storm then moved generally northward . After the system passed between the eastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands on September 18 , slow re @-@ intensification occurred . Late on September 20 , Jeanne again became a Category 1 hurricane ; around that time , it began to execute an anti @-@ cyclonic loop . The storm moved eastward , before an extratropical trough caused Jeanne to curve southeastward . Early on September 22 , the system strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane . A deep @-@ layer ridge slowly curved Jeanne to the west by the following day , around the time it weakened to a Category 1 hurricane due to upwelled waters . However , the storm began re @-@ intensifying on September 24 , becoming a Category 2 hurricane again that day and a Category 3 by September 25 . At 14 : 00 UTC on the latter , Jeanne struck the Abaco Islands in the Bahamas with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The hurricane strengthened slightly further , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Jeanne made its final landfall on Hutchinson Island , Florida at the same time around 04 : 00 UTC on September 26 . It quickly weakened after moving inland and fell to tropical storm intensity only 14 hours later . Curving northward , Jeanne decayed to a tropical depression over Georgia late on September 27 . Jeanne turned northeastward and became extratropical over Virginia after about 24 hours . The remnants briefly re @-@ strengthened after moving offshore the Delmarva Peninsula , but dissipated late on September 29 . In Guadeloupe , rainfall amounts up to 11 @.@ 81 in ( 300 mm ) caused flooding and mudslides throughout the island . Many roads and bridges were inundated or washed out . About 470 homes were damaged or destroyed . Similar impact was reported in Puerto Rico , with heavy precipitation causing flooding and mudslides . There was also heavy damage to crops , schools , houses , and businesses . Strong wind gusts left 70 % of the island without power . Jeanne resulted in $ 169 @.@ 9 million in damage and eight deaths . In Dominican Republic , major flooding was reported , with rivers overflowing , bridges collapsing , roads cut off , damage to agriculture , and mudslides . Strong winds disrupted telephone services and caused power outages . Overall , hundreds of people became homeless and there was 23 deaths and $ 270 million in damage . Up to 13 in ( 330 mm ) of rain fell on the mountainous region of Haiti , causing extreme flooding and mudslides , especially in the Gonaïves area . Over 200 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and an estimated 3 @,@ 006 fatalities occurred . In the Bahamas , communications were disrupted and some homes were inundated by storm surge in the Abaco Islands . Similar impact was reported on Grand Bahama , with several houses and the airport being flooded . Further , winds tore @-@ off and damaged a number of roofs . Throughout the state of Florida , strong winds were observed , leaving approximately 3 @.@ 44 million people without electricity . Additionally , more than 101 @,@ 611 homes were impacted by the storm , almost 14 @,@ 000 of which severely or beyond repairs . Several other states experienced severe flooding . Overall , there were five deaths and about $ 7 @.@ 66 billion in damage in the United States . = = = Hurricane Karl = = = A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve early on September 16 , while located 390 mi ( 630 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward under a subtropical ridge and became Tropical Storm Karl later that day . On September 17 , the storm curved northwestward and continued strengthening , reaching hurricane status early on September 18 . Karl intensified significant while moving west to west @-@ northwestward and became a major hurricane by early the next day . The storm briefly deepened to a Category 4 hurricane on September 20 , before weakening slightly and subsequently re @-@ strengthening to that intensity . Early on September 21 , Karl peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) while moving northwestward again . After peak intensity on September 21 , Karl weakened due to increasing wind shear , while moving northeastward in response to a baroclinic trough . After wind shear lessened , the storm briefly became a major hurricane again on September 23 . However , wind shear returned later that day and ocean temperatures began cooling . Another trough re @-@ curved Karl northward on September 24 as the storm was gradually weakening . Early on September 25 , Karl became extratropical while located about 585 mi ( 940 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The remnants of Karl accelerated northeastward and then east @-@ northeastward . Sustained winds up to 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) and gusts reaching 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) were observed on Mykines in the Faroe Islands . The extratropical remnants of Karl dissipated over Norway on September 28 . = = = Hurricane Lisa = = = At 18 : 00 UTC on September 19 , a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen , which was centered located about 520 mi ( 840 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . Despite unfavorable conditions from being located near Hurricane Karl , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Lisa on September 20 . After nearly reaching hurricane status , Lisa began executing a small cyclonic loop due to a Fujiwhara interaction with a tropical wave . Additionally , the interaction caused Lisa to weaken to a tropical depression on September 23 . During the next several days , the storm fluctuated in intensity , from a tropical depression to a strong tropical storm . A deep mid- to upper @-@ level trough caused Lisa to turn northward on September 25 . By October 1 , a short @-@ wave trough re @-@ curved and accelerated Lisa toward the northeast . The storm strengthened and was finally upgraded to a hurricane at 06 : 00 UTC on October 2 . At that time , Lisa attained its peak intensity with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . After sea surface temperatures dropped to around 73 @.@ 4 ° F ( 23 @.@ 0 ° C ) , Lisa weakened and was downgraded to a tropical storm later on October 2 . The storm lost tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 12 : 00 UTC on October 3 . Shortly thereafter , the remnants of Lisa were absorbed by a frontal zone while located about 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) of Cape Race , Newfoundland . = = = Tropical Storm Matthew = = = A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen on October 8 , while located about 205 mi ( 330 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Matthew about six hours later . The storm moved generally northeastward or northward throughout its duration . After briefly weakening , Matthew attained its peak intensity late on October 9 , with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . At 11 : 00 UTC on October 10 , Matthew made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Only an hour later , Matthew weakened to a tropical depression and became extratropical early on October 11 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in southeastern Louisiana , with a peak total of 18 in ( 460 mm ) near Haynesville . Along the coast , storm surge up to 5 @.@ 85 ft ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) was observed at Frenier . A combination of storm surge and heavy rainfall inundated numerous roads in Lafourche , Orleans , St. Bernard , St. John the Baptist , St. Tammany , and Terrebonne parishes . About 20 homes in Terrebonne Parish were damaged , while several others were flooded in Lafourche Parish . A tornado also damaged the roof of a trailer in Golden Meadow . Winds resulted in electrical outages for approximately 2 @,@ 500 customers . The storm cracked water line in LaPlace , leaving nearly 30 @,@ 000 residents without tap water . Overall , losses in Louisiana reached $ 255 @,@ 000 . In Mississippi , storm surge caused coastal flooding in Hancock County . Damage in the state totaled only $ 50 @,@ 000 . = = = Subtropical Storm Nicole = = = The interaction between an upper @-@ level trough and a cold front developed a low pressure area on October 8 to the southwest of Bermuda . It developed a curved band of convection northwest of the center , and it organized into Subtropical Storm Nicole by October 10 . An approaching mid @-@ level trough turned the system northeastward . Early on October 11 , Nicole passed about 60 mi ( 95 km ) northwest of Bermuda . On the island , Nicole and its precursor dropped 5 @.@ 86 in ( 148 mm ) of rainfall and produced wind gusts reaching 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The winds left 1 @,@ 800 homes and businesses without power , while the unsettled conditions caused delays at the L.F. Wade International Airport . After passing Bermuda , Nicole developed an area of convection near the center , suggesting the beginning of a transition to a tropical cyclone . However , strong wind shear caused weakening after the storm reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . A larger extratropical storm absorbed Nicole on October 11 , while the storm was located south of Nova Scotia . In Maine , gusty winds from the remnants of Nicole downed trees and electrical lines , resulting some power outages , especially along or near the coast . Similarly , 11 @,@ 300 people were left without electricity in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick alone after winds uprooted trees and toppled power lines . Significant rainfall was also produced in the region , peaking at about 5 in ( 130 mm ) in northeastern Nova Scotia . = = = Tropical Storm Otto = = = A cold front and a strong upper @-@ level trough interacted , resulting in the development of an extratropical low pressure area on November 26 . After losing frontal characteristics , the system transitioned into Subtropical Storm Otto at 12 : 00 UTC on November 29 , while located about 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . Initially , the storm moved northwestward due to a weakness in a subtropical ridge . Late on November 29 , Otto attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Deep convection formed near the center and the storm began transitioning to a warm core system . The system was re @-@ classified as Tropical Storm Otto at 12 : 00 UTC on November 30 . Although sea temperatures were relatively cold , Otto did not quickly weaken , because of low wind shear . On December 1 , the storm curved southeastward and completed a cyclonic loop later that day . After wind shear began increasing , Otto started weakening and was downgraded to a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on December 2 . At that , Otto reached its minimum barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Early on December 3 , the storm degenerated into a remnant low pressure while located about 920 mi ( 1 @,@ 480 km ) southeast of Bermuda . = = Season effects = = The following table lists all of the storms that have formed in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) ( in parentheses ) , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2004 USD . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2004 . This is the same list used for the 1998 season except for Gaston and Matthew , which replaced Georges and Mitch . The names not retired from this list were used again in 2010 . Storms were named Gaston , Matthew , and Otto for the first time in 2004 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . = = = Retirement = = = The World Meteorological Organization retired four names in the spring of 2005 – Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne due to extreme damages and death toll . They were replaced in 2010 by Colin , Fiona , Igor , and Julia . The 2004 season was tied with the 1955 season and 1995 season for the most storm names retired after a single season until the 2005 season , when five names were retired .
= Saman ( novel ) = Saman is a controversial Indonesian novel by Ayu Utami published in 1998 . It is Utami 's first novel , and depicts the lives of four sexually @-@ liberated female friends , and a former Catholic priest , Saman , for whom the book is named . Written in seven to eight months while Utami was unemployed , Saman sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies and ignited a new literary movement known as sastra wangi ( originally used pejoratively ) that opened the doors to an influx of sexually @-@ themed literary works by young Indonesian women . Saman deals explicitly with themes of sexuality , taboo for women writers in Indonesia at that time . She also writes about the supernatural and mysticism . Utami has said the stories reflect some of her personal experiences , such as her loss of religion which mirrors that of the priest , Saman . Utami also includes passages reflecting the destructiveness of Suharto 's political authoritarianism ; in later interviews she said the political realities reflected in Saman are still applicable to post @-@ Suharto Indonesia . Saman won the 1997 Jakarta Art Institute novel writing contest , which led to its publication . Critical reception was mixed . Some critics praised the richness of its language , while others derided the novel for its sexual explicitness and questioned whether it was Utami 's own work . The novel eventually was hailed for its groundbreaking portrayal of a woman 's views of sexuality . As of 2008 , it has been translated into six languages and won several awards , including the 1998 Jakarta Arts Council Novel Competition and the 2000 Prince Claus Award . A film adaptation is in the making . = = Plot = = Saman follows four sexually liberated female friends : Yasmin , a married Catholic lawyer from Medan ; Cok , a Balinese lawyer with a high libido ; Shakuntala , a bisexual Catholic Javanese dancer ; and Laila , a Muslim Minangkabau journalist . The other protagonist is the titular Saman , a former Catholic priest turned human rights activist who becomes the target of sexual advances by Yasmin and Cok . The first chapter , beginning in Central Park , New York , describes Laila waiting for the married Sihar and planning to lose her virginity to him . Eventually Laila realises that Sihar is still in Jakarta with his wife , and feels depressed . The second chapter covers Saman 's childhood — including his relationship with his mother , a woman drawn to the spiritual world — his entry into priesthood , and his attempt to protect a rubber tapping community from the attempt by a local plantation to acquire their land . After the attempt fails and the plantation 's hired thugs raze the community to the ground and kills those who resist , Saman is captured and tortured . He eventually is broken out of his confinement by the surviving resistance members , becoming a fugitive and relinquishing his duty as a priest . He becomes a human rights advocate , assisted by Yasmin . The third chapter , written from the point of view of Shakuntala , tells how Yasmin , Cok , Shakuntala , and Laila met at high school and their escapades there , both sexual and academic . Shakuntala recounts a fantasy she had as a teenager about meeting a " foreign demon " , embracing him and then having a debate on the different cultural aspects of sexuality . Towards the end of the chapter , Shakuntala notes that she is attracted to Laila and dislikes Sihar , but supports her friend 's efforts as she cares for her . During the fourth chapter , Saman is spirited away to New York by Yasmin and Cok . Although both Cok and the married Yasmin make advances toward him , he initially declines . However , during the middle of the night he and Yasmin have sex , but Saman is distressed because he ejaculated quickly . The entirety of the last chapter consists of emails sent between Saman and Yasmin , discussing their insecurities , that become increasingly sexualised . = = Writer = = When written , Saman was intended to be included in a work in progress entitled Laila Tak Mampir Ke New York ( Laila Does Not Come to New York ) . However , after the character Larung became too developed Utami split the storylines . Saman was published first , with Larung following in 2001 . Saman was written during a period of seven to eight months while Utami was unemployed . A. Junaidi of The Jakarta Post suggests that the political insights in Saman are partially inspired by Utami 's earlier career as a journalist , both with Forum Keadilan and as a founding member of the Alliance of Independent Journalists . = = Themes = = Junaidi notes that although Saman is about a female 's perspective of sexuality , it also deals with the authoritarianism of Suharto 's regime of the New Order , including the repression of human rights activists . In a 2005 interview with The Jakarta Post , Utami said that her critique of the New Order is still relevant ; at the time of the interview , she saw the Suharto government as having left Indonesia with a legacy of what she calls " nuclear waste " , including a loss of Indonesia 's agricultural ability . In the interview , Utami also noted that Indonesians had become corrupt and lazy , increasingly bureaucratic , and without a feeling of sportsmanship . Utami has also noted that the novel is a reflection of her own restlessness and anxiety . Although little of it directly reflects events in her life , she notes that Saman 's loss of religion reflects her own , and the book reflects her belief that a double standard exists regarding virginity in Indonesian culture . Although the novel touches on racial harmony , Utami said that she considers the theme to be undeveloped . Barbara Hatley notes that Saman contrasts the perceived differences between Eastern and Western cultures . She cites the scene where Shakuntala fantasizes encountering a " foreign demon " ( European explorer ) while bathing , later " embracing " him and discussing the " bizarre " requirement that Asian men are required to wear penis decorations and the " crassness " of Europeans who do not care about virginity , wear bikinis in public , and show sex on television . According to Hatley , this is rendered more ironic by both characters being naked during the discussion . She also notes that Saman touches on the traditional archetype of feminine power drawn from nature and the supernatural , and it reinterprets the hero archetype through Saman , who is small , thin , and inexperienced with women but able to withstand torture and defend a community of rubber tappers . Junaidi writes that Saman also includes bits of the supernatural , including ghosts and mysticism . In her master 's thesis , Micaela Campbell writes that Saman 's mother , known only as " Ibu " ( Indonesian for ' Mother ' ) , was " highly susceptible to supernatural forces that seem to govern over her " . Through Ibu , Javanese mysticism and other supernatural content is introduced that contrasts Saman 's father , a realist ; this leads to Ibu " failing " in her role as a mother , and , according to Campbell , may be a factor driving Saman to priesthood . Campbell notes that Shakuntala also lives in a world of jinns and peri ; however , unlike Ibu , Shakuntala draws further strength from this spiritual world . = = Release and reception = = Saman was released in 1998 after winning the 1997 Jakarta Art Institute novel writing contest . In 1998 , Saman won the Jakarta Arts Council Novel Competition . In 2000 , it received the Prince Claus Award . By 2005 , it had been translated into Dutch and English ; the English translation took a long time to write because Utami was concerned that an overexplanation of the novel caused it to lose all of its sensuality . It has also been translated into French , Czech , and Japanese ( by two separate translators ) . As of 2008 , a translation into Korean is underway . By 2004 , the book had sold 100 @,@ 000 copies , a large figure for an Indonesian novel . Critical reception was mixed . Some critics praised the " rich language " used in the novel . However , others disapproved of the open sexuality of the novel , and its explicit use of the words " penis " , " vagina " , " orgasm " and " condoms " was considered " too much " ; other controversial terms include " rape me " , " I am still a virgin " , and " masturbation " . Utami 's own mother refused to read the novel aloud to her nearly blind husband , stating that it is " not meant for those of their generation " . Campbell notes that the use of language in Saman reflects the positioning of the female characters as self @-@ empowered and independent , capable of making their own decisions . In Saman Utami became one of the first female Indonesian authors to explicitly discuss sexuality , generally a taboo subject for women , in her work . However , when it was first released Utami faced charges that she was not the actual writer ; among those suggested as the author was poet Goenawan Mohamad , known as Utami 's mentor . Mohamad denied the rumours and said that he wished he " could write the kind of prose which Ayu uses " . Utami suggests that the rumours were based on a belief that only men could write good novels ; the literature scene before Saman had indeed been dominated by male writers . The novel started a new era of literature after the downfall of President Suharto and ignited the sastra wangi ( literally ' fragrant literature ' ) literary movement as well as an influx of sexually themed literary works by women . Utami disagrees with the label sastra wangi , stating that it reflects the obsession of the press with the women writers and not their work . A film adaptation is in the works , with Dutch director Orlow Seunke expressing interest to be involved with the project . However , Seunke and Utami have had creative differences regarding which characters should be kept .
= History of a Six Weeks ' Tour = History of a Six Weeks ' Tour through a part of France , Switzerland , Germany , and Holland ; with Letters Descriptive of a Sail Round the Lake of Geneva and of the Glaciers of Chamouni is a travel narrative by the English Romantic authors Mary Shelley and Percy Bysshe Shelley . Published in 1817 , it describes two trips taken by Mary , Percy , and Mary 's stepsister , Claire Clairmont : one across Europe in 1814 , and one to Lake Geneva in 1816 . Divided into three sections , the text consists of a journal , four letters , and Percy Shelley 's poem " Mont Blanc " . Apart from the poem , the text was primarily written and organised by Mary Shelley . In 1840 she revised the journal and the letters , republishing them in a collection of Percy Shelley 's writings . Part of the new genre of the Romantic travel narrative , History of a Six Weeks ' Tour exudes spontaneity and enthusiasm ; the authors demonstrate their desire to develop a sense of taste and distinguish themselves from those around them . The romantic elements of the work would have hinted at the text 's radical politics to nineteenth @-@ century readers . However , the text 's frank discussion of politics , including positive references to the French Revolution and praise of Enlightenment philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , was unusual for a travel narrative at the time , particularly one authored primarily by a woman . Although it sold poorly , History of a Six Weeks ' Tour received favourable reviews . In proposing another travel narrative to her publisher in 1843 , Mary Shelley claimed " my 6 weeks tour brought me many compliments " . = = Biographical background = = Mary Godwin and Percy Shelley met and fell in love in 1814 . Percy Shelley initially visited the Godwin household because he was interested in meeting his philosophical hero , Mary 's father , William Godwin . However , Mary and Percy soon began having secret rendezvous , despite the fact that Percy was already married . To Mary 's dismay , her father disapproved of their extramarital affair and tried to thwart the relationship . On 28 July 1814 , Mary and Percy secretly left for France , taking Mary 's stepsister , Claire Clairmont , with them . The trio travelled for six weeks , from 28 July to 13 September 1814 , through France , Switzerland , Germany , and the Netherlands ( which is referred to as " Holland " ) ; however , they were forced to return to England due to financial considerations . The situation upon their return was fraught with complications : Mary had become pregnant with a child who would soon die , she and Percy now found themselves penniless , and , to Mary 's genuine surprise , her father refused to have anything to do with her . In May 1816 , Mary Godwin , Percy Shelley , and their second child travelled to Geneva with Claire Clairmont . They spent the summer months with the Romantic poet Lord Byron , but , as Mary Shelley later wrote of the year without a summer , " [ i ] t proved a wet , ungenial summer and incessant rain often confined us for days to the house " . The group spent their time writing , boating on Lake Geneva , and talking late into the night . Sitting around a log fire at Byron 's villa , the company also amused themselves by reading German ghost stories , prompting Byron to suggest they each write their own supernatural tale . Mary Godwin began writing what she assumed would be a short story , but with Percy Shelley 's encouragement and collaboration , she expanded this tale into her first novel , Frankenstein : or , The Modern Prometheus . Mary , Percy , and Claire returned to England in September and on 30 December 1816 Percy and Mary married ( two weeks after the death of Percy 's first wife ) , healing the family rift . In March 1817 , the Shelleys and Claire moved to Marlow , Buckinghamshire . At Marlow , they entertained friends , worked hard at their writing , and often discussed politics . Early in the summer of 1817 , Mary Shelley finished Frankenstein , which was published anonymously in January 1818 . She also began work on History of a Six Weeks ' Tour , which was published in November 1817 . = = Composition and publication = = In the summer of 1817 , Mary Shelley started to assemble the couple 's joint diary from their 1814 journey into a travel book . At what point she decided to include the letters from the 1816 Geneva trip and Percy Shelley 's poem " Mont Blanc " is unclear , but by 28 September the journal and the letters were a single text . By the middle of October she was making fair copies for the press and correcting and transcribing Frankenstein for publication while Percy was working on The Revolt of Islam . Percy probably corrected and copyedited the journal section while Mary did the same for his letters . Advertisements for the work appeared on 30 October in the Morning Chronicle and on 1 November in The Times , promising a 6 November release . However , the work was not actually published until 12 and 13 November . It was Mary Shelley 's first published work . ( Frankenstein was not published until January 1818 . ) History of a Six Weeks ' Tour begins with a " Preface " , written by Percy Shelley , followed by the journal section . The journal consists of edited entries from the joint diary that Percy and Mary Shelley kept during their 1814 trip to the Continent , specifically those from 28 July to 13 September 1814 . Of the 8 @,@ 500 words in the journal section , 1 @,@ 150 are from Percy 's entries and either copied verbatim or only slightly paraphrased . Almost all of the passages describing the sublime are in Percy 's words — passages describing God in nature , experiences of terror and awe , the transportation of the soul , and particularly the feeling of being overwhelmed by the majesty of nature , are Percy 's . When Mary turned to her own entries , however , she significantly revised them ; according to Jeanne Moskal , the editor of the recent definitive edition of the Tour , " almost nothing of her original phrasing remains " . She even included sections of Claire Clairmont 's journal . The second section of the text consists of four " Letters written during a Residence of Three Months in the Environs of Geneva , in the Summer of the Year 1816 " . The first two letters are signed " M " and the second two " S " . The first two are attributed to Mary Shelley , but their origin is obscure . As Moskal writes , " the obvious inference is that they are literary versions of lost private epistles to Fanny Godwin " , Mary Shelley 's stepsister who remained in England and with whom she corresponded during the journey . However , Moskal also notes that there is a missing Mary Shelley notebook from precisely this time , from which the material in these letters could have come : " It is extremely likely that this notebook contained the same kind of mix of entries made by both Shelleys that the surviving first ( July 1814 – May 1815 ) and second ( July 1816 – June 1819 ) journal notebooks exhibit .... Furthermore , Letter I contains four short passages found almost verbatim in P. B. Shelley 's letter of 15 May to T. L. Peacock . " The third and fourth letters are composites of Mary 's journal entry for 21 July and one of Percy 's letters to Peacock . The third section of the text consists only of Percy 's poem " Mont Blanc . Lines written in the vale of Chamouni " ; it was the first and only publication of the poem in his lifetime . It has been argued by leading Percy Shelley scholar Donald Reiman that the History of a Six Weeks ' Tour is arranged so as to lead up to " Mont Blanc " . However , those who see the work as primarily a picturesque travel narrative argue that the descriptions of Alpine scenes would have been familiar to early nineteenth @-@ century audiences and they would not have expected a poetic climax . In 1839 , History of a Six Weeks ' Tour was revised and republished as " Journal of a Six Weeks ’ Tour " and " Letters from Geneva " in Essays , Letters from Abroad , Translations and Fragments , by Percy Bysshe Shelley , Edited by Mrs. Shelley ( 1840 ) . Although these works were not by her husband , she decided to include them because they were " part of his life " , as she explained to her friend Leigh Hunt . She appended her initials to the works to indicate her authorship . As Moskal explains , " the unity of the 1817 volume as a volume was dissolved " to make way for a biography of Percy Shelley . After Percy Shelley drowned in 1822 , his father forbade Mary Shelley from writing a memoir or biography of the poet . She therefore added significant biographical notices to the edited collections of his works . The 1840 version of History of a Six Weeks ' Tour has four major types of changes according to Moskal : " ( i ) modernization and correction of spelling , punctuation and French ( ii ) self @-@ distancing from the familial relationship with Claire Clairmont ( iii ) a heightened sensitivity to national identity ( iv ) presentation of the travelers as a writing , as well as reading , circle " . As a result of these changes , more of Percy Shelley ’ s writing was included in the 1840 version than in the 1817 version . In 1845 , Mary Shelley published a one @-@ volume edition with additional minor changes , based on the 1840 version . = = Description = = History of a Six Weeks ' Tour consists of three major sections : a journal , letters from Geneva , and the poem " Mont Blanc " . It begins with a short preface , which claims " nothing can be more unpresuming than this little volume " and makes it clear that the couple in the narrative is married ( although Mary and Percy were not at the time ) . The journal , which switches between the first @-@ person singular and plural but never identifies its narrators , describes Percy , Mary , and Claire 's 1814 six @-@ week tour across the Continent . It is divided by country : France , Switzerland , Germany , and the Netherlands . After the group arrives in Calais and proceeds to Paris , they decide on a plan : " After talking over and rejecting many plans , we fixed on one eccentric enough , but which , from its romance , was very pleasing to us . In England we could not have put it in execution without sustaining continual insult and impertinence : the French are far more tolerant of the vagaries of their neighbours . We resolved to walk through France " . Each day they enter a new town ; but even while travelling , they spend time writing and reading . The journal comments on the people they meet , the countryside , and the current events that have shaped the environment . Some of what they see is beautiful and some is " barren and wretched " . Percy sprains his ankle , which becomes an increasing problem — the group is forced to hire a carriage . By the time the trio reaches Lucerne , they are nearly out of money and decide to return home . They return by boat along the Rhine , the cheapest mode of travel . Despite problems with unreliable boats and dangerous waters , they see some beautiful scenery before landing in England . The four " Letters from Geneva " cover the period between May and July 1816 , which the Shelleys spent at Lake Geneva and switch between the singular and plural first @-@ person . Letters I , II , and IV describe the sublime aspects of Mont Blanc , the Alps , Lake Geneva , and the glaciers around Chamonix : Mont Blanc was before us , but it was covered with cloud ; its base , furrowed with dreadful gaps , was seen above . Pinnacles of snow intolerably bright , part of the chain connected with Mont Blanc , shone through the clouds at intervals on high . I never knew — I never imagined what mountains were before . The immensity of these serial summits excited , when they suddenly burst upon the sight , a sentiment of extatic [ sic ] wonder , not unallied to madness . Letter III describes a tour around the environs of Vevey and other places associated with the Enlightenment philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau : " This journey has been on every account delightful , but most especially , because then I first knew the divine beauty of Rousseau 's imagination , as it exhibits itself in Julie . " " Mont Blanc " compares the sublime aspect of the mountain to the human imagination : While emphasising the ability of the human imagination to uncover truth through a study of nature , the poem also questions religious certainty . However , according to the poem only a privileged few are able to see nature as it truly is and reveal its secrets to the world . = = Genre = = History of a Six Weeks ’ Tour is a travel narrative , part of a literary tradition begun in the seventeenth century . Through the sixteenth , seventeenth , and eighteenth centuries , Continental travel was considered educational : young , aristocratic gentlemen completed their studies by learning European languages abroad and visiting foreign courts . In the early seventeenth century , however , the emphasis shifted from classical learning to empirical experience , such as knowledge of topography , history , and culture . Detailed travel books , including personal travel narratives , began to be published and became popular in the eighteenth century : over 1 @,@ 000 individual travel narratives and travel miscellanies were published between 1660 and 1800 . The empiricism that was driving the scientific revolution spread to travel literature ; for example , Lady Mary Wortley Montagu included information she learned in Turkey regarding smallpox inoculation in her travel letters . By 1742 , critic and essayist Samuel Johnson was recommending that travellers engage in " a moral and ethical study of men and manners " in addition to a scientific study of topography and geography . Over the course of the eighteenth century , the Grand Tour became increasingly popular ; travel to the Continent for Britain 's elite was not only educational but also nationalistic . All aristocratic gentlemen took similar trips and visited similar sites , often devoted to developing an appreciation of Britain from abroad . The Grand Tour was celebrated as educational travel when it involved exchanging scientific information with the intellectual elite , learning about other cultures , and preparing oneself to lead . However , it was condemned as trivial when the tourist simply purchased curio collectibles , acquired a " superficial social polish " , and pursued fleeting sexual relationships . During the Napoleonic Wars , the Continent was closed to British travellers and the Grand Tour came under increasing criticism , particularly from radicals such as William Godwin who scorned its aristocratic connections . Young Romantic writers criticised its lack of spontaneity ; they celebrated Madame de Staёl 's novel Corinne ( 1807 ) , which depicts proper travel as " immediate , sensitive , and above all [ an ] enthusiastic experience " . A new form of travel emerged — Romantic travel — which focused on developing " taste " , rather than acquiring objects , and having " enthusiastic experiences " . History of a Six Weeks ' Tour embodies this new style of travel . It is a specifically Romantic travel narrative because of its enthusiasm and the writers ' desire to develop a sense of " taste " . The travellers are open to new experiences , changing their itinerary frequently and using whatever vehicles they can find . For example , at one point in the journal , Mary Shelley muses : The money we had brought with us from Paris was nearly exhausted , but we obtained about £ 38 @.@ in silver upon discount from one of the bankers in the city , and with this we resolved to journey towards the lake of Uri , and seek in that romantic and interesting country some cottage where we might dwell in peace and solitude . Such were our dreams , which we should probably have realized , had it not been for the deficiency of that indispensible article money , which obliged us to return to England . Not everything she encounters is beautiful , however , and she juxtaposes her distaste for the German working class with her delight with French servants . Although politically liberal , Mary Shelley is aesthetically repelled by the Germans and therefore excludes them . Unlike the non @-@ discriminating Claire Clairmont , Shelley feels free to make judgments of the scenes around her ; Shelley writes that Claire " on looking at this scene ... exclaimed , ' Oh ! this is beautiful enough ; let us live here . ' This was her exclamation on every new scene , and as each surpassed the one before , she cried , ' I am glad we did not stay at Charenton , but let us live here ' " . Shelley also compares herself positively to the French peasants who are unaware that Napoleon has been deposed . As scholar Angela Jones contends , " Shelley may be said to figure herself as a more knowledgeable , disinterested English outsider capable of rendering impartial judgment " — an Enlightenment value . However , as Romanticist Jacqueline Labbe argues , Mary Shelley challenges the conventions of the Romantic travel narrative as well . For example , one reviewer wrote , " now and then a French phrase drops sweetly enough from [ the author 's ] fair mouth " , and as Labbe explains , these phrases are supposed to lead the reader to imagine a " beautiful heroine and her group passing easily from village to village " . However , both French quotations in History of a Six Weeks ' Tour undercut this Romantic image . The first describes the overturning of a boat and the drowning of its occupants ; the second is a warning not to travel on foot through France , as Napoleon 's army has just been disbanded and the women are in danger of rape . While the overarching generic category for History of a Six Weeks ' Tour is that of the travel narrative , its individual sections can be considered separately . The first journey is told as a " continuous , undated diary entry " while the second journey is told through epistolary and lyric forms . Moskal agrees with Reiman that the book was constructed to culminate in " Mont Blanc " and she notes that this was accomplished using a traditional hierarchy of genres — diary , letters , poem — a hierarchy that is gendered as Mary Shelley 's writings are superseded by Percy 's . However , these traditional gender @-@ genre associations are undercut by the implicit acknowledgment of Mary Shelley as the primary author , with her journal giving the entire work its name and contributing the bulk of the text . The journal is also threaded through with elements of the medieval and Gothic romance tradition : " accounts of ruined castles , enchanting valleys , and sublime views " . In fact , in " The English in Italy " , Mary Shelley writes of the journey that " it was acting in a novel , being an incarnate romance " . However , these romantic descriptions are often ambiguous . Often single sentences contain juxtapositions between " romance " and " reality " : " Many villages , ruined by war , occupied the most romantic spots " . She also references Don Quixote , but he was " famous for his delusions of romance " , as Labbe points out . Mary Shelley 's allusions to Cervantes 's Don Quixote ( 1605 ) not only places her text in a romance tradition , they would also have hinted at its radicalism to contemporary readers . During the 1790s , Mary Shelley 's father , William Godwin , connected his support for the French Revolution with the romance tradition , specifically Don Quixote and any allusion to the novel would have signalled Godwinian radicalism to readers at the time . It would also have suggested support for reform efforts in Spain , which was rebelling against Napoleon . The beginning of the journal is dominated by romance conventions , but this style disappears when the travellers run out of money . However , romance conventions briefly return during the trip down the Rhine . As Labbe argues , " it would appear that while [ Shelley ] seems to be industriously salting her narrative with romance in order , perhaps , to garner public approval , she also ... exposes the falsity of such a scheme . " One of the most important influences on History of a Six Weeks ' Tour was Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) , written by Mary Shelley 's mother Mary Wollstonecraft . A travel narrative that reflects on topography , politics , society , aesthetics , and the author 's personal feelings , it provided a model for Mary Shelley 's work . Like her mother , Mary Shelley revealed her liberalism by boldly discussing politics ; however , this political tone was unusual for travel works at the time and was considered inappropriate for women writers . Like Wollstonecraft 's Letters , History of a Six Weeks ' Tour blurs the line between private and public spheres by using intimate genres such as the journal and the letter , allowing Mary Shelley to present political opinions through personal anecdote and the picturesque . = = Themes = = History of a Six Weeks ' Tour is part of a liberal reaction to recent history : its trajectory begins with a survey of the devastation of the Napoleonic Wars and ends by celebrating the sublime in nature . William Wordsworth 's 1850 The Prelude and the third canto of Byron 's Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage follow a similar course . As Moskal explains , " nature is troped as the repository of a sublimity , once incarnated in Napoleon , that will re @-@ emerge in politics " . The book is therefore not only a liberal political statement but also a Romantic celebration of nature . The journal begins with , as Moskal describes , a " view of Napoleon 's shattered political power " . He had just been exiled to Elba a few months before the Shelleys arrived in Europe . Surveying the devastation caused by the Napoleonic Wars , Mary Shelley worries about how the British will handle Paris and grieves over the " ruin " brought to the small French town of Nogent by the Cossacks . Between the two journeys recorded in the text , Napoleon returned to power in the so @-@ called Hundred Days and was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 . The four letters from Geneva reflect obliquely on this event . As Moskal argues , " the Shelleys focus on the forms of sublimity and power that outlast Napoleon : the literary genius of Rousseau and the natural sublimity of Lake Geneva and Mont Blanc " . Both Shelleys use their works in History of a Six Weeks ’ Tour to assess and evaluate the French Revolution , making it a highly political travel narrative . In Letter II , Mary Shelley writes : Here a small obelisk is erected to the glory of Rousseau , and here ( such is the mutability of human life ) the magistrates , the successors of those who exiled him from his native country , were shot by the populace during that revolution , which his writing mainly contributed to mature , and which , notwithstanding the temporary bloodshed and injustice with which it was polluted , has produced enduring benefits to mankind . Mary Shelley also includes positive portrayals of the French people . As Mary Shelley scholar Betty T. Bennett explains , " politically pointed , these accolades underscore the link between the 1814 defeated enemy of Britain and the pre @-@ Napoleon democratic spirit of the 1789 Revolution , a spirit the Shelleys wished to reactivate " . Lives of people interested Mary Shelley and she recorded them , but she also recorded a great deal of the travellers ’ own feelings , suggesting to the reader the appropriate reaction . For example , she wrote of the French town Nogent : Nothing could be more entire than the ruin which these barbarians had spread as they advanced ; perhaps they remembered Moscow and the destruction of the Russian villages ; but we were now in France , and the distress of the inhabitants , whose houses had been burned , their cattle killed , and all their wealth destroyed , has given a sting to my detestation of war , which none can feel who have not travelled through a country pillaged and wasted by this plague , which , in his pride , man inflicts upon his fellow . = = Reception = = History of a Six Weeks ' Tour received three major reviews , mostly favourable . However , the book did not sell well . Percy Shelley discovered in April or May 1820 that there were no profits to pay the printer and when Charles Ollier , the co @-@ publisher , went out of business in 1823 , his inventory included 92 copies of the work . Still , Mary Shelley believed the work was successful , and when she proposed another travel narrative , Rambles in Germany and Italy , to publisher Edward Moxon in 1843 , she wrote " my 6 weeks tour brought me many compliments " . Her comments may have been self @-@ interested , however . The first review of History of a Six Weeks ' Tour was published by The Eclectic Review in May 1818 , which reviewed the book along with publisher Thomas Hookham 's account of a Swiss tour , A Walk through Switzerland in September 1816 . Although both works share the same fascination with Rousseau and his liberal ideas , only Hookham is attacked ; as scholar Benjamin Colbert explains , " Shelley tends to remain on more neutral territory " , such as the cult of sensibility and the novel Julie . However , the reviewer questions the authenticity of the work : " To us ... the value of the book is considerably lessened by a strong suspicion that the dramatis personae are fictitious , and that the little adventures introduced for the purpose of giving life and interest to the narration , are the mere invention of the Author . " He identifies passages that remind him of similar travel narratives by Patrick Brydone , Ann Radcliffe , and John Carr , effectively identifying the generic tradition in which the Shelleys were writing . The second and most positive review was published by Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine in July 1818 . The reviewer was most impressed with the journal section , particularly its informality and concision : " the perusal of it rather produces the same effect as a smart walk before breakfast , in company with a lively friend who hates long stories " . Covertly comparing the work to bluestocking Lady Morgan 's recent France ( 1817 ) , the reviewer found the female writer of History of a Six Weeks ' Tour much more favourable : " The writer of this little volume , too , is a Lady , and writes like one , with ease , gracefulness , and vivacity . Above all , there is something truly delightful in the colour of her stockings ; they are of the purest white , and much more becoming than the brightest blue . " The Monthly Review published a short review in January 1819 ; they found the first journey " hurried " but the second one better described . For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries , Mary Shelley was known as the author of Frankenstein and the wife of famous Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley . It was not until the 1970s , with the rise of feminist literary criticism , that scholars began to pay attention to her other works . In fact , with the exception of Frankenstein and The Last Man , until the 1990s almost all of Mary Shelley 's writings had gone out of print or only been available in expensive , scholarly editions . It was not until the publication of scholarship by Mary Poovey and Anne K. Mellor in the 1980s that Mary Shelley 's " other " works — her short stories , essays , reviews , dramas , biographies , travel narratives , and other novels — began to be recognised as literary achievements .
= Robotomy = Robotomy is an American animated television series created by Michael Buckley and Joe Deasy for Cartoon Network . The series revolves around Thrasher and Blastus , two teenage outcast robots who enter high school at their home planet Insanus . It was produced by World Leaders Entertainment in New York ( in association with Cartoon Network Studios ) , and co @-@ executively produced by Christy Karacas , co @-@ creator of Superjail ! . The series was the result of numerous failed pitches to the network by the creators . Production proved difficult for World Leaders , who were simultaneously working on The Venture Bros. The series premiered on October 25 , 2010 on Cartoon Network . The network marketed it to an older demographic , as the channel was attempting to blend its Adult Swim brand with its primary youth demographic . It saw its finale on January 24 , 2011 after ten episodes , and is the shortest @-@ running original series on the network . = = Plot = = Thrasher and Blastus are two teenage robots who live on the planet of Insanus . Their planet is inhabited by murderous robots who seek to kill one another for no apparent reason . Slightly less horrific than their peers , the duo seek to make it through high school , and navigate their lives with mixed results . Thrasher ( Patton Oswalt ) , a tall and lanky robot , wishes to gain the affections of an attractive female robot named Maimy ( Jessie Cantrell ) . Meanwhile , Blastus ( John Gemberling ) , a small and rotund robot , just wants to be popular . As with Blastus , unlike most robots on Insanus , he is mostly sensitive and non @-@ criminal , much to the disapproval of his mother . In his quest to be cool , however , he is incredibly impulsive and overconfident in his abilities . Thrasher , though calm and reserved , often falls prey to Blastus ' badly @-@ thought out plans . Other characters include various schoolmates and staff members . Weenus ( Michael Sinterniklaas ) is a nerdy , psychopathic robot who is even lower on the social pyramid than the protagonists . Dreadnot ( Dana Snyder ) is a teacher at Harry S. Apocalypse who finds joy in torturing and invoking pain into his students . Their principal , Thunderbite ( also voiced by Snyder ) , is an oversized , skull @-@ shaped robot who , when not causing pain , acts sweet and motherly to the students . Megawatt ( also voiced by Sinterniklaas ) is a spoiled rich kid who is attractive to the female robots , most of whom he blows up ; to Thrasher 's disdain , he is dating Maimy . Tacklebot ( Roger Craig Smith ) , Megawatt 's friend and musclehead jock , acts violent and hostile toward the protagonists . = = Production = = The series was created by Michael Buckley and Joe Deasy and produced by World Leaders Entertainment in New York . It was originally created with the working title Horrorbots . The network had contacted Buckley to create a series three years prior to the broadcast of Robotomy . He asked for Deasy 's help , and together they pitched five ideas , to which all were rejected . Six months later , a second wave of ideas proved equally unsuccessful . Reaching their third trial , also six months later , the two pinpointed the rejections on them thinking within the network 's mindset as opposed to their own . Frustrated with the project , they submitted a rough premise of Robotomy , which was accepted , much to their surprise . Buckley described the plot as when " Superbad meets the Transformers meets WWE . " According to crew , the style of animation required a distinct set of skills , compared to another production by World Leaders , The Venture Bros. While that series was animated by the same team that did Batman : The Animated Series , Robotomy was done by the Chowder production team . In an interview , it was said that the style of the former team follows " perspective , anatomy , and real @-@ world physics in animation " , while the latter team laid its focus on " the humor of the movement and timing , squash and stretch , " among other principles . Co @-@ executive producer Christy Karacas 's unique art style also proved laborious for them in that it provided " very clean polished lines " over more organic drawings . Karacas stated that the look and feel lent itself to science fiction , robotics as a whole and rock and roll . For its fictional universe , the planet of Insanus ( originally called Killglobe ) , the production crew thought of it in unending chaos . This made way for weaponry covering the ground , a constant state of duskiness and the scarring of the land . Karacas particularly enjoyed designing and diversifying the robots in regard to their size and shape . The show 's color has been described by Karacas as a major part of the visuals ; inspirations included Paul Klee and Katsuhiro Otomo , as well as the concept of fluorescence . The team wanted to create " a bold , fresh look " that reflected the universe , and so they chose to be minimal with their palette to attract attention to the line work . In addition , they eschewed the use of vivid primary colors and instead chose more secondary colors . However , they took to accentuate the scenes with " pop colors " that mimic the glow of neon lighting , and lastly they added vertical reflections to the floors and grunge textures to the backgrounds . = = Broadcast and reception = = Robotomy premiered on October 25 , 2010 on Cartoon Network , following a new episode of Mad . A crew member from World Leaders established that the network was doing more to blend its Adult Swim brand with its primary youth demographic . The series was ultimately targeted for an older demographic than other series on the network , although it still had to be appropriate to the " broad age range . " The debut broadcast was seen by 1 @.@ 7 million viewers in the United States , acquiring a 0 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating for adults aged 18 to 49 . The season received an average of 1 @.@ 5 million viewers , also with a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 2 . After ten episodes , the series concluded on January 24 , 2011 , making it the shortest run of any original series on the network . Renn Brown of Cinematic Happenings Under Development noted Oswalt , a high @-@ profile actor , as contradictory to the show 's short @-@ lived run . Will Wade of Common Sense Media gave the series a lukewarm review , finding it suitable for older teens while calling it appealing to those who struggled to gain popularity in high school . Wade called the storylines " pretty thin " and its focus on " the imagery that sells the metaphor of school as a battlefield " . Aaron Simpson of Lineboil called the storylines " irreverent " and the chaos similar to Superjail ! , " minus the dismembered bodies " . The series was eventually added to Netflix in 2013 after the service announced a deal with Warner Bros. to include programming from Cartoon Network series , among other shows . = = Series overview = = = = Episodes = =
= Arular = Arular is the debut studio album by English recording artist M.I.A .. It was released on 22 March 2005 in the United States , and one month later in the United Kingdom , with a slightly different track listing . In 2004 , the album 's release was preceded by two singles and a mixtape . M.I.A. wrote or co @-@ wrote all the songs on the album and created the basic backing tracks using a Roland MC @-@ 505 sequencer / drum machine given to her by long @-@ time friend Justine Frischmann . Collaborators included Switch , Diplo , Richard X and Ant Whiting . The album 's title is the political code name used by her father , Arul Pragasam , during his involvement with Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups , and themes of conflict and revolution feature heavily in the lyrics and artwork . Musically , the album incorporates styles that range from hip hop and electroclash to funk carioca and punk rock . Arular was hailed by critics for its blending of styles and integration of political lyrics into dance tunes . It was nominated for the Mercury Prize in 2005 and was included in the 2005 edition of the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Although it only reached number 98 on the UK Albums Chart and number 190 on the US Billboard 200 , several publications named it as one of the best albums of the year . By mid @-@ 2007 , the album had sold 129 @,@ 000 copies in the US , Arular spawned the singles " Sunshowers " , " Bucky Done Gun " and " Galang " , which was released twice . = = Composition and recording = = In 2001 , M.I.A. ( Mathangi " Maya " Arulpragasam ) had worked exclusively in the visual arts . While filming a documentary on Elastica 's 2001 tour of the US , she was introduced to the Roland MC @-@ 505 sequencer / drum machine by electroclash artist Peaches , whose minimalistic approach to music inspired her . She found Peaches ' decision to perform without additional instrumentation to be brave and liberating and felt that it emphasised the artist . Returning to London , she unexpectedly gained access to a 505 owned by her friend , former Elastica singer Justine Frischmann . M.I.A. used the 505 to make demo recordings in her bedroom . She initially planned to work as a producer . To this end , she approached Caribbean girls in clubs to see if they would provide vocals for the songs , but without success . M.I.A. secured a record deal with XL Recordings after Frischmann 's manager overheard the demo . M.I.A. began work on the album by composing lyrics and melodies , and she programmed drum beats at home on the drum machine . Having produced rough tracks via trial and error , she honed the finished songs in collaboration with other writer @-@ producers . Through these collaborations , she sought to produce a diverse style and " drag [ her collaborators ] out of their boxes , musically " . DJ Diplo introduced elements of Brazilian baile funk to " Bucky Done Gun " . Fellow composer @-@ producer Richard X worked on the track " Hombre " , which featured a drum pattern created from the sounds made by toys that M.I.A. had bought in India , augmented with sounds produced by objects such as pens and mobile phones . Steve Mackey and Ross Orton , known professionally as Cavemen , worked on " Galang " , which M.I.A. had initially produced with her 505 and a basic four @-@ track tape recorder . Working with Cavemen in a professional studio , she added a bass line and new vocals to give the song " a more analogue sound " than was possible with the 505 . The track was co @-@ written by Frischmann , whose input M.I.A. described as " refreshing " . She initially hoped to feature guest vocalists on the album , but was unable due to budget constraints and other artists ' unfamiliarity with her work . She chose to perform all the vocals herself , saying , " I just quietly got on with it ... I didn 't wanna convince anyone it was good . I felt it was much better to prove that I could be an individual . " = = Music and lyrics = = Arular takes its title from the political code name employed by M.I.A. ' s father , Arul Pragasam , during his involvement with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , popularly known as the Tamil Tigers ; she contends that her father 's " revolutionary ideals " are the album 's thematic base . " In Sri Lankan , arular means ' enlightenment from the sunshine ' or something " , she remarked , " but a friend pointed out that it was a pun in English – ' a ruler ' – which is funny because he is a politician . And my mum always used to say about my father , ' He was so useless , all he ever gave you was his name ' . So I turned it around and turned that something into nothing . And at the same time I thought it would be a good way to find him . If he really was an egomaniac , he 'd be looking himself up and he 'd get this pop album stealing his name that would turn out to be me , and he 'd have to get in touch " , a prediction which ultimately came true . ) The album is influenced by music that M.I.A. listened to as a child in London , including hip hop , dancehall , and punk rock . She cited as particular influences Eric B. & Rakim , Public Enemy , and London Posse , whom she described as " the best of British hip hop " . Her work on the album drew on the punk music of The Clash and music from genres such as Britpop and electroclash , to which she was exposed during her time studying at Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design . Living in West London , she met many musicians who to her defined an era of British music that was " actually credible " . In a 2008 interview , she elaborated on the importance of the west London punk scene , citing acts such as The Slits , The Clash , and Don Letts ; she claimed that Bow Wow Wow and Malcolm McLaren had a similar cultural impact in England to that of Public Enemy in America . Before the album 's release , M.I.A. said that audiences found it hard to dance to political songs . This made her keen to produce music that sounded like pop but addressed important issues . " Sunshowers " , with its lyrical references to snipers , murder and the PLO , was written in response to the Tamil Tigers being considered terrorists in some quarters . She said , " you can 't separate the world into two parts like that , good and evil . America has successfully tied all these pockets of independence struggles , revolutions and extremists into one big notion of terrorism . " The lyrics caused controversy ; MTV censored the sounds of gunshots in the song and MTV US refused to broadcast the video unless a disclaimer that disavowed the lyrics was added . The BBC described the lyrics as " always fluid and never too rhetorical " and sounding like " snatches of overheard conversation " . The songs deal with topics ranging from sex to drug dealing . Musically , the album incorporates elements of baile funk , grime , hip hop , and ragga . Peter Shapiro , writing in The Times , summed up the album 's musical influences as " anything as long as it has a beat " . Some tracks drew on Tamil film music , which M.I.A. listened to while growing up . Shapiro described her music as a " multi @-@ genre pile @-@ up " and likened it to her graphic art , calling it " vivid , gaudy , lo @-@ fi and deceptively candyfloss " . In a 2005 interview , when asked about the difficulty in categorising her sound , M.I.A. explained , " Influences are crossing over into each other 's puddles . I just accept where I 'm at , I accept where the world is at and I accept how we receive and digest information . I get that somebody in Tokyo is on the internet instant messaging , and someone in the favelas is on the internet . Everybody seems to know a little bit about everything and that 's how we process information now . This just reflects that . " = = Artwork = = M.I.A. and Steve Loveridge created all the album 's artwork , using what Spin writer Lorraine Ali called a " guerrilla " style . The CD booklet features motifs of tanks , bombs and machine guns , and depictions of tigers , which writers connected with the Tamil Tigers . Village Voice critic Robert Christgau connected the album 's imagery with the artist 's " obsession " with the organisation , but claimed that its use was purely artistic and not propaganda . In his view , the images were considered controversial only because " rock and roll fans are assumed to be stupid " and would not be expected to ascertain their true significance . Similarly , PopMatters writer Robert Wheaton observed that tiger imagery " does predominate M.I.A. ' s vision of the world " , but noted that the tiger is more widely associated with Tamil nationalism and that the singer 's use of such imagery did not necessarily indicate her support for the Tamil Tigers . Joshua Chambers @-@ Letson determined that the imagery was perhaps " a means of negotiating the violence necessary " and described the controversy as " an attempt to disengage " from the performative intervention that M.I.A. ' s album 's made , through what he called " the complicated negotiation " of M.I.A. ' s own autobiographical trauma , violence , and loss , as well as the geopolitical trauma , violence , and loss that her audience are engaged in from different subject positions . = = Release = = Arular was to be released in September 2004 , but was delayed . M.I.A. ' s record label stated that the delay was caused by problems obtaining permission to use an unspecified sample . Revised release dates of December 2004 and February 2005 were publicised , but the album remained unreleased ; at one point , Pitchfork Media announced that it had been shelved indefinitely . It was eventually released on 22 March 2005 , when XL Recordings made it available in the US , albeit with the track " U.R.A.Q.T. " omitted as the issues with a sample had not been resolved . The UK edition was released the following month with the track included , and this edition was released in the US by Interscope Records on 17 May . Arular sparked internet debates on the rights and wrongs of the Tamil Tigers . By the time it was released , a " near hysterical buzz " on the internet had created " slavish anticipation " for the album . Despite this , M.I.A. claimed in late 2005 that she had little comprehension of her prior popularity with music bloggers , stating that she did not even own a computer . = = Promotion and accolades = = The first track from the album to be made available was " Galang " . It was initially released in late 2003 by independent label Showbiz Records , which pressed and distributed 500 promotional copies before M.I.A. signed with XL Recordings . The song was re @-@ released on XL as the second official single from the album in September 2004 , and again in October 2005 , under the title " Galang ' 05 " , with a remix by Serj Tankian . The first official single , " Sunshowers " , was M.I.A. ' s first on XL and was released on 5 July 2004 . It was supported by a music video directed by Indian filmmaker Rajesh Touchriver . Following the re @-@ release of " Galang " , the third single from the album , " Bucky Done Gun " , was released on 26 July 2005 . The video was directed by Anthony Mandler . In December 2004 , M.I.A. independently released a mixtape titled Piracy Funds Terrorism , produced by M.I.A. and Diplo , as a " teaser " for the album . The release featured rough mixes of tracks from Arular mashed up with songs by other artists , and was promoted by word @-@ of @-@ mouth . In early 2005 , after the release of Arular , an extensive collection of fan @-@ made remixes of M.I.A. ' s work was uploaded , expanded and made available as an " online mixtape " on XL 's official website , under the banner Online Piracy Funds Terrorism . M.I.A. toured extensively during 2005 to promote the album . The Arular Tour included concerts in North America supporting LCD Soundsystem and appearances at music festivals in Europe , Japan and South America . In November 2005 , she appeared as the support act at a number of dates on Gwen Stefani 's Harajuku Lovers Tour . Arular was nominated for the Mercury Prize and the Shortlist Music Prize , and was named as the best album of the year by Stylus Magazine . It was number two on The Village Voice 's 33rd annual Pazz & Jop poll for the Best Album of 2005 . The Washington City Paper chose it as the second best album of the year , and Pitchfork Media and Slant Magazine named Arular the fourth best of 2005 . The Observer listed it as one of the year 's five best albums . Arular was featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , where it was described as " the most sparkling debut since Madonna 's first album " . The singer Nelly Furtado expressed her admiration for M.I.A. ' s style , flow and dancing on Arular , having listened to it during the recording of her album Loose . Thom Yorke of alternative rock band Radiohead cited M.I.A. ' s method of music making on Arular as an influence on his own work , saying that it reminded him of " just picking up a guitar and [ liking ] the first three chords you write " as opposed to " agonizing over the hi @-@ hat sound which seems to happen with programming and electronica a lot of the time " . In 2009 , the NME placed the album at number 50 in its list of the 100 greatest albums of the decade . In 2009 , online music service Rhapsody ranked the album at number four on its " 100 Best Albums of the Decade " list . In 2011 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 52 on its list of the 100 best albums of the 2000s . = = Critical reception = = Arular received widespread acclaim from music critics . Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , reported an average score of 88 based on 33 reviews , described as " universal acclaim " . Julianne Shepherd of Spin appreciated the album 's fusion of " hip hop 's cockiness with dancehall 's shimmy and the cheap and noisy aesthetics of punk " and claimed that Arular would be regarded as the best political album of the year . Adam Webb , writing for Yahoo ! Music , described the album 's style as " professionally amateurish " and M.I.A. ' s approach as " scattergun " , but said that she " effortlessly appropriates the music of various cultures and filters them through the most elementary equipment " . He said , " dancehall is the primary influence , but also one of many seismic collisions with several other genres . " In his review for Stylus Magazine , Josh Timmermann described Arular as " a swaggering , spitting , utterly contemporary album " and went on to say , " We 've not heard its like before . " Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield found Arular " weird , playful , unclassifiable , sexy , brilliantly addictive " . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones , writing in The New Yorker , described the album as " genuine world music " , based on " the weaving of the political into the fabric of what are still , basically , dance tunes " . Other reviewers were not as complimentary . Paste 's Jeff Leven said that the album , although strong , was not as " mindblowing " as many critics were saying . Q characterised the album as " style mag @-@ cool pop @-@ rap " and claimed that it lacked the substance suggested by M.I.A. ' s decision to name it after her father . = = Commercial performance = = Arular peaked at number 190 on the Billboard 200 , while reaching number three on the Top Electronic Albums chart and number 16 on the Top Independent Albums . By April 2007 , it had sold 129 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album peaked at number 92 on the UK Albums Chart , while in mainland Europe , it reached number 20 in Norway , number 47 in Sweden , number 71 in Germany and number 97 in Belgium . = = Track listing = = Digital bonus tracks " You 're Good " – 4 : 13 " Lady Killa " – 3 : 32 " Do Ya " – 3 : 22 Notes ^ a signifies an additional producer ^ b signifies a co @-@ producer " Bucky Done Gun " is inspired by " Injeção " by Deize Tigrona and incorporates elements of " Gonna Fly Now " by Bill Conti . " U.R.A.Q.T. " contains a sample from " Sanford and Son Theme ( The Streetbeater ) " by Quincy Jones . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Arular . = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= David Evans ( RAAF officer ) = Air Marshal David Evans , AC , DSO , AFC ( born Selwyn David Evans on 3 June 1925 ) is a retired senior commander of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , and a writer and consultant on defence matters . He served as Chief of the Air Staff from 1982 until 1985 . Since leaving the RAAF he has published two military treatises , A Fatal Rivalry : Australia 's Defence at Risk and War : A Matter of Principles , as well as an autobiography . Enlisting in the Air Force in 1943 , Evans graduated from flying school as a sergeant pilot , and was converting to Beaufort bombers when World War II ended . He gained his commission as a pilot officer in 1947 . From 1948 to 1949 , he was a member of the Australian contingent operating C @-@ 47 Dakota transports in the Berlin Airlift . He was a flying instructor in the early 1950s , before becoming a VIP captain with the Governor @-@ General 's Flight in 1954 . His service in the flight earned him the Air Force Cross in 1957 . In the 1960s Evans was twice posted to No. 2 Squadron , flying Canberra jet bombers : first as a flight commander when the unit was based in Malaysia from 1960 to 1962 and then as its commanding officer during the Vietnam War from 1967 to 1968 . The Canberras achieved a high degree of accuracy on their bombing missions under his leadership , and he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order after completing his tour in Vietnam . Evans held senior staff positions in the early 1970s , before serving as Officer Commanding RAAF Base Amberley from 1975 until 1977 . Promoted to air vice marshal , he then became Chief of Air Force Operations . In this role he worked to improve the RAAF 's strategy for the defence of Australia , to fully exploit the " air @-@ sea gap " on the northern approaches to the continent . Appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia in 1981 , he was Chief of Joint Operations and Plans for the Australian Defence Force before his promotion to air marshal and elevation to Chief of the Air Staff in April 1982 . As head of the Air Force he focussed on morale , air power doctrine , and improving defensive capabilities in northern Australia . He was raised to Companion of the Order of Australia in 1984 . Retiring from the RAAF in May 1985 , Evans began to write and lecture on defence matters , and also stood for election in Federal politics . He was a board member of and defence advisor to British Aerospace Australia ( later BAE Systems Australia ) from 1990 to 2009 , and chairman of the National Capital Authority from 1997 until 2003 . In 2001 he was awarded the Centenary Medal for his services to the ADF and the Canberra community . = = Early career = = Selwyn Evans , known by his middle name of David , was born in the Sydney suburb of Paddington on 3 June 1925 . The son of policeman Selwyn Douglas Evans and his wife Eileen , David was educated at Marist Brothers College in Mosman . A schoolboy when war was declared , he avidly followed reports of Allied fighter aces during the Battle of Britain , and resolved that , once he was old enough , he would serve as a pilot . He subsequently became one of the earliest recruits to the Air Training Corps , established in 1941 to facilitate basic training for youths aged 16 to 18 whose ambition was to become aircrew in the Royal Australian Air Force . After spending a short time as a bank clerk , Evans duly enlisted in the RAAF on 5 June 1943 . He received instruction under the Empire Air Training Scheme , firstly at No. 2 Initial Training School in Bradfield Park , Sydney , then at No. 5 Elementary Flying Training School in Narromine , New South Wales , and finally at No. 8 Service Flying Training School in Bundaberg , Queensland . After graduating as a sergeant pilot , he was posted in October 1944 to the flying staff of No. 1 Air Observer School at Evans Head , New South Wales . Promoted to flight sergeant , Evans was in the middle of a Bristol Beaufort light bomber conversion course at No. 1 Operational Training Unit in East Sale , Victoria , when the war ended on 14 August 1945 . His Air Force career should have finished then and there , as he was slated for demobilisation along with thousands of other wartime enlistees . Evans was determined to remain and travelled to RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne to take his case to the officer responsible for discharges . He found a sympathetic ear and within days was transferred to No. 38 Squadron , with which he flew C @-@ 47 Dakota transports on a regular courier service to Japan between October 1945 and May 1948 . Evans was commissioned as a pilot officer on 3 March 1947 , becoming the most junior name in the 1947 Air Force List of serving officers according to seniority . On 23 August 1948 he married Dorothy ( Gail ) Campbell , the daughter of a Merchant Navy captain ; the couple had three daughters and a son . They had planned to wed on 29 August but had to bring the ceremony forward when Evans was selected to take part in Australia 's contribution to the Berlin Airlift . Having been promoted to flying officer , he departed Sydney on 28 August , bound for London . From there he joined RAAF Squadron Berlin Air Lift — which comprised crews from Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons and was based in Lübeck , West Germany — and over the next 14 months flew over 250 sorties in Royal Air Force Dakotas . Airlift operations were considered particularly challenging , as aircraft were expected to fly on instruments their entire route , often in inclement weather , and keep just three minutes separation . On one occasion , Evans and his crew discovered that boxes of condoms were their main cargo . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " as they took off into a bleak , snow @-@ filled night they found themselves questioning the worth of the sortie , an attitude which doubtless was not shared by the eventual recipients " . Evans ' worst moment was when one of his engines failed just after take @-@ off , with 23 passengers — mostly children — aboard , but he was able to land safely . Returning to Australia in November 1949 , Evans was posted to Central Flying School ( CFS ) at RAAF Base East Sale , Victoria , where he qualified as a flying instructor . He served in this capacity for the next four years , including an exchange posting with the Royal New Zealand Air Force from May 1951 to July 1953 . As he was preparing to depart New Zealand , he received word that his next posting would be to the Korean War as a pilot with No. 77 Squadron ; the armistice prevented this and he returned to No. 38 Squadron as an instructor . In 1954 he was assigned to transporting VIPs , serving with the Governor @-@ General 's Flight ( later No. 34 ( Special Transport ) Squadron } until 1956 . As well as Governor @-@ General Sir William Slim and Lady Slim , his passengers included Prime Minister Robert Menzies and Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh . Promoted to squadron leader , Evans ' service with the VIP flight earned him the Air Force Cross in the Queen 's Birthday Honours promulgated in the London Gazette on 13 June 1957 . The same year , he attended RAAF Staff College at Point Cook , Victoria . He became personal staff officer to the Minister for Air in 1958 , a position he found valuable for the insight he gained into Australia 's political culture . In November 1959 , he took a refresher course at CFS , qualifying on De Havilland Vampire and English Electric Canberra jets . He underwent further training on Canberra bombers with No. 1 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , graduating in May 1960 . From then until 1962 he served as a flight commander in No. 2 Squadron , operating Canberras out of RAAF Base Butterworth , Malaysia . He subsequently attended the RAF College of Air Warfare . In January 1963 , Evans was transferred to Air Staff Division , Canberra , where he helped formulate operational requirements for a new RAAF bomber . His final specification included a payload of 14 @,@ 000 lb ( 6 @,@ 400 kg ) , speed of Mach 2 , and range of 1 @,@ 100 nmi ( 2 @,@ 000 km ) . This requirement was met by the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C , 24 of which were ordered by the Australian government in October 1963 . As an interim measure until delivery of the F @-@ 111 , the US government offered 24 Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojets to the RAAF . Though the offer was never seriously considered , a B @-@ 47 was test flown from Amberley to Darwin in November 1963 by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Val Hancock , with Evans as passenger . Evans had been assigned to fly the plane but was replaced at the last moment by Hancock ; the take @-@ off almost ended in disaster after Hancock unknowingly switched off the engines ' water injection — needed to ensure sufficient thrust in hot conditions — that Evans had switched on before vacating the pilot 's seat . In January 1965 , Evans was posted to Washington , DC , as Assistant Air Attaché , having " had quite enough of writing Air Staff Requirements " . = = Vietnam War and senior command = = In April 1967 , the Australian government committed No. 2 Squadron and its Canberra bombers to action in the Vietnam War . Operating from Phan Rang Air Base outside Saigon , under the direction of the US 35th Tactical Fighter Wing ( TFW ) , the Canberras were initially engaged in medium @-@ altitude missions against Viet Cong forces , guided by Sky Spot ground radar , usually at night . Promoted to wing commander , Evans assumed control of the squadron in December 1967 . Having never heard a shot fired in anger in his 24 years of service , he was anxious for a combat assignment . The Japanese surrender in August 1945 had prevented him from seeing action in World War II , and the Korean War had ended just as he was on the verge of a posting for active duty with No. 77 Squadron . " Vietnam " , he reasoned , " would be my last chance " . By the time he took command , the Canberras were flying a greater proportion of their missions at lower levels in daylight , using visual bomb @-@ aiming methods honed during their earlier service in Malaysia ; this gave the bombers an average circular error probability ( CEP ) of 50 metres . Evans introduced intensive post @-@ mission analysis to refine their technique , and permitted his pilots to bomb at the lowest level possible at which the bombsight would operate . The CEP was eventually reduced to 20 metres , making the Canberras the most accurate bombing force in the region . In January 1968 , the unit participated in the air campaigns to defend Huế and Khe Sanh during the Tet Offensive . Phan Rang itself was often subjected to harassing attacks and mortar fire from the Viet Cong , requiring Evans to undertake improvements to the airfield 's ground defences . He completed his posting to Vietnam in November 1968 and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his performance as commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron . The decoration was gazetted on 2 May 1969 and backdated to 13 March . Evans was promoted to group captain in January 1969 and appointed Director of Air Force Plans . In this position he proposed and organised the gift of 23 of the RAAF 's old CAC Sabres to the Indonesian Air Force , following an earlier presentation of 10 Sabres to the Royal Malaysian Air Force . He completed studies at the Royal College of Defence Studies , London , in 1972 . Returning to Australia , he was promoted to air commodore and appointed Director @-@ General Plans and Policy , Air Force , in January 1973 . He served as Officer Commanding RAAF Base Amberley from February 1975 until April 1977 . In this role he qualified as a pilot on the recently delivered F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber , as well as the UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopter . Following his tour as Amberley base commander , Evans was promoted to air vice marshal and became Chief of Air Force Operations ( CAFOPS ) . He held this newly created position for the next two years , broken by a temporary posting as Deputy Chief of the Air Staff between January and August 1978 . As CAFOPS , Evans played a major part in developing the RAAF 's plans for the defence of Australia . Following America 's announcement in the 1969 Guam Doctrine that its allies would have to assume greater self @-@ reliance in their military affairs , Australia 's strategic thought underwent a change from its earlier policy of " forward defence " to a more localised defensive posture . While the consensus among RAAF planning staff was to adopt a " repulsion " concept of attacking an enemy force along the air and sea approaches to northern Australia , Evans considered that this did not go far enough in exploiting the long @-@ range offensive capabilities of such aircraft as the F @-@ 111 . Convinced that Australia 's numerically small forces would be hard @-@ pressed to dislodge an invader that had gained a foothold on the continent , he refined the " repulsion " stance into what he termed an " anti @-@ lodgement " strategy , focussing on defeating the enemy at its potential staging bases north of Australia and then , as a last resort , on the approaches closer to home . The Air Force 's role in shaping an overall strategy that took advantage of the " air @-@ sea gap " was later acknowledged in the Federal government paper The Defence of Australia 1987 . Evans was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia on 26 January 1981 for his achievements as CAFOPS . In 1980 , Evans was appointed Chief of Joint Operations and Plans for the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) . He was promoted to air marshal and became Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) on 21 April 1982 , succeeding Air Marshal Sir Neville McNamara . As CAS , Evans took steps to enhance discipline , bearing and morale in the Air Force , demanding high personal standards . He sponsored the development of an Australian air power doctrine , eventually published as the Air Power Manual under one of his successors , Air Marshal Ray Funnell , in 1990 . Evans also commissioned a marching tune especially for the RAAF , later to be called " Eagles of Australia " , to replace the Royal Air Force march that had been in use previously . As early as 1969 , he had advocated permanently basing a squadron of fighter aircraft at RAAF Tindal in the Northern Territory . Tindal was one of a series of forward air bases initiated by Air Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger when he was CAS in 1959 , but a defence committee decision prior to Evans becoming CAS had determined to locate the RAAF 's northernmost fighter squadron at Darwin . His chance remark in mid @-@ 1982 to the new Minister of Defence , Ian Sinclair , regarding the suitability of Tindal over Darwin led to the former base being chosen as the home of No. 75 ( Fighter ) Squadron . Alan Stephens described the permanent manning of Tindal as having " formalised the shift to the strategy of defence @-@ in @-@ depth — of defending Australia by controlling its air @-@ sea gap " . Late in 1983 , Evans selected the site for the last of the Air Force 's northerly " bare bases " , RAAF Scherger , near Weipa on Cape York Peninsula . For his service as CAS , he was raised to a Companion of the Order of Australia on 11 June 1984 . On 2 May 1985 , he became the first serving member of the ADF to be invited to speak at the National Press Club in Canberra . During his speech he reiterated the need for Australia to acquire an airborne early warning capability to enhance the effectiveness of the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ delivered F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multirole fighter , declaring that " Jindalee is not sufficient " . Later that month two Hornets , whose acquisition Evans had supported while CAFOPS , were handed over to No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , following a record non @-@ stop flight from Naval Air Station Lemoore in California . Evans had pushed for the long @-@ distance flight , employing a McDonnell Douglas KC @-@ 10 tanker to refuel the Hornets in flight , to demonstrate the RAAF 's capability and the benefit of tanker aircraft . Six Mirage fighters from No. 77 Squadron intercepted the Hornets and the KC @-@ 10 and escorted them to their landing at Williamtown , an action the CAS considered " icing on the cake — a touch of class " . = = Later career = = Evans retired as CAS on 30 May 1985 , having flown in excess of 8 @,@ 600 hours during his RAAF career . He was praised by his successor , Air Marshal Jake Newham , for his " extraordinary zeal and robustness " that helped instil " a renewed sense of pride in the Service " . In retirement Evans became a consultant on defence and aviation matters , and wrote and lectured extensively on air power . As a visiting fellow at the Australian National University 's Strategic and Defence Studies Centre in 1986 , he produced a working paper focussing on the RAAF 's concept of operations , Air Operations in Northern Australia . The same year , he was publicly critical of the Federal government 's Dibb Report , claiming that while it contained " sensible policy for the defence of Australia " , it did not recognise the ADF 's offensive capabilities : " People win wars by taking the initiative . In war the aim must be to win . ... If you are a small force you cannot afford to wait , and otherwise you will be defeated . " Evans also stood for political office , running as the Liberal candidate for the seat of Eden @-@ Monaro , New South Wales , in the 1987 Australian federal election . He was competing for the conservative vote with National candidate Peter Cochran , whose party advertising was considered to have outperformed the Liberals ' . The seat was retained by incumbent Labor member Jim Snow . In 1990 , Evans published his critique of Australian defence policies , A Fatal Rivalry : Australia 's Defence at Risk ; he followed this in 2000 with War : A Matter of Principles , featuring contributions from senior soldiers and military analysts . Also in 1990 , Evans joined the Board of British Aerospace Australia as a non @-@ executive director , and was later appointed senior defence advisor to BAE Systems Australia , retiring in 2009 . From 1997 until 2003 , he was chairman of the National Capital Authority , and from 1999 until 2003 was national president of the Royal United Services Institute Australia . Evans has been the patron of numerous organisations including the Airfield Defence Guards Association , the Royal Australian Air Force Association ( ACT Division ) , The Celtic Club Australia , and the Royal Australian Air Force Staff College Association . He was one of three former members of Australia 's Berlin Airlift squadron to be specially honoured by the City of Berlin on the 50th anniversary of the Berlin Blockade in 1998 . In January 2001 he was awarded the Centenary Medal for " service to Australian society through Australian Defence Force and to the Canberra community " . He was chairman of the 60th Anniversary Victory in the Pacific Steering Committee in 2005 . His autobiography , Down to Earth , was launched on 19 July 2011 by former Prime Minister John Howard at Old Parliament House , Canberra .
= Westinghouse Air Brake Company General Office Building = The Westinghouse Air Brake Company General Office Building ( Known locally as The Castle or Library Hall ) in Wilmerding , Pennsylvania is a building from 1890 . It was listed on the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation in 1975 , National Register of Historic Places in 1987 . Originally built as an office building for the Westinghouse Air Brake Company , it now houses The George Westinghouse Museum . = = Construction = = Constructed by architect Frederick J. Osterling , the building has a four @-@ sided clock tower , which was operated by a system of chains and pulleys . Additional designs and remodeling were done by Janssen & Cocken in 1927 , which added the " Executive Wing " , containing executive offices as well as conference and dining rooms . The architectural style is a mix of Renaissance Revival and Romanesque . It was destroyed by a fire on 8 April 1896 ; the foundation , being made of brick , stone , and cement survived , however , and the structure was rebuilt upon the same foundation . It was during this reconstruction that the clock tower was added . At the time , the entire first floor was designed for employees ' use , with accommodations such as a library , fully equipped gymnasium , restaurant , swimming pool , and bowling alleys . This brought the total area inside the building to 55 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 100 m2 ) . The building also housed a boiler house and light station , that supplied both steam and power to the plant , as well as various businesses in the community , such as the Wilmerding YMCA . = = Business history = = This building contained the offices of the Westinghouse Air Brake Company for well over a century . The company was originally established by George Westinghouse in 1869 . Westinghouse had developed many companies during this time of industrial growth at the beginning of the twentieth century . The Air Brake plant , that made for improved performance and increased speed on the nations railways , was moved to its new location in Wilmerding , Pennsylvania in 1889 . Wilmerding is a small town about 14 miles ( 23 km ) outside of Pittsburgh which , at the time , was only inhabited by about 5 @,@ 000 people . Socialism was strong in Wilmerding and it was a peaceful non @-@ violent farming borough . It was thought to be “ The Ideal Town ” for the company because of its location right along the Pennsylvania Railroad and its mainly blue collar inhabitants . The Air Brake Company employed 3 @,@ 000 citizens from the surrounding Pittsburgh area , but its work force was composed almost entirely of individuals from Wilmerding . The office buildings were used until the building was vacated in 1985 . It was then donated to the American Production and Inventory Control Society . The Westinghouse Air Brake Company merged with MotivePower Industries Corporation in 1999 to form the Wabtec Corporation ( NYSE : WAB ) . Wabtec still provides employment for more than 1 @,@ 000 residents of the borough . = = Effect on the community = = When the Westinghouse Plant was also moved to Wilmerding , housing for the employees became hard to come by . In response to this , the Westinghouse Air Brake Home Building Company was formed in 1919 with $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 USD as startup capital . The 400 houses and large amounts of vacant land that were previously owned by the Westinghouse Air Brake Company were transferred to the new company . The new homes were specifically built with different variations to avoid the lack of variety commonly seen in industrial housing at the time . The Westinghouse Air Brake Home Building Company was so successful that within ten years , there were no vacant lots left on the Southern side of Turtle Creek . The extensive town @-@ building , employment , and prosperity that George Westinghouse brought to Wilmerding is still celebrated today in the community , with a festival called " George Westinghouse Days " , which takes place in early June each year . = = Inside The Castle = = The building used to house The George Westinghouse Museum , a model train display , and a Depression glass room , and is operated by Wilmerding Renewed , Inc . The Westinghouse Castle is operated by a non @-@ profit organization and volunteers . In 2007 , the artifacts that were in the Castle museum went to join the Heinz History Center . Since 2007 , the Westinghouse Castle has gathered a collection of Westinghouse products and are now on display in their Westinghouse Museum room .
= Arrowhead ( Herman Melville House ) = Arrowhead , also known as the Herman Melville House , was the home of American author Herman Melville during his most productive years , 1850 – 1863 . In this Pittsfield , Massachusetts house , Melville wrote some of his major work : the novels Moby @-@ Dick , Pierre ( dedicated to nearby Mount Greylock ) , The Confidence @-@ Man , and Israel Potter ; The Piazza Tales ( a short story collection named for Arrowhead 's porch ) ; and magazine stories such as " I and My Chimney " . The house , located at 780 Holmes Road in Pittsfield , was built in the 1780s as a farmhouse and inn . It was adjacent to a property owned by Melville 's uncle Thomas , where Melville had developed an attachment to the area through repeated visits . He purchased the property in 1850 with borrowed money and spent the next twelve years farming and writing there . Financial considerations prompted his family 's return to New York City in 1863 , and Melville sold the property to his brother . The house remained in private hands until 1975 , when the Berkshire County Historical Society acquired the house and a portion of the original 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) property . The Society restored most of the house to Melville 's period and operates it as a house museum ; it is open to the public during warmer months . It has been designated a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . = = Construction and early history = = Construction of the oldest portions of the house known as Arrowhead took place in the 1780s . Built by Captain David Bush , the wood frame and clapboard house was apparently used as an inn . The Bush family sold the property to Pittsfield doctor John Brewster in 1844 , who in 1850 sold the 160 acres ( 65 ha ) property to the writer Herman Melville . The house at that time consisted of a simple rectangular structure with five window bays across and two deep , with a large central chimney . There is some evidence that the house may originally have had three stories , but at the time of the Melville purchase in 1850 , it only had two and a half . = = Melville in Pittsfield = = Herman Melville was born in New York City in 1819 . His maternal grandparents lived in Albany , New York , where his parents took their family in 1830 after a series of financial setbacks . His uncle Thomas Melvill owned property in Pittsfield that the family had visited a few times when Melville was younger . The first significant visit Melville made to his uncle was a brief one in August 1831 . After his father died in January 1832 , Melville 's mother took the family to Pittsfield to escape an outbreak of cholera in July 1832 . It is from the time of this brief stay that Melville 's interest in the Berkshires developed . In 1837 he ran his uncle 's farm while the latter traveled to Illinois to pursue business opportunities . According to Melville 's cousin Priscilla , during this time his attachment to the area deepened considerably . In the summer of 1850 , Melville , his wife Lizzie , and their son Malcolm vacationed in Pittsfield . The visit to his uncle 's farm was bittersweet , for his uncle had agreed to sell the property , and it would be the family 's last visit there . On August 5 , 1850 , Melville met Nathaniel Hawthorne for the first time , having only recently read his short story collection Mosses from an Old Manse . The two were among several invited to a picnic on Monument Mountain south of Pittsfield with a group that also included Evert Augustus Duyckinck and Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. Melville and Hawthorne struck up an instant friendship . Attracted by the Hawthornes , and apparently unwilling to abandon the Berkshires , Melville decided on impulse to purchase the Brewster farm , which abutted his uncle 's property . According to a news report of his purchase , the property " commands one of the most extensive and splended views in Berkshire . " He secured a $ 3 @,@ 000 loan from his father @-@ in @-@ law Lemuel Shaw ( a Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice who was in Lenox for a court session at the time ) , received a $ 1 @,@ 500 mortgage from Brewster , and promised to pay the rest of the $ 6 @,@ 500 purchase price when his New York lease was sold . The sale was finalized on September 14 , 1850 . To raise funds , Melville sold off 80 acres ( 32 ha ) in the 1850s . Shaw assumed the mortgage in 1856 , took title to the property in 1857 , and transferred it to Melville 's wife in 1860 . = = Melville at Arrowhead = = Melville called his new home Arrowhead because of the arrowheads that were dug up around the property during planting season . New York publisher Evert Augustus Duyckinck wrote that its " grounds would satisfy an English nobleman — for the noble maples and elms and various seclusions and outlooks " . It was at Arrowhead that Melville finished his novel Moby @-@ Dick ; though the work was not recognized during the author 's lifetime , it has since become known as one of the greatest American literary masterpieces . Hawthorne 's influence on Melville while writing the book is significant . Melville wrote a review of Mosses from an Old Manse , published by Duyckinck , and in it he believed that these stories revealed a dark side to Hawthorne , " shrouded in blackness , ten times black " . Moby @-@ Dick was dedicated to Hawthorne : " In token of my admiration for his genius , this book is inscribed to Nathaniel Hawthorne . " Hawthorne , in turn , referenced Melville in his book A Wonder @-@ Book for Girls and Boys : " On the higher side of Pittsfield , sits Herman Melville , shaping out the gigantic conception of his ' White Wale ' while the gigantic shape of Graylock [ sic ] looms upon him from his study @-@ window . " Melville incorporated domestic features of Arrowhead into several stories . The piazza ( or porch ) , after which The Piazza Tales were named , was added to the north side of Arrowhead shortly after Melville purchased the property . Unlike the more typical Berkshires properties that located the porch facing south , Melville chose to face it toward Mount Greylock , to which he dedicated Pierre . Of the piazza he wrote : Now , for a house , so situated in such a country , to have no piazza for the convenience of those who might desire to feast upon the view , and take their time and ease about it , seemed as much of an omission as if a picture @-@ gallery should have no bench ; for what but picture @-@ galleries are the marble halls of these same limestone hills ? — galleries hung , month after month anew , with pictures ever fading into pictures ever fresh . In " I and My Chimney " , published in Putnam 's Monthly Magazine in 1856 , he described Arrowhead 's large chimney : It need hardly be said , that the walls of my house are entirely free from fire @-@ places . These all congregate in the middle — in the one grand central chimney , upon all four sides of which are hearths — two tiers of hearths — so that when , in the various chambers , my family and guests are warming themselves of a cold winter ’ s night , just before retiring , then , though at the time they may not be thinking so , all their faces mutually look towards each other , yea , all their feet point to one centre ; and when they go to sleep in their beds , they all sleep round one warm chimney . Melville lived , farmed , and wrote at Arrowhead for 13 years , receiving visitors including Hawthorne , Holmes , and Catharine Maria Sedgwick . Other well @-@ known works that he wrote there include the novels Israel Potter and The Confidence @-@ Man , and the stories " Bartleby , the Scrivener " and " Benito Cereno " ( which were collected in The Piazza Tales ) . During that time , however , his writing was not providing him much income . In order to improve the family finances , the Melvilles moved into Pittsfield in 1862 , and sold Arrowhead the following year to his brother Allan . The Melvilles then returned to New York City , where Herman eventually found work as a customs inspector . = = After Herman Melville = = Melville continued to visit Arrowhead occasionally during his brother 's ownership of the property . Members of the Melville family owned the house until 1927 . It remained in private hands until 1975 , when the Berkshire County Historical Society purchased the house . In the years between Melville 's ownership and the historical society acquisition , major portions of the property were sold off until only 14 @.@ 2 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) remained , although a significant amount of it remains open land ; the society later acquired another 30 @.@ 7 acres ( 12 @.@ 4 ha ) . Owners after Herman Melville made substantial additions to the house , principally two ells . The piazza was removed in the 20th century , but a large window was added on the north side of the house to maintain the view of Mount Greylock . Arrowhead was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962 . = = Museum = = The Historical Society , after acquiring the property , worked to restore it to the condition it was in Melville 's time . Numerous interior alterations were undone , windows that had been changed were restored to their original size and configuration , and the piazza was restored . The Society also restored the upstairs study in which Melville did his writing to its original state . Arrowhead is now a non @-@ profit historic house museum operated by the Berkshire County Historical Society , which uses a portion of the house as office space . The remainder is open to the public for guided tours during the warmer months of the year . It is located at 780 Holmes Road , and is open from Memorial Day to Columbus Day .
= China ( The Office ) = " China " is the tenth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 136th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on December 2 , 2010 . The episode was written by Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein , and directed by Charles McDougall . The episode guest stars Mark Proksch as Nate and Hugh Dane as Hank . The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) reads an article about China growing as a global power and decides it must be stopped before it takes over the United States . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) threatens to move Dunder Mifflin to a new building after everyone in the office complains about Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) building standards . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) is sick of Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) annoying text messages . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics , many of whom felt that the confrontation between Oscar and Michael was realistic and humorous . " China " was viewed by 7 @.@ 31 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired , as well as the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports NBC broadcast for the week it aired . = = Plot = = While at the dentist , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) reads an article about China 's growing global power , and he decides that China must be stopped before it takes over the United States . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) tries to correct one of the statements , but when Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) checks the fact online , it turns out Michael 's statement was correct . Everyone mocks Oscar for his mistake , as Oscar is usually the smartest one in the office , having built this reputation by often correcting his coworkers . Oscar invites Michael for a cup of coffee , but the other employees realize that Oscar wants to discuss China in more detail , in order to reestablish himself as the office 's intellectual heavyweight . Seeing an opportunity to give Oscar a taste of his own medicine , they start quizzing Michael on different facts about China , but he cannot answer , so he makes note cards to keep track . When Michael and Oscar have their conversation , Ryan , Erin , Jim , Andy , and Kelly also sit in to watch . Michael blanks on one topic , but then changes the subject to conversation itself . The employees toast him , while Oscar is left infuriated . Everyone in the office complains about Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) building standards , such as un @-@ plying toilet paper , adding motion sensors to the lights , and placing a roach billboard over the windows to the office . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , as office administrator , threatens to move everyone to a different building if nothing is done . She leaves and comes back with pictures of a newer office space and says they can move in three months . Dwight investigates and finds that the office building does not exist . When Dwight plays coy around Pam , she admits to Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) that she lied about the office building and that she is afraid of failing again after failing as an artist and a salesperson . Jim tries in vain to reassure her , and she breaks down in tears . Later Nate ( Mark Proksch ) , Dwight 's building assistant , discreetly gives Pam a book on the state building regulations . Pam shows Dwight that his policies are in violation of the laws written in the book , so Dwight puts everything back to normal . The camera crew confronts Dwight with footage showing that he overheard Pam 's conversation with Jim and instructed Nate to give her the book on the building regulations . Dwight admits that he allowed her to win , but mocks the idea that he did so out of compassion . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) is sick of Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) pointless text messages . After one text , Darryl tells Andy that he is one bad text away from being blocked , but Andy wagers that he is one good text from a high five , to which Darryl agrees . Darryl then gets a text from Andy telling him to come to the parking lot , where there are pigeons eating an ice cream cone . Darryl laughs and gives Andy a high five . = = Production = = " China " was written by producers Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein , their fourth writing credit on the series . Warren Lieberstein is the brother of Paul Lieberstein , who was the showrunner of the show at the time . The entry was directed by Charles McDougall , his fifth directing credit on the series . " China " is the third episode to feature Nate , played by YouTube star Mark Proksch . After the producers of The Office saw a series of prank videos that Proksch did under the name " Kenny Strasser " , they hired him to become a recurring character . The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael talking more about his fear of China , Nate swapping an " energy @-@ saving cord " for an " un @-@ energy @-@ saving cord " , Dwight making fun of Pam 's concerns , Pam discussing the new office space with Dwight , Jim criticizing Pam 's plan to the camera , Erin talking about moving , and Michael furthering his argument with Oscar in the coffee shop . = = Cultural references = = Michael is initially worked up about China after reading an article in Newsweek , an American weekly news magazine . Michael notes that he was forced to read Newsweek in the waiting room at his dentist 's office because some " kid had the magazine I wanted to read " , hinting that the magazine Michael wanted to read was the children 's magazine Highlights for Children . Andy sends Darryl a text that only reads " Megan Fox " , a reference to the actress . Creed notes that he understands , but cannot speak , Pirate slang . Andy attempts to motivate Michael with a pep talk taken from the 1979 movie Rocky II . During Michael and Oscar 's discussion in the lobby of the office building , a copy of Call of Duty can be seen behind the counter . Fans have speculated that this may be a reference to the third season episode " The Coup " , which used the game as a plot device . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast on December 2 , 2010 , " China " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 31 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight drop in the ratings after one week off due to Thanksgiving . The episode became the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports related NBC program for the original week it aired and also became the ninth most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 . This episode got overwhelmingly positive reviews . Phoebe Reilly of Vulture wrote highly of the episode and called it " the best of the season so far . " James Poniewoznik of Time compared the episode and the season at large to the later work of The Beatles ; he noted that , " after becoming known for a string of ambitious " entries , they both " decide [ d ] to take a step backward stylistically " . For this reason , he enjoyed " China " , and opined that " The China plot , which thankfully focused less on Michael 's craziness than his ( and his coworkers ' ) relationship with Oscar , demonstrated how well @-@ drawn the show has been even when it comes to its more peripheral characters . " He also said the episode was " vintage Office . " Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine wrote highly of the episode and called it " a half hour of heartwarming comedy " . She was particularly pleased with how Michael was able to overcome Oscar with pathos , and she enjoyed the episode 's subplots . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic praised the episode and awarded it five stars out of five . He wrote that " If my favorite thing for Jim to do is prank Dwight , my second favorite is when he backs Michael . " Furthermore , he wrote that " While this A story was filled with plenty of laughs , [ ... ] Dwight 's B story was absolutely murderous [ and ] all gold " . He also felt that the C plot was enjoyable , because " Andy is great in small doses " . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " grade . He noted that The Office was not suited for political examination , because , as the show is grounded in reality , the concept of the office as " a microcosm for global politics is … uneven . " However , McNutt argued that because the show used the conceit of China as a " red herring [ ... ] to introduce a story about Oscar as ' Actually , ' and the gap between Michael ’ s rhetorical potential and his actual knowledge of just about any subject " , the story " steps back and finds a small moment within [ the larger ] conflict . " McNutt also enjoyed the B @-@ plot with Pam and Dwight , noting that the ending was " honestly quite sweet " .
= Arena Corinthians = The Arena Corinthians is a sports stadium located in São Paulo , Brazil and owned , operated , and used by Sport Club Corinthians Paulista . It has a seating capacity of 49 @,@ 205 , making it the fifth @-@ largest stadium used by teams in the top tier of the Brazilian League and the eleventh @-@ largest in Brazil . It hosted six matches during the 2014 FIFA World Cup , including the opening match on 12 June 2014 . Because of a requirement for it to have at least 65 @,@ 000 seats for the World Cup opening match , temporary seats were added to the stadium for the tournament . The temporary seats started to be removed shortly after the last World Cup match . = = History = = = = = Background = = = In 1980 , Corinthians was planning to build a new 201 @,@ 304 @-@ capacity stadium , as their own Alfredo Shürig Stadium held fewer than 14 @,@ 000 people and city 's Pacaembu Stadium had to be shared with other teams . Plans to build a new stadium required a large area . The club 's president Vicente Matheus asked for a concession from São Paulo 's mayor Olavo Setúbal in the Itaquera region , east of the city centre . The mayor accepted the request 10 November 1978 and a concession for 90 years was granted on 26 December 1978 for a 197 @,@ 095 @.@ 14 square metres ( 2 @,@ 121 @,@ 514 @.@ 4 sq ft ) property . The area was owned at the time by COHAB , an agency for public housing controlled by the São Paulo City government . The original plan was to build the stadium in three to five years . The concession was renewed in 1988 for 90 years , with the condition that any construction made in the area would revert to the city at no cost . However , funding was not obtained and other alternatives were considered , such as a concession for the Pacaembu Stadium and demolishing the Alfredo Schürig Stadium making room for another . On 31 August 2010 , Corinthians announced the construction of the stadium with an estimated cost of R $ 335 million and an expected gross revenue of R $ 100 million per year . The original plans allow for an expansion to 70 @,@ 000 seats . The club expected to get financing from BNDES and sell the naming rights for the stadium to pay for the construction costs . The main architect of the project was Aníbal Coutinho ; he was assisted by Antônio Paulo Cordeiro from Coutinho , Diegues , Cordeiro ( DDG ) , partnering with Werner Sobek , who rendered structural engineering services . The stadium was planned to be completed by March 2013 . = = = FIFA World Cup 2014 hosting = = = Accenture estimated that the World Cup opening would bring R $ 30 @.@ 75 Billion over 10 years to the city 's economy ; the study 's results encouraged Brazil to site the opening match in São Paulo . A study from Fundação Getúlio Vargas estimated R $ 1 Billion in revenue during the World Cup , as 290 thousand tourists were expected for the event . After Morumbi Stadium was deemed unsuitable by FIFA , the Local World Cup Committee looked for alternatives and set on offering Arena Corinthians to host the opening game ; FIFA accepted the suggestion and confirmed the decision on 10 October 2011 . Hosting the opening game required modifications to the project that raised the cost from the original R $ 335 million to R $ 1 @.@ 07 billion to accommodate FIFA 's requirements . Cuts in equipment , furniture and construction costs reduced the cost . Because of FIFA 's agreements with Brazil , none of the construction work related to the World Cup was taxed by the Federal Government ; the final price agreed upon was R $ 820 million . A new contract was signed on 19 July 2011 with Odebrecht ; R $ 400 million of the total would be financed by BNDES and the remaining R $ 420 million would come from tax credits granted by the City . A 2007 law stated the tax credits could be used by any company that established itself in the Eastern region of the city , providing a credit of R $ 0 @.@ 60 per R $ 1 @.@ 00 invested . A new law was passed by the city legislature to deal specifically with this stadium and reduce the incentives , linking the concession of the credits to hosting the World Cup opening match and limiting the total amount of credits to R $ 420 million . The concession was justified by the expectation that the stadium will generate R $ 950 million in city taxes during the six years after its opening . R $ 530 million in excess of the tax credits were given . The financing contract with BNDES was signed on 29 November 2013 , under their ProCopas Arenas World Cup program . Caixa Econômica Federal is the distributing agent . The estimated construction cost did not include the R $ 38 @.@ 1 million required for adding temporary bleachers , which were removed after the World Cup was over . They were set on one of the sides and on the north and south ends . The addition of the bleachers would raise the stadium 's capacity up to 72 @,@ 000 seats , but would necessitate the relocation of VIP areas and television equipment reducing capacity . Corinthians paid for additional temporary infrastructure required exclusively for the World Cup , which was estimated to cost between R $ 60 million and 100 million . The World Cup brought more than 500 @,@ 000 tourists and an estimated R $ 1 billion in revenue to the city . = = = Project costs and revenue = = = The stadium eventually cost R $ 965 million , 15 % more than originally estimated . The two @-@ year delay in receiving BNDES funds caused an increase of R $ 108 million to the cost because of the difference in interest between loans taken from regular banks and from the government agency . Temporary structures were included in the total cost , currently estimated to be R $ 77 million . After the sale of the tax credits received , Corinthians will have to pay between R $ 700 and R $ 750 million spread over 12 years . Aníbal Coutinho projected the stadium to generate R $ 150 million per year . Andres Sanchez expects revenue to reach R $ 200 million per year and expenses to be up to R $ 35 million per year . Revenue will come from ticket sales and commercial properties in the arena , especially corporate conventions , fairs and events . On 25 August 2013 , Andres said that out of 16 naming rights properties , he had already secured seven buyers , although no deals had yet been formalised . The club plans to sell the stadium naming rights for R $ 400 million for 20 years . = = = Construction = = = The stadium was delivered to Corinthians on 15 April 2014 . Modifications for hosting the World Cup were still underway until the club handed the arena to FIFA for the competition on 20 May 2014 . The peak number of workers on site was 2 @,@ 300 , recorded in November 2012 . The enterprise generated 26 thousand jobs during its construction . = = = Renovations = = = After the World Cup , Corinthians is preparing the stadium for their use ; they consider it is 92 % ready for their use just after the tournament . It is expected to be completely retrofitted by February 2015 . The estimated cost is R $ 20 million . One of the largest changes will be the construction of large balconies and the installation of scoreboards behind the goals where the temporary seating installed for the FIFA World Cup stands . = = = = Landscaping = = = = The west side will have a large , tree @-@ lined , pedestrian mall with a reflecting pool and new illumination . The reflecting pools will also work as a performance fountain , providing splash and spectacle at programmed moments during stadium events . Around the complex , granite flooring will have stripes evocative of the club 's second uniform , in synchronisation with the external illumination . There will be benches and large gardens ; the media centre will be housed in one of them . The landscaping was designed by John Loomis , who headed the Burj Khalifa project . Lighting was projected by the American firm T. Kondos . = = = Stadium firsts = = = The first event held in the arena was an Ivete Sangalo show for 3 @,@ 000 , celebrating the club 's 103rd anniversary on 29 September 2013 . The first public football matches at the stadium consisted of friendlies between former Corinthians ' players on 10 May 2014.More than 100 players played at the event . The first goal of the new stadium was scored by Rivellino shooting a penalty kick suffered by Palhinha . Rivellino shot at his own goal because all the players on the pitch insisted that the first goal at the Arena was his . The kick went past Ronaldo . The first competitive game was a 2014 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A match between Corinthians and Figueirense on 18 May 2014 . The first international match was the opening match for the FIFA World Cup 2014 between Brazil and Croatia on 12 June 2014 . = = International events = = = = = 2014 FIFA World Cup = = = The stadium was one of the venues for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . Because of FIFA rules , it was called Arena de São Paulo during the tournament . The stadium hosted the opening ceremony followed by the opening match between Brazil and Croatia , three other group stage matches , a Round 16 match and a semi @-@ final . Due to the request of at least 65 @,@ 000 seats for the World Cup opening match , temporary seats were added to the stadium for the tournament , although the final usable capacity only reached 62 @,@ 200 for the opening match . The addition of temporary seats implied that screens for the World Cup had to be rented specially for the event , because the original screens were too large to be used with the temporary seating installed . FIFA requires screens smaller than the originally projected , with a 90 square metres ( 970 sq ft ) area . Because subsequent matches had lower VIP and press demands , 4 @,@ 000 more seats were added , raising the usable capacity to 66 @,@ 200 . = = = 2016 Summer Olympics = = = Arena Corinthians will be one of the venues of the 2016 Summer Olympics football tournament . It was chosen instead of competitors Morumbi Stadium — the chosen venue before Arena Corinthians was built — and Allianz Parque . Sixteen games will be played in the stadium from 3 to 16 August 2016 ; they will be divided equally between men 's and women 's tournaments . Two matches will be played at 17 : 00 and 21 : 30 hours on competition days . Twelve matches will be valid for the preliminary stages and four for the quarterfinals . Semifinals and finals will be played in the Maracanã stadium . = = Names = = The stadium was called Estádio do Corinthians by Corinthians when it was announced . The name being used on the club 's official website is Arena Corinthians . The Brazilian Football Confederation uses the name Arena Corinthians . FIFA refers to the Stadium as Arena de São Paulo during the World Cup , but recognises the name Arena Corinthians . The largest media company in Brazil , Rede Globo , uses Arena Corinthians like sports diary Lance ! Local media have tried to give it nicknames . For example , newspaper Folha refer to Arena Corinthians as Itaquerão ; O Estado de S. Paulo uses both the neighbourhood @-@ based nickname and the official name . Rede Record uses Fielzão . The club plans to sell the stadium naming rights for R $ 400 million for 20 years . A study by Brunoro Sports Business estimated that the value should be R $ 21 million per year . Companies Petrobras , Ambev , Grupo Petrópolis , Etihad Airways , Qatar Foundation , Caixa Econômica Federal , Emirates Airlines , Bradesco , Telefonica , BMG , Itaú Unibanco , Santander Group , Kalunga and Zurich Insurance Group have all been named as possible buyers , but no deal has been announced yet . = = Architecture = = Aníbal Coutinho designed the stadium to be one " that would help the supporters , that would help the team to win matches , I wanted to make the supporters get on the pitch " . Aníbal led a team of 25 architects . The complex is in a 197 @,@ 095 @.@ 14 square metres ( 2 @,@ 121 @,@ 514 @.@ 4 sq ft ) property . The built up area is 189 @,@ 000 square metres ( 2 @,@ 030 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with 17 @,@ 500 cubic metres ( 620 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete . 80 % of the structural construction is made of precast elements , 40 % manufactured on a 7 @,@ 500 square metres ( 81 @,@ 000 sq ft ) plant on @-@ site . The rectangular , 267 by 228 metres ( 876 by 748 ft ) , 43 metres ( 141 ft ) tall stadium has two buildings ; the main building on the west side and another on the east side . When measurements are taken from the pitch , the east side height is 51 metres ( 167 ft ) , the west side is 57 metres ( 187 ft ) and the north and south ends are 15 metres ( 49 ft ) tall . The pitch sits at exactly 777 metres ( 2 @,@ 549 ft ) ; Aníbal Coutinho said , " The number 77 is considered lucky for the club . The club is located at 777 São Jorge St. and it brings to mind the 1977 that they won one of their most celebrated championships of all time . " ( the Campeonato Paulista of 1977 ) . = = = West and east sectors = = = The west side has a 6 @,@ 200 square metres ( 67 @,@ 000 sq ft ) façade . VIP seats , television crew equipment , press and most box seats are in the west building . The glass has been designed with a curvature intended to simulate the visual effect of a ball hitting the net . Special , seamless , 26 metres ( 85 ft ) beams have been developed to support the structure . The geometry consulting company Evolute GmbH developed panelling that rationalised the 5 @,@ 400 square metres ( 58 @,@ 000 sq ft ) double @-@ curved freeform glass surface into 855 planar and cylindrical panels , all in hot bent toughened glass . This solution allowed for minimising the number of shapes necessary by 93 % , reducing costs considerably . The photo @-@ voltaic glass powers the air conditioning . The complete glass structure is 6 @,@ 900 square metres ( 74 @,@ 000 sq ft ) counting the sides ; the façade width is 220 metres ( 720 ft ) by 24 metres ( 79 ft ) tall . The east side of the stadium houses one of the largest video screens of the world , 170 by 20 metres ( 558 by 66 ft ) — 3 @,@ 400 square metres ( 37 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . It has 210 @,@ 000 individual LEDs ; 1 @,@ 320 custom made luminaires are fitted in 4 metres ( 13 ft ) long glass sheets . The screen is manufactured by Osram Traxon and is controlled by an E : cue lighting control . Glass for both façades were provided by Italian company Sunglass SRL , using Asahi Glass Co . ' s Planibel Clear glass . External walls are covered by 12 @,@ 000 square metres ( 130 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of white Levantina Techlam ceramic tiles , A 12 metres ( 39 ft ) Corinthians symbol , constructed from stainless steel and backlint , will be mounted on the south wall of the east side . The public circulates using 10 escalators , 15 lifts , two ramps and 13 staircases . 59 concession stands are available , as is an auditorium for 360 people and a 25 @,@ 000 square metres ( 270 @,@ 000 sq ft ) convention center under the west building . A museum dedicated to Corinthians will be set up in the east building . Interior design is designed by Gensler . There are six changing rooms . Home team changing rooms occupy 1 @,@ 300 square metres ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with jacuzzis , cryotherapy and a private area for the coach . The warm @-@ up area has seating for 86 VIP ticket holders , and is separated by soundproof glass . All the public areas have air conditioning and are finished in marble , granite or top tier ceramic tile . = = = Seating = = = There are 49 @,@ 205 seats . The stadium has 6 @,@ 000 second tier covered seating and 10 @,@ 000 VIP seats . 89 luxury boxes accommodate 1 @,@ 414 spectators . Distributed on the West building 's 5th and 6th floors , 87 % have 12 seats , 10 % between 21 and 33 seats and 4 units more than 70 seats . The largest units will cover more than 470 square metres ( 5 @,@ 100 sq ft ) . The lowest ring of bleachers encircle the entire arena . It holds 10 @,@ 500 seats on each side , 6 @,@ 000 behind the south goal and 9 @,@ 000 behind the north goal for a total of 35 @,@ 000 + places . The distance between the first row of seating and the field is 9 metres ( 30 ft ) on all sides . General seating is provided by Bluecube ³ using an exclusive design based on the Integra model . There are four different finishes , ranging from straight chairs without arms to stuffed chairs in leather . Most seats are white . Business level and box seats are finished in black leather and made by Poltrona Frau . The 600 seats have laser @-@ engraved club crests . = = = Roof = = = Werner Sobek designed the roof , which is held in place by 48 75 metres ( 246 ft ) -long trusses . The west and east sides are joined by two identical structures that have a free span of 170 metres ( 560 ft ) . The total east @-@ west roof length is 245 @.@ 75 metres ( 806 @.@ 3 ft ) . Aníbal Coutinho intended to bring a paulistano flair to the construction using structures that resemble the São Paulo Museum of Art , a symbol of the city . The height of the roof and weight of the trusses required the use of the largest crawler crane available in Latin America . The steel beams together weigh 4 @,@ 000 tons . The roof has four layers . On the underside is a layer of corrugated steel sheets . Above them , thermal and acoustic insulation is provided by Polyisocyanurate sheets . A layer of plasterboard is above it . Finally , the entire roof is covered with 40 @,@ 000 square metres ( 430 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of Firestone Ultraply TPO . On the underside , a flexible membrane covers the structure . This final layer helps to collect rainwater for reuse in other areas of the stadium . The structure was redesigned to duplicate the current noise level supporters create during games . Measurements taken on Pacaembu show that sound levels reach a peak of 113dB when goals are scored . 4 @,@ 500 square metres ( 48 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of glass will be installed on the end closest to the pitch of the west and east roofing . The entire structure measures 32 @,@ 300 square metres ( 348 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and weights 6 @,@ 500 tons . = = = Scoreboards = = = Osram will install four scoreboards in the stadium , on the north and south ends , above the bleachers . They will be set in pairs , with one facing the pitch and one facing outside . Each screen is 225 square metres ( 2 @,@ 420 sq ft ) and measures 30 by 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 98 by 25 ft ) . The inside @-@ facing screen will have a 7mm dot pitch and the outside @-@ facing screens will have a 20mm dot pitch . 3 @,@ 500 flat panel televisions are installed throughout the stadium , individually or as video walls , comprising 3 @,@ 100 stations . = = = Lighting = = = The pitch lighting is going to use 352 Osram Siteco 2000 @-@ Watt Metal @-@ halide 6000K multivapour lamps , guaranteeing over 90 % colour fidelity . The 5 @,@ 000 lux lighting is completely uniform and is 50 % brighter than FIFA 's recommendation . Osram provides lighting for the entire complex . = = = Pitch = = = The field has recommended FIFA dimensions of 105 by 68 metres ( 115 by 74 yd ) . It was prepared by World Sports in partnership with Desso . The field is made up of Perennial Ryegrass , which is grown directly at the site . The original idea was to use black grass to avoid the colours of Palmeiras — Corinthians ' biggest rivals — but it was proved to be technically impossible and the club chose to use grass with a darker hue . To improve fixation , the grass is intertwined with 22 million artificial fibres . Ultraviolet lights are used nightly to ensure that all parts of the pitch will receive equal lighting ; the field is exposed to only two hours of direct sunlight per day . World Sports uses a blend of three cultivars from DLF @-@ Trifolium , Ph.D. Ryegrass Perenne , from Oregon , US . DLF states that this grass has strong cold and wear tolerance and is disease resistant , combined with fast growth rate . The hue is 8 @.@ 7 on a scale of 1 to 9 , where 9 is dark green . The choice of using ryegrass instead of the most common and usually recommended Bermuda brought advantages like having longitudinal roots , avoiding the cleats to tangle with them , and resistance to yellowing . It also brought challenges ; ryegrass is native to cooler climates and needs temperatures of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) for optimum growth . Because the temperature in São Paulo rarely falls below 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) , a heating system is not used . A cooling systempushes cold water through 40 @,@ 000 metres ( 130 @,@ 000 ft ) of drainage pipes , reducing the grass roots temperature to 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . The grass is mowed to between 2 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) and 2 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) . The drainage system has two operating modes ; gravitational and vacuum @-@ enhanced ( Subair System ) . The vacuum draining system can handle up to 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 88 @,@ 000 imp gal ) per hour , improving oxygen levels in the rooting system and cooling the pitch , even during matches . This is equivalent to 56 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of rain drained in one hour . The irrigation system has individual sprinkler controls , which are controlled by a computerised system . The system comprises 48 sprinklers — twice the minimum FIFA recommendation . = = = Information technology and communications = = = The stadium will have wi @-@ fi and 4G LTE in all its sectors . Using smartphones , the public will be able to access game statistics and watch replays that will be published on a website maintained by the stadium crew . A dedicated team will control centrally all the screens and scoreboards . Supporters will be monitored by a computer system connected to hundreds of security cameras . All services are contracted with Sonda IT . = = = Hospitality and stores = = = There are plans for 75 bars — including 13 in the VIP areas — two restaurants and two sport bars in the stadium . All the restaurants and bars are managed by Diverti Arena on a 10 @-@ year contract . Diverti is expected to invest R $ 40 million in the stadium ; all the properties will be fully operational in 2015 . Other commercial properties inside the stadium complex are two clothing stores and kiosks whose operators have not yet been decided upon . = = Reception = = The project received awards for the Best Commercial Project and the Grand Prize as the Best Overall Project in Brazil in the largest Corporate Architecture events in Latin America in 2011 ; it competed against 1 @,@ 116 projects . Reception by Corinthians supporters was enthusiastic according to a poll , with 83 % approval of the stadium . Opposition fans have good approval rates of the stadium . Hundreds of supporters frequently visited the construction site . = = Transport = = The stadium is 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of the city centre and 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) away from the São Paulo – Guarulhos International Airport . The nearest subway station is Corinthians @-@ Itaquera , 500 metres ( 550 yd ) from the stadium . It connects to a railway station with the same name . The Artur Alvim subway station is 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) away . If all the stadium 's users boarded trains to leave it , the stadium would be empty in 30 minutes . Created for World Cup matches , an express train connects Luz and the Corinthians @-@ Itaquera CPTM Station , making the trip in 17 minutes . Due to its success , the service was extended to local matches , renamed to ' Expresso Corinthians ' . The metro and train stations can accommodate 114 @,@ 000 passengers per hour . Each metro train can carry 1 @,@ 600 passengers ; trains depart at 85 @-@ second intervals . The site has 1 @,@ 620 covered parking spaces and 929 open air parking spaces , with another 2 @,@ 214 spaces provided by a shopping mall nearby . There are 61 bus routes that stop close to Arena Corinthians . = = Other uses = = Corinthians does not plan to host concerts or other sport events in the stadium because the use for non @-@ football events can destroy the pitch and football ticket sales will compensate for the loss of revenue . The club plans to use the structure to host conventions and trade shows , and to promote tours of the stadium . A 2 @,@ 500 square metres ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) convention centre will be located under the west building . = = In popular culture = = EA Sports added all 12 venues used at the 2014 FIFA World Cup , including the Arena Corinthians , to the 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil video game . The Arena Corinthians is featured on " You Don 't Have to Live Like a Referee " , the sixteenth episode of the 25th season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons , and the 546th episode of the series . Homer Simpson acts as a FIFA World Cup 2014 referee in a game played at Arena Corinthians . The second episode of Discovery Channel`s three @-@ episode series Building the World Cup is dedicated to Arena Corinthians . = = Controversies = = The circumstances in which Arena Corinthians was chosen as the World Cup stadium for São Paulo , and the resources used for its construction , have been criticised . = = = World Cup hosts = = = Jose Serra , governor of São Paulo in 2007 , planned to bring the opening game to his state — specifically to the Morumbi Stadium — as soon as Brazil was confirmed as the host nation of FIFA World Cup 2014 . Mayor Gilberto Kassab supported the option of Morumbi and was assured that president Luis Inácio da Silva wanted the same . Unhappy with Morumbi , FIFA 's secretary general Jérôme Valcke said the Morumbi Stadium could not host the opening game and was the worst among the 12 venues presented to FIFA . He recommended that the city should build a new stadium . FIFA technicians stated that the maximum capacity of the current structure would be 46 @,@ 000 spectators — below the FIFA minimum of 60 @,@ 000 . São Paulo Futebol Clube 's director João Paulo de Jesus Lopes said this was " a lie " . FIFA 's president Sepp Blatter stated that Morumbi could not host the opening game or semifinals without an extensive renovations plan . The Morumbi Stadium failed to provide proof of funding for a R $ 630 million renovation plan requested by FIFA to secure its status as a World Cup venue ; the stadium was then excluded from the tournament on 16 June 2010 . The Local World Cup Committee suggested to use Arena Corinthians instead . FIFA accepted the suggestion and confirmed the decision on 10 October 2011 . Journalist Wagner Vilaron from O Estado de S. Paulo deemed the exclusion of the Morumbi Stadium from the World Cup and the subsequent choice of Arena Corinthians as a venue for the event to be politically charged . After receiving several negative responses from FIFA about the renovation project for Morumbi , then @-@ CBF @-@ president Ricardo Teixeira lost patience with São Paulo Futebol Clube officers ; he considered that they were delaying the decision by purposely failing to meet the requirements to force the government to spend money on the construction . São Paulo 's opposition to Teixeira in the now defunct Clube dos 13 election — which was won by ruling @-@ side Fábio Koff , aligned with São Paulo 's Juvenal Juvêncio — irritated the CBF president . At the same time , an affinity between Teixeira and then @-@ president of Corinthians , Andrés Sanchez — who was chosen as the head of delegation for the national team during the 2010 FIFA World Cup and on the same side on Clube dos 13 's election — was noticed . São Paulo 's mayor Gilberto Kassab supported the selection of the Morumbi Stadium and guaranteed that president Luis Inácio da Silva wanted the same ; he blamed FIFA for vetoing the selection . He said Corinthians could not influence FIFA and that CBF wanted Morumbi Stadium to host the opening game . The senior management of São Paulo F.C. criticised the chosen stadium and the selection process on numerous occasions after Morumbi Stadium was excluded from the World Cup . President Juvenal Juvencio said the region had no city structures , hospitals or hotels ; the only way to enter or leave the area would be to use a fire engine and that there was no way to create a VIP area around the stadium . Juvenal blamed ex @-@ governor José Serra for Morumbi Stadium 's deselection . Serra denied the accusations . Carlos Miguel Aidar , then a candidate for the SPFC presidency , said Arena Corinthians exists because Brazil 's president demanded the construction of a new stadium in São Paulo ; he also said Corinthians will never repay the loans for the stadium , that Odebrecht was the real owner , that FIFA and the Brazilian government only wanted to make money for construction companies , and that Itaquera was " another world , another country , nobody can get there " . Later he visited the Arena by car , recanted his opinion and said the stadium was " marvelous " and could be reached easily . = = = Public funding allegations = = = Vinícius Segalla from UOL said tax credits and BNDES resources are public money and that the concession of those resources to Corinthians are unclear . The federal government dismissed the notion , saying that tax credits are intended to encourage economical growth and work opportunities for the areas surrounding the stadia . The city government said tax credits are not subsidies and the stadium will be a boon to the city , especially the east zone . They also said subsidies given to the Brazilian Grand Prix and Carnaval among others also bring benefits to the city . Public Prosecutor Marcelo Milani contested the validity of tax credits issued by the city and sued then @-@ mayor Gilberto Kassab for R $ 1 @.@ 74 billion ; the judges said Milani 's case was without merit and dismissed it . = = = Project changes = = = The project executed is not the project approved by the city council in 2011 . Amendments were made to the final project , which was submitted on 25 July 2013 and approved on 13 February 2014 . = = = Construction accidents = = = Two people were killed in an accident on 27 November 2013 , which destroyed part of the east building . A crane fell while carrying a part of the roof , destroying eight columns of the LED screen and part of an internal slab . The structure was not affected because anti @-@ vandalism glass was installed on the east façade . An area of 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) was closed for investigation . Initial hypotheses were human error , crane mechanical failure and unstable ground under the crane . Liebherr said the crane 's " black box " data recorder did not record anything on the day of the accident , although it should have done . As of August 2014 , the case has not yet been concluded . Liebherr paid for a study from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , which concluded that the cause was unstable ground — the same conclusion reached by police experts ; based on this , police indicted nine construction workers . Odebrecht refuted the conclusions , and showed a study by private company Geocompany as proof . Another report on the incident provided by IPT / University of São Paulo blamed the accident on the counterweights being heavier than what was specified on the rigging plan . Crane operations in the stadium were suspended at the time ; all cranes on the site were inspected and approved to continue work 16 days later . The families of the deceased workers received R $ 2 @.@ 9 million in compensation . Another worker died in an accident on the site while working on the temporary seating . Local authorities ' initial assessment was that the worker caused the accident by not following the required safety procedures . As of March 2014 , an investigation into the death was underway .
= Fredmans epistlar = Fredmans epistlar ( English : Fredman 's Epistles or Epistles of Fredman ) is a collection of 82 poems set to music by Carl Michael Bellman , a major figure in Swedish 18th century song . Though first published in 1790 , it was created over a period of twenty years from 1768 onwards . A companion volume , Fredmans sånger ( Fredman 's Songs ) was published the following year . The Epistles vary widely in style and effect , from Rococo @-@ themed pastorale with a cast of gods and demigods from classical antiquity to laments for the effects of Brännvin @-@ drinking , tavern @-@ scenes , and apparent improvisations . The lyrics , based on the lives of Bellman 's contemporaries in Gustavian @-@ age Sweden , describe a gallery of fictional and semi @-@ fictional characters and events taking place in Stockholm . Jean Fredman , an alcoholic former watchmaker , is the central character and fictional narrator . The " soliloquy " of Epistle 23 , a description of Fredman lying drunk in the gutter and then recovering in the Crawl @-@ In Tavern , was described by Oscar Levertin as " the to @-@ be @-@ or @-@ not @-@ to @-@ be of Swedish literature " . Ulla Winblad , based on one of Bellman 's friends , is the chief of the fictional " nymphs " . She is half goddess , half prostitute , a key figure among the demimonde characters of Fredman 's Epistles . The Epistles are admired for the way that their poetry and music fit so well together . Bellman chose not to compose the tunes , instead borrowing and adapting existing melodies , most likely to exploit the humour of contrasting the associations of well @-@ known tunes with the meanings he gave them . This may also have been intended to provide historical depth to his work ; he sometimes devoted considerable energy to adapting melodies to fit an Epistle 's needs . Many of the Epistles have remained culturally significant in Scandinavia , especially in Sweden . They are widely sung and recorded : by choirs such as the Orphei Drängar , by professional solo singers such as Fred Åkerström and Cornelis Vreeswijk , and by ensemble singers such as Sven @-@ Bertil Taube and William Clauson . The Epistles have been translated into German , French , English , Russian , Polish , Finnish , Italian and Dutch . = = Overview = = Bellman wrote a total of 82 Fredman 's Epistles , starting in 1768 . The overall theme of the Epistles is , on the surface , drinking , and its effects , but the Epistles are very far from being drinking songs . Instead , they are a diverse collection of songs , often telling stories . They are sometimes romantically pastoral , sometimes serious , even mournful , but always dramatic , full of life . Together , they " paint in words and music a canvas of their age " . They are populated by a lengthy cast of characters , and set firmly in Bellman 's time and place , eighteenth century Stockholm , but are simultaneously decorated , for romantic or humorous effect , in Rococo style . As a result , listeners are confronted with both striking realism and classical imagery . Within these general themes , the Epistles follow no discernible pattern , and do not join together to tell any single story . Their tunes , too , are borrowed from a variety of sources , often French . The words that are fitted to the tunes are often in parodic contrast to their original themes , very likely achieving humorous effects on their eighteenth @-@ century audiences . Fredman 's Epistles are thus not easy to categorise , and the critic Johan Henric Kellgren stated that Bellman 's songs " had no model and can have no successors " . Bellman was a skilful and entertaining performer of his songs , accompanying himself on the cittern , putting on different voices , and imitating the sounds made by a crowd of people . He is unusual , even unique , among major poets in that almost all of his work was " conceived to music " . His achievement has been compared to Shakespeare , Beethoven , Mozart , and Hogarth . Bellman , however , was no great playwright , nor a major classical composer . His biographer , Paul Britten Austin , suggests that the comparison with Hogarth is closer to the mark . Bellman had a gift for using elegant classical references in comic contrast to the sordid realities of drinking and prostitution . The way he does this , at once regretting and celebrating these excesses in song , achieves something of what Hogarth achieved in engravings and paint . The art historian Axel Romdahl describes Bellman 's sensibility as if he had been a painter : " An unusual swiftness of apprehension , both optical and aural , must have distinguished him . " Britten Austin agrees with this , noting that " When [ Bellman 's ] words and music have faded into silence it is the visual image which remains . " Jan Sjåvik comments in the Historical Dictionary of Scandinavian Literature and Theater that " Bellman 's achievement consists in taking this humble and unrecognized literary form [ the drinking song ] and raising it to a genre that became impossible to ignore , while in the process creating songs and characters that have become an indispensable part of Sweden 's literary and cultural heritage . " = = The Epistles = = Many of the 82 Fredman 's Epistles remain popular in Sweden . Their diverse styles and themes may be illustrated with examples of some of the best @-@ known songs . To begin with No. 23 , Ach du min Moder ! ( Alas , thou my mother ) , which has been described as " the to @-@ be @-@ or @-@ not @-@ to @-@ be of Swedish literature " , tells , in realist style , the story of a drunk who wakes in a Stockholm gutter outside the Crawl @-@ In Tavern . He curses his parents for conceiving him " perhaps upon a table " as he looks at his torn clothes . Then the tavern door opens , and he goes in and has his first drink . The song ends with loud thanks to the drunk 's mother and father . In contrast , the Rococo No. 28 , I går såg jag ditt barn , min Fröja ( Yesterday I saw thy child , my Freya ) , tells the tale of an attempt to arrest the " nymph " Ulla Winblad , based on a real event . Bellman here combines realism – Ulla wearing a black embroidered bodice , and losing her watch in a named street ( Yxsmedsgränd ) in Stockholm 's Gamla stan – with images from classical mythology , such as a myrtle crown and an allusion to the goddess Aphrodite . Quite a different tone is set in No. 40 , Ge rum i Bröllops @-@ gåln din hund ! ( Make room in the wedding @-@ hall , you dog ! ) , as some unruly soldiers interfere in a chaotic wedding , mixing roughly with the musicians and the wedding @-@ party . Shouts of " Shoulder arms ! " and panic at a chimney fire combine with a complex rhyming pattern to create a humorous picture of the disastrous event . The story ends with the priest pocketing some of the collection money . A later Epistle , No. 48 , Solen glimmar blank och trind ( The sun gleams smooth and round ) , narrates the relaxed and peaceful journey of a boat bringing Ulla Winblad home to Stockholm across Lake Mälaren on a lovely spring morning , after a night of carousing . The boatmen call to each other , apparently haphazardly , but each detail helps to create a pastoral vision as " Gradually the wind blows up / In the fallen sails ; / The pennant stretches , and with an oar / Olle stands on a hayboat ; " . The song is " one of Bellman 's greatest " , creating " an incomparable panorama of that eighteenth @-@ century Stockholm which meets us in Elias Martin 's canvasses . " No. 71 , Ulla ! min Ulla ! säj får jag dig bjuda ( Ulla ! My Ulla ! Say , may I offer thee ) is another of the best @-@ loved pastoral Epistles , and the melody may well be by Bellman himself . It imagines how Fredman , sitting on horseback outside Ulla 's window at Fiskartorpet on a summer 's day , invites her to come and dine with him on " reddest strawberries in milk and wine " . The following Epistle , No. 72 , Glimmande nymf ( Gleaming nymph ) , is a night @-@ piece , set to an Andante melody from a French opéra comique . It describes in erotic detail the " nymph " asleep in her bed . To create the desired mood of rising excitement , Bellman creates a rainbow — after sunset . Britten Austin comments that the audience " does not even notice " . Meanwhile , No. 80 , Liksom en Herdinna , högtids klädd ( Like a shepherdess in her best dress ) , is a pastorale , almost paraphrasing Nicolas Boileau @-@ Despréaux 's French guide to the construction of pastoral verse , starting with " As a Shepherdess splendidly dressed / By the spring one day in June / gathers from the grass 's rosy bed / adornments and accents for her dress " . The effect is of an " almost religious invocation " . The final Epistle , No. 82 , Hvila vid denna källa ( Rest by this spring ) , is both pastoral and Rococo , depicting a " little breakfast " in the Stockholm countryside . Red wine flows ; there is roast chicken , and an almond tart . Flowers " of a thousand kinds " are all around ; a stallion parades in a field " with his mare and foal " ; a bull roars ; a cockerel hops on the roof , and a magpie chatters . Meanwhile , the musicians are exhorted to blow along with the wind god Eol , small love @-@ sprites are asked to sing , and Ulla is called a nymph . The final chorus asks everyone to drink their dram of brandy . = = Cast of characters = = The lyrics of the Epistles describe a gallery of fictional and semi @-@ fictional characters who take part in more or less real events in and around the Stockholm of Bellman 's time . This cast includes some 44 named personages , many of whom appear only once or twice . Some , like the principal characters Jean Fredman and Ulla Winblad , are based on real people , and in Fredman 's case his real name was used . The Fredman of the Epistles is an alcoholic former watchmaker , and is the central character and fictional narrator . He is thus supposedly present in all the Epistles , but is only named in a few of them . The backdrop of many of the Epistles , Stockholm 's taverns , is also frequented by musicians including Christian Wingmark on flute , Father Berg on various instruments , Father Movitz , and the dance master Corporal Mollberg . A particular group is the Order of Bacchus ( Bacchi Orden ) : to become a member , one must be seen lying in a drunken stupor in a Stockholm gutter at least twice . Among the more minor characters is the brandy @-@ distiller Lundholm . Another is Norström , Ulla Winblad 's husband ; the real Eric Nordström did in fact marry the " real Ulla Winblad " , Maria Kristina Kiellström , a silk @-@ spinner and fallen woman made pregnant by a passing nobleman . In the Epistles , Ulla Winblad is the chief of the " nymphs " . She is half goddess , half prostitute , chief among the demimonde characters of the Epistles . = = Rococo theme = = Many of the Epistles have a Rococo theme , especially the pastorale pieces with a cast of gods and demigods from classical mythology . Thus , Epistle 25 , " Blåsen nu alla ( All blow now ! ) " , a short crossing of the Stockholm waterway to Djurgården , is peopled with billowing waves , thunder , Venus , Neptune , tritons , postillions , angels , dolphins , zephyrs " and Paphos 's whole might " , as well as water @-@ nymphs splashing about the " nymph " – in other words , Ulla Winblad . The principal figures , given that the Epistles focus on drinking and its effects , along with " nymphs " , are Bacchus and Venus / Fröja , but the cast is wider , including : Amaryllis – a nymph of the countryside ( from Virgil 's Eclogues ) Bacchus – god of wine and drinking Charon – the ferryman of Hades , carrying souls to the place of the dead Chloris / Flora – the nymph or goddess of springtime , flowers and growth Clotho – one of the three fates , spinning the thread of human life ( which is suddenly cut off ) Cupid / Astrild – god of desire and erotic love , Astrild being a late Nordic invention Jupiter / Jofur – king of the gods on Mount Olympus , god of thunder Morpheus – god of sleep Neptune – god of the sea , accompanying the birth of Venus from the waves Nymph – a ( beautiful ) female nature deity Pan – god of wildness and rough countryside Themis – Titaness of divine law and justice Triton – messenger of the sea , accompanying Neptune Venus / Fröja / Aphrodite at Paphos – goddesses of love = = Realism = = Alongside the frankly mythological , Fredman 's Epistles have a convincing realism , painting pictures of moments of low life in Bellman 's contemporary Stockholm . Bellman himself provided a list of descriptions of his characters , giving a brief pen @-@ portrait of each one , like " Anders Wingmark , a former clothier in Urvädersgränd , very cheerful and full of commonsense " . Different characters appear in different Epistles , making them realistically episodic . There is a fire in Epistle 34 ; a funeral is busily prepared in Epistles 46 and 47 ; and a fight breaks out in Epistle 53 . Many of the songs are about the effects of strong drink , from the damage to the Gröna Lund Tavern in Epistle 12 to the masterly portrait of a drunkard lying in the gutter of Epistle 23 , described by Oscar Levertin as " the to @-@ be @-@ or @-@ not @-@ to @-@ be of Swedish literature " . The pastoral Epistles , too , give the impression of being in real places , with flesh @-@ and @-@ blood people , at specific times of day . Epistle 48 tells how the friends return to Stockholm by boat after a night out on Lake Mälaren , one summer morning in 1769 . Each of its twenty @-@ one verses paints a picture of a moment in the peaceful journey , from the wind stirring the fallen sails , the skipper 's daughter coming out of her cabin , the cockerel crowing , the church clock striking four in the morning , the sun glimmering on the calm water . The effects may seem to be haphazard , but " each stanza is a little picture , framed by its melody . We remember it all , seem to have lived through it , like a morning in our own lives . " Britten Austin calls it " a new vision of the natural and urban scene . Fresh as Martin 's . Detailed as Hogarth 's . Frail and ethereal as Watteau 's . " Britten Austin tempers his praise for Bellman 's realism with the observation that the effects are chosen to work in song , rather than to be strictly correct or even possible . Thus in Epistle 72 , " Glimmande Nymf " , the memorable rainbow with its glowing colours " of purple , gold and green " is seen after nightfall . He comments " Never mind . It is a beautiful scene , even if its chronology calls for much poetic license . " Or in Epistle 80 , " Liksom en herdinna " , the farmer is for some reason going to or coming from market on a Sunday , when the market would be closed ; and his cart " heavy on staggering wheel " must have been absurdly full if it contained chickens , lambs , and calves all at once . But it had to be a Sunday to allow Ulla Winblad to step out of her swaying chaise , on an outing from the city . Britten Austin remarks that " until such solecisms are actually pointed out , one does not even notice them . " It is the same with the meals , which would cause " terrible indigestion " if the listener actually had to eat them , but " as a feast for mind , eye and ear they are highly satisfactory " , the imagination filled with " all the poetic wealth " that Bellman provides . The literary historian Lars Warme observes that Bellman 's sharp eye for detail has brought him praise for being the first Swedish realist , but at once balances this by saying that his particular brand of ' realism ' carries with it a heaping measure of pure fantasy , grotesque humor , and — not least — an elegant veneer of classical mythology . Warme credits Bellman with a good knowledge of a literary craftsman 's tools , using rhetoric and classical knowledge " to provide a theatrical backdrop for his tavern folk . " The result is an " astonishing mixture of realism and wild mythological fantasy " , set to complicated musical structures : marches and contradances , operatic ariettes , and graceful minuets . The result is related to a drinking song only by derivation . As an artistic achievement it stands alone in the history of Swedish poetry . = = Fitted to music = = The critic Johan Henric Kellgren , in his introduction to the first edition , found that the songs could not be known fully only as poems . Never before , he stated , had the art of poetry and the art of music been more fraternally united . They were not , Kellgren argued , verse that had been set to music ; not music , set to verse ; but the two were so thoroughly melted together into One beauty that it was impossible to see which would most miss the other for its fulfilment . Quoting this in the final paragraph of his thesis , the musicologist James Massengale commented " That is how it ought to be said ! " Massendale argues that , given that music is so important in the Epistles , and that Bellman had more than enough musical skill to write a tune , it is remarkable that all or almost all the tunes are borrowed . He suggests that this " seems to indicate that Bellman wanted to preserve some vestige of the borrowing . " That the borrowing was not just about saving effort or making up for absent skill , Massengale argues , is demonstrated by the fact that the amount of work Bellman had to put into the melodies for Epistles 12 ( " Gråt Fader Berg och spela " ) and 24 ( " Kära Syster ! " ) was " surely tantamount to the production of new melodies . " Borrowing was accepted , even encouraged at the time , but that does not explain why Bellman would have done it so consistently . The " poetic possibility " , Massengale suggests , is that Bellman wished to exploit the humorous contrast between a melody of one type and a story of another , or between an existing image associated with the melody , and a fresh one presented in an Epistle . In addition , Bellman was able to use what his audience knew to be borrowed music to reinforce the historical flavour of the Epistles , introducing exactly the kind of ambiguity that he was seeking . Massengale points out that in the Epistles , Bellman employs a variety of methods to make the poetry work . For example , in Epistle 35 , Bröderna fara väl vilse ibland , Bellman uses a panoply of metrical devices to counteract the " metrically plodding melody " . He uses the rhetorical figure anadiplosis ( repeating the last word of a clause at the start of the next ) in verse 3 with " ... skaffa jag barnet ; barnet det dog , ... " ( ... got I the child ; the child died ... ) and again in verse 4 . He uses epanalepsis ( repeating the first word of a clause at its end ) in verse 3 , with " Men , min Anna Greta , men ! " ( But , my Anna Greta , but ! ) , and again in verse 5 . And he uses anaphora ( repeating a word at the starts of neighbouring clauses ) in verse 4 , " häll den på hjärtat , häll man fyra ! " ( pour ... pour out four ! ) , and again in verse 5 . Massengale observes that good musical poetry , like this Epistle , is always a compromise , as it has both to fit its music or be no good as a musical setting , and to contrast with its music , or be no good as poetry . The final verse , containing all three metrical devices , is not , argues Massengale , an example of " decay " , but shows Bellman 's freedom , change of focus ( from lament to acceptance ) , and the closure of the Epistle . = = Impact = = = = = In Bellman 's lifetime = = = King Gustav III called Bellman " Il signor improvisatore " ( The master improviser ) . Bellman is said to have had an " enormous reputation " in his lifetime . The critic Kellgren however objected both to Bellman 's fame and to his flouting of the rules of good literary taste . Kellgren put his objections into verse : Anacreon ! Where is thy fame ? Thy lyre another 's hand has seized Whose wit , with drunken sallies pleas 'd , Priapus ' court delights ; the same Grows wild apace as e 'er Chrysippos , And full as rich his learnéd vein . In other words , Bellman was a " tavern rhymester " , admittedly with a wonderful gift of improvisation , who wildly ignored the rules of literary genres . For example , within the classical tradition odes and satires were supposed to have different metres and different use of language . Kellgren did not mind the amoral attitude : " indeed he shared it " . But an Epistle like No. 28 traversed all moods , " from lyrical to humorous , tragic , descriptive and dramatic . " It was too much for critics such as Kellgren . = = = In later times = = = Bellman was sung " with delight " by students and schoolchildren from the start of the 19th century . The Romantic movement treated Bellman as an inspired genius , whereas later he was admired more for his artistic skill and literary innovation . Research into Bellman 's work began in the 19th century ; the Bellman Society formalised Bellman studies with their standard edition and their Bellmansstudier publications in the 20th century . Towards the end of the 20th century , an increasing number of doctoral theses have been written on Bellman 's life and work . Many of the songs have remained culturally significant in Scandinavia , especially in Sweden , where Bellman remains " widely popular to this day " . In 1989 , the Swedish government subsided an edition of Bellman 's Epistles and Songs , with illustrations by Peter Dahl , to bring the texts to a wide audience . Bellman has been compared with poets and musicians as diverse as Shakespeare and Beethoven . Åse Kleveland notes that he has been called " Swedish poetry 's Mozart , and Hogarth " , observing that The comparison with Hogarth was no accident . Like the English portrait painter , Bellman drew detailed pictures of his time in his songs , not so much of life at court as of ordinary people 's everyday . Britten Austin says instead simply that : Bellman is unique among great poets , I think , in that virtually his entire opus is conceived to music . Other poets , of course , notably our Elizabethans , have written songs . But song was only one branch of their art . They did not leave behind , as Bellman did , a great musical @-@ literary work nor paint in words and music a canvas of their age . Nor are their songs dramatic . Charles Wharton Stork commented in his 1917 anthology of Swedish verse that " The anthologist finds little to pause over until he comes to the poetry of Karl Mikael Bellman ( 1740 @-@ 1795 ) , but here he must linger long . " Describing him as a " master of improvisation " , he wrote : Like all great masters , Bellman reconciles the opposing elements of style and substance , of form and fire . His content reminds one somewhat of the pictures of Rome in Horace 's Epistles . Fredman , who is the poet himself , introduces his readers to an intimate circle of friends : to Movitz , to Mollberg , to Amaryllis , to Ulla Vinblad , and the rest . With them we witness the life of Stockholm : the world awakening at daybreak after rain , a funeral , a concert , a visit to a sick friend , and various idyllic excursions into the neighboring parks and villages . The little world lives and we live in it . Considering this phase of Bellman 's genius , the critic will pronounce him a realist of the first order . But when one notes his dazzling mastery of form , his prodigal variety of meter and stanza , his ease and spontaneity , one is equally tempted to call him a virtuoso of lyric style . " = = = Performance and recordings = = = The Epistles are widely sung and recorded by amateur choirs and professional singers alike . The Orphei Drängar ( Orpheus 's farmhands ) are a choir named for a phrase in Epistle 14 , and set up to perform Bellman 's works ; they give concerts ( of music by many composers ) around the world . Several professional solo singers in the Swedish ballad tradition largely made their name in the 1960s singing Bellman , while accompanying themselves in Bellmanesque style with a guitar . They were the members of the " Storks " artistic community ( " Vispråmen Storken " ) in Stockholm , and they include Fred Åkerström ( 1937 – 1985 ) with his albums Fred sjunger Bellman , Glimmande nymf and Vila vid denna källa , and Cornelis Vreeswijk with his albums Spring mot Ulla , spring ! and Movitz ! Movitz ! Other singers , such as Sven @-@ Bertil Taube and William Clauson , used the less authentic accompaniment of an ensemble ; Clauson was also the first to release a recording of Bellman in English , alongside his Swedish recordings . Singers from other traditions sometimes sing Bellman ; for example , the folk singer Sofia Karlsson and the rock musician Kajsa Grytt . = = Editions = = The 1790 edition was the only one to appear in Bellman 's lifetime . It was published by Olof Åhlström , by royal privilege ; he held a monopoly on the printing of sheet music in Sweden . Åhlström arranged the songs for piano , and Kellgren edited the song texts and wrote an introduction , but the extent of their influence on the shape of Fredman 's Epistles cannot be fully determined . The edition was illustrated with a frontispiece by the leading Swedish artist Johan Tobias Sergel , engraved by Johan Fredrik Martin . The corpus of published Epistles did not change after Bellman 's death . Many minor selections from the Epistles have been published , sometimes with illustrations and introductions . The Epistles have been translated , at least partially , into German , French , English , Russian , Polish , Finnish , Italian and Dutch , as shown below . The English edition by Britten Austin is a selection of the Epistles , and is in rhyming verse in the original metre . Britten Austin describes the challenge of translation as difficult or impossible , and admits that in one way his translations are inevitably " a little faint . " He explains this is because " Bellman 's colloquialisms which offended his contemporaries still strike Swedish ears as the language of everyday speech . My renderings , therefore , may seem a trifle too antique in flavour ; but to have jumbled up , as Bellman brilliantly does , modern @-@ sounding slang with the graces of Rococo diction , would have produced a horrid effect . Editions and selections of the Epistles , some with illustrations , some with music , some printed together with Fredman 's Songs , include : 1790 : Fredmans epistlar , Stockholm : Olof Åhlström , by Royal Privilege . --- facsimile reprint , 1976 : Uddevalla . 1816 : Fredmans epistlar , Stockholm : Rumstedt . 1844 : Fredmans epistlar , Copenhagen : Jaeger . With 24 coloured lithographs . 1858 : Fredmans epistlar , Text och musik , Copenhagen : J. Erslev . ( In Danish ) 1869 : Fredmans epistlar och sånger , Stockholm : Elkan and Schildknecht . 1889 : Fredmans epistlar , Stockholm : Bonniers . Arranged for piano solo . 1899 : Fredmans epistlar af Carl Michael Bellman , Stockholm : Ljus . Intro. by Oscar Levertin . Illus. by Alf Wallander . 1909 : Fredmans Episteln , Jena : E. Diederichs . ( In German ) 1920 : Fredmans epistlar , Ord och musik , Stockholm : Bonniers . 1927 : Carl Michael Bellmans skrifter . 1 . Fredmans Epistlar , Stockholm : Bellmanssällskapet . ( " Standard Edition " ) 1953 : Les Épîtres de Fredman , Stockholm : Norstedt . ( In French ) 28 Epistles trans . Nils Afzelius and Pierre Volboudt . Illus . Elias Martin . --- reprinted , 1984 : La Ferté @-@ Milon . 1958 : Das trunkene Lied , Munich : Desch . ( In German ) . trans . Hanns von Gumppenberg , Felix Niedner , Georg Schwarz . 1977 : Fredman 's Epistles and songs , Stockholm : Reuter and Reuter . ( In English ) trans . Paul Britten Austin . 1982 : Pesni Fredmana ; Poslaniia Fredmana , Leningrad : Khudozh . ( In Russian ) 1991 : Fredmanowe posłania i pieśni , Kraków : Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne . ( In Polish ) 1991 : Lauluja ja epistoloita , Helsinki : Yliopistopaino . ( In Finnish ) 1994 : Fredmans epistlar , Stockholm : Proprius . 2002 : Ulla , mia Ulla : antologia poetica in italiano cantabile , Rome : Istituti editoriali e poligrafici internazionali . ( In Italian ) . A selection . 2003 : Sterven van liefde en leven van wijn : een bloemlezing uit de Epistels & Zangen van Fredman , ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch : Voltaire . ( In Dutch ) . A selection .
= Music of Italy = The music of Italy ranges across a broad spectrum of opera and instrumental classical music and a body of popular music drawn from both native and imported sources . Music has traditionally been one of the cultural markers of Italian national and ethnic identity and holds an important position in society and in politics . Italian innovation in musical scales , harmony , notation , and theatre enabled the development of opera in the late 16th century , and much of modern European classical music , such as the symphony and concerto . Instrumental and vocal classical music is an iconic part of Italian identity , spanning experimental art music and international fusions to symphonic music and opera . Opera is integral to Italian musical culture , and has become a major segment of popular music . The Neapolitan song , canzone Napoletana , and the cantautori singer @-@ songwriter traditions are also popular domestic styles that form an important part of the Italian music industry , alongside imported genres like jazz , rock and hip hop . Italian folk music is an important part of the country 's musical heritage , and spans a diverse array of regional styles , instruments and dances . = = Characteristics = = Italian music has been held up in high esteem in history and many pieces of Italian music are considered high art . More than other elements of Italian culture , Italian music is generally eclectic , but unique from other nations ' music . No parochial protectionist movement has ever attempted to keep Italian music pure and free from foreign influence , except briefly under the Fascist regime of the 1920s and 30s . As a result , Italian music has kept elements of the many peoples that have dominated or influenced the country , including French , German , and Spanish . The country 's historical contributions to music are also an important part of national pride . The relatively recent history of Italy includes the development of an opera tradition that has spread throughout the world ; prior to the development of Italian identity or a unified Italian state , the Italian peninsula contributed to important innovations in music including the development of musical notation and Gregorian chant . = = = Social identity = = = Italy has a strong sense of national identity through distinctive culture - a sense of an appreciation of beauty and emotionality , which is strongly evidenced in the music . Cultural , political and social issues are often also expressed through music in Italy . Allegiance to music is integrally woven into the social identity of Italians but no single style has been considered a characteristic " national style " . Most folk musics are localized , and unique to a small region or city . Italy 's classical legacy , however , is an important point of the country 's identity , particularly opera ; traditional operatic pieces remain a popular part of music and an integral component of national identity . The musical output of Italy remains characterized by " great diversity and creative independence ( with ) a rich variety of types of expression " . With the growing industrialization that accelerated during the 20th and 21st century , Italian society gradually moved from an agricultural base to an urban and industrial center . This change weakened traditional culture in many parts of society ; a similar process occurred in other European countries , but unlike them , Italy had no major initiative to preserve traditional musics . Immigration from North Africa , Asia , and other European countries led to further diversification of Italian music . Traditional music came to exist only in small pockets , especially as part of dedicated campaigns to retain local musical identities . = = = Politics = = = Music and politics have been intertwined for centuries in Italy . Just as many works of art in the Italian Renaissance were commissioned by royalty and the Roman Catholic Church , much music was likewise composed on the basis of such commissions — incidental court music , music for coronations , for the birth of a royal heir , royal marches , and other occasions . Composers who strayed ran certain risks . Among the best known of such cases was the Neapolitan composer Domenico Cimarosa , who composed the Republican hymn for the short @-@ lived Neapolitan Republic of 1799 . When the republic fell , he was tried for treason along with other revolutionaries . Cimarosa was not executed by the restored monarchy , but he was exiled . Music also played a role in the unification of the peninsula . During this period , some leaders attempted to use music to forge a unifying cultural identity . One example is the chorus " Va Pensiero " from Giuseppe Verdi 's opera Nabucco . The opera is about ancient Babylon , but the chorus contains the phrase " O mia Patria " , ostensibly about the struggle of the Israelites , but also a thinly veiled reference to the destiny of a not @-@ yet @-@ united Italy ; the entire chorus became the unofficial anthem of the Risorgimento , the drive to unify Italy in the 19th century . Even Verdi 's name was a synonym for Italian unity because " Verdi " could be read as an acronym for Vittorio Emanuele Re d 'Italia , Victor Emanuel King of Italy , the Savoy monarch who eventually became Victor Emanuel II , the first king of united Italy . Thus , " Viva Verdi " was a rallying cry for patriots and often appeared in graffiti in Milan and other cities in what was then part of Austro @-@ Hungarian territory . Verdi had problems with censorship before the unification of Italy . His opera Un ballo in maschera was originally entitled Gustavo III and was presented to the San Carlo opera in Naples , the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , in the late 1850s . The Neapolitan censors objected to the realistic plot about the assassination of Gustav III , King of Sweden , in the 1790s . Even after the plot was changed , the Neapolitan censors still rejected it . Later , in the Fascist era of the 1920s and 30s , government censorship and interference with music occurred , though not on a systematic basis . Prominent examples include the notorious anti @-@ modernist manifesto of 1932 and Mussolini 's banning of G.F. Malipiero 's opera La favola del figlio cambiato after one performance in 1934 . The music media often criticized music that was perceived as either politically radical or insufficiently Italian . General print media , such as the Enciclopedia Moderna Italiana , tended to treat traditionally favored composers such as Giacomo Puccini and Pietro Mascagni with the same brevity as composers and musicians that were not as favored — modernists such as Alfredo Casella and Ferruccio Busoni ; that is , encyclopedia entries of the era were mere lists of career milestones such as compositions and teaching positions held . Even the conductor Arturo Toscanini , an avowed opponent of Fascism , gets the same neutral and distant treatment with no mention at all of his " anti @-@ regime " stance . Perhaps the best @-@ known episode of music colliding with politics involves Toscanini . He had been forced out of the musical directorship at La Scala in Milan in 1929 because he refused to begin every performance with the fascist song , Giovinezza . For this insult to the regime , he was attacked and beaten on the street outside the Bologne opera after a performance in 1931 . During the Fascist era , political pressure stymied the development of classical music , although censorship was not as systematic as in Nazi Germany . A series of " racial laws " was passed in 1938 , thus denying to Jewish composers and musicians membership in professional and artistic associations . Although there was not a massive flight of Italian Jews from Italy during this period ( compared to the situation in Germany ) composer Mario Castelnuovo @-@ Tedesco , an Italian Jew , was one of those who emigrated . Some non @-@ Jewish foes of the regime also emigrated — Toscanini , for one . More recently , in the later part of the 20th century , especially in the 1970s and beyond , music became further enmeshed in Italian politics . A roots revival stimulated interest in folk traditions , led by writers , collectors and traditional performers . The political right in Italy viewed this roots revival with disdain , as a product of the " unprivileged classes " . The revivalist scene thus became associated with the opposition , and became a vehicle for " protest against free @-@ market capitalism " . Similarly , the avant @-@ garde classical music scene has , since the 1970s , been associated with and promoted by the Italian Communist Party , a change that can be traced back to the 1968 student revolts and protests . = = Classical music = = Italy has long been a center for European classical music , and by the beginning of the 20th century , Italian classical music had forged a distinct national sound that was decidedly Romantic and melodic . As typified by the operas of Verdi , it was music in which " ... The vocal lines always dominate the tonal complex and are never overshadowed by the instrumental accompaniments ... " Italian classical music had resisted the " German harmonic juggernaut " — that is , the dense harmonies of Richard Wagner , Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss . Italian music also had little in common with the French reaction to that German music — the impressionism of Claude Debussy , for example , in which melodic development is largely abandoned for the creation of mood and atmosphere through the sounds of individual chords . European classical music changed greatly in the 20th century . New music abandoned much of the historical , nationally developed schools of harmony and melody in favor of experimental music , atonality , minimalism and electronic music , all of which employ features that have become common to European music in general and not Italy specifically . These changes have also made classical music less accessible to many people . Important composers of the period include Ottorino Respighi , Ferruccio Busoni , Alfredo Casella , Gian Francesco Malipiero , Franco Alfano , Bruno Maderna , Luciano Berio , Luigi Nono , Sylvano Bussotti , Salvatore Sciarrino , Luigi Dallapiccola , Carlo Jachino , Gian Carlo Menotti , Jacopo Napoli , and Goffredo Petrassi . = = = Opera = = = Opera originated in Italy in the late 16th century during the time of the Florentine Camerata . Through the centuries that followed , opera traditions developed in Naples and Venice ; the operas of Claudio Monteverdi , Alessandro Scarlatti , and , later , of Gioacchino Rossini , Vincenzo Bellini , and Gaetano Donizetti flourished . Opera has remained the musical form most closely linked with Italian music and Italian identity . This was most obvious in the 19th century through the works of Giuseppe Verdi , an icon of Italian culture and pan @-@ Italian unity . Italy retained a Romantic operatic musical tradition in the early 20th century , exemplified by composers of the so @-@ called Giovane Scuola , whose music was anchored in the previous century , including Arrigo Boito , Ruggiero Leoncavallo , Pietro Mascagni , and Francesco Cilea . Giacomo Puccini , who was a realist composer , has been described by Encyclopaedia Britannica Online as the man who " virtually brought the history of Italian opera to an end " . After World War I , however , opera declined in comparison to the popular heights of the 19th and early 20th centuries . Causes included the general cultural shift away from Romanticism and the rise of the cinema , which became a major source of entertainment . A third cause is the fact that " internationalism " had brought contemporary Italian opera to a state where it was no longer " Italian " . This was the opinion of at least one prominent Italian musicologist and critic , Fausto Terrefranca , who , in a 1912 pamphlet entitled Giaccomo Puccini and International Opera , accused Puccini of " commercialism " and of having deserted Italian traditions . Traditional Romantic opera remained popular ; indeed , the dominant opera publisher in the early 20th century was Casa Ricordi , which focused almost exclusively on popular operas until the 1930s , when the company allowed more unusual composers with less mainstream appeal . The rise of relatively new publishers such as Carisch and Suvini Zerboni also helped to fuel the diversification of Italian opera . Opera remains a major part of Italian culture ; renewed interest in opera across the sectors of Italian society began in the 1980s . Respected composers from this era include the well @-@ known Aldo Clementi , and younger peers such as Marco Tutino and Lorenzo Ferrero . = = = Sacred music = = = Italy , being one of Catholicism 's seminal nations , has a long history of music for the Roman Catholic Church . Until approximately 1800 , it was possible to hear Gregorian Chant and Renaissance polyphony , such as the music of Palestrina , Lassus , Anerio , and others . Approximately 1800 to approximately 1900 was a century during which a more popular , operatic , and entertaining type of church music was heard , to the exclusion of the aforementioned chant and polyphony . In the late 19th century , the Cecilian Movement was started by musicians who fought to restore this music . This movement gained impetus not in Italy but in Germany , particularly in Regensburg . The movement reached its apex around 1900 with the ascent of Don Lorenzo Perosi and his supporter ( and future saint ) , Pope Pius X. The advent of Vatican II , however , nearly obliterated all Latin @-@ language music from the Church , once again substituting it with a more popular style . = = = Instrumental music = = = The dominance of opera in Italian music tends to overshadow the important area of instrumental music . Historically , such music includes the vast array of sacred instrumental music , instrumental concertos , and orchestral music in the works of Andrea Gabrieli , Giovanni Gabrieli , Tomaso Albinoni , Arcangelo Corelli , Antonio Vivaldi , Luigi Boccherini , Luigi Cherubini and Domenico Scarlatti . ( Even opera composers occasionally worked in other forms — Giuseppe Verdi 's String Quartet in E minor , for example . Even Donizetti , whose name is identified with the beginnings of Italian lyric opera , wrote 18 string quartets . ) In the early 20th century , instrumental music began growing in importance , a process that started around 1904 with Giuseppe Martucci 's Second Symphony , a work that Malipiero called " the starting point of the renascence of non @-@ operatic Italian music . " Several early composers from this era , such as Leone Sinigaglia , used native folk traditions . The early 20th century is also marked by the presence of a group of composers called the generazione dell 'ottanta ( generation of 1880 ) , including Franco Alfano , Alfredo Casella , Gian Francesco Malipiero , Ildebrando Pizzetti , and Ottorino Respighi . These composers usually concentrated on writing instrumental works , rather than opera . Members of this generation were the dominant figures in Italian music after Puccini 's death in 1924 . New organizations arose to promote Italian music , such as the Venice Festival of Contemporary Music and the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino . Guido Gatti 's founding of the periodical il Piano and then La rassegna musicale also helped to promote a broader view of music than the political and social climate allowed . Most Italians , however , preferred more traditional pieces and established standards , and only a small audience sought new styles of experimental classical music . = = = Ballet = = = Italian contributions to ballet are less known and appreciated than in other areas of classical music . Italy , particularly Milan , was the European center of court choreography as early as the 15th century in the form of such things as ritual masked balls . Early choreographers and composers of ballet include Fabritio Caroso and Cesare Negri . The style of ballet known as the " spectacles all ’ italiana " imported to France from Italy caught on , and the first ballet performed in France ( 1581 ) , Ballet comique de la Royn , was composed by an Italian , Baltazarini di Belgioioso , better known by the French version of his name , Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx . Early ballet was accompanied by considerable instrumentation , with the playing of horns , trombones , kettle drums , dulcimers , bagpipes , etc . Although the music has not survived , there is speculation that dancers , themselves , may have played instruments onstage . Then , in the wake of the French Revolution , Italy again became a center of ballet , largely through the efforts of Salvatore Viganò , a choreographer who worked with some of the most prominent composers of the day . He was made the balletmaster of La Scala in 1812 . The best @-@ known example of Italian ballet from the 19th century is probably Excelsior , with music by Romualdo Marenco and choreography by Luigi Manzotti . It was composed in 1881 and is a lavish tribute to the scientific and industrial progress of the 19th century . It is still performed and was staged as recently as 2002 . Currently , major Italian opera theaters maintain ballet companies . They exist to provide incidental and ceremonial dancing in many operas , such as Aida or La Traviata . These dance companies usually maintain a separate ballet season and perform the standard repertoire of classical ballet , little of which is Italian . The Italian equivalent of the Russian Bolshoi Ballet and similar companies that exist only to perform ballet , independent of a parent opera theater is La Scala Ballet , which is under the direction of Frèdèric Olivieri . Since 1979 there has existed in Italy a modern dance company , the Aterballetto , based in Reggio Emilia . The company performs worldwide under the leadership of choreographer Mauro Bigonzetti . = = = Experimental music = = = Experimental music is a broad , loosely defined field encompassing musics created by abandoning traditional classical concepts of melody and harmony , and by using the new technology of electronics to create hitherto impossible sounds . In Italy , one of the first to devote his attention to experimental music was Ferruccio Busoni , whose 1907 publication , Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music , discussed the use of electrical and other new sounds in future music . He spoke of his dissatisfaction with the constraints of traditional music : " We have divided the octave into twelve equidistant degrees … and have constructed our instruments in such as way that we can never get in above or below or between them … our ears are no longer capable of hearing anything else … yet Nature created an infinite gradation — infinite ! Who still knows it nowadays ? " Similarly , Luigi Russolo , the Italian Futurist painter and composer , wrote of the possibilities of new music in his 1913 manifestoes The Art of Noises and Musica Futurista . He also invented and built instruments such as the intonarumori , mostly percussion , which were used in a precursor to the style known as musique concrète . One of the most influential events in early 20th century music was the return of Alfredo Casella from France in 1915 ; Casella founded the Società Italiana di Musica Moderna , which promoted several composers in disparate styles , ranging from experimental to traditional . After a dispute over the value of experimental music in 1923 , Casella formed the Corporazione delle Nuove Musiche to promote modern experimental music . In the 1950s , Luciano Berio experimented with instruments accompanied by electronic sounds on tape . In modern Italy , one important organization that fosters research in avantgarde and electronic music is CEMAT , the Federation of Italian Electroacoustic Music Centers . It was founded in 1996 in Rome and is a member of the CIME , the Confédération Internationale de Musique Electroacoustique . CEMAT promotes the activities of the " Sonora " project , launched jointly by the Department for Performing Arts , Ministry for Cultural Affairs and the Directorate for Cultural Relations , Ministry for Foreign Affairs with the object of promoting and diffusing Italian contemporary music abroad . = = = Classical music in society = = = Italian classical music grew gradually more experimental and progressive into the mid @-@ 20th century , while popular tastes have tended to stick with well established composers and compositions of the past . The 2004 @-@ 2005 program at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples is typical of modern Italy : of the eight operas represented , the most recent was Puccini . In symphonic music , of the 26 composers whose music was played , 21 of them were from the 19th century or earlier , composers who use the melodies and harmonies typical of the Romantic era . This focus is common to other European traditions , and is known as postmodernism , a school of thought that draws on earlier harmonic and melodic concepts that pre @-@ date the conceptions of atonality and dissonance . This focus on popular historical composers has helped to maintain a continued presence of classical music across a broad spectrum of Italian society . When music is part of a public display or gathering , it is often chosen from a very eclectic repertoire that is as likely to include well @-@ known classical music as popular music . A few recent works have become a part of the modern repertoire , including scores and theatrical works by composers such as Luciano Berio , Luigi Nono , Franco Donatoni , and Sylvano Bussotti . These composers are not part of a distinct school or tradition , though they do share certain techniques and influences . By the 1970s , avant @-@ garde classical music had become linked to the Italian Communist Party , while a revival of popular interest continued into the next decade , with foundations , festivals and organization created to promote modern music . Near the end of the 20th century , government sponsorship of musical institutions began to decline , and several RAI choirs and city orchestras were closed . Despite this , a number of composers gained international reputations in the early 21st century . = = Folk music = = Italian folk music has a deep and complex history . Because national unification came late to the Italian peninsula , the traditional music of its many hundreds of cultures exhibit no homogeneous national character . Rather , each region and community possesses a unique musical tradition that reflects the history , language , and ethnic composition of that particular locale . These traditions reflect Italy 's geographic position in southern Europe and in the centre of the Mediterranean ; Celtic , Roma , and Slavic influences , as well as rough geography and the historic dominance of small city states , have all combined to allow diverse musical styles to coexist in close proximity . Italian folk styles are very diverse , and include monophonic , polyphonic , and responsorial song , choral , instrumental and vocal music , and other styles . Choral singing and polyphonic song forms are primarily found in northern Italy , while south of Naples , solo singing is more common , and groups usually use unison singing in two or three parts carried by a single performer . Northern ballad @-@ singing is syllabic , with a strict tempo and intelligible lyrics , while southern styles use a rubato tempo , and a strained , tense vocal style . Folk musicians use the dialect of their own regional tradition ; this rejection of the standard Italian language in folk song is nearly universal . There is little perception of a common Italian folk tradition , and the country 's folk music never became a national symbol . = = = Regions = = = Folk music is sometimes divided into several spheres of geographic influence , a classification system of three regions , southern , central and northern , proposed by Alan Lomax in 1956 and often repeated . Additionally , Curt Sachs proposed the existence of two quite distinct kinds of folk music in Europe : continental and Mediterranean , and others have placed the transition zone from the former to the latter roughly in north @-@ central Italy , approximately between Pesaro and La Spezia . The central , northern and southern parts of the peninsula each share certain musical characteristics , and are each distinct from the music of Sardinia . In the Piedmontese valleys and some Ligurian communities of northwestern Italy , the music preserves the strong influence of ancient Occitania . The lyrics of the Occitanic troubadours are some of the oldest preserved samples of vernacular song , and modern bands like Gai Saber and Lou Dalfin preserve and contemporize Occitan music . The Occitanian culture retains characteristics of the ancient Celtic influence , through the use of six- or seven @-@ hole flutes ( fifre ) or the bagpipes ( piva ) . The music of Friuli @-@ Venezia Giulia , in northeastern Italy , shares much more in common with Austria and Slovenia including variants of the waltz and the polka . Much of northern Italy shares with areas of Europe further to the north an interest in ballad singing ( called canto epico lirico in Italian ) and choral singing . Even ballads — usually thought of as a vehicle for a solo voice — may be sung in choirs . In the province of Trento " folk choirs " are the most common form of music making . Noticeable musical differences in the southern type include increased use of interval part singing and a greater variety of folk instruments . The Celtic and Slavic influences on the group and open @-@ voice choral works of the north yield to a stronger Arabic , Greek , and North African @-@ influenced strident monody of the south . In parts of Apulia ( Grecìa Salentina , for example ) the Griko dialect is commonly used in song . The Apulian city of Taranto is a home of the tarantella , a rhythmic dance widely performed in southern Italy . Apulian music in general , and Salentine music in particular , has been well researched and documented by ethnomusicologists and by Aramirè . The music of the island of Sardinia is best known for the polyphonic chanting of the tenores . The sound of the tenores recalls the roots of Gregorian chant , and is similar to but distinctive from the Ligurian trallalero . Typical instruments include the launeddas , a Sardinian triplepipe used in a sophisticated and complex manner . Efisio Melis was a well @-@ known master launeddas player of the 1930s . = = = Songs = = = Italian folk songs include ballads , lyrical songs , lullabies and children 's songs , seasonal songs based around holidays such as Christmas , life @-@ cycle songs that celebrate weddings , baptisms and other important events , dance songs , cattle calls and occupational songs , tied to professions such as fishermen , shepherds and soldiers . Ballads ( canti epico @-@ lirici ) and lyric songs ( canti lirico @-@ monostrofici ) are two important categories . Ballads are most common in northern Italy , while lyric songs prevail further south . Ballads are closely tied to the English form , with some British ballads existing in exact correspondence with an Italian song . Other Italian ballads are more closely based on French models . Lyric songs are a diverse category that consist of lullabies , serenades and work songs , and are frequently improvised though based on a traditional repertoire . Other Italian folk song traditions are less common than ballads and lyric songs . Strophic , religious laude , sometimes in Latin , are still occasionally performed , and epic songs are also known , especially those of the maggio celebration . Professional female singers perform dirges similar in style to those elsewhere in Europe . Yodeling exists in northern Italy , though it is most commonly associated with the folk musics of other Alpine nations . The Italian Carnival is associated with several song types , especially the Carnival of Bagolino , Brescia . Choirs and brass bands are a part of the mid @-@ Lenten holiday , while the begging song tradition extends through many holidays throughout the year . = = = Instrumentation = = = Instrumentation is an integral part of all facets of Italian folk music . There are several instruments that retain older forms even while newer models have become widespread elsewhere in Europe . Many Italian instruments are tied to certain rituals or occasions , such as the zampogna bagpipe , typically heard only at Christmas . Italian folk instruments can be divided into string , wind and percussion categories . Common instruments include the organetto , an accordion most closely associated with the saltarello ; the diatonic button organetto is most common in central Italy , while chromatic accordions prevail in the north . Many municipalities are home to brass bands , which perform with roots revival groups ; these ensembles are based around the clarinet , accordion , violin and small drums , adorned with bells . Italy 's wind instruments include most prominently a variety of folk flutes . These include duct , globular and transverse flutes , as well as various variations of the pan flute . Double flutes are most common in Campania , Calabria and Sicily . A ceramic pitcher called the quartara is also used as a wind instrument , by blowing across an opening in the narrow bottle neck ; it is found in eastern Sicily and Campania . Single- ( ciaramella ) and double @-@ reed ( piffero ) pipes are commonly played in groups of two or three . Several folk bagpipes are well @-@ known , including central Italy 's zampogna ; dialect names for the bagpipe vary throughout Italy-- beghet in Bergamo , piva in Lombardy , müsa in Alessandria , Genoa , Pavia and Piacenza , and so forth . Numerous percussion instruments are a part of Italian folk music , including wood blocks , bells , castanets , drums . Several regions have their own distinct form of rattle , including the raganella cog rattle and the Calabrian conocchie , a spinning or shepherd 's staff with permanently attached seed rattles with ritual fertility significance . The Neapolitan rattle is the triccaballacca , made out of several mallets in a wooden frame . Tambourines ( tamburini , tamburello ) , as are various kinds of drums , such as the friction drum putipù . The Tamburello , while appearing very similar to the contemporary western tambourine , is actually played with a much more articulate and sophisticated technique ( influenced by Middle Eastern playing ) , giving it a wide range of sounds . The mouth @-@ harp , scacciapensieri or care @-@ chaser , is a distinctive instrument , found only in northern Italy and Sicily . String instruments vary widely depending on locality , with no nationally prominent representative . Viggiano is home to a harp tradition , which has a historical base in Abruzzi , Lazio and Calabria . Calabria , alone , has 30 traditional musical instruments , some of which have strongly archaic characteristics and are largely extinct elsewhere in Italy . It is home to the four- or five @-@ stringed guitar called the chitarra battente , and a three @-@ stringed , bowed fiddle called the lira , which is also found in similar forms in the music of Crete and Southeastern Europe . A one @-@ stringed , bowed fiddle called the torototela , is common in the northeast of the country . The largely German @-@ speaking area of South Tyrol is known for the zither , and the ghironda ( hurdy @-@ gurdy ) is found in Emilia , Piedmont and Lombardy . Existing , rooted and widespread traditions confirm the production of ephemeral and toy instruments made of bark , reed ( arundo donax ) , leaves , fibers and stems , as it emerges , for example , from Fabio Lombardi 's research . = = = Dance = = = Dance is an integral part of folk traditions in Italy . Some of the dances are ancient and , to a certain extent , persist today . There are magico @-@ ritual dances of propitiation as well as harvest dances , including the " sea @-@ harvest " dances of fishing communities in Calabria and the wine harvest dances in Tuscany . Famous dances include the southern tarantella ; perhaps the most iconic of Italian dances , the tarantella is in 6 / 8 time , and is part of a folk ritual intended to cure the poison caused by tarantula bites . Popular Tuscan dances ritually act out the hunting of the hare , or display blades in weapon dances that simulate or recall the moves of combat , or use the weapons as stylized instruments of the dance itself . For example , in a few villages in northern Italy , swords are replaced by wooden half @-@ hoops embroidered with green , similar to the so @-@ called " garland dances " in northern Europe . There are also dances of love and courting , such as the duru @-@ duru dance in Sardinia . Many of these dances are group activities , the group setting up in rows or circles ; some — the love and courting dances — involve couples , either a single couple or more . The tammuriata ( performed to the sound of the tambourine ) is a couple dance performed in southern Italy and accompanied by a lyric song called a strambotto . Other couples dances are collectively referred to as saltarello . There are , however , also solo dances ; most typical of these are the " flag dances " of various regions of Italy , in which the dancer passes a town flag or pennant around the neck , through the legs , behind the back , often tossing it high in the air and catching it . These dances can also be done in groups of solo dancers acting in unison or by coordinating flag passing between dancers . Northern Italy is also home to the monferrina , an accompanied dance that was incorporated in Western art music by the composer Muzio Clementi . Academic interest in the study of dance from the perspectives of sociology and anthropology has traditionally been neglected in Italy but is currently showing renewed life at the university and post @-@ graduate level . = = Popular music = = The earliest Italian popular music was the opera of the 19th century . Opera has had a lasting effect on Italy 's classical and popular music . Opera tunes spread through brass bands and itinerant ensembles . Canzone Napoletana , or Neapolitan song , is a distinct tradition that became a part of popular music in the 19th century , and was an iconic image of Italian music abroad by the end of the 20th century . Imported styles have also become an important part of Italian popular music , beginning with the French Café @-@ chantant in the 1890s and then the arrival of American jazz in the 1910s . Until Italian Fascism became officially " allergic " to foreign influences in the late 1930s , American dance music and musicians were quite popular ; jazz great Louis Armstrong toured Italy as late as 1935 to great acclaim . In the 1950s , American styles became more prominent , especially rock . The singer @-@ songwriter cantautori tradition was a major development of the later 1960s , while the Italian rock scene soon diversified into progressive , punk , funk and folk @-@ based styles . = = = Early popular song = = = Italian opera became immensely popular in the 19th century and was known across even the most rural sections of the country . Most villages had occasional opera productions , and the techniques used in opera influenced rural folk musics . Opera spread through itinerant ensembles and brass bands , focused in a local village . These civic bands ( banda communale ) used instruments to perform operatic arias , with trombones or fluegelhorns for male vocal parts and cornets for female parts . Regional music in the 19th century also became popular throughout Italy . Notable among these local traditions was the Canzone Napoletana — the Neapolitan Song . Although there are anonymous , documented songs from Naples from many centuries ago , the term , canzone Napoletana now generally refers to a large body of relatively recent , composed popular music — such songs as " ' O sole mio " , " Torna a Surriento " , and " Funiculi Funicula " . In the 18th century , many composers , including Alessandro Scarlatti , Leonardo Vinci , and Giovanni Paisiello , contributed to the Neapolitan tradition by using the local language for the texts of some of their comic operas . Later , others — most famously Gaetano Donizetti — composed Neapolitan songs that garnered great renown in Italy and abroad . The Neapolitan song tradition became formalized in the 1830s through an annual songwriting competition for the yearly Piedigrotta festival , dedicated to the Madonna of Piedigrotta , a well @-@ known church in the Mergellina area of Naples . The music is identified with Naples , but is famous abroad , having been exported on the great waves of emigration from Naples and southern Italy roughly between 1880 and 1920 . Language is an extremely important element of Neapolitan song , which is always written and performed in Neapolitan , the regional minority language of Campania . Neapolitan songs typically use simple harmonies , and are structured in two sections , a refrain and narrative verses , often in contrasting relative or parallel major and minor keys . In non @-@ musical terms , this means that many Neapolitan songs can sound joyful one minute and melancholy the next . The music of Francesco Tosti was popular at the turn of the 20th century , and is remembered for his light , expressive songs . His style became very popular during the Belle Époque and is often known as salon music . His most famous works are Serenata , Addio and the popular Neapolitan song , Marechiaro , the lyrics of which are by the prominent Neapolitan dialect poet , Salvatore di Giacomo . Recorded popular music began in the late 19th century , with international styles influencing Italian music by the late 1910s ; however , the rise of autarchia , the Fascist policy of cultural isolationism in 1922 led to a retreat from international popular music . During this period , popular Italian musicians traveled abroad and learned elements of jazz , Latin American music and other styles . These musics influenced the Italian tradition , which spread around the world and further diversified following liberalization after World War II . Under the isolationist policies of the fascist regime , which rose to power in 1922 , Italy developed an insular musical culture . Foreign musics were suppressed while Mussolini 's government encouraged nationalism and linguistic and ethnic purity . Popular performers , however , travelled abroad , and brought back new styles and techniques . American jazz was an important influence on singers such as Alberto Rabagliati , who became known for a swinging style . Elements of harmony and melody from both jazz and blues were used in many popular songs , while rhythms often came from Latin dances like the tango , rumba and beguine . Italian composers incorporated elements from these styles , while Italian music , especially Neapolitan song , became a part of popular music across Latin America . = = = Modern pop = = = Among the best @-@ known Italian pop musicians of the last few decades are Domenico Modugno , Mina , Patty Pravo , Mia Martini , Adriano Celentano and , more recently , Zucchero , Mango , Vasco Rossi , Irene Grandi , Gianna Nannini and international superstar Laura Pausini and Andrea Bocelli . Musicians who compose and sing their own songs are called cantautori ( singer @-@ songwriters ) . Their compositions typically focus on topics of social relevance and are often protest songs : this wave began in the 1960s with musicians like Fabrizio De André , Paolo Conte , Giorgio Gaber , Umberto Bindi , Gino Paoli and Luigi Tenco . Social , political , psychological and intellectual themes , mainly in the wake of Gaber and De André 's work , became even more predominant in the 1970s through authors such as Lucio Dalla , Pino Daniele , Francesco De Gregori , Ivano Fossati , Francesco Guccini , Edoardo Bennato , Rino Gaetano and Roberto Vecchioni . Lucio Battisti , from the late 1960s until the mid @-@ 1990s , merged the Italian music with the British rock and pop and , lately in his career , with genres like the synthpop , rap , techno and eurodance , while Angelo Branduardi and Franco Battiato pursued careers more oriented to the tradition of Italian pop music . There is some genre cross @-@ over between the cantautori and those who are viewed as singers of " protest music " . Film scores , although they are secondary to the film , are often critically acclaimed and very popular in their own right . Among early music for Italian films from the 1930s was the work of Riccardo Zandonai with scores for the films La Principessa Tarakanova ( 1937 ) and Caravaggio ( 1941 ) . Post @-@ war examples include Goffredo Petrassi with Non c 'e pace tra gli ulivi ( 1950 ) and Roman Vlad with Giulietta e Romeo ( 1954 ) . Another well @-@ known film composer was Nino Rota whose post @-@ war career included the scores for films by Federico Fellini and , later , The Godfather series . Other prominent film score composers include Ennio Morricone , Riz Ortolani and Piero Umiliani . = = = Modern dance = = = Italy has been an important country with regards to electronic dance music , especially ever since the creation of Italo disco in the late 1970s to early 1980s . The genre , originating from disco , blended " melancholy melodies " with pop and electronic music , making usage of synthesizers and drum machines , which often gave it a futuristic sound . According to an article in The Guardian , in cities such as Verona and Milan , producers would work with singers , using mass @-@ made synthesizers and drum machines , and incorporating them into a mix of experimental music with a " classic @-@ pop sensibility " which would be aimed for nightclubs . The songs produced would often be sold later by labels and companies such as the Milan @-@ based Discomagic . Italo disco influenced several electronic groups , such as the Pet Shop Boys , Erasure and New Order , as well as genres such as Eurodance , Eurobeat and freestyle . By circa 1988 , however , the genre had merged into other forms of European dance and electronic music , one of which was Italo house . Italo house blended elements of Italo disco with traditional house music ; its sound was generally uplifting , and made strong usage of piano melodies . By the latter @-@ half of the 1990s , a subgenre of Eurodance known as Italo dance emerged . Taking influences from Italo disco and Italo house , Italo dance generally included synthesizer riffs , a melodic sound , and the usage of vocoders . Over the years , there have been several important Italian dance music composers and producers , such as Giorgio Moroder , who won three Academy Awards for his music . He is credited by Allmusic as " One of the principal architects of the disco sound " . = = = Imported styles = = = During the Belle Époque , the French fashion of performing popular music at the café @-@ chantant spread throughout Europe . The tradition had much in common with cabaret , and there is overlap between café @-@ chantant , café @-@ concert , cabaret , music hall , vaudeville and other similar styles , but at least in its Italian manifestation , the tradition remained largely apolitical , focusing on lighter music , often risqué , but not bawdy . The first café @-@ chantant in Italy was the Salone Margherita , which opened in 1890 on the premises of the new Galleria Umberto in Naples . Elsewhere in Italy , the Gran Salone Eden in Milan and the Music Hall Olympia in Rome opened shortly thereafter . Café @-@ chantant was alternately known as the Italianized caffè @-@ concerto . The main performer , usually a woman , was called a chanteuse in French ; the Italian term , sciantosa , is a direct coinage from the French . The songs , themselves , were not French , but were lighthearted or slightly sentimental songs composed in Italian . That music went out of fashion with the advent of World War I. The influence of US pop forms has been strong since the end of World War II . Lavish Broadway @-@ show numbers , big bands , rock and roll , and hip hop continue to be popular . Latin music , especially Brazilian bossa nova , is also popular , and the Puerto Rican genre of reggaeton is rapidly becoming a mainstream form of dance music . It is now not uncommon for modern Italian pop artists such as Laura Pausini , Eros Ramazzotti , Zucchero or Andrea Bocelli to release new songs in English or Spanish in addition to , or instead of , Italian . Thus , musical revues , which are standard fare on current Italian television , can easily go , in a single evening , from a big @-@ band number with dancers to an Elvis impersonator to a current pop singer doing a rendition of a Puccini aria . Jazz found its way into Europe during World War I through the presence of American musicians in military bands playing syncopated music . Yet , even before that , Italy received an inkling of new music from across the Atlantic in the form of Creole singers and dancers who performed at the Eden Theater in Milan in 1904 ; they billed themselves as the " creators of the cakewalk . " The first real jazz orchestras in Italy , however , were formed during the 1920s by bandleaders such as Arturo Agazzi and enjoyed immediate success . In spite of the anti @-@ American cultural policies of the Fascist regime during the 1930s , American jazz remained popular . In the immediate post @-@ war years , jazz took off in Italy . All American post @-@ war jazz styles , from bebop to free jazz and fusion have their equivalents in Italy . The universality of Italian culture ensured that jazz clubs would spring up throughout the peninsula , that all radio and then television studios would have jazz @-@ based house bands , that Italian musicians would then start nurturing a home grown kind of jazz , based on European song forms , classical composition techniques and folk music . Currently , all Italian music conservatories have jazz departments , and there are jazz festivals each year in Italy , the best known of which is the Umbria Jazz Festival , and there are prominent publications such as the journal , Musica Jazz . Italian pop rock has produced major stars like Zucchero , and has resulted in many top hits . The industry media , especially television , are important vehicles for such music ; the television show Sabato Sera is characteristic . Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock movement of the 1970s , a style that primarily developed in Europe but also gained audiences elsewhere in the world . It is sometimes considered a separate genre , Italian progressive rock . Italian bands such as The Trip , Area , Premiata Forneria Marconi ( PFM ) , Arti e Mestieri , Banco del Mutuo Soccorso , New Trolls , Goblin , Osanna , Saint Just and Le Orme incorporated a mix of symphonic rock and Italian folk music and were popular throughout Europe and the United States as well . Other progressive bands such as Perigeo , Balletto di Bronzo , Museo Rosenbach , Rovescio della Medaglia , Biglietto per l 'Inferno or Alphataurus remained little known , but their albums are today considered classics by collectors . A few avant @-@ garde rock bands or artists ( Area , Picchio dal Pozzo , Opus Avantra , Stormy Six , Saint Just , Giovanni Lindo Ferretti ) gained notoriety for their innovative sound . Progressive rock concerts in Italy tended to have a strong political undertone and an energetic atmosphere . The Italian hip hop scene began in the early 1990s with Articolo 31 from Milan , whose style was mainly influenced by East Coast rap . Other early hip hop crews were typically politically oriented , like 99 Posse , who later became more influenced by British trip hop . More recent crews include gangster rappers like Sardinia 's La Fossa . Other recently imported styles include techno , trance , and electronica performed by artists including Gabry Ponte , Eiffel 65 , and Gigi D`Agostino . Hip hop is especially characteristic of southern Italy , a fact which some observers have contributed to the view of southern culture as more " African " than " European " , as well as the southern concept of rispettu ( respect , honor ) , a form of verbal jousting ; both facts have helped identify southern Italian music with the African American hip hop style . Additionally , there are many bands in Italy that play a style called patchanka , which is characterized by a mixture of traditional music , punk , reggae , rock and political lyrics . Modena City Ramblers are one of the more popular bands known for their mix of Irish , Italian , punk , reggae and many other forms of music . Italy has also become a home for a number of Mediterranean fusion projects . These include Al Darawish , a multicultural band based in Sicily and led by Palestinian Nabil Ben Salaméh . The Luigi Cinque Tarantula Hypertext Orchestra is another example , as is the TaraGnawa project by Phaleg and Nour Eddine . Mango is one of the best @-@ known artists who fused pop with world and mediterranean sounds , albums such as Adesso , Sirtaki and Come l 'acqua are examples of his style . The Neapolitan popular singer , Massimo Ranieri has also released a CD , Oggi o dimane , of traditional canzone Napoletana with North African rhythms and instruments . = = Industry = = A recent economics report says that the music industry in Italy made € 2 @.@ 3 billion in 2004 . That sum refers to the sale of CDs , music electronics , musical instruments , and ticket sales for live performances ; it represents a 4 @.@ 35 % growth over 2004 . The actual sale of music albums has decreased slightly , but there has been a compensatory increase in paid @-@ for digitally downloaded music from industry @-@ approved sites . By way of comparison , the Italian recording industry ranks eighth in the world ; Italians own 0 @.@ 7 music albums per capita as opposed to the USA , in first @-@ place with 2 @.@ 7 . The report cites a 20 % increase in 2004 over 2003 in paid royalties for on @-@ air as well as live music . Nationwide , there are three state @-@ run and three private TV networks . All provide live music at least some of the time , thus giving work to musicians , singers , and dancers . Many large cities in Italy have local TV stations , as well , which may provide live folk or dialect music often of interest only to the immediate area . Book and CD superstores have entered the Italian market over the last decade . The largest of these chains is Feltrinelli , originally a publishing house in the 1950s . In 2001 , it geared up to the level of Multimedia Store and now sells massive quantities of recorded music . There are , as of 2006 , 14 such mega @-@ stores in Italy , with more planned . FNAC is another large chain , originally French . It has six large outlets in Italy . These stores also serve as venues for music performance , hosting several concerts a week . = = Venues , festivals and holidays = = Venues for music in Italy include concerts at the many music conservatories , symphony halls and opera houses . Italy also has many well @-@ known international music festivals each year , including the Festival of Spoleto , the Festival Puccini and the Wagner Festival in Ravello . Some festivals offer venues to younger composers in classical music by producing and staging winning entries in competitions . The winner , for example , of the " Orpheus " International Competition for New Opera and Chamber music — besides winning considerable prize money — gets to see his or her musical work performed at The Spoleto Festival . There are also dozens of privately sponsored master classes in music each year that put on concerts for the public . Italy is also a common destination for well @-@ known orchestras from abroad ; at almost any given time during the busiest season , at least one major orchestra from elsewhere in Europe or North America is playing a concert in Italy . Additionally , public music may be heard at dozens of pop and rock concerts throughout the year . Open @-@ air opera may even be heard , for example , at the ancient Roman amphitheater , the Arena of Verona . Military bands , too , are popular in Italy . At a national level , one of the best @-@ known of these is the concert band of the Guardia di Finanza ( Italian Customs / Border Police ) ; it performs many times a year . Many theaters also routinely stage not just Italian translations of American musicals , but true Italian musical comedy , which are called by the English term musical . In Italian , that term describes a kind of musical drama not native to Italy , a form that employs the American idiom of jazz @-@ pop @-@ and rock @-@ based music and rhythms to move a story along in a combination of songs and dialogue . Music in religious rituals , especially Roman Catholic , manifests itself in a number of ways . Parish bands , for example , are quite common throughout Italy . They may be as small as four or five members to as many as 20 or 30 . They commonly perform at religious festivals specific to a particular town , usually in honor of the town 's patron saint . The historic orchestral / choral masterpieces performed in church by professionals are well @-@ known ; these include such works as the Stabat Mater by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi and Verdi 's Requiem . The Second Vatican Council from 1962 to 1965 revolutionized music in the Roman Catholic Church , leading to an increase in the number of amateur choirs that perform regularly for services ; the Council also encouraged the congregational singing of hymns , and a vast repertoire of new hymns has been composed in the last 40 years . There is not a great deal of native Italian Christmas music . The most popular Italian Christmas carol is " Tu scendi dalle stelle " , the modern Italian words to which were written by Pope Pius IX in 1870 . The melody is a major @-@ key version of an older , minor @-@ key Neapolitan carol " Quanno Nascette Ninno " . Other than that , Italians largely sing translations of carols that come from the German and English tradition ( " Silent Night " , for example ) . There is no native Italian secular Christmas music , which accounts for the popularity of Italian @-@ language versions of " Jingle Bells " and " White Christmas " . The Sanremo Music Festival is an important venue for popular music in Italy . It has been held annually since 1951 and is currently staged at the Teatro Ariston in Sanremo . It runs for one week in February , and gives veteran and new performers a chance to present new songs . Winning the contest has often been a springboard to industry success . The festival is televised nationally for three hours a night , is hosted by the best @-@ known Italian TV personalities , and has been a vehicle for such performers as Domenico Modugno , perhaps the best @-@ known Italian pop singer of the last 50 years . Television variety shows are the widest venue for popular music . They change often , but Buona Domenica , Domenica In , and I raccomandati are popular . The longest running musical broadcast in Italy is La Corrida , a three @-@ hour weekly program of amateurs and would @-@ be musicians . It started on the radio in 1968 and moved to TV in 1988 . The studio audience bring cow @-@ bells and sirens and are encouraged to show good @-@ natured disapproval . The city with the highest number of rock concerts ( of national and international artists ) is Milan , with a number close to the other European music capitals , as Paris , London and Berlin . = = Education = = Many institutes of higher education teach music in Italy . About 75 music conservatories provide advanced training for future professional musicians . There are also many private music schools and workshops for instrument building and repair . Private teaching is also quite common in Italy . Elementary and high school students can expect to have one or two weekly hours of music teaching , generally in choral singing and basic music theory , though extracurricular opportunities are rare . Though most Italian universities have classes in related subjects such as music history , performance is not a common feature of university education . Italy has a specialized system of high schools ; students attend , as they choose , a high school for humanities , science , foreign languages , or art — and music ( in the " liceo musicale " , where instruments , musical theory , composing and musical history are taught as the main subject ) . Italy does have ambitious , recent programs to expose children to more music . Furthermore , with the recent education reform a specific Liceo musicale e coreutico ( 2nd level secondary school , ages 14 – 15 to 18 @-@ 19 ) is explicitly indicated by the law decrees . Yet this kind of school has not been set up and is not effectively operational . The state @-@ run television network has started a program to use modern satellite technology to broadcast choral music into public schools . = = Scholarship = = Scholarship in the field of collecting , preserving and cataloguing all varieties of music is vast . In Italy , as elsewhere , these tasks are spread over a number of agencies and organizations . Most large music conservatories maintain departments that oversee the research connected with their own collections . Such research is coordinated on a national and international scale via the internet . One prominent institution in Italy is IBIMUS , the Istituto di Bibliografia Musicale , in Rome . It works with other agencies on an international scale through RISM , the Répertoire International des Sources Musicales , an inventory and index of source material . Also , the Discoteca di Stato ( National Archives of Recordings ) in Rome , founded in 1928 , holds the largest public collection of recorded music in Italy with some 230 @,@ 000 examples of classical music , folk music , jazz , and rock , recorded on everything from antique wax cylinders to modern electronic media . The scholarly study of traditional Italian music began in about 1850 , with a group of early philological ethnographers who studied the impact of music on a pan @-@ Italian national identity . A unified Italian identity only just started to develop after the political integration of the peninsula in 1860 . The focus at that time was on the lyrical and literary value of music , rather than the instrumentation ; this focus remained until the early 1960s . Two folkloric journals helped to encourage the burgeoning field of study , the Rivista Italiana delle Tradizioni Popolari and Lares , founded in 1894 and 1912 , respectively . The earliest major musical studies were on the Sardinian launeddas in 1913 @-@ 1914 by Mario Giulio Fara ; on Sicilian music , published in 1907 and 1921 by Alberto Favara ; and studies of the music of Emilia Romagna in 1941 by Francesco Balilla Pratella . The earliest recordings of Italian traditional music came in the 1920s , but they were rare until the establishment of the Centro Nazionale Studi di Musica Popolare at the National Academy of Santa Cecilia in Rome . The Center sponsored numerous song collection trips across the peninsula , especially to southern and central Italy . Giorgio Nataletti was an instrumental figure in the Center , and also made numerous recordings himself . The American scholar Alan Lomax and the Italian , Diego Carpitella , made an exhaustive survey of the peninsula in 1954 . By the early 1960s , a roots revival encouraged more study , especially of northern musical cultures , which many scholars had previously assumed maintained little folk culture . The most prominent scholars of this era included Roberto Leydi , Ottavio Tiby and Leo Levi . During the 1970s , Leydi and Carpitella were appointed to the first two chairs of ethnomusicology at universities , with Carpitella at the University of Rome and Leydi at the University of Bologna . In the 1980s , Italian scholars began focusing less on making recordings , and more on studying and synthesizing the information already collected . Others studied Italian music in the United States and Australia , and the folk musics of recent immigrants to Italy .
= Azure @-@ hooded jay = The azure @-@ hooded jay ( Cyanolyca cucullata ) is a species of bird in the family Corvidae . It is found in Middle America . Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forest . This species is known to have four subspecies . It is 11 to 12 inches ( 28 to 30 cm ) in length and is dark blue with a black head and upper chest . The back of the head and neck are sky blue with a white border . The jays travel in groups of two to ten individuals and may join mixed @-@ species flocks . It is a secretive species and therefore difficult to observe in the wild . As an omnivore , this jay eats berries , seeds , and small , dead animals . Females lay three to four eggs , and the young fledge after twenty days . This species is listed as Least Concern , meaning it is not threatened with extinction . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described by the American ornithologist Robert Ridgway in 1885 . Its specific epithet , cucullata , is the Latin word for " hooded " . Its closest relative is the beautiful jay ( C. pulchra ) of Colombia and Ecuador ; in his 1934 study , Hellmayr treated these species as conspecific . Phylogenetic analysis published in 2009 confirmed the close relationship between the two species ; Bonaccorso speculates that the geographic ( and subsequent genetic ) separation between these species and others in the Cyanolyca genus may have been initiated by the formation of the Río Cauca Valley in western Colombia . The azure @-@ hooded jay has four subspecies . Cyanolyca cucullata mitrata is found in eastern Mexico , from San Luis Potosí to north central Oaxaca . This subspecies was initially treated as a separate species by Ridgway , but it was later merged into the azure @-@ hooded jay . C. c. guatemalae ranges from southern Mexico in Chiapas to central Guatemala . C. c. hondurensis resides in western Honduras . C. c. cucullata , the nominate subspecies , is found in Costa Rica and western Panama . = = Description = = The azure @-@ hooded jay ranges in length from 11 to 12 inches ( 28 to 30 cm ) , and it tends to weigh 35 @.@ 2 ounces ( 1 @,@ 000 g ) . Its large size and frame help the bird manage the large amount of flying it does . The adult is dark blue with black on the head and upper chest , while the rear of the crown and nape , or back of the neck , are sky blue with a white border . The legs and bill are black and the eyes are dark red . Both sexes are similar in appearance . Juveniles are duller than adults and their sky blue hood does not possess the white bordering . Its voice has been described as a loud and bright eihnk @-@ eihnk that is typically repeated four to five times . It is also known to repeat a nasal ehr @-@ ehn or eh ’ enk noise twice and give off a low , gruff , hard cheh @-@ r . The alarm and flock @-@ social calls of this species , characterized as a reek ! sound , are " nasal , querulous , and upwardly or double inflected . " = = Distribution and habitat = = This species is known from Costa Rica , Guatemala , Honduras , southeastern Mexico , and western Panama . It lives in humid evergreen forests that are sometimes interspersed with pine trees . It can be found at the edges of these forests typically in the middle and higher levels within these trees . It is also normally found only where cloud forest is uninterrupted . = = Ecology and behavior = = This corvid is known to join mixed @-@ species flocks with other species including unicolored jays and emerald toucanets . It is also known to travel in groups with two to ten other azure @-@ hooded jays . It is a skulking and secretive species , rarely coming out into the open . Because of this habit , the bird is extremely difficult to observe in the wild and not much is known about its ecology . Mates are known to preen each other , a process which entails one bird bending over in front of the other and tugging on its throat feathers . The feathers of the crown are often moving swiftly , and it is believed that the condition of a mate can be determined by this movement . Like other jays , this species is likely extremely intelligent . Similar species are known to use ants to keep their feathers clean , store seeds and nuts for later consumption , and use their toes to hold food . However , due to its secretive nature , these characteristics have not yet been observed in the species . The bird 's bright plumage makes it easy for predators to find this species . Whenever the jay feels threatened , it gives off a warning alarm call . = = = Diet = = = The azure @-@ hooded jay is omnivorous , eating berries , seeds , and small , dead animals . This species has been known to steal and eat bait from traps set for small mammals . The bird tends to forage in the forest canopy . = = = Reproduction = = = The jay ’ s nest is typically built 16 @.@ 4 to 23 feet ( 5 to 7 m ) above the ground next to a tree trunk . The base of the azure @-@ hooded jay 's first studied nest was coarsely made out of twigs that were 0 @.@ 08 to 0 @.@ 12 inches ( 2 to 3 mm ) long . That nest was about 4 @.@ 3 inches ( 11 cm ) wide inside and 7 @.@ 4 to 13 inches ( 19 to 33 cm ) wide overall depending on the length of the exterior twigs . The nest is 2 inches ( 5 cm ) deep and has an interior constructed with woven thin fibrils and twigs , and no feathers or other softening devices are used in the nest ’ s construction . In addition to building its own nest , this jay is known to reuse old , abandoned nests made by other species . Three to four eggs are normally laid . The young are typically raised in the nest between April and June and they take at least 20 days to fledge . Both parents care for the young and feed them a variety of insects , including katydids . After the young fledge , they stay close to their parents . = = Conservation = = This jay is treated as a species of Least Concern , or not threatened with extinction , by BirdLife International due to its large geographical range of about 42 @,@ 500 square miles ( 110 @,@ 000 km2 ) , population which , while unsurveyed , is believed to be above 10 @,@ 000 individuals , and lack of a 30 % population decline over the last ten years . However , the azure @-@ hooded jay is uncommon in some parts of its range . It is also believed that deforestation may have an effect on this bird . = = Relationship with humans = = Although this species has not been observed doing this , closely related jays are known to destroy and eat human @-@ planted crops such as orchards , cane , pineapples , and potatoes . The azure @-@ hooded jay has appeared on one stamp in Mexico in 1996 .
= Dnestr radar = Dnestr radar ( Russian : Днестр ) and Dnepr radar ( Russian : Днепр ) , both known by the NATO reporting name Hen House are the first generation of Soviet space surveillance and early warning radars . Six radars of this type were built around the periphery of the Soviet Union starting in the 1960s to provide ballistic missile warnings for attacks from different directions . They were the primary Soviet early warning radars for much of the later Cold War . In common with other Soviet and Russian early warning radars they are named after rivers , the Dnestr and the Dnepr . The Dnestr / Dnepr radars were intended to be replaced by the newer Daryal radars starting in the 1990s . Only two of the planned Daryal radars became operational , due to issues such as the dissolution of the Soviet Union . As of 2012 , the Russian early warning network still consists of some radars of this vintage . It is likely that all the existing radars will be replaced by the third generation Voronezh radars by 2020 . = = TsSO @-@ P = = The Dnestr radar came from work on ballistic missile defence undertaken in the late 1950s and early 1960s . System A , the prototype for the A @-@ 35 anti @-@ ballistic missile system , was set up in the Sary Shagan testing grounds , in the Kazakh SSR . : 123 Work on the system was led by design bureau KB @-@ 1 which proposed using VHF radar RTN ( Russian : РТН ) and the Dunay @-@ 2 UHF radar . Other alternatives were sought from Soviet industry and RTI proposed using VHF radar TsSO @-@ P ( Russian : ЦСО @-@ П ) and UHF radar TsSS @-@ 30 ( Russian : ЦСС @-@ 30 ) . TsSO @-@ P ( standing for Russian : центральная станция обнаружения – полигонная meaning central detection station – test site ) was selected for further development , together with the Dunay @-@ 2 . TsSO @-@ P had a long horn antenna 250 metres ( 820 ft ) long and 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high . It had an array with an open ribbed structure and used 200 microseconds pulses . Hardware methods were designed for signal processing as the intended M @-@ 4 computer could not run . It was built at area 8 in Sary Shagan and was located at 46 ° 00 ′ 04 @.@ 65 ″ N 73 ° 38 ′ 52 @.@ 11 ″ E. It first detected an object on 17 September 1961 . TsSO @-@ P took part in the 1961 and 1962 Soviet Project K nuclear tests tests above the Sary Shagan range to examine the effects of high altitude nuclear explosions on missile defence hardware . = = Dnestr = = TsSO @-@ P was effective at satellite tracking and was chosen as the radar of the Istrebitel Sputnik ( IS ) anti @-@ satellite programme . This programme involved the construction of two sites separated in latitude to form a radar field 5 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) long and 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) high . The two sites chosen were at the village of Mishelevka near Irkutsk in Siberia , which was called OS @-@ 1 , and at Cape Gulshad on Lake Balkhash near Sary Shagan , which was called OS @-@ 2 . Each site received four Dnestr radar systems in a fan arrangement . : 421 : 433 A Dnestr radar was composed of two TsSO @-@ P radar wings joined together by a two story building containing a joint computer system and command post . Each radar wing covered a 30 @-@ degree sector with a 0 @.@ 5 degree scanning beam . The elevation scanning pattern was a ' spade ' with a width of 20 degrees . The radar systems were arranged to create a fan shaped barrier . Of the four radars , called cells ( Russian : РЛЯ , tr . RLYa roughly radio location cell ) , two faced to the west and two faced to the east . All scanned between + 10 degrees and + 90 degrees in elevation . Construction at the two sites started between 1962 and 1963 with improvements in the TsSO @-@ P test model being fed back into the deployed units . They gained an M @-@ 4 2 @-@ M computer with semiconductors , although the rest of the radar used Vacuum tubes . The radar systems were completed in late 1966 with the fourth Dnestr at Balkhash being used for testing . In 1968 the Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik target satellite , DS @-@ P1 @-@ Yu , was used to test the ability of the system . The Dnestr radars were accepted for service by the Soviet Air Defence Forces in April 1967 and became part of the space surveillance network SKKP . : 434 = = Dnestr @-@ M = = Parallel with the implementation of the Dnestr space surveillance units , a modified version of the original Dnestr units , Dnestr @-@ M radar , was being developed to act as an early warning radar to identify attacks by ballistic missiles . The first two were built at Murmansk in northern Russia ( Olenegorsk – RO @-@ 1 ) and near Riga in the then Latvian SSR ( Skrunda – RO @-@ 2 ) . They constituted the beginning of the Soviet SPRN network , the equivalent of the NATO BMEWS . : 421 The first Dnestr @-@ M at Olenegorsk was completed by 1968 . In 1970 , the radars at Olenegorsk and Skrunda , and an associated command centre at Solnechnogorsk , were accepted for service . According to Podvig ( 2002 ) , it seems they were positioned to identify missile launches from NATO submarines in the Norwegian and North Seas . The Dnestr @-@ M included many improvements over the previous versions such as an increase in the pulse length from 200μs to 800μs which increased the range of objects identified , more semiconductors , and many other scanning and processing changes . A version of this radar was built at the Sary Shagan test site and was called TsSO @-@ PM ( Russian : ЦСО @-@ ПМ ) . After this had completed tests in 1965 it was decided to upgrade nodes 1 and 2 of the two OS sites to Dnestr @-@ M , keeping nodes 3 and 4 as Dnestr . These radars remained as space surveillance radars which scanned between + 10 and + 90 degrees , comparative to scanning between + 10 and + 30 degrees for the missile warning radars . A space surveillance network of four Dnestrs and four Dnestr @-@ Ms , and two command posts was formally commissioned in 1971 . = = Dnepr = = Work to improve the radar continued . An improved array was designed which covered 60 degrees rather than 30 . The first Dnepr radar was built at Balkhash as a new radar , cell 5 . It entered service on 12 May 1974 . The second was a new early warning station at Sevastopol . New Dneprs were also built at Mishelevka and another at Skrunda , and then one at Mukachevo . The remaining radars were all converted to Dnepr with the exception of cells 3 and 4 at Balkhash and Mishelevka which remained space surveillance radars . : 422 All current operational radars are described as Dnepr , and have been updated incrementally . = = Technical details = = Each Dnepr array is a double sectoral horn antenna 250m long by 12 m wide . It has two rows of slot radiators within two waveguides . At each end of the two arrays , there is a set of transmitting and receiving equipment . It emits a signal covering a sector 30 degrees in azimuth and 30 degrees in elevation , with the scanning controlled by frequency . Four sets mean the radar covers 120 degrees in azimuth and 30 degrees in elevation ( 5 to 35 degrees ) . The Dnepr involved the horn antenna being reduced from 20 to 14 metres in height and the addition of a polarising filter = = Current status = = These radars have been installed at six different radar stations and as of 2012 are operational at three – Balkhash , Mishelevka and Olenegorsk . The 1972 Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty required that early warning radars were located on the periphery of national territory and faced outwards . This caused problems when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 as many of the radar stations were now in newly independent states . The first station to close was Skrunda , in newly independent Latvia . A 1994 agreement between Russia and Latvia agreed that the two Dnepr radars there would stop working in 1998 , and would be fully demolished by 2000 . : 129 : 65 : 426 Russia signed an agreement with Ukraine in 1992 allowing it to continue using the Dnepr radars at Sevastopol and Mukachevo . The stations were run by Ukrainian personnel and data was sent to the headquarters of the Russian early warning system in Solnechnogorsk . In 2008 Russia announced that it was pulling out of the agreement with Ukraine and that the last data given to Russia from the stations would be in 2009 . : 76 The Ukrainian government announced that the stations were to be used part @-@ time for space surveillance . The station in Balkhash in Kazakhstan remains the only Dnepr operational outside Russia . It has been modernised and is run by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces . The remaining stations in Russia are due to be replaced by the Voronezh radar . The Dneprs in Mishelevka , Irkutsk will close once the second array of the new Voronezh radar is operational . The Dnepr at Olenegorsk , Murmansk will be replaced by a Voronezh as well . It is planned to start construction there in 2017 .
= Hikari ( Utada Hikaru song ) = " Hikari " ( Japanese : 光 , " light " ) is a song recorded by Japanese – American recording artist Utada Hikaru for her fourth studio and third Japanese language album , Deep River ( 2002 ) . It premiered on March 20 , 2002 as the third single from the album in Japan . It was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and long @-@ time collaborator Miyake Akira . The single , and a remix by Russell McNamara ( under the alias PlanitB ) , was used as the official Japanese theme song 's for the 2002 action role @-@ playing video game Kingdom Hearts , and appeared on its original soundtrack respectively . Musically , " Hikari " is pop folk song . Lyrically , it is about mysteries in life and human activities . Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics highlighted the track as one of Utada 's best singles , and commended her vocal abilities and songwriting . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number one both on the Oricon Singles Chart and Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV singles chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video was shot by her then @-@ husband , Kazuaki Kiriya ; it features Utada washing dishes and drinking water . It was performed on some of her concert tours , including the Utada United and Wild Life tour . To promote the international formats of Kingdom Hearts , Utada re @-@ recorded an English language version entitled " Simple & Clean " . Both the original edit and remix version by PlanitB served as international theme songs . It did not appear on Utada 's English studio Exodus ( 2004 ) , but the original version was included on her 2009 English studio album This Is the One . It was later released as an A @-@ side 12 @-@ inch single with Utada 's single " Colors " in 2003 , and received positive reviews from most music critics . = = Background and release = = In February 2000 , Japanese video game artist Tetsuya Nomura announced the development of an action role @-@ playing video game named Kingdom Hearts . According to Nomura , he only had Utada in mind to create the theme song for the video game , so he had contacted her to collaborate ; as a result , she accepted his offer . In a brief interview with IGN.com , Nomura further stated ; " Her music has moved millions of fans , and I was absolutely thrilled when she agreed to contribute to this project . I see her as an icon for young artists and she also proves that music transcends national and language barriers . " " Hikari " was written and composed by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and long @-@ time collaborator Miyake Akira . The song 's instrumentation consists of keyboards and programming handled by Kawano Kei , synthesizers from Tsunemi Kazuhide , and an acoustic guitar from Akiyama Hironori . The song was recorded by Ugajin Masaaki and mixed by Goh Hotoda in 2001 at Bunkamura Studio , Shibuya , Tokyo . It was released as the third single from her fourth studio and third Japanese language album , Deep River ( 2002 ) . Since then , the song has been remastered and re @-@ released twice ; the first on April 1 , 2004 , and the second time on December 9 , 2014 for Utada 's first greatest hits album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) . It was available on a CD single , released in Japan and Taiwan . Both formats included the original track , a remix each by Russell McNamara ( under the alias PlanitB ) and Alex Richbough ( under the alias Godson ) , plus the instrumental version . The artwork for the CD single 's were photographed by Takimoto Mikiya . It has a long @-@ distance shot of Utada in a greyish living room . A promotional 12 " vinyl was released by EastWorld Records in 2002 , and included both the remixed tracks . = = Composition = = Musically , " Hikari " is a pop folk song , as described by staff members from Japanese music magazine CD Journal . Similarly , rock musician and music journalist David Bertrand Wilson had reviewed the parent album Deep River , and described the sound and its appeal as " so commercial " . Square Enix Music 's Neo Locke described the song 's composition and melody in an extended review : " The acoustic guitar combined with the synth in the background creates a pleasant and gentle harmony that helps bring out Utada 's voice . " A reviewer from OngakuDB.com noted the acoustic guitar as one of the composition 's key elements , and described its sound as " melancholy " and a big " impact " . Similarly , Yeah ! J @-@ Pop ! editor Hiromi Yonemoto noted that the acoustic instrumentation was an " unusual " change in Utada 's normal pop musical style . Shinko Music 's Hiroshi Shinito described " Hikari " as a mid @-@ tempo ballad . According to Kano , the editor in chief of Rockin 'On Japan , he stated that the lyrical content discusses themes of mystery and daily life actions ; he furthered believed that the song 's lyrics is an open interpretation , due to its lack of major characteristics and identified philosophy and religion as examples . In an interview that promoted her fifth Japanese studio album Ultra Blue ( 2005 ) and her single " Passion " , which is the follow to " Hikari " , Utada felt the writing process was difficult . She believed that the plot to Kingdom Hearts was soulless , and was unable to become inspired by it to write the song . She further explained ; " when I was making the song ' Hikari ' , the whole outlook for the game and its entry onto the world was so crucial that I got a lot more info on the characters ( so that ' Hikari ' would mirror the image that they wanted ) . " = = Critical response = = " Hikari " received positive reviews from most music critics . Neo Locke from Square Enix Music was positive in his review , saying " ' Hikari ' has always impressed me for having a very recognizable and easy to manipulate melody despite the fact that the vocals are the only melodic line in the piece — partially due once again to Utada Hikaru 's strong and versatile voice . " He awarded the single seven out of ten points . In another positive , staff members from CD Journal complimented Utada 's " simple " and " distinctive " vocals , and her songwriting . Similarly , a reviewer from OngakuDB.com praised Utada 's vocals and expressed happiness for the song 's nostalgic vibe . Yeah ! J @-@ Pop ! editor Hiromi Yonemoto believed that " Hikari " demonstrated some of Utada 's best vocals to date , and labeled them and the song 's melody as " synergistic " . In a similar review , Shinko Music 's Hiroshi Shinito praised the songwriting and the chorus . Although describing the song in a positive manner , Sharon G. from KpopBreaks.com compared the song to many other of Utada 's music , and felt " Hikari " didn 't come close to her " true sound " . Despite Daniel Kalabakov from Soundtrack Central disliking pop songs , he complimented Utada 's singing and the track 's instrumentation . = = Commercial performance = = Commercially , " Hikari " was a success in Japan . It became her seventh single to debut at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart , with sales of 270 @,@ 370 units . It stayed at number one for a sole week , and spent a total of 20 weeks on that chart . By the end of 2002 , the single was ranked at number 10 on Oricon 's Annual 2002 chart with sales of 598 @,@ 130 units . This made " Hikari " her third single to reach inside the top ten of the yearly Oricon chart ; the other two singles being " Sakura Drops " at number six , and " Traveling " at number two . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . The single debuted at number one on Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV chart during the chart week of March 30 , 2002 , her eighth non @-@ consecutive single to do so . It stayed at the top spot for three consecutive weeks . The single stayed in the chart for 13 weeks , and was ranked at number eight on their 2002 Annual Chart . Despite it not charting on any digital record charts in Japan , it was certified gold by the RIAJ for 100 @,@ 000 full @-@ length cell phone downloads . According to the Oricon Style database , it is Utada 's 11th highest selling single . = = Music video = = An accompanying music video was filmed by her then @-@ husband , Kazuaki Kiriya . Utada intended to have " Hikari " directed by Kiriya , but the original idea was more complex and intricate . However , he was unable to submit her ideas and portray them into the video due to scheduling and work conflicts . Then , in a blog post , Utada revealed that the music video would feature her washing dishes because she found it enjoyable . She further explained ; " Actually we were to shoot the music video of ' Hikari ' with him ( Kazuaki Kiriya ) but it didn 't come true due to his scheduling conflicts at the last moment and that 's why we requested Kiriya urgently to shoot that dish @-@ washing video . " The entire four minute and 22 second video has Utada washing dishes in her kitchen ; during some portions of the video , Utada drinks water , stops washing her dishes , and walks away from the camera . According to Utada , no further editing was needed , and was completed in one take . The music video received positive reviews from critics . According to Naomi Gingfold , writing for The Global Post , she commended the departure of Utada 's general " beautiful and intricate music videos " , stating " The camera did not move once . Occasionally she lip @-@ synced along ; occasionally she just washed dishes . " Daniel Montesinos @-@ Donaghy from Noisey Vice noted and complimented Utada 's abilities in adapting to different roles through her music videos , specifically highlighting the " mundane " activity of washing dishes . A reviewer from OngakuDB.com noted a contrast between the song and the video , stating that the video had shown her " lonely " and the song more " gracious " . = = Live performances and promotion = = The song has been performed on some of Utada 's concert tours . Despite Utada 's plans to promote the song between 2002 and 2003 , she halted all promotional activities due to her diagnosis of a benign ovarian tumor , which was surgically removed that same year . Its first performance was in 2004 , during her Bokuhan concert tour ; it was included as the first song performed . It appeared on the live DVD , which was released on July 28 , 2004 . It was included on Utada 's debut English concert tour named Utada United . Featured as the closing number , it was later included on the live DVD , released on December 20 , 2006 . " Hikari " was performed during Utada 's two date concert series Wild Life in December 2010 . Since the track 's release , it has appeared on three compilation releases : Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) , it 's 2014 remastered version , and a special bundle of the compilation and the vol . 2 collection on a USB . In 2014 , Love Psychedelico recorded the song for Utada Hikaru no Uta , a tribute album celebrating 15 years since Utada 's debut . = = Simple & Clean = = To promote the international formats of Kingdom Hearts , Utada recorded an English version of " Hikari " , named " Simple & Clean " . Both the original edit and remix version by PlanitB served as the international theme songs . It did not appear on Utada 's English studio Exodus ( 2004 ) , but the original version was included on her 2009 English studio album This Is the One . It was released as an A @-@ side 12 @-@ inch single with Utada 's single " Colors " in 2003 , and received positive reviews from most music critics . It has been performed on two of Utada 's concerts , these being Utada United in 2006 and In The Flesh 2010 . = = = Background and composition = = = Much of the song 's production is similar to the Japanese version ; it was written and composed by Utada , whilst production was handled by Utada , her father Teruzane Utada , and Miyake Akira . The song included live instrumentation by Kawano Kei ( keyboards and programming ) , Tsunemi Kazuhide ( synthesizers ) , and Akiyama Hironori ( acoustic guitar ) , whilst it was arranged by Utada and Kawano Kei . The song was recorded by Ugajin Masaaki and mixed by Goh Hotoda in 2001 at Bunkamura Studio , Shibuya , Tokyo . The song was also remixed by Russell McNamara ( under the alias PlanitB ) . Like the Japanese version , Utada felt the writing process was difficult . Musically , " Simple & Clean " is a pop folk song , as described by staff members from Japanese music magazine CD Journal . Utada explained the song process in a detailed interview with Jetanny Magazine ; " ... that was so hard , it 's just , and it felt strained , and as a result , I 'm happy that I worked hard to do those , because those English versions are really good and " Simple and Clean , " I think , is a really good song , and people- most of the people that know me here , they know me for that- but it 's not ideal for me as a writer , to- because , actually , I changed the melodies for " Simple and Clean " and " Hikari , " because when you change the language you 're singing in , the same melodies don 't work- and as a writer , it 's just very frustrating to have , like- I wrote these melodies for Japanese words , and to have to write in English for that , it 's just not right . And then , so , for this , uh , this contract with Island Def Jam , in the beginning I separated it to this English language album , and I don 't do Japanese translations . I just , my integrity as an artist just would not take that , could not take that . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , the song is written in the key of B ♭ major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 84 beats per minute . Utada 's vocal range spans between the notes G3 to G5 , specifically between the chorus lyrics ; " When you walk away / You don 't hear me say / Please oh baby don 't go / Simple and clean is the way that you 're making me feel tonight / It 's hard to let it go " . = = = Release and reception = = = The original edit and PlanitB remix of " Simple & Clean " first appeared on Utada 's single " Colors " as a B @-@ side , which was released on January 29 , 2003 . It was also available on the Taiwanese versions of " Colors " , released in mid @-@ 2003 . Near the end of 2003 , " Simple & Clean " was released as an A @-@ side 12 @-@ inch single with " Colors " in Japan ; it included the original and PlanitB remix . The original version was included on her 2009 English studio album This Is the One . Upon its release , " Simple & Clean " received positive reviews from most music critics . Benjamin Turner from GameSpy was impressed by the translation of " Hikari " into English , and felt Utada 's vocals were a good addition to the opening and ending segments of the game . Michael Pascua from BlogCritics.org was generally positive , stating in a detail review ; " Utada made a smart decision with the physical release of the CD : she included the songs “ Simple and Clean ” and “ Sanctuary ” from the Kingdom Hearts series . Both songs showcase a strong musical style that isn ’ t necessarily in the R & B flare that This is the One provides . They also help connect any video game player who hasn ’ t necessarily listened to any of her Japanese albums or even knew that she had another English album . " He also labelled the song and " Sanctuary " " happy additions " to This Is The One . = = = Live performances and promotions = = = The song has been performed on some of Utada 's concert tours . Its first performance was at a special event that celebrated Utada 's 20th birthday in Japan on January 19 , 2003 ; she sung " Simple & Clean " as the encore track . Throughout the song , she performed the acoustic guitar . When Kingdom Hearts was released in North America , Utada performed the song ; this was one of Utada 's first performances outside on Japan . Despite Utada 's plans to promote the song between 2002 and 2003 , she halted all promotional activities due to her diagnosis of a benign ovarian tumor , which was surgically removed that same year . Its most recent performance was in 2010 , which was included on her Utada : In the Flesh 2010 concert tour in North America and the United Kingdom . = = Legacy = = When the single was released and promoted through Kingdom Hearts , " Hikari " and " Simple & Clean " were widely considered a " hot topic " around the world of music , as described by a staff member at OngakuDB.com. Their inclusion in the video game 's respective international versions was successful , as Kingdom Hearts sold over 4 @.@ 78 million units worldwide , subsequently earning the rank of being the tenth best selling PlayStation 2 video game . Both songs were then included on the spin @-@ off titles : Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories ( 2004 ) , Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep ( 2010 ) , and the remix versions Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix ( 2013 ) and Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 5 Remix ( 2014 ) . The first two games , alongside the original release , sold over 5 @.@ 9 million units worldwide together . Both the original and remix versions of the two songs ( alongside an orchestral instrumental by Kingdom Hearts composer Yoko Shimomura ) were included on the first soundtrack , and the HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix soundtrack . Due to the success of the songs , Utada was invited to record another track for the original video game 's sequel , Kingdom Hearts II ( 2007 ) . This track was the Japanese written " Passion " , which was re @-@ written to " Sanctuary " as part of the international releases . Jeff Chuang from Japanator.com believed that " Simple & Clean " is what Utada is " best known for " by her fans outside of Japan . Similarly , Emily Goodman from Axs.com believed that " Simple & Clean " was her most successful work outside of Japan . " Hikari " and " Simple & Clean " are often cited as " one of the best video game songs in recent history " , as described by Dannii C. from Celebmix.com. Alex Hanavan from The Young Folks listed the orchestral version of " Hikari " , which also appeared during the credits section of Kingdom Hearts , at number two on their " Top Ten Video Game Theme Songs " . He stated his reason through his extended review ; " Kingdom Hearts has several ' theme songs ' but the orchestrated version of ' Hikari ' takes the cake with all the makings of a grand adventure . It resonates with the many themes of the games : friendship , teamwork , and adventure . ' Hikari ' undoubtedly brings back wealth of memories for any fan of the franchise . " GameFaqs 's editor Pierce Sparrow listed both " Simple & Clean " and " Sanctuary " at number two on their " Top Ten Lyrical Songs for a Video Game " . Sparrow stated : " It was a little too difficult for me to choose just one of the songs , seeing as they have very similar qualities ... I doubt that anyone will disagree that these are two of the greatest theme songs ever produced . " " Hikari " brought Utada a number of accolades and award nominations . In 2008 , the Guinness World Records listed the track as the best @-@ selling video game single in Japan , and was included on the 2008 Gamer 's Edition book ; this is Utada 's first , and current , induction into this . At the 17th Japan Gold Disc Awards in 2003 , Utada won the Song of the Year award ; she had also won two awards with the same name that year for her single 's " Sakura Drops " and " Colors " . Similarly , she also received the Silver Award for Foreign Production recognition at the 2003 Japanese Society for Rights of Authors , Composers and Publishers Awards ( JASRAC ) . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Hikari " was ranked at number three with 97 votes in total . = = = Accolades = = = = = Track listings and formats = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits and personnel adapted by the CD liner notes of " Hikari " and " Colors " . = = Chart and certifications = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Thomas H. Tongue = Thomas H. Tongue ( June 23 , 1844 – January 11 , 1903 ) was an American politician and attorney in the state of Oregon . Born in England , his family immigrated to Washington County , Oregon , in 1859 . In Oregon , he would serve in the State Senate from 1889 to 1893 and was the seventh mayor of Hillsboro . A Republican , he was chairman of the state party , and national convention delegate in 1892 . Tongue served as Congressman from 1897 to 1903 representing Oregon 's 1st congressional district . = = Early life = = Thomas H. Tongue was born in Lincolnshire , England , on June 23 , 1844 . He attended the public schools of England before immigrating to the United States with his parents . The family settled in Washington County , Oregon , in the Tualatin Valley on November 23 , 1859 . His parents Rebecca and Anthony Tongue had a house west of North Plains . In Oregon , Tongue attended the Tualatin Academy preparatory school in nearby Forest Grove . He then enrolled at Pacific University , a college affiliated with Tualatin Academy , and graduated from the school in June 1868 . After graduating he moved to Hillsboro , the county seat of Washington County , where he studied law . On December 25 , 1869 , he married Emily Margaret Eagleton , daughter of George Eagleton . = = Career = = Tongue was admitted to the Oregon State Bar in 1870 and began private legal practice in Hillsboro . While practicing law he was also a farmer and raised livestock while a member of the Knights of Pythias and Odd Fellows . Also a member of the Masonic Order , he served as a grand master in that organization . Tongue started his political career as mayor of Hillsboro , serving two terms . He was elected in 1882 as the seventh person to hold that office , serving from December 13 , 1882 , to December 10 , 1883 . He would serve a second term three years later from December 13 , 1886 to December 9 , 1887 . In 1884 , he purchased the former fairgrounds where the Washington County Fair had been held for approximately 15 years . The 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) were south of First Avenue and Baseline in present @-@ day downtown Hillsboro , with Tongue using the land for his hobby farm . In 1888 , Tongue was elected to a four @-@ year term in the Oregon State Senate . Serving in both the 1889 and 1891 sessions , the Republican represented District 27 and Washington County . While in the State Senate he was selected as the chairperson of the judiciary committee . He replaced William D. Hare as both mayor and state senator . A Republican Party official , Tongue served on the party 's state central committee from 1886 to 1896 . In 1890 , he was elected to the post of chairman for the Republican state convention and followed that position as president of the state party from 1892 to 1894 . In 1892 , Oregon received a second congressional district , and Tongue served as the Republican party 's chairman for the district until 1896 . Also in 1892 , Tongue served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention held in Minneapolis , Minnesota , and served as the vice president of the Oregon delegation to the convention in 1894 . = = Congress = = Thomas Tongue was elected in 1896 as a Republican to the 55th Congress from Oregon 's 1st congressional district . Replacing Binger Hermann , Tongue won by a total of 63 votes over his opponents . He was re @-@ elected three times and served in the 56th and 57th United States Congresses . Tongue also won re @-@ election in 1902 to the 58th Congress , but died before that session began . In the 1898 campaign he defeated three opponents led by Fusion Party candidate Robert M. Veatch , winning by 2 @,@ 037 votes over Veatch . Tongue won by 3 @,@ 100 votes in 1900 and by 7 @,@ 318 votes in the 1902 campaign . On March 4 , 1897 , he began serving in the United States House of Representatives and remained until his death in Washington , D.C. , on January 11 , 1903 , before the start of what would have been a fourth term . In Congress , Tongue was chairman of the Committee on Irrigation of Arid Lands during both the 56th and 57th Congresses . He served alongside William R. Ellis and Malcolm Adelbert Moody as Oregon 's House delegates . While in Congress , Tongue advocated for the creation of a national park for Crater Lake in Southern Oregon . He introduced bills to create the park in 1898 , 1899 , and finally in 1901 when the bill was passed by Congress . In May 1902 , Crater Lake National Park became the United States ' fifth national park when President Theodore Roosevelt signed the bill into law . After Tongue 's death , Binger Hermann , who Tongue succeeded in Congress , was elected to complete Tongue 's term . Thomas Brackett Reed , Speaker of the House during Tongue 's first two terms , considered Tongue " one of the seven ablest men in the House . " = = Family = = Tongue and his wife , the former Margarite Eagleton , had eight children : Edmund Burke Tongue , Edwin Tongue , Mary G. Lombard , Thomas H. Tongue , Jr . , Elizabeth Fey , Florence Munger , Bertha Rebecca Tongue , and Edith . Edith married Alfred E. Reames , who would serve in the United States Senate . Thomas Tongue , Jr. and Edmund both became lawyers , with the older Edmund forming a legal partnership with his father in 1897 . Congressman Tongue was buried in Hillsboro , Oregon , at the family 's private plot next to the Masonic Cemetery ( now Pioneer Cemetery ) . Tongue was the grandfather of Thomas H. Tongue III ( 1912 – 1994 ) , who served as an associate justice on the Oregon Supreme Court .
= Jürgen Ehlers = Jürgen Ehlers ( German : [ ˈjʏʁɡŋ ̩ ˈeːlɐs ] ; 29 December 1929 – 20 May 2008 ) was a German physicist who contributed to the understanding of Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity . From graduate and postgraduate work in Pascual Jordan 's relativity research group at Hamburg University , he held various posts as a lecturer and , later , as a professor before joining the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics in Munich as a director . In 1995 , he became the founding director of the newly created Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics in Potsdam , Germany . Ehlers ' research focused on the foundations of general relativity as well as on the theory 's applications to astrophysics . He formulated a suitable classification of exact solutions to Einstein 's field equations and proved the Ehlers – Geren – Sachs theorem that justifies the application of simple , general @-@ relativistic model universes to modern cosmology . He created a spacetime @-@ oriented description of gravitational lensing and clarified the relationship between models formulated within the framework of general relativity and those of Newtonian gravity . In addition , Ehlers had a keen interest in both the history and philosophy of physics and was an ardent populariser of science . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Jürgen Ehlers was born in Hamburg . He attended public schools from 1936 to 1949 , and then went on to study physics , mathematics and philosophy at Hamburg University from 1949 to 1955 . In the winter term of 1955 – 56 , he passed the high school teacher 's examination ( Staatsexamen ) , but instead of becoming a teacher undertook graduate research with Pascual Jordan , who acted as his thesis advisor . Ehlers ' doctoral work was on the construction and characterization of solutions of the Einstein field equations . He earned his doctorate in physics from Hamburg University in 1958 . Prior to Ehlers ' arrival , the main research of Jordan 's group had been dedicated to a scalar @-@ tensor modification of general relativity that later became known as Jordan – Brans – Dicke theory . This theory differs from general relativity in that the gravitational constant is replaced by a variable field . Ehlers was instrumental in changing the group 's focus to the structure and interpretation of Einstein 's original theory . Other members of the group included Wolfgang Kundt , Rainer K. Sachs and Manfred Trümper . The group had a close working relationship with Otto Heckmann and his student Engelbert Schücking at Hamburger Sternwarte , the city 's observatory . Guests at the group 's colloquium included Wolfgang Pauli , Joshua Goldberg and Peter Bergmann . In 1961 , as Jordan 's assistant , Ehlers earned his habilitation , qualifying him for a German professorship . He then held teaching and research positions in Germany and in the US , namely at the University of Kiel , Syracuse University and Hamburg University . From 1964 to 1965 , he was at the Graduate Research Center of the Southwest in Dallas . From 1965 to 1971 , he held various positions in Alfred Schild 's group at the University of Texas at Austin , starting as an associate professor and , in 1967 , obtaining a position as full professor . During that time , he held visiting professorships at the universities of Würzburg and Bonn . = = = Munich = = = In 1970 , Ehlers received an offer to join the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics in Munich as the director of its gravitational theory department . Ehlers had been suggested by Ludwig Biermann , the institute 's director at the time . When Ehlers joined the institute in 1971 , he also became an adjunct professor at Munich 's Ludwig Maximilian University . In March 1991 , the institute split into the Max Planck Institute for Physics and the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics , where Ehlers ' department found a home . Over the 24 years of his tenure , his research group was home to , among others , Gary Gibbons , John Stewart and Bernd Schmidt , as well as visiting scientists including Abhay Ashtekar , Demetrios Christodoulou and Brandon Carter . One of Ehlers ' postdoctoral students in Munich was Reinhard Breuer , who later became editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Spektrum der Wissenschaft , the German edition of the popular @-@ science journal Scientific American . = = = Potsdam = = = When German science institutions reorganized after German reunification in 1990 , Ehlers lobbied for the establishment of an institute of the Max Planck Society dedicated to research on gravitational theory . On 9 June 1994 , the Society decided to open the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics in Potsdam . The institute started operations on 1 April 1995 , with Ehlers as its founding director and as the leader of its department for the foundations and mathematics of general relativity . Ehlers then oversaw the founding of a second institute department devoted to gravitational wave research and headed by Bernard F. Schutz . On 31 December 1998 , Ehlers retired to become founding director emeritus . Ehlers continued to work at the institute until his death on 20 May 2008 . He left behind his wife Anita Ehlers , his four children , Martin , Kathrin , David , and Max , as well as five grandchildren . = = Research = = Ehlers ' research was in the field of general relativity . In particular , he made contributions to cosmology , the theory of gravitational lenses and gravitational waves . His principal concern was to clarify general relativity 's mathematical structure and its consequences , separating rigorous proofs from heuristic conjectures . = = = Exact solutions = = = For his doctoral thesis , Ehlers turned to a question that was to shape his lifetime research . He sought exact solutions of Einstein 's equations : model universes consistent with the laws of general relativity that are simple enough to allow for an explicit description in terms of basic mathematical expressions . These exact solutions play a key role when it comes to building general @-@ relativistic models of physical situations . However , general relativity is a fully covariant theory – its laws are the same , independent of which coordinates are chosen to describe a given situation . One direct consequence is that two apparently different exact solutions could correspond to the same model universe , and differ only in their coordinates . Ehlers began to look for serviceable ways of characterizing exact solutions invariantly , that is , in ways that do not depend on coordinate choice . In order to do so , he examined ways of describing the intrinsic geometric properties of the known exact solutions . During the 1960s , following up on his doctoral thesis , Ehlers published a series of papers , all but one in collaboration with colleagues from the Hamburg group , which later became known as the " Hamburg Bible " . The first paper , written with Jordan and Kundt , is a treatise on how to characterize exact solutions to Einstein 's field equations in a systematic way . The analysis presented there uses tools from differential geometry such as the Petrov classification of Weyl tensors ( that is , those parts of the Riemann tensor describing the curvature of space @-@ time that are not constrained by Einstein 's equations ) , isometry groups and conformal transformations . This work also includes the first definition and classification of pp @-@ waves , a class of simple gravitational waves . The following papers in the series were treatises on gravitational radiation ( one with Sachs , one with Trümper ) . The work with Sachs studies , among other things , vacuum solutions with special algebraic properties , using the 2 @-@ component spinor formalism . It also gives a systematic exposition of the geometric properties of bundles ( in mathematical terms : congruences ) of light beams . Spacetime geometry can influence the propagation of light , making them converge on or diverge from each other , or deforming the bundle 's cross section without changing its area . The paper formalizes these possible changes in the bundle in terms of the bundle 's expansion ( convergence / divergence ) , and twist and shear ( cross @-@ section area @-@ conserving deformation ) , linking those properties to spacetime geometry . One result is the Ehlers @-@ Sachs theorem describing the properties of the shadow produced by a narrow beam of light encountering an opaque object . The tools developed in that work would prove essential for the discovery by Roy Kerr of his Kerr solution , describing a rotating black hole – one of the most important exact solutions . The last of these seminal papers addressed the general @-@ relativistic treatment of the mechanics of continuous media . However useful the notion of a point mass may be in classical physics ; in general relativity , such an idealized mass concentration into a single point of space is not even well @-@ defined . That is why relativistic hydrodynamics , that is , the study of continuous media , is an essential part of model @-@ building in general relativity . The paper systematically describes the basic concepts and models in what the editor of the journal General Relativity and Gravitation , on the occasion of publishing an English translation 32 years after the original publication date , called " one of the best reviews in this area " . Another part of Ehlers ' exploration of exact solutions in his thesis led to a result that proved important later . At the time Ehlers started his research on his doctoral thesis , the Golden age of general relativity had not yet begun and the basic properties and concepts of black holes were not yet understood . In the work that led to his doctoral thesis , Ehlers proved important properties of the surface around a black hole that would later be identified as its horizon , in particular that the gravitational field inside cannot be static , but must change over time . The simplest example of this is the " Einstein @-@ Rosen bridge " , or Schwarzschild wormhole that is part of the Schwarzschild solution describing an idealized , spherically symmetric black hole : the interior of the horizon houses a bridge @-@ like connection that changes over time , collapsing sufficiently quickly to keep any space @-@ traveler from traveling through the wormhole . = = = Ehlers group = = = In physics , duality means that two equivalent descriptions of a particular physical situation exist , using different physical concepts . This is a special case of a physical symmetry , that is , a change that preserves key features of a physical system . A simple example for a duality is that between the electric field E and the magnetic field B electrodynamics : In the complete absence of electrical charges , the replacement E <formula> – B , B <formula> E leaves Maxwell 's equations invariant . Whenever a particular pair of expressions for B and E conform to the laws of electrodynamics , switching the two expressions around and adding a minus sign to the new B is also valid . In his doctoral thesis , Ehlers pointed out a duality symmetry between different components of the metric of a stationary vacuum spacetime , which maps solutions of Einstein 's field equations to other solutions . This symmetry between the tt @-@ component of the metric , which describes time as measured by clocks whose spatial coordinates do not change , and a term known as the twist potential is analogous to the aforementioned duality between E and B. The duality discovered by Ehlers was later expanded to a larger symmetry corresponding to the special linear group <formula> . This larger symmetry group has since become known as the Ehlers group . Its discovery led to further generalizations , notably the infinite @-@ dimensional Geroch group ( the Geroch group is generated by two non @-@ commuting subgroups , one of which is the Ehlers group ) . These so @-@ called hidden symmetries play an important role in the Kaluza – Klein reduction of both general relativity and its generalizations , such as eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity . Other applications include their use as a tool in the discovery of previously unknown solutions and their role in a proof that solutions in the stationary axi @-@ symmetric case form an integrable system . = = = Cosmology : Ehlers – Geren – Sachs theorem = = = The Ehlers – Geren – Sachs theorem , published in 1968 , shows that in a given universe , if all freely falling observers measure the cosmic background radiation to have exactly the same properties in all directions ( that is , they measure the background radiation to be isotropic ) , then that universe is an isotropic and homogeneous Friedmann – Lemaître spacetime . Cosmic isotropy and homogeneity are important as they are the basis of the modern standard model of cosmology . = = = Fundamental concepts in general relativity = = = In the 1960s , Ehlers collaborated with Felix Pirani and Alfred Schild on a constructive @-@ axiomatic approach to general relativity : a way of deriving the theory from a minimal set of elementary objects and a set of axioms specifying these objects ' properties . The basic ingredients of their approach are primitive concepts such as event , light ray , particle and freely falling particle . At the outset , spacetime is a mere set of events , without any further structure . They postulated the basic properties of light and freely falling particles as axioms , and with their help constructed the differential topology , conformal structure and , finally , the metric structure of spacetime , that is : the notion of when two events are close to each other , the role of light rays in linking up events , and a notion of distance between events . Key steps of the construction correspond to idealized measurements , such the standard range finding used in radar . The final step derived Einstein 's equations from the weakest possible set of additional axioms . The result is a formulation that clearly identifies the assumptions underlying general relativity . In the 1970s , in collaboration with Ekkart Rudolph , Ehlers addressed the problem of rigid bodies in general relativity . Rigid bodies are a fundamental concept in classical physics . However , the fact that by definition their different parts move simultaneously is incompatible with the relativistic concept of the speed of light as a limiting speed for the propagation of signals and other influences . While , as early as 1909 , Max Born had given a definition of rigidity that was compatible with relativistic physics , his definition depends on assumptions that are not satisfied in a general space @-@ time , and are thus overly restrictive . Ehlers and Rudolph generalized Born 's definition to a more readily applicable definition they called " pseudo @-@ rigidity " , which represents a more satisfactory approximation to the rigidity of classical physics . = = = Gravitational lensing = = = With Peter Schneider , Ehlers embarked on an in @-@ depth study of the foundations of gravitational lensing . One result of this work was a 1992 monograph co @-@ authored with Schneider and Emilio Falco . It was the first systematic exposition of the topic that included both the theoretical foundations and the observational results . From the viewpoint of astronomy , gravitational lensing is often described using a quasi @-@ Newtonian approximation — assuming the gravitational field to be small and the deflection angles to be minute — which is perfectly sufficient for most situations of astrophysical relevance . In contrast , the monograph developed a thorough and complete description of gravitational lensing from a fully relativistic space @-@ time perspective . This feature of the book played a major part in its long @-@ term positive reception . In the following years , Ehlers continued his research on the propagation of bundles of light in arbitrary spacetimes . = = = Frame theory and Newtonian gravity = = = A basic derivation of the Newtonian limit of general relativity is as old as the theory itself . Einstein used it to derive predictions such as the anomalous perihelion precession of the planet Mercury . Later work by Élie Cartan , Kurt Friedrichs and others showed more concretely how a geometrical generalization of Newton 's theory of gravity known as Newton – Cartan theory could be understood as a ( degenerate ) limit of general relativity . This required letting a specific parameter <formula> go to zero . Ehlers extended this work by developing a frame theory that allowed for constructing the Newton – Cartan limit , and in a mathematically precise way , not only for the physical laws , but for any spacetime obeying those laws ( that is , solutions of Einstein 's equations ) . This allowed physicists to explore what the Newtonian limit meant in specific physical situations . For example , the frame theory can be used to show that the Newtonian limit of a Schwarzschild black hole is a simple point particle . Also , it allows Newtonian versions of exact solutions such as the Friedmann – Lemaître models or the Gödel universe to be constructed . Since its inception , ideas Ehlers introduced in the context of his frame theory have found important applications in the study of both the Newtonian limit of general relativity and of the Post @-@ Newtonian expansion , where Newtonian gravity is complemented by terms of ever higher order in <formula> in order to accommodate relativistic effects . General relativity is non @-@ linear : the gravitational influence of two masses is not simply the sum of those masses ' individual gravitational influences , as had been the case in Newtonian gravity . Ehlers participated in the discussion of how the back @-@ reaction from gravitational radiation onto a radiating system could be systematically described in a non @-@ linear theory such as general relativity , pointing out that the standard quadrupole formula for the energy flux for systems like the binary pulsar had not ( yet ) been rigorously derived : a priori , a derivation demanded the inclusion of higher @-@ order terms than was commonly assumed , higher than were computed until then . His work on the Newtonian limit , particularly in relation to cosmological solutions , led Ehlers , together with his former doctoral student Thomas Buchert , to a systematic study of perturbations and inhomogeneities in a Newtonian cosmos . This laid the groundwork for Buchert 's later generalization of this treatment of inhomogeneities . This generalization was the basis of his attempt to explain what is currently seen as the cosmic effects of a cosmological constant or , in modern parlance , dark energy , as a non @-@ linear consequence of inhomogeneities in general @-@ relativistic cosmology . = = = History and philosophy of physics = = = Complementing his interest in the foundations of general relativity and , more generally , of physics , Ehlers researched the history of physics . Up until his death , he collaborated in a project on the history of quantum theory at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin . In particular , he explored Pascual Jordan 's seminal contributions to the development of quantum field theory between 1925 and 1928 . Throughout his career , Ehlers had an interest in the philosophical foundations and implications of physics and contributed to research on this topic by addressing questions such as the basic status of scientific knowledge in physics . = = = Science popularization = = = Ehlers showed a keen interest in reaching a general audience . He was a frequent public lecturer , at universities as well as at venues such as the Urania in Berlin . He authored popular @-@ science articles , including contributions to general @-@ audience journals such as Bild der Wissenschaft . He edited a compilation of articles on gravity for the German edition of Scientific American . Ehlers directly addressed physics teachers , in talks and journal articles on the teaching of relativity and related basic ideas , such as mathematics as the language of physics . = = Honours and awards = = Ehlers became a member of the Berlin @-@ Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities ( 1993 ) , the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur , Mainz ( 1972 ) , the Leopoldina in Halle ( 1975 ) and the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in Munich ( 1979 ) . From 1995 to 1998 , he served as president of the International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation . He also received the 2002 Max Planck Medal of the German Physical Society , the Volta Gold Medal of Pavia University ( 2005 ) and the medal of the Faculty of Natural Sciences of Charles University , Prague ( 2007 ) . In 2008 , the International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation instituted the " Jürgen Ehlers Thesis Prize " in commemoration of Ehlers . It is sponsored by the scientific publishing house Springer and is awarded triennially , at the society 's international conference , to the best doctoral thesis in the areas of mathematical and numerical general relativity . Issue 9 of volume 41 of the journal General Relativity and Gravitation was dedicated to Ehlers , in memoriam . = = Selected publications = = Börner , G. ; Ehlers , J. , eds . ( 1996 ) , Gravitation , Spektrum Akademischer Verlag , ISBN 3 @-@ 86025 @-@ 362 @-@ X Ehlers , Jürgen ( 1973 ) , " Survey of general relativity theory " , in Israel , Werner , Relativity , Astrophysics and Cosmology , D. Reidel , pp. 1 – 125 , ISBN 90 @-@ 277 @-@ 0369 @-@ 8 Schneider , P. ; Ehlers , J. ; Falco , E. E. ( 1992 ) , Gravitational lenses , Springer , ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 66506 @-@ 4
= Anniemal = Anniemal is the debut album by Norwegian recording artist Annie . It was first released by 679 Recordings in September 2004 . Annie began recording music in 1999 with her boyfriend , Tore Kroknes , who died in 2001 . She returned to recording later that year , collaborating with Richard X , Röyksopp , and Timo Kaukolampi . The album combines Annie 's thin , airy vocals with heavily layered beats . It is heavily influenced by 1980s dance @-@ pop . Upon release , the album was successful in Norway . Blogs leaked tracks from Anniemal before it was released internationally , and publications from other countries soon praised the album for its blissful but melancholic sound . Before releasing the album internationally in 2005 , Annie 's record label 679 Recordings was not confident in the album 's ability to achieve commercial success overseas , so it did not heavily promote Anniemal . The album eventually sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . It yielded four singles : " Chewing Gum " , " Heartbeat " , " Happy Without You " , and " Always Too Late " . = = Background and development = = In the late 1990s , Annie held a monthly DJ night called Pop Till You Drop with friend Frøken Blytt in her hometown of Bergen , Norway . There she met producer Tore Kroknes , and the two began dating . Annie and Kroknes borrowed a small studio from downtempo duo Röyksopp to record her debut single " The Greatest Hit " . The song , which uses a sample of Madonna 's 1982 dance @-@ pop single " Everybody " , had a limited edition release in 1999 . It became an underground hit at clubs in Norway and Britain , resulting in offers for record deals . The two recorded Annie 's second single , titled " I Will Get On " . She focused on vocals and melodies in music , and Kroknes concentrated on production , influenced by techno , disco and house music . As she began to work on her debut album , Kroknes became ill due to a heart defect . He died eighteen months later , in April 2001 . Because of their plan to make the album together , Annie struggled with the idea of collaborating with anyone else and stopped work on it entirely . Half a year passed before Annie returned to music . She asked Timo Kaukolampi from Finnish electronic group Op : l Bastards to DJ in Bergen . Starting with a song titled " Kiss Me " , he had Annie contribute vocals to some of his tracks . She asked Kaukolampi to work on the album , and he produced nine of its songs for her . She could not afford to rent a studio , so Annie recorded demos by asking to use local studios at night or borrowing one owned by her friend . In late 2003 , Annie signed with 679 Recordings , and the advance enabled her to complete the record . Producer Richard X , impressed with " The Greatest Hit " , asked her to record vocals for his debut album Richard X Presents His X @-@ Factor Vol . 1 . In exchange , he contributed " Chewing Gum " and " Me Plus One " , both written with Hannah Robinson . Annie also worked with Röyksopp , who co @-@ wrote and produced three songs on the album . Rather than recording and selecting from a large number of songs , Annie stopped after around thirteen and compiled the tracklist . She selected the title Anniemal based on a suggestion by Kroknes . The two had planned on writing a song titled " Anniemal " , so she chose it as the album 's title because to her , " it just made sense . Anniemal is simple and easy and good . " = = Composition = = When working on songs , Annie was involved with the whole recording and production processes , with a focus on the melodies . Annie stated that while promoting the album , she wanted to make sure people knew of her involvement in the album 's writing and production . Of its twelve songs , ten were co @-@ written by Annie . She stated that although singing songs written by someone else might not feel less personal , " It 's special to be on the stage and actually sing something you had done . " With respect to her involvement in the songwriting process , Annie referred to herself as " a bit of a control freak " . The lyrics of Anniemal generally describe falling in or out of love . Annie 's vocals are thin and breathy , working within a narrow vocal range . Reviewers noted a sense of melancholy in the vocals , suggesting that it could be attributed to the death of Kroknes . Annie acknowledged that none of the songs " are directly happy " and that some are " happy but still a bit melancholy . " She stated that she thought bittersweet melodies " [ sound ] timeless … Very Scandinavian of me ! " She insisted , however , that she tries to write songs that are cheerful : " For me , it 's really easy to write depressive songs and that 's why I never do that . I try to do songs that are a bit happier and a bit more complicated . I think there are too many songwriters writing sad , depressive songs , and I find it really boring , listening to music where people are just complaining . People should stop whining ! I find it much more challenging to make songs that are pop songs , to make happy songs , and that 's why I like to do it . I really like to make quite hopeful , happy music with a little bit of melancholy in it , with a little spice of melancholy . " Anniemal focuses on heavily layered beats , with a strong 1980s influence . Annie was influenced by 1980s dance @-@ pop , and on " No Easy Love " , she includes a sample of Shakatak 's 1982 song " Easier Said Than Done " . Unlike many of her contemporaries , Annie avoids using an ironic or kitschy in her take on 1980s music . The songs ' styles span genres including bubblegum pop , electro , disco , R & B , dance @-@ pop , and rock . Annie 's DJing experiences taught her about sound and production and had an impact on her music . She stated that she wanted to make a pop album that would not quickly become dated , " an album that you could listen to in five years and it wouldn 't sound terrible . " Annie considered excluding " Greatest Hit " from Anniemal to achieve this but ultimately included it because she felt it did not sound as if it were five years old . = = Critical reception = = Anniemal received acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 81 , based on 23 reviews , which indicates " universal acclaim " . Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork Media referred to the songs as a " dozen slices of stylish , sophisticated electro @-@ pop , crisp tracks that move between the fizzy and the woozy , all anchored by Annie 's breathy ( sometimes almost muted ) vocals . " The site 's endorsement was uncommon during a period when sites covering independent music were often dismissive of pop acts . In his review for AllMusic , Andy Kellman described Anniemal as " cunning " but also " deeply affecting " . Dylan Hicks ' review for The Village Voice stated that the blogosphere and British music press overrated Anniemal but that " an overrated good record is still a good record " . Jody Rosen wrote for The New York Times that the album " is a true album , strong from top to bottom " and that " there is charm in [ Annie 's ] deadpan delivery , and her songwriting is full of the flair for melody for which Scandinavian pop is famous . " Rosen also contributed a review to Slate , where she noted that " other singers have made whole careers out of singles less winning than ' Chewing Gum , ' but [ Anniemal ] includes several other superb songs " . Kitty Empire 's review in The Observer stated that the album 's songs " boast a winning combination of innocence and experience , breezy blonde melodies and just @-@ so productions " . PopMatters ' Pierre Hamilton called Anniemal " riveting " for how " it lacks the waxy sheen " that listeners were used to hearing in manufactured pop music . However , a second PopMatters review , written by Rob Horning , criticised the album for using a similar formula to previous generations of electropop , adding that the result was " exquisitely empty … enough to suck the feelings out of its listeners and leave them happily vacant , blank and unburdened . " In his review for Billboard magazine , Michael Paoletta described the album as " slinky and sensual , cool and classy , fun and fiery " and labeled it " one of the best debut albums of 2005 . " Several reviewers drew parallels between mainstream pop acts and Annie . Entertainment Weekly 's Raymond Fiore called the album an " addictive " debut where Annie " flaunts whispery Kylie cool and old @-@ school @-@ Madonna cheekiness " , but added that " this sugar rush of an album proves … candy is best consumed in moderation . " Hua Hsu of Blender magazine made a similar comparison , proclaiming Annie the " Kylie Minogue hipsters don 't have to feel guilty about liking " . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone touted how the album " comes packed with both instant surface fizz and quirky finesse that sustains repeated listenings " , and ending his review , " Goodbye , Britney . Hello , Annie . " Pitchfork listed Anniemal at number fifteen on its list of the top fifty albums of 2004 , stating that its strength was how " its downtime feels so decidedly personal " , and the album appeared at number 167 on Pitchfork 's list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s . The album was placed on Slant Magazine 's list of best albums of the 2000s at number twenty @-@ three . Rolling Stone ranked Anniemal number thirty @-@ nine on its " Top 50 Records of 2005 " list , exclaiming , " Hail the Norse goddess . " = = Release and commercial performance = = 679 Recordings first released Anniemal in Norway on 28 September 2004 . The album debuted at its peak of number six on the Norwegian Albums Chart . It won in the pop category at the 2005 Alarm Prizes , and Annie won for newcomer of the year . She again won for Newcomer of the Year at Spellemannprisen 2005 , where she was invited to present an award . Following the album 's Norwegian release , the songs were leaked onto the Internet , and some appeared on year @-@ end best @-@ of lists in other countries . Annie stated that she had not expected North American publications to show interest in the album because she thought " the record sounds really European . " The songs reached an international audience through online blogs , message boards , and file @-@ sharing networks before they had been released outside Scandinavia . This was more common for independent bands , and Annie became the first European dance @-@ pop musician to cultivate an underground fanbase this way . 679 released the album in the rest of Europe during early 2005 but was unsure how to categorise and market Anniemal . It asked Annie about artists like Goldfrapp whose audiences 679 thought it should target . Uncertain that the album 's Internet hype would significantly bolster the album 's sales , the label did not heavily promote it . In support of the album , Annie opened for English alternative dance band Saint Etienne at several June 2005 gigs in the United Kingdom . Annie had never performed her songs live before the release of Anniemal , so replicating the sound of more electronic songs like " Chewing Gum " became a long process . By September of that year , the album had sold 20 @,@ 000 copies . For its 7 June 2005 American release , Anniemal was distributed by Big Beat Records . To promote the album , Annie performed a set of DJing gigs in the United States for the Anniemix Tour during late June and early July 2005 . She and Kaukolampi spun vinyl , and Annie performed her songs during the tour . Before the tour began , Anniemal was selling over one thousand copies per week in the US , and it went on to sell a total of 22 thousand copies there . Although it did not chart on the US Billboard 200 , Anniemal reached number thirteen on the Top Electronic Albums chart . When released in Australia the following year , the album failed to chart on the ARIA Albums Chart but peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Dance Albums Chart . Anniemal sold a total of over 100 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . = = Singles = = " Chewing Gum " was released as the album 's lead single in September 2004 . Built around a retro beat by Richard X , the song uses chewing gum as a metaphor for men , with Annie singing " You spit it out when all the flavor has gone / Wrap him round your finger like you 're playing with gum " . It was the album 's most commercially successful single , reaching number eight on the Norwegian Singles Chart and number twenty @-@ five on the UK Singles Chart . It was also a critical success , listed thirty @-@ first on the 2004 Pazz & Jop list , a survey of several hundred music critics conducted by Robert Christgau . " Heartbeat " was the second single released from Anniemal . It narrates a night of going to clubs with friends , using a beat symbolizing a heartbeat , which doubles its tempo when Annie 's persona catches the attention of her romantic interest on the dancefloor . Like " Chewing Gum " , it received acclaim from music critics . It was one place behind " Chewing Gum " on the Pazz & Jop list , and Pitchfork Media named it the best single of 2004 . However , it did not sell as well as " Chewing Gum " , reaching number eighteen in Norway and fifty in the United Kingdom . " Happy Without You " and " Always Too Late " were released as the third and fourth singles in 2005 , but neither charted . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from Anniemal album liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Keith Fahey = Keith Declan Fahey ( born 15 January 1983 in Dublin ) is a retired ex @-@ Republic of Ireland international footballer who played most of his career with League of Ireland side St Patrick 's Athletic as well as English side Birmingham City . He played predominantly as a central midfielder , but also occasionally as a winger . Fahey started his professional career as a trainee with Arsenal . He played for Aston Villa , Bluebell United , St Patrick 's Athletic and Drogheda United before his transfer to Birmingham City . With Birmingham City he won the 2011 League Cup in England , as well as helping the club gain promotion from the Football League Championship to the Premier League during the 2008 – 09 season . He left the club at the end of the 2012 – 13 season , and returned to St Patrick 's Athletic for a third spell with the club . With Ireland , he was part of the team that secured qualification for UEFA Euro 2012 . Manager Giovanni Trapattoni called Fahey into the Irish squad for the tournament , but he was later sent home due to injury . = = Club career = = = = = Early career = = = Fahey started his professional career as a trainee with Arsenal before signing for Aston Villa in April 2000 for a fee of £ 250 @,@ 000 . He played for Villa 's youth and reserve teams , but never made a first @-@ team appearance . = = = Return to Ireland = = = Having failed to settle in England , Fahey returned home in 2003 . He initially played a few games in non @-@ League football for Bluebell United , before a six @-@ week trial at St Patrick 's Athletic led to a contract . He made his League of Ireland debut and had a goal disallowed at Waterford United on 21 April . He contributed to St Pats 's victory in the League of Ireland Cup and scored a " stunning " free kick in extra time of the semi @-@ final replay against Bohemians to reach the FAI Cup final . However the final turned out to be very disappointing for both team and player , who was sent off for a " two @-@ footed lunge " on Longford Town 's Sean Prunty after 77 minutes as the Saints lost 2 – 0 . He joined Drogheda United in exchange for Alan Reilly and a cash adjustment in July 2005 . He was involved in Mark Leech 's golden goal that won the Setanta Cup for Drogheda in April 2006 , but a few months later was released , following a disagreement with manager Paul Doolin , and returned to St Pats . RTÉ reported that " Danger man Fahey was quieter than usual " as Pats lost 2 – 0 to Hertha BSC in the first round of the 2008 – 09 UEFA Cup , held at the Olympiastadion ; however , in the second leg , despite Pats ' " excellent performance " failing to overturn the deficit , an RTÉ feature picked out " Keith Fahey 's control of the game , dictating almost every Pat 's attack with that delicate but incisive right foot of his . Fahey stood head and shoulders above the many highly decorated full internationals in the Hertha team , showing the full range of his passing from deep and from close range , and generally showing a poise and guile on the ball that you would not expect from a League of Ireland player amongst such illustrious company . " His performances for St Pats in 2008 , in which he scored 11 goals in all competitions , earned Fahey the PFAI Player of the Year award . He also won Monday Night Soccer 's 2008 Goal of the Season . After Pats were beaten by Bohemians in the FAI Cup , Fahey declared that he wished to move to an English club to further his career . = = = Birmingham City = = = On 2 December 2008 , Fahey signed a pre @-@ contract agreement with Football League Championship side Birmingham City to join the club when the transfer window opened in January 2009 . The Irish season having finished , Fahey joined up with Birmingham in mid @-@ December for training , though manager Alex McLeish suggested supporters should not " expect him to walk straight into the team " when he became eligible in January . Fahey made his Birmingham debut on 17 January 2009 , coming on as a late substitute in a 1 – 1 draw against Cardiff City . He scored his first goal for the club , a " delicate lob " which the player admitted was meant to be a cross , to clinch a 2 – 0 home victory against Nottingham Forest on 14 February . His second goal gave the Blues a 1 – 0 home win over Southampton some weeks later . Fahey retained his place in the side for the rest of the season ( keeping loan signings Scott Sinclair and Hameur Bouazza out of the starting eleven ) , and was a key player for Birmingham in their successful bid for promotion to the Premier League , scoring a goal and making a goal in a vital 2 – 1 win at Reading on the last day of the campaign . Fahey made his Premier League debut in the opening game of the 2009 – 10 season at Old Trafford , in the 1 – 0 defeat against Manchester United . He made 34 appearances in his first Premier League season ( 18 of which he started ) , but failed to score all season , as Birmingham finished in ninth place , their highest ever position in the Premier League . In July 2010 , Fahey 's contract was extended to 2013 , in recognition of his having " proved to [ McLeish ] that he 's a Premier League player " . He was part of the starting eleven as Birmingham won the 2011 League Cup , defeating favourites Arsenal 2 – 1 at Wembley Stadium . However , the season would prove to be less successful for both player and club , with Fahey making only 24 appearances in the league ( although he did score his first Premier League goal ) , and Birmingham finishing 18th , and being relegated on the last day of the season , following a 2 – 1 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur . Following relegation from the Premier League at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , Barry Ferguson and Lee Bowyer left the club , giving Fahey the chance to establish himself in his preferred central position . After recovering from hernia surgery early in the 2011 – 12 season , he partnered Jonathan Spector in a solid midfield supporting two attacking wide players . Later in the season , he played a defensive support role alongside the more attacking Jordon Mutch , and manager Chris Hughton suggested he was " enjoying playing in that central role and he 's enjoying the development he 's had there all season " . When he suffered a groin problem that caused him to miss the last few weeks of the season , Hughton called it " a real blow for us ... because he 's a player that has been in really good form " . He scored four goals during the season , including " a venomous left @-@ foot drive from 20 yards " at Barnsley and a goal he " couldn 't have hit ... any sweeter first time , or with any more power " at home to Crystal Palace that earned him the club 's Goal of the Season award . Fahey returned to the team in mid @-@ September , and made seven appearances , four of which were starts . In November , he returned home to Ireland on indefinite compassionate leave for personal and family reasons . After two months away , Fahey took part in pre @-@ season training with Shamrock Rovers , ahead of a full fitness assessment which preceded his return to training with Birmingham in mid @-@ February . However , Fahey was ruled out for the rest of the season in April with a recurrence of a hip problem , having played just twice since his return from compassionate leave . At the end of the season , Fahey announced he was leaving Birmingham as the club had decided not to take up their option to extend his contract . = = = Return to St. Patrick 's Athletic = = = After a few months out of the game , Fahey trained with Sheffield United in October 2013 . Following this , he returned to Ireland , where he rejoined his old club St Patrick 's Athletic on 23 December 2013 . Commenting on his move back to Richmond Park , he said " Both the fans and the club have always been great to me , and the stability of the club behind the scenes really made me want to come back and play my football in Inchicore again . " He made his third debut for the club in a 2 – 1 victory over Dundalk on 17 February 2014 in a Leinster Senior Cup match , scoring a free kick . On 2 March 2014 , Fahey scored the only goal as St. Patrick 's Athletic became the first team to win the FAI President 's Cup , defeating Sligo Rovers in the process . His goal drew praise from Republic of Ireland manager Martin O 'Neill and Sligo Rover 's Alan Keane , the latter of whom stated " A wonder goal won it , it was a great strike . No keeper in the world could have saved that . " Fahey started the first day of the season in the 1 @-@ 1 away draw against Cork City . Fahey started the famous 1 @-@ 1 draw away to Legia Warsaw in the Second Qualifying Round of the UEFA Champions League , his sublime through ball found Ian Bermingham who assisted Christy Fagan who slotted home to make it 1 @-@ 0 to the Inchicore side . He started the return leg in Tallaght , Pats lost 5 @-@ 0 . Fahey scored his first goal of the season against UCD in a 3 @-@ 2 win . Overall Fahey made 26 league appearances scoring two goals throughout the season . = = = Shamrock Rovers = = = On 11 November 2014 , Fahey switched to Shamrock Rovers . He announced his retirement in August 2015 having failed to recover from knee surgery . His last ever game of professional football turned out to be the 2 – 1 FAI Cup loss to his old club St Patrick 's Athletic at Richmond Park as he was substituted off with his knee injury for the last time in his career . = = International career = = Fahey played for the Republic of Ireland at the 2000 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Football Championship and scored against their English counterparts . He also played at the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship , where he contributed to Ireland topping their group to reach the knockout stages . In the second round match against Colombia under @-@ 20 , he came on as a late substitute to assist Kevin Doyle 's goal and help turn the game around , coming back from a two @-@ goal deficit only to lose on the golden goal . On 25 May 2010 , Fahey won his first senior cap for the Republic of Ireland in a 2 – 1 win against Paraguay at the RDS Arena , replacing Damien Duff in the 77th minute . He made his first start against Argentina on 12 August , in the first international match at the new Aviva Stadium . Fahey scored his first goal for the Republic of Ireland eight minutes into his competitive debut , coming off the bench to score the only goal in a Euro 2012 qualifying win over Armenia in Yerevan on 3 September 2010 . On his first competitive start , in a 1 – 1 draw against Slovakia in Zilina on 12 October , Fahey delivered the free kick that led to Ireland 's goal , scored by Sean St. Ledger . In February 2011 , he scored his second goal for Ireland in a 3 – 0 defeat of Wales in the 2011 Nations Cup , and his third came in March 2011 , a penalty against Uruguay . Fahey was part of the squad that clinched victory in the inaugural Nations Cup with a 1 – 0 win over Scotland on 29 May 2011 at the Aviva Stadium . He was called into the UEFA Euro 2012 squad but withdrew due to injury before the tournament . = = = International goals = = = = = Club statistics = = = = Honours = = = = = Club = = = St Patrick 's Athletic League of Ireland Cup ( 1 ) : 2003 President 's Cup ( 1 ) : 2014 Leinster Senior Cup ( 1 ) : 2014 FAI Cup ( 1 ) : 2014 Drogheda United Setanta Sports Cup : 2006 Birmingham City Football League Cup : 2011 Football League Championship runner @-@ up : 2008 – 09 = = = International = = = Republic of Ireland Nations Cup ( 1 ) : 2011 = = = Individual = = = PFAI Players ' Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2008 Monday Night Soccer Goal of the Season ( 1 ) : 2008 Birmingham City Goal of the Season ( 1 ) : 2011 – 12 ( vs Crystal Palace )
= British Army during World War I = The British Army during World War I fought the largest and most costly war in its long history . Unlike the French and German Armies , its units were made up exclusively of volunteers — as opposed to conscripts — at the beginning of the conflict . Furthermore , the British Army was considerably smaller than its French and German counterparts . During World War I , there were three distinct British Armies . The " first " army was the small volunteer force of 400 @,@ 000 soldiers , over half of which were posted overseas to garrison the British Empire . This total included the Regular Army and reservists in the Territorial Force . Together , they formed the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) , which was formed for service in France and became known as the Old Contemptibles . The ' second ' army was Kitchener 's Army , formed from the volunteers in 1914 – 1915 destined to go into action at the Battle of the Somme . The ' third ' was formed after the introduction of conscription in the United Kingdom in January 1916 , and by the end of 1918 , the British Army had reached its maximum strength of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 men and could field over 70 divisions . The vast majority of the British Army fought in the main theatre of war on the Western Front in France and Belgium against the German Empire . Some units were engaged in Italy and Salonika against Austria @-@ Hungary and the Bulgarian Army , while other units fought in the Middle East , Africa and Mesopotamia — mainly against the Ottoman Empire — and one battalion fought alongside the Japanese Army in China during the Siege of Tsingtao . The war also posed problems for the army commanders , given that , prior to 1914 , the largest formation any serving General in the BEF had commanded on operations was a division . The expansion of the British Army saw some officers promoted from brigade to corps commander in less than a year . Army commanders also had to cope with the new tactics and weapons that were developed . With the move from manoeuvre to trench warfare , both the infantry and the artillery had to learn how to work together . During an offensive , and when in defence , they learned how to combine forces to defend the front line . Later in the war , when the Machine Gun Corps and the Tank Corps were added to the order of battle , they were also included in the new tactical doctrine . The men at the front had to struggle with supply problems - there was a shortage of food ; and disease was rife in the damp , rat @-@ infested conditions . Along with enemy action , many troops had to contend with new diseases : trench foot , trench fever and trench nephritis . When the war ended in 1918 , British Army casualties , as the result of enemy action and disease , were recorded as 673 @,@ 375 killed and missing , with another 1 @,@ 643 @,@ 469 wounded . The rush to demobilise at the end of the war substantially decreased the strength of the British Army , from its peak of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 men in 1918 to 370 @,@ 000 men by 1920 . = = Organization = = The British Army during World War I could trace its organisation to the increasing demands of imperial expansion . The framework was the voluntary system of recruitment and the regimental system , which had been defined by the Cardwell and Childers Reforms of the late 19th century . The British Army had been prepared and primarily called upon for Empire matters and the ensuing colonial wars . In the last years of the 19th century , the Army was involved in a major conflict , the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) , which highlighted shortcomings in its tactics , leadership and administration . The 1904 Esher Report recommended radical reform , such as the creation of an Army Council , a General Staff , the abolition of the office of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces , and the creation of a Chief of the General Staff . The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created an Expeditionary Force of seven divisions ( one cavalry , six infantry ) , reorganised the volunteers into a new Territorial Force of fourteen cavalry brigades and fourteen infantry divisions , and changed the old militia into the Special Reserve to reinforce the expeditionary force . At the outbreak of the war in August 1914 , the British regular army was a small professional force . It consisted of 247 @,@ 432 regular troops organised in four regiments of Guards ( Grenadier , with 3 Battalions ; Coldstream , with 3 Battalions ; Scots , with 2 Battalions ; Irish with 1 Battalion ) , 68 regiments of the line and the Rifle Brigade ( despite its name , this was an infantry regiment ) , 31 cavalry regiments , artillery and other support arms . Most of the line infantry regiments had two regular battalions , one of which served at home and provided drafts and replacements to the other which was stationed overseas , while also being prepared to be part of the Expeditionary Force - the Royal Fusiliers , Worcestershire Regiment , Middlesex Regiment , King 's Royal Rifle Corps and the Rifle Brigade ( Prince Consort 's Own ) had four regular battalions , two of which served overseas . Almost half of the regular army ( 74 of the 157 infantry battalions and 12 of the 31 cavalry regiments ) , was stationed overseas in garrisons throughout the British Empire . The Royal Flying Corps was part of the British Army until 1918 . At the outbreak of the war , it consisted of 84 aircraft . The regular army was supported by the Territorial Force , and by reservists . In August 1914 , there were three forms of reserves . The Army Reserve of retired soldiers was 145 @,@ 350 strong . They were paid 3 Shillings and 6 pence a week ( 17 @.@ 5 pence ) worth about £ 70 per week in 2013 terms , and had to attend 12 training days per year . The Special Reserve had another 64 @,@ 000 men and was a form of part @-@ time soldiering , similar to the Territorial Force . A Special Reservist had an initial six months full @-@ time training and was paid the same as a regular soldier during this period ; they had three or four weeks training per year thereafter . The National Reserve had some 215 @,@ 000 men , who were on a register that was maintained by Territorial Force County Associations ; these men had military experience , but no other reserve obligation . The regulars and reserves — at least on paper — totalled a mobilised force of almost 700 @,@ 000 men , although only 150 @,@ 000 men were immediately available to be formed into the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) that was sent to the continent . This consisted of six infantry divisions and one of cavalry . By contrast , the French Army in 1914 mobilised 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 troops and 62 infantry divisions , while the German Army mobilised 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 troops and 87 infantry divisions . Britain , therefore , began the war with six regular and 14 reserve infantry divisions . During the war , a further six regular , 14 Territorial , 36 Kitchener 's Army and six other divisions , including the Naval Division from the Royal Navy were formed . In 1914 , each British infantry division consisted of three infantry brigades , each of four battalions , with two machine guns per battalion , ( 24 in the division ) . They also had three field artillery brigades with fifty @-@ four 18 @-@ pounder guns , one field howitzer brigade with eighteen 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) howitzers , one heavy artillery battery with four 60 @-@ pounder guns , two engineer field companies , one royal engineer signals company , one cavalry squadron , one cyclist company , three field ambulances , four Army Service Corps horse @-@ drawn transport companies and divisional headquarters support detachments . The single cavalry division assigned to the BEF in 1914 consisted of 15 cavalry regiments in five brigades . They were armed with rifles , unlike their French and German counterparts , who were only armed with the shorter range carbine . The cavalry division also had a high allocation of artillery compared to foreign cavalry divisions , with 24 13 @-@ pounder guns organised into two brigades and two machine guns for each regiment . When dismounted , the cavalry division was the equivalent of two weakened infantry brigades with less artillery than the infantry division . By 1916 , there were five cavalry divisions , each of three brigades , serving in France , the 1st , 2nd , 3rd divisions in the Cavalry Corps and the 1st and 2nd Indian Cavalry Divisions in the Indian Cavalry Corps , each brigade in the Indian cavalry corps contained a British cavalry regiment . Over the course of the war , the composition of the infantry division gradually changed , and there was an increased emphasis on providing the infantry divisions with organic fire support . By 1918 , a British division consisted of three infantry brigades , each of three battalions . Each of these battalions had 36 Lewis machine guns , making a total of 324 such weapons in the division . Additionally , there was a divisional machine gun battalion , equipped with 64 Vickers machine guns in four companies of 16 guns . Each brigade in the division also had a mortar battery with eight Stokes Mortars . The artillery also changed the composition of its batteries . At the start of the war , there were three batteries with six guns per brigade ; they then moved to four batteries with four guns per brigade , and finally in 1917 , to four batteries with six guns per brigade to economise on battery commanders . In this way , the army would change drastically over the course of the war , reacting to the various developments , from the mobile war fought in the opening weeks to the static trench warfare of 1916 and 1917 . The cavalry of the BEF represented 9 @.@ 28 % of the army ; by July 1918 , it would only represent 1 @.@ 65 % . The infantry would decrease from 64 @.@ 64 % in 1914 to 51 @.@ 25 % of the army in 1918 , while the Royal Engineers would increase from 5 @.@ 91 % to 11 @.@ 24 % in 1918 . = = British Expeditionary Force = = Under the terms of the Entente Cordiale , the British Army 's role in a European war was to embark soldiers of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) , which consisted of six infantry divisions and five cavalry brigades that were arranged into two Army corps : I Corps , under the command of Douglas Haig , and II Corps , under the command of Horace Smith @-@ Dorrien . At the outset of the conflict , the British Indian Army was called upon for assistance ; in August 1914 , 20 percent of the 9 @,@ 610 British officers initially sent to France were from the Indian army , while 16 percent of the 76 @,@ 450 other ranks came from the British Indian Army . German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm — who was famously dismissive of the BEF — issued an order on 19 August 1914 to " exterminate ... the treacherous English and walk over General French 's contemptible little army " . Hence , in later years , the survivors of the regular army dubbed themselves " The Old Contemptibles " . By the end of 1914 ( after the battles of Mons , Le Cateau , the Aisne and Ypres ) , the old regular British Army had been virtually wiped out ; although it managed to stop the German advance . In October 1914 , the 7th Division arrived in France , forming the basis of the British III Corps ; the cavalry had grown into its own corps of three divisions . By December 1914 , the BEF had expanded , fielding five army corps divided between the First and the Second Armies . As the Regular Army 's strength declined , the numbers were made up — first by the Territorial Force , then by the volunteers of Field Marshal Kitchener 's , New Army . By the end of August 1914 , he had raised six new divisions ; by March 1915 , the number of divisions had increased to 29 . The Territorial Force was also expanded , raising second and third battalions and forming eight new divisions , which supplemented its peacetime strength of 14 divisions . The Third Army was formed in July 1915 and with the influx of troops from Kitchener 's volunteers and further reorganisation , the Fourth Army and the Reserve Army , which became the Fifth Army were formed in 1916 . = = Recruitment and conscription = = In August 1914 , 300 @,@ 000 men had signed up to fight , and another 450 @,@ 000 had joined @-@ up by the end of September . Recruitment remained fairly steady through 1914 and early 1915 , but it fell dramatically during the later years , especially after the Somme campaign , which resulted in 360 @,@ 000 casualties . A prominent feature of the early months of volunteering was the formation of Pals battalions . Many of these pals who had lived and worked together , joined up and trained together and were allocated to the same units . The policy of drawing recruits from amongst the local population ensured that , when the Pals battalions suffered casualties , whole towns , villages , neighbourhoods and communities back in Britain were to suffer disproportionate losses . With the introduction of conscription in January 1916 , no further Pals battalions were raised . Conscription for single men was introduced in January 1916 . Four months later , in May 1916 , it was extended to all men aged 18 to 41 . The Military Service Act March 1916 specified that men from the ages of 18 to 41 were liable to be called up for service in the army , unless they were married ( or widowed with children ) , or served in one of a number of reserved occupations , which were usually industrial but which also included clergymen and teachers . This legislation did not apply to Ireland , despite its then status as part of the United Kingdom ( but see Conscription Crisis of 1918 ) . By January 1916 , when conscription was introduced , 2 @.@ 6 million men had volunteered for service , a further 2 @.@ 3 million were conscripted before the end of the war ; by the end of 1918 , the army had reached its peak strength of four million men . Women also volunteered and served in a non @-@ combatant role ; by the end of the war , 80 @,@ 000 had enlisted . They mostly served as nurses in the Queen Alexandra 's Imperial Military Nursing Service ( QAIMNS ) , the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry ( FANY ) , the Voluntary Aid Detachment ( VAD ) ; and from 1917 , in the Army when the Queen Mary 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) , was founded . The WAAC was divided into four sections : cookery ; mechanical ; clerical and miscellaneous . Most stayed on the Home Front , but around 9 @,@ 000 served in France . = = Commanders = = In 1914 , no serving British officer of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) had controlled a formation larger than a division on active operations . The first Commander in Chief of the BEF appointed in August 1914 was Field Marshal John French . His last active command had been the cavalry division in the Second Boer War . The commander of the British I Corps in 1914 was Douglas Haig . French had remarked in 1912 that Haig would be better suited to a position on the staff than a field command . Like French , Haig was a cavalryman . His last active command had been during the Second Boer War , first as a senior staff officer in the cavalry division , then commanding a brigade @-@ sized group of columns . The first commander of the British II Corps was Lieutenant General James Grierson , a noted tactician who died of a heart attack soon after arriving in France . French wished to appoint Lieutenant General Herbert Plumer in his place , but against French 's wishes , Kitchener instead appointed Lieutenant General Horace Smith @-@ Dorrien , who had begun his military career in the Zulu War in 1879 and was one of only five officers to survive the battle of Isandlwana . He had built a formidable reputation as an infantry commander during the Sudan Campaign and the Second Boer War . After the Second Boer War , he was responsible for a number of reforms , notably forcing an increase in dismounted training for the cavalry . This was met with hostility by French ( as a cavalryman ) . By 1914 , French 's dislike for Smith @-@ Dorrien was well known within the army . After the failed offensive at the Battle of Loos in 1915 , French was replaced as commander of the BEF by Haig , who remained in command for the rest of the war . He became most famous for his role as its commander during the battle of the Somme , the battle of Passchendaele , and the Hundred Days Offensive , the series of victories leading to the German surrender in 1918 . Haig was succeeded in command of the First Army by General Charles Carmichael Monro , who in turn was succeeded by General Henry Horne in September 1916 , the only officer with an artillery background to command a British army during the war . General Plumer was eventually appointed to command II Corps in December 1914 , and succeeded Smith @-@ Dorrien in command of the Second Army in 1915 . He had commanded a mounted infantry detachment in the Second Boer war , where he started to build his reputation . He held command of the Ypres salient for three years and gained an overwhelming victory over the German Army at the battle of Messines in 1917 . Plumer is generally recognised as one of the most effective of the senior British commanders on the Western Front . In 1914 , General Edmund Allenby was commander of the Cavalry Division and later the Cavalry Corps in the BEF . His leadership was noted during the retreat from Mons and the first battle of Ypres . After commanding an infantry corps , he was appointed to command the Third Army on the western front . He had previously served in the Zulu War , the Sudan campaign , and the Second Boer war . In 1917 , he was given command of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , where he oversaw the conquest of Palestine and Syria in 1917 and 1918 . Allenby replaced Archibald Murray , who had been the Chief of Staff of the British Expeditionary Force in France in 1914 . Allenby was replaced as Third Army commander by General Julian Byng , who began the war as commander of the 3rd Cavalry Division . After performing well during the First Battle of Ypres , he succeeded Allenby in command of the Cavalry Corps . He was sent to the Dardanelles in August 1915 , to command the British IX Corps . He planned the highly successful evacuation of 105 @,@ 000 Allied troops and the majority of the equipment of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) . The withdrawal was successfully completed in January 1916 , without the loss of a single man . Byng had already returned to the western front , where he was given command of the Canadian Corps . His most notable battle was the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917 , which was carried out by the Canadian Corps with British support . General Henry Rawlinson served on Kitchener 's staff during the advance on Omdurman , in 1898 , and served with distinction in the Second Boer War , where he earned a reputation as one of the most able British commanders . Rawlinson took command of the British IV Corps in 1914 and then command of the Fourth Army in 1916 , as the plans for the Allied offensive on the Somme were being developed . During the war , Rawlinson was noted for his willingness to use innovative tactics , which he employed during the battle of Amiens , where he combined attacks by tanks with artillery . General Hubert Gough commanded a mounted infantry regiment with distinction during the relief of Ladysmith , but his command was destroyed while attacking a larger Boer force in 1901 . When he joined the BEF , he was in command of the 3rd Cavalry Brigade , and was promoted from a brigade to a corps command in less than a year . He was given command of the 2nd Cavalry Division in September 1914 , the 7th Division in April 1915 , and the British I Corps in July 1915 . He commanded I Corps during the battle of Loos . In May 1916 , he was appointed commander of the Fifth Army , which suffered heavy losses at the battle of Passchendaele . The collapse of the Fifth Army was widely viewed as the reason for the German breakthrough in the Spring Offensive , and Gough was dismissed as its commander in March 1918 , being succeeded by General William Birdwood for the last months of the war . Birdwood had previously commanded the Australian Corps , an appointment requiring a combination of tact and tactical flair . On the Macedonian front , General George Milne commanded the British Salonika Army , and General Ian Hamilton commanded the ill @-@ fated MEF during the Gallipoli Campaign . He had previously seen service in the First Boer War , the Sudan campaign , and the Second Boer War . Back in Britain , Chief of the Imperial General Staff ( CIGS ) , effectively the professional commander of the British Army , was General James Murray , who retained that post during the early years of the war . He was replaced as CIGS in 1916 by General William Robertson . A strong supporter of Haig , Robertson was replaced in 1918 , by General Henry Hughes Wilson . = = = Officer selection = = = In August 1914 , there were 28 @,@ 060 officers in the British Army , of which 12 @,@ 738 were regular officers , the rest were in the reserves . The number of officers in the army had increased to 164 @,@ 255 by November 1918 . These were survivors among the 247 @,@ 061 officers who had been granted a commission during the war . Most pre @-@ war officers came from families with military connections , the gentry or the peerage ; a public school education was almost essential . In 1913 , about 2 % of regular officers had been promoted from the ranks . The officer corps , during the war , consisted of regular officers from the peacetime army , officers who had been granted permanent commissions during the war , officers who had been granted temporary commissions for the duration of the war , territorial army officers commissioned during peacetime , officers commissioned from the ranks of the pre @-@ war regular and territorial army and temporary officers commissioned from the ranks for the duration of the war alone . In September 1914 , Lord Kitchener announced that he was looking for volunteers and regular NCOs to provide officers for the expanding army . Most of the volunteers came from the middle class , with the largest group from commercial and clerical occupations ( 27 % ) , followed by teachers and students ( 18 % ) and professional men ( 15 % ) . In March 1915 , it was discovered that 12 @,@ 290 men serving in the ranks had been members of a university or public school Officers ' Training Corps ( OTC ) . Most applied for and were granted commissions , while others who did not apply were also commissioned . Direct commissioning largely ceased early in 1916 , from then most new officers had served in the ranks first , even if in a unit of potential officers . Once a candidate was selected as an officer , promotion could be rapid . A. S. Smeltzer was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in 1915 , after serving in the Regular Army for 15 years . He rose in rank , and by the Spring of 1917 had been promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and was commanding officer of the 6th Battalion , The Buffs ( Royal East Kent Regiment ) . Along with rapid promotion , the war also noticeably lowered the age of battalion commanding officers . In 1914 , they were aged over 50 , while the average age for a battalion commanding officer in the BEF between 1917 and 1918 was 28 . By this stage , it was official policy that men over 35 were no longer eligible to command battalions . This trend was reflected amongst the junior officers . Anthony Eden was the Adjutant of a battalion when aged 18 , and served as the Brigade Major in the 198th Brigade while still only aged 20 . The war also provided opportunities for advancement onto the General Staff , especially in the early days , when many former senior officers were recalled from retirement . Some of these were found wanting , due to their advanced age , their unwillingness to serve , or a lack of competence and fitness ; most were sent back into retirement before the first year of the war was over , leaving a gap that had to be filled by lower @-@ ranking officers . Criticism of the quality of staff work in the Crimean War and the Second Boer War had led to sweeping changes under Haldane . The Staff College , Camberley was greatly expanded and Lord Kitchener established another staff college at Quetta for Indian Army officers in 1904 . Nonetheless , when war broke out in August 1914 , there were barely enough graduates to staff the BEF . Four @-@ month @-@ long staff courses were introduced , and filled with regimental officers who , upon completing their training , were posted to various headquarters . As a result , staff work was again poor , until training and experience slowly remedied the situation . In 1918 , staff officers who had been trained exclusively for static trench warfare were forced to adapt to the demands of semi @-@ open warfare . During the course of the war , 78 British and Dominion officers of the rank of Brigadier @-@ General and above were killed or died during active service , while another 146 were wounded , gassed , or captured . = = Doctrine = = British official historian Brigadier James Edward Edmonds , in 1925 , recorded that " The British Army of 1914 was the best trained , best equipped and best organized British Army ever sent to war " . This was in part due to the Haldane reforms , and the Army itself recognising the need for change and training . Training began with individual training in winter , followed by squadron , company or battery training in spring ; regimental , battalion and brigade training in summer ; and division or inter @-@ divisional exercises and army manoeuvres in late summer and autumn . The common doctrine of headquarters at all levels was outlined in the Field Service Pocket Book , which Haig had introduced while serving as Director of Staff Studies at the War Office in 1906 . The Second Boer War had alerted the army to the dangers posed by fire zones that were covered by long @-@ range , magazine @-@ fed rifles . In the place of volley firing and frontal attacks , there was a greater emphasis on advancing in extended order , the use of available cover , the use of artillery to support the attack , flank and converging attacks and fire and movement . The Army expected units to advance as far as possible in a firing line without opening fire , both to conceal their positions and conserve ammunition , then to attack in successive waves , closing with the enemy decisively . The cavalry practised reconnaissance and fighting dismounted more regularly , and in January 1910 , the decision was made at the General Staff Conference that dismounted cavalry should be taught infantry tactics in attack and defence . They were the only cavalry from a major European power trained for both the mounted cavalry charge and dismounted action , and equipped with the same rifles as the infantry , rather than short @-@ range carbines . The cavalry were also issued with entrenching tools prior to the outbreak of war , as a result of experience gained during the Second Boer War . The infantry 's marksmanship , and fire and movement techniques , had been inspired by Boer tactics and was established as formal doctrine by Colonel Charles Monro when he was in charge of the School of Musketry at Shorncliffe . In 1914 , British rifle fire was so effective that there were some reports to the effect that the Germans believed they were facing huge numbers of machine guns . The Army concentrated on rifle practice , with days spent on the ranges dedicated to improving marksmanship and obtaining a rate of fire of 15 effective rounds a minute at 300 yd ( 270 m ) ; one sergeant set a record of 38 rounds into a 12 in ( 300 mm ) target set at 300 yd ( 270 m ) in 30 seconds . In their 1914 skill @-@ at @-@ arms meeting , the 1st Battalion Black Watch recorded 184 marksmen , 263 first @-@ class shots , 89 @-@ second @-@ class shots and four third @-@ class shots , at ranges from 300 – 600 yd ( 270 – 550 m ) . The infantry also practised squad and section attacks and fire from cover , often without orders from officers or NCOs , so that soldiers would be able to act on their own initiative . In the last exercise before the war , it was noted that the infantry made wonderful use of ground , advances in short rushes and always at the double and almost invariably fires from a prone position . = = = Weapons = = = The British Army was armed with the Short Magazine Lee – Enfield Mk III ( SMLE Mk III ) , which featured a bolt @-@ action and large magazine capacity that enabled a trained rifleman to fire 20 – 30 aimed rounds a minute . World War I accounts tell of British troops repelling German attackers , who subsequently reported that they had encountered machine guns , when in fact , it was simply a group of trained riflemen armed with SMLEs . The heavy Vickers machine gun proved itself to be the most reliable weapon on the battlefield , with some of its feats of endurance entering military mythology . One account tells of the action by the 100th Company of the Machine Gun Corps at High Wood on 24 August 1916 . This company had 10 Vickers guns ; it was ordered to give sustained covering fire for 12 hours onto a selected area 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) away , to prevent German troops forming up there for a counterattack while a British attack was in progress . Two companies of infantry were allocated as ammunition , rations and water carriers for the gunners . Two men worked a belt – filling machine non – stop for 12 hours , keeping up a supply of 250 @-@ round belts . They used 100 new barrels and all of the water — including the men 's drinking water and the contents of the latrine buckets — to keep the guns cool . In that 12 @-@ hour period , the 10 guns fired just short of one million rounds between them . One team is reported to have fired 120 @,@ 000 . At the close of the operation , it is alleged that every gun was working perfectly and that not one had broken down during the whole period . The lighter Lewis gun was adopted for land and aircraft use in October 1915 . The Lewis gun had the advantage of being about 80 % faster to build than the Vickers , and far more portable . By the end of World War I , over 50 @,@ 000 Lewis Guns had been produced ; they were nearly ubiquitous on the Western Front , outnumbering the Vickers gun by a ratio of about 3 : 1 . The Stokes Mortar was rapidly developed when it became clear that some type of weapon was needed to provide artillery @-@ like fire support to the infantry . The weapon was fully man @-@ transportable yet also capable of firing reasonably powerful shells at targets beyond the range of rifle grenades . Finally , the Mark I tank — a British invention — was seen as the solution to the stalemate of trench warfare . The Mark I had a range of 23 mi ( 37 km ) without refuelling , and a speed of 3 mph ( 4 @.@ 8 km / h ) ; it first saw service on the Somme in September 1916 . = = = Infantry tactics = = = After the " race to the sea " , manoeuvre warfare gave way to trench warfare , a development for which the British Army had not prepared . Expecting an offensive mobile war , the Army had not instructed the troops in defensive tactics and had failed to obtain stocks of barbed wire , hand grenades , or trench mortars . In the early years of trench warfare , the normal infantry attack formation was based on the battalion , which comprised four companies that were each made up of four platoons . The battalion would form 10 waves with 100 yd ( 91 m ) between each , while each company formed two waves of two platoons . The first six waves were the fighting elements from three of the battalions ' companies , the seventh contained the battalion headquarters ; the remaining company formed the eighth and ninth waves , which were expected to carry equipment forward , the tenth wave contained the stretcher bearers and medics . The formation was expected to move forward at a rate of 100 yd ( 91 m ) every two minutes , even though each man carried his rifle , bayonet , gas mask , ammunition , two hand grenades , wire cutters , a spade , two empty sandbags and flares . The carrying platoons , in addition to the above , also carried extra ammunition , barbed wire and construction materials to effect repairs to captured lines and fortifications . By 1918 , experience had led to a change in tactics ; the infantry no longer advanced in rigid lines , but formed a series of flexible waves . They would move covertly , under the cover of darkness , and occupy shell holes or other cover near the German line . Skirmishers formed the first wave and followed the creeping barrage into the German front line to hunt out points of resistance . The second or main wave followed in platoons or sections in single file . The third was formed from small groups of reinforcements , the fourth wave was expected to defend the captured territory . All waves were expected to take advantage of the ground during the advance . ( see below for when operating with tanks ) Each platoon now had a Lewis gun section and a section that specialised in throwing hand @-@ grenades ( then known as bombs ) , each section was compelled to provide two scouts to carry out reconnaissance duties . Each platoon was expected to provide mutual fire support in the attack they were to advance , without halting ; but leap frogging was accepted , with the lead platoon taking an objective and the following platoons passing through them and onto the next objective , while the Lewis gunners provided fire support . Grenades were used for clearing trenches and dugouts , each battalion carried forward two trench mortars to provide fire support . = = = Tank tactics = = = The tank was designed to break the deadlock of trench warfare . In their first use on the Somme , they were placed under command of the infantry and ordered to attack their given targets in groups or pairs . They were also assigned small groups of troops , who served as an escort while providing close defence against enemy attacks . Only nine tanks reached the German lines to engage machine gun emplacements and troop concentrations . On the way , 14 broke down or were ditched , another 10 were damaged by enemy fire . In 1917 , during the battle of Cambrai , the Tank Corps adopted new tactics . Three tanks working together would advance in a triangle formation , with the two rear tanks providing cover for an infantry platoon . The tanks were to create gaps in the barbed wire for the accompanying infantry to pass through , then use their armament to suppress the German strong points . The effectiveness of tank – infantry co @-@ operation was demonstrated during the battle , when Major General George Montague Harper of the 51st ( Highland ) Division refused to co @-@ operate with the tanks , a decision that compelled them to move forward without any infantry support ; the result was the destruction of more than 12 tanks by German artillery sighted behind bunkers . The situation had changed again by 1918 , when tank attacks would have one tank every 100 or 200 yd ( 180 m ) , with a tank company of 12 – 16 tanks per objective . One section of each company would be out in front , with the remainder of the company following behind and each tank providing protection for an infantry platoon , who were instructed to advance , making use of available cover and supported by machine gun fire . When the tanks came across an enemy strong point , they would engage the defenders , forcing them into shelter and leaving them to the devices of the following infantry . = = = Artillery tactics = = = Prior to the war , the artillery worked independently and was taught to support the infantry to ensure a successful attack . In 1914 , the heaviest artillery gun was the 60 @-@ pounder , four in each heavy battery . The Royal Horse Artillery employed the 13 @-@ pounder , while the Royal Field Artillery used the 18 @-@ pounder gun . By 1918 , the situation had changed ; the artillery were the dominant force on the battlefield . Between 1914 and 1918 , the Royal Field Artillery had increased from 45 field brigades to 173 field brigades , while the heavy and siege artillery of the Royal Garrison Artillery had increased from 32 heavy and six siege batteries to 117 heavy and 401 siege batteries . With this increase in the number of batteries of heavier guns , the armies needed to find a more efficient method of moving the heavier guns around . ( It was proving difficult to find the number of draught horses required . ) The War office ordered over 1 @,@ 000 Holts caterpillar tractors , which transformed the mobility of the siege artillery . The army also mounted a variety of surplus naval guns on various railway platforms to provide mobile long @-@ range heavy artillery on the Western Front . Until 1914 , artillery generally fired over open sights at visible targets , the largest unit accustomed to firing at a single target was the artillery regiment or brigade . One innovation brought about by the adoption of trench warfare was the barrage — a term first used in the battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915 . Trench warfare had created the need for indirect fire , with the use of observers , more sophisticated artillery fire plans , and an increasingly scientific approach to gunnery , where artillerymen had to use increasingly complicated calculations to lay the guns . Individual guns were aimed so that their fall of shot was coordinated with others to form a pattern ; in the case of a barrage , the pattern was a line . The creeping barrage was a barrage that lifted in small increments , perhaps 50 yards ( 46 m ) , so that it moved forward slowly , keeping pace with the infantry , who were trained to follow close behind the moving wall of their own fire , often as close as 55 yd ( 50 m ) ; infantry commanders were encouraged to keep their troops as close to the barrage as possible , even at the risk of casualties from friendly fire . A creeping barrage could maintain the element of surprise , with guns opening fire only shortly before the assault troops moved off . It was useful when enemy positions had not been thoroughly reconnoitred , as it did not depend on identifying individual targets in advance . The idea behind the creeping barrage was that the infantry should reach the enemy positions before the defenders had time to recover , emerge from shelters , and man their positions . On the first day of the battle of the Somme , the barrage outpaced the infantry , allowing the defenders to recover and emerge from their dugouts , with disastrous results for the attackers . The creeping barrage demonstrated its effectiveness a year later , in 1917 , during the battle of Arras . A weakness of the creeping barrage was that the infantry was subordinated to the artillery schedule , while the infantry commanders had less control over the tactical situation and were therefore in danger of forgetting how to manoeuvre their troops around the battlefield . The importance of the barrage was such that traditional infantry tactics , including a reliance on the infantry 's own firepower to support its movement forward , was sometimes forgotten . Once the infantry had reached the German trenches , the artillery shifted from the creeping barrage to the standing barrage , a static barrage that would protect the infantry from counter @-@ attack while they consolidated the position . A variant was the box barrage , in which three or four barrages formed a box — or more often three sides of a box — around a position to isolate and prevent reinforcements being brought up into the front line . This was normally used to protect trench raids , although it could also be used offensively against a German unit . Another type of barrage was the SOS barrage , fired in response to a German counterattack . An SOS barrage could be brought down by firing a flare signal of a pre arranged colour , as a German barrage tended to cut the telephone lines . A pre @-@ registered barrage would then descend on No Man 's Land . With the introduction of the tank the artillery was no longer required to aid the infantry by destroying obstacles and machine gun positions . Instead , the artillery assisted by neutralising the German artillery with Counter battery fire . British Army researchers under Lieutenant William Lawrence Bragg developed sound ranging , a method of determining the location of hostile artillery from the sound of its guns firing . A Counter Battery Staff Officer ( CBSO ) was appointed at each corps to co @-@ ordinate the counter battery effort , collating reports from sound ranging and Royal Flying Corps observers . By the end of the war , it was realised that the important effect of the barrage was to demoralise and suppress the enemy , rather than physical destruction ; a short , intense bombardment immediately followed by an infantry assault was more effective than the weeks of grinding bombardment used in 1916 . = = = Communications = = = The Royal Engineers Signal Service , formed in 1912 , was given responsibility for communications that included signal dispatch , telegraph , telephone and later wireless communications , from army headquarters to brigade and down to battery level for the artillery . For most of the war , the Army 's primary methods of communication were signal dispatch ( employing runners , messengers on horseback , dogs , and carrier pigeons ) , visual signalling , telegraph , and telephone . At the start of the war , the Army had a small number of wireless sets , which in addition to being heavy and unreliable , operated on longwave . In 1915 , trench wireless sets were introduced , but the transmissions were easily intercepted by the listening Germans . Civilian telephones were used at the outset of the war , but they were found to be unreliable in the damp , muddy conditions that prevailed . Consequently , the field telephone was designed ; a device that operated with its own switchboard . Apart from voice communication , it featured a buzzer unit with a Morse code key , so that it could be used to send and receive coded messages . This facility proved useful when , in the midst of bombardment , exploding shells drowned out voice communication . The telephones were connected by lines that sustained continual damage as a result of shell fire and the movement of troops . The lines were generally buried , with redundant lines set in place to compensate for breakages . The primary types of visual signalling were Semaphore flags , lamps and flags , lamps and lights , and the heliograph . In open warfare , visual signalling ( employing signal flags and the heliograph ) was the norm . A competent signaller could transmit 12 words a minute with signal flags ( during daylight ) and signal lights ( at night ) . Signal lights , which were secured in a wooden case , employed a battery @-@ operated Morse code key . These signalling techniques had certain disadvantages , however . In trench warfare , operators using these methods were forced to expose themselves to enemy fire ; while messages sent to the rear by signal lights could not be seen by enemy forces , replies to such messages were readily spotted , and operators were , once again , exposed to enemy fire . During the war , the Army also trained animals for use in the trenches . Dogs carried messages ; horses , mules and dogs were used to lay telephone and telegraph cables . Carrier pigeons , who transported messages back from the front line , were also carried in tanks so that they could deliver messages during an attack . Over 20 @,@ 000 pigeons and 370 handlers were used during the war , and at times , they were the sole means of communication . = = = Royal Flying Corps = = = At the start of the war , the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) in the Field , commanded by Sir David Henderson consisted of five squadrons — one observation balloon squadron ( RFC No 1 Squadron ) and four aeroplane squadrons ( Nos 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 ) . These units were first used for aerial spotting on 13 September 1914 , but only became efficient when they perfected the use of wireless communication at Aubers Ridge on 9 May 1915 . Aerial photography was attempted during 1914 , but again , it only became effective the following year . In August 1915 , General Hugh Trenchard replaced Henderson . The British use of air power evolved during the war , from a reconnaissance force to a fighting force that attempted to gain command of the air above the trenches and carry out bombing raids on targets behind the line . The early aircraft of the RFC were inferior to their German rivals ; in April 1917 , ( known as Bloody April ) , the RFC lost over 300 aircrew and 245 aircraft . Not until late 1917 , with the introduction of the Sopwith Camel and the S.E.5 , were they able to compete successfully for control of the air . On 17 August 1917 , General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council concerning the future of air power . Given its potential for the ' devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial targets and centres of population on a vast scale ' . He recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy . The formation of the new service , however , would make use of the under @-@ utilised men and machines of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) , as well as ending the inter @-@ service rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement . On 1 April 1918 , the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service , the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . The RAF was under the control of the equally new Air Ministry . By 1918 , photographic images could be taken from 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) and interpreted by over 3 @,@ 000 personnel . Planes did not carry parachutes until 1918 , though they had been available since before the war . After starting with some 2 @,@ 073 personnel in 1914 , the RAF had 4 @,@ 000 combat aircraft and 114 @,@ 000 personnel by the beginning of 1919 . = = = Corps of Royal Engineers = = = On 1 August 1914 , the Royal Engineers consisted of 25 @,@ 000 officers and men in the regular army and reserves ; by the same date in 1917 , it had grown to a total of 250 @,@ 000 . In 1914 , when the BEF arrived in France , there were two Engineer field companies attached to each infantry division , which was increased to three companies by September 1914 . Each division also had a Signals company , which was responsible for communications between Corps , Division and Brigade headquarters . Royal Engineer tunnelling companies were formed in response to the German blowing of 10 small mines in December 1914 , at Givenchy . The first British mine was detonated at Hill 60 on 17 February 1915 . Mining was used increasingly during the Battle of Aubers Ridge in May 1915 , and the battle of Loos in September 1915 . In July 1916 , on the first day of the battle of the Somme , what became known as the Lochnagar Crater was created by a mine at La Boisselle . Twenty @-@ one companies were eventually formed and were employed digging subways , cable trenches , Sapping , dugouts as well as offensive or defensive mining . At the end of the war , Engineers were directly responsible for maintaining buildings and designing the infantry front @-@ line fortifications and artillery positions , the telephones , wireless and other signalling equipment , railways , roads , water supply , bridges and transport . They also operated the railways and inland waterways . = = = Machine Gun Corps = = = In September 1915 , the Machine Gun Corps ( MGC ) was formed to provide heavy machine @-@ gun teams after a proposal was made to the War Office for the formation of a single specialist machine @-@ gun company for each infantry brigade — a goal to be achieved by withdrawing guns and gun teams from the battalions . Created in October 1915 , the MGC consisted of infantry machine @-@ gun companies , cavalry machine @-@ gun squadrons and motor machine @-@ gun batteries . In the trenches , the Corps ' guns were deployed with an interlocking field of fire and proved to be a devastating defensive weapon against attacking infantry . They were also used in an indirect fire support role , in which they fired over the heads and from the flanks of the advancing infantry and behind the German trenches to stop reinforcements and supplies from getting to the front . = = = Tank Corps = = = The Tank Corps was formed as the Heavy Section Machine Gun Corps in 1916 . Tanks were used for the first time in action in the battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916 . The intention being that they would crush the barbed wire for the infantry , then cross the trenches and exploit any breakthrough behind the German lines . In November 1916 , they were renamed the Heavy Branch MGC and in June 1917 , the Tank Corps . Originally formed in Companies of the Heavy Branch MGC , designated A , B , C and D ; each company of four sections had six tanks , three male and three female versions ( artillery or machine guns ) , with one tank held as a company reserve . In November 1916 , each company was reformed as a battalion of three companies , with plans to increase the Corps to 20 battalions , each Tank Battalion had a complement of 32 officers and 374 men . Tanks were primarily used on the Western Front . The first offensive of the war in which tanks were used en masse was the battle of Cambrai in 1917 ; 476 tanks started the attack , and the German front collapsed . At midday the British had advanced five miles behind the German line . The battle of Amiens in 1918 saw the value of the tank being appreciated ; 10 heavy and two light battalions of 414 tanks were included in the assault . 342 Mark Vs and 72 Whippets were backed up by a further 120 tanks designed to carry forward supplies for the armour and infantry . By the end of the first day of the attack , they had penetrated the German line by 6 – 8 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 – 12 @.@ 9 km ) , 16 @,@ 000 prisoners were taken . In September 1918 , the British Army was the most mechanised army in the world . Some 22 @,@ 000 men had served in the Tank Corps by the end of the war . A detachment of eight obsolescent Mark I tanks was sent to Southern Palestine in early 1917 and saw action against Turkish forces there . = = = Army Service Corps = = = The Army Service Corps ( ASC ) operated the transport system to deliver men , ammunition and matériel to the front . From 12 @,@ 000 men at the start of the war , the Corps increased in size to over 300 @,@ 000 by November 1918 . In addition they had under command Indian , Egyptian , Chinese ( Chinese Labour Corps ) and other native labourers , carriers and stores men . They provided horsed and mechanical transport companies , the Army Remount Service and ASC Labour companies . In August 1914 , they delivered 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) of bread to the front which increased to 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ( 41 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) by November 1918 . = = = Royal Army Medical Corps = = = The Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) supplied the doctors , casualty evacuation , field ambulances and hospitals for the army . The Corps was assisted in its work by voluntary help from the British Red Cross , St John 's Ambulance and the Friends Ambulance Unit . The only person to be awarded the Victoria Cross twice during the war was a doctor in the RAMC , Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse , VC and Bar , MC . While not strictly a member of the RAMC , stretcher bearer Lance Corporal William Harold Coltman VC , DCM & Bar , MM & Bar , was the most decorated other rank of the war . = = Life in the trenches = = By the end of 1914 , the war on the Western Front had reached stalemate and the trench lines extended from the Belgian coast to the Swiss frontier . By September 1915 , the length of the British front line stretched some 70 mi ( 110 km ) . Soldiers were in the front or reserve line trenches for about eight days at a time , before being relieved . There were three trenches in a typical front line sector ; the fire trench , the support trench and the reserve trench , all joined by communication trenches . The trenches varied in depth , but they were usually about four or five feet deep , or in areas with a high water table a wall of sandbags would be built to allow the defenders to stand upright , fire trenches were provided with a fire step , so the occupants could return fire during an attack ( see diagram ) . Ideally , the bottom of the trench was lined with duckboards to prevent men from sinking into the mud and dugouts were cut into the walls , these gave shelter from the elements and shrapnel , although in the British Army dugouts were usually reserved for the officers and senior NCOs . The men were then expected to sleep wherever they could and in wet weather they lived under groundsheets or in tents at the bottom of the trench on the duckboards . At the front , soldiers were in constant danger from artillery shells , mortar bombs and bullets and as the war progressed they also faced aerial attack . Some sectors of the front saw little activity throughout the war , making life comparatively easy . Other sectors were in a perpetual state of violent activity . However , quiet sectors still amassed daily casualties through snipers , artillery fire and disease . The harsh conditions , where trenches were often wet and muddy and the constant company of lice and rats which fed on unburied bodies , often carried disease . Many troops suffered from trench foot , trench fever and trench nephritis . They could also contract frostbite in the winter months and heat exhaustion in the summer . The men were frequently wet and extremely muddy , or dry and exceedingly dusty . Food could not usually be cooked in the front line trenches as any smoke would draw enemy fire , hot food had to be carried along communication trenches in clumsy " hayboxes " , sometimes arriving late or not at all . = = = Daily routine = = = Daily routine of life in the trenches began with the morning ' stand @-@ to ' . An hour before dawn everyone was roused and ordered to man their positions to guard against a dawn raid by the Germans . With stand @-@ to over , it was time for the men to have breakfast and perform ablutions . Once complete , the NCOs would assign daily chores , before the men attended to the cleaning of rifles and equipment , filling sandbags , repairing trenches or digging latrines . Once the daily tasks had been completed the men who were off @-@ duty would find a place to sleep . Due to the constant bombardments and the sheer effort of trying to stay alive , sleep deprivation was common . Soldiers also had to take it in turns to be on sentry duty , watching for enemy movements . Each side 's front line was constantly under observation by snipers and lookouts during daylight ; movement was therefore restricted until after the dusk stand @-@ to and night had fallen . Under the cover of darkness , troops attended to vital maintenance and resupply , with rations and water being brought to the front line , fresh units swapped places with troops moving to the rear for rest and recuperation . Trench raiding was also carried out and construction parties formed to repair trenches and fortifications , while wiring parties were sent out to repair or renew the barbed wire in no man 's land . An hour before dawn , everyone would stand @-@ to once more . = = = Moving into the front line = = = A set procedure was used by a division that was moving into the front line . Once they had been informed that they were moving forward , the brigadiers and battalion commanders would be taken to the forward areas to reconnoitre the sections of the front that were to be occupied by their troops . Meanwhile , the battalion transport officers would be taken to the headquarters of the division that they were relieving to observe the methods used for drawing rations and ammunition , and the manner in which they were supplied to the troops at the front . Detachments from the divisional artillery group would move forward and were attached to the artillery batteries of the division they were relieving . Five days later , the infantry battalions that were destined for the front line sent forward their specialists from the Lewis gun teams , and the grenade officer , the machine gun officer , the four company commanders , and some of the signallers to take over the trench stores and settle into the trench routine before the battalions moved in . Overnight , the battalions would move into the line , and the artillery would take over the guns that were already in position , leaving theirs behind to be taken over by the batteries that had been relieved . = = Discipline = = = = = Legal authority = = = The Army was ultimately under political authority . Since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Crown has not technically been permitted a standing army in the United Kingdom – it derives its existence from the Army Act , passed by Parliament each year ( every five years since the late 1950s ) . The House of Commons took these responsibilities seriously : a letter from Haig clarifying the position on shell @-@ shock had to be read out in the House of Commons on 14 March 1918 . Most disciplinary regulations in World War One derived from the 1881 Army Act , although some offences were more severely dealt with on active service , e.g. in principle looting or wilful disobedience carried the death penalty . = = = Lesser offences = = = Lesser offences were dealt with by commanding officers . For petty offences , a company commander could have men fined or confined to barracks for fatigue duty A battalion Commanding Officer could give detention , order up to 28 days Field Punishment , or demote corporals to the ranks ( officers and senior NCOs were dealt with by court martial other than for very trivial offences ) . Enlisted men could also lose leave or seniority . Field punishment ( FP ) had replaced flogging ( abolished at home in 1868 and on active service in 1881 , although still used in military prisons until 1907 ) . FP No.1 ( in which the man was shackled to fixed object , e.g. a large wheel ) was awarded to 60 @,@ 210 cases , equivalent to one man in 50 ( although in practice there were many repeat offenders ) . FP No.1 could be very unpleasant depending on the weather , was abhorred by some as barbaric , and in some units was ritualised ( e.g. by locking a man in a shed and throwing the handcuffs in with him ) ; there were also cases of Australian troops releasing British troops whom they found tied up , although in other units it was regarded as a necessary sanction for serious offences . FP No.2 meant that a man was shackled but not fixed in place . Striking an inferior was an offence but it was not uncommon in some units for officers to turn a blind eye to NCOs keeping discipline by violence , or even to do so themselves . = = = Courts martial = = = Men who committed serious offences were tried by Field General Court Martial , sometimes resulting in execution . Despite " assertions " that these were " kangaroo courts " ( e.g. in the book " Shot at Dawn " which says that men " did not receive even the rudiments of a just hearing " ) the release of records in 1990 @-@ 4 showed this to be untrue . They in fact had strict rules of procedure and a duty to uncover the facts . Unlike a General Court Martial in peacetime , there was no legally qualified Judge @-@ Advocate to advise the court , but from the start of 1916 a " Court Martial Officer " – usually an officer with legal experience in civilian life – was often present to do so . The accused was entitled to object to the composition of the panel ( e.g. if one of the officers was connected with the case or enjoyed a poor relationship with the accused ) and to present his case , defended by an officer ( a " Prisoner 's Friend " ) if he chose , although " Prisoners Friends " became more common as the war went on . The officer who convened a court martial could not sit on it , and the most junior officer voted first ( to lessen the chance of his deferring to a superior 's opinion ) . However , the courts were explicitly intended to be " speedy " and were sometimes encouraged by higher authority to make an example of certain offences , and in practice the leniency of the court and the ability of the accused to defend himself varied widely . Some pleaded guilty or chose not to present a defence or call witnesses , and in most cases the offence was " so blatant that little defence could be put forward " . Eighty @-@ nine per cent of courts martial returned a guilty verdict , the vast majority of cases being for offences such as Absence Without Leave ( the most common offence ) , drunkenness and insubordination . Terms of imprisonment were often suspended , to discourage soldiers from committing an offence to escape the front lines , but also to give a convicted man a chance to earn a reprieve for good conduct . Of the 252 officers tried , 76 per cent were found guilty , the most common offence ( 52 per cent of cases ) being drunkenness . Although three officers were executed , an officer was most likely to receive a severe reprimand ( 60 per cent of cases – a severe blow to his career ) or be cashiered ( 30 per cent of cases – stripped of his commission , which brought total social disgrace and barred him from any employment under the Crown , even working for the local council – but a cashiered officer could still be conscripted as a private to a different unit ) . = = = Executions = = = A death sentence had to be passed unanimously , and confirmed in writing by various officers as the verdict passed up the chain of command . A man 's battalion and brigade commander tended to comment on his own record , but senior generals tended to be more concerned with the type of offence and the state of discipline in that unit . The Judge Advocate General at GHQ also checked the records for irregularities , before final confirmation ( or otherwise ) by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the relevant theatre . Of the 3 @,@ 080 men sentenced to death , 346 men were actually executed , the vast majority of these ( 266 ) for desertion , the next largest reasons for execution being murder ( 37 — these men would probably have been hanged under civilian law at the time ) and cowardice ( 18 ) . Convictions for mutiny were rare — only one man was shot for the Etaples disturbances in 1917 . Of the men shot , 91 were already under a previous suspended sentence , and nine under two sentences . Of the 91 , 40 were already under a suspended death sentence , 38 of them for desertion , and one man had already been " sentenced to death " twice for desertion . It was felt at the time that , precisely because most soldiers in combat were afraid , an example needed to be made of men who deserted . Front line soldiers also sometimes felt that those who left their mates " in the lurch " by deserting " deserved to be shot " . One historian writes that there is " virtually no evidence " that soldiers thought the death penalty unjust , although another writes that some soldiers deplored the death penalty , while most thought it justified . Desertion normally meant an absence of 21 days or other evidence to indicate intent of not returning , e.g. wearing civilian clothes or failing to report for a key deployment . Those executed were normally not boys – the average age was in the mid @-@ twenties and 40 percent had been in serious trouble before . Thirty percent were regulars or reservists , 40 percent were Kitchener volunteers , 19 percent were Irish , Canadian or New Zealand volunteers , but only nine percent were conscripts , suggesting indulgence to the conscripts , many of them under 21 , who made up the bulk of the army by late in the war . Only executed men 's records survive , so it is hard to comment on the reasons why men were reprieved , but it has been suggested that the policy of commuting 90 percent of death sentences may well have been deliberate mercy in the application of military law designed for a small regular army recruited from the rougher elements of society . Only 7 @,@ 361 of the 38 @,@ 630 desertions were in the field . Most were away from the front line — 14 of the executed deserters were arrested in the United Kingdom — and many deserters had never served in the front line at all . In the latter part of the war , executed men 's families were usually told white lies by the authorities ; their families received pensions and were buried in the same graves as other dead soldiers . Death for desertion was abolished in 1930 over objections in the House of Lords from Lords Allenby and Plumer , two of the most distinguished British commanders of World War One ; calls for its restoration in World War Two were vetoed on political grounds . By contrast , of 393 men sentenced to death for falling asleep on sentry duty in all theatres in World War I , only two were executed ( sentries were usually posted in pairs to keep one another awake ; these two , who served in Mesopotamia , were made an example of because they were found sitting asleep together , suggesting that they had colluded ) . Australians made up seven percent of the British Expeditionary Force but 25 percent of deserters , while an Australian was nine times more likely to be imprisoned than a British soldier . Haig asked for permission to shoot Australians , but their government refused . British discipline of the First World War was not especially severe compared to most other armies of the time ( e.g. the Russians and Italians ) . The French admitted to only 133 executions and the Germans 48 , but these figures may not be reliable as both armies had problems with discipline . = = = Shell shock and pardons = = = At the time Posttraumatic stress disorder ( known as " shell shock " because it was initially wrongly thought to be caused by concussion damage to the membranes of brain ) was beginning to be recognised and was admissible in defence – it was classified as a war injury , although there were concerns that soldiers accused of offences tried falsely to claim shell shock as a defence . One historian writes that " in no case was a soldier whom the medical staff certified as suffering from shell shock actually executed " , that " there appear to have been very few cases where men who alleged shell shock , but whose claim was denied , were actually executed " , and that the suggestions of modern campaigners that most of the executed men suffered from shell shock are " palpably untrue " . However , another historian has pointed out that there was a great deal of chance in whether a soldier 's claim of shell @-@ shock would be taken seriously , and gives examples of soldiers being given cursory medical examinations or none ; specific references to shell @-@ shock are uncommon , and records usually refer to dizziness , " queer turns " , bad nerves etc . Such trauma was still poorly understood at that time . There were enquiries in 1919 , 1922 , 1925 and 1938 , which examined documents now lost and witnesses now dead . The books " For the Sake of Example " ( 1983 ) by Babington and " Shot at Dawn " ( 1989 ) by Sykes & Putkowski were openly intended to start a campaign for pardons . This campaign was rejected in February 1993 because there was no evidence of procedural error ( i.e. they had been correctly convicted according to the law at the time ) and it was felt not right to impose modern values on to the past . The case was rejected again in 1998 after a detailed two @-@ year review , which found " no white cases , very many black cases and a handful of grey cases " in which medical evidence was ignored or not called . The decisions were reversed by the Government in 2006 and all men given pardons and recognised as victims of World War I. However , their sentences were not overturned as it was impossible after this length of time to re @-@ examine the evidence in every case . = = = Other discipline = = = It has been pointed out that we have only anecdotal accounts , but no figures , for men who were shot on the spot by officers and NCOs for " cowardice in the face of the enemy " . There were over 13 @,@ 000 Royal Military Police ( “ redcaps ” ) . They were unpopular , at a time when the police were often unpopular with young men from big cities . Besides policing , a large part of their job was maintaining discipline on the march and keeping roads running smoothly , and collecting stragglers from a battle . During the March 1918 retreat 25 @,@ 000 stragglers were rounded up and sent back to fighting units . Royal Military Police also fought on occasion if headquarters areas were threatened by an enemy advance . Although soldiers sometimes told lurid tales of men who refused to fight being shot by Military Police , no reliable first @-@ hand accounts exist of this happening . There were occasional examples of men making unwanted homosexual advances , homosexuality being then criminal under both military and civil law , to escape the front lines , but prosecutions for this crime were rare , and there is also evidence of men turning a blind eye to homosexual relationships . = = = Positive motivation = = = Men were also motivated by positive means . New medals were instituted : the Military Cross was created in December 1914 for warrant officers and officers up to captain , the Military Medal for enlisted men in March 1916 ( although to the regret of some men , it did not carry a cash bounty like the Distinguished Conduct Medal ) . The Order of the British Empire ( of which the MBE is one grade ) was instituted in 1917 . By 1918 , medals for bravery were often awarded within a week to ensure that the man lived long enough to receive it . Race meetings , concert parties ( including drag acts – good drag queens were in great demand ) , trips to the seaside and football matches were organised to keep men entertained . There were various unofficial publications , including the “ Wipers Times ” – these give an insight into the views of ordinary soldiers and junior officers . Overt patriotism was rare , and politicians such as ( Prime Minister ) Asquith and Ramsay MacDonald ( an opponent of the war , later Labour Prime Minister ) were satirised . = = Western front = = Under the command of Field Marshal Sir John French , the BEF began to deploy to France within days of the declaration of war . The first encounter with the Germans came at Mons on 23 August 1914 , after which the Allies began the Great Retreat , the BEF was involved in the battle of Le Cateau . The BEF had a small role in halting the German advance at the Marne , before participating in the Aisne counter @-@ offensive , in September which was followed by a period known as the " Race to the Sea " during which the BEF redeployed to Flanders . For the BEF , 1914 ended with " First Ypres " which marked the beginning of a long struggle for the Ypres salient . British casualties in the fighting between 14 October and 30 November were 58 @,@ 155 ( 7 @,@ 960 dead , 29 @,@ 562 wounded and 17 @,@ 873 missing ) . It is often said that the pre @-@ war professional army died at the first battle of Ypres . The army had arrived in France with 84 @,@ 000 infantry . By the end of the battle , the BEF had suffered 86 @,@ 237 casualties , mostly to the infantry . Trench warfare prevailed in 1915 , and the BEF — as the junior partner on the Western Front — fought a series of small battles , at times coordinated with the larger French offensives , like the battle of Neuve Chapelle which is always associated with the shell crisis , the battle of Aubers Ridge , the battle of Festubert in May and the battle of Givenchy in June . On 22 April 1915 , the Germans launched the second battle of Ypres , employing poison gas for the first time on the Western Front and capturing much of the high ground that ringed the salient . By September 1915 , the British Army had grown with the first of Kitchener 's New Army divisions entering the line , and as part of the third battle of Artois , the army launched a major attack , the battle of Loos , utilising its own newly developed chemical weapons for the first time . The resulting failure marked the end for Field Marshal French . On 19 December 1915 , General Sir Douglas Haig replaced him as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the BEF . For the British Army , 1916 was dominated by the battle of the Somme which started disastrously on 1 July . The first day on the Somme remains the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army when over 19 @,@ 000 soldiers were killed and nearly 40 @,@ 000 were wounded , all for little or no gain . The only real success was in the south where , using imaginative tactics and helped by the French , the 18th ( Eastern ) Division and 30th Division took all their objectives , including Montauban , and the 7th Division captured Mametz . At Thiepval , the 36th ( Ulster ) Division seized the Schwaben Redoubt but was forced to withdraw because of lack of progress elsewhere . There followed nearly five months of attrition during which the Fourth Army of General Henry Rawlinson and the Fifth Army of General Hubert Gough advanced an average of 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) at a cost of 420 @,@ 000 casualties . In February 1917 , the German Army began to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line and it was these formidable defences that elements of the British Army assaulted in the battle of Arras in April . For this battle , the British Prime Minister — David Lloyd George — had placed Haig and the BEF under the orders of new French Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ( Robert Nivelle ) , who planned a major French Army offensive in Champagne . When the battle officially ended on 16 May , British troops had made significant advances , but had been unable to achieve a major breakthrough at any point . Having failed to deliver a breakthrough , Haig now embarked on his favoured plan to launch an offensive in Flanders . In a successful preliminary operation , General Herbert Plumer 's Second Army seized the Messines ridge south of Ypres . The battle of Passchendaele , which began on 31 July 1917 , was one of the harshest ordeals endured by British and Dominion troops during the war , with the battlefield reduced to a quagmire . It was not until 6 November that Passchendaele ridge was captured , by which time the British Army had sustained 310 @,@ 000 casualties . For the British Army , 1917 ended with the battle of Cambrai which demonstrated the potential of tanks operating en masse . The Third Army commander — General Julian Byng — planned an ambitious breakthrough and achieved an unprecedented advanced of 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) on the first day but lacked the reserves to either continue or consolidate . A German counter @-@ offensive succeeded in recapturing most of the lost ground . The final year of the war — 1918 — started with disaster and ended in triumph . On 21 March 1918 , German General Erich Ludendorff launched the Spring Offensive and the main weight of the first blow — Operation Michael — fell on the British Fifth Army of General Gough which was forced to retreat . In response to the crisis facing the Allies , French general Ferdinand Foch was made Supreme Commander for Allied forces on the Western Front , placing the BEF under his strategic direction . The next German attack came south of Ypres in the battle of the Lys river and here too the British Army fell back . Haig issued his famous Order of the Day , " With our backs to the wall and believing in the justice of our cause , each one of us must fight on to the end . " A third major German offensive , falling mainly on the French , was finally halted on the Marne in June 1918 . On 8 August 1918 , General Rawlinson 's Fourth Army launched the battle of Amiens which marked the start of the Hundred Days Offensive , the final Allied offensive on the Western Front . Over the following weeks , all five armies of the BEF went on the offensive from the Somme to Flanders . Fighting continued right up until the Armistice with Germany came into effect at 11 : 00 am on 11 November 1918 . In the final offensive , the BEF captured 188 @,@ 700 prisoners and 2 @,@ 840 guns which was only 7 @,@ 800 prisoners and 935 guns less than those taken by the French , Belgian and American armies combined . = = Other campaigns = = = = = Ireland = = = The Easter Rising was a rebellion staged in Ireland during Easter Week , 1916 . It was mounted by Irish republicans with the aims of ending British rule in Ireland and establishing an Irish Republic . Organised by the Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood , the rising lasted from 24 – 30 April 1916 . Members of the Irish Volunteers , joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army , along with 200 members of Cumann na mBan , seized key locations in Dublin and proclaimed an Irish Republic independent of Britain . Army reinforcements were moved into Dublin and , by 28 April , the 1 @,@ 600 rebels were facing 18 to 20 @,@ 000 soldiers , the rising was suppressed after seven days of fighting , its leaders were court martialled and executed . Easter Rising casualties were 450 killed , 2 @,@ 614 wounded , and nine missing , almost all in Dublin . The only significant action elsewhere was at Ashbourne , 10 mi ( 16 km ) north of Dublin . Military casualties were 116 dead , 368 wounded and 9 missing . The Irish and Dublin police forces had 16 killed and 29 wounded , 254 non @-@ combatant civilians died . = = = Salonika = = = A new front was opened in Salonika at the request of the Greek government , intending to support Serbian forces and oppose Bulgaria . The first troops of the British Salonika Army , arrived in Salonika in October 1916 , too late to prevent the Serbian Army from retreating into Albania and Greece . French , British and Russian troops arrived in Salonika between 1916 and 1917 and became known as the Allied Army of the Orient or Allied Army of the East , under the overall command of French General Maurice Sarrail . With the objective of destroying the Bulgarian Army , the French and British launched a new offensive in April 1917 , without any significant success . A stalemate ensued without any movement by either side ; the front became known as Europe 's biggest internment camp for the Allies by the Germans . This situation lasted until 18 September 1918 , when the British and Greek Armies , under the command of General George Milne attacked in the Lake Doiran Sector . The Bulgarian Army — now in retreat — signed an armistice on 30 September 1918 . = = = Italy = = = Italy joined the war on the Allies ' side on 5 May 1915 , declaring war on Austria @-@ Hungary on 23 May 1915 and on Germany on 28 August 1916 . The British Army 's involvement in the Italian campaign did not start until late 1917 , when troops were sent to help prevent a defeat on the Italian front . On 24 October 1917 in the battle of Caporetto the Second Italian Army collapsed and the Italians were forced to retreat to the Piave River , where they could be reinforced with five British and six French Divisions from the Western Front , complete with supporting arms and commanded by General Herbert Plumer . The reinforced Italians successfully managed to halt the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance at the battle of the Piave river . During the Allied counter @-@ attack in October 1918 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army collapsed after taking heavy losses at the battle of Vittorio Veneto . An armistice was signed shortly afterwards on 3 November 1918 . = = = China = = = In 1914 , the British Army was involved in what became known as the Siege of Tsingtao when the 2nd Battalion South Wales Borderers landed in China in support of Japanese forces in the capture of the German port of Tsingtao . The British were part of a 23 @,@ 000 @-@ strong task force which included a mixed British – Indian Brigade of 1 @,@ 500 troops and the battleship HMS Triumph . A bombardment of the port started on 31 October 1914 , and by 7 November , the Japanese 18th Division , 29th Infantry Brigade and the British – Indian Brigade , had stormed and captured the garrison and its 4 @,@ 000 troops . = = = East Africa = = = 1914 also witnessed the commencement of the East African Campaign against von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's elusive German and African askari forces . Most British operations in Africa were carried out by African askari units such as the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) , South African or Indian Army units . The British force was led , in turn , by General Horace Smith @-@ Dorrien , South African General Jan Smuts , and British General Arthur Reginald Hoskins . The force was composed of units of the KAR and the 27th Bangalore Brigade from the British Indian Army , with the 2nd Battalion , Loyal Regiment ( North Lancashire ) under command . The German forces of von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's Schutztruppe remained undefeated and surrendered on 25 November 1918 , 14 days after the Armistice in Europe . The casualty rate amongst British and Empire troops , excluding the Africans , was 6 @,@ 000 dead and 3 @,@ 000 wounded . More troops died from diseases than from enemy action , and illness accounted for 70 % of the total casualties . = = = Gallipoli = = = Turkey had entered the war on the German side on 31 October 1914 . One of its first acts was to close the Dardanelles Straits to the Allies . In April 1915 , following the failure of the Royal Navy 's attempt to capture the Dardanelles , British and ANZAC forces landed on the Gallipoli peninsula , under the command of General Ian Hamilton . The main British attacks were the first , second and third battles of Krithia . These were a series of attacks against the Turkish defences aimed at capturing the original objectives of 25 April 1915 . They all failed to achieve their objectives . In August , another landing was made at Suvla Bay . The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th Division from Kitchener 's New Army , 53rd , 54th first @-@ line Territorial divisions and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division . The 29th Division was also moved from Helles to Suvla for one more push . The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August , with attacks at Scimitar Hill and Hill 60 . Control of these hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts , but neither battle achieved success . When fighting at Hill 60 ceased on 29 August , the battle for the Sari Bair heights , and indeed , the battle for the peninsula , was effectively over ; by January 1916 , the Allies had withdrawn . Estimates of casualties vary enormously , but of the around 480 @,@ 000 Allied troops involved in the campaign , 180 @,@ 000 were wounded and 44 @,@ 000 died , 20 @,@ 000 of the dead being British . = = = Mesopotamia = = = The British force fighting in Mesopotamia was principally drawn from the British Indian Army , with only one solely British formation , the 13th ( Western ) Division . Its objective was to secure the Royal Navy 's oil supply from Persia . On 7 November 1914 , the British Indian force — led by General Sir John Nixon — invaded Mesopotamia , and on 23 November , entered Basrah . After this initial invasion , there followed a disastrous and humiliating defeat for the British by the Turks at the Siege of Kut @-@ al @-@ Amara from 7 December 1915 – 29 April 1916 , when the entire garrison of 13 @,@ 000 British and Indian troops surrendered . The British reorganised and raised the number of available troops to 250 @,@ 000 . The British eventually regained momentum upon General Frederick Stanley Maude becoming commander , and a new offensive began in December 1916 . On 24 February 1917 , Kut @-@ al @-@ Amara fell to the joint British and Indian force , and Baghdad was captured in March 1917 . A week after the capture of Baghdad , General Maude issued the Proclamation of Baghdad , which contained the famous line , " our armies do not come into your cities and lands as conquerors or enemies , but as liberators " . Lieutenant General Sir William Marshall succeeded Maude following the latter 's death from cholera on 18 November 1917 . He continued with the River War until October 1918 , when the British captured the Mosul oil fields , a development that led to the collapse of the Turkish forces . The Armistice of Mudros with Turkey was signed on 30 October 1918 . During the campaign , 100 @,@ 000 British and Indian casualties were caused . Of these , 53 @,@ 000 died , with 13 @,@ 000 of the dead succumbing to disease . = = = Sinai and Palestine = = = The Sinai and Palestine Campaign was fuelled by criticism of the policy of a static defence of the Suez canal , which employed six infantry divisions and five mounted brigades . After the repulse of the Turkish First Suez Offensive , nine divisions were sent to the Western Front and one to Mesopotamia . The British Army in the Sinai and Palestine subsequently included the 10th , 42nd , 52nd , 53rd , 54th , 60th , 74th and 75th divisions . British yeomanry formed part of the ANZAC Mounted Division , Australian Mounted Division and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions . With the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade , mounted troops formed the Desert Column . The whole force — known as the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) — was under the command of General Sir Archibald Murray in Cairo . Murray made steady progress against the Turkish forces , which were defeated in the battles of Romani , Magdhaba and Rafa . However , he was repulsed at the first and second battle of Gaza in 1917 . The defeat in the Second Battle of Gaza prompted the War Office to change the command of the EEF , and on 28 June 1917 , Murray was replaced by General Sir Edmund Allenby , who reinvigorated the campaign . Allenby reorganised his forces along more conventional lines . The EEF now included the Desert Mounted Corps , under Lieutenant General Sir Harry Chauvel ; XX Corps under Lieutenant General Sir Phillip Chetwode and XXI Corps under Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin . In October 1917 , they defeated the Turkish forces in the third battle of Gaza and the Battle of Mughar Ridge , which succeeded in causing the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies to withdraw towards Jerusalem and Haifa respectively . This led to the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917 . In February and April 1918 , Australian mounted troops took part in two raids east across the Jordan River near Es Salt , a village in Palestine 14 mi ( 23 km ) west of Amman . Although these raids were unsuccessful , they encouraged Turkish commanders to believe that the main British effort would be launched across the Jordan , when in fact it would be launched along the coastal plain . The EEF was greatly weakened at this time by the crisis in France , which led to the despatch of the 52nd and 74th Divisions to the Western Front , the breaking up of the Yeomanry Mounted Division , and the replacement of most of the British infantry in four of the remaining divisions with Indian troops . In September 1918 , Allenby 's forces won the decisive Megiddo Offensive , which precipitated the Armistice of Mudros with the Ottoman Empire , which was signed on 31 October 1918 . Total Allied casualties in the Sinai and Palestine campaign were 60 @,@ 000 of which 20 @,@ 000 were killed . Some 15 @,@ 000 of the dead were British . = = = Persia = = = Following the abdication of the Russian Tsar in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia — and beyond it India — open to the Turkish Army . The War Office responded with a plan to send a force of hand @-@ picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . This force became known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Charles Dunsterville , the inspiration for the titular character of Rudyard Kipling 's novel Stalky & Co .. It arrived in Baku in August 1918 . It was hoped that Dunsterforce could raise an army from the Christian Georgian , Armenian and Assyrian people who had supported the Russians and had historically feared the Turks . While Dunsterforce had some success the task proved beyond its ability . = = = Fighting the Senussi Arabs = = = In late November 1915 , in response to the growing threat from a pro @-@ Turkish Islamic Arab sect known as the Senussi , a composite British body known as the ' Western Frontier Force ' was sent into the Libyan Desert to Mersa Matruh , under the command of British Indian Army officer Major General Alexander Wallace . A series of sharp battles against the Arabs ensued at Um Rakhum , Gebel Medwa , and Halazin during December and January . The Western Desert Force , now under Major General William Peyton , re @-@ occupied Sidi Barrani and Sallum in February and March 1916 . Shipwrecked British seamen from HMT Moorina and HMS Tara , who had been held at Bir Hakeim , were rescued by a contingent of armoured cars led by the Duke of Westminster . = = Aftermath = = The British Army during World War I was the largest military force that Britain had put into the field up to that point . On the Western Front , the British Expeditionary Force ended the war as the strongest fighting force , more experienced than the United States Army and its morale was in better shape than the French Army . The cost of victory , however , was high . The official " final and corrected " casualty figures for the British Army — including the Territorial Force — were issued on 10 March 1921 . The losses for the period between 4 August 1914 and 30 September 1919 included 573 @,@ 507 " killed in action , died from wounds and died of other causes " and 254 @,@ 176 missing ( minus 154 @,@ 308 released prisoners of war ) , for a net total of 673 @,@ 375 dead and missing . Casualty figures also indicated that there were 1 @,@ 643 @,@ 469 wounded . For some , the fighting did not end in 1918 . The British Army dispatched troops to Russia during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War , which was followed by the Anglo @-@ Irish War in January 1919 and the Third Anglo @-@ Afghan War in May 1919 . The Third Afghan War was followed by the 1920 conflict between British forces and Somaliland dervishes . Those not involved in fighting or occupation duties were demobilised . The demobilisation of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 men that followed the end of the war had , within a year , reduced the British Army to 800 @,@ 000 men ; by November 1920 , two years after the signing of the Armistice , this figure had fallen to 370 @,@ 000 men . The Ten Year Rule was introduced in August 1919 , which stipulated that the British Armed Forces should draft their estimates " on the assumption that the British Empire would not be engaged in any great war during the next ten years " . In 1928 , Winston Churchill , as Chancellor of the Exchequer , successfully urged the Cabinet to make the rule self @-@ perpetuating and hence it was in force unless specifically countermanded . There were cuts in defence spending as a result of this rule , falling from £ 766 million in 1919 – 1920 , to £ 189 million in 1921 – 1922 , and to £ 102 million in 1932 . The British Army tried to learn the lessons of the First World War , and adopt them into its pre @-@ war doctrine . In the 1920s , and much of the 1930s , the General Staff tried to establish a small , mechanised , professional army and formed the Experimental Mechanized Force but , with the lack of any identified threat , its main function reverted to garrison duties around the British Empire .
= Croatia – Hungary relations = Croatia – Hungary relations refer to the bilateral relationship between Croatia and Hungary . Diplomatic relations among two states were established on January 18 , 1992 following Croatia 's independence from SFR Yugoslavia . Croatia has an embassy in Budapest and consulates in Pécs and Nagykanizsa , while Hungary has an embassy in Zagreb and consulates in Rijeka and Split . In 1102 the previously @-@ independent Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Hungary entered personal union and were ruled by the same King , Ladislaus I. Following the Ottoman conquests and a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Mohács in 1527 , Croatian nobility elected the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I as the new king of Croatia . The Hungarian nobility was divided but the Habsburgs annexed the Kingdom of Hungary , keeping Croatia and Hungary under a single crown . During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Croatia sided with the Austrians so Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić helped Austria to defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849 and ushering in a period of Germanization . By the 1860s the failure of this policy became apparent , leading to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . The issue of Croatia 's status in Hungary was resolved by the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement of 1868 , when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united into Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia . Following the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary after its defeat in World War I , Croatian Parliament declared independence on 29 October 1918 and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , ending Habsburg rule and the personal union with Hungary after 816 years . Through the Treaty of Trianon , Hungary lost Međimurje and the southern part of Baranya to Croatia . Since World War II , relations between two states have been defined by cooperation with Nazis , Soviets and Yugoslavia until the revolutions of 1989 and the breakup of Yugoslavia . Hungary recognised Croatian independence with the rest of the European Economic Community in 1992 , and supported Croatia during the Croatian War of Independence . Croatian and Hungarian high @-@ ranking officials usually meet several times a year . Trade between Croatia and Hungary amounted $ 1 @.@ 020 bln in 2012 , largely consisting of Hungarian exports to Croatia . Hungarian tourists contribute significantly to Croatian tourism ; in 2009 , a total of 323 @,@ 000 visited Croatia , including the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán who spends his summer holidays in Dalmatia for last few decades . Both countries coordinate the development of cross @-@ border infrastructure . Pan @-@ European corridors Vb and Vc connect Budapest to the Adriatic Sea via Zagreb and Osijek . Both countries have sizable minorities living across their common border , and both have passed laws to protect their minority rights . Croatia and Hungary are parties to 96 bilateral treaties and members of a number of multinational organizations , including NATO and the European Union . = = Present = = = = = Diplomatic relations = = = Croatia and Hungary established diplomatic relations on 16 and 18 January 1992 , after Hungary recognised the independence of Croatia on 15 January 1992 . As of December 2011 Croatia maintains an embassy in Budapest ( headed by ambassador Ivan Band \| aić ) , a consulate general in Pécs and a consulate in Nagykanizsa . The Nagykanizsa consulate is led by an honorary consul . Hungary maintains an embassy in Zagreb and consulates in Rijeka and Split . The embassy is headed by ambassador Gábor Iván ; the offices also include an army and air attaché office in the Republic of Croatia ( headed by László Hajas ) and the Office for Economic Affairs of the Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in the Republic of Croatia ( headed by András Péter Závoczky , Counsellor for Economy and Trade ) . Croatian and Hungarian high @-@ ranking officials ( including heads of state , prime ministers and foreign ministers ) meet several times a year . In addition , Croatian and Hungarian governments have occasionally held joint sessions since January 2006 . = = = Economy and infrastructure = = = Trade between Croatia and Hungary amounted to € 625 @,@ 083 in 2009 , a decrease from € 894 @,@ 270 in 2008 . In 2009 Croatian exports to Hungary reached € 132 @,@ 474 , while Hungarian exports to Croatia were worth € 492 @,@ 609 . Overall , the 2009 trade volume represented 2 @.@ 75 percent of total Croatian foreign trade . Croatian – Hungarian trade comprises only a small fraction of total Hungarian foreign trade , reaching 0 @.@ 54 percent of the total in 2009 . Hungarian investments in Croatia rose sharply in 2003 , reaching the fourth ranking in that year following investments exceeding USD630 million , largely in tourism and manufacturing . The largest single investment that year was the purchase of more than 25 percent of the stock of INA for USD500 million by the MOL Group . By 2011 , the MOL Group increased its stake in INA to 47 @.@ 16 percent . Hungarian tourists contribute significantly to the Croatian tourist industry ; in 2009 , a total of 323 @,@ 000 Hungarians visited Croatia as tourists . A total of 1 @.@ 644 million overnight stays were made by Hungarian tourists in that year alone , ranking Hungarian tourists seventh in the number of nights spent in Croatia ( behind the Germans , Slovenes , Italians , Austrians , Czechs and Dutch ) . At the same time , the Hungarian tourists spent more than 143 million kuna ( c . € 19 million ) in Croatia , representing a sharp increase from 69 @.@ 5 million kuna ( c . € 9 @.@ 3 million ) spent in 2008 . In 2009 , 103 @,@ 000 Croatians visited Hungary ( excluding family and friend visits ) in 356 @,@ 000 overnight stays , spending 204 @,@ 000 kuna ( c . € 27 @,@ 000 ) . This spending represented a 250 @-@ percent increase from 2008 . Croatia and Hungary coordinate the development of infrastructure , especially transportation routes . Pan @-@ European corridors Vb and Vc connect Budapest to the Adriatic Sea via Zagreb and Rijeka ( Vb ) and to Osijek and Ploče ( Vc ) . The Pan @-@ European corridor Vb comprises road and rail links between the Hungarian and Croatian capitals and the Port of Rijeka . The corridor 's road component primarily consists of the M7 , the A4 and the A6 motorways ( as well as several other connecting motorway sections ) completed on 22 October 2008 . The rail component of the corridor largely uses the route completed in 1873 , but it is planned to be rebuilt to increase its capacity . The Pan @-@ European corridor Vc primarily consists of the M6 and the A5 motorways ; however , as of December 2011 the motorway is not completed . Other infrastructure jointly developed by Croatia and Hungary includes a € 395 million gas pipeline and two electric @-@ power lines . On the 355 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 220 @.@ 9 mi ) border between Croatia and Hungary there are six international @-@ road border crossings , three rail border crossings and five local @-@ traffic border crossings . Citizens of Croatia and Hungary may cross the border with a valid passport or an identity card for stays of up to 90 days . = = = Minorities and migrations = = = According to the 2001 census there are 16 @,@ 595 Hungarians living in Croatia , representing 0 @.@ 37 percent of the population . In 2000 , there were 15 @,@ 597 Croats living in Hungary , accounting for 0 @.@ 15 percent of the total population . The Hungarian minority in Croatia is recognised by the Constitution of Croatia ; minority rights ( including official use of Hungarian by local governments and education in Hungarian ) are safeguarded by legislation enacted by the Sabor . Seven municipalities in Croatia introduced Hungarian for official use ( either in part of their territory or the entire municipality ) , depending on the distribution of the Hungarian population there . There are five Hungarian minority organizations in Croatia , and the Hungarian minority is guaranteed one seat in the Croatian Parliament . The Hungarian government recognised Croats as a minority native to Hungary ; it has decided to implement the optional regulations of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages with respect to the Croatian language and establish a minority self @-@ government for the Croatian minority in Hungary , guaranteeing cultural autonomy . The Croatian minority set up 127 local and 7 county self @-@ governments in Hungary . There are concerns that Croatian minority rights in Hungary are being diminished , but the president of Croatia has assessed that both Croatian and Hungarian minority policies were appropriate . The Croatian minority in Hungary is particularly active in Pécs , where the Scientific Institute of Croats in Hungary and the Croatian Theatre have been established . The number of migrants between Croatia and Hungary is very low ; in 2009 , only 22 people emigrated from Hungary to Croatia while a single person emigrated from Croatia to Hungary . = = = Cultural and scientific cooperation = = = Croatia and Hungary have agreed to the Cultural Cooperation Programme , which defines cooperation and cultural exchange in the fields of music , theatre and dance , and with respect to the arts , museums , galleries , literature , publishing , libraries , archives , film and cultural @-@ heritage protection . The programme was agreed to on 7 November 2011 in Budapest by secretaries of the Croatian Ministry of Culture and the Hungarian Ministry of National Resources . The programme pertains to the 2012 – 2014 period and represents a continuation of cultural cooperation through cultural exchange , outside the framework of formal agreements . Cultural , educational and scientific cooperation between the two countries is covered by a treaty of 16 March 1994 , with additional treaties regulating diploma recognitions since 16 June 1997 and additional treaties and protocols on scientific and technological cooperation signed in 2002 and 2009 . The scientific and educational cooperation entails the awarding of scholarships and bilateral research projects . = = = Bilateral treaties and multinational organizations = = = Croatia and Hungary have either signed or succeeded 133 different treaties and other agreements . Some were originally signed by Hungary and SFR Yugoslavia , while Croatia succeeded relevant documents pursuant to decisions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee . As of December 2011 96 remain in force , regulating various aspects of relations between the countries ( including minority rights , diplomatic relations , cultural and scientific cooperation , trade and economic relations , Drava river navigation , border control and air transport ) . Free @-@ trade agreements were signed , but have since been repealed through adoption of similar agreements with the European Union . There were also agreements made with a limited period of application , pertaining to sporting @-@ event security . Croatia and Hungary are members of several multinational organizations , including the United Nations , the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe , the Council of Europe , NATO , the World Trade Organization and the Central European Initiative . In addition , Hungary is a member of the European Union ( EU ) . On 9 December 2011 , Croatia signed an EU accession treaty and is expected to become a member on 1 July 2013 . Both countries are also taking part in the formulation and implementation of the Danube Strategy , focusing on transport , environmental and economic development of the Danube area and involving all countries along its banks . = = History = = = = = Personal union = = = When Stjepan II died in 1091 , ending the Trpimirović dynasty rule in the medieval kingdom of Croatia , Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown . Opposition to the claim led to a war and the personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102 , ruled by Coloman . For the next four centuries , Croatia was ruled by the Sabor ( parliament ) and a Ban of Croatia ( viceroy ) appointed by the king . This period saw an increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas . The Venetians gained control over most of Dalmatia by 1428 except for the city @-@ state of Dubrovnik , which became independent . Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava Field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács , both ending in decisive Ottoman victories against Hungarian and Croatian armies . King Louis II died at Mohács ; in 1527 , the assembly of Croatian nobility meeting at Cetin chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia under the conditions that he provide protection to Croatia against the Ottoman Empire and respect its political rights . In political disarray , the divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously : János Szapolyai and Ferdinand I. With the conquest of Buda by the Ottomans in 1541 , the remaining part of Hungary not ruled by the Ottomans ( known as the Royal Hungary ) was annexed by the Habsburgs ; they ruled as Kings of Hungary , thus keeping the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia under a single crown . = = = Habsburg rule = = = During the 1830s and 1840s romantic nationalism appeared in Croatia , inspiring the Croatian National Revival ( a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of all South Slavs in the empire ) . Its primary focus was the establishment of a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian and the promotion of Croatian literature and culture . During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , Croatia sided with the Austrians ; Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849 , ushering in a period of Germanization . By the 1860s the policy 's failure became apparent , leading to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . The treaty left the issue of Croatia 's status to Hungary ; this was resolved by the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement of 1868 , when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united . The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control , while Rijeka retained its status of Corpus separatum introduced in 1779 . After Austria @-@ Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , the Croatian Military Frontier was abolished and the territory returned to Croatia in 1881 . Renewed efforts to reform Austria @-@ Hungary , entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit , were halted by World War I. On 29 October 1918 the Croatian Sabor declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , ending Habsburg rule and the personal union with Hungary after 816 years . = = = Treaty of Trianon and World War II = = = The Treaty of Trianon was signed in 1920 , at the end of World War I , between the Allies of World War I and Hungary ( as one of the successor states of Austria @-@ Hungary ) . The treaty regulated the status of the independent Hungarian state and defined its borders . Compared to the prewar Kingdom of Hungary ( as a part of Austria @-@ Hungary ) , post @-@ Trianon Hungary lost 72 percent of its territory . The principal beneficiaries of the territorial division of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary were Romania , Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . The treaty established the southern border of Hungary along the Drava and Mura rivers ( except in Baranya , where only the northern part of the county was retained by Hungary ) . On 4 December 1918 the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( comprising present @-@ day Croatia ) joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats , and Slovenes . The invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis Powers began on 6 April 1941 , during World War II , and ended with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April 1941 . During that time , on 12 April the Hungarian Third Army crossed the border ( advancing into Međimurje and southern Baranya ) . Those territorial gains were reversed by Yugoslav partisans and the Red Army in 1944 and 1945 , and confirmed by the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 . As World War II was replaced by the Cold War , Hungarian – Croatian relations were substantially dictated by the Soviet Union ; it dominated the Eastern Bloc , which included Hungary and Communist @-@ ruled Yugoslavia ( which in turn comprised Croatia as its constituent part ) , as defined by the Tito – Stalin split . This situation ended with the revolutions of 1989 , the end of Communism in Hungary and the breakup of Yugoslavia . = = = Fall of Communism and Croatian independence = = = Hungary recognised Croatian independence on 15 January 1992 ( with the rest of the European Economic Community member states ) , and established diplomatic relations with Croatia three days later . During the Croatian War of Independence , Croatia obtained arms from several countries ( including Hungary ) , despite a United Nations @-@ imposed arms embargo . As of December 2011 , Hungary and Croatia have 96 treaties and agreements in force regulating a wide range of activities and relations ( including diplomatic , cultural , economic , energy , transport , education , minority and other issues ) . Furthermore , Hungary supported the Croatian NATO membership request and Croatian accession to the European Union .
= Francis Poulenc = Francis Jean Marcel Poulenc ( French : [ fʁɑ ̃ sis ʒɑ ̃ maʁsɛl pulɛ ̃ k ] ; 7 January 1899 – 30 January 1963 ) was a French composer and pianist . His compositions include mélodies , solo piano works , chamber music , choral pieces , operas , ballets , and orchestral concert music . Among the best @-@ known are the piano suite Trois mouvements perpétuels ( 1919 ) , the ballet Les biches ( 1923 ) , the Concert champêtre ( 1928 ) for harpsichord and orchestra , the opera Dialogues des Carmélites ( 1957 ) , and the Gloria ( 1959 ) for soprano , choir and orchestra . His wealthy family intended Poulenc for a business career and did not allow him to enrol at a music college . Largely self @-@ educated musically , he studied with the pianist Ricardo Viñes , who became his mentor after the composer 's parents died . Poulenc soon came under the influence of Erik Satie , under whose tutelage he became one of a group of young composers known collectively as Les Six . In his early works Poulenc became known for his high spirits and irreverence . During the 1930s a much more serious side to his nature emerged , particularly in the religious music he composed from 1936 onwards , which he alternated with his more light @-@ hearted works . In addition to composing , Poulenc was an accomplished pianist . He was particularly celebrated for his performing partnerships with the baritone Pierre Bernac ( who also advised him in vocal writing ) and the soprano Denise Duval , touring in Europe and America with each , and making many recordings . He was among the first composers to see the importance of the gramophone , and he recorded extensively from 1928 onwards . In his later years , and for decades after his death , Poulenc had a reputation , particularly in his native country , as a humorous , lightweight composer , and his religious music was often overlooked . During the 21st century more attention has been given to his serious works , with many new productions of Dialogues des Carmélites and La Voix humaine worldwide , and numerous live and recorded performances of his songs and choral music . = = Life = = = = = Early years = = = Poulenc was born in the 8th arrondissement of Paris , the younger child and only son of Émile Poulenc and his wife , Jenny , née Royer . Poulenc senior was joint owner of the Établissements Poulenc Frères , a successful manufacturer of pharmaceuticals ( later Rhône @-@ Poulenc ) . He was a member of a pious Roman Catholic family from Espalion in the département of Aveyron . Jenny Poulenc was from a Parisian family with wide artistic interests . In Poulenc 's view , the two sides of his nature grew out of this background : a deep religious faith from his father 's family and a worldly and artistic side from his mother 's . The critic Claude Rostand later described Poulenc as " half monk and half naughty boy " . Poulenc grew up in a musical household ; his mother was a capable pianist , with a wide repertoire ranging from classical to less elevated works that gave him a lifelong taste for what he called " adorable bad music " . He took piano lessons from the age of five ; when he was eight he first heard the music of Debussy and was fascinated by the originality of the sound . Other composers whose works influenced his development were Schubert and Stravinsky : the former 's Winterreise and the latter 's The Rite of Spring made a deep impression on him . At his father 's insistence , Poulenc followed a conventional school career , studying at the Lycée Condorcet in Paris rather than at a music conservatory . In 1916 a childhood friend , Raymonde Linossier ( 1897 – 1930 ) , introduced Poulenc to Adrienne Monnier 's bookshop , the Maison des Amis des Livres . There he met the avant @-@ garde poets Guillaume Apollinaire , Max Jacob , Paul Éluard and Louis Aragon . He later set many of their poems to music . In the same year he became the pupil of the pianist Ricardo Viñes . The biographer Henri Hell comments that Viñes 's influence on his pupil was profound , both as to pianistic technique and the style of Poulenc 's keyboard works . Poulenc later said of Viñes : He was a most delightful man , a bizarre hidalgo with enormous moustachios , a flat @-@ brimmed sombrero in the purest Spanish style , and button boots which he used to rap my shins when I didn 't change the pedalling enough . ... I admired him madly , because , at this time , in 1914 , he was the only virtuoso who played Debussy and Ravel . That meeting with Viñes was paramount in my life : I owe him everything ... In reality it is to Viñes that I owe my fledgling efforts in music and everything I know about the piano . When Poulenc was sixteen his mother died ; his father died two years later . Viñes became more than a teacher : he was , in the words of Myriam Chimènes in the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , the young man 's " spiritual mentor " . He encouraged his pupil to compose , and he later gave the premieres of three early Poulenc works . Through him Poulenc became friendly with two composers who helped shape his early development : Georges Auric and Erik Satie . Auric , who was the same age as Poulenc , was an early developer musically ; by the time the two met , Auric 's music had already been performed at important Parisian concert venues . The two young composers shared a similar musical outlook and enthusiasms , and for the rest of Poulenc 's life Auric was his most trusted friend and guide . Poulenc called him " my true brother in spirit " . Satie , an eccentric figure , isolated from the mainstream French musical establishment , was a mentor to several rising young composers , including Auric , Louis Durey and Arthur Honegger . After initially dismissing Poulenc as a bourgeois amateur , he relented and admitted him to the circle of protégés , whom he called " Les Nouveaux Jeunes " . Poulenc described Satie 's influence on him as " immediate and wide , on both the spiritual and musical planes " . The pianist Alfred Cortot commented that Poulenc 's Trois mouvements perpétuels were " reflections of the ironical outlook of Satie adapted to the sensitive standards of the current intellectual circles " . = = = First compositions and Les Six = = = Poulenc made his début as a composer in 1917 with his Rapsodie nègre , a ten @-@ minute , five @-@ movement piece for baritone and chamber group ; it was dedicated to Satie and premiered at one of a series of concerts of new music run by the singer Jane Bathori . There was a fashion for African arts in Paris at the time , and Poulenc was delighted to run across some published verses purportedly Liberian , but full of Parisian boulevard slang . He used one of the poems in two sections of the rhapsody . The baritone engaged for the first performance lost his nerve on the platform , and the composer , though no singer , jumped in . This jeu d 'esprit was the first of many examples of what Anglophone critics came to call " leg @-@ Poulenc " . Ravel was amused by the piece and commented on Poulenc 's ability to invent his own folklore . Stravinsky was impressed enough to use his influence to secure Poulenc a contract with a publisher , a kindness that Poulenc never forgot . In 1917 Poulenc got to know Ravel well enough to have serious discussions with him about music . He was dismayed by Ravel 's judgments , which exalted composers whom Poulenc thought little of above those he greatly admired . He told Satie of this unhappy encounter ; Satie replied with a dismissive epithet for Ravel who , he said , talked " a load of rubbish " . For many years Poulenc was equivocal about Ravel 's music , though always respecting him as a man . Ravel 's modesty about his own music particularly appealed to Poulenc , who sought throughout his life to follow Ravel 's example . From January 1918 to January 1921 Poulenc was a conscript in the French army in the last months of the First World War and the immediate post @-@ war period . Between July and October 1918 he served at the Franco @-@ German front , after which he was given a series of auxiliary posts , ending as a typist at the Ministry of Aviation . His duties allowed him time for composition ; the Trois mouvements perpétuels for piano and the Sonata for Piano Duet were written at the piano of the local elementary school at Saint @-@ Martin @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Pré , and he completed his first song cycle , Le bestiaire , setting poems by Apollinaire . The sonata did not create a deep public impression , but the song cycle made the composer 's name known in France , and the Trois mouvements perpétuels rapidly became an international success . The exigencies of music @-@ making in wartime taught Poulenc much about writing for whatever instruments were available ; then , and later , some of his works were for unusual combinations of players . At this stage in his career Poulenc was conscious of his lack of academic musical training ; the critic and biographer Jeremy Sams writes that it was the composer 's good luck that the public mood was turning against late @-@ romantic lushness in favour of the " freshness and insouciant charm " of his works , technically unsophisticated though they were . Four of Poulenc 's early works were premiered at the Salle Huyghens in Montparnasse , where between 1917 and 1920 the cellist Félix Delgrange presented concerts of music by young composers . Among them were Auric , Durey , Honegger , Darius Milhaud and Germaine Tailleferre , who , with Poulenc , became known collectively as " Les Six " . After one of their concerts , the critic Henri Collet published an article titled , " The Five Russians , the Six Frenchmen and Satie " . According to Milhaud : In completely arbitrary fashion Collet chose the names of six composers , Auric , Durey , Honegger , Poulenc , Tailleferre and myself , for no other reason than that we knew each other , that we were friends and were represented in the same programmes , but without the slightest concern for our different attitudes and our different natures . Auric and Poulenc followed the ideas of Cocteau , Honegger was a product of German Romanticism and my leanings were towards a Mediterranean lyrical art ... Collet 's article made such a wide impression that the Groupe des Six had come into being . Cocteau , though similar in age to Les Six , was something of a father @-@ figure to the group . His literary style , " paradoxical and lapidary " in Henri Hell 's phrase , was anti @-@ romantic , concise and irreverent . It greatly appealed to Poulenc , who made his first setting of Cocteau 's words in 1919 and his last in 1961 . When members of Les Six collaborated with each other , they contributed their own individual sections to the joint work . Their 1920 piano suite L 'Album des Six consists of six separate and unrelated pieces . Their 1921 ballet Les mariés de la tour Eiffel contains three sections by Milhaud , two apiece by Auric , Poulenc and Tailleferre , one by Honegger and none by Durey , who was already distancing himself from the group . In the early 1920s Poulenc remained concerned at his lack of formal musical training . Satie was suspicious of music colleges , but Ravel advised Poulenc to take composition lessons ; Milhaud suggested the composer and teacher Charles Koechlin . Poulenc worked with him intermittently from 1921 to 1925 . = = = 1920s : increasing fame = = = From the early 1920s Poulenc was well received abroad , particularly in Britain , both as a performer and a composer . In 1921 Ernest Newman wrote in The Manchester Guardian , " I keep my eye on Francis Poulenc , a young man who has only just arrived at his twenties . He ought to develop into a farceur of the first order . " Newman said that he had rarely heard anything so deliciously absurd as parts of Poulenc 's song cycle Cocardes , with its accompaniment played by the unorthodox combination of cornet , trombone , violin and percussion . In 1922 Poulenc and Milhaud travelled to Vienna to meet Alban Berg , Anton Webern and Arnold Schönberg . Neither of the French composers was influenced by their Austrian colleagues ' revolutionary twelve tone system , but they admired the three as its leading proponents . The following year Poulenc received a commission from Serge Diaghilev for a full @-@ length ballet score . He decided that the theme would be a modern version of the classical French fête galante . This work , Les biches , was an immediate success , first in Monte Carlo in January 1924 and then in Paris in May , under the direction of André Messager ; it has remained one of Poulenc 's best @-@ known scores . Poulenc 's new celebrity after the success of the ballet was the unexpected cause of his estrangement from Satie : among the new friends Poulenc made was Louis Laloy , a writer whom Satie regarded with implacable enmity . Auric , who had just enjoyed a similar triumph with a Diaghilev ballet , Les Fâcheux , was also repudiated by Satie for becoming a friend of Laloy . As the decade progressed , Poulenc produced a range of compositions , from songs to chamber music and another ballet , Aubade . Henri Hell suggests that Koechlin 's influence occasionally inhibited Poulenc 's natural simple style , and that Auric offered useful guidance to help him appear in his true colours . At a concert of music by the two friends in 1926 , Poulenc 's songs were sung for the first time by the baritone Pierre Bernac , from whom , in Henri Hell 's phrase , " the name of Poulenc was soon to be inseparable . " Another performer with whom the composer came to be closely associated was the harpsichordist Wanda Landowska . He heard her as the soloist in Falla 's El retablo de maese Pedro ( 1923 ) , an early example of the use of a harpsichord in a modern work , and was immediately taken with the sound . At Landowska 's request he wrote a concerto , the Concert champêtre , which she premiered in 1929 with the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris conducted by Pierre Monteux . The biographer Richard D E Burton comments that , in the late 1920s , Poulenc might have seemed to be in an enviable position : professionally successful and independently well @-@ off , having inherited a substantial fortune from his father . He bought a large country house , Le Grande Coteau , at Noizay , Indre @-@ et @-@ Loire , 140 miles ( 230 km ) south @-@ west of Paris , where he retreated to compose in peaceful surroundings . Yet he was troubled , struggling to come to terms with his sexuality , which was predominantly gay . His first serious affair was with the painter Richard Chanlaire , to whom he sent a copy of the Concert champêtre score inscribed , " You have changed my life , you are the sunshine of my thirty years , a reason for living and working " . Nevertheless , while this affair was in progress Poulenc proposed marriage to his friend Raymonde Linossier . As she was not only well aware of his homosexuality but was also romantically attached elsewhere , she refused him , and their relationship became strained . He suffered the first of many periods of depression , which affected his ability to compose , and he was devastated in January 1930 , when Linossier died suddenly at the age of 32 . On her death he wrote , " All my youth departs with her , all that part of my life that belonged only to her . I sob ... I am now twenty years older " . His affair with Chanlaire petered out in 1931 , though they remained lifelong friends . = = = 1930s : new seriousness = = = At the start of the decade , Poulenc returned to writing songs , after a two @-@ year break from doing so . His " Epitaphe " , to a poem by Malherbe , was written in memory of Linossier , and is described by the pianist Graham Johnson as " a profound song in every sense " . The following year Poulenc wrote three sets of songs , to words by Apollinaire and Max Jacob , some of which were serious in tone , and others reminiscent of his earlier light @-@ hearted style , as were others of his works of the early 1930s . In 1932 his music was among the first to be broadcast on television , in a transmission by the BBC in which Reginald Kell and Gilbert Vinter played his Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon . At about this time Poulenc began a relationship with Raymond Destouches , a chauffeur ; as with Chanlaire earlier , what began as a passionate affair changed into a deep and lasting friendship . Destouches , who married in the 1950s , remained close to Poulenc until the end of the composer 's life . Two unrelated events in 1936 combined to inspire a reawakening of religious faith and a new depth of seriousness in Poulenc 's music . His fellow composer Pierre @-@ Octave Ferroud was killed in a car crash so violent that he was decapitated , and almost immediately afterwards , while on holiday , Poulenc visited the sanctuary of Rocamadour . He later explained : A few days earlier I 'd just heard of the tragic death of my colleague ... As I meditated on the fragility of our human frame , I was drawn once more to the life of the spirit . Rocamadour had the effect of restoring me to the faith of my childhood . This sanctuary , undoubtedly the oldest in France ... had everything to captivate me ... The same evening of this visit to Rocamadour , I began my Litanies à la Vierge noire for female voices and organ . In that work I tried to get across the atmosphere of " peasant devotion " that had struck me so forcibly in that lofty chapel . Other works that followed continued the composer 's new @-@ found seriousness , including many settings of Éluard 's surrealist and humanist poems . In 1937 he composed his first major liturgical work , the Mass in G Major for soprano and mixed choir a cappella , which has become the most frequently performed of all his sacred works . Poulenc 's new compositions were not all in this serious vein ; his incidental music to the play La Reine Margot , starring Yvonne Printemps , was pastiche 16th @-@ century dance music , and became popular under the title Suite française . Music critics generally continued to define Poulenc by his light @-@ hearted works , and it was not until the 1950s that his serious side was widely recognised . In 1936 Poulenc began giving frequent recitals with Bernac . At the École Normale in Paris they gave the premiere of Poulenc 's Cinq poèmes de Paul Éluard . They continued to perform together for more than twenty years , in Paris and internationally , until Bernac 's retirement in 1959 . Poulenc , who composed 90 songs for his collaborator , considered him one of the " three great meetings " of his professional career , the other two being Éluard and Landowska . In Johnson 's words , " for twenty @-@ five years Bernac was Poulenc 's counsellor and conscience " , and the composer relied on him for advice not only on song @-@ writing , but on his operas and choral music . Throughout the decade , Poulenc was popular with British audiences ; he established a fruitful relationship with the BBC in London , which broadcast many of his works . With Bernac , he made his first tour of Britain in 1938 . His music was also popular in America , seen by many as " the quintessence of French wit , elegance and high spirits " . In the last years of the 1930s , Poulenc 's compositions continued to vary between serious and light @-@ hearted works . Quatre Motets pour un temps de pénitence ( Four Penitential Motets ) ( 1938 – 39 ) and the song " Bleuet " ( 1939 ) , an elegiac meditation on death , contrast with the song cycle Fiançailles pour rire ( Light @-@ Hearted Betrothal ) , which Henri Hell considers to capture the spirit of Les Biches . = = = 1940s : war and post @-@ war = = = Poulenc was briefly a soldier again during the Second World War ; he was called up on 2 June 1940 and served in an anti @-@ aircraft unit at Bordeaux . After France surrendered to Germany , Poulenc was demobilised from the army on 18 July 1940 . He spent the summer of that year with family and friends at Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde in south @-@ central France . In the early months of the war , he had composed little new music , instead re @-@ orchestrating Les biches and reworking his 1932 Sextet for Piano and Winds . At Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde he began three new works , and once back at his home in Noizay in October he started on a fourth . These were music for Babar the Elephant , the Cello Sonata , the ballet Les Animaux modèles and the song cycle Banalités . For most of the war , Poulenc was in Paris , giving recitals with Bernac , concentrating on French songs . Under Nazi rule he was in a vulnerable position , as a known homosexual ( Destouches narrowly avoided arrest and deportation ) , but in his music he made many gestures of defiance of the Germans . He set to music verses by poets prominent in the French resistance , including Aragon and Éluard . In Les Animaux modèles , premiered at the Opéra in 1942 , he included the tune , repeated several times , of the anti @-@ German song " Vous n 'aurez pas l 'Alsace et la Lorraine " . He was a founder @-@ member of the Front National ( pour musique ) which the Nazi authorities viewed with suspicion for its association with banned musicians such as Milhaud and Paul Hindemith . In 1943 he wrote a cantata for unaccompanied double choir intended for Belgium , Figure humaine , setting eight of Éluard 's poems . The work , ending with " Liberté " , could not be given in France while the Nazis were in control ; its first performance was broadcast from a BBC studio in London in March 1945 , and it was not sung in Paris until 1947 . The music critic of The Times later wrote that the work " is among the very finest choral works of our time and in itself removes Poulenc from the category of petit maître to which ignorance has generally been content to relegate him . " In January 1945 , commissioned by the French government , Poulenc and Bernac flew from Paris to London , where they received an enthusiastic welcome . The London Philharmonic Orchestra gave a reception in the composer 's honour ; he and Benjamin Britten were the soloists in a performance of Poulenc 's Double Piano Concerto at the Royal Albert Hall ; with Bernac he gave recitals of French mélodies and piano works at the Wigmore Hall and the National Gallery , and recorded for the BBC . Bernac was overwhelmed by the public 's response ; when he and Poulenc stepped out on the Wigmore Hall stage , " the audience rose and my emotion was such that instead of beginning to sing , I began to weep . " After their fortnight 's stay , the two returned home on the first boat @-@ train to leave London for Paris since May 1940 . In Paris , Poulenc completed his scores for Babar the Elephant and his first opera , Les mamelles de Tirésias , a short opéra bouffe of about an hour 's duration . The work is a setting of Apollinaire 's play of the same name , staged in 1917 . Sams describes the opera as " high @-@ spirited topsy @-@ turveydom " concealing " a deeper and sadder theme – the need to repopulate and rediscover a France ravaged by war " . It was premiered in June 1947 at the Opéra @-@ Comique , and was a critical success , but did not prove popular with the public . The leading female role was taken by Denise Duval , who became the composer 's favourite soprano , frequent recital partner and dedicatee of some of his music . He called her the nightingale who made him cry ( " Mon rossignol à larmes " ) . Shortly after the war , Poulenc had a brief affair with a woman , Fréderique ( " Freddy " ) Lebedeff , with whom he had a daughter , Marie @-@ Ange , in 1946 . The child was brought up without knowing who her father was ( Poulenc was supposedly her " godfather " ) but he made generous provision for her , and she was the principal beneficiary of his will . In the post @-@ war period Poulenc crossed swords with composers of the younger generation who rejected Stravinsky 's recent work and insisted that only the precepts of the Second Viennese School were valid . Poulenc defended Stravinsky and expressed incredulity that " in 1945 we are speaking as if the aesthetic of twelve tones is the only possible salvation for contemporary music " . His view that Berg had taken serialism as far as it could go and that Schoenberg 's music was now " desert , stone soup , ersatz music , or poetic vitamins " earned him the enmity of composers such as Pierre Boulez . Those disagreeing with Poulenc attempted to paint him as a relic of the pre @-@ war era , frivolous and unprogressive . This led him to focus on his more serious works , and to try to persuade the French public to listen to them . In the US and Britain , with their strong choral traditions , his religious music was frequently performed , but performances in France were much rarer , so that the public and the critics were often unaware of his serious compositions . In 1948 Poulenc made his first visit to the US , in a two @-@ month concert tour with Bernac . He returned there frequently until 1961 , giving recitals with Bernac or Duval and as soloist in the world premiere of his Piano Concerto ( 1949 ) , commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra . = = = 1950 – 63 : The Carmelites and last years = = = Poulenc began the 1950s with a new partner in his private life , Lucien Roubert , a travelling salesman . Professionally Poulenc was productive , writing a seven @-@ song cycle setting poems by Éluard , La Fraîcheur et le feu ( 1950 ) , and the Stabat Mater , in memory of the painter Christian Bérard , composed in 1950 and premiered the following year . In 1953 Poulenc was offered a commission by La Scala and the Milanese publisher Casa Ricordi for a ballet . He considered the story of St Margaret of Cortona but found a dance version of her life impracticable . He preferred to write an opera on a religious theme ; Ricordi suggested Dialogues des Carmélites , an unfilmed screenplay by Georges Bernanos . The text , based on a short story by Gertrud von Le Fort , depicts the Martyrs of Compiègne , nuns guillotined during the French Revolution for their religious beliefs . Poulenc found it " such a moving and noble work " , ideal for his libretto , and he began composition in August 1953 . During the composition of the opera , Poulenc suffered two blows : the Bernanos estate made unforeseen difficulties about allowing him the rights to set the text , and simultaneously Roubert became gravely ill . Intense worry pushed Poulenc into a nervous breakdown , and in November 1954 he was in a clinic at L 'Haÿ @-@ les @-@ Roses , outside Paris , heavily sedated . When he recovered , he resumed work on Dialogues des Carmélites in between extensive touring with Bernac in England . As his personal wealth had declined since the 1920s he required the substantial income earned from his recitals . While working on the opera Poulenc composed little else ; exceptions were two mélodies , and a short orchestral movement , " Bucolique " in a collective work , Variations sur le nom de Marguerite Long ( 1954 ) , to which his old friends from Les Six Auric and Milhaud also contributed . As Poulenc was writing the last pages of his opera in October 1955 , Roubert died , at the age of forty @-@ seven . The composer wrote to a friend , " Lucien was delivered from his martyrdom ten days ago and the final copy of Les Carmélites was completed ( take note ) at the very moment my dear breathed his last . " The opera was first given in January 1957 at La Scala in Italian translation . Between then and the French premiere Poulenc introduced one of his most popular late works , the Flute Sonata , which he and Jean @-@ Pierre Rampal performed in June at the Strasbourg Festival . Three days later , on 21 June , came the Paris premiere of Dialogues des Carmélites at the Opéra . It was a tremendous success , to the composer 's considerable relief . At around this time Poulenc began his last romantic relationship , with Louis Gautier , a former soldier ; they remained partners to the end of Poulenc 's life . In 1958 Poulenc embarked on a collaboration with his old friend Cocteau , in an operatic version of the latter 's 1930 monodrama La Voix humaine . The work was produced in February 1959 at the Opéra @-@ Comique , under Cocteau 's direction , with Duval as the tragic deserted woman speaking to her former lover by telephone . In May Poulenc 's 60th birthday was marked , a few months late , by his last concert with Bernac before the latter 's retirement from public performance . Poulenc visited the US in 1960 and 1961 . Among his works given during these trips were the American premiere of La Voix humaine at Carnegie Hall , New York , with Duval , and the world premiere of his Gloria , a large @-@ scale work for soprano , four @-@ part mixed chorus and orchestra , conducted in Boston by Charles Munch . In 1961 Poulenc published a book about Chabrier , a 187 @-@ page study of which a reviewer wrote in the 1980s , " he writes with love and insight of a composer whose views he shared on matters like the primacy of melody and the essential seriousness of humour . " The works of Poulenc 's last twelve months included Sept répons pour les ténèbres for voices and orchestra , the Clarinet Sonata and the Oboe Sonata . On 30 January 1963 , at his flat opposite the Jardin du Luxembourg , Poulenc suffered a fatal heart attack . His funeral was at the nearby church of Saint @-@ Sulpice . In compliance with his wishes , none of his music was performed ; Marcel Dupré played works by Bach on the grand organ of the church . Poulenc was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery , alongside his family . = = Music = = Poulenc 's music is essentially diatonic . In Henri Hell 's view , this is because the main feature of Poulenc 's musical art is his melodic gift . In the words of Roger Nichols in the Grove dictionary , " For [ Poulenc ] the most important element of all was melody and he found his way to a vast treasury of undiscovered tunes within an area that had , according to the most up @-@ to @-@ date musical maps , been surveyed , worked and exhausted . " The commentator George Keck writes , " His melodies are simple , pleasing , easily remembered , and most often emotionally expressive . " Poulenc said that he was not inventive in his harmonic language . The composer Lennox Berkeley wrote of him , " All through his life , he was content to use conventional harmony , but his use of it was so individual , so immediately recognizable as his own , that it gave his music freshness and validity . " Keck considers Poulenc 's harmonic language " as beautiful , interesting and personal as his melodic writing ... clear , simple harmonies moving in obviously defined tonal areas with chromaticism that is rarely more than passing " . Poulenc had no time for musical theories ; in one of his many radio interviews he called for " a truce to composing by theory , doctrine , rule ! " He was dismissive of what he saw as the dogmatism of latter @-@ day adherents to dodecaphony , led by René Leibowitz , and greatly regretted that the adoption of a theoretical approach had affected the music of Olivier Messiaen , of whom he had earlier had high hopes . To Hell , almost all Poulenc 's music is " directly or indirectly inspired by the purely melodic associations of the human voice " . Poulenc was a painstaking craftsman , though a myth grew up – " la légende de facilité " – that his music came easily to him ; he commented , " The myth is excusable , since I do everything to conceal my efforts . " The pianist Pascal Rogé commented in 1999 that both sides of Poulenc 's musical nature were equally important : " You must accept him as a whole . If you take away either part , the serious or the non @-@ serious , you destroy him . If one part is erased you get only a pale photocopy of what he really is . " Poulenc recognised the dichotomy , but in all his works he wanted music that was " healthy , clear and robust – music as frankly French as Stravinsky 's is Slav " . = = = Orchestral and concertante = = = Poulenc 's principal works for large orchestra comprise two ballets , a Sinfonietta and four keyboard concertos . The first of the ballets , Les biches , was first performed in 1924 and remains one of his best @-@ known works . Nichols writes in Grove that the clear and tuneful score has no deep , or even shallow , symbolism , a fact " accentuated by a tiny passage of mock @-@ Wagnerian brass , complete with emotive minor 9ths " . The first two of the four concertos are in Poulenc 's light @-@ hearted vein . The Concert champêtre for harpsichord and orchestra ( 1927 – 28 ) , evokes the countryside seen from a Parisian point of view : Nichols comments that the fanfares in the last movement bring to mind the bugles in the barracks of Vincennes in the Paris suburbs . The Concerto for two pianos and orchestra ( 1932 ) is similarly a work intended purely to entertain . It draws on a variety of stylistic sources : the first movement ends in a manner reminiscent of Balinese gamelan , and the slow movement begins in a Mozartian style , which Poulenc gradually fills out with his own characteristic personal touches . The Organ Concerto ( 1938 ) is in a much more serious vein . Poulenc said that it was " on the outskirts " of his religious music , and there are passages that draw on the church music of Bach , though there are also interludes in breezy popular style . The second ballet score , Les Animaux modèles ( 1941 ) , has never equalled the popularity of Les biches , though both Auric and Honegger praised the composer 's harmonic flair and resourceful orchestration . Honegger wrote , " The influences that have worked on him , Chabrier , Satie , Stravinsky , are now completely assimilated . Listening to his music you think – it 's Poulenc . " The Sinfonietta ( 1947 ) is a reversion to Poulenc 's pre @-@ war frivolity . He came to feel , " I dressed too young for my age ... [ it ] is a new version of Les biches but young girls [ biches ] that are forty @-@ eight years old – that 's horrible ! " The Concerto for piano and orchestra ( 1949 ) initially caused some disappointment : many felt that it was not an advance on Poulenc 's pre @-@ war music , a view he came to share . The piece has been re @-@ evaluated in more recent years , and in 1996 the writer Claire Delamarche rated it as the composer 's finest concertante work . = = = Piano = = = Poulenc , a highly accomplished pianist , usually composed at the piano and wrote many pieces for the instrument throughout his career . In Henri Hell 's view , Poulenc 's piano writing can be divided into the percussive and the gentler style reminiscent of the harpsichord . Hell considers that the finest of Poulenc 's music for piano is in the accompaniments to the songs , a view shared by Poulenc himself . The vast majority of the piano works are , in the view of the writer Keith W Daniel , " what might be called ' miniatures ' " . Looking back at his piano music in the 1950s , the composer viewed it critically : " I tolerate the Mouvements perpétuels , my old Suite en ut [ in C ] , and the Trois pieces . I like very much my two collections of Improvisations , an Intermezzo in A flat , and certain Nocturnes . I condemn Napoli and the Soirées de Nazelles without reprieve . " Of the pieces cited with approval by Poulenc , the fifteen Improvisations were composed at intervals between 1932 and 1959 . All are brief : the longest lasts a little more than three minutes . They vary from swift and balletic to tender lyricism , old @-@ fashioned march , perpetuum mobile , waltz and a poignant musical portrait of the singer Édith Piaf . Poulenc 's favoured Intermezzo was the last of three . Numbers one and two were composed in August 1934 ; the A flat followed in March 1943 . The commentators Marina and Victor Ledin describe the work as " the embodiment of the word ' charming ' . The music seems simply to roll off the pages , each sound following another in such an honest and natural way , with eloquence and unmistakable Frenchness . " The eight nocturnes were composed across nearly a decade ( 1929 – 38 ) . Whether or not Poulenc originally conceived them as an integral set , he give the eighth the title " To serve as Coda for the Cycle " ( Pour servir de Coda au Cycle ) . Although they share their generic title with the nocturnes of Field , Chopin and Fauré , Poulenc 's do not resemble those of the earlier composers , being " night @-@ scenes and sound @-@ images of public and private events " rather than romantic tone poems . The pieces Poulenc found merely tolerable were all early works : Trois mouvements perpétuels dates from 1919 , the Suite in C from 1920 and the Trois pièces from 1928 . All consist of short sections , the longest being the " Hymne " , the second of the three 1928 pieces , which lasts about four minutes . Of the two works their composer singled out for censure , Napoli ( 1925 ) is a three @-@ movement portrait of Italy , and Les Soirées de Nazelles is described by the composer Geoffrey Bush as " the French equivalent of Elgar 's Enigma Variations " – miniature character sketches of his friends . Despite Poulenc 's scorn for the work , Bush judges it ingenious and witty . Among the piano music not mentioned , favourably or harshly , by Poulenc , the best known pieces include the two Novelettes ( 1927 – 28 ) , the set of six miniatures for children , Villageoises ( 1933 ) , a piano version of the seven @-@ movement Suite française ( 1935 ) , and L 'embarquement pour Cythère for two pianos ( 1953 ) . = = = Chamber = = = In Grove , Nichols divides the chamber works into three clearly differentiated periods . The first four sonatas come from the early group , all written before Poulenc was twenty @-@ two . They are for two clarinets ( 1918 ) , piano duo ( 1918 ) , clarinet and bassoon ( 1922 ) and horn , trumpet and trombone ( 1922 ) . They are early examples of Poulenc 's many and varied influences , with echoes of rococo divertissements alongside unconventional harmonies , some influenced by jazz . All four are characterised by their brevity – less than ten minutes each – their mischievousness and their wit , which Nichols describes as acid . Other chamber works from this period are the Rapsodie nègre from 1917 ( mainly instrumental , with brief vocal episodes ) and the Trio for Oboe , Bassoon and Piano ( 1926 ) . The chamber works of Poulenc 's middle period were written in the 1930s and 1940s . The best known is the Sextet for Piano and Wind ( 1932 ) , in Poulenc 's light @-@ hearted vein , consisting of two lively outer movements and a central divertimento ; this was one of several chamber works that the composer became dissatisfied with and revised extensively some years after their first performance ( in this case in 1939 – 40 ) . The sonatas in this group are for violin and piano ( 1942 – 43 ) and for cello and piano ( 1948 ) . Writing for strings did not come easily to Poulenc ; these sonatas were completed after two unsuccessful earlier attempts , and in 1947 he destroyed the draft of a string quartet . Both sonatas are predominantly grave in character ; that for violin is dedicated to the memory of Federico García Lorca . Commentators including Hell , Schmidt and Poulenc himself have regarded it , and to some extent the cello sonata , as less effective than those for wind . The Aubade , " Concerto choréographique " for piano and 18 instruments ( 1930 ) achieves an almost orchestral effect , despite its modest number of players . The other chamber works from this period are arrangements for small ensembles of two works in Poulenc 's lightest vein , the Suite française ( 1935 ) and the Trois mouvements perpétuels ( 1946 ) . The final three sonatas are for woodwind and piano : for flute ( 1956 – 57 ) , clarinet ( 1962 ) , and oboe ( 1962 ) . They have , according to Grove , become fixtures in their repertoires because of " their technical expertise and of their profound beauty " . The Elégie for horn and piano ( 1957 ) was composed in memory of the horn player Dennis Brain . It contains one of Poulenc 's rare excursions into dodecaphony , with the brief employment of a twelve @-@ note tone row . = = = Songs = = = Poulenc composed songs throughout his career , and his output in the genre is extensive . In Johnson 's view , most of the finest were written in the 1930s and 1940s . Though widely varied in character , the songs are dominated by Poulenc 's preference for certain poets . From the outset of his career he favoured verses by Guillaume Apollinaire , and from the mid @-@ 1930s the writer whose work he set most often was Paul Éluard . Other poets whose works he frequently set included Jean Cocteau , Max Jacob , and Louise de Vilmorin . In the view of the music critic Andrew Clements , the Éluard songs include many of Poulenc 's greatest settings ; Johnson calls the cycle Tel Jour , Telle Nuit ( 1937 ) the composer 's " watershed work " , and Nichols regards it as " a masterpiece worthy to stand beside Fauré 's La bonne chanson " . Clements finds in the Éluard settings a profundity " worlds away from the brittle , facetious surfaces of Poulenc 's early orchestral and instrumental music " . The first of the Deux poèmes de Louis Aragon ( 1943 ) , titled simply " C " , is described by Johnson as " a masterpiece known the world over ; it is the most unusual , and perhaps the most moving , song about the ravages of war ever composed . " In an overview of the songs in 1973 , the musical scholar Yvonne Gouverné said , " With Poulenc , the melodic line matches the text so well that it seems in some way to complete it , thanks to the gift which the music has for penetrating the very essence of a given poem ; nobody has better crafted a phrase than Poulenc , highlighting the colour of the words . " Among the lighter pieces , one of the composer 's most popular songs is a setting of Jean Anouilh 's " Les Chemins de l 'Amour " ( 1940 ) as a Parisian waltz ; by contrast his " monologue " " La Dame de Monte Carlo " , ( 1961 ) a depiction of an elderly woman addicted to gambling , shows the composer 's painful understanding of the horrors of depression . = = = Choral = = = Apart from a single early work for unaccompanied choir ( " Chanson à boire " , 1922 ) , Poulenc began writing choral music in 1936 . In that year he produced three works for choir : Sept chansons ( settings of verses by Éluard and others ) , Petites voix ( for children 's voices ) , and his religious work Litanies à la vierge noire , for female or children 's voices and organ . The Mass in G major ( 1937 ) for unaccompanied choir is described by Gouverné as having something of a baroque style , with " vitality and joyful clamour on which his faith is writ large " . Poulenc 's new @-@ found religious theme continued with Quatre motets pour un temps de pénitence ( 1938 – 39 ) , but among his most important choral works is the secular cantata Figure humaine ( 1943 ) . Like the Mass , it is unaccompanied , and to succeed in performance it requires singers of the highest quality . Other a capella works include the Quatre motets pour le temps de Noël ( 1952 ) , which make severe demands on choirs ' rhythmic precision and intonation . Poulenc 's major works for choir and orchestra are the Stabat Mater ( 1950 ) , the Gloria ( 1959 – 60 ) , and Sept répons des ténébres ( 1961 – 62 ) . All these works are based on liturgical texts , originally set to Gregorian chant . In the Gloria , Poulenc 's faith expresses itself in an exuberant , joyful way , with intervals of prayerful calm and mystic feeling , and an ending of serene tranquillity . Poulenc wrote to Bernac in 1962 , " I have finished Les Ténèbres . I think it is beautiful . With the Gloria and the Stabat Mater , I think I have three good religious works . May they spare me a few days in Purgatory , if I narrowly avoid going to hell . " Sept répons des ténèbres , which Poulenc did not live to hear performed , uses a large orchestra , but , in Nichols 's view , it displays a new concentration of thought . To the critic Ralph Thibodeau , the work may be considered as Poulenc 's own requiem and is " the most avant @-@ garde of his sacred compositions , the most emotionally demanding , and the most interesting musically , comparable only with his magnum opus sacrum , the opera , Dialogues des Carmélites . " = = = Opera = = = Poulenc turned to opera only in the latter half of his career . Having achieved fame by his early twenties , he was in his forties before attempting his first opera . He attributed this to the need for maturity before tackling the subjects he chose to set . In 1958 he told an interviewer , " When I was 24 I was able to write Les biches [ but ] it is obvious that unless a composer of 30 has the genius of a Mozart or the precociousness of Schubert he couldn 't write The Carmelites – the problems are too profound . " In Sams 's view , all three of Poulenc 's operas display a depth of feeling far distant from " the cynical stylist of the 1920s " : Les mamelles de Tirésias ( 1947 ) , despite the riotous plot , is full of nostalgia and a sense of loss . In the two avowedly serious operas , Dialogues des Carmélites ( 1957 ) and La Voix humaine ( 1959 ) , in which Poulenc depicts deep human suffering , Sams sees a reflection of the composer 's own struggles with depression . In terms of musical technique the operas show how far Poulenc had come from his naïve and insecure beginnings . Nichols comments in Grove that Les mamelles de Tirésias , deploys " lyrical solos , patter duets , chorales , falsetto lines for tenor and bass babies and ... succeeds in being both funny and beautiful " . In all three operas Poulenc drew on earlier composers , while blending their influence into music unmistakably his own . In the printed score of Dialogues des Carmélites he acknowledged his debt to Mussorgsky , Monteverdi , Debussy and Verdi . The critic Renaud Machart writes that Dialogues des Carmélites is , with Britten ’ s Peter Grimes , one of the extremely rare operas written since the Second World War to appear on opera programmes all over the world . Even when he wrote for a large orchestra , Poulenc used the full forces sparingly in his operas , often scoring for woodwinds or brass or strings alone . With the invaluable input of Bernac he showed great skill in writing for the human voice , fitting the music to the tessitura of each character . By the time of the last of the operas , La Voix humaine , Poulenc felt able to give the soprano stretches of music with no orchestral accompaniment at all , though when the orchestra plays , Poulenc calls for the music to be " bathed in sensuality " . = = = Recordings = = = Poulenc was among the composers who recognised in the 1920s the important role that the gramophone would play in the promotion of music . The first recording of his music was made in 1928 , with the mezzo @-@ soprano Claire Croiza accompanied by the composer at the piano , in the complete song cycle La bestiaire for French Columbia . He made numerous recordings , mainly for the French division of EMI . With Bernac and Duval he recorded many of his own songs , and those of other composers including Chabrier , Debussy , Gounod and Ravel . He played the piano part in recordings of his Babar the Elephant with Pierre Fresnay and Noël Coward as narrators . In 2005 , EMI issued a DVD , " Francis Poulenc & Friends " , featuring filmed performances of Poulenc 's music , played by the composer , with Duval , Jean @-@ Pierre Rampal , Jacques Février and Georges Prêtre . A 1984 discography of Poulenc 's music lists recordings by more than 1 @,@ 300 conductors , soloists and ensembles , including the conductors Leonard Bernstein , Charles Dutoit , Milhaud , Eugene Ormandy , Prêtre , André Previn and Leopold Stokowski . Among the singers , in addition to Bernac and Duval , the list includes Régine Crespin , Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau , Nicolai Gedda , Peter Pears , Yvonne Printemps and Gérard Souzay . Instrumental soloists include Britten , Jacques Février , Pierre Fournier , Emil Gilels , Yehudi Menuhin and Arthur Rubinstein . Complete sets of Poulenc 's solo piano music have been recorded by Gabriel Tacchino , who had been Poulenc 's only piano student ( released on the EMI label ) , Pascal Rogé ( Decca ) , Paul Crossley ( CBS ) , Eric Parkin ( Chandos ) and Olivier Cazal ( Naxos ) . Integral sets of the chamber music have been recorded by the Nash Ensemble ( Hyperion ) , and a variety of young French musicians ( Naxos ) . The world premiere of Dialogues des Carmélites ( in Italian , as Dialoghi delle Carmelitane ) was recorded and has been released on CD . The first studio recording was soon after the French premiere , and since then there have been at least ten live or studio recordings on CD or DVD , most of them in French but one in German and one in English . = = Reputation = = The two sides to Poulenc 's musical nature caused misunderstanding during his life and have continued to do so . The composer Ned Rorem observed , " He was deeply devout and uncontrollably sensual " ; this still leads some critics to underrate his seriousness . His uncompromising adherence to melody , both in his lighter and serious works , has similarly caused some to regard him as unprogressive . Although he was not much influenced by new developments in music , Poulenc was always keenly interested in the works of younger generations of composers . Lennox Berkeley recalled , " Unlike some artists , he was genuinely interested in other people 's work , and surprisingly appreciative of music very far removed from his . I remember him playing me the records of Boulez 's Le marteau sans maître with which he was already familiar when that work was much less well @-@ known than it is today . " Boulez has not taken a reciprocal view , remarking in 2010 , " There are always people who will take an easy intellectual path . Poulenc coming after Sacre [ du Printemps ] . It was not progress . " Other composers have found more merit in Poulenc 's work ; Stravinsky wrote to him in 1931 : " You are truly good , and that is what I find again and again in your music " . In his last years Poulenc observed , " if people are still interested in my music in 50 years ' time it will be for my Stabat Mater rather than the Mouvements perpétuels . " In a centenary tribute in The Times Gerald Larner commented that Poulenc 's prediction was wrong , and that in 1999 the composer was widely celebrated for both sides of his musical character : " both the fervent Catholic and the naughty boy , for both the Gloria and Les Biches , both Les Dialogues des Carmélites and Les Mamelles de Tirésias . " At around the same time the writer Jessica Duchen described Poulenc as " a fizzing , bubbling mass of Gallic energy who can move you to both laughter and tears within seconds . His language speaks clearly , directly and humanely to every generation . "
= Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Duke of Caxias = Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Duke of Caxias ( 25 August 1803 – 7 May 1880 ) , nicknamed " the Peacemaker " and " Iron Duke " , was an army officer , politician and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil . Like his father and uncles , Caxias pursued a military career . In 1823 he fought as a young officer in the Brazilian War for Independence against Portugal , then spent three years in Brazil 's southernmost province , Cisplatina , as the government unsuccessfully resisted that province 's secession in the Cisplatine War . Though his own father and uncles renounced Emperor Dom Pedro I during the protests of 1831 , Caxias remained loyal . Pedro I abdicated in favor of his young son Dom Pedro II , whom Caxias instructed in swordsmanship and horsemanship and eventually befriended . During Pedro II 's minority the governing regency faced countless rebellions throughout the country . Again breaking with his father and other relatives sympathetic to the rebels , from 1839 to 1845 Caxias commanded loyalist forces suppressing such uprisings as the Balaiada , the Liberal rebellions of 1842 and the Ragamuffin War . In 1851 , under his command , the Brazilian army prevailed against the Argentine Confederation in the Platine War ; a decade later Caxias , as army marshal ( the army 's highest rank ) , led Brazilian forces to victory in the Paraguayan War . As a reward he was raised to the titled nobility , becoming successively a baron , count , and marquis , finally becoming the only person created duke during Pedro II 's 58 @-@ year reign . In the early 1840s Caxias became a member of the Reactionary Party , which evolved into the Party of Order and finally the Conservative Party . He was elected senator in 1846 . The Emperor appointed him president of the Council of Ministers ( prime minister ) in 1856 ; he briefly held that office again in 1861 , but fell when his party lost its parliamentary majority . Over the decades Caxias witnessed the growth and zenith of his party , then its slow decline as internal conflict divided it . In 1875 he headed a cabinet for the last time , and after years of failing health he died in May 1880 . In the years after his death and mainly following the downfall of the Brazilian monarchy , Caxias ' reputation was initially overshadowed by that of Manuel Luís Osório , Marquis of Erval , but with time surpassed even Erval 's renown . In 1925 his birthday was established as the Day of the Soldier , a day of honor for the Brazilian army . On 13 March 1962 he was officially designated the army 's protector — its soldierly ideal and the most important figure in its tradition . Historians have regarded Caxias positively , several ranking him as the greatest of Brazil 's military officers . = = Early years = = = = = Birth = = = Luís Alves de Lima e Silva was born on 25 August 1803 on a farm called São Paulo ( today within the city of Duque de Caxias ) located in Rio de Janeiro , then a captaincy ( later province ) of the Portuguese colony of Brazil . He was the first son and second of ten children of Francisco de Lima e Silva and Mariana Cândido de Oliveira Belo . His godparents were his paternal grandfather , José Joaquim de Lima da Silva , and his maternal grandmother , Ana Quitéria Joaquina . Luís Alves ' early years were spent on the São Paulo farm owned by his maternal grandfather and namesake , Luís Alves de Freitas . The young boy may have initially been schooled at home , as was common then . He may have been taught to read and write by his grandmother , Ana Quitéria . Luís Alves ' grandfather , José Joaquim , was a Portuguese military officer who had emigrated in 1767 to Brazil . He settled in the city of Rio de Janeiro , capital of both the Rio de Janeiro captaincy and of Brazil . He had neither noble rank nor noble ancestry and lacked patrons in an environment in which advancement depended upon exchanges of favors and family connections . Having fought against the Spaniards on Brazil 's southern frontiers , he secured a place for himself in Rio de Janeiro 's upper class when he married a member of a local and influential family . The arrival of the Portuguese Royal Family in Rio de Janeiro in 1808 changed the lives of the Lima family . King Dom João VI embarked upon a series of wars of conquest which resulted in the expansion of Brazil 's territory with the annexation of Cisplatina to the south and of French Guiana to the north . By 1818 , Luís Alves ' relatives , who were military officers and had served in the wars , had been ennobled . His grandfather , José Joaquim , became a member of the Order of Christ and Fidalgo Cavaleiro da Casa Real ( Knight Nobleman of the Royal House ) . His father , Francisco de Lima , and uncles were also granted honors . Within two generations , the Lima family had risen from mere commoners to the ranks of Portugal 's untitled nobility . = = = Military education = = = On 22 May 1808 , Luís Alves was enlisted at the age of five as a cadet in the 1st Regiment of Infantry of Rio de Janeiro . Historian Adriana Barreto de Souza explained that this did " not mean that he began to serve as a child , the connection to the regiment was simply honorific " , his perquisite as the son of a military officer . This infantry regiment was informally known as the " Lima [ family ] Regiment " because so many members of the family served in it , including his father and grandfather . In 1811 , Luís Alves moved with his parents from his grandparents ' farm to Rio de Janeiro and was enrolled at the Seminário São Joaquim ( Saint Joachim School ) , which became Pedro II School in 1837 . On 4 May 1818 , he was admitted into the Royal Military Academy . The entire course ( which ran from the first to seventh year ) was mandatory for artillerymen and engineers but infantrymen were only required to take first- and fifth @-@ year classes . Luís Alves took the first- and fifth @-@ year classes in 1818 and 1819 , respectively . Though he could have skipped the other years , he chose to take second @-@ year classes in 1820 and third @-@ year classes in 1821 . The subjects he studied in the Royal Military Academy ranged from arithmetic , algebra and geometry to tactics , strategy , camping , fortification in campaign and terrain reconnaissance . He was promoted to alferes ( equivalent to a modern @-@ day second lieutenant ) on 12 October 1818 , and to lieutenant ( modern @-@ day first lieutenant ) on 4 November 1820 . Though an accomplished student , Luís Alves was often reprimanded for bullying new students . With time , he matured , eventually being regarded by his peers as a very reasonable and honest person . He had an ordinary appearance , with a round face , brown hair , brown eyes and average height . Luís Alves ' unremarkable features were compensated by his bearing . Historian Thomas Whigham described him as someone who " learned the art of giving orders early in life . Immaculate in his dress , he was soft spoken , polite , and smoothly in control of himself . He seemed to radiate calm composure and authority . " = = Wars and military crises = = = = = Independence of Brazil = = = Luís Alves would normally have begun the fourth @-@ year classes at the Royal Military Academy in March 1822 . Instead , he dropped out in December 1821 and enlisted in the 1st Fusilier Battalion . Prince Dom Pedro , son and heir of King João VI , had just embarked upon the struggle against Portugal that would lead to the independence of Brazil on 7 September 1822 . The prince was later acclaimed Dom Pedro I , the first Brazilian emperor , on 12 October . Those Brazilian and Portuguese forces who remained loyal to Portugal refused to accept this outcome , which led to a war fought on several fronts across Brazil . On 18 January 1823 , Pedro I created the Emperor 's Battalion , a handpicked elite infantry unit that included Luís Alves , who was named as adjutant to the company 's commander , his uncle , Colonel José Joaquim de Lima e Silva . The Emperor 's Battalion was sent to the province of Bahia in the northeast on 28 January and placed , along with other troops , under the command of French Brigadier Pierre Labatut . The Brazilian imperial forces besieged Bahia 's capital , Salvador , which was held by the Portuguese . During the siege , Luís Alves fought in at least three attacks ( on 28 March , 3 May and 3 June ) against Portuguese positions around Salvador , all successful . In the engagement on 28 March , he led a charge on an enemy bunker . During the Bahia campaign , high @-@ ranking officers mutinied against Labatut , who was taken prisoner and sent back to Rio de Janeiro . It is unlikely that Luís Alves was involved , but his uncle , Joaquim de Lima , was almost certainly part of the conspiracy and was chosen by the officers to replace Labatut . The campaign resumed , and the Portuguese withdrew from Salvador and set sail back to Portugal . On 2 July , the victorious Brazilians entered the city . The Emperor 's Battalion returned to Rio de Janeiro , and Luís Alves was later promoted to captain on 22 January 1824 . = = = Cisplatine War and the abdication crisis = = = The Portuguese garrison in Montevideo , the capital of Cisplatina ( then Brazil 's southernmost province ) , was the last to surrender . In 1825 , secessionists in the province rebelled . The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata ( later Argentina ) attempted to annex Cisplatina . Brazil declared war , triggering the Cisplatine War . The Emperor 's Battalion , to which Luís Alves was attached , was sent to guard Montevideo , then besieged by rebel forces . Luís Alves fought in engagements against the insurgents during 1827 ( 7 February , 5 July , 7 July , 14 July , 5 August and 7 August ) . The war came to a disastrous end in 1828 , as Brazil relinquished Cisplatina , which became the independent nation of Uruguay . Nonetheless , Luís Alves was promoted to the rank of major on 2 December 1828 and made second @-@ in @-@ command of the Emperor 's Battalion in early 1829 . During his stay in Montevideo , he met María Ángela Furriol González Luna . How far their relationship progressed is unknown , but there may have been a failed engagement . He returned to Rio de Janeiro and witnessed the increasing deterioration in Emperor Pedro I 's political position . A growing opposition to Pedro I 's policies eventually erupted into mass protests at the Field of Santana in downtown Rio de Janeiro on 6 April 1831 . The situation became more ominous when several military units , led by Luís Alves ' father and uncles , joined the protests . The Emperor considered appointing Luís Alves to command the Emperor 's Battalion and asked him which side he would choose . According to historian Francisco Doratioto , Luís Alves answered that " between the love of his father and his duty to the crown , he would stay with the latter . " Pedro I expressed gratitude for his loyalty , but instead ordered him to take the Emperor 's Battalion to the Field of Santana and join the rebels , preferring abdication to bloodshedding . Decades later , Luís Alves said in the Brazilian Senate : " I marched along with the Emperor 's Battalion to the Field of Santana , out of devotion to competent orders [ from Pedro I ] . I was not a revolutionary . I esteemed the Abdication . I judged that it would be of advantage to Brazil , but I did not concur directly or indirectly with it . " = = = Era of troubles = = = A regency of three was elected to rule until the five @-@ year @-@ old Dom Pedro II reached the age of majority and the ability to rule in his own right . One of the regents chosen was Luís Alves ' father . The regency had little effective authority , resulting in nine years of chaos , during which the country was plagued by rebellions and coup attempts initiated by unruly political factions . The army , " demoralized by the far from exemplary part it had played in the April Revolution [ i.e. Pedro I 's abdication ] , " said historian C. H. Haring , " became the ready tool of any popular agitator or demagogue , and often the source of riot and sedition . " The government severely reduced the size of the standing army and effectively replaced it with the newly created National Guard , a militia force . In July 1831 , without troops to command , Luís Alves and other officers joined the Volunteer Soldier @-@ Officers Battalion as soldiers . As second in command of that unit , he put down a mutiny of navy artillerymen in the Ilha das Cobras ( Island of the Snakes ) on 7 October . A year later , on 18 October 1832 , he was appointed commander of the Permanent Municipal Guard Corps , a police force in the city of Rio de Janeiro . On 6 January 1833 , at age 29 , he married Ana Luísa de Loreto Carneiro Viana , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old younger sister of an army officer friend , and a member of an aristocratic family of Rio de Janeiro . The union was contrary to the wishes of the bride 's mother , who saw Luís Alves and his family as upstarts . Newspapers connected to political enemies of his family took advantage of this disagreement to level serious , but unfounded , accusations against him , including that he had kidnapped Ana Luísa . Despite the invective , their marriage was a happy one and three children resulted : Luísa de Loreto Viana de Lima , Ana de Loreto Viana de Lima and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , born in 1833 , 1836 and 1847 , respectively . In the late 1830s , Luís Alves was appointed instructor in swordsmanship and horsemanship to the young Pedro II . Ties of duty had drawn the two men together , but a long @-@ lasting friendship and personal devotion also developed . Pedro II said many years later that he regarded Luís Alves as " loyal and my friend " . According to historian Heitor Lira , Luís Alves was " one of the rare , sincere and profoundly convicted monarchists and friends of the King [ i.e. , the Emperor ] and of the Dynasty [ the House of Braganza ] . He placed his sword not only in service to a united and strong Brazil , but also to a worthy and respected Monarch " . = = Quelling rebellions = = = = = Balaiada = = = As the commander of the Permanent Municipal Guard Corps , Luís Alves brought order to the streets of Rio de Janeiro , through his own skill and through partnership with the city 's chief of police , Eusébio de Queirós . Luís Alves was promoted from major to lieutenant colonel on 12 September 1837 . Eusébio de Queirós was a member of the Partido Regressista ( Reactionary Party ) , which had come to power that year . Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos , one of the leading Reactionaries and a government minister , attempted to attract Luís Alves to his party . After being promoted to colonel on 2 December 1839 , Luís Alves was sent by the Reactionary cabinet to the province of Maranhão to quell a rebellion which became known as the Balaiada . He was appointed to the highest civilian and military positions in the province : presidente ( president or governor ) and comandante das armas ( military commander ) , thus giving him authority over the National Guard and army ( brought back to full strength by the Reactionary administration ) units in the province , respectively . Luís Alves arrived in São Luís , Maranhão 's capital , on 4 February 1840 . After several battles and skirmishes , he defeated the rebels . For his achievement , Luís Alves was promoted to brigadier ( present @-@ day brigadier general ) on 18 July 1841 and raised by Pedro II to the titled nobility as Barão de Caxias ( Baron of Caxias ) . He was given the rare honor of choosing his title ; he decided to commemorate his recapture of Caxias , Maranhão 's second richest town , which had fallen into rebel hands . Francisco de Lima wrote to his son with news of the Liberals ' demand that Pedro II 's majority be immediately declared . Meanwhile , Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão ( later Marquis of Paraná , a distant cousin of Caxias ' wife and a leader of the Reactionary Party ) sent letters to Luís Alves attempting to undermine the influence Francisco de Lima had on him and to dissuade him from supporting the unconstitutional proposal to declare the Emperor of age . = = = Liberal rebellions of 1842 = = = Upon his return from Maranhão , Caxias saw that the political climate had changed . Francisco de Lima 's Liberal Party had pushed through the premature declaration of the Emperor 's majority on 23 July 1840 . In May 1842 , the Liberals rebelled in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro , São Paulo and Minas Gerais in retaliation for the Emperor 's decision — on the advice of a Council of State dominated by Reactionaries — to call for new elections , annulling the previous election tainted by widespread fraud by the Liberal Party . Named as the province 's vice @-@ president and military commander , Caxias arrived in São Paulo on 21 May 1842 . After he defeated the rebels there , he was appointed military commander of Minas Gerais and marched to that province . With the aid of National Guard units from Rio de Janeiro under its president , Honório Hermeto , Caxias was once again successful , and by late August , the rebellion was crushed . Caxias was honored by Pedro II , who made him his aide @-@ de @-@ camp on 23 July 1842 . Two days later , Caxias was promoted to brevet ( acting ) field marshal ( present @-@ day divisional general ) . To distinguish itself from what the Reactionaries perceived as the " unruly " Liberals , sometime around 1843 ( and certainly by 1844 ) , the Reactionary Party became known as the Partido da Ordem ( Party of Order ) and its members as saquaremas . Caxias increasingly identified himself with the saquarema ideology : liberalism , preservation of the authority of the state , and support for representative parliamentary monarchy . Although his move toward the saquarema camp was not clear at the time he accepted the appointment to put down the rebellion in Maranhão in 1839 , his victory over the Liberal rebels in 1842 further solidified his allegiance to the Party of Order . = = = Ragamuffin War = = = When the republican secessionist rebellion known as the Ragamuffin War began in Rio Grande do Sul in 1835 , one of Caxias ' uncles joined the rebels . His father , Francisco de Lima , and possibly another uncle ( the Minister of War at the time ) , also secretly supported the rebellion . On 28 September 1842 , Caxias was appointed president and military commander of the province of Rio Grande do Sul . The 16 @-@ year @-@ old Pedro II allowed Caxias to prove once more that he was unlike his father and uncles and gave him a short and direct order : " End this revolution , as you have ended the others . " Caxias brought with him a fellow saquarema and a famous poet , Domingos Gonçalves de Magalhães ( later Viscount of Araguaia ) , to serve as his secretary , as he had previously in Maranhão . Caxias had made a short trip to Rio Grande do Sul in 1839 to inspect the troops fighting the Ragamuffins . Upon his return to the province in November 1842 , he found that the rebels , severely weakened after years of struggle , had been forced to resort to guerrilla warfare . When threatened , the rebels escaped to safety in nearby Uruguay ( formerly Cisplatina ) . As in Maranhão , São Paulo and Minas Gerais , Caxias planted spies within the enemy 's ranks to gather information and to foment dissension . Historian Roderick J. Barman said that he " displayed military , organizational , and political talents essential to what is now termed ' counterinsurgency ' . " In early 1843 , Honório Hermeto became the head of the cabinet , and so long as the saquaremas remained in power , Caxias was secure in his position . After Honório Hermeto quarreled with Pedro II a year later , he and the saquaremas resigned . The Liberals replaced the saquaremas in government , but Caxias was retained in his command . The War of the Ragamuffins took far longer to put down than had previous rebellions , but through careful negotiation and military victories , Caxias finally managed to pacify the province . The end of the armed conflict was declared on 1 March 1845 . He was made a permanent field marshal on 25 March , and raised to the rank of count on 2 April . Caxias ran for a Senate seat , and being among the three candidates with the most votes , he was selected by the Emperor in late 1845 as the senator representing Rio Grande do Sul . He took his Senate seat on 11 May 1846 . = = Conservatism = = = = = Platine War = = = After years in opposition in the parliament , in September 1848 , the Party of Order was called upon by Pedro II to form a new cabinet . The saquarema cabinet was composed of men with whom Caxias had close relationships , among them Eusébio de Queirós , who had helped him bring order to the streets of Rio de Janeiro in the late 1830s . Caxias was now a wealthy planter who owned slaves and was very much a part of the landed aristocracy that formed the backbone of the Party of Order . With the help of his wealthy mother @-@ in @-@ law , he purchased his first property — a coffee farm — in 1838 . He acquired more lands in 1849 , further expanding his plantation . Due to growing international demand , coffee had become the most valuable export commodity for Brazil . In 1851 , Juan Manuel de Rosas , dictator of the Argentine Confederation , declared war on Brazil . Caxias was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Brazilian land forces . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Paulino Soares de Sousa ( later Viscount of Uruguai ) , forged an anti @-@ Rosas alliance between Brazil , Uruguay and rebel Argentine provinces . When Paulino Soares asked who should be appointed as Brazil 's representative among the allied forces , Caxias suggested Honório Hermeto . Honório Hermeto , who had been ostracized by his peers after his fall in 1844 , was the saquarema closest to Caxias . An army commanded by Caxias crossed into Uruguay in September 1851 . The allies decided to divide their forces into two armies : a multinational force that included a single Brazilian division , and a second army composed entirely of Brazilians under Caxias . Against the wishes of Honório Hermeto , Caxias chose Manuel Marques de Sousa ( later Count of Porto Alegre ) to lead the former force . Caxias met and befriended Marques de Sousa , who had served under his command in the War of the Ragamuffins , during his trip to Rio Grande do Sul in 1839 . The Brazilian division , led by Marques de Sousa , along with Uruguayan and Argentine rebel troops , invaded Argentina . On 3 February 1852 , in the Battle of Caseros , the allies defeated an army led by Rosas , who fled to the United Kingdom , thus ending the war . Caxias spent 17 January aboard the frigate Dom Afonso alongside John Pascoe Grenfell , taking stock of the port area of Buenos Aires , the Argentine capital , selecting the best place to launch an amphibious attack . His plan was aborted once the news of the victory at Caseros arrived . As a reward for his role in the victory , Caxias was promoted to lieutenant general on 3 March , and raised to marquis on 26 June . = = = Conciliation Cabinet = = = Caxias 's father died in December 1853 . For years , father and son had clashed , taking opposite sides . The marquis ultimately prevailed , adhering closely to his grandfather José Joaquim de Lima 's steadfast loyalty to the Crown and respect for the law . By the time of his death , Francisco de Lima , a senator in his own right , had long since lost his former influence and had not held any office of importance for years . Nevertheless , Caxias and Francisco de Lima maintained a loving and respectful relationship to the very end , as may be seen in the few surviving letters between them . His relationship with other family members , however , was marred by resentment , as he told his wife years later : " We are placed in the foreground of our society , causing even envy to your relatives and to mine as well . " Around 1853 ( and certainly by 1855 ) , the old Party of Order had become more widely known as the Conservative Party . On 14 June 1855 , the marquis accepted the portfolio of Minister of War and joined the " Conciliation Cabinet " headed by Honório Hermeto ( now Marquis of Paraná ) . Caxias and Paraná had known each other since 1831 and had formed a deep friendship and strong bond based on trust and views in common . Paraná had been facing overwhelming opposition in parliament from members of his , and Caxias 's , own party . Under the guise of correcting flaws in elections so that all parties would have legitimate access to representation in parliament , Paraná attempted to pass electoral reforms that would , in practice , allot cabinets even more influence to meddle in elections through coercion and patronage . The saquaremas understood the threat : it would undermine their own party ( or in fact any party ) by strengthening the executive branch to the detriment of the legislative . In search of broader support , Paraná appointed as ministers politicians who had few , or no , links to the saquaremas . Caxias himself was a saquarema , but according to Needell , he " was first and foremost a military man . Personal fealty to the Empire came before any other . As so many did , he identified this loyalty with fealty to the Crown in abstraction and to Dom Pedro personally . " He was a choice that could please all sides . Caxias , said Needell , " was not so much a political man as a man profoundly loyal to the Monarchy with which he ... had come to identify with the Conservative Party . Thus , Paraná may have appointed Caxias to reassure traditional Conservatives without endangering the more independent political position Paraná was taking . " = = = Presidencies of the Council of Ministers = = = Paraná succeeded in passing electoral reform , which was called the Lei dos Círculos ( Law of the Circles ) . As predicted , and feared , it gave greater powers to the president ( prime minister ) of the Council of Ministers to meddle in elections . Unexpectedly , Paraná fell ill and died on 3 September 1856 . Caxias replaced him , but was reluctant to face the legislature , elected under the electoral reform , that was slated to convene the next year . He resigned , along with the other cabinet ministers , on 4 May 1857 . The Law of the Circles and the controversy surrounding it split the Conservative Party : one faction was the saquarema ultraconservative ( or tradionalist ) wing , then called the vermelhos ( reds ) or puritanos ( puritans ) , led by Eusébio de Queirós , Uruguai and Joaquim Rodrigues Torres , Viscount of Itaboraí . The second bloc comprised the conservador moderado ( moderate Conservative ) wing , composed mostly of younger politicians who owed their positions to electoral reform . The moderate Conservatives were Conservatives in name only , and did not support the saquarema ideology and leadership . During the years following 1857 , successive cabinets quickly collapsed , unable to muster a majority in the Chamber of Deputies , as the two Conservative wings undercut each other in a fight for dominance . The Emperor asked Caxias to head a new cabinet on 2 March 1861 . Among his ministers were José Maria da Silva Paranhos ( later Viscount of Rio Branco ) , whom Caxias had met and befriended during the Platine War while serving as secretary to Paraná . Caxias tried to secure support from the traditional saquarema leadership . They attempted , however , to use him as a figurehead and to further their own agendas . He commented to Paranhos : " I see what you meant , with respect to the bizarre behavior of these gentlemen , who do not wish to govern the country , when they are invited to do so , because they prefer to govern the Government . They are completely mistaken about me , since I am not disposed to serve them as a hobbyhorse . " Lacking support in parliament , Caxias ' cabinet resigned on 24 May 1862 after losing its majority in the Chamber of Deputies ( the national legislature 's lower house ) . Pedro II asked members of the Liga Progressista ( Progressive League ) — a new party consisting of moderate Conservatives and Liberals — to form a new cabinet . Barely a month later , Caxias ' only son died at age 14 of unknown causes . There was a small consolation at the end of 1862 when , on 2 December , he was made brevet marechal de exército ( army marshal ) , the highest rank in the Brazilian army . = = Paraguayan War = = = = = Siege of Uruguaiana = = = In December 1864 , the dictator of Paraguay , Francisco Solano López , took advantage of Brazil 's military intervention in Uruguay to establish his country as a regional power . The Paraguayan army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso ( currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ) , triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later , Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory in preparation for an attack on Rio Grande do Sul . The situation in Rio Grande do Sul was chaotic , and the local military commanders were incapable of mounting an effective resistance to the Paraguayan army . Pedro II , aware of the danger , decided to go to the front to shore up operations . As the Emperor 's military aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Caxias followed him into the combat zone . The marquis had warned the Progressive cabinet that Brazil was unprepared to intervene in Uruguay and even less prepared to resist a foreign invasion . His warnings were ignored , and he complained , with a bit of irony , to his friend João Maurício Vanderlei , Baron of Cotejipe , a former colleague in the Conciliation cabinet : " I am almost mad with the mistakes that I am seeing being made , but since I am a red [ ultraconservative or traditional saquarema ] I am not listened to , since everything is progress in our country . " The imperial party arrived in Rio Grande do Sul 's capital , Porto Alegre , in July 1865 . From there , they traveled inland until they reached Uruguaiana in September . This Brazilian town was occupied by a Paraguayan army . By the time Caxias and his party arrived , the town was under siege by a combined force of Brazilian , Argentine and Uruguayan units . The Paraguayans surrendered without further bloodshed , freeing the Emperor and Caxias to return to the imperial capital . = = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = = The allies invaded Paraguay in April 1866 , but after initial success , their advance was blocked by fortifications at Humaitá by land and along the Paraguay River . The Progressive cabinet decided to create a unified command over Brazilian forces operating in Paraguay , and it turned to the 63 @-@ year @-@ old Caxias ( made permanent army marshal on 13 January ) as the new leader on 10 October 1866 . He told his wife that the reason he had accepted the post was because the war " was an evil that has reached more or less all , from the Emperor to the most unfortunate slave . " Caxias arrived in Paraguay on 18 November , and assumed the supreme command of land and naval forces in the war . His first measure was to arrange the dismissal of Vice @-@ Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa ( later the Marquis of Tamandaré and also a member of the Progressive League ) by the government , and appoint fellow Conservative Vice @-@ Admiral Joaquim José Inácio ( later the Viscount of Inhaúma ) to lead the navy . From October 1866 until July 1867 , all offensive operations were suspended . During this period , Caxias trained his soldiers , re @-@ equipped the army with newer guns , improved the quality of the officer corps , and upgraded the health corps and overall hygiene of the troops , putting an end to epidemics . Alfredo d 'Escragnolle Taunay ( later the Viscount of Taunay ) , who fought in the war , remembered that Caxias was a " generous military chief , who forgave small errors , but was implacable with those who committed grave misdeeds , or , then , who betrayed his confidence . " As the Brazilian army was ready for combat , Caxias sought to encircle Humaitá and force its capitulation by siege . To aid the operation , he used observation balloons to gather information of the enemy lines . The combined Brazilian – Argentine – Uruguayan army advanced through hostile territory to surround Humaitá . By 2 November , Humaitá was completely cut off from land reinforcement by Paraguayan forces . On 19 February 1868 , Brazilian ironclads successfully made a passage up the Paraguay River under heavy fire , gaining full control of the river and isolating Humaitá from resupply by water . = = = Dezembrada = = = The relationship between the Marquis of Caxias , now the allied Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , and the governing Progressives worsened until it became a political crisis that led to the cabinet 's resignation . The Emperor called Conservatives , under Itaboraí 's leadership , back into power on 16 July 1868 , while the Progressive League was rechristened as the Liberal Party . Meanwhile , the allies occupied Humaitá on 25 July after López managed to engineer a successful withdrawal of all Paraguayan troops from its fortress . Pressing his advantage , the marquis began organizing an assault on the new Paraguayan defenses which López had thrown up along the Pikysyry , south of Asunción ( Paraguay 's capital ) . This stream afforded a strong defensive position which was anchored by the Paraguay River and by the swampy jungle of the Chaco region , both considered to be nearly impassable by a large force . Rather than making a frontal attack on López 's line , Caxias had a road cut through the Chaco . The road was finished by early December , allowing the allied forces to outflank the Paraguayan lines and attack from the rear . In three successive battles ( Ytororó , Avay and Lomas Valentinas ) which became known as Dezembrada ( Deed of December ) , the combined allied forces annihilated the Paraguayan army . López barely managed to escape with a few followers , and on 1 January 1869 , the Brazilians occupied Asunción . According to historian Ronaldo Vainfas , Caxias ' " performance ahead of the allied forces contributed in an unquestionable way to the final triumph over the enemy . " The marquis had to take great risks to win these victories . In the Ytororó engagement , which occurred on 5 December , the allied objective was to take a bridge over the Ytororó River . Several attempts were made to cross the bridge , but each was repelled by intense fire from the Paraguayan positions . In the final attempt , the Brazilian soldiers panicked and began to flee in disorder . Caxias , witnessing the unfolding disaster , unsheathed his sword and charged on horseback toward the bridge , followed by his staff . He passed through the fleeing troops , shouting " Hail to His Majesty " , " Hail to Brazil " and finally , " Sigam @-@ me os que forem brasileiros ! " ( " Those who are true Brazilians , follow me ! " ) His display of courage stopped the retreat immediately ; the units regrouped , and a vigorous attack led personally by Caxias overwhelmed the Paraguayan positions . Several men who were next to him during the attack were killed , as was his horse . = = = Aftermath = = = Caxias was growing old , and was ill and exhausted by the time he reached Asunción . As he did not feel up to the task of pursuing López into the Paraguayan hinterland , he asked to be either relieved of his post or given a short leave . Although his request was denied , he appointed a senior member of his staff as acting commander , and left for Brazil on 19 January 1869 . The Emperor was angered that the marquis had left his post without permission , and especially that Caxias had declared the war to have been already won — even though López was still at large and regrouping his few remaining military assets . Caxias ' ill @-@ conceived decision seriously endangered the hard @-@ won achievements of the past months , even as the objective of eliminating López as a threat remained tantalizingly within reach . In early February the marquis arrived back unannounced at his house in Rio de Janeiro , much to the surprise of his wife . The Viscount of Inhaúma also returned home shortly afterwards , but with his health so compromised that he died a few weeks later . Upon learning of Inhaúma 's death , Caxias said : " and the same would have had happened to me , had I not resolved to get out of that hell . " Pedro II was greatly disappointed in Caxias , but he was also very aware that the marquis was the person most responsible for the great successes during the war , accomplishments that had come at the cost of years of sacrifice and personal bravery . The Emperor called the marquis to the Imperial Palace , the Paço de São Cristóvão , on 21 February 1869 for a reconciliation . A few days later the Emperor awarded Caxias the Order of Pedro I and raised him from marquis to duke , the highest rank of Brazilian nobility , and a unique distinction during Pedro II 's 58 @-@ year reign . The Emperor also appointed him to the Council of State on October 1870 . But none of this prevented Caxias from attacks and accusations — some petty — in the parliament , including having left his post without permission . The embittered duke wrote to his friend Manuel Luís Osório , Marquis of Erval : " When I was young , my friend , I did not know how to explain why the elderly were selfish , but now that I am old , I see that they are like that because of the disappointments and ingratitudes they suffer during their lives . At least this is what happens to me " . = = Later years = = = = = Figurehead presidency = = = Paranhos , now Viscount of Rio Branco , led a cabinet from 1871 to 1875 . Two serious crises arose that challenged its viability and undermined the foundations of the monarchy . The first resulted from the controversy over the Law of Free Birth , which Caxias voted for . The law was to emancipate children born to slave women after its enactment . With half of Conservative Party members supporting the bill and the other half staunchly opposed , a serious rift opened in the ranks . Opponents represented the interests of powerful coffee farmers such as Caxias , planters who had long been the main political , social , and economic supporters of the Conservative Party . The second crisis was the Religious Question , which developed after the government came into conflict with two bishops who had ordered that Freemasons be expelled from lay brotherhoods . The dispute grew out of proportion when both bishops were convicted and given prison sentences for disobeying the government 's order to rescind their expulsions . As Catholicism was the state religion , the Emperor exercised , with the papacy 's acquiescence , a great deal of control over church affairs — paying clerical salaries , appointing parish priests , nominating bishops , ratifying papal bulls , and overseeing seminaries . As a result of the furor over the handling of the affair , Rio Branco and his cabinet resigned , " disunited and weary after four years in office " , according to historian Roderick J. Barman . Pedro II asked Caxias to form a new cabinet . The duke later gave a remarkable account of their meeting : Believe that when I entered my carriage to go São Cristóvão , summoned by the Emperor , I was determined not to accept . But he , as soon as he saw me , embraced me and said to me that he would not let me go unless I told him that I would accept the post of minister and that , if I refused to do this service , he would summon the Liberals and would have to tell everybody that I was responsible for the consequence , all the while encircling me with his arms . I pointed out to him my circumstances , my age , and my infirmity ; but he concurred in nothing . To free myself from him , I should have had to shove him off , and this I could not do . I bowed my head and said that I would do what he wanted but that I was sure that he would have cause for regret , since I would not be minister for long , because I would die from work and troubles . However , he listened to nothing and told me that I should only do what I could do but that I must not abandon him , since he would in that case abandon us and go away . The elderly Caxias , almost 72 and widowed since 1874 , was in poor health and could serve only as a figurehead president of the government formed on 25 June 1875 . Cotejipe was the de facto president . The Caxias @-@ Cotejipe cabinet attempted to dissipate the discord created by the previous cabinet . Their measures included financial aid to coffee farmers , an amnesty for the convicted bishops , and , to please the pro @-@ slavery Conservatives , the selection of new ministers and a call for elections . Caxias , who was a Freemason but also a staunch Catholic , threatened to resign if the Emperor did not grant the amnesty , which Pedro II grudgingly issued in September 1875 . = = = Death = = = At the end of 1877 , Pedro II paid a visit to Caxias and ascertained that he could no longer remain in office . The entire cabinet resigned on 1 January 1878 . His health problems had become so troubling that he had been asking repeatedly to resign since early 1876 . Caxias was not only afflicted by concerns over his declining health , but increasingly felt a sense of alienation . He did not feel he could play a relevant role in politics . He belonged to an older generation who perceived the Emperor ( and consequently , the monarchy ) as essential for holding the nation together . The new politicians who had begun to dominate the government had little memory of the times before Pedro II assumed control in 1840 . Unlike their predecessors , they had no experience of the regency and the early years of Pedro II 's reign , when external and internal dangers threatened the nation 's existence ; they had only known a stable administration and prosperity . The young politicians saw no reason to uphold and defend the imperial office as a unifying force beneficial to the nation . Times were changing fast , and Caxias was aware of the situation . He became increasingly nostalgic for the former times he had spent with his now @-@ dead Conservative Party colleagues and held a pessimistic view of future political prospects . When Itaboraí — one of the last survivors of those Conservative leaders who had begun their careers during the 1830s — died in 1872 , the duke wrote to a friend : " Who will replace him ? I don 't know , I cannot see ... The vacuum he left will not be filled , as it was not with Eusébio , Paraná , Uruguai , Manuel Felizardo and many others who helped us sustain this little church [ i.e. , the monarchy , his ' second faith ' ] , which collapsed or almost collapsed on 7 April 1831 . " Confined to a wheelchair as his health slowly declined , the Duke of Caxias lived his remaining days at Santa Mônica farm , located near the town of Valença , in the countryside of Rio de Janeiro province . On 7 May 1880 at 11 pm he quietly died , attended by members of his family . A saddened Pedro II ( who visited Caxias several times during his long illness ) remarked about his " friend of almost a half century " , that he had " known him , and esteemed him since 1832 . He was 76 , almost 77 years old . And so we remain in this world . " Caxias asked for a simple funeral , with no pomp , no honors , no invitations , and only six soldiers of good conduct to carry his coffin . His last wish was not entirely respected : Pedro II sent a carriage used for funerals of members of the imperial family only , to be followed by sixteen servants of the imperial household , and one corporal and thirteen , not six , soldiers of good conduct to carry his remains . A huge procession was followed by a funeral ( attended by Pedro II ) and his body was laid to rest in the São Francisco de Paula cemetery in the city of Rio de Janeiro . = = Legacy = = From his death in 1880 until the 1920s , the Duke of Caxias was not regarded as the most important military figure in Brazilian history . This honor belonged to Manuel Luís Osório , Marquis of Erval . Caxias was held to be a minor figure in comparison to Erval . His reputation slowly grew , and in 1923 , the Ministry of the Army created an annual celebration in his honor . In 1925 , his birthday officially became the " Day of the Soldier " , which commemorates the Brazilian army . On 25 August 1949 , his remains , along with those of his wife , were exhumed and reinterred in Rio de Janeiro 's Duke of Caxias Pantheon . On 13 March 1962 , Caxias became patrono ( protector ) of the army , making him the most important figure in its tradition . According to Adriana Barreto de Souza , Francisco Doratioto and Celso Castro , Caxias supplanted Osório because he was seen as a loyal and dutiful officer who could serve as a role model in a Brazilian republic plagued since its birth in 1889 by military insubordination , rebellions and coups . " His name " , said the historian Thomas Whigham , " has become synonymous with the upright officer and citizen who never breaks the law — hence the popular term caxias , which refers to individuals who follow regulations without mistrust , doubt and evasion . " The historiography is often positive toward Caxias and several historians have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian military officer . To historian Nelson Werneck Sodré , he was " not only the greatest military commander of his continent [ South America ] , in his time , but [ also ] a great politician " . Moreover , Caxias was " — more than D. Pedro II — the Empire . " Francisco Doratioto said that the duke " in Paraguay had doubts , pride , resentment , and made mistakes ; in short , he was a real character ... Caxias , however , was able to rise above his limitations , imposed on himself great personal sacrifices and incorporated the responsibility of accomplishing the objective ... In this context , Caxias was , indeed , a hero ; he carried with him , it is true , social and political prejudices of his time , but one can not demand from the past the observance of present @-@ day values . " Roderick J. Barman affirmed that Caxias was not only " extremely powerful in the Conservative party " , but also " the country 's most distinguished " and " most successful soldier " , who had " proved his capacity and his loyalty by defeating revolts against the regime " . C. H. Haring said that he was " a brilliant army officer " , also " Brazil 's most famous military figure " and a man " who was genuinely loyal to the throne " . To Whigham , the duke was " destined to occupy a lofty spot in Brazil 's national mythology . He often had to act as a statesman as much as military man " and was " [ s ] hrewdly competent in both roles " . Hélio Viana regarded Caxias as " the greatest soldier of Brazil " , a view shared by Eugênio Vilhena de Morais , Pedro Calmon , Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa , Antônio da Rocha Almeida and Gustavo Barroso . = = Titles and honors = = = = = Titles of nobility = = = Baron of Caxias ( without Greatness ) on 18 July 1841 . Count of Caxias on 25 March 1845 . Marquis of Caxias on 26 June 1852 . Duke of Caxias on 23 March 1869 . = = = Other titles = = = Member of the Brazilian Council of State . Member of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute . Member of the Supreme Military and Justice Council . Emperor 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Emperor 's veador ( gentleman usher ) . = = = Honors = = = Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross . Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of the Rose . Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Pedro I. Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz . Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa . = = = Military honors = = = Medal ( oval ) of the Independence War ( Bahia ) . Medal of the army in the Oriental State of Uruguay in 1852 . Commemorative medal of the surrender of the division of the army of Paraguay that occupied the village of Uruguaiana . Medal ( oval ) of bravery " to the bravest ones " ( 1867 ) . Medal awarded to the army , armada and to civil servants in operations in the Paraguayan War ( 1870 ) . = = Endnotes = =
= 2010 Heluva Good ! Sour Cream Dips 400 = The 2010 Heluva Good ! Sour Cream Dips 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on June 13 , 2010 at Michigan International Speedway in Brooklyn , Michigan . Contested over 200 laps , it was the fifteenth race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season . The race was won by Denny Hamlin for the Joe Gibbs Racing team . Kasey Kahne finished second , and Kurt Busch , who started first , clinched third . Pole position driver Busch maintained his lead into the first turn to begin the race , but Jamie McMurray , who started in the second position on the grid , passed him to lead the first lap . Hamlin soon became the leader and would lead a race high of 123 laps . On the final restart , Hamlin started beside Kahne . Hamlin held onto first to claim his first Sprint Cup Series win at Michigan and his fifth of the season . There were four cautions and nineteen lead changes among nine different drivers throughout the course of the race . The result left Kevin Harvick in the first position in the Drivers ' Championship , twenty @-@ two points ahead of second place driver Kyle Busch and forty @-@ seven ahead of Denny Hamlin . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , six points ahead of Toyota and thirty @-@ eight ahead of Dodge , with twenty @-@ one races remaining in the season . A total of 95 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 4 @.@ 3 million watched it on television . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = Michigan International Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races , the others being Daytona International Speedway , Auto Club Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . The standard track at Michigan International Speedway is a four @-@ turn superspeedway that is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at eighteen degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked at twelve degrees . The back stretch , has a five degree banking . Michigan International Speedway can seat up to 119 @,@ 500 people . Before the race , Kevin Harvick led the Drivers ' Championship with 2 @,@ 063 points , and Kyle Busch stood in second with 2 @,@ 044 points . Denny Hamlin was third in the Drivers ' Championship with 1 @,@ 927 points , Matt Kenseth was fourth with 1 @,@ 893 points , and Kurt Busch was in fifth with 1 @,@ 881 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 100 points , twelve points ahead of their rival Toyota . Dodge , with 61 points , was three points ahead of Ford in the battle for third . Mark Martin was the race 's defending champion . = = = Practice and qualifying = = = Three practice sessions were scheduled before the race — one on Friday , June 11 , 2010 , and two on Saturday , June 12 , 2010 . The first practice session lasted only 70 minutes , but was scheduled to be 90 minutes . The Saturday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted sixty minutes . In the first practice session , which was held under mostly cloudy conditions , Juan Pablo Montoya was fastest , ahead of Jimmie Johnson and Kurt Busch in second and third . Greg Biffle and Jeff Gordon followed in fourth and fifth . In the morning practice session , Paul Menard was the quickest , with a time of 38 @.@ 824 seconds while Carl Edwards , Jeff Burton , Jimmie Johnson , and Jeff Gordon followed in second , third , fourth and fifth . During the third practice session , Jimmie Johnson , was the fastest , ahead of Paul Menard in second , Denny Hamlin in third , Jeff Gordon in fourth , and Kevin Harvick in fifth . During Friday afternoon 's qualifying session , forty @-@ six cars were entered , but only the fastest forty @-@ three were able to enter the race . Kurt Busch clinched his second pole position of 2010 , with a time of 37 @.@ 898 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Jamie McMurray . Jimmie Johnson and Kasey Kahne shared the second row in the third and fourth position , while Jeff Burton , with a time of 38 @.@ 00 seconds , qualified fifth . The three drivers that failed to qualify were Dave Blaney , Michael Waltrip and Johnny Sauter . = = = Race summary = = = The race , the fifteenth out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 1 p.m. EDT and was televised live in the United States on TNT . To begin pre @-@ race ceremonies , at 1 : 00 p.m. EDT , Fr . Geoff Rose , OSFS , from Lumen Christi High School in Jackson , Michigan , gave the invocation . Then , the Army Chorus A Capella Team performed the national anthem , and Adam Sandler and Kevin James delivered the command , " Gentlemen , start your engines ! " Three drivers had to move to the rear from making major adjustments to their race car after first practice , they were Kyle Busch , with an engine change , Clint Bowyer , who changed to a back @-@ up car , and Kevin Conway because of a transmission change . Kurt Busch made a good start , retaining the first position ; Jamie McMurray behind him maintained the second position . At the end of the first lap , McMurray passed Busch . One lap later , Busch reclaimed the first position . By lap 3 , Kasey Kahne and Jimmie Johnson had passed McMurray to put him in the fourth position . McMurray dropped to sixth place on the sixth lap . On lap 7 , Kahne started catching the leader , and McMurray announced on the team 's radio that his car was loose . On lap 11 , Max Papis went to the garage ( the place where teams repair or park their car ) because of overheating problems . On lap 18 , Marcos Ambrose spun through the grass , to cause the first caution . Afterward , most drivers made pit stops for fuel and tires while Joe Nemechek decided to stay out to lead one lap . On the same lap , Todd Bodine drove his car to the garage . On lap 22 , the green flag waved , as Tony Stewart led Kurt Busch , Jimmie Johnson , Juan Pablo Montoya , and Kasey Kahne on the restart . Stewart dropped to third after being passed by Kurt Busch and Montoya . Two laps later , Joe Nemechek went to garage with electrical problems . On lap 26 , Jimmie Johnson moved into the third position after passing Montoya . By lap 27 , Kurt Busch had a two @-@ second lead over Tony Stewart . Johnson , Stewart and Kahne were battling three @-@ wide for the second position on lap 30 . One lap later , Nemechek returned to the track after having electrical problems . On lap 33 , the top @-@ five positions were single file with Kurt Busch in first , Kahne in second , Johnson in third , Denny Hamlin in fourth and Stewart in fifth . A lap later , Bobby Labonte went to garage because of overheating problems . On lap 37 , Landon Cassill went to the garage with rear gear problems . Afterward , on lap 41 , J.J. Yeley drove to the garage because of overheating problems , but he returned to the track four laps later . On the forty @-@ eighth lap , debris in turn two brought out the second caution . Robby Gordon and David Gilliland stayed out while the other teams made pit stops . Gordon and Gilliand made pit stops the next lap and gave the lead to Kurt Busch . Kurt Busch brought the field to the green flag with Hamlin in second , Montoya in third , Johnson in fourth , and Kahne in fifth on lap 51 . After Hamlin made a good restart he passed Kurt Busch on lap 52 . Afterward , on lap 54 , Landon Cassill returned to the track while J.J. Yeley returned to the garage . Kahne passed Montoya for the third position . After 67 laps , Hamlin had a 2 @.@ 4 second lead over Kurt Busch in the second position . On lap 87 , green flag pit stops began . One lap later , most drivers in the first ten positions made pit stops . Denny Hamlin , who was in the first position , came to pit road on lap 92 , but had problems leaving which gave Kurt Busch the lead . On laps 94 – 95 , Kurt Busch in first , and Kahne in second were battling for the lead , but Kahne did not pass Kurt Busch until one lap later . After the green flag pit stops , Kahne was first , Kurt Busch in second , Hamlin in third , Montoya in fourth and Jeff Gordon in fifth . On lap 99 , Scott Speed spun after contact with his team @-@ mate Casey Mears , and brought out the third caution . One lap later , Sam Hornish , Jr. stayed out as other teams made pit stops . On lap 101 , Casey Mears collided with David Ragan while on pit road . Mears drove to the garage the following lap . On lap 103 , Hornish , Jr. led Kurt Busch , Jeff Gordon , Hamlin and Kahne on the restart . Three laps later , Kurt Busch passed team @-@ mate Hornish , Jr . Afterward , Hornish , Jr. dropped to fourth . On lap 113 , Hamlin passed Kurt Busch for the lead in turn three . On lap 119 , Kahne passed Kurt Busch for the second position . On lap 126 , Hamlin had a 2 @.@ 8 second lead over Kahne . Seven laps later , Stewart passed Jeff Burton for the fifth position . By lap 134 , the green flag pit stops began . Hamlin , Kahne , and Stewart made pit stops , as Matt Kenseth became the new leader . Two laps later , Hamlin regained the lead from Kenseth . On lap 146 , Hamlin was in first , Kahne in second , Kurt Busch in third , Jeff Gordon in fourth , and Greg Biffle in fifth . Four laps later , Ryan Newman told his crew that his car was not running correctly from hitting a piece of aluminum . On lap 154 , Hamlin was leading by seven seconds over Kahne . Most teams started making pit stops for fuel only on lap 161 . On lap 177 , Kahne became the leader as Hamlin made a pit stop . Kahne made a pit stop on lap 178 to give the lead back to Hamlin ; . On lap 179 , Hamlin was leading by nine seconds . With twenty laps to go , Hamlin was first , Kahne was second , Kurt Busch was third , Jeff Gordon was fourth , and Biffle was fifth . The fourth caution came out on lap 181 because of debris on the back straightaway . The first nine positions stayed off of pit road while the rest made pit stops . On lap 186 , Hamlin made a good start and maintained the first position . On lap 188 , Jimmie Johnson , who restarted twelfth , had moved up to the sixth position . On lap 193 , Hamlin had a growing lead over Kahne . Denny Hamlin crossed the line to win the race , a second ahead of second place Kasey Kahne . Kurt Busch maintained third while Jeff Gordon and Tony Stewart finished fourth and fifth . = = = Post @-@ race = = = Denny Hamlin appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his fifth win of the season , and his first Sprint Cup win at Michigan International Speedway , in front of a crowd of 95 @,@ 000 people . " It ’ s so easy to drive cars like this , " Hamlin said . He also stated , " We never stop working , regardless of whether we ’ ve got a nine @-@ 10ths @-@ of @-@ a @-@ second lead or a nine @-@ second lead . " Kasey Kahne , who finished second , said , " I hung with him for about three laps running in his kind of dirty air . I was right there . Then he just slowly crept away . It felt good . We were close . That ’ s a huge improvement . I was pretty happy . " " We had a similar [ fuel ] issue at the start of the Pocono race last year where we broke a fuel cable , " Hamlin said after the race . " I thought maybe that ’ s what we did . When I went to take off [ after his stop ] , it immediately shut off . While it was " a downer , I was pretty confident we weren ’ t going to have it again . Because Mike [ Ford , crew chief ] never really gave me an alarm we were going to be stretching it on fuel . " In the subsequent press conference , Hamlin 's crew chief said , " Towards the end of last season , where I said the best is yet to come , I strongly felt that way because towards the end of last season we closed out the season strong . I knew that was a catalyst to really turn up the team , to get a little bit more out of everyone . Denny goes down with his knee injury . He comes back , obviously not 100 percent . The team steps up . We narrow the gap to try to pick him up knowing he 's not going to be there , and we start winning races , even with a driver that is not 100 percent . Now that he 's coming back healthier each week , we 're winning more and more . I simply think that 's the catalyst for us to move forward . It 's easier when the morale is high to get a little bit more out of your guys . Our benchmark is ourselves and we 're just trying to work on that . " The race left Kevin Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 2 @,@ 169 points . Kyle Busch , who finished twentieth , was second on 2 @,@ 147 , twenty @-@ five points ahead of Hamlin in second and ninety @-@ six ahead of Kurt Busch in third . Matt Kenseth was fifth with 2 @,@ 019 points . Chevrolet maintained their lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship with 103 points . Toyota placed second with 97 points , and Dodge followed with 65 points , now even with Ford . 4 @.@ 3 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , thirty @-@ three minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 246 seconds . = = Race results = = = = Standings after the race = = Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= American Airlines Flight 77 = American Airlines Flight 77 was a scheduled American Airlines domestic transcontinental passenger flight from Washington Dulles International Airport in Dulles , Virginia , to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles , California . The Boeing 757 @-@ 223 aircraft serving the flight was hijacked by five men affiliated with al @-@ Qaeda on September 11 , 2001 , as part of the September 11 attacks . They deliberately crashed the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , near Washington , D.C. , killing all 64 people on board , including the five hijackers and six crew , as well as 125 people in the building . Less than 35 minutes into the flight , the hijackers stormed the cockpit . They forced the passengers , crew , and pilots to the rear of the aircraft . Hani Hanjour , one of the hijackers who was trained as a pilot , assumed control of the flight . Unknown to the hijackers , passengers aboard made telephone calls to friends and family and relayed information on the hijacking . The hijackers crashed the aircraft into the western side of the Pentagon at 09 : 37 EDT . Dozens of people witnessed the crash , and news sources began reporting on the incident within minutes . The impact severely damaged an area of the Pentagon and caused a large fire . A portion of the building collapsed ; firefighters spent days working to fully extinguish the blaze . The damaged sections of the Pentagon were rebuilt in 2002 , with occupants moving back into the completed areas that August . The 184 victims of the attack are memorialized in the Pentagon Memorial adjacent to the crash site . The 1 @.@ 93 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 800 m2 ) park contains a bench for each of the victims , arranged according to their year of birth and ranging from 1930 to 1998 . = = Hijackers = = The hijackers on American Airlines Flight 77 were led by Hani Hanjour , who piloted the aircraft into the Pentagon . Hanjour first came to the United States in 1990 . Hanjour trained at the CRM Airline Training Center in Scottsdale , Arizona , earning his FAA commercial pilot 's certificate in April 1999 . He had wanted to be a commercial pilot for the Saudi national airline but was rejected when he applied to the civil aviation school in Jeddah in 1999 . Hanjour 's brother later explained that , frustrated at not finding a job , Hanjour " increasingly turned his attention toward religious texts and cassette tapes of militant Islamic preachers " . Hanjour returned to Saudi Arabia after being certified as a pilot , but left again in late 1999 , telling his family that he was going to the United Arab Emirates to work for an airline . Hanjour likely went to Afghanistan , where Al @-@ Qaeda recruits were screened for special skills they might have . Already having selected the Hamburg cell members , Al Qaeda leaders selected Hanjour to lead the fourth team of hijackers . Alec Station , the CIA 's unit dedicated to tracking Osama bin Laden , had discovered that two of the other hijackers , al @-@ Hazmi and al @-@ Mihdhar , had multiple @-@ entry visas to the United States well before 9 / 11 . Two FBI agents inside the unit tried to alert FBI headquarters , but CIA officers rebuffed them . In December 2000 , Hanjour arrived in San Diego , joining " muscle " hijackers Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar , who had been there since January 2000 . Soon after arriving , Hanjour and Hazmi left for Mesa , Arizona , where Hanjour began refresher training at Arizona Aviation . In April 2001 , they relocated to Falls Church , Virginia , where they awaited the arrival of the remaining " muscle " hijackers . One of these men , Majed Moqed , arrived on May 2 , 2001 , with Flight 175 hijacker Ahmed al @-@ Ghamdi from Dubai at Dulles International Airport . They moved into an apartment with Hazmi and Hanjour . On May 21 , 2001 , Hanjour rented a room in Paterson , New Jersey , where he stayed with other hijackers through the end of August . The last Flight 77 " muscle " hijacker , Salem al @-@ Hazmi , arrived on June 29 , 2001 , with Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari ( a hijacker of Flight 11 ) at John F. Kennedy International Airport from the United Arab Emirates . They stayed with Hanjour . Hanjour received ground instruction and did practice flights at Air Fleet Training Systems in Teterboro , New Jersey , and at Caldwell Flight Academy in Fairfield , New Jersey . Hanjour moved out of the room in Paterson and arrived at the Valencia Motel in Laurel , Maryland , on September 2 , 2001 . While in Maryland , Hanjour and fellow hijackers trained at Gold 's Gym in Greenbelt . On September 10 , he completed a certification flight , using a terrain recognition system for navigation , at Congressional Air Charters in Gaithersburg , Maryland . On September 10 , Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi — accompanied by other hijackers — checked into the Marriott in Herndon , Virginia , near Dulles Airport . = = = Suspected accomplices = = = According to a U.S. State Department cable leaked in the WikiLeaks dump in February 2010 , the FBI has investigated another suspect , Mohammed al @-@ Mansoori . He had associated with three Qatari citizens who flew from Los Angeles to London ( via Washington ) and Qatar on the eve of the attacks , after allegedly surveying the World Trade Center and the White House . U.S. law enforcement officials said that the data about the four men was " just one of many leads that were thoroughly investigated at the time and never led to terrorism charges " . An official added that the three Qatari citizens have never been questioned by the FBI . Eleanor Hill , the former staff director for the congressional joint inquiry on the September 11 attacks , said the cable reinforces questions about the thoroughness of the FBI 's investigation . She also said that the inquiry concluded that the hijackers had a support network that helped them in different ways . The three Qatari men were booked to fly from Los Angeles to Washington on September 10 , 2001 , on the same plane that was hijacked and piloted into the Pentagon on the following day . Instead , they flew from Los Angeles to Qatar , via Washington and London . While the cable said that Mansoori was currently under investigation , U.S. law enforcement officials said that there was no active investigation of him or of the Qatari citizens mentioned in the cable . = = Flight = = The American Airlines Flight 77 aircraft was a Boeing 757 @-@ 223 ( registration N644AA ) . The aircraft was built and had its first flight in 1991 . The flight crew included pilot Charles Burlingame ( a Naval Academy graduate and former fighter pilot ) , First Officer David Charlebois , and flight attendants Michele Heidenberger , Jennifer Lewis , Kenneth Lewis , and Renee May . The capacity of the aircraft was 188 passengers , but with 58 passengers on September 11 , the load factor was 33 percent . American Airlines said that Tuesdays were the least @-@ traveled day of the week , with the same load factor seen on Tuesdays in the previous three months for Flight 77 . = = = Boarding and departure = = = On the morning of September 11 , 2001 , the five hijackers arrived at Washington Dulles International Airport . At 07 : 15 , Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar and Majed Moqed checked in at the American Airlines ticket counter for Flight 77 , arriving at the passenger security checkpoint a few minutes later at 07 : 18 . Both men set off the metal detector and were put through secondary screening . Moqed continued to set off the alarm , so he was searched with a hand wand . The Hazmi brothers checked in together at the ticket counter at 07 : 29 . Hani Hanjour checked in separately and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 07 : 35 . Hanjour was followed minutes later at the checkpoint by Salem and Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi , who also set off the metal detector 's alarm . The screener at the checkpoint never resolved what set off the alarm . As seen in security footage later released , Nawaf Hazmi appeared to have an unidentified item in his back pocket . Utility knives up to four inches were permitted at the time by the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) as carry @-@ on items . The passenger security checkpoint at Dulles International Airport was operated by Argenbright Security , under contract with United Airlines . The hijackers were all selected for extra screening of their checked bags . Hanjour , al @-@ Mihdhar , and Moqed were chosen by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System criteria , while the brothers Nawaf and Salem al @-@ Hazmi were selected because they did not provide adequate identification and were deemed suspicious by the airline check @-@ in agent . Hanjour , Mihdhar , and Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi did not check any bags for the flight . Checked bags belonging to Moqed and Salem al @-@ Hazmi were held until they boarded the aircraft . Flight 77 was scheduled to depart for Los Angeles at 08 : 10 ; 58 passengers boarded through Gate D26 , including the five hijackers . Excluding the hijackers , of the 59 other passengers and crew on board , there were 26 men , 22 women , and five children ranging in age from three to eleven . On the flight , Hani Hanjour was seated up front in 1B , while Salem and Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi were seated in first class in seats 5E and 5F . Majed Moqed and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar were seated further back in 12A and 12B , in economy class . Flight 77 left the gate on time and took off from Runway 30 at Dulles at 08 : 20 . = = = Hijacking = = = The 9 / 11 Commission estimated that the flight was hijacked between 08 : 51 and 08 : 54 , shortly after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center and not too long after United Airlines Flight 175 had been hijacked . The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08 : 50 : 51 . Unlike the other three flights , there were no reports of anyone being stabbed or a bomb threat and the pilots were not immediately killed but shoved to the back of the plane with the rest of the passengers . At 08 : 54 , the plane began to deviate from its normal , assigned flight path and turned south . Two minutes later at 08 : 56 , the plane 's transponder was switched off . The hijackers set the flight 's autopilot on a course heading east towards Washington , D.C. The FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency on board the airplane . By this time , Flight 11 had already crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and was within minutes of striking the South Tower . After learning of this second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines , American Airlines ' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline . The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center , as well as American Airlines dispatchers , made several failed attempts to contact the aircraft . At the time the airplane was hijacked , it was flying over an area of limited radar coverage . With air controllers unable to contact the flight by radio , an Indianapolis official declared that the Boeing 757 had possibly crashed at 09 : 09 . Two people on the aircraft made phone calls to contacts on the ground . At 09 : 12 , flight attendant Renee May called her mother , Nancy May , in Las Vegas . During the call , which lasted nearly two minutes , May said her flight was being hijacked by six persons , and staff and passengers had been moved to the rear of the airplane . May asked her mother to contact American Airlines , which she and her husband promptly did ; American Airlines was already aware of the hijacking . Between 09 : 16 and 09 : 26 , passenger Barbara Olson called her husband , United States Solicitor General Theodore Olson , and reported that the airplane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives . She reported that the passengers , including the pilots , had been moved to the back of the cabin and that the hijackers were unaware of her call . A minute into the conversation , the call was cut off . Theodore Olson contacted the command center at the Department of Justice , and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft . About five minutes later , Barbara Olson called again , told her husband that the " pilot " ( possibly Hanjour on the cabin intercom ) had announced the flight was hijacked , and asked , " what do I tell the pilot to do ? " Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area . He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center . Soon afterward , the call cut off again . An airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington , turning and descending rapidly . Controllers initially thought this was a military fighter , due to its high speed and maneuvering . Reagan Airport controllers asked a passing Air National Guard Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules to identify and follow the aircraft . The pilot , Lt. Col. Steven O 'Brien , told them it was a Boeing 757 or 767 , and its silver fuselage meant that it was probably an American Airlines jet . He had difficulty picking out the airplane in the " East Coast haze " , but then saw a " huge " fireball , and initially assumed it had hit the ground . Approaching the Pentagon , he saw the impact site on the building 's west side and reported to Reagan control , " Looks like that aircraft crashed into the Pentagon , sir . " = = = Crash = = = According to the 9 / 11 Commission Report , as Flight 77 was 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Pentagon , it made a 330 @-@ degree turn . At the end of the turn , it was descending through 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) , pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington . Hani Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dived toward the Pentagon . While level above the ground and seconds from the crash , the wings knocked over five street lampposts and the right wing struck a portable generator , creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon . Flight 77 , flying at 530 mph ( 853 km / h , 237 m / s , or 460 knots ) over the Navy Annex Building adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery , crashed into the western side of the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , just south of Washington , D.C. , at 09 : 37 : 46 . The plane hit the Pentagon at the first @-@ floor level , and at the moment of impact , the airplane was rolled slightly to the left , with the right wing elevated . The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact , while the mid and tail sections moved for another fraction of a second , with tail section debris penetrating furthest into the building . In all , the airplane took eight @-@ tenths of a second to fully penetrate 310 feet ( 94 m ) into the three outermost of the building 's five rings and unleashed a fireball that rose 200 feet ( 61 m ) above the building . At the time of the attacks , approximately 18 @,@ 000 people worked in the Pentagon , which was 4 @,@ 000 fewer than before renovations began in 1998 . The section of the Pentagon that was struck , which had recently been renovated at a cost of $ 250 million , housed the Naval Command Center . In all , there were 189 deaths at the Pentagon site , including the 125 in the Pentagon building in addition to the 64 on board the aircraft . Passenger Barbara Olson was en route to a taping of Politically Incorrect . A group of children , their chaperones , and National Geographic Society staff members were also on board , embarking on an educational trip west to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara , California . The fatalities at the Pentagon included 55 military personnel and 70 civilians . Of those 125 killed , 92 were on the first floor , 31 were on the second floor , and two were on the third . Seven Defense Intelligence Agency civilian employees were killed while the Office of the Secretary of Defense lost one contractor . The Army suffered 75 fatalities — 53 civilians ( 47 employees and six contractors ) and 22 soldiers — while the Navy suffered 42 fatalities — nine civilians ( six employees and three contractors ) and 33 sailors . Lieutenant General Timothy Maude , an Army Deputy Chief of Staff , was the highest @-@ ranking military officer killed at the Pentagon ; also killed was retired Rear Admiral Wilson Flagg , a passenger on the plane . LT Mari @-@ Rae Sopper , JAGC , USNR , was also on board the flight , and was the first Navy Judge Advocate ever to be killed . Another 106 were injured on the ground and were treated at area hospitals . On the side where the plane hit , the Pentagon is bordered by Interstate 395 and Washington Boulevard . Motorist Mary Lyman , who was on I @-@ 395 , saw the airplane pass over at a " steep angle toward the ground and going fast " and then saw the cloud of smoke from the Pentagon . Omar Campo , another witness , was cutting the grass on the other side of the road when the airplane flew over his head , and later recalled : I was cutting the grass and it came in screaming over my head . I felt the impact . The whole ground shook and the whole area was full of fire . I could never imagine I would see anything like that here . Afework Hagos , a computer programmer , was on his way to work and stuck in a traffic jam near the Pentagon when the airplane flew over . " There was a huge screaming noise and I got out of the car as the plane came over . Everybody was running away in different directions . It was tilting its wings up and down like it was trying to balance . It hit some lampposts on the way in . " Daryl Donley witnessed the crash and took some of the first photographs of the site . USA Today reporter Mike Walter was driving on Washington Boulevard when he witnessed the crash , which he recounted , I looked out my window and I saw this plane , this jet , an American Airlines jet , coming . And I thought , ' This doesn 't add up , it 's really low . ' And I saw it . I mean it was like a cruise missile with wings . It went right there and slammed right into the Pentagon . Terrance Kean , who lived in a nearby apartment building , heard the noise of loud jet engines , glanced out his window , and saw a " very , very large passenger jet " . He watched " it just plow right into the side of the Pentagon . The nose penetrated into the portico . And then it sort of disappeared , and there was fire and smoke everywhere . " Tim Timmerman , who is a pilot himself , noticed American Airlines markings on the aircraft as he saw it hit the Pentagon . Other drivers on Washington Boulevard , Interstate 395 , and Columbia Pike witnessed the crash , as did people in Pentagon City , Crystal City , and other nearby locations . Former Georgetown University basketball coach John Thompson had originally booked a ticket on Flight 77 . As he would tell the story many times in the following years , including a September 12 , 2011 interview on Jim Rome 's radio show , he had been scheduled to appear on that show on September 12 , 2001 . Thompson was planning to be in Las Vegas for a friend 's birthday on September 13 , and initially insisted on traveling to Rome 's Los Angeles studio on the 11th . However , this did not work for the show , which wanted him to travel on the day of the show . After a Rome staffer personally assured Thompson that he would be able to travel from Los Angeles to Las Vegas immediately after the show , Thompson changed his travel plans . He felt the impact from the crash at his home near the Pentagon . = = Rescue and recovery = = Rescue efforts began immediately after the crash . Almost all the successful rescues of survivors occurred within half an hour of the impact . Initially , rescue efforts were led by the military and civilian employees within the building . Within minutes , the first fire companies arrived and found these volunteers searching near the impact site . The firemen ordered them to leave as they were not properly equipped or trained to deal with the hazards . The Arlington County Fire Department ( ACFD ) assumed command of the immediate rescue operation within 10 minutes of the crash . ACFD Assistant Chief James Schwartz implemented an incident command system ( ICS ) to coordinate response efforts among multiple agencies . It took about an hour for the ICS structure to become fully operational . Firefighters from Fort Myer and Reagan National Airport arrived within minutes . Rescue and firefighting efforts were impeded by rumors of additional incoming planes . Chief Schwartz ordered two evacuations during the day in response to these rumors . As firefighters attempted to extinguish the fires , they watched the building in fear of a structural collapse . One firefighter remarked that they " pretty much knew the building was going to collapse because it started making weird sounds and creaking " . Officials saw a cornice of the building move and ordered an evacuation . Minutes later , at 10 : 10 , the upper floors of the damaged area of the Pentagon collapsed . The collapsed area was about 95 feet ( 29 m ) at its widest point and 50 feet ( 15 m ) at its deepest . The amount of time between impact and collapse allowed everyone on the fourth and fifth levels to evacuate safely before the structure collapsed . After the collapse , the interior fires intensified , spreading through all five floors . After 11 : 00 , firefighters mounted a two @-@ pronged attack against the fires . Officials estimated temperatures of up to 2 @,@ 000 ° F ( 1 @,@ 090 ° C ) . While progress was made against the interior fires by late afternoon , firefighters realized a flammable layer of wood under the Pentagon 's slate roof had caught fire and begun to spread . Typical firefighting tactics were rendered useless by the reinforced structure as firefighters were unable to reach the fire to extinguish it . Firefighters instead made firebreaks in the roof on September 12 to prevent further spreading . At 18 : 00 on the 12th , Arlington County issued a press release stating the fire was " controlled " but not fully " extinguished " . Firefighters continued to put out smaller fires that ignited in the succeeding days . Various pieces of aircraft debris were found within the wreckage at the Pentagon . While on fire and escaping from the Navy Command Center , Lt. Kevin Shaeffer observed a chunk of the aircraft 's nose cone and the nose landing gear in the service road between rings B and C. Early in the morning on Friday , September 14 , Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue Team members Carlton Burkhammer and Brian Moravitz came across an " intact seat from the plane 's cockpit " , while paramedics and firefighters located the two black boxes near the punch out hole in the A @-@ E drive , nearly 300 feet ( 91 m ) into the building . The cockpit voice recorder was too badly damaged and charred to retrieve any information , though the flight data recorder yielded useful information . Investigators also found a part of Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi 's driver 's license in the North Parking Lot rubble pile . Personal effects belonging to victims were found and taken to Fort Myer . = = = Remains = = = Army engineers determined by 5 : 30 p.m. on the first day that no one remained alive in the damaged section of the building . In the days after the crash , news reports emerged that up to 800 people had died . Army troops from Fort Belvoir were the first teams to survey the interior of the crash site and noted the presence of human remains . Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) Urban Search and Rescue teams , including Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue assisted the search for remains , working through the National Interagency Incident Management System ( NIIMS ) . Kevin Rimrodt , a Navy photographer surveying the Navy Command Center after the attacks , remarked that " there were so many bodies , I 'd almost step on them . So I 'd have to really take care to look backwards as I 'm backing up in the dark , looking with a flashlight , making sure I 'm not stepping on somebody " . Debris from the Pentagon was taken to the Pentagon 's north parking lot for more detailed search for remains and evidence . Remains that were recovered from the Pentagon were photographed , and turned over to the Armed Forces Medical Examiner office , located at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware . The medical examiner 's office was able to identify remains belonging to 179 of the victims . Investigators eventually identified 184 of the 189 people who died in the attack . The remains of the five hijackers were identified through a process of elimination , and were turned over as evidence to the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) . On September 21 , the ACFD relinquished control of the crime scene to the FBI . The Washington Field Office , National Capital Response Squad ( NCRS ) , and the Joint Terrorism Task Force ( JTTF ) led the crime scene investigation at the Pentagon . By October 2 , 2001 , the search for evidence and remains was complete and the site was turned over to Pentagon officials . In 2002 , the remains of 25 victims were buried collectively at Arlington National Cemetery , with a five @-@ sided granite marker inscribed with the names of all the victims in the Pentagon . The ceremony also honored the five victims whose remains were never found . = = = Flight recorders = = = At around 3 : 40 a.m. on September 14 , a paramedic and a firefighter who were searching through the debris of the impact site found two dark boxes , about 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 46 cm ) by 2 feet ( 61 cm ) long . They called for an FBI agent , who in turn called for someone from the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) . The NTSB employee confirmed that these were the flight recorders ( " black boxes " ) from American Airlines Flight 77 . Dick Bridges , deputy manager for Arlington County , Virginia , said the cockpit voice recorder was damaged on the outside and the flight data recorder was charred . Bridges said the recorders were found " right where the plane came into the building . " The cockpit voice recorder was transported to the NTSB lab in Washington , D.C. , to see what data was salvageable . In its report , the NTSB identified the unit as an L @-@ 3 Communications , Fairchild Aviation Recorders model A @-@ 100A cockpit voice recorder — a device which records on magnetic tape . No usable segments of tape were found inside the recorder ; according to the NTSB 's report , " [ t ] he majority of the recording tape was fused into a solid block of charred plastic " . On the other hand , all the data from the flight data recorder , which used a solid @-@ state drive , was recovered . = = = Continuity of operations = = = At the moment of impact , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was in his office on the other side of the Pentagon , away from the crash site . He ran to the site and assisted the injured . Rumsfeld returned to his office , and went to a conference room in the Executive Support Center where he joined a secure videoteleconference with Vice President Dick Cheney and other officials . On the day of the attacks , DoD officials considered moving their command operations to Site R , a backup facility in Pennsylvania . Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld insisted he remain at the Pentagon , and sent Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz to Site R. The National Military Command Center ( NMCC ) continued to operate at the Pentagon , even as smoke entered the facility . Engineers and building managers manipulated the ventilation and other building systems that still functioned to draw smoke out of the NMCC and bring in fresh air . During a press conference held inside the Pentagon at 18 : 42 , Rumsfeld announced , " The Pentagon 's functioning . It will be in business tomorrow . " Pentagon employees returned the next day to offices in mostly unaffected areas of the building . By the end of September , more workers returned to the lightly damaged areas of the Pentagon . = = Aftermath = = Early estimates on rebuilding the damaged section of the Pentagon were that it would take three years to complete . However , the project moved forward at an accelerated pace and was completed by the one @-@ year anniversary of the attack . The rebuilt section of the Pentagon includes a small indoor memorial and chapel at the point of impact . An outdoor memorial , commissioned by the Pentagon and designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman , was completed on schedule for its dedication on September 11 , 2008 . Since September 11 , American Airlines continues to fly from Dulles International Airport to Los Angeles International Airport . The flight number 77 has been renumbered to 1736 , now using an Airbus 319 , departing at 8 : 30 in the morning . = = = Security camera video = = = On May 16 , 2006 , the Department of Defense released filmed footage that was recorded by a security camera of American Airlines Flight 77 crashing into the Pentagon , with a plane visible in one frame , as a " thin white blur " and an explosion following . The images were made public in response to a December 2004 Freedom of Information Act request by Judicial Watch . Some still images from the video had previously been released and publicly circulated , but this was the first official release of the edited video of the crash . A nearby Citgo service station also had security cameras , but a video released on September 15 , 2006 did not show the crash because the camera was pointed away from the crash site . The Doubletree Hotel , located nearby in Crystal City , Virginia , also had a security camera video . On December 4 , 2006 , the FBI released the video in response to a FOIA lawsuit filed by Scott Bingham . The footage is " grainy and the focus is soft , but a rapidly growing tower of smoke is visible in the distance on the upper edge of the frame as the plane crashes into the building " . = = = Memorials = = = On September 12 , 2002 , Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and General Richard Myers , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , dedicated the Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery . The memorial specifically honors the five individuals for whom no identifiable remains were found . This included Dana Falkenberg , age three , who was aboard American Airlines Flight 77 with her parents and older sister . A portion of the remains of 25 other victims are also buried at the site . The memorial is a pentagonal granite marker 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) high . On five sides of the memorial along the top are inscribed the words " Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon September 11 , 2001 " . Aluminum plaques , painted black , are inscribed with the names of the 184 victims of the terrorist attack . The site is located in Section 64 , on a slight rise , which gives it a view of the Pentagon . At the National September 11 Memorial , the names of the Pentagon victims are inscribed on the South Pool , on Panels S @-@ 1 and S @-@ 72 – S @-@ 76 . The Pentagon Memorial , located just southwest of The Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , is a permanent outdoor memorial to the 184 people who died as victims in the building and on American Airlines Flight 77 during the September 11 attacks . Designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman of the architectural firm of Kaseman Beckman Advanced Strategies with engineers Buro Happold , the memorial opened on September 11 , 2008 , seven years after the attack . = = Nationalities of people on the plane = = Note : This list does not include the nationalities of the five hijackers .
= The Shortest Way with the Dissenters = The Shortest @-@ Way with the Dissenters ; Or , Proposals for the Establishment of the Church is a pamphlet by Daniel Defoe , first published in 1702 . Defoe was prompted to write the pamphlet by the increased hostility towards Dissenters in the wake of the accession of Queen Anne to the throne . It is written in the same style as the Tory publications that attacked Dissenters , and was assumed by some people to be a genuine vindication of their view . The pamphlet raised embarrassing questions about the handling of the issue by the Tory ministry , and led to Defoe 's arrest for seditious libel . His imprisonment , during which he fell into bankruptcy , was to have a lasting influence on his subsequent writings . In the years after his release , Defoe published several pamphlets that attempted to explain its purpose and his own views . = = Background = = In 1702 , King William III died , and Queen Anne succeeded to the thrones of England , Scotland and Ireland . She was markedly less tolerant than William of the device known as " occasional conformity " , whereby Dissenters could qualify as members of the Church of England — and thereby hold public office — by attending a church service once a year . Defoe was supportive of religious freedom , though he was critical of the device and considered it hypocrisy . He had written against it in a pamphlet entitled An enquiry into occasional conformity : Shewing that the dissenters are no way concern 'd in it ( 1698 ) In the same year , hostility towards Dissenters increased . A Bill against occasional conformity was passed through the House of Commons and debated in the Lords . Figures such as Henry Sacheverell , a High church clergyman , warned against Dissenters assuming positions of political power . His lead was followed by the Tory press , who published a number of sermons and pamphlets making similar arguments . In December , Defoe published his own pamphlet , The Shortest Way , assuming the same stylistic conventions as the Sacheverell and the Tory publications . = = Synopsis = = The Shortest Way with the Dissenters ; or , Proposals for the Establishment of the Church is a pamphlet consisting of twenty @-@ nine pages . It opens with the fable of the Cock and the Horses . The Cock , lacking any perch in the stable , is forced to rest on the ground and in fear of the Horses moving around and stepping on him , advises : “ Pray , Gentlefolks ! let us stand still ! for fear we should tread upon one another ! ” The speaker then applies this to the contemporary situation , with the Cock representing the Dissenters . The next section accuses the Dissenters of involvement with various notorious and hideous events of the past century , including the English Civil War and Monmouth 's Rebellion . The accusations become increasingly sinister , and at points the speaker directly addresses the Dissenters ( " You have butchered one King ! deposed another King ! and made a Mock King of a third ! " ) . A brief history is given of how past monarchs — from James I to William III — have treated the Dissenters ; in the opinion of the speaker , it is too leniently . The major section comprises a series of arguments for why the Dissenters should be treated favourably ( " They are very numerous " , " That this is a time of war " ) . The speaker denounces each in turn and offers several counter @-@ arguments , each gradually escalating in their severity . A vision is given of what will happen to the Church of England if it is not defended against the Dissenters . The pamphlet ends with a rallying call to action against the Dissenters in defence of the church ( " Now let us Crutcifie the Thieves . " ) = = Genre and style = = The Shortest Way has traditionally been classified as a satire , although this has been disputed by scholars . Miriam Laurenbaum has suggested that it is instead a form of hoax or " banter " , and that Defoe does not use many of the features necessary for it to be considered a true satire . Paul Alkon describes the critical tradition surrounding the work as " asking mainly whether it is inadequate irony , deficient satire , or misused impersonation . " Ashley Marshall suggests that " The Shortest @-@ Way is best understood not as insufficiently ironic but as a counterfeit , an intentional fake not meant to be decoded . " The difficulty for Defoe 's contemporaries in assessing whether the work was ironic was the proximity of the speaker 's voice to that of the High Anglicans whose views are being ridiculed . The pamphlet mixes both real observation and fabrication , and assumes the rhetorical style of his target . Defoe uses and imitates the language and metaphor of fanatical churchman , particularly Sacheverell 's sermons ; the speaker 's comparison of the Dissenters to vipers is one that Sacheverell often made . Although The Shortest Way does not parody the genre of the Anglican sermon , it does deploy some of the same structures ; the initial Aesopic fable of the Cock and the Horses is expanded upon in a way that parallels the use of a biblical quotation to initiate a sermon . = = Reception and legacy = = Upon its publication , The Shortest Way provoked immediate and passionate reactions from both sides of the debate . Some made use of it as a genuine vindication of the anti @-@ Dissenter opinion , although speculation later occurred over whether it was ironic . The pamphlet generated a great deal of publicity over the handling of the issue by the Tory ministry . This resulted in the issuing of a warrant by the High Tory Secretary of State for the Southern Department , the Earl of Nottingham , for the arrest of Defoe on the charge of seditious libel , the order being given to " … make Strict and diligent Search for Daniel Fooe and him having found you are to apprehend and seize together with his Papers for high Crime and misdemeanours and to bring him before me … " Defoe was finally imprisoned on 21 May 1703 , after avoiding his summons and evading capture . He was fined , made to stand in the pillory on three occasions and remained in prison till November ; in the meantime , his business affairs sank into ruin . The whole affair left a lasting impression on him , which can be felt in his writings . In the years following his arrest and release , Defoe made several attempts to explain The Shortest Way and his own viewpoint . Amongst the series of explanatory pamphlets doing this are An Explanation of a Late Pamphlet , Entituled , The Shortest Way … ( 1703 ) and A Dialogue Between a Dissenter and the Observator ( 1703 ) . The suspected involvement of the Tory Speaker of the House , Robert Harley , in obtaining the release of Defoe is credited as the beginning of their professional relationship , in which Defoe worked as a propagandist for Harley , after he succeeded Nottingham as Secretary of State in 1704 . Modern scholarly reception has considered The Shortest Way in negative terms , as a failed satire , or as using irony so slight as to be undetectable . Such a conclusion cites the contemporary reaction to the work , how it failed to deliver its objectives and also caused its author such problems . If critics have offered praise , it is the extent to which Defoe managed to impersonate the style of his subjects , so as to be indistinguishable from them . The Shortest Way is frequently contrasted with another work of irony in the eighteenth century , which is considered to have succeeded in its use of the device , Jonathan Swift 's A Modest Proposal ( 1729 ) .
= England national football team manager = The role of an England national football team manager was first established in May 1947 with the appointment of Walter Winterbottom . Before this , the England team was selected by the " International Selection Committee " , a process in which the Football Association ( FA ) would select coaches and trainers from the league to prepare the side for single games , but where all decisions ultimately remained under the control of the committee . A 1 – 0 defeat by Switzerland prompted FA secretary Stanley Rous to raise Winterbottom from " National Director of coaching " to " Manager " . Eighteen men have occupied the post since its inception ; four of those were in short @-@ term caretaker manager roles : Joe Mercer ( seven games in charge ) , Howard Wilkinson ( two games , a year apart from one another ) , Peter Taylor ( one game ) and Stuart Pearce ( one game ) . In comparison , Winterbottom held the position for the longest to date ; a tenure of 16 years , comprising four World Cups and a total of 139 matches . Alf Ramsey is the only manager to have won a major tournament , winning the 1966 World Cup with his " Wingless Wonders " . No other manager has progressed beyond the semi @-@ finals of a major competition before or since , with only two managers achieving a semi @-@ final appearance , Bobby Robson at the 1990 World Cup , and Terry Venables in the 1996 European Championship . Swedish coach Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson became the first foreign manager of the team in January 2001 amid much acrimony ; he helped the team to three successive quarter @-@ finals in major championships . Italian manager Fabio Capello replaced Steve McClaren in December 2007 , after England failed to qualify for the 2008 European Championship . Capello 's side endured a lacklustre performance during the 2010 World Cup , but the FA confirmed that he would remain in the role . However , Capello resigned in February 2012 , following a disagreement with the FA over their removal of John Terry 's captaincy . He was replaced , on a caretaker basis , by Stuart Pearce , before Roy Hodgson was named as Capello 's permanent replacement in May 2012 . Hodgson resigned on the 27 June 2016 after England were knocked out of UEFA Euro 2016 by Iceland in the round of 16 . Sam Allardyce was announced as his successor a month later . The England manager 's job is subject to intense press scrutiny , often including revelations about the incumbent 's private life . Due to the high level of expectation of both the public and media the role has been described as " the impossible job " or compared in importance in national culture to that of the British Prime Minister . = = Position = = = = = Role = = = The England manager 's role means he has sole responsibility for all on @-@ the @-@ field elements of the England team . Among other activities , this includes selecting the national team squad , the starting team , captain , tactics , substitutes and penalty @-@ takers . Before 1946 , the " Select Committee " ( as appointed by the FA ) would manage all issues barring the actual match day team selection , formation and tactics which was left to the head coach for the event . However interference was common , and not only from the FA . After the Second World War , with the relaunch of competitive international calendar , the manager 's role expanded to take in all elements : from the selection of hotel and training camp venues , through to food and travel arrangements . The manager is given a free hand in selecting his coaching ( " back room " ) staff . For example , in 2008 Fabio Capello appointed four Italians ( Franco Baldini as general manager , Italo Galbiati as assistant coach , Franco Tancredi as goalkeeping coach and Massimo Neri as fitness coach ) ; he then appointed Englishman Stuart Pearce , the England Under 21s coach , as an England coach , with Capello stating " From the start I made it clear that I wanted an English coach as part of my coaching team . " The England manager may also involve himself in wider issues beyond the on @-@ the @-@ field team issues . The England manager is expected to advise the FA on how to approach the complex bidding system that surrounds the arrangement of fixtures for a qualifying campaign . On a more tactical level , a host of other details can be influenced ; Capello is even believed to have instructed the Wembley ball boys to return balls at speed when they go out of play . = = = Appointment = = = The process of appointing a new England manager is undertaken by an FA committee , comprising board members and other high @-@ ranking FA officials . For example , the members of the selection panel which appointed Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson in 2001 were : chief executive Adam Crozier , chairman Geoff Thompson , vice @-@ chairman Dave Richards , club chairmen and FA board members David Dein and Peter Ridsdale , and technical director Howard Wilkinson . All eighteen England managers had played the game professionally . Of the sixteen Englishmen to hold the post of manager , six were never capped for the senior England team as a player ( Winterbottom , Greenwood , Wilkinson , Graham Taylor , McClaren , Allardyce ) . Of the eight that did , four earned caps numbering in double @-@ figures : Robson ( 20 ) , Ramsey ( 32 ) , Hoddle ( 53 ) , and Keegan ( 63 ) . Two also served as England captains , Ramsey ( 3 ) and Keegan ( 31 ) . Of the two foreign managers , only Capello played for a national team , earning 32 caps for Italy . = = = National significance = = = The England manager 's job has been compared in importance to that of the Prime Minister . Passion for football as England 's national sport is coupled with patriotism and Wembley Stadium as the " home " of football . The dismissal or appointment of an England manager is front page news and the subject of intense interest . Large sums are wagered on England winning , and during tournaments the country is festooned in St George 's flags ; during the 2006 World Cup , 27 % of English adults bought a flag in one month alone . Shops and offices will be deserted as vast numbers of people watch the game . The England manager 's job is made more complex by his dependence on the co @-@ operation of clubs and their managers in releasing players for friendlies , and " club versus country " conflict is said to have happened when permission is refused , given reluctantly , or negotiated . There are also repeated comments that the length of the English season ( the top flight plays 38 league matches ) is unhelpful for preparing tired players for major tournaments , but the self @-@ interest of the Premier League makes a reduction in the number of games unlikely , particularly in light of the 2008 proposal for Game 39 , a match played between Premier League clubs outside the country . This combination of factors , coupled with England 's mediocre record in major championships has led to the England manager 's job being described as the " impossible job " . = = History = = = = = Full @-@ time era begins = = = Before 1946 , the England national football team had been under the leadership of a Football Association official and a trainer , usually from a London club . Appointed in 1946 , initially as chief coach , Walter Winterbottom had been a member of the FA " International Selection Committee " . The England squad was selected by an FA committee during his tenure , with Winterbottom 's role restricted to selecting the starting team together with the coaching and tactics . In his first game as manager , he led England to a 7 – 2 victory over Ireland at Windsor Park , Belfast in the 1946 – 47 British Home Championship . Success in the Home Championship in 1950 resulted in England 's qualification to the 1950 World Cup in Brazil . During the tournament , England suffered a shock defeat against the United States , and went out of the tournament with another 1 – 0 defeat , this time to Spain . England experienced another surprise upset under Winterbottom 's guidance in 1953 when Hungary defeated England 6 – 3 at Wembley Stadium . Winterbottom said afterwards , " ... The press tended to think we would win easily , but I tried to point out that the Hungarians were actually a great side . " He guided England to first place in the 1954 British Home Championship , which qualified the team for the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland , but saw his side knocked out in the quarter @-@ finals , going down 4 – 2 against Uruguay . Four wins from four matches enabled England 's qualification for the 1958 World Cup only for Winterbottom 's side to fail in the group play @-@ off stage , losing 1 – 0 to USSR . England lost to Brazil in the quarter @-@ final of the 1962 World Cup in Chile and , under attack from the British press , Winterbottom resigned five months later . He remains the longest serving manager of England . = = = World Cup success = = = Alf Ramsey took control of the team in 1962 , but unlike Winterbottom , Ramsey had been a club manager , winning the League championship with Ipswich Town . Upon his appointment , he declared England would win the 1966 World Cup . His first match in charge resulted in a 5 – 2 loss at Parc des Princes against France . England automatically qualified for the 1966 World Cup as hosts and , after a goalless draw in the first match against Uruguay , four consecutive victories saw England through to the final against West Germany . A 4 – 2 victory , after extra time , won England the World Cup for the only time . As a result of his and England 's achievements , Ramsey was awarded a knighthood in 1967 . The following year England finished third in the 1968 European Championship in Rome , but Ramsey reflected " We are world champions . Third place is not our real position . " Automatic qualification for the 1970 World Cup was secured as world champions so Ramsey led England on a pre @-@ tournament tour of South America . The effects of altitude on the team led Ramsey to appoint the first full @-@ time team doctor , Neil Phillips , who helped prepare the squad for the forthcoming tournament in Mexico . England were defeated in the quarter @-@ final by West Germany ; with a 2 – 0 lead with 25 minutes of the match remaining , Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton and goalscorer Martin Peters , but West Germany went on to win 3 – 2 after extra time . Ramsey was heavily criticised in the British press for the substitutions . Losing out to West Germany again , this time in a two @-@ legged qualifying quarter final in the 1972 European Championship , Ramsey prepared England for qualification for the 1974 World Cup . Needing a win against Poland , Ramsey 's tactical use of substitutions was again called into question as the match ended in a 1 – 1 draw . England had failed to qualify for the World Cup , and Ramsey was sacked the following May . = = = Turbulent times = = = Joe Mercer took control of the team on a caretaker basis for seven matches , before the FA appointed Don Revie on a five @-@ year contract . It was a year before Revie 's England suffered a defeat but despite this , he changed his starting line @-@ up for every game . His relationship with the FA had broken down and his team @-@ building exercises , including carpet bowls and indoor golf , led to disconsolation in the squad . A 2 – 0 defeat to the Netherlands at Wembley turned the press against him ; some commentators compared the loss to the 6 – 3 defeat by Hungary in 1953 . Convinced he was to be replaced by Bobby Robson , he announced he was to become manager of the United Arab Emirates team . Selling his story to the Daily Mail , he subsequently resigned on 11 July 1977 . Revie was charged with bringing the game into disrepute and was banned by the FA in a " kangaroo court " for ten years . On appeal to the High Court , the ban was overturned but the judge ordered Revie to pay two @-@ thirds of the costs . Brian Clough applied for the position in 1977 , but the FA rejected him and Ron Greenwood was appointed , initially as a temporary replacement for Revie , but later in 1977 on a permanent basis . Bobby Moore described him as " the encyclopaedia of football " , and he guided England to Euro 1980 without a defeat during qualification . The team exited the tournament at the group qualifying stage and Greenwood turned his attention to qualification for the 1982 World Cup in Spain . Defeats in Switzerland and Romania led Greenwood to consider resignation , but a victory over Hungary convinced him to stay . A 2 – 1 defeat in Oslo , which led to commentator Bjørge Lillelien 's famous outburst concluding with " Your boys took a hell of a beating ! " , meant England required at least a point in their final qualifying game against Hungary . A Paul Mariner goal secured victory and qualification for the team . Wins over France , Czechoslovakia and Kuwait allowed England into the second round group but two 0 – 0 draws ended in England going out of the tournament , without having lost a game . Greenwood retired immediately after the World Cup and on 7 July 1982 , two days after England were knocked out of the 1982 World Cup , Bobby Robson was appointed England manager , selecting former West Bromwich Albion team @-@ mate Don Howe as his chief coach . = = = Robson and " The Hand of God " = = = Robson 's tenure included 28 qualifying matches , of which only one , against Denmark in 1983 , resulted in a defeat . This contributed to England 's failure to qualify for the 1984 European Championships , and Robson offered his resignation . It was rejected by the FA chairman , Bert Millichip , and Robson went on to lead the England team to qualify for the 1986 World Cup in Mexico . England were defeated in the quarter @-@ final by Argentina with a brace of goals from Diego Maradona ; the infamous " Hand of God " goal , and the " Goal of the Century " he scored five minutes later . Robson 's England dropped only one point in qualifying for Euro 1988 , which included an 8 – 0 win over Turkey . However , this was followed by failure at the tournament itself , held in West Germany , where England were knocked out in the group stage . They finished bottom of their qualifying group , succumbing to defeats against Ireland , the Netherlands and the USSR . Robson was vilified by the British press , and after a draw in a friendly with Saudi Arabia , one newspaper demanded : " In the name of Allah , go " . Robson led England without conceding a goal through the six @-@ match qualification for the 1990 FIFA World Cup . As in the 1986 World Cup , Robson was denied the service of his captain , Bryan Robson , who suffered an achilles tendon injury which prevented him playing in the latter stages of the tournament . England topped their qualifying group , accumulating four points from their three games . However their progress was not without controversy . England changed formation from their traditional 4 – 4 – 2 to incorporate a sweeper , with some sources suggesting this was due to player revolt after the 1 – 1 draw in the first match with the Republic of Ireland . Robson denies this claim in his autobiography . This was followed by victories over Belgium and Cameroon in the knock @-@ out stages , to set up a semi @-@ final with West Germany . England lost the match on a penalty shoot @-@ out , after the score had been level at 1 – 1 following extra time . Robson 's last public appearance before his death from cancer was at the Sir Bobby Robson Trophy match in July 2009 , played between veterans from that 1990 semi @-@ final as a tribute to his life and in aid of his cancer charity . = = = Controversial times = = = Robson had announced before the tournament that he would step down from the post after the finals and Graham Taylor was appointed , having been approached in April 1990 by the FA . Failure to proceed past the group stage of Euro 1992 with a 2 – 1 defeat against Sweden led to newspaper headlines such as " Swedes 2 Turnips 1 " and Taylor 's nickname of " Turnip Head " . Following defeat to the Netherlands in the penultimate qualifying match for the 1994 World Cup , for only the third time in its history , England had failed to qualify for the World Cup . The qualifying campaign was recorded in an television documentary , and Taylor 's remark " Do I not like that " soon after entered popular culture . Failure in the qualification resulted in Taylor resigning , and Terry Venables took over the helm in 1994 . As England were hosts for Euro 96 , he did not manage the team in a competitive match for over two years . In January 1996 , he announced that he would resign after the tournament as a result of several court cases , but led England to the semi @-@ finals , where they were defeated by Germany on penalties . He was replaced by Glenn Hoddle , whose unorthodox off @-@ the @-@ field approach in bringing in faith healer Eileen Drewery to help the team drew significant criticism . Hoddle suggested she was " more of an agony aunt " but during the 1998 World Cup , the press suggested Drewery had influenced Hoddle in squad selection . England were knocked out of the tournament in the second round , once again on penalties , this time against Argentina . Hoddle 's diary portraying his version of events at the World Cup was subsequently published , drawing further criticism . An interview with Matt Dickinson , a reporter from The Times , suggested that Hoddle had a " controversial belief that the disabled , and others , are being punished for sins in a former life . " Hoddle 's comments were criticised by several notable politicians , including Sports Minister Tony Banks and Prime Minister Tony Blair . Hoddle stated that he was not prepared to resign and claimed his words were misinterpreted and pointed out his contributions and commitment to organisations helping the disabled . The Football Association terminated Hoddle 's contract soon afterwards , which was welcomed by representatives of disabled groups . Howard Wilkinson was caretaker manager for two games , before the appointment of Kevin Keegan in February 1999 . Initially combining the job with a role at Fulham , Keegan was made full @-@ time coach in May . He led England to qualification for the 2000 European Championship following success in a two @-@ legged play @-@ off against Scotland . Two 3 – 2 losses resulted in England leaving the tournament at the group stage . A loss to Germany in the last international match at the old Wembley Stadium in the first 2002 World Cup qualifying match led to Keegan 's resignation . Keegan resigned in the Wembley toilets , an hour after the team was booed off by the England fans ; he told the FA officials that tactically he felt " a little short at this level " . Wilkinson again returned as caretaker for one more match , followed by Peter Taylor who presided over a friendly loss to Italy . = = = Foreign management = = = The FA then took the unprecedented , and widely criticised step of appointing the first non @-@ Englishman as coach , in the form of Swede Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson . Eriksson had a good record in European domestic football , with success in Portugal and Italy , and had led clubs to win the UEFA Cup on two occasions . He led England to qualify for the 2002 World Cup with David Beckham scoring the vital equaliser against Greece , deep into injury time . England were knocked out by Brazil in the quarter @-@ finals and Eriksson came under fire for his " ice @-@ cool " appearance on the touchline failing to inspire his team , senior player Gareth Southgate contemptuously remarking after the tournament that " we needed Winston Churchill but we got Iain Duncan Smith " . Eriksson led England to qualification for the 2004 European Championship but once more the team fell at the quarter @-@ final stage , again losing on penalties , this time to Portugal . Losing 1 – 0 to Northern Ireland in Belfast during the qualification for the 2006 World Cup led to fans chanting " Sack the Swede " , frustrated again at the lack of obvious emotion in Eriksson while his coach , Steve McClaren was much more animated . In January 2006 , the FA announced that Eriksson would stand down after the World Cup . With the team losing in the quarter @-@ final again to Portugal and again on penalties , Eriksson duly left the post in July . The search for Eriksson 's replacement was controversial . It became clear that the FA wanted to appoint Luiz Felipe Scolari , but the approach was botched , and Scolari turned down the offer . Ultimately , Eriksson was replaced by the man who had coached the side under him , Steve McClaren . Qualification for the 2008 European Championship proved too much , England losing the final qualifier against Croatia 3 – 2 in November 2007 , when a draw would have been enough to take England to the finals . The British press turned on McClaren , former Scottish international Alan Hansen stating that " ... what McClaren should be held accountable for is that with a squad of this quality he failed to qualify from what seemed a reasonably straightforward group ... " . McClaren was sacked the day following the defeat to Croatia , and was replaced in December 2007 by Italian Fabio Capello . Capello led England to qualification for the 2010 World Cup finals , winning nine of the team 's ten qualifying matches . However , the team 's performance in the tournament proper was less impressive . Two lacklustre draws in the group stage against the United States and Algeria were followed by an ignominious 4 – 1 defeat by traditional rivals Germany in the Round of 16 . The team 's performance was at least partly attributed to selection and tactical errors by Capello and led to calls for his dismissal . However , on 2 July , the FA confirmed that he would remain in the role until 2012 , with Capello himself confirming his intention to step down and retire after Euro 2012 . Conflicting reports came out of the FA as to whether the next manager would be English . On 15 August 2010 , the FA 's Adrian Bevington stated to the BBC that " we should have an English manager after ( Euro 2012 ) " , but on 22 September , the FA 's Director of Football Development , Trevor Brooking , stated that " We would like to go English ( but ) we 've got to see what English people are available " . Two weeks later , Capello 's England qualified for Euro 2012 with a 2 – 2 draw away against Montenegro . In February 2012 , Capello resigned following the FA 's decision to remove the captaincy of the national side from John Terry , with Englishman Stuart Pearce taking over the role on a caretaker basis . = = = FA appoints an Englishman = = = Following a 3 – 2 defeat at Wembley by the Netherlands in March , Pearce was replaced on 1 May 2012 by then @-@ West Bromwich Albion manager Roy Hodgson on a four @-@ year contract . The build @-@ up to UEFA Euro 2012 saw Hodgson lead England to two 1 – 0 victories over Norway in Oslo and Belgium at Wembley . Despite being based in Kraków in Poland , England 's first fixture in Euro 2012 was in Donetsk against France , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Subsequent victories over Sweden and tournament co @-@ hosts Ukraine resulted in a quarter @-@ final match against Italy . The game ended goalless after extra time , sending the game to a penalty shootout which Italy won 4 – 2 . Hodgson claimed that England 's exit from major tournaments had become a " national obsession " . With a 2 – 0 victory over Poland in October 2013 , Hodgson led England to automatic qualification for the 2014 World Cup . However , in the 2014 FIFA World Cup , England lost two consecutive group matches , against Italy and Uruguay , by 2 – 1 on each occasion . This was the first time England had lost two group matches since the 1950 World Cup ( when they lost against the United States and Spain ) and the first time England had been eliminated at the group stage since the 1958 World Cup . This was also the first time that England had not won a match at the tournament since 1958 , and England 's points total of one from three matches was its worst ever in the World Cup . England qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 in September 2015 , following a 6 – 0 win over San Marino . On 5 September 2015 , England beat San Marino 6 – 0 at San Marino Stadium , Serravalle , to qualify for the France Euro 2016 . On 27 June 2016 , after England were knocked out by Iceland in the round of 16 , Hodgson resigned as manager . On 22 July , Sam Allardyce was appointed England manager on a two @-@ year contract . = = Media reaction = = The reaction of the British media to the England national team manager reflects the changing nature of the British media generally . In recent times , managers have been attacked personally , for their personal beliefs , or private lives . = = = Personal attacks = = = The press had long campaigned for changes in management style and / or replacement of the manager himself , but a watershed was reached under the tenure of Graham Taylor , whose unsuccessful reign led to the manager being pilloried in the tabloids . Most notably , The Sun newspaper reacted to a damaging defeat by Sweden in the Euro 92 tournament , by the accompaniment of the headline " Swedes 2 Turnips 1 " with a photographic montage of a turnip superimposed on Taylor 's head . Taylor was thereafter often referred to in the media as " Graham Turnip " or " Turnip Taylor " . Subsequent footballing ignominies were then followed by other depictions of Taylor as a vegetable ; England 's first game after Euro 92 ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Spain , and The Sun pictured Taylor as a " Spanish onion " . When he resigned , following the loss of the 1994 FIFA World Cup spot to Norway , they reverted to the turnip image , accompanying the front page headline , " That 's yer allotment " . Following Roy Hodgson 's appointment , The Sun mocked his rhotacism speech impediment with a " Bwing on the Euwos ! " front page headline . The FA called the headline " unacceptable " and more than 100 people complained to the Press Complaints Commission . = = = Issues @-@ based = = = Glenn Hoddle attracted the media spotlight for two key issues unrelated to on @-@ the @-@ pitch affairs . In the first , his reliance upon purported faith healer Eileen Drewery was questioned . Drewery became part of the official England staff , and players were pressured to see her , even though many of them were sceptical . However , far more opprobrium was caused by Hoddle 's comments about disabled people : Public opinion , based upon the immediate media furore resulted in ( according to one BBC poll ) 90 % of respondents believing Hoddle should not continue as English coach . However , the BBC survey showed that while many considered his comments insensitive to the disabled , others defended his right to express his religious beliefs by claiming that to sack him would constitute religious discrimination . = = = Private life = = = Eriksson 's private life came under scrutiny , with an number of well @-@ publicised accusations of trysts with women including Ulrika Jonsson , and FA secretary Faria Alam , despite his on @-@ going relationship with Nancy Dell 'Olio . Though Eriksson maintained in press conferences that his personal life was a private matter , his relationships with Jonsson in 2002 and Alam in 2004 were subject to tabloid headlines for several weeks . = = = Campaigns = = = The media , both broadsheet and tabloid , have sometimes campaigned for a manager to be dismissed , appointed or retained . Campaigns for managers to be dismissed have been front page news , with eye @-@ catching headlines including " The final ron @-@ devouz " , " In the Name of Allah Go " , " Norse Manure " , " Blair Gives Hoddle The Red Card " for ( respectively ) Ron Greenwood , Bobby Robson , Graham Taylor and Glenn Hoddle . Eriksson survived several scandals whilst in office , but his tenure was eventually ended when he was one of a series of celebrities targeted by a tabloid ' sting ' , orchestrated by The Fake Sheikh . Eriksson 's indiscretions revealed by the newspaper " ... proved the final straw for the FA " , although Eriksson was permitted to stay on in the role until the end of the 2006 World Cup . These campaigns have also sometimes backfired . Former FA chief executive , Graham Kelly recalled a campaign , orchestrated by The Sun against Bobby Robson , that began in 1984 ( six years before his resignation ) : Sections of the media have often campaigned for a particular person to be appointed England manager . At various times , but particularly during the tenure of Bobby Robson , the media campaigned for the appointment of Brian Clough . Robson once told FA chairman Bert Millichip " I 'm having a rough time and everybody wants Brian – give the job to him . If he 's successful , everybody 's happy . If he fails , that 's the end of the clamour for Brian Clough to be England manager . " Robson added , " He would have ruffled a few feathers and disturbed the corridors of power but I think he would have been a good England manager . He had good judgement , knew how to design a team and was a great motivator . " Terry Venables was also the subject of a media campaign for dismissal during his time as manager but was then supported by the press to return to the role in 2000 . Steve McClaren received media criticism , and , as failure to qualify for Euro 2008 looked increasingly likely , the headlines became more visceral . In January 2008 , football magazine When Saturday Comes described the newspaper coverage of his final month as " relentless and remorseless " . Both tabloids and broadsheets published critical pieces , with The Times headlining an editorial " Fail and McClaren has to go " . The media have also parodied this genre of campaigns for recruitment , dismissal or retention of managers . In October 2000 , The Sun launched a campaign promoting a donkey as the new England manager . = = Statistical summary = = The following table provides a summary of the complete record of each England manager including their progress in both the World Cup and the European Championship . Statistics correct as of 22 July 2016 Key : P – games played , W – games won , D – games drawn ; L – games lost , % – win percentage = = Statistical summary for British Home championships = = The following table provides a summary of results for each England manager in the British Home Championship , held annually until the 1983 – 84 season . Key : P – Number of complete tournaments played , W – Number of tournaments won , S – Number of tournaments shared , % – outright win percentage
= Let Go ( Avril Lavigne album ) = Let Go is the debut studio album by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Avril Lavigne , released on 4 June 2002 . For a year after signing a record deal with Arista , Lavigne struggled due to conflicts in musical direction . She relocated to Los Angeles , California , and recorded there , her earlier materials for the album ; the kind of sound to which the label was not amenable . She was paired to the production team The Matrix , who understood her vision for the album . The album was credited as the biggest pop debut of 2002 , and was certified 6 × Platinum in the United States . It was released to generally positive reviews , although Lavigne 's songwriting received some criticism . It also did extremely well in Canada , receiving a diamond certification from the Canadian Recording Industry Association , as well as reaching multi @-@ platinum in many countries around the world , including the UK in which she became the youngest female solo artist to have a number @-@ one album in the region . As of December 2013 , Let Go had sold over 20 million copies worldwide , becoming Lavigne 's highest @-@ selling album to date . According to Billboard magazine , the album was the number 21 top @-@ selling album of the decade . A Rolling Stone readers poll named Let Go as the fourth best album of the 2000s . On 18 March 2013 , Let Go was re @-@ released as a double disc @-@ set paired with her second studio album , Under My Skin , which is released under RCA Records . = = Background = = Lavigne relocated to Los Angeles , where she collaborated with songwriter @-@ producer Clif Magness , who gave her ample creative control in the writing process . Lavigne and Magness wrote " Losing Grip " and " Unwanted " , songs that she deemed reflective of her vision for the entire album . However , Arista was not thrilled with the heavy @-@ guitar laden songs that Lavigne was writing , prompting the label to look for other producers to match their demands . Now two years since she signed the deal , Lavigne , who was then unknown , came to the attention of the three @-@ piece production team The Matrix . Arista could not find the right direction for Lavigne , so the team 's manager , Sandy Roberton , suggested that they work together : " Why don 't you put her together with The Matrix for a couple of days ? " According to member Lauren Christy , they had been listening to Lavigne 's early songs and felt they contained " a Faith Hill kind of vibe " . As soon as they saw Lavigne coming into their studio , The Matrix felt that her musical direction was incongruous to her image and attitude . After talking to Lavigne for an hour , " we cottoned on that she wasn 't happy but couldn 't quite figure out where to go " . The Matrix played her songs with Faith Hill influences , because it was those kind of songs the label wanted Lavigne to sing . But Lavigne dismissed it , saying she wanted songs with punk rock inclinations . Lavigne played The Matrix a song that she had recorded and really loved , a track with sounds in the likes of the rock band System of a Down . Fortunately , prior to forming The Matrix , its members ' early projects were in the pop @-@ rock type , so they readily figured out what Lavigne wanted to record and knew exactly what to do with her . They told her to come back the following day , and in the afternoon during that day , they wrote a song that evolved into " Complicated " and another song called " Falling Down " ( Falling Down appears on the Sweet Home Alabama Soundtrack ) . They played it to Lavigne when she came back the following day , inspiring her what path she should take . When Josh Sarubin , the A & R executive who signed Lavigne to the imprint , heard the song , he knew it was right for her . Lavigne presented the song to Reid , who agreed the musical direction Lavigne and The Matrix were taking , and set " Complicated " as the album 's lead single . Reid sent Lavigne back to The Matrix to work with them , initially for a month . Arista gave the team carte blanche to write and produce 10 songs , which took them two months . The album was originally entitled Anything But Ordinary , after the track of the same name that The Matrix produced , but Lavigne asked Reid for the album to be called Let Go instead . Critics described Let Go as an alternative rock album with pop rock influences and post @-@ grunge @-@ oriented sound . = = Writing and recording = = With The Matrix , Lavigne recorded tracks in Decoy Studios , situated in a Los Angeles suburb known as Valley Village . She also worked with producer @-@ songwriter Curt Frasca and Peter Zizzo , whose Manhattan studio Lavigne was checked in prior to securing a record deal with Arista , and where Lavigne also recorded some of the tracks . The Matrix member Scott Spock was their principal engineer for the project , while Tom Lord @-@ Alge was assigned to mix the tracks . Lavigne recorded complete takes " against the largely finished instrumental tracks " . Spocks revealed Lavigne normally recorded each song in five or six takes , " and probably 90 percent of what was finally used came from the first or second takes " . The Matrix also contributed backing vocals . Introduced as a singer @-@ songwriter , Lavigne 's involvement produced significant issues . Lavigne has implied that she is the primary author of the album . In an article published in Rolling Stone magazine , Lavigne stated that while working with The Matrix , one member would be in the recording studio while they were writing , but did not write the guitar parts , lyrics , or the melody . According to Lavigne , she and Christy wrote all the lyrics together . Graham would come up with some guitar parts , " and I 'd be like , ' Yeah , I like that , ' or ' No , I don 't like that . ' None of those songs aren 't from me . " The Matrix , who produced six songs for Lavigne , five of which appear in the album , had another explanation of how the collaboration went . According to them , they wrote much of the portions in the three singles : " Complicated " , " Sk8er Boi " , and " I 'm with You " , which were conceived using a guitar and piano . Christy said , " Avril would come in and sing a few melodies , change a word here or there . " Reid complemented the issue over the credits : " If I 'm looking for a single for an artist , I don 't care who writes it . Avril had the freedom to do as she really pleased , and the songs show her point of view . ... Avril has always been confident about her ideas . " Although she needed pop songs " to break " into the industry , Lavigne felt " Complicated " does not reflect her and her songwriting skills . Nonetheless , she was grateful for the song as it successfully launched her career . She favors more " Losing Grip " , because " it means so much more when it comes straight from the artist " . = = Release and promotion = = The album was released on 4 June 2002 , in Canada and the United States . Later , on 22 July , Let Go hit record stores worldwide , and on 26 August in some parts of Europe , including the United Kingdom and Ireland . A DataPlay version of the album was released in September 2002 . Arista had established a deal with DataPlay earlier in 2002 , and included Let Go alongside albums by rock singer Santana and singer Whitney Houston in the release . Although Lavigne was targeted to the teen audience , a marketing strategy credited with the successful launch of her career ; Lavigne performed on a host of radio @-@ sponsored multi @-@ artist holiday shows throughout the United States , a marketing strategy that induced higher sales of the album during the season . She embarked on her first headlining tour , Try To Shut Me Up Tour , which took place on 23 January 2003 , and ended on 4 June 2003 . Lavigne toured with her band — drummer Matthew Brann , bassist Mark Spicoluk , and guitarists Jesse Colburn and Evan Taubenfeld — which she had grouped after signing the deal . In the tour , she included all songs off Let Go , B @-@ sides , and cover versions of " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " by Bob Dylan and " Basket Case " by Green Day . Lavigne filmed her performance in Buffalo , New York , on 18 May 2003 , the final date of her five @-@ week headlining North American tour . The tour DVD My World was released on 4 November 2003 , on joint venture by Arista Records and 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment . The DVD features the concert , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette , five music videos and a six @-@ song bonus audio CD that includes an unreleased track " Why " . = = = Singles = = = " Complicated " was released by Arista as the album 's lead single , which was seen as an across @-@ all @-@ age @-@ groups introduction to Lavigne . Thought to produce wide cross @-@ demographic appeal , however , the music video to the single features Lavigne and her band wreaking havoc in a mall , " the sort of imagery that might have grown @-@ ups thinking ' Clean that mess up ! ' more than clamoring for the record " . The song was a worldwide No. 1 hit and was nominated for two Grammy Awards for Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . " Sk8er Boi " The follow @-@ up single was aimed at pop @-@ punk oriented kids . The release of " Sk8er Boi " created disagreement among many radio programming directors . However , their impressions were diverted as listeners helped change their minds ; early rotation of the single proved successful , showing it was as popular with post @-@ collegiate listeners as with teens . The song even went to No. 1 in U.S. mainstream radio . " I 'm with You " The adult ballad hit record stores in late November 2002 , close to Christmas holidays to remind parents about the album to , if not to buy it themselves , to purchase it for any children in their family . The song ended up being another hit for Lavigne reaching No. 4 in the Billboard Hot 100 , No. 1 in mainstream radio and top 10 in the UK and Canada . It was not officially released in Australia but received radio and television airplay , this song was also nominated for two Grammy Awards the same categories as " Complicated " . The release arrangement of the album 's singles , with " I 'm With You " being served as the third , was regarded as " controversial " , given that " I 'm With You " was " thought by some to be the biggest potential smash on the album " , and could have established Lavigne as a more mature artist if it was released first . According to Reid , " Some people just really didn 't get that . And with the first video , there was some concern that maybe because it 's so young and so playful , it might alienate more serious music lovers . " " Losing Grip " was released as the fourth single off the album , " to act as a bridge into her next album " , which Lavigne stated would be " harder @-@ rocking " than her debut . In 2004 , it was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance However , it was the least successful single on the album . " Mobile " was released in Australia and New Zealand as the final single from the album in those regions . It was later used in 2003 's The Medallion , the 2004 film Wimbledon , and a brief appearance in the film Just Married . In 2011 , a music video for the song leaked onto the internet made from official footage that was never finished . = = = Other songs = = = Other songs were released as regional radio @-@ only singles . " Things I 'll Never Say " was released as a radio @-@ only single in Italy . " Unwanted " was released as a promotional single in the United Kingdom . The song " Tomorrow " was played in one episode of the second season of the Warner Bros. series Smallville , while the song " Anything But Ordinary " was played in one episode of the TV series Birds of Prey . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reaction = = = Let Go has earned mostly positive responses from critics , earning 68 points on Metacritic based on the collated reviews from 7 publications . Rolling Stone magazine 's music critic Pat Blashill wrote that the album " comes fully loaded with another dozen infectious hymns of Total Request angst " . Blashill complimented Lavigne on having a " great voice " , adding she crafted the album with " a qualified staff of hitmakers " . Christina Saraceno of AllMusic noted that Lavigne " handles a variety of styles deftly " , while also complimenting her as " a capable songwriter with vocal chops " . Nonetheless , Saraceno opined that " at her age , one imagines , she is still finding her feet , borrowing from the music she 's grown up listening to " . John Perry of Blender magazine summarized Let Go into an " outstanding guitar @-@ pop debut " . A review in Q magazine praised Lavigne for displaying " a musical guile way beyond her years " . Kaj Roth of Melodic felt that Lavigne " sings lovely and some of the songs goes in the Alanis Morissette [ sic ] vein . " For Jon Caramanica of Entertainment Weekly magazine ( who gave the album a B − ) , " Lavigne 's monochromatic debut set of unimaginative guitar rock is saved only by the earnestness of her songs . " Some reviewers had similar sentiments toward the quality of the lyrics to some songs in the album . Saraceno said that Lavigne " still has some growing up to do lyrically " , asserting " Sk8er Boi " shows her " lyrical shortcomings " and calling the phrasing in " Too Much to Ask " " awkward and sometimes silly " . Perry noted the lyrics to " Sk8er Boi " as " endearingly naive " . The album earned Lavigne numerous awards from organizations around the world . The success of the album 's commercial performance led Lavigne to be named Best New Artist at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards as well as winning a World Music Award for Best @-@ Selling Canadian Singer . She won three awards — Favorite Female Artist , Favorite Breakthrough Artist , and the Style Award — the most of any performer at the 2003 MTV Asia Awards . She received five nominations for the album at the 2003 Grammy Awards , including Best New Artist and Best Pop Vocal Album . The album 's singles " Complicated " and " I 'm With You " were nominated Song of the Year at the 2003 and 2004 ceremony , respectively , accumulating eight nominations for the album . Lavigne was nominated for six categories at the 2003 Juno Awards — which were presented in Ottawa — winning four including Best Album and Best New Artist . = = = Commercial performance = = = Let Go was commercially successful in the United States , gaining praise from Entertainment Weekly magazine as one of the biggest pop debut albums of 2002 . The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 8 on the strength of 62 @,@ 000 unit sales . Its high debut was fueled by the success of " Complicated " , which was in heavy rotation on MTV . Increasing weekly sales allowed the album to stay inside the chart 's top 10 for 37 weeks . The album sold at least 100 @,@ 000 copies every week straight until late 2002 , easily accumulating over two million unit sales . In a December 2002 report by Entertainment Weekly magazine , it was stated that the album had sold 3 @.@ 9 million copies , becoming the third top @-@ selling album of 2002 in the United States . Year @-@ end figures released by Nielsen SoundScan revealed that Let Go had sold over 4 @.@ 1 million copies in the United States , accumulated in 30 weeks of the album 's release . Let Go was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . This earned Let Go the distinction of being the highest @-@ shipped debut of 2002 and best @-@ selling album by a female artist . On 30 April 2003 , the RIAA certified the album six @-@ times platinum , denoting shipments of over six million units . It remains Lavigne 's best @-@ selling album to date , with 6 @.@ 9 million copies sold in the United States as of September 2015 . Chartwise , the album reached higher peak positions notably during and after the holidays . Following her show @-@ opening performance at the 2002 Billboard Music Awards , Let Go continued to be one of the holiday 's top sellers with sales that week of 272 @,@ 000 . It reached its highest sales week on the issue dated 4 January 2003 with 363 @,@ 000 copies sold . Although it had peaked at number two in September 2002 , Let Go rose from 3 to 2 on the Billboard 200 on the issue dated 1 February 2003 . The increase of sales was the offshoot to Lavigne 's appearance on 11 January in Saturday Night Live as the show 's musical guest . There were accusations of lip @-@ synching but in an interview at the time she tells she has never lip @-@ sung or ever plans to . During this time also , Lavigne received much media coverage due to her nominations at the 2003 Grammy Awards and for embarking on her first North American tour . In the United Kingdom , the album took longer to reach the summit of the UK Albums Chart . In its 18th week of release , reached on the chart year 2003 , the album hit number one , rising to the top spot over the holiday . The album 's international sales upsurge was attributed to the continuing success of " Sk8er Boi " . Let Go is the 12th best @-@ selling album of 2003 in the United Kingdom . The album has been certified five @-@ times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry . Let Go was also selling well in Canada , surpassing sales of over one million unit sales in less than a year . The Canadian Recording Industry Association certified the album diamond in May 2003 . In Australia , Let Go had been certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association in 2003 , based on the sales of over 490 @,@ 000 units from wholesalers to retailers . The album is the tenth best @-@ selling album of 2002 there , and the third in the following year .. ' Let Go ' reached its peak worldwide during Christmas holiday with almost 860 @,@ 000 copies sold worldwide during Christmas week and then another 600 @,@ 000 copies worldwide in the first week of 2003 . = = Track listing = = ( * ) Additional production = = Personnel = = This list of credits is based on barnesandnoble.com. = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Awards = = At the 2003 Grammy Awards , Lavigne received five nominations , including Best Pop Vocal Album for Let Go , Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " Complicated " , Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for " Sk8er Boi " and the coveted Best New Artist . At the 2004 Grammy Awards Lavigne received the nominations Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " I 'm with You " and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for " Losing Grip " .
= R.E.M. = R.E.M. was an American rock band from Athens , Georgia , formed in 1980 by lead singer Michael Stipe , lead guitarist Peter Buck , bassist / backing vocalist Mike Mills , and drummer Bill Berry . One of the first popular alternative rock bands , R.E.M. were noted for Buck 's ringing , arpeggiated guitar style , Stipe 's particular vocal quality , and Mills ' melodic basslines and backing vocals . R.E.M. released their first single , " Radio Free Europe " , in 1981 on the independent record label Hib @-@ Tone . The single was followed by the Chronic Town EP in 1982 , the band 's first release on I.R.S. Records . In 1983 , the group released its critically acclaimed debut album , Murmur , and built its reputation over the next few years through subsequent releases , constant touring , and the support of college radio . Following years of underground success , R.E.M. achieved a mainstream hit in 1987 with the single " The One I Love " . The group signed to Warner Bros. Records in 1988 , and began to espouse political and environmental concerns while playing large arenas worldwide . By the early 1990s , when alternative rock began to experience broad mainstream success , R.E.M. was viewed by subsequent acts such as Nirvana and Pavement as a pioneer of the genre . The band then released its two most commercially successful albums , Out of Time ( 1991 ) and Automatic for the People ( 1992 ) , which veered from the band 's established sound and catapulted it to international fame . R.E.M. ' s 1994 release , Monster , was a return to a more rock @-@ oriented sound , but still continued its run of success . The band began its first tour in six years to support the album ; the tour was marred by medical emergencies suffered by the three band members . In 1996 , R.E.M. re @-@ signed with Warner Bros. for a reported US $ 80 million , at the time the most expensive recording contract in history . Its 1996 release , New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi , though critically acclaimed , fared worse commercially than expected . The following year , Bill Berry left the band , while Stipe , Buck , and Mills continued the group as a trio . Through some changes in musical style , the band continued its career into the next decade with mixed critical and commercial success , despite having sold more than 85 million records worldwide and becoming one of the world 's best @-@ selling music artists of all time . In 2007 , the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , in their first year of eligibility . R.E.M. disbanded amicably in September 2011 , announcing the split on its website . = = History = = = = = 1980 – 81 : Formation = = = In January 1980 , Michael Stipe met Peter Buck in Wuxtry Records , the Athens record store where Buck worked . The pair discovered that they shared similar tastes in music , particularly in punk rock and protopunk artists like Patti Smith , Television , and The Velvet Underground . Stipe said , " It turns out that I was buying all the records that [ Buck ] was saving for himself . " Stipe and Buck soon met fellow University of Georgia students Mike Mills and Bill Berry , who had played music together since high school . The quartet agreed to collaborate on several songs ; Stipe later commented that " there was never any grand plan behind any of it " . Their still @-@ unnamed band spent a few months rehearsing and played its first show on April 5 , 1980 , at a friend 's birthday party held in a converted Episcopal church in Athens . After considering names like " Twisted Kites " , " Cans of Piss " , and " Negro Wives " , the band settled on " R.E.M. " ( which stands for the stage of sleep called rapid eye movement ) , which Stipe selected at random from a dictionary . The band members eventually dropped out of school to focus on their developing group . They found a manager in Jefferson Holt , a record store clerk who was so impressed by an R.E.M. performance in his hometown of Chapel Hill , North Carolina , that he moved to Athens . R.E.M. ' s success was almost immediate in Athens and surrounding areas ; the band drew progressively larger crowds for shows , which caused some resentment in the Athens music scene . Over the next year and a half , R.E.M. toured throughout the Southern United States . Touring was arduous because a touring circuit for alternative rock bands did not then exist . The group toured in an old blue van driven by Holt , and lived on a food allowance of $ 2 each per day . During the summer of 1981 , R.E.M. recorded its first single , " Radio Free Europe " , at producer Mitch Easter 's Drive @-@ In Studios in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina . The single was released on the local independent record label Hib @-@ Tone with an initial pressing of one thousand copies , which quickly sold out . Despite its limited pressing , the single garnered critical acclaim , and was listed as one of the ten best singles of the year by The New York Times . = = = 1981 – 87 : I.R.S. Records and cult success = = = R.E.M. recorded the Chronic Town EP with Mitch Easter in October 1981 , and planned to release it on a new indie label named Dasht Hopes . However , I.R.S. Records acquired a demo of the band 's first recording session with Easter that had been circulating for months . The band turned down the advances of major label RCA Records in favor of I.R.S. , with whom it signed a contract in May 1982 . I.R.S. released Chronic Town that August as its first American release . A positive review of the EP by NME praised the songs ' auras of mystery , and concluded , " R.E.M. ring true , and it 's great to hear something as unforced and cunning as this . " I.R.S. first paired R.E.M. with producer Stephen Hague to record its debut album . Hague 's emphasis on technical perfection left the band unsatisfied , and the band members asked the label to let them record with Easter . I.R.S. agreed to a " tryout " session , allowing the band to return to North Carolina and record the song " Pilgrimage " with Easter and producing partner Don Dixon . After hearing the track , I.R.S. permitted the group to record the album with Dixon and Easter . Because of its bad experience with Hague , the band recorded the album via a process of negation , refusing to incorporate rock music clichés such as guitar solos or then @-@ popular synthesizers , in order to give its music a timeless feel . The completed album , Murmur , was greeted with critical acclaim upon its release in 1983 , with Rolling Stone listing the album as its record of the year . The album reached number 36 on the Billboard album chart . A re @-@ recorded version of " Radio Free Europe " was the album 's lead single and reached number 78 on the Billboard singles chart in 1983 . Despite the acclaim awarded the album , Murmur sold only about 200 @,@ 000 copies , which I.R.S. ' s Jay Boberg felt was below expectations . R.E.M. made its first national television appearance on Late Night with David Letterman in October 1983 , during which the group performed a new , unnamed song . The piece , eventually titled " So . Central Rain ( I 'm Sorry ) " , became the first single from the band 's second album , Reckoning ( 1984 ) , which was also recorded with Easter and Dixon . The album met with critical acclaim ; NME 's Mat Snow wrote that Reckoning " confirms R.E.M. as one of the most beautifully exciting groups on the planet " . While Reckoning peaked at number 27 on the US album charts — an unusually high chart placing for a college rock band at the time — scant airplay and poor distribution overseas resulted in it charting no higher than number 91 in Britain . The band 's third album , Fables of the Reconstruction ( 1985 ) , demonstrated a change in direction . Instead of Dixon and Easter , R.E.M. chose producer Joe Boyd , who had worked with Fairport Convention and Nick Drake , to record the album in England . The band members found the sessions unexpectedly difficult , and were miserable due to the cold winter weather and what they considered to be poor food ; the situation brought the band to the verge of break @-@ up . The gloominess surrounding the sessions ended up providing the context for the album itself . Lyrically , Stipe began to create storylines in the mode of Southern mythology , noting in a 1985 interview that he was inspired by " the whole idea of the old men sitting around the fire , passing on ... legends and fables to the grandchildren " . They toured in Canada in July and August 1985 , and throughout Europe in October of that year , including in The Netherlands , England ( one concert was held at the famous Hammersmith Palais in London ) , Ireland , Scotland , France , Switzerland , Belgium and West Germany . On October 2 , 1985 , the group played a concert in Bochum , West Germany , for the German TV show Rockpalast . Stipe had bleached his hair blond during this time . Fables of the Reconstruction performed poorly in Europe and its critical reception was mixed , with some critics regarding it as dreary and poorly recorded . As with the previous records , the singles from Fables of the Reconstruction were mostly ignored by mainstream radio . Meanwhile , I.R.S. was becoming frustrated with the band 's reluctance to achieve mainstream success . For its fourth album , R.E.M. enlisted John Mellencamp producer Don Gehman . The result , Lifes Rich Pageant ( 1986 ) featured Stipe 's vocals closer to the forefront of the music . In a 1986 interview with the Chicago Tribune , Peter Buck related , " Michael is getting better at what he 's doing , and he 's getting more confident at it . And I think that shows up in the projection of his voice . " The album improved markedly upon the sales of Fables of the Reconstruction and eventually peaked at number 21 on the Billboard album chart . The single " Fall on Me " also picked up support on commercial radio . The album was the band 's first to be certified gold for selling 500 @,@ 000 copies . While American college radio remained R.E.M. ' s core support , the band was beginning to chart hits on mainstream rock formats ; however , the music still encountered resistance from Top 40 radio . Following the success of Lifes Rich Pageant , I.R.S. issued Dead Letter Office , a compilation of tracks recorded by the band during their album sessions , many of which had either been issued as B @-@ sides or left unreleased altogether . Shortly thereafter , I.R.S. compiled R.E.M. ' s music video catalog ( except " Wolves , Lower " ) as the band 's first video release , Succumbs . = = = 1987 – 90 : Breakthrough = = = Don Gehman was unable to produce R.E.M. ' s fifth album , so he suggested the group work with Scott Litt . Litt would be the producer for the band 's next five albums . Document ( 1987 ) featured some of Stipe 's most openly political lyrics , particularly on " Welcome to the Occupation " and " Exhuming McCarthy " , which were reactions to the conservative political environment of the 1980s under American President Ronald Reagan . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote in his review of the album , " ' Document ' is both confident and defiant ; if R.E.M. is about to move from cult @-@ band status to mass popularity , the album decrees that the band will get there on its own terms . " Document was R.E.M. ' s breakthrough album , and the first single " The One I Love " charted in the Top 20 in the US , UK , and Canada . By January 1988 , Document had become the group 's first album to sell a million copies . In light of the band 's breakthrough , the December 1987 cover of Rolling Stone declared R.E.M. " America 's Best Rock & Roll Band " . Frustrated that its records did not see satisfactory overseas distribution , R.E.M. left I.R.S. when its contract expired and signed with the major label Warner Bros. Records . Though other labels offered more money , R.E.M. ultimately signed with Warner Bros. — reportedly for an amount between $ 6 million and $ 12 million — due to the company 's assurance of total creative freedom . In the aftermath of the group 's departure , I.R.S. released the 1988 " best of " compilation Eponymous ( assembled with input from the band members ) to capitalize on assets the company still possessed . The band 's 1988 Warner Bros. debut , Green , was recorded in Nashville , Tennessee , and showcased the group experimenting with its sound . The record 's tracks ranged from the upbeat first single " Stand " ( a hit in the United States ) , to more political material , like the rock @-@ oriented " Orange Crush " and " World Leader Pretend " , which address the Vietnam War and the Cold War , respectively . Green has gone on to sell four million copies worldwide . The band supported the album with its biggest and most visually developed tour to date , featuring back @-@ projections and art films playing on the stage . After the Green tour , the band members unofficially decided to take the following year off , the first extended break in the band 's career . In 1990 Warner Bros. issued the music video compilation Pop Screen to collect clips from the Document and Green albums , followed a few months later by the video album Tourfilm featuring live performances filmed during the Green World Tour . = = = 1990 – 94 : Non @-@ touring years and international success = = = R.E.M. reconvened in mid @-@ 1990 to record its seventh album , Out of Time . In a departure from Green , the band members often wrote the music with non @-@ traditional rock instrumentation including mandolin , organ , and acoustic guitar instead of adding them as overdubs later in the creative process . Released in March 1991 , Out of Time was the band 's first album to top both the US and UK charts . The record eventually sold 4 @.@ 2 million copies in the US alone , and about 12 million copies worldwide by 1996 . The album 's lead single " Losing My Religion " was a worldwide hit that received heavy rotation on radio , as did the music video on MTV . " Losing My Religion " was R.E.M. ' s highest @-@ charting single in the US , reaching number four on the Billboard charts . " There 've been very few life @-@ changing events in our career because our career has been so gradual , " Mills said years later . " If you want to talk about life changing , I think ' Losing My Religion ' is the closest it gets " . The album 's second single , " Shiny Happy People " ( one of three songs on the record to feature vocals from Kate Pierson of fellow Athens band The B @-@ 52 's ) , was also a major hit , reaching number 10 in the US and number six in the UK . Out of Time garnered R.E.M. seven nominations at the 1992 Grammy Awards , the most nominations of any artist that year . The band won three awards : one for Best Alternative Music Album and two for " Losing My Religion " , Best Short Form Music Video and Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal . R.E.M. did not tour to promote Out of Time ; instead the group played a series of one @-@ off shows , including an appearance taped for an episode of MTV Unplugged and released music videos for each song on the video album This Film Is On . The MTV Unplugged session of " Losing My Religion " was recorded with members of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra in Madison , Georgia , at Madison @-@ Morgan Cultural Center . After spending some months off , R.E.M. returned to the studio in 1991 to record its next album . Late in 1992 , the band released Automatic for the People . Though the group had intended to make a harder @-@ rocking album after the softer textures of Out of Time , the somber Automatic for the People " [ seemed ] to move at an even more agonized crawl " , according to Melody Maker . The album dealt with themes of loss and mourning inspired by " that sense of ... turning thirty " , according to Buck . Several songs featured string arrangements by former Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones . Considered by a number of critics ( as well as by Buck and Mills ) to be the band 's best album , Automatic for the People reached numbers one and two on UK and US charts , respectively , and generated the American Top 40 hit singles " Drive " , " Man on the Moon " , and " Everybody Hurts " . The album would sell over fifteen million copies worldwide . As with Out of Time , there was no tour in support of the album . The decision to forgo a tour , in conjunction with Stipe 's physical appearance , generated rumors that the singer was dying or HIV @-@ positive , which were vehemently denied by the band . = = = 1994 – 97 : Return to touring and continued success = = = After the band released two slow @-@ paced albums in a row , R.E.M. ' s 1994 album Monster was , as Buck said , " a ' rock ' record , with the rock in quotation marks . " In contrast to the sound of its predecessors , the music of Monster consisted of distorted guitar tones , minimal overdubs , and touches of 1970s glam rock . Like Out of Time , Monster topped the charts in both the US and UK . The record sold about nine million copies worldwide . The singles " What 's the Frequency , Kenneth ? " and " Bang and Blame " were the band 's last American Top 40 hits , although all the singles from Monster reached the Top 30 on the British charts . Warner Bros. assembled the music videos from the album as well as those from Automatic for the People for release as Parallel in 1995 . In January 1995 , R.E.M. set out on its first tour in six years . The tour was a huge commercial success , but the period was difficult for the group . On March 1 , Berry collapsed on stage during a performance in Lausanne , Switzerland , having suffered a brain aneurysm . He had surgery immediately and recovered fully within a month . Berry 's aneurysm was only the beginning of a series of health problems that plagued the Monster Tour . Mills had to undergo abdominal surgery to remove an intestinal adhesion in July ; a month later , Stipe had to have an emergency surgery to repair a hernia . Despite all the problems , the group had recorded the bulk of a new album while on the road . The band brought along eight @-@ track recorders to capture its shows , and used the recordings as the base elements for the album . The final three performances of the tour were filmed and released in home video form as Road Movie . R.E.M. re @-@ signed with Warner Bros. Records in 1996 for a reported $ 80 million ( a figure the band constantly asserted originated with the media ) , rumored to be the largest recording contract in history at that point . The group 's 1996 album New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi debuted at number two in the US and number one in the UK . The five million copies of the album sold were a reversal of the group 's commercial fortunes of the previous five years . Time writer Christopher John Farley argued that the lesser sales of the album were due to the declining commercial power of alternative rock as a whole . That same year , R.E.M. parted ways with manager Jefferson Holt , allegedly due to sexual harassment charges levied against him by a member of the band 's home office in Athens . The group 's lawyer Bertis Downs assumed managerial duties . = = = 1997 – 2000 : Berry 's departure and Up = = = In April 1997 , the band convened at Buck 's Kauai vacation home to record demos of material intended for the next album . The band sought to reinvent its sound and intended to incorporate drum loops and percussion experiments . Just as the sessions were due to begin in October , Berry decided , after months of contemplation and discussions with Downs and Mills , to tell the rest of the band that he was quitting . Berry told his band mates that he would not quit if they would break up as a result , so Stipe , Buck , and Mills agreed to carry on as a three @-@ piece with his blessing . Berry publicly announced his departure three weeks later in October 1997 . Berry told the press , " I 'm just not as enthusiastic as I have been in the past about doing this anymore . . . I have the best job in the world . But I 'm kind of ready to sit back and reflect and maybe not be a pop star anymore . " Stipe admitted that the band would be different without a major contributor : " For me , Mike , and Peter , as R.E.M. , are we still R.E.M. ? I guess a three @-@ legged dog is still a dog . It just has to learn to run differently . " The band cancelled its scheduled recording sessions as a result of Berry 's departure . " Without Bill it was different , confusing " , Mills later said . " We didn 't know exactly what to do . We couldn 't rehearse without a drummer . " The remaining members of R.E.M. resumed work on the album in February 1998 at Toast Studios in San Francisco . The band ended its decade @-@ long collaboration with Scott Litt and hired Pat McCarthy to produce the record . Nigel Godrich was taken on as assistant producer , and drafted in Screaming Trees member Barrett Martin and Beck 's touring drummer Joey Waronker . The recording process was plagued with tension , and the group came close to disbanding . Bertis Downs called an emergency meeting where the band members sorted out their problems and agreed to continue as a group . Led off by the single " Daysleeper " , Up ( 1998 ) debuted in the top ten in the US and UK . However , the album was a relative failure , selling 900 @,@ 000 copies in the US by mid @-@ 1999 and eventually selling just over two million copies worldwide . While R.E.M. ' s American sales were declining , the group 's commercial base was shifting to the UK , where more R.E.M. records were sold per capita than any other country and the band 's singles regularly entered the Top 20 . A year after Up 's release , R.E.M. wrote the instrumental score to the Andy Kaufman biographical film Man on the Moon , a first for the group . The film took its title from the Automatic for the People song of the same name . The song " The Great Beyond " was released as a single from the Man on the Moon soundtrack album . " The Great Beyond " only reached number 57 on the American pop charts , but was the band 's highest @-@ charting single ever in the UK , reaching number three in 2000 . = = = 2000 – 07 : Reveal and Around the Sun = = = R.E.M. recorded the majority of its twelfth album Reveal ( 2001 ) in Canada and Ireland from May to October 2000 . Reveal shared the " lugubrious pace " of Up , and featured drumming by Joey Waronker , as well as contributions by Scott McCaughey ( a co @-@ founder of the band The Minus 5 with Buck ) and Posies founder Ken Stringfellow . Global sales of the album were over four million , but in the United States Reveal sold about the same number of copies as Up . The album was led by the single " Imitation of Life " , which reached number six in the UK . Writing for Rock 's Backpages , The Rev. Al Friston described the album as " loaded with golden loveliness at every twist and turn " , in comparison to the group 's " essentially unconvincing work on New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi and Up . " Similarly , Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone called Reveal " a spiritual renewal rooted in a musical one " and praised its " ceaselessly astonishing beauty . " In 2003 , Warner Bros. released the compilation album and DVD In Time : The Best of R.E.M. 1988 – 2003 and In View : The Best of R.E.M. 1988 – 2003 , which featured two new songs , " Bad Day " and " Animal " . At a 2003 concert in Raleigh , North Carolina , Berry made a surprise appearance , performing backing vocals on " Radio Free Europe " . He then sat behind the drum kit for a performance of the early R.E.M. song " Permanent Vacation " , marking his first performance with the band since his retirement . R.E.M. released Around the Sun in 2004 . During production of the album in 2002 , Stipe said , " [ The album ] sounds like it 's taking off from the last couple of records into unchartered R.E.M. territory . Kind of primitive and howling " . After the album 's release , Mills said , " I think , honestly , it turned out a little slower than we intended for it to , just in terms of the overall speed of songs . " Around the Sun received a mixed critical reception , and peaked at number 13 on the Billboard charts . The first single from the album , " Leaving New York " , was a Top 5 hit in the UK . For the record and subsequent tour , the band hired a new full @-@ time touring drummer , Bill Rieflin , who had previously been a member of several industrial music acts such as Ministry and Pigface . The video album Perfect Square was released that same year . EMI released a compilation album covering R.E.M. ' s work during its tenure on I.R.S. in 2006 called And I Feel Fine ... The Best of the I.R.S. Years 1982 – 1987 along with the video album When the Light Is Mine : The Best of the I.R.S. Years 1982 – 1987 — the label had previously released the compilations The Best of R.E.M. ( 1991 ) , R.E.M. : Singles Collected ( 1994 ) , and R.E.M. : In the Attic – Alternative Recordings 1985 – 1989 ( 1997 ) . That same month , all four original band members performed during the ceremony for their induction into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame . While rehearsing for the ceremony , the band recorded a cover of John Lennon 's " # 9 Dream " for Instant Karma : The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur , a tribute album benefiting Amnesty International . The song — released as a single for the album and the campaign — featured Bill Berry 's first studio recording with the band since his departure almost a decade earlier . In October 2006 , R.E.M. was nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in its first year of eligibility . The band was one of five nominees accepted into the Hall that year , and the induction ceremony took place in March 2007 at New York 's Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . The group — which was inducted by Pearl Jam lead singer Eddie Vedder — performed three songs with Bill Berry ; " Gardening at Night , " " Man on the Moon " and " Begin the Begin " as well as a cover of " I Wanna Be Your Dog . " = = = 2007 – 11 : Accelerate , Collapse into Now , and breakup = = = Work on the group 's fourteenth album commenced in early 2007 . The band recorded with producer Jacknife Lee in Vancouver and Dublin , where it played five nights in the Olympia Theatre between June 30 and July 5 as part of a " working rehearsal " . R.E.M. Live , the band 's first live album ( featuring songs from a 2005 Dublin show ) , was released in October 2007 . The group followed this with the 2009 live album Live at The Olympia , which features performances from its 2007 residency . R.E.M. released Accelerate in early 2008 . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard charts , and became the band 's eighth album to top the British album charts . Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke considered Accelerate an improvement over the band 's previous post @-@ Berry albums , calling it " one of the best records R.E.M. have ever made . " In 2010 , R.E.M. released the video album R.E.M. Live from Austin , TX — a concert recorded for Austin City Limits in 2008 . The group recorded its fifteenth album , Collapse into Now ( 2011 ) , with Jacknife Lee in locales including Berlin , Nashville , and New Orleans . For the album , the band aimed for a more expansive sound than the intentionally short and speedy approach implemented on Accelerate . The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , becoming the group 's tenth album to reach the top ten of the chart . This release fulfilled R.E.M. ' s contractual obligations to Warner Bros. , and the band began recording material without a contract a few months later with the possible intention of self @-@ releasing the work . On September 21 , 2011 , R.E.M. announced via its website that it was " calling it a day as a band " . Stipe said that he hoped fans realized it " wasn 't an easy decision " : " All things must end , and we wanted to do it right , to do it our way . " Long @-@ time associate and former Warner Bros. Senior Vice President of Emerging Technology Ethan Kaplan has speculated that shake @-@ ups at the record label influenced the group 's decision to disband . The group discussed breaking up for several years , but was encouraged to continue after the lackluster critical and commercial performance of Around the Sun ; according to Mills , " We needed to prove , not only to our fans and critics but to ourselves , that we could still make great records . " The band members finished their collaboration by assembling the compilation album Part Lies , Part Heart , Part Truth , Part Garbage 1982 – 2011 , which was released in November 2011 . The album is the first to collect songs from R.E.M. ' s I.R.S. and Warner Bros. tenures , as well as three songs from the group 's final studio recordings from post @-@ Collapse into Now sessions . In November , Mills and Stipe did a brief span of promotional appearances in British media , ruling out the option of the group ever reuniting . In 2014 , Unplugged : The Complete 1991 and 2001 Sessions was released for Record Store Day . Digital download collections of I.R.S. and Warner Bros. rarities followed . Later in the year , the band compiled the video album box set REMTV , which collected their two Unplugged performances along with several other documentaries and live shows , while their record label released the box set 7IN — 83 – 88 , made up of 7 " vinyl singles . In December 2015 , the band members agreed to a distribution deal with Concord Bicycle Music to re @-@ release their Warner Bros. albums . = = Musical style = = In a 1988 interview , Peter Buck described typical R.E.M. songs as , " Minor key , mid @-@ tempo , enigmatic , semi @-@ folk @-@ rock @-@ balladish things . That 's what everyone thinks and to a certain degree , that 's true . " All songwriting is credited to the entire band , even though individual members are sometimes responsible for writing the majority of a particular song . Each member is given an equal vote in the songwriting process ; however , Buck has conceded that Stipe , as the band 's lyricist , can rarely be persuaded to follow an idea he does not favor . Among the original line @-@ up , there were divisions of labor in the songwriting process : Stipe would write lyrics and devise melodies , Buck would edge the band in new musical directions , and Mills and Berry would fine @-@ tune the compositions due to their greater musical experience . Michael Stipe sings in what R.E.M. biographer David Buckley described as " wailing , keening , arching vocal figures " . Stipe often harmonizes with Mills in songs ; in the chorus for " Stand " , Mills and Stipe alternate singing lyrics , creating a dialogue . Early articles about the band focused on Stipe 's singing style ( described as " mumbling " by The Washington Post ) , which often rendered his lyrics indecipherable . Creem writer John Morthland wrote in his review of Murmur , " I still have no idea what these songs are about , because neither me nor anyone else I know has ever been able to discern R.E.M. ' s lyrics . " Stipe commented in 1984 , " It 's just the way I sing . If I tried to control it , it would be pretty false . " Producer Joe Boyd convinced Stipe to begin singing more clearly during the recording of Fables of the Reconstruction . Stipe later called chorus lyrics of " Sitting Still " from R.E.M. debut album , Murmur , " nonsense " , saying in a 1994 online chat , " You all know there aren 't words , per se , to a lot of the early stuff . I can 't even remember them . " In truth , Stipe carefully crafted the lyrics to many early R.E.M. songs . Stipe explained in 1984 that when he started writing lyrics they were like " simple pictures " , but after a year he grew tired of the approach and " started experimenting with lyrics that didn 't make exact linear sense , and it 's just gone from there . " In the mid @-@ 1980s , as Stipe 's pronunciation while singing became clearer , the band decided that its lyrics should convey ideas on a more literal level . Mills explained , " After you 've made three records and you 've written several songs and they 've gotten better and better lyrically the next step would be to have somebody question you and say , are you saying anything ? And Michael had the confidence at that point to say yes . . . " Songs like " Cuyahoga " and " Fall on Me " on Lifes Rich Pageant dealt with such concerns as pollution . Stipe incorporated more politically oriented concerns into his lyrics on Document and Green . " Our political activism and the content of the songs was just a reaction to where we were , and what we were surrounded by , which was just abject horror , " Stipe said later . " In 1987 and ' 88 there was nothing to do but be active . " Stipe has since explored other lyrical topics . Automatic for the People dealt with " mortality and dying . Pretty turgid stuff " , according to Stipe , while Monster critiqued love and mass culture . Peter Buck 's style of playing guitar has been singled out by many as the most distinctive aspect of R.E.M. ' s music . During the 1980s , Buck 's " economical , arpeggiated , poetic " style reminded British music journalists of 1960s American folk rock band The Byrds . Buck has stated " [ Byrds guitarist ] Roger McGuinn was a big influence on me as a guitar player " , but said it was Byrds @-@ influenced bands , including Big Star and The Soft Boys , that inspired him more . Comparisons were also made with the guitar playing of Johnny Marr of alternative rock contemporaries The Smiths . While Buck professed being a fan of the group , he admitted he initially criticized the band simply because he was tired of fans asking him if he was influenced by Marr , whose band had in fact made their debut after R.E.M. Buck generally eschews guitar solos ; he explained in 2002 , " I know that when guitarists rip into this hot solo , people go nuts , but I don 't write songs that suit that , and I am not interested in that . I can do it if I have to , but I don 't like it . " Mike Mills ' melodic approach to bass playing is inspired by Paul McCartney of The Beatles and Chris Squire of Yes ; Mills has said , " I always played a melodic bass , like a piano bass in some ways . . . I never wanted to play the traditional locked into the kick drum , root note bass work . " Mills has more musical training than his band mates , which he has said " made it easier to turn abstract musical ideas into reality . " = = Legacy = = R.E.M. was pivotal in the creation and development of the alternative rock genre . AllMusic stated , " R.E.M. mark the point when post @-@ punk turned into alternative rock . " In the early 1980s , the musical style of R.E.M. stood in contrast to the post @-@ punk and new wave genres that had preceded it . Music journalist Simon Reynolds noted that the post @-@ punk movement of the late 1970s and early 1980s " had taken whole swaths of music off the menu " , particularly that of the 1960s , and that " After postpunk 's demystification and New Pop 's schematics , it felt liberating to listen to music rooted in mystical awe and blissed @-@ out surrender . " Reynolds declared R.E.M. , a band that recalled the music of the 1960s with its " plangent guitar chimes and folk @-@ styled vocals " and who " wistfully and abstractly conjured visions and new frontiers for America " , one of " the two most important alt @-@ rock bands of the day . " With the release of Murmur , R.E.M. had the most impact musically and commercially of the developing alternative genre 's early groups , leaving in its wake a number of jangle pop followers . R.E.M. ' s early breakthrough success served as an inspiration for other alternative bands . Spin referred to the " R.E.M. model " — career decisions that R.E.M. made which set guidelines for other underground artists to follow in their own careers . Spin 's Charles Aaron wrote that by 1985 , " They 'd shown how far an underground , punk @-@ inspired rock band could go within the industry without whoring out its artistic integrity in any obvious way . They 'd figured out how to buy in , not sellout @-@ in other words , they 'd achieved the American Bohemian Dream . " Steve Wynn of Dream Syndicate said , " They invented a whole new ballgame for all of the other bands to follow whether it was Sonic Youth or the Replacements or Nirvana or Butthole Surfers . R.E.M. staked the claim . Musically , the bands did different things , but R.E.M. was first to show us you can be big and still be cool . " Biographer David Buckley stated that between 1991 and 1994 , a period that saw the band sell an estimated 30 million albums , R.E.M. " asserted themselves as rivals to U2 for the title of biggest rock band in the world . " Over the course of its career , the band has sold over 85 million records worldwide . Later alternative bands such as Nirvana , Pavement , Radiohead , Coldplay , Pearl Jam and Live , have drawn inspiration from R.E.M. ' s music . " When I was 15 years old in Richmond , Virginia , they were a very important part of my life , " Pavement 's Bob Nastanovich said , " as they were for all the members of our band . " Pavement devoted the song " Unseen Power of the Picket Fence " from the No Alternative compilation ( 1993 ) to discussing Chronic Town and Reckoning . Kurt Cobain of Nirvana was a vocal fan of R.E.M. , and had plans to collaborate on a musical project with Stipe before his death in April 1994 . Cobain told Rolling Stone in an interview earlier that year , " I don ’ t know how that band does what they do . God , they ’ re the greatest . They ’ ve dealt with their success like saints , and they keep delivering great music . " = = Campaigning and activism = = Throughout R.E.M. ' s career , its members sought to highlight social and political issues . According to the Los Angeles Times , R.E.M. was considered to be one of the United States ' " most liberal and politically correct rock groups . " The band 's members were " on the same page " politically , sharing a liberal and progressive outlook . Mills admitted that there was occasionally dissension between band members on what causes they might support , but acknowledged " Out of respect for the people who disagree , those discussions tend to stay in @-@ house , just because we 'd rather not let people know where the divisions lie , so people can 't exploit them for their own purposes . " An example is that in 1990 Buck noted that Stipe was involved with People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals , but the rest of the band were not . R.E.M. helped raise funds for environmental , feminist and human rights causes , and were involved in campaigns to encourage voter registration . During the Green tour , Stipe took time during sets to inform the audience about a variety of pressing socio @-@ political issues . Through the late 1980s and 1990s , the band ( particularly Stipe ) increasingly used its media coverage on national television to mention a variety of causes it felt were important . One example is when the band attended the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards , during which Stipe wore a half @-@ dozen white shirts emblazoned with slogans including " rainforest " , " love knows no colors " , and " handgun control now " . R.E.M. helped raise awareness of Aung San Suu Kyi and human rights violations in Burma , when they worked with the Freedom Campaign and the US Campaign for Burma . Stipe himself ran ads for the 1988 supporting Democratic presidential candidate and Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis over then @-@ Vice President George H. W. Bush . In 2004 , the band participated in the Vote for Change tour that sought to mobilize American voters to support Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry . R.E.M. ' s political stance , particularly coming from a wealthy rock band under contract to a label owned by a multinational corporation , received criticism from former Q editor Paul Du Noyer , who criticized the band 's " celebrity liberalism " , saying , " It 's an entirely pain @-@ free form of rebellion that they 're adopting . There 's no risk involved in it whatsoever , but quite a bit of shoring up of customer loyalty . " From the late 1980s , R.E.M. was involved in the local politics of its hometown of Athens , Georgia . Buck explained to Sounds in 1987 , " Michael always says think local and act local — we have been doing a lot of stuff in our town to try and make it a better place . " The band often donated funds to local charities and to help renovate and preserve historic buildings in the town . R.E.M. ' s political clout was credited with the narrow election of Athens mayor Gwen O 'Looney twice in the 1990s . = = Members = = Bill Berry – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 1980 – 1997 ; guest performances in 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 ) Peter Buck – guitar , mandolin , banjo ( 1980 – 2011 ) Mike Mills – bass guitar , backing vocals , piano , keyboards ( 1980 – 2011 ) Michael Stipe – lead vocals ( 1980 – 2011 ) Additional musicians Buren Fowler – guitar ( 1984 – 1985 ) Peter Holsapple – guitar , keyboard , piano ( 1989 – 1991 ) Scott McCaughey – guitar , bass , keyboards , synthesizers , piano , vocals ( 1994 – 2011 ) Nathan December – guitar ( 1995 ) Ken Stringfellow – bass , guitar , keyboards , synthesizers , piano , vocals ( 1998 – 2007 ) Joey Waronker – drums ( 1998 – 2002 ) Barrett Martin – drums ( 2001 ) Bill Rieflin – drums ( 2003 – 2011 ) = = Discography = = Studio albums Murmur ( 1983 ) Reckoning ( 1984 ) Fables of the Reconstruction ( 1985 ) Lifes Rich Pageant ( 1986 ) Document ( 1987 ) Green ( 1988 ) Out of Time ( 1991 ) Automatic for the People ( 1992 ) Monster ( 1994 ) New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi ( 1996 ) Up ( 1998 ) Reveal ( 2001 ) Around the Sun ( 2004 ) Accelerate ( 2008 ) Collapse into Now ( 2011 )
= Terrible Towel = The Terrible Towel is a rally towel associated with the Pittsburgh Steelers , an American football team in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The Terrible Towel has spread in popularity ; for example , fans take their Towel to famous sites while on vacation . The Towel has been taken to the peak of Mount Everest , and even into space on the International Space Station . It is widely recognized as a symbol of the Steelers and the city of Pittsburgh . Proceeds from sales of the Towel have raised over US $ 3 million for Allegheny Valley School , which cares for people with mental disabilities and physical disabilities . The Terrible Towel is credited with being the first " rally towel " and its success has given rise to similar products promoting other teams . Numerous versions have been produced ; almost all are black and gold in color with the words " Myron Cope 's Official The Terrible Towel " printed on the front . In October 2009 a pink Terrible Towel was introduced to promote Breast Cancer Awareness . = = Origin = = In 1975 the Steelers won the AFC Central title and qualified for the playoffs . WTAE was the team 's flagship radio station . Two weeks prior to the Steelers ' first playoff game , WTAE 's Vice President and General Manager , Ted J. Atkins , and President of Sales , Larry Garrett , said that they needed the assistance of Myron Cope , the Steelers radio broadcaster , in inventing a " gimmick " which would attract sponsors to his daily commentaries and talk show . Initially , Cope did not want to participate , saying " I am not a gimmick guy , never have been a gimmick guy . " However , after Garrett 's suggestion that a successful gimmick would be good leverage for a raise in Cope 's upcoming contract renewal , Cope replied , " I 'm a gimmick guy . " The three men , along with other radio station advertising personnel , began brainstorming ideas . One idea , a black mask including coach Chuck Noll 's motto " Whatever it takes " , was deemed too expensive . Cope said the gimmick should be something " lightweight and portable and already owned by just about every fan . " Garrett suggested using towels . Cope agreed , suggesting the words " The Terrible Towel " be printed on the front . It was agreed that the towels would be gold or yellow , with the writing in black — the colors of the Steelers . Franklin C. Snyder , who was head of WTAE 's radio and television stations , held the final approval of the idea . He approved the idea on the stipulation that black towels would also be allowed , in order to avoid accusations of racism from the FCC ; Cope and Garrett agreed . In the weeks leading up to the game , Cope advertised the idea of the towel to fans on the radio and evening television news , using the phrase " The Terrible Towel is poised to strike ! " However , Atkins grew nervous that fans would think the towel was a jinx if the Steelers lost the game . Cope agreed to poll players on their view of the towel . Linebacker Jack Ham told Cope , " I think your idea stinks " ; Ernie " Fats " Holmes was also against the idea . Also against the idea of the Towel was Andy Russell , who mirrored Cope 's original thoughts , " We 're not a gimmick team . We 've never been a gimmick team . " Cope simply replied , " Russell , you 're sick . " Growing nervous about the negative feedback , Cope , who had already advertised the towel on the news multiple times , polled the rest of the players with a " banana @-@ republic vote " . The Towel made its debut on December 27 , 1975 , in a playoff game against the Baltimore Colts . Prior to the game , Cope , whose idea had been mocked by the local Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , watched the gathering fans through his binoculars from the broadcast booth . He saw less than a dozen towels while players were going through pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups . Cope recalls , " Nearing kickoff , the Steelers gathered in their tunnel for introductions , whereupon the crowd exploded — and suddenly , by my estimation , 30 @,@ 000 Terrible Towels twirled from the fists of fans around the stadium ! " The Steelers went on to defeat the Colts 28 – 10 . In the following weeks , the team defeated the Oakland Raiders and Dallas Cowboys , to capture the franchise 's second consecutive Super Bowl victory . Even while the Steelers struggled through the 1980s , the Towel remained a large part of the franchise . During the Towel 's debut game Andy Russell , who had opposed the idea of the Towel , returned a fumble 93 ‒ yards for a touchdown . The play inspired local fan Lisa Benz to write about the Towel , which she later sent to Cope . In part , her poem read : = = Appearance = = The Towel has been redesigned multiple times , as well as spawning its own line of paraphernalia . The line , known as " Terrible Stuff " , includes T @-@ shirts , license plates , pillows , earrings , and beach towels ; all include The Terrible Towel logo . When originally released , the towel was available in gold and black , was a simple design and had the words " the terrible towel " printed on the front . The current version of the Towel , introduced in 1998 , adds the words " Myron Cope 's Official " on the top and " A Pittsburgh Original " at the bottom and are of a Gold color . Towels with a plethora of variations are also in production ; such variations include Towels featuring the Steelers logo , embroidered lettering , and towels with reversed colors featuring yellow writing on a black towel . Throughout the years there have also been many special edition Towels . After the Steelers won Super Bowl XL in 2005 , a Towel with the words " Super Bowl XL Champions " , the date , final score , and Super Bowl XL logo was released . The victory also spawned the production of a Towel featuring the logos of the six Super Bowls that the franchise has won . During the Steelers ' 75th anniversary season in 2007 , a special edition Towel with the logo of the Steelers ' benchmark season was added to the line @-@ up of Towels . The original 1975 – 1997 Terrible Towel is sold as a throwback on the Steelers official website . A giant Terrible Towel measuring 54 ' x 90 ' was introduced at the 2014 home opener at Heinz Field and was " waved " by the 144 fans holding it . = = Rights , marketing and proceeds = = Upon the sudden popularity of the Terrible Towel , Pittsburgh @-@ area department stores sold out all gold and black hand towels . Because the hand towels were often sold as a set , with matching bath towels , stores were left with un @-@ even sets . In the fall of 1978 , Bernard Pollock , divisional marketing manager of Gimbel 's Department Store came up with the idea of putting a Terrible Towel logo on hand towels and sold the idea to Cope . The first Terrible Towels hit the marketplace on December 20 , 1978 at $ 6 apiece . Gimbel 's could not stock them fast enough . Gimbel 's has since gone out of business . The original version of The Terrible Towel was manufactured by Fieldcrest and distributed by St. Mary 's Inc. of New York and was available in two colors : Gold and Black . The current manufacturer of the Towel is Little Earth Productions , Inc. of Pittsburgh , who took over from McArthur Towel & Sports Co. of Baraboo , Wisconsin in 2013 . The current cost of a towel is approximately $ 10 . In 1996 , Cope gave the rights to The Terrible Towel to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis , Pennsylvania . The school provides care for more than 900 people with mental retardation and physical disabilities , including Cope 's autistic son , Danny . Proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $ 2 @.@ 2 million for the school . During the 2005 season , when the Steelers won their fifth Super Bowl , more than 1 million Towels were sold ; some fans bought 200 Towels at a time . = = Widespread recognition = = Upon its invention , Cope commented on the multi @-@ functional ability of The Terrible Towel , " I 'll tell ' em they can use the towel to wipe their seats clean . They can use it as a muffler against the cold . They can drape it over their heads if it rains . " However , the towel is often used by fans who do not attend games . Fans often drape the towel over their radios or television sets ; some even dress their pets or babies with it . It has become a tradition for Steelers fans to take Terrible Towels on vacation , taking pictures next to well @-@ known tourist destinations . Fans have taken the Towel to locations such as the Great Wall of China , the South Pole , Vatican City , and to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro . Hampton native Kevin Cherilla took his Terrible Towel during his climb to the peak of Mount Everest . Military personnel have taken pictures with the Towel while stationed in Iraq and Afghanistan as part of the War on Terrorism . Fans waved Terrible Towels at the gold medal match for Women 's beach volleyball at the 2008 Olympic Games . Prior to the 2008 AFC Championship Game astronaut Colonel Mike Fincke , a Pittsburgh Native , waved the Terrible Towel from the International Space Station . The Terrible Towel is seen in the Scrubs season five episode " My Bright Idea " , hanging on the cork board of Carla and Turk 's apartment as she comes out of the bathroom after performing what she believes to be another unsuccessful pregnancy test . During her campaign for the 2008 Presidential Election , Hillary Clinton received a Terrible Towel during a visit to Pittsburgh . During the 2009 G @-@ 20 Pittsburgh summit , visiting dignitaries received Terrible Towels in gift bags from the city . The Terrible Towel is displayed prominently and waved by Rapper Wiz Khalifa in the music video for his song Black and Yellow , which debuted during the 2010 NFL season . The Terrible Towel made an episode in season 12 of Dancing with the Stars on March 21 , 2011 . After Hines Ward danced , Hall of Fame Pittsburgh Steelers running back Franco Harris is seen twirling the towel . = = = Honoring Cope = = = In 2005 , Cope retired after 35 years as the Steelers radio announcer — the longest tenure of any broadcaster with a single team in NFL history . Cope was honored by the Steelers with the release of a limited special edition Towel , featuring his name and catch phrases . Cope was made an honorary co @-@ captain for the Steelers for a Monday night game against the Baltimore Ravens . Cope led the fans in a towel wave at half time ; the Towel that Cope used is now in the Pro Football Hall of Fame . In response to how he would like to be remembered , Cope responded , " When I kick the bucket , there 'll be a little story that 'll say , ' Creator of Towel Dead ' " . On February 27 , 2008 , Cope died of respiratory failure in Pittsburgh . The following day , an article from the Associated Press concerning Cope 's death was entitled " Former Steelers broadcaster , Terrible Towel creator Cope dies " . Upon Cope 's death , over 350 fans gathered downtown Pittsburgh in snowy weather for a tribute to the inventor . The ceremony concluded with one minute of silent Towel waving . Days later , Saturday Night Live cast member Seth Meyers waved a Terrible Towel on Saturday Night Live , in tribute to Cope . When Mr. Cope died in 2008 , his daughter draped his coffin with a quilt made from Terrible Towels that were sewn together by a fan . She chose the quilt because it represents the many different people who touched their lives . = = = Opposition = = = Before a 1994 playoff game against the Steelers ' long @-@ time rival Cleveland Browns , Steelers defensive tackle Brentson Buckner accidentally dropped a Towel that he was waving during the player introductions . Browns running back Earnest Byner stepped on the Towel yelling , " We don 't care about your towel . We 're going to beat you this time . " This act " provok [ ed ] other Steelers and Browns to mingle . Not affectionately . " The Steelers won the game 29 – 9 . During a December 4 , 2005 , game at Heinz Field , T. J. Houshmandzadeh of the Cincinnati Bengals wiped his feet on a Towel after he scored a touchdown . Although the Bengals managed a 7 @-@ point victory in that regular season game , the Steelers came back to defeat them 31 – 17 in the playoffs , on their way to a victory in Super Bowl XL . The Bengals did not reach the playoffs again until the 2009 @-@ 10 season , after Houshmandzadeh had left the team . Before the September 29 , 2008 , Steelers game at Heinz Field , Baltimore Ravens wide receiver Derrick Mason stomped on a Terrible Towel . The Ravens then went on to lose all three of their 2008 season games against the Steelers , including the 2008 AFC Championship Game . On October 8 , 2008 , the Steelers played the Jacksonville Jaguars at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium . At that point of their season , the Jaguars were 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 0 , and feeling very hopeful for the season following a defeat at home of their division rival Colts . The game was very close going into the second half , and the Steelers were still stinging from a Mathis interception and runback for a touchdown . Shortly after the start of the third quarter , Jaguars mascot Jaxson de Ville stood alongside some cheerleaders , and produced a Terrible Towel , which he used to rub his armpits and buttocks . Shortly after that , the Steelers ran away with the game and the Jaguars lost 26 @-@ 21 . The Jaguars went on to lose eight of their remaining eleven games in the season . On December 21 , 2008 , LenDale White and Keith Bulluck of the Tennessee Titans stepped on a Terrible Towel after the Titans 's 31 – 14 victory . Pittsburgh 's Larry Foote responded , " They deserved to do that , they whooped us , they deserve to celebrate and , hopefully , we 'll see them again . " While Hines Ward said , " [ T. J. Houshmandzadeh ] did kind of the same thing and you see where they went . " Former Steelers head coach Bill Cowher , by this point working for CBS as an analyst on The NFL Today , mentioned on The NFL Today that such antics can come back to haunt teams . Tennessee was the top seed in the playoffs , however following the incident the Titans proceeded to lose eight consecutive games , including an ' 08 divisional playoff game and their ' 09 Week 1 game against the Steelers , 13 @-@ 10 . After the Titan 's 8th consecutive loss — a 59 @-@ 0 blowout to the New England Patriots , the Titans worst loss ever — Titans coach Jeff Fisher expressed regret for his team 's behavior towards the Towel , and a number of Titans players autographed a Terrible Towel and mailed it to Allegheny Valley School – the Pittsburgh charity that now owns the trademark . The Titans won their next 5 games . On January 27 , 2009 , at a public sendoff in Phoenix for the Arizona Cardinals before they faced the Steelers in Super Bowl XLIII , Phoenix Mayor Phil Gordon produced a towel and called the Cardinals mascot , Big Red to the stage , where he used the towel to wipe his armpits . Gordon then blew his nose on the towel . The Cardinals then proceeded to lose the Super Bowl to the Steelers , 27 @-@ 23 . On October 11 , 2009 , the Pittsburgh Steelers played the Detroit Lions at Ford Field . Nearing the end of the fourth quarter the Steelers were up by 8 points and the Lions were marching down the field . At this time the Lions mascot Roary The Lion , stepped on , bit and ripped apart a Terrible Towel . Following this the Lions suffered three straight sacks to put them in a long fourth and twenty @-@ eight situation . The Lions did not convert and the Steelers won the game 28 @-@ 20 . Several Blue and White " Terrific Towels " were made for the Indianapolis Colts ' in the 2009 season playoffs , one of which received some airtime during their AFC championship victory . The Colts subsequently lost Super Bowl XLIV to the New Orleans Saints . After a 13 @-@ 10 Ravens win in Pittsburgh on November 18 , 2012 Ray Rice walked off the field waving a Terrible Towel over his head and singing Steelers rally song " Renegade " with teammates . Rice publicly stated after the game that no disrespect was intended . Two weeks later on December 2 , the Ravens lost to the Steelers 23 @-@ 20 despite being at home and facing Pittsburgh 's third @-@ string quarterback , Charlie Batch . Losing 4 of their last 5 games notwithstanding , Baltimore would go on to win the AFC North and follow that with a playoff run to become Super Bowl XLVII Champions , giving them the distinction of being the first and only team in NFL history to have shown disrespect toward the Terrible Towel and win the Super Bowl . However , prior to the 2014 season , Ray Rice was suspended due to a domestic violence incident in the offseason and was subsequently released and has not been signed by another team since . On an October 5 , 2014 game between the Steelers and the Jacksonville Jaguars at EverBank Field , in which the Steelers won 17 @-@ 9 , Jaguars mascot Jaxson de Ville was seen holding a Terrible Towel on one hand and a handwritten sign that reads " Towels Carry Ebola " on the other hand , mentioning the deadly outbreak that started in West Africa . The next day , the Jaguars issued an apology for the incident , but would go on to lose 13 of their next 17 games . On February 7 , 2016 , the Florida Panthers ' mascot , Stanley C Panther , blew his nose into a Terrible Towel , with the Pittsburgh Penguins down 0 @-@ 2 with around 6 mins left in the 3rd period . After this , the Penguins then tied the game in regulation , and won it in overtime . According to Elias Sports Bureau , this was the first time in Pittsburgh Penguins franchise history that they have overcome a 2 @-@ 0 deficit to win with 6 mins left in the game . Kris Letang scored the OT winner , and Sidney Crosby tied the game with the goaltender pulled late in regulation . Including the game against the Penguins , the Panthers are 1 @-@ 4 since the incident . = = Similar gimmicks = = During his coaching career from 1922 to 1964 , E. A. Diddle of Western Kentucky University began carrying a red towel with him during the basketball games he coached . Diddle would wave and throw the towel during games , and the concept was adopted by fans of the college . It became an official part of the school logo in 1971 . Fans of the undefeated 1972 Miami Dolphins cheered the team by waving the " Horrible Hanky " — white handkerchiefs . However , the handkerchiefs were deemed " too dainty " for football , and the tradition faded . " Hate the Yankees Hankies " , in reference to the franchise 's rivalry with the New York Yankees , were handkerchiefs distributed to Cleveland Indians fans in September 1977 in a promotion . The Terrible Towel is traditionally known as the first " rally towel " ; its popularity has spawned similar traditions for other teams . Fans of the Minnesota Twins cheer the team with the " Homer Hanky " during the playoffs . The Philadelphia Phillies have distributed white towels to fans during home games . During a 2006 playoff game against the Steelers , the Indianapolis Colts handed out blue towels to rally fans , however , Pittsburgh went on to win the game . In a 2000 preseason game , played in Mexico City , many fans that filled the 100 @,@ 000 seat Aztec Stadium waved Towels . Cope , glad that the Allegheny Valley School would receive a sizable donation from the proceeds , was later disappointed to learn the towels waved by the fans were " knockoffs " made by local artists , and therefore no proceeds would go to the school . In 2008 , the NFL approved a white towel entitled the Trophy Towel , which will be sold to fans and given to the winning team of Super Bowl XLIII . Members of the Steelers criticized the idea , broadcaster Bill Hillgrove — who worked with Cope — called the idea " a cheap imitation . " Steelers player Aaron Smith stated , " It started here , so why would anyone else want to have a towel ? Why not kazoos ? " During the 2010 Memorial Cup the host committee made up 8 @,@ 000 yellow towels to represent the host team , the Brandon Wheat Kings , who played the Moncton Wildcats . Many fans brought the towels back for games after that .
= Invasion of Dominica = The Invasion of Dominica ( 7 September 1778 ) was a successful French invasion of the island of Dominica in the British West Indies , during the Anglo @-@ French War . The action took place before British authorities in the Caribbean were aware that France had entered the war as an ally of the United States of America . The French governor in the West Indies , François Claude Amour , marquis de Bouillé , was notified on 17 August that France was at war , and organized the invasion , infiltrating spies to rally sympathetic French @-@ speaking Dominican support . Early on 7 September 1778 , French forces landed on the southeastern coast of the island . They rapidly took over some of the island 's defenses , and eventually gained control of the high ground overlooking the island capital , Roseau . Lieutenant Governor William Stuart then surrendered the remaining forces . Dominica remained in French hands until the end of the war , when it was returned to British control . = = Background = = Following the pivotal Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 and the ensuing surrender of British General John Burgoyne 's army , France decided to openly enter the American War of Independence as an ally of the young United States of America . France 's objectives in entering the war included the recovery of territories that had been lost to Britain in the Seven Years ' War . One key territory that was of particular interest was the West Indies island of Dominica , which lay between French @-@ held Martinique and Guadeloupe , and had been captured by Britain in 1761 . Recapture of the island would improve communication among the islands , and deny the use of Dominican ports to privateers who preyed on French shipping . On Dominica , Governor Thomas Shirley had been concerned about the island 's security since the war began in 1775 . Operating against instructions from colonial authorities in London to minimize expenses for defence , he had pushed forward the improvement of a fort at Cachacrou and other sites . This work was incomplete when Shirley took leave in June 1778 , sailing for England . Command was left with Lieutenant Governor William Stuart , and work to improve the defenses was still incomplete in August 1778 , when François Claude Amour , marquis de Bouillé , the governor of the French West Indies , received word that war had been declared . = = Prelude = = The French frigate Concorde reached Martinique on August 17 with orders from Paris to take Dominica at the earliest opportunity , and de Bouillé made immediate plans for such an operation . He had maintained contacts in the Dominican population , which had remained largely French during the years of British administration . As a result he had an accurate picture of the condition of the Dominican defenses , and knew that the island 's garrison numbered fewer than " fifty soldiers fit for duty " . He was also concerned with the whereabouts of the British Leeward Islands fleet of Admiral Samuel Barrington , which was significantly more powerful than his own . Unbeknownst to de Bouillé , Barrington , who had only recently assumed his post , was under orders to retain most of his fleet at Barbados until further instructions were received . The British regular forces on the island , which in total numbered about 100 , were distributed among defences in the capital Roseau , the hills that overlooked it , and at Cachacrou . De Bouillé carefully maintained a facade of peace in his dealings with Dominican authorities while he began preparing his forces on Martinique . On 2 September he and Stuart signed an agreement that formally prohibited privateering crews from plundering . The next day de Bouillé sent one of his officers to Dominica to see whether a Royal Navy frigate was still anchored in Prince Rupert 's Bay ( near present @-@ day Portsmouth ) . Stuart , suspicious of the man , had him questioned and then released . On 5 September de Bouillé was informed that the frigate had sailed for Barbados . He immediately moved to launch his invasion . Some Frenchmen ( some British sources suggest they were French soldiers infiltrated onto the island ) gained entry to the battery at Cachacrou that evening , plied its garrison with drink , and poured sand into the touchholes of the fort 's cannons , temporarily rendering them useless . De Bouillé had in fact infiltrated some agents onto the island who had convinced some of the local French @-@ speaking militia to abandon their duties when called up . = = Invasion = = After sunset on 6 September , 1 @,@ 800 French troops and 1 @,@ 000 volunteers departed Martinique aboard the frigates Tourterelle , Diligente , and Amphitrite , the corvette Étourdie , and a flotilla of smaller vessels . ( Sources describing the action give significantly varying numbers for the size of the French force . The numbers here are from de Bouillé 's report of the action ; some British sources claim his force numbered as much as 4 @,@ 500 . ) The first point of attack was the battery at Cachacrou , where the British garrison , befuddled by drink and with inoperative cannons , was overcome without significant resistance around dawn on 7 September . Two of the 48th Regiment 's soldiers were driven over the ramparts and fell to their deaths . After securing the battery the French fired cannons and sent signal rockets skyward to signal their allies . These actions also alerted Stuart at Roseau , and the alarm was immediately raised . Many of the French Dominican militia failed to muster , as arranged . About 100 militia ended up mustering for duty , and were deployed among Roseau 's defenses . The French proceeded to land more troops between Cachacrou and Roseau , with the objective of gaining the high ground above the capital . The main force of 1 @,@ 400 men was landed about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Roseau near Pointe Michel , with heavy fire from the hill batteries resulting in 40 casualties . De Bouillé landed with another 600 at Loubiere , between Pointe Michel and Roseau , while another 500 landed north of Roseau , and the fleet 's frigates moved to bombard Roseau 's defenses . The French briefly captured the coastal fort at Loubiere , but were three times driven out by fire from above . They ended up withdrawing until forces were able to reach and capture the hill batteries . By noon , the French occupied the high ground above the capital , and Stuart realized the situation was hopeless . Negotiations followed , and Stuart and de Bouillé signed the terms of capitulation at about 3 : 00 pm . The proceedings were interrupted by one of the French frigates , whose captain , apparently unaware of the proceedings , fired on Fort Young , where the British flag was still flying . The two commanders rushed to the fort to prevent further exchanges of gunfire before they completed the agreement . The French then formally took control of Roseau . The British regulars were made prisoners of war , and the militia were released to return home . De Bouillé , who was interested in keeping on good terms with the population , did not allow his troops to plunder the town . Instead , he levied a fee of £ 4 @,@ 400 on the island 's population that was distributed among his men . = = Aftermath = = De Bouillé in official correspondence claimed the French suffered no casualties . Stuart reported that the French appeared to be concealing the casualties that occurred during the invasion . De Bouillé left a garrison of 800 ( 700 French regulars and 100 free black militia ) on the island , turned its command over to the Marquis de Duchilleau , and returned to Martinique . News of Dominica 's fall was received with surprise in London . Considering a single ship of the line might have prevented the attack , Admiral Barrington was widely blamed for the loss , and criticized for adhering too closely to his orders . The orders and reinforcements whose late arrival had held Barrington at Barbados were to launch an attack on St. Lucia , which took place in December 1778 . These events were the first in a series of military actions resulting in the change of control of Caribbean islands during the war , in which de Bouillé was often involved . Thomas Shirley was appointed Governor of the Leeward Islands in 1781 , and was taken prisoner by de Bouillé in the 1782 British surrender of Saint Kitts . Dominica remained in French hands until 1784 , when , much to de Bouillé 's annoyance , it was returned to British control under the terms of the 1783 Treaty of Paris . The fact that the French had supplied natives and mixed @-@ blood locals with arms during the invasion caused problems for the British . These local forces , who were previously somewhat pacific , resisted British attempts to expand their holdings on the island , leading to expanded conflict in 1785 .
= Flexible @-@ fuel vehicle = A flexible @-@ fuel vehicle ( FFV ) or dual @-@ fuel vehicle ( colloquially called a flex @-@ fuel vehicle ) is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel , usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel , and both fuels are stored in the same common tank . Modern flex @-@ fuel engines are capable of burning any proportion of the resulting blend in the combustion chamber as fuel injection and spark timing are adjusted automatically according to the actual blend detected by a fuel composition sensor . Flex @-@ fuel vehicles are distinguished from bi @-@ fuel vehicles , where two fuels are stored in separate tanks and the engine runs on one fuel at a time , for example , compressed natural gas ( CNG ) , liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) , or hydrogen . The most common commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol flexible @-@ fuel vehicle , with about 49 million automobiles , motorcycles and light duty trucks manufactured and sold worldwide by mid 2015 , and concentrated in four markets , Brazil ( 29 @.@ 5 million by mid 2015 ) , the United States ( 17 @.@ 4 million by the end of 2014 ) , Canada ( 1 @.@ 6 million by 2014 ) , and Europe , led by Sweden ( 243 @,@ 100 ) . The Brazilian flex fuel fleet includes over 4 million flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles produced since 2009 through March 2015 . In addition to flex @-@ fuel vehicles running with ethanol , in Europe and the US , mainly in California , there have been successful test programs with methanol flex @-@ fuel vehicles , known as M85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles . There have been also successful tests using P @-@ series fuels with E85 flex fuel vehicles , but as of June 2008 , this fuel is not yet available to the general public . These successful tests with P @-@ series fuels were conducted on Ford Taurus and Dodge Caravan flexible @-@ fuel vehicles . Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture of gasoline and ethanol , from pure gasoline up to 100 % ethanol ( E100 ) , North American and European flex @-@ fuel vehicles are optimized to run on E85 , a blend of 85 % anhydrous ethanol fuel with 15 % gasoline . This upper limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather , at temperatures lower than 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) . The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) to a winter blend of E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden from November until March . Brazilian flex fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20 @-@ E25 gasoline and up to 100 % hydrous ethanol fuel ( E100 ) . The Brazilian flex vehicles are built @-@ in with a small gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 which eliminated the need for the secondary gas tank . = = Terminology = = As ethanol FFVs became commercially available during the late 1990s , the common use of the term " flexible @-@ fuel vehicle " became synonymous with ethanol FFVs . In the United States flex @-@ fuel vehicles are also known as " E85 vehicles " . In Brazil , the FFVs are popularly known as " total flex " or simply " flex " cars . In Europe , FFVs are also known as " flexifuel " vehicles . Automakers , particularly in Brazil and the European market , use badging in their FFV models with the some variant of the word " flex " , such as Volvo Flexifuel , or Volkswagen Total Flex , or Chevrolet FlexPower or Renault Hi @-@ Flex , and Ford sells its Focus model in Europe as Flexifuel and as Flex in Brazil . In the US , only since 2008 FFV models feature a yellow gas cap with the label " E85 / Gasoline " written on the top of the cap to differentiate E85s from gasoline only models . Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles ( FFVs ) are based on dual @-@ fuel systems that supply both fuels into the combustion chamber at the same time in various calibrated proportions . The most common fuels used by FFVs today are unleaded gasoline and ethanol fuel . Ethanol FFVs can run on pure gasoline , pure ethanol ( E100 ) or any combination of both . Methanol has also been blended with gasoline in flex @-@ fuel vehicles known as M85 FFVs , but their use has been limited mainly to demonstration projects and small government fleets , particularly in California . Bi @-@ fuel vehicles . The term flexible @-@ fuel vehicles is sometimes used to include other alternative fuel vehicles that can run with compressed natural gas ( CNG ) , liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ; also known as autogas ) , or hydrogen . However , all these vehicles actually are bi @-@ fuel and not flexible @-@ fuel vehicles , because they have engines that store the other fuel in a separate tank , and the engine runs on one fuel at a time . Bi @-@ fuel vehicles have the capability to switch back and forth from gasoline to the other fuel , manually or automatically . The most common available fuel in the market for bi @-@ fuel cars is natural gas ( CNG ) , and by 2008 there were 9 @,@ 6 million natural gas vehicles , led by Pakistan ( 2 @.@ 0 million ) , Argentina ( 1 @.@ 7 million ) , and Brazil ( 1 @.@ 6 million ) . Natural gas vehicles are a popular choice as taxicabs in the main cities of Argentina and Brazil . Normally , standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops , which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics . Multifuel vehicles are capable of operating with more than two fuels . In 2004 GM do Brasil introduced the Chevrolet Astra 2 @.@ 0 with a " MultiPower " engine built on flex fuel technology developed by Bosch of Brazil , and capable of using CNG , ethanol and gasoline ( E20 @-@ E25 blend ) as fuel . This automobile was aimed at the taxicab market and the switch among fuels is done manually . In 2006 Fiat introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel , a four @-@ fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil . This automobile can run as a flex @-@ fuel on 100 % ethanol ( E100 ) ; or on E @-@ 20 to E25 , Brazil 's normal ethanol gasoline blend ; on pure gasoline ( though no longer available in Brazil since 1993 , it is still used in neighboring countries ) ; or just on natural gas . The Siena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline @-@ ethanol blend to CNG automatically , depending on the power required by road conditions . Another existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible @-@ fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system . This option is popular among taxicab owners in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , allowing users to choose among three fuels ( E25 , E100 and CNG ) according to current market prices at the pump . Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as " tri @-@ fuel " cars . Flex @-@ fuel hybrid electric and flex @-@ fuel plug @-@ in hybrid are two types of hybrid vehicles built with a combustion engine capable of running on gasoline , E @-@ 85 , or E @-@ 100 to help drive the wheels in conjunction with the electric engine or to recharge the battery pack that powers the electric engine . In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real @-@ world testing in fleets in the U.S. Also as a demonstration project , Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible @-@ fuel plug @-@ in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) , a Ford Escape Plug @-@ in Hybrid , which runs on gasoline or E85 . GM announced that the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , launched in the U.S. in late 2010 , would be the first commercially available flex @-@ fuel plug @-@ in capable of adapting the propulsion to several world markets such as the U.S. , Brazil or Sweden , as the combustion engine can be adapted to run on E85 , E100 or diesel respectively . The Volt was initially expected to be flex @-@ fuel @-@ capable in 2013 . Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar at the 2010 Paris Motor Show . The CityCar is a plug @-@ in hybrid concept car designed for flex @-@ fuel operation on ethanol , or methanol as well as regular gasoline . = = History = = The Ford Model T , produced from 1908 through 1927 , was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting , allowing use of gasoline or ethanol , or a combination of both . Other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use . Henry Ford continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition . However , cheaper oil caused gasoline to prevail , until the 1973 oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence . This crisis opened a new opportunity for ethanol and other alternative fuels , such as methanol , gaseous fuels such as CNG and LPG , and also hydrogen . Ethanol , methanol and natural gas CNG were the three alternative fuels that received more attention for research and development , and government support . Since 1975 , and as a response to the shock caused by the first oil crisis , the Brazilian government implemented the National Alcohol Program -Pró @-@ Álcool- ( Portuguese : Programa Nacional do Álcool ) , a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automotive fuels derived from fossil fuels in favor of ethanol made from sugar cane . It began with a low blend of anhydrous alcohol with regular gasoline in 1976 , and since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25 % of alcohol or gasohol E25 . In 1979 , and as a response to the second oil crisis , the first vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol ( E100 ) was launched to the market , the Fiat 147 , after testing with several prototypes developed by Fiat , Volkswagen , GM and Ford . The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry : guaranteed purchases by the state @-@ owned oil company Petrobras , low @-@ interest loans for agro @-@ industrial ethanol firms , and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices . After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s , the use of E100 @-@ only vehicles sharply declined after increases in sugar prices produced shortages of ethanol fuel . After extensive research that began in the 90s , a second push took place in March 2003 , when the Brazilian subsidiary of Volkswagen launched to the market the first full flexible @-@ fuel car , the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex . Several months later was followed by other Brazilian automakers , and by 2010 General Motors , Fiat , Ford , Peugeot , Renault , Volkswagen , Honda , Mitsubishi , Toyota , Citroën , Nissan and Kia Motors were producing popular models of flex cars and light trucks . The adoption of ethanol flex fuel vehicles was so successful , that production of flex cars went from almost 40 thousand in 2003 to 1 @.@ 7 million in 2007 . This rapid adoption of the flex technology was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place , as around 27 @,@ 000 filling stations countrywide were available by 1997 with at least one ethanol pump , a heritage of the Pró @-@ Álcool program . In the United States , initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the first oil crisis , and some time later , as a goal to improve air quality . Also , liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines , thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure . California led the search of sustainable alternatives with interest focused in methanol . Ford Motor Company and other automakers responded to California 's request for vehicles that run on methanol . In 1981 , Ford delivered 40 dedicated methanol fuel ( M100 ) Escorts to Los Angeles County , but only four refueling stations were installed . The biggest challenge in the development of alcohol vehicle technology was getting all of the fuel system materials compatible with the higher chemical reactivity of the fuel . Methanol was even more of a challenge than ethanol but much of the early experience gained with neat ethanol vehicle production in Brazil was transferable to methanol . The success of this small experimental fleet of M100s led California to request more of these vehicles , mainly for government fleets . In 1983 , Ford built 582 M100 vehicles ; 501 went to California , and the remaining to New Zealand , Sweden , Norway , United Kingdom , and Canada . As an answer to the lack of refueling infrastructure , Ford began development of a flexible @-@ fuel vehicle in 1982 , and between 1985 and 1992 , 705 experimental FFVs were built and delivered to California and Canada , including the 1.6L Ford Escort , the 3.0L Taurus , and the 5.0L LTD Crown Victoria . These vehicles could operate on either gasoline or methanol with only one fuel system . Legislation was passed to encourage the US auto industry to begin production , which started in 1993 for the M85 FFVs at Ford . In 1996 , a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed , with models fully capable of running on either methanol or ethanol blended with gasoline . This ethanol version of the Taurus became the first commercial production of an E85 FFV . The momentum of the FFV production programs at the American car companies continued , although by the end of the 1990s , the emphasis shifted to the FFV E85 version , as it is today . Ethanol was preferred over methanol because there is a large support from the farming community , and thanks to the government 's incentive programs and corn @-@ based ethanol subsidies available at the time . Sweden also tested both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles , but due to agriculture policy , in the end emphasis was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles . Support for ethanol also comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel , which addresses climate change concerns and greenhouse gas emissions , though nowadays these benefits are questioned and depend on the feedstock used for ethanol production and their indirect land use change impacts . The demand for ethanol fuel produced from field corn in the United States was stimulated by the discovery in the late 90s that methyl tertiary butyl ether ( MTBE ) , an oxygenate additive in gasoline , was contaminating groundwater . Due to the risks of widespread and costly litigation , and because MTBE use in gasoline was banned in almost 20 states by 2006 , the substitution of MTBE opened a new market for ethanol fuel . This demand shift for ethanol as an oxygenate additive took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising . By 2006 , about 50 percent of the gasoline used in the U.S. contained ethanol at different proportions , and ethanol production grew so fast that the US became the world 's top ethanol producer , overtaking Brazil in 2005 . This shift also contributed to a sharp increase in the production and sale of E85 flex vehicles since 2002 . = = Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles by country = = = = = Brazil = = = Flexible @-@ fuel technology started being developed by Brazilian engineers near the end of the 1990s . The Brazilian flexible fuel car is built with an ethanol @-@ ready engine and one fuel tank for both fuels . The small gasoline reservoir for starting the engine with pure ethanol in cold weather , used in earlier neat ethanol vehicles , was kept to avoid start up problems in the central and southern regions , where winter temperatures normally drop below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 and allowed to eliminate the need for this secondary gas reservoir tank . Another improvement was the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions , between 10 % to 15 % as compared to flex motors sold in 2008 . In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E @-@ Flex , the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start . A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol @-@ gasoline mix , which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive . Brazilian flex cars are capable of running on just hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) , or just on a blend of gasoline with 20 to 25 % anhydrous ethanol ( the mandatory blend since 1993 ) , or on any arbitrary combination of both fuels . The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowers the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices . As ethanol fuel economy is lower than gasoline because of ethanol 's energy content is close to 34 % less per unit volume than gasoline , flex cars running on ethanol get a lower mileage than when running on pure gasoline . However , this effect is partially offset by the usually lower price per liter of ethanol fuel . As a rule of thumb , Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30 % lower or more than gasoline , as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the result of seasonal sugar cane harvests . In March 2003 Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . GM do Brasil followed three months later with the Chevrolet Corsa 1 @.@ 8 Flexpower , using an engine developed by a joint @-@ venture with Fiat called PowerTrain . Passenger flex @-@ fuel vehicles became a commercial success in the country , and as of December 2013 , a total of 15 car manufacturers produce flex @-@ fuel engines for the Brazilian market , dominating all light vehicle segments except sports cars , off @-@ road vehicles and minivans . The production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles since 2003 reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010 . At the end of 2012 registrations of flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks represented 87 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in the country in 2012 , and climbed to a 94 % market share of all new passenger vehicles sales in 2013 . Production passed the 20 million @-@ unit mark in June 2013 . By the end of 2014 , flex @-@ fuel cars represented 54 % of the Brazilian registered stock of light @-@ duty vehicles , while gasoline only vehicles represented 34 @.@ 3 % . As of June 2015 , flex @-@ fuel light @-@ duty vehicle sales totaled 25 @.@ 5 million units . The rapid success of flex vehicles was made possible by the existence of 33 @,@ 000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006 , a heritage of the early Pró @-@ Álcool ethanol program . These facts , together with the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country , allowed Brazil in 2008 to achieve more than 50 % of fuel consumption in the gasoline market from sugar cane @-@ based ethanol . According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , at the national level 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly used ethanol fuel , and the usage climbed to 93 % in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and prices at the pump are more competitive than gasoline . However , as a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis that began in 2009 , combined with government subsidies to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol , down from 66 % in 2009 . One of the latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology is the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . The first flex @-@ fuel motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009 , the CG 150 Titan Mix . In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . By December 2012 the five available models of flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles from Honda and Yamaha reached a cumulative production of 2 @,@ 291 @,@ 072 units , representing 31 @.@ 8 % of all motorcycles manufactured in Brazil since 2009 , and 48 @.@ 2 % of motorcycle production in 2012 . Flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle production passed the 3 million @-@ unit milestone in October 2013 . The 4 million mark was reached in March 2015 . = = = Europe = = = = = = = Sweden = = = = Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles were introduced in Sweden as a demonstration test in 1994 , when three Ford Taurus were imported to show the technology existed . Because of the existing interest , a project was started in 1995 with 50 Ford Taurus E85 flexifuel in different parts of Sweden : Umeå , Örnsköldsvik , Härnösand , Stockholm , Karlstad , Linköping , and Växjö . From 1997 to 1998 an additional 300 Taurus were imported , and the number of E85 fueling grew to 40 . Then in 1998 the city of Stockholm placed an order for 2 @,@ 000 of FFVs for any car manufacturer willing to produce them . The objective was to jump @-@ start the FFV industry in Sweden . The two domestic car makers Volvo Group and Saab AB refused to participate arguing there were not in place any ethanol filling stations . However , Ford Motor Company took the offer and began importing the flexifuel version of its Focus model , delivering the first cars in 2001 , and selling more than 15 @,@ 000 FFV Focus by 2005 , then representing an 80 % market share of the flexifuel market . In 2005 both Volvo and Saab introduced to the Sweden market their flexifuel models . Saab began selling its 9 @-@ 5 2 @.@ 0 Biopower , joined in 2006 by its 9 @-@ 5 2 @.@ 3 Biopower . Volvo introduced its S40 and V50 with flexible @-@ fuel engines , joined in late 2006 by the new C30 . All Volvo models were initially restricted to the Sweden market , until 2007 , when these three models were launched in eight new European markets . In 2007 , Saab also started selling a BioPower version of its popular Saab 9 @-@ 3 line . In 2008 the Saab @-@ derived Cadillac BLS was introduced with E85 compatible engines , and Volvo launched the V70 with a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ litre turbocharged Flexifuel engine . All flexible @-@ fuel vehicles in Sweden use an E75 winter blend instead of E85 to avoid engine starting problems during cold weather . This blend was introduced since the winter 2006 @-@ 07 and E75 is used from November until March . For temperature below − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater . The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below − 23 ° C ( − 9 ° F ) . Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank , thus reducing the ethanol content below the E75 winter blend , or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells . Sweden has achieved the largest E85 flexible @-@ fuel vehicle fleet in Europe , with a sharp growth from 717 vehicles in 2001 to 243 @,@ 136 through December 2014 . As of 2008 a total of 70 % of all flexifuel vehicles operating in the EU were registered in Sweden . The recent and accelerated growth of the Swedish fleet of E85 flexifuel vehicles is the result of the National Climate Policy in Global Cooperation Bill passed in 2005 , which not only ratified the Kyoto Protocol but also sought to meet the 2003 EU Biofuels Directive regarding targets for use of biofuels , and also let to the 2006 government 's commitment to eliminate oil imports by 2020 . In order to achieve these goals several government incentives were implemented . Ethanol , as the other biofuels , was exempted of both , the CO2 and energy taxes until 2009 , resulting in a 30 % price reduction at the pump of E85 fuel over gasoline . Furthermore , other demand side incentives for flexifuel vehicle owners include a US $ 1 @,@ 800 bonus to buyers of FFVs , exemption from the Stockholm congestion tax , up to 20 % discount on auto insurance , free parking spaces in most of the largest cities , owner annual registration taxes , and a 20 % tax reduction for flexifuel company cars . Also , a part of the program , the Swedish Government ruled that 25 % of their vehicle purchases ( excluding police , fire and ambulance vehicles ) must be alternative fuel vehicles . By the first months of 2008 , this package of incentives resulted in sales of flexible @-@ fuel cars representing 25 % of new car sales . On the supply side , since 2005 the gasoline fuelling stations selling more than 3 million liters of fuel a year are required to sell at least one type of biofuel , resulting in more than 1 @,@ 200 gas stations selling E85 by August 2008 . Despite all the sharp growth of E85 flexifuel cars , by 2007 they represented just two percent of the four million Swedish vehicles . In addition , this law also mandated all new filling stations to offer alternative fuels , and stations with an annual volume of more than one million liters are required to have an alternative fuel pump by December 2009 . Therefore , the number of E85 pumps is expected to reach by 2009 nearly 60 % of Sweden 's 4 @,@ 000 filling stations . The Swedish @-@ made Koenigsegg CCXR , a limited edition and version of the CCX , is currently the fastest and most powerful flexible fuel vehicle with its twin @-@ supercharged V8 producing 1018 hp when running on biofuel , as compared to 806 hp on 91 octane US unleaded gasoline . = = = = Other European countries = = = = Flexifuel vehicles are sold in 18 European countries , including Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom . Ford , Volvo and Saab are the main automakers offering flexifuel autos in the region . = = = = = France = = = = = Biofuel cars in general get strong tax incentives in France , including a 0 or 50 % reduction on the tax on new vehicles , and a 40 % reduction on CO2 tax for new cars . For company cars there is a corporate car tax free for 2 years and a recovery of 80 % of the value added tax ( VAT ) on E85 vehicles . Also , E85 fuel price is set significantly lower than diesel or gasoline , resulting in E85 at € 0 @.@ 80 , diesel at € 1 @.@ 15 , and gasoline at € 1 @.@ 30 per liter , as of April 2007 . By May 2008 , France had 211 pumps selling E85 , even though the government made plans for the installation of up to 500 E85 pumps by year end 2007 . French automakers Renault and PSA ( Citroen & Peugeot ) announced they will start selling FFV cars beginning in the summer 2007 . = = = = = Germany = = = = = Biofuel emphasis in Germany is on biodiesel , and no specific incentives have been granted for E85 flex @-@ fuel cars , however there is complete exemption of taxes on all biofuels while there is a normal tax of € 0 @.@ 65 per liter of petroleum fuels . The distribution of E85 began in 2005 , and with 219 stations as of September 2008 , Germany ranks second after Sweden with the most E85 fueling stations in the EU . As of July 2012 retail prices of E85 was € 1 @.@ 09 per liter , and gasoline was priced at € 1 @.@ 60 per liter ( for gasoline RON 95 ) , then providing enough margin to compensate for ethanol 's lower fuel economy . Ford has offered the Ford Focus since August 2005 in Germany . Ford is about to offer also the Mondeo and other models as FFV versions between 2008 and 2010 . The Saab 9 @-@ 5 and Saab 9 @-@ 3 Biopower , the Peugeot 308 Bioflex , the Citroën C4 Bioflex , the Audi A5 , two models of the Cadillac BLS , and five Volvo models are also available in the German market by 2008 . Since 2011 , Dacia offers the Logan MCV with an 1.6l 16v flexfuel engine . = = = = = Ireland = = = = = Ireland is the third best seller European market of E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles , after Sweden and France . Bioethanol ( E85 ) in Ireland is made from whey , a waste product of cheese manufacturing . The Irish government established several incentives , including a 50 % discount in vehicle registration taxes ( VRT ) , which can account for more than one third of the retail price of a new car in Ireland ( around € 6 @,@ 500 ) . The bioethanol element of the E85 fuel is excise @-@ free for fuel companies , allowing retail prices to be low enough to offset the 25 per cent cut in fuel economy that E @-@ 85 cars offer , due to ethanol 's lower energy content than gasoline . Also , the value added tax ( VAT ) on the fuel can also be claimed back . E @-@ 85 fuel is available across the country in more than 20 of Maxol service stations . In October 2005 , the 1 @.@ 8 Ford Focus FFV became the first flexible @-@ fuel vehicle to be commercially sold in Ireland . Later Ford launched the C @-@ max and the Mondeo flexifuel models . Saab and Volvo also have E85 models available . From 1 January 2011 E85 fuel is no longer excise @-@ free in Ireland . Maxol has announced they will not provide E85 when their current supplies have run out . = = = = = Spain = = = = = The first flexifuel vehicles were introduced in Spain by late 2007 , with the acquisition of 80 cars for use in the Spaniard official government fleet . At that time the country had only three gas stations selling E85 , making necessary to deploy an official E85 fueling station in Madrid to attend these vehicles . Despite the introduction in the Spaniard market of several flexifuel models , by the end of 2008 still persists the problems of adequate E85 fueling infrastructure , as only 10 gas stations were selling E85 fuel to the public in the entire country . = = = = = United Kingdom = = = = = The UK government established several incentives for E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles . These include a fuel duty rebate on E85 fuel of 20 p per liter , until 2010 ; a £ 10 to 15 reduction in the vehicle excise duty ( VED ) ; and a 2 % annual company car tax discount for flex @-@ fuel cars . Despite the small number of E85 pump stations available , limited to the Morrisons supermarket chain stations , most automakers offer the same models in the UK that are available in the European market . In 2005 the Ford Focus Flexi @-@ Fuel became the first flexible @-@ fuel car sold in the UK , though E85 pumps were not opened until 2006 . Volvo now offers its flexifuel models S80 , S40 , C30 , V50 and V70 . Other models available in the UK are the Ford C @-@ Max Flexi @-@ Fuel , and the Saab models 9 @-@ 5 and 9 @-@ 3 Flex @-@ Fuel Biopower , and the new Saab Aero X BioPower E100 bioethanol . = = = United States = = = Since 1998 a total of 17 @.@ 7 million E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles had been sold or lease in the United States through the end of 2014 . About 11 million flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks were still in operation as of early 2013 , up from 7 @.@ 3 million in 2008 , 4 @.@ 1 million in 2005 , and 1 @.@ 4 million on U.S roads in 2001 . For the 2011 model year there are about 70 vehicles E85 capable , including sedans , vans , SUVs and pick @-@ up trucks . Many of the models available in the market are trucks and sport @-@ utility vehicles getting less than 20 mpg @-@ US ( 12 L / 100 km ; 24 mpg @-@ imp ) when filled with gasoline . Actual consumption of E85 among flex @-@ fuel vehicle owners is limited . Nevertheless , the U.S. Department of Energy estimated that in 2011 only 862 @,@ 837 flex @-@ fuel fleet @-@ operated vehicles were regularly fueled with E85 . As a result , from all the ethanol fuel consumed in the country in 2009 , only 1 % was E85 consumed by flex @-@ fuel vehicles . The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol , and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor , which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel , allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle 's tank . Because ethanol contains close to 34 % less energy per unit volume than gasoline , E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline . Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models , the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25 @.@ 56 % lower than unleaded gasoline . The American E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol , anywhere from 0 % to 85 % ethanol by volume . Both fuels are mixed in the same tank , and E85 is sold already blended . In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather , the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85 % . There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 ( called winter E85 blend ) in very cold regions , where temperatures fall below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) during the winter . In Wyoming for example , E70 is sold as E85 from October to May . E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles are becoming increasingly common in the Midwest , where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production . Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US , with more favorable prices in the Midwest region , where most corn is grown and ethanol produced . Depending of the vehicle capabilities , the break @-@ even price of E85 has to be between 25 and 30 % lower than gasoline . = = = = Barriers to widespread adoption = = = = A 2005 survey found that 68 % of American flex @-@ fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex . This was because the exteriors of flex and non @-@ flex vehicles look exactly the same ; there is no sale price difference between them ; the lack of consumers ' awareness about E85s ; and also the initial decision of American automakers of not putting any kind of exterior labeling , so buyers could be unaware they are purchasing an E85 vehicle . Since 2008 , all new FFV models in the US feature a bright yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities and proper flex @-@ fuel badging . Some critics have argued that American automakers have been producing E85 flex models motivated by a loophole in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( CAFE ) requirements , that allows for a fuel economy credit for every flex @-@ fuel vehicle sold , whether or not in practice these vehicles are fueled with E85 . This loophole might allow the car industry to meet the CAFE targets in fuel economy just by spending between US $ 100 and US $ 200 that it cost to turn a conventional vehicle into a flex @-@ fuel , without investing in new technology to improve fuel economy , and saving them the potential fines for not achieving that standard in a given model year . The CAFE standards proposed in 2011 for the period 2017 @-@ 2025 will allow flexible @-@ fuel vehicles to receive extra credit but only when the carmakers present data proving how much E85 such vehicles have actually consumed . A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles , or fueling with E85 , is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public with only 2 % of the motor fuel stations offering E85 by March 2014 . As of November 2015 , there were only 3 @,@ 218 fueling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire U.S. , while about 156 @,@ 000 retail motor fuel outlets do not offer any ethanol blend . In addition , there has been a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states . The main constraint for a more rapid expansion of E85 availability is that it requires dedicated storage tanks at filling stations , at an estimated cost of US $ 60 @,@ 000 for each dedicated ethanol tank . The Obama Administration set the goal of installing 10 @,@ 000 blender pumps nationwide until 2015 , and to support this target the US Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) issued a rule in May 2011 to include flexible fuel pumps in the Rural Energy for America Program ( REAP ) . This ruling will provide financial assistance to fuel station owners to install E85 and blender pumps . = = = = Flex fuel conversion kit = = = = A flex fuel conversion kit is a kit that allows a conventional equipment manufactured vehicle to be altered to operate on propane , natural gas , methane gas , ethanol , or electricity are classified as aftermarket AFV conversions . All vehicle conversions , except those that are completed for a vehicle to run on electricity , must meet current applicable U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) standards . = = = = Latest developments = = = = In 2008 , Ford delivered the first flex @-@ fuel plug @-@ in hybrid as part of a demonstration project , a Ford Escape Plug @-@ in Hybrid capable of running on E85 or gasoline . General Motors announced that the new Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , launched in the United States market in December 2010 , would be flex @-@ fuel @-@ capable in 2013 . General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars . If successful , GM would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel , as most new cars sold in Brazil are flex @-@ fuel . In 2008 , Chrysler , General Motors , and Ford pledged to manufacture 50 percent of their entire vehicle line as flexible fuel in model year 2012 , if enough fueling infrastructure develops . The Open Fuel Standard Act ( OFS ) , introduced to Congress in May 2011 , is intended to promote a massive adoption of flex @-@ fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol or methanol . The bill requires that 50 percent of automobiles made in 2014 , 80 percent in 2016 , and 95 percent in 2017 , would be manufactured and warranted to operate on non @-@ petroleum @-@ based fuels , which includes existing technologies such as flex @-@ fuel , natural gas , hydrogen , biodiesel , plug @-@ in electric and fuel cell . As of December 2014 , almost half of new vehicles produced by Chrysler , Ford , and General Motors are flex @-@ fuel , meaning roughly one @-@ quarter of all new vehicles sold by 2015 are capable of using up to E85 . However , obstacles to widespread use of E85 fuel remain . A 2014 analysis by the Renewable Fuels Association ( RFA ) found that oil companies prevent or discourage affiliated retailers from selling E85 through rigid franchise and branding agreements , restrictive supply contracts , and other tactics . The report showed independent retailers are five times more likely to offer E85 than retailers carrying an oil company brand . = = = Other countries = = = = = = = Australia = = = = In January 2007 GM brought UK @-@ sourced Saab 9 @-@ 5 Biopower E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles to Australia as a trial , in order to measure interest in ethanol @-@ powered vehicles in the country . Saab Australia placed the vehicles with the fleets of the Queensland Government , the media , and some ethanol producers . E85 is not available widely in Australia , but the Manildra Group provided the E85 blend fuel for this trial . Saab Australia became the first car maker to produce an E85 flex @-@ fuel car for the Australian market with the Saab 9 @-@ 5 BioPower . One month later launched the new 9 @-@ 3 BioPower , the first vehicle in Australia to give drivers a choice of three fuels , E85 , diesel or gasoline , and both automobiles are sold for a small premium . Australia 's largest independent fuel retailer , United Petroleum , announced plans to install Australia 's first commercial E85 fuel pumps , one in Sydney and one in Melbourne . GM Holden , the Victorian state government , Coskata , Caltex , Veolia Environmental Services and Mitsui have announced a consortium with a co @-@ ordinated plan to build a bio @-@ ethanol plant from household waste for use as E85 fuel . In August 2010 Caltex launched the E85 ethanol fuel called Bio E @-@ Flex , designed for use in the Holden Commodore VE Series II flex @-@ fuel vehicles to be released later in 2010 . Caltex Australia plans to begin selling Bio E @-@ Flex in Melbourne from September and expects to have Bio E @-@ Flex available in more than 30 service stations in Melbourne , Sydney , Brisbane , Adelaide and Canberra by the end of October , with plans to increase to 100 metropolitan and regional locations in 2011 . = = = = Canada = = = = As part of the North American auto market , by 2007 Canada had available 51 models of E85 flex @-@ vehicles , most from Chrysler , Ford and General Motors , including automobiles , pickup trucks , and SUVs . The country had around 1 @.@ 6 million capable flex fuel E85s on the roads by 2014 . However , most users are not aware they own an E85 , as vehicles are not clearly labeled as such , and even though the newer models have a yellow cap in the fuel tank informing that the vehicle can handle E85 , most users are still not aware because there are hardly any gas stations offering E85 . Another major restriction for greater E85 fuel use is the fact that by June 2008 Canada had only three public E85 pumps , all located in Ontario , in the cities of Guelph , Chatham , and Woodstock . E85 fueling is available primarily for fleet vehicles , including 20 government refueling stations not available for the public . The main feedstocks for E85 production in Canada are corn and wheat , and there were several proposals being discussed to increase the actual use of E85 fuel in FFVs , such as creating an ethanol @-@ friendly highway or ethanol corridor . = = = = Colombia = = = = On March 2009 the Colombian government enacted a mandate to introduce E85 flexible @-@ fuel cars . The executive decree applies to all gasoline @-@ powered vehicles with engines smaller than 2 @.@ 0 liters manufactured , imported , and commercialized in the country beginning in 2012 , mandating that 60 % of such vehicles must have flex @-@ fuel engines capable of running with gasoline or E85 , or any blend of both . By 2014 the mandatory quota is 80 % and it will reach 100 percent by 2016 . All vehicles with engines bigger than 2 @.@ 0 liters must be E85 capable starting in 2013 . The decree also mandates that by 2011 all gasoline stations must provide infrastructure to guarantee availability of E85 throughout the country . The mandatory introduction of E85 flex @-@ fuels has caused controversy among carmakers , car dealers , gasoline station owners , and even some ethanol producers complained the industry is not ready to supply enough ethanol for the new E85 fleet . = = = = New Zealand = = = = In 2006 New Zealand began a pilot project with two E85 Ford Focus Flexi @-@ Fuel evaluation cars . The main feedstock used in New Zealand for ethanol production is whey , a by @-@ product of milk production . = = = = Paraguay = = = = Government officials and businessmen from Paraguay began negotiations in 2007 with Brazilian automakers in order to import flex cars that run on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . If successful , Paraguay would become the first destination for Brazilian flex @-@ fuel car exports . In May 2008 , the Paraguayan government announced a plan to eliminate import taxes of flex @-@ fuel vehicles and an incentive program for ethanol production . The plan also includes the purchase of 20 @,@ 000 flex cars in 2009 for the government fleet . = = = = Thailand = = = = In 2006 , tax incentives were established in Thailand for the introduction of compressed natural gas ( CNG ) as an alternative fuel , by eliminating import duties and lowering excise taxes on CNG @-@ compatible cars . Then in 2007 , Thai authorities approved incentives for the production of " eco @-@ cars " , with the goal of the country to become a regional hub for the production of small , affordable and fuel @-@ efficient cars . Seven automakers joint in the program , Toyota , Suzuki , Nissan , Mitsubishi , Honda , Tata and Volkswagen . In 2008 the government announced priority for E85 , expecting these flex @-@ fuel vehicles to become widely available in Thailand in 2009 , three years ahead of schedule . The incentives include cuts in excise tax rates for E85 @-@ compatible cars and reduction of corporate taxes for ethanol producers to make sure E85 fuel supply will be met . This new plan however , brought confusion and protests by the automakers which sign @-@ up for the " eco @-@ cars " , as competition with the E85 flex @-@ fuel cars will negatively affect their ongoing plans and investments , and their production lines will have to be upgraded at a high cost for them to produce flex @-@ fuel cars . They also complained that flex @-@ fuel vehicles popular in a few countries around the world , limiting their export potential as compared with other engine technologies . Despite the controversy , the first E85 flexible fuel vehicles were introduced in November 2008 . The first two models available in the Thai market were the Volvo S80 and the C30 . The S80 is manufactured locally and the C30 is imported . By the time of the introduction of flex vehicles there were already two gas stations with E85 fuel available . During 2009 it was expected that 15 fueling stations in Bangkok will have E85 fuel available . In October 2009 the Mitsubishi Lancer Ex was launched becoming the first mass @-@ production E85 flexi @-@ fuel vehicle produced in Thailand . = = = Comparison among the leading markets = = = = = List of currently produced flexible @-@ fuel vehicles = = = = = Worldwide = = = = = = Brazil = = = = = = Europe = = = Citroën C4 1 @.@ 6 BioFlex Dacia Duster , Dacia Logan , Dacia Sandero Fiat 500X 1 @.@ 6 16V E.torQ , Fiat Aegea 1 @.@ 6 16V E.torQ Ford Focus , Ford C @-@ MAX , Ford Mondeo , Ford S @-@ Max , Ford Galaxy Koenigsegg CCXR Peugeot 307 1 @.@ 6 BioFlex Saab 9 @-@ 5 , Saab 9 @-@ 3 SEAT León 1 @.@ 6 MPI MultiFuel , SEAT Altea 1 @.@ 6 MPI MultiFuel , SEAT Altea XL 1 @.@ 6 MPI MultiFuel Volvo C30 1.8F FlexiFuel , S40 1.8F FlexiFuel , V50 1.8F FlexiFuel , XC60 ( concept ) , V70 2.0F FlexiFuel , S80 2.0F FlexiFuel = = = Thailand = = = Mitsubishi : Lancer Ex 1 @.@ 8 Honda : Civic FB , City 6th gen , CR @-@ V 4th gen , Accord 9th gen Mazda : Mazda 3 BM = = = United States = = =
= Mount Hope Estate = Mount Hope Estate is a National Register of Historic Places @-@ listed property in Rapho and Penn Townships , Lancaster County , Pennsylvania , Lancaster County , Pennsylvania . The original estate was the center of operations of the Grubb Family Iron Dynasty during the 19th century and included over 2 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 ha ) , a charcoal iron furnace , a grist mill , housing for employees and tenants , plus supporting structures such as a post office , a general store , a railroad station , a school and a church . The existing mansion and grounds remain from what was once a thriving industrial headquarters complex and small village . The mansion itself was originally constructed as a Federal @-@ style home by the prominent family of iron masters ; an 1895 remodeling transformed the structure with the addition of Victorian features . The mansion is constructed of locally quarried red sandstone , as are the outbuildings , which at one time numbered nearly 30 . The grounds is also notable for its pre @-@ 1840 American formal garden , of which there are very few surviving . The estate currently hosts the Mount Hope Estate and Winery , the Swashbuckler Brewing Company , the Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire , and other events held throughout the year ( see below ) . = = History = = The estate was the home and center of operations of the Grubb Family Iron Dynasty during the 19th century . The Mount Hope Grubbs were from an early American family whose founder , John Grubb , had come to America from Stoke Climsland , Cornwall , England and settled in Delaware . John 's youngest son Peter Grubb came to the local area about 1734 , when he discovered the vast iron deposits in Lebanon County and purchased 300 acres ( 120 ha ) . By 1742 he had founded the highly successful Cornwall Ironworks , named to recall his father 's ancestral home . By 1783 the family 's holdings covered 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) . The property was split several times among heirs , and various lands passed between the Grubb and Coleman families in the late 18th century . In 1784 , Peter Grubb 's youngest son Peter Grubb , Jr. purchased an additional 212 @.@ 5 acres ( 86 @.@ 0 ha ) and built a charcoal furnace at a place that he called " Mount Hope " . Peter Jr. left the land to his two sons , who inherited a total of 2 @,@ 307 acres ( 934 ha ) that were to become known as the " Mount Hope Estate " . His youngest son , Henry Bates Grubb , acquired his brother 's share and built the mansion by 1805 . The Grubbs were locally prominent by at least 1784 , and from 1840 to 1870 were the leading iron manufacturers in Pennsylvania , with Mount Hope Estate serving as the center of their operations . During this period the estate played host to many leading Pennsylvanians including the Shippen family , Episcopalian ministers including Bishop William White and Bishop Alonzo Potter , and other leading ironmasters including Robert Coleman . At the Grubb family 's height in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century , the estate included a charcoal furnace , mill workers ' houses , Mount Hope Episcopal Church ( also called Hope Church , and " principally erected for the Grubb family " ) , the mansion , many stone outbuildings , and large formal gardens . After the death of Henry Bates Grubb , the estate was managed by his widow , Harriet Amelia Buckley Grubb , until her children reached adulthood . In 1848 – 49 , at a cost of about $ 2 @,@ 000 , she had an Episcopal church , known today as " Hope Church " , erected on the property , " for the moral and spiritual uplift of the tenants on her estate and the employees of the Mount Hope Furnace " . In 1885 , Clement Brooke Grubb , one of Henry 's sons , purchased the mansion and surrounding land for $ 300 @,@ 000 from the heirs of his younger brother , Alfred Bates Grubb . That October , Clement gave the church and churchyard to the Episcopal Diocese of Central Pennsylvania . Upon Clement 's death , he left it to his daughter , the last descendant of the Grubb family to own it , Daisy Elizabeth Brooke Grubb , who renovated the 32 @-@ room mansion in the Victorian architectural style . After Daisy 's death , the property was subdivided and passed through numerous owners until Charles Romito purchased the mansion and immediately surrounding land for $ 1 million in 1980 to open a winery . = = = Mount Hope Estate and Winery = = = After planting the vineyards and vinting wines , Romito opened the Mount Hope Estate and Winery in 1980 . To promote his new business the first year , Romito hosted several events including an art show , a bluegrass concert , a fifties revival , a country @-@ western weekend , a classical orchestra concert , and a one @-@ day modern jousting tournament . The jousting tournament was so popular that Romito held a two @-@ day renaissance festival the following year in the winery 's parking lot , and gradually expanded this into a permanent attraction , the Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire . The property was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 , and in 1991 the boundaries were increased as part of the Iron and Steel Resources of Pennsylvania Multiple Property Submission ( MPS ) . = = = Swashbuckler Brewing Company = = = The Swashbuckler Brewing Company , founded by Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire general contractor Scott Bowser , has operated on the grounds since 2000 , and has an annual capacity of 1 @,@ 200 barrels . The company also has a brewpub on the faire grounds , called the Swashbuckler Brew Pub , which serves up its own beers . Bowser has described the beers as " middle of the road , " saying " ... we 're not going for medals . We can 't ; we can sell out completely on a big , hot weekend . " The pub is also open from October through November during theater hours . = = Architecture = = Two distinct architectural styles are visible in the Estate . Originally constructed in the Federal style for Henry Bates Grubb between 1800 and 1805 , Mount Hope Estate was the most formal ironmaster 's mansion built in the area between 1750 and 1850 . In 1895 , Daisy Grubb oversaw significant changes , adding a Victorian ballroom , a billiard room , chandeliers , and parquet floors , and converting original hinged doors to sliding doors , while still maintaining much of the original construction , including the original facade and fireplace mantels . = = = Exterior = = = The south @-@ facing two @-@ story facade , made of locally cut red sandstone , remains substantially unchanged from the original 1800 – 05 construction . The wooden porch running the length of the facade appears to be a reconstruction , as part of the 1895 remodeling , of a similar original porch . The entire west end of the house went through substantial changes in the 1895 remodelling . This included the construction of a striking three @-@ story bay window rising to an octagonal turret with a patterned roof , and a two @-@ story bay window near the southwest corner . The most significant additions made during the 1895 remodelling are located at the rear ( north ) of the house . These include a conservatory with a polygonal glass dome , a greenhouse just east of the conservatory , and an enlarged kitchen . The eastern end of the house was also remodeled in 1895 , in locally cut red sandstone to match the facade . Aside from several gothic arches from the original construction , the entire visible structure at this end was built in 1895 . = = = Interior = = = The interior of the mansion , like the exterior , is a mixture of original 1800 – 05 construction and decoration , blended rooms , and Victorian construction and decor . The entry hall is almost entirely original construction . Nearly all the woodwork and decoration in this area dates to the 1800 – 05 period , with the exception of several balusters and newel posts on the spiral staircase , which were Victorian replacements . The major change to the entry hall was the construction of false walls , allowing the conversion of the original hinged doors into sliding doors . The second floor central hall and Washington Room ( on the second floor , in the southeast corner ) were also changed very little in the renovation . The dining room , on the other hand , saw extensive remodeling in 1895 . The room size was increased by the construction of a bay window , parquet floor was installed , and the room was decorated in cherry woodwork , with a gilt and crystal chandelier and sconces . The only original item remaining left in the room was the fireplace mantel . The Pink Room , named for the pink damask which covered the walls in 1895 , the library , the Best Chamber ( Daisy Grubb 's bedroom ) , was also extensively remodeled . A number of new rooms were added to the house as part of the 1895 work . A billiard room and ballroom were added in the rear of the house , and several ornate bathrooms were added on the second and third floors . = = Grounds = = = = = Outbuildings = = = At one time there were nearly 30 outbuildings on the estate , as well as a wall surrounding the estate , all constructed of the same locally quarried red sandstone as the mansion , " of which there seems to be an inexhaustible supply on the estate " . Some of the buildings , like Hope Church , are on property that was given away or subdivided over the years , and today , only four remain on the estate , all located to the north ( rear ) and northeast of the mansion . The smokehouse is a square two @-@ story building with a hipped roof , and is believed to date to the early 19th century . East of the smokehouse , a 11 ⁄ 2 @-@ story building with a three bay facade and a gabled roof was used as a post office in the late 19th century , and may have served as a schoolhouse originally . The manager 's farmhouse stands 21 ⁄ 2 stories high and is L @-@ shaped with a porch . The springhouse is also 21 ⁄ 2 stories . = = = Gardens = = = The overall plan of the gardens , based on English formal gardens , can be traced to the original 1800 – 05 construction . Although some flower beds , ornamental urns , and the round fountain in front of the mansion were installed at the time of the 1895 remodeling , the overall plan was not changed , leaving the garden as " a very rare and largely intact example of a documented American formal garden predating 1840 . " = = Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire = = In 1980 , a jousting tournament was held in the parking lot of the newly opened winery , followed by a two @-@ day Renaissance fair the following year . This gradually expanded to become the Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire , which is now held over 12 weekends and draws more than 250 @,@ 000 patrons annually . Featuring a recreation of a 16th @-@ century Tudor village , a replica of the Globe Theatre , Shakespearean plays , musical acts , and artisans fashioning period items such as pottery and potpourri . In 1998 , the faire was named one of the top 100 motorcoach @-@ accessible events in America by the American Bus Association . = = Other events = = In addition to hosting the Renaissance fair , the grounds are opened to the public for a number of other events . Tours of the mansion and wine tastings are available throughout the year . Each June , the site is used for the Celtic Fling and Highland Games . The Fling features traditional and modern Celtic music , food , crafts , demonstrations and competitions , and a feis is also held . The Highland Games are officially sanctioned by the Mid @-@ Atlantic Scottish Athletics Association , and include standard events such as caber tossing and hammer throwing . In late fall and early winter , the mansion is host to several theatrical performances . From the end of October to mid @-@ November , Poe Evermore , a storytelling event based on the works of Edgar Allan Poe is held . Between Thanksgiving and Christmas , Victorian Christmas or A Dickens of a Christmas , the telling of the story of A Christmas Carol , is performed .
= 1986 Pacific hurricane season = The 1986 Pacific hurricane season saw several tropical cyclones bring significant flooding to the Central United States . The hurricane season officially started May 15 , 1986 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1986 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1986 in both regions . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . A total of 17 named storms and 9 hurricanes developed during the season ; this is slightly above the averages of 15 named storms and 8 hurricanes , respectively . In addition , 25 tropical depressions formed in the eastern Pacific during 1986 , which , at the time , was the second most ever recorded ; only the 1982 Pacific hurricane season saw a higher total . Several storms throughout the season affected land . Hurricane Estelle passed south of Hawaii , resulting in $ 2 million in damage and two deaths . Hurricanes Newton , Paine and Roslyn each struck Northwestern Mexico . While damage was minimal from these three systems near their location of landfall , Paine brought considerable flooding to the Great Plains . The overall flooding event resulted in $ 350 million in damage , with the worst effects being recorded in Oklahoma . Hurricane Roslyn was the strongest storm of the season , attaining peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . = = Seasonal summary = = Activity in the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center 's ( EPHC ) area of responsibility was above average . There were 25 tropical depressions , one short of the record set in 1982 , which had 26 . Only one storm formed in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's ( CPHC ) area of responsibility , Tropical Depression One @-@ C. Six other cyclones entered the CPHC area of responsibility from the EPHC area of responsibility . In all , 17 systems formed , which is two storms above normal . In addition , 9 hurricanes were reported during the season , one more than average . An average number ( 3 ) of major hurricanes – Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale – was also reported . The season began with the formation of Hurricane Agatha on May 22 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Depression Twenty Five on October 25 , spanning 147 days . Although it was nearly two weeks shorter than the 1985 Pacific hurricane season , the season was six days longer than average . The EPHC issued 406 tropical cyclone advisories , which were issued four times a day at 0000 , 0600 , 1200 , and 1800 UTC . In 1986 , Hurricane Hunters flew into three storms ; Newton , Roslyn , and Estelle . In Newton , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) conducted environmental research in the cyclone . In addition , the National Weather Service Field Service Station provided the East Pacific with excellent satellite coverage . During the months of May and June , four named systems developed . In July , one tropical storm and two hurricanes formed . The following month , five tropical systems developed . Towards the end of the season , tropical cyclone activity declined somewhat . While five storms formed in September , only one formed in October and none during the month of November . A moderate El Nino was present throughout the season ; water temperatures across the equatorial Central Pacific were 1 @.@ 3 ° C ( 3 ° F ) above normal . In addition , the Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) was in a warm phase during this time period . Three tropical cyclones made landfall in 1986 . The first , Hurricane Newton made landfall near Cabo San Lucas , bringing minor damage . Another storm , Hurricane Paine brushed Cabo San Lucas , and later moved inland over Sonora . Paine caused minimal impacts at landfall , but its remnants were described as one of the worst floods in Oklahoma history . Flooding affected 52 counties in Oklahoma , which resulted in a total of $ 350 million in damage . The final storm to make landfall during the hurricane season was Hurricane Roslyn . The hurricane produced some flooding , but no serious damage . In addition , Hurricane Estelle came close enough to Hawaii to require a hurricane watch . Two drownings were reported , and the total damage was around $ 2 million . = = Storms = = = = = Hurricane Agatha = = = The 1986 Pacific hurricane season 's first tropical disturbance formed 865 mi ( 1 @,@ 390 km ) from the tip of Baja California Sur on May 20 . By 0000 UTC May 22 , the circulation began to tighten and become more organized , and thus the EPHC upgraded the disturbance into Tropical Depression One @-@ E that morning . Approximately 48 hours after becoming a tropical depression , the system was upgraded into Tropical Storm Agatha , the first storm of the season . After moving southeast , the cyclone made an abrupt change in direction , turning towards the north . Agatha strengthened into a hurricane on May 25 near the coast of Mexico , reaching its peak intensity of 75 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Turning southeast , The system quickly weakened into a tropical depression , but regained tropical storm strength on May 28 , only to dissipate that day . Rainfall spread around both the Atlantic and Pacific Mexican coasts , peaking at 10 @.@ 75 in ( 273 mm ) at Xicotepec de Juarez , Puebla . = = = Tropical Depression Two = = = A tropical disturbance formed on May 30 in the eastern Gulf of Tehuantepec . The disturbance was moving very slowly when it was upgraded to Tropical Depression Two on May 31 . The depression began to weaken six hours later and the final advisory by the EPHC was released on June 1 . Most of Mexico received rainfall , with over 3 in ( 76 mm ) falling on Yucatán Peninsula . The worst rain occurred in Central Mexico , where over 15 in ( 380 mm ) of precipitation fell , peaking at 18 @.@ 63 in ( 473 mm ) in Tenosique , Tabasco . The rest of the country was hit by 1 – 3 in ( 25 – 76 mm ) of rainfall . = = = Tropical Storm Blas = = = A tropical disturbance originated from the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) on June 16 . The disturbance moved west @-@ northwest at 13 mph ( 21 km / h ) below a weak upper @-@ level high , becoming the third tropical depression of the 1986 season on June 17 . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Blas the next day . It kept that strength for only six hours , weakening into a depression again as it moved into cooler waters . After Blas 's convection dissipated , the EPHC ceased advisories on June 19 while situated roughly 600 mi ( 970 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . = = = Hurricane Celia = = = On June 24 , five days after Tropical Storm Blas dissipated , a tropical disturbance developed south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Later that day , its circulation had become well @-@ defined enough for the EPHC to upgrade the disturbance into Tropical Depression Four . Winds reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , enough to upgrade the system into Tropical Storm Celia on June 26 . While located off the coast of Mexico , Celia strengthened into a hurricane at 1800 UTC June 27 . An eye became evident on satellite imagery and the hurricane reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) on June 28 at 1600 UTC . Hurricane Celia then passed by Socorro Island . Meanwhile , Celia moved into much cooler water which enabled the hurricane to weaken rapidly . By June 30 , Celia had become a tropical depression . The EPHC released its final advisory at 1800 UTC that day as the system was dissipating . = = = Tropical Storm Darby = = = The fifth tropical cyclone of the season formed as a tropical disturbance on July 2 . Moving northwest at about 13 mph ( 21 km / h ) , the disturbance entered warmer waters and strengthening rapidly . The disturbance was upgraded into Tropical Depression Five at 1800 UTC July 3 . Turning west @-@ northwest , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Darby on July 5 . Darby peaked at 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) . The stormed continued northwest for about six hours , when it reached 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) waters and began a weakening trend . Clouds spread northward over the US states of Arizona and California on July 6 . The cyclone dissipated on July 7 . = = = Hurricane Estelle = = = During the afternoon of July 16 , a tropical depression formed thousands of miles west of Mexico , and within 12 hours it strengthened into a tropical storm . On July 18 , Estelle intensified into a hurricane . Located in a favorable environment , Estelle continued strengthening to become the first major hurricane of the season on July 20 . The hurricane entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility near its peak strength of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , a Category 4 hurricane . The hurricane veered to the west and passed south of Hawaii . Estelle weakened to a tropical storm on July 23 , and on July 25 , it weakened to a depression . The storm dissipated two days later . In advance of Hurricane Estelle , the National Weather Service issued a hurricane watch and high @-@ surf advisory for the Island of Hawaii . More than 200 people evacuated from their homes . Huge waves crashed on the shores of the Big Island on the afternoon of July 22 . The high waves washed away five beachfront homes and severely damaged dozens of others on the beach resort of Vacation Land . The total damage was around $ 2 million ( 1986 US $ ; $ 4 @.@ 32 million 2016 USD ) . However , only two deaths reported from the storm , both of whom drowned offshore Oahu . = = = Hurricane Frank = = = The EPHC began monitoring a tropical disturbance located 195 mi ( 315 km ) southwest of San Salvador on 1800 UTC July 23 . About 24 hours later , the disturbance was upgraded into a tropical depression . Initially moving towards the west @-@ northwest due to an upper @-@ level low and a ridge over Mexico , the storm then turned to the west as the upper @-@ level low changed direction . By July 28 , the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Frank . After turning back to the west @-@ northwest , Frank reached hurricane intensity early on July 30 . The storm quickly developed a well @-@ defined eye and three hours later , Hurricane Frank reached its peak intensity as a moderate Category 1 hurricane , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Hurricane Frank maintained this intensity for 18 hours . Subsequently , the hurricane began to rapidly weaken over 76 ° F ( 24 ° C ) sea surface temperatures . Wind shear soon increased , thus accelerating the weakening process . On July 31 , Frank was reduced to tropical storm intensity . Not long after weakening into a depression , the storm entered the CPHC 's area of responsibility . Wind shear increased further , and upon entering the region , Frank moved over slightly cooler water . It transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on August 3 . = = = Tropical Storm Georgette = = = On August 3 , a tropical depression developed in the open ocean over 600 mi ( 970 km ) west of the Mexican coastline . Twelve hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Georgette before weakening to a depression on August 4 . It then accelerated to a very rapid speed of 23 – 45 mph ( 37 – 75 km / h ) . Due to its fast speed , Georgette could not maintain a closed circulation , and thus degenerated into a non @-@ cyclonic disturbance on August 4 . The disturbance kept up its rapid forward motion , crossed the dateline and entered the western Pacific , where it reformed and reached its peak intensity as Severe Tropical Storm Georgette . By August 16 , Georgette merged with another system . It is one of only seven tropical cyclones to exist in all three tropical cyclone basins in the Pacific Ocean . = = = Tropical Storm Howard = = = A tropical wave crossed Southwestern Mexico and Belize in mid @-@ August . A tropical disturbance developed from this wave 50 mi ( 80 km ) south of Acapulco on August 15 , the same day that the system moved offshore . Moving west @-@ northwest south of an upper @-@ level high , the system was classified as a tropical depression the next day about 125 mi ( 200 km ) south of Manzanillo . Several hours later , the depression reached tropical storm intensity . Turning towards the northwest due to a trough , it failed to intensify beyond minimal tropical storm strength . Passing south of the Baja California Peninsula , the storm rapidly moved over cooler waters . Howard weakened into a tropical depression at 0600 UTC August 18 . Transversing 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) water , Howard dissipated . Rainfall along the southern coast reached 1 in ( 25 mm ) in some places , with totals in excess of 5 in ( 130 mm ) in isolated locations . Further north , rainfall was more scattered . The maximum rainfall was 9 @.@ 25 in ( 235 mm ) in Reforma , near the southern part of the country . = = = Tropical Storm Isis = = = A tropical disturbance developed 265 mi ( 426 km ) south of Socorro Island at 1800 UTC August 18 . Twenty @-@ four hours later the disturbance was upgraded into a tropical depression on August 19 . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Isis the next day . After peaking as a moderate tropical storm at 1200 UTC August 23 , Isis weakened into a depression over 74 ° F ( 23 ° C ) waters early on August 24 . While located some 1 @,@ 500 mi ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) west of the Mexican coast , the tropical cyclone dissipated later that day . = = = Hurricane Javier = = = On August 19 , a tropical disturbance formed 460 mi ( 740 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec and 319 mi ( 513 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . Satellite imagery began to show signs of developing a circulation , and the disturbance became a tropical depression on August 20 and intensified into Tropical Storm Javier hours later . Southwest of a ridge , Javier began to turn towards the west @-@ northwest . Despite an increase in forward speed , Tropical Storm Javier underwent rapid intensification , reaching hurricane intensity at 0900 UTC August 21 . About three hours later , Javier reached Category 2 strength , and briefly became a major hurricane on August 22 , only to rapidly weaken back to a Category 1 hurricane late on August 23 . Hurricane Javier sharply turned towards the north and eventually towards the northwest . Early on August 24 , Javier resumed intensification , regaining Category 3 intensity at 0600 UTC . Passing midway between Socorro Island and Clarion Island , the storm reached its peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Moving beneath the ridge , Hurricane Javier turned to the west and subsequently weakened back into a Category 3 hurricane . After briefly re @-@ intensifying into a Category 4 , the storm resumed weakening due to increasing wind shear , and by late on August 25 , Hurricane Javier had weakened directly into a Category 2 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , Javier was downgraded into a Category 1 hurricane . While it managed to maintain marginal hurricane intensity for 24 hours. on 1200 UTC August 28 , the EPHC announced that Javier had weakened back into a tropical storm . Shortly after that , Javier turned towards the west @-@ northwest due an upper @-@ level trough . Now over 74 ° F ( 23 ° C ) waters , the system continued to weaken as wind shear increased further . On August 30 , Javier weakened into a depression and dissipated the next day over 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of Southern California . Waves were 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high in some areas , prompting meteorologists to issue a high surf advisory . Hurricane Javier brought the highest waves of the summer to southern California . = = = Tropical Storm Kay = = = In late August , a tropical disturbance formed 725 mi ( 1 @,@ 165 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hurricane Javier and nearly 370 mi ( 595 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . Moving slowly west , the disturbance began to develop a well @-@ defined circulation , and was respectively upgraded into a tropical depression on August 23 . Passing 10 mi ( 20 km ) south of Clarion Island , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Kay . The cyclone 's forward speed increased ; subsequently , Kay reached its peak intensity . After maintaining its intensity for 18 hours , Kay rapidly weakened over cold water , and was downgraded into a depression at 0000 UTC September 2 . Kay dissipated the next day several hundred miles west of the Baja California Peninsula . = = = Tropical Storm Lester = = = A westward @-@ moving tropical wave increased in thunderstorm activity , soon organizing into a tropical depression on September 13 . At the time of the upgrade , Lester was located more than 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 450 km ) west of the Mexican coast . Moving towards the west , the depression soon intensified into Tropical Storm Lester . After turning towards the west @-@ northwest , Lester peaked in intensity as a moderate tropical storm . Due to a combination of strong wind shear and cold water , Lester began a slow weakening trend . While entering the CPHC 's area of responsibility at 1800 UTC September 17 , Lester had already weakened to a tropical depression . Unable to maintain a closed circulation , the final advisory was issued . = = = Tropical Storm Madeline = = = A tropical disturbance first developed during September 13 and September 14 over the warm waters south of Acapulco . On September 15 , the EPHC first classified the system as a tropical depression . Rapidly moving towards the west , the depression was embedded in deep easterly flow . The system attained tropical storm intensity on 1800 UTC September 16 , thus received the name Madeline . After turning towards the west @-@ northwest , Tropical Storm Madeline accelerated . It began a slow intensification trend , and peaked as a high @-@ end tropical storm on 0600 UTC September 18 . An upper @-@ level low introduced strong wind shear , and Madeline began to fall apart almost immediately thereafter . After turning towards the north , and slowing down , Madeline dissipated on September 22 . = = = Hurricane Newton = = = A tropical disturbance became a tropical depression on September 18 . Intensification was slow as the depression did not reach storm status until September 20 . Paralleling the coast , Newton steadily intesifed . Newton strengthened into a hurricane on September 21 . On September 22 , Newton slammed into Cabo San Lucas , and after entering the Gulf of California , Hurricane Newton attained its peak intensity 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Shortly after that , Newton moved inland into the mainland of Mexico . Over land , Newton dissipated on September 23 . Upon making landfall on the Baja California Peninsula , moderate rainfall was recorded . After the hurricane 's second landfall , damage was also minor , though 40 roofs were ripped off of homes ; trees and utility poles were also downed due to high winds . However , no injuries or fatalities were reported in association with Newton . Newton 's remnants later combined with a cold front to produce heavy rainfall that downed power lines in Kansas City , leaving 20 @,@ 000 customers without power . = = = Hurricane Orlene = = = Hurricane Orlene originated from a stationary tropical disturbance that was upgraded into a tropical depression on September 21 . Despite a poorly defined circulation , the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Orlene 12 hours after formation . Steadily gaining strength , Orlene reached hurricane intensity on September 22 . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane entered the CPHC 's area of responsibility . Upon the formation of an eye , Orlene reached its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . After maintaining peak intensity for 24 hours , Hurricane Orlene began to encounter strong wind shear . Subsequently , Orlene weakened rapidly and lost hurricane status at 1800 UTC September 23 . The system weakened into a tropical depression on September 24 . Tropical Depression Orelene dissipated the next day . = = = Hurricane Paine = = = A tropical disturbance developed on September 27 within 250 mi ( 400 km ) of the Mexican coastline . The disturbance was upgraded into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three on 0000 UTC September 28 . Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three moved west @-@ northwestward , lured poleward by an upper @-@ level trough near northern Mexico . At 0000 UTC September 30 , the depression became Tropical Storm Paine , southwest of Acapulco . Roughly 21 hours later , a NOAA Hurricane Hunter flight found winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , upgrading Paine into hurricane . The hurricane peaked as a Category 2 hurricane on October 1 as it turned northwest , headed towards the Gulf of California . Hurricane Paine did not intensify further due to the presence of mid @-@ level wind shear and dry air . The outer eyewall moved across Cabo San Lucas , and the resultant land interaction was believed to have slightly weakened the inner core of the hurricane . Paine moved ashore near San José , Sonora with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The storm weakened as it moved over land going through Mexico and then entering the United States . Paine dissipated on October 4 over Lake Michigan . Rainfall from the tropical cyclone was significant in Mexico and the United States . Light rain fell in Cabo San Lucas . Meanwhile , rains around the Mexican Mainland peaked at 12 in ( 300 mm ) in Acapulco . Near the area around where it made landfall , strong winds knocked down trees and caused disruptions to city services . In the United States , rainfall peaked at 11 @.@ 35 inches ( 288 mm ) in Fort Scott , Kansas . The Barnsdall , Oklahoma weather station recorded 10 @.@ 42 inches ( 26 @.@ 5 cm ) on September 29 , which set a record for the highest daily precipitation for any station statewide . The flooding affected 52 counties in Oklahoma , which resulted in a total of $ 350 million in damage . In all , Paine was described as one of the worst floods in Oklahoma history . Flooding from Paine resulted in about 1 @,@ 200 people homeless in East Saint Louis , Illinois and resulted in record discharge rates along many streams and creeks . Subsequently , many reservoirs were nearly filled to its capacity . For example , the Mississippi River in St. Louis reached the fifth highest flood stage on record . = = = Hurricane Roslyn = = = A tropical disturbance moved westward offshore Nicaragua and was declared Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Four on October 15 .. During the early afternoon of the next day , ship reports indicated the formation of a tropical depression close to land . The cyclone moved at a quick pace towards the west @-@ northwest south of a warm @-@ core ridge . Early on the morning on October 16 , Roslyn became a tropical storm . By the morning of the October 17 , Roslyn had developed into a hurricane south of Acapulco . A vigorous upper trough was deepening offshore Baja California , and Roslyn began to re @-@ curve within a few hundred miles of Manzanillo . The system struck Mazatlán as a marginal hurricane on October 20 . The low @-@ level center rapidly dissipated , although a frontal low developed in the western Gulf of Mexico , which moved over southeastern Texas and later through the Mississippi Valley . The original upper @-@ level circulation maintained its northeast movement , bringing rainfall to the Southeastern United States . Affecting a sparsely @-@ populated area , the highest reported winds from a land station were 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) . Roslyn produced some flooding , but no serious damage . Impact was limited to flooded homes and factories , as well as some crop damage and beach erosion and only one yacht sunk . The remnants of Hurricane Roslyn produced heavy rainfall across the central and southern United States . In Matagorda , Texas , a total of 13 @.@ 8 in ( 35 cm ) was reported . = = = Other storms = = = In addition to the 17 named storms , there were eight tropical depressions during the season that failed to reach tropical storm strength . The second , Tropical Depression Seven , began as a large area of thunderstorms near Hurricane Estelle on July 17 . Moving at a steady pace , the cyclone failed to intensify and attained peak intensity of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Cool sea surface temperatures and its proximity to Hurricane Estelle eventually caused the depression to dissipate late on July 18 . Tropical Depression Eight formed on July 21 while located 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of the Baja California Peninsula . Initially moving west @-@ northwest around an upper @-@ level high , the depression peaked with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . It dissipated on July 24 . Another tropical disturbance formed on July 24 . An circulation developed two days later , and thus it was classified as Tropical Depression Ten . The cyclone remained a tropical depression for about three days before moving into the CPHC 's area of responsibility on 1000 UTC July 27 . A slow weakening trend began as the depression continued to move west at speeds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . By 1800 UTC on July 29 , it had become poorly organized around 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Hawaiian Islands , and the final advisory was issued . Tropical Depression One @-@ C formed on July 27 , possibly from the remnants of Tropical Depression Eight that dissipated a few days earlier well to the east of 140 ° W. The depression tracked westward at a fairly rapid forward speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; however , it failed to develop past the depression stage . One @-@ C passed well south of the Hawaiian Islands on July 28 . On July 29 at 0000 UTC , it had dissipated to the southwest of the Hawaiian Islands and the final advisory was issued by the CPHC . An area of disturbed weather developed a circulation on August 12 and was upgraded into Tropical Depression Twelve nearly 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . It drifted slowly to the northwest until it dissipated near 22 ° N 110 ° W on August 14 . Peak maximum sustained winds were estimated at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Tropical Depression Seventeen formed on September 8 , 30 km ( 20 mi ) east of Socorro Island and dissipated on September 9 over cold water without becoming a tropical storm . One of the last cyclones of the season formed from a westward @-@ moving tropical disturbance in the ITCZ . The disturbance moved at about 10 mph ( 20 km / h ) and upon developing a circulation , was declared Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ One at 0600 UTC September 19 . However the depression lasted for only six hours before dissipating , likely due to the close distance between it and Tropical Storm Madeline . Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Five was the final tropical depression of the 1986 season . It formed on October 22 at 1800 UTC near the 140 ° W line . Due to strong wind shear , the stationary storm had dissipated within 30 hours of formation . Even though no more official systems developed , a forecaster at the National Hurricane Center remarked that an unnamed tropical storm may have formed in November . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1986 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1992 season . This is the same list used for the 1980 season . Storms were named Paine and Roslyn for the first time in 1986 , while Orlene was previously used on the old four @-@ year lists . No central Pacific names were used ; the first name used would have been Oka . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= Alfred Denning , Baron Denning = Alfred Thompson " Tom " Denning , Baron Denning , OM , PC , DL ( 23 January 1899 – 5 March 1999 ) , commonly known as Lord Denning , was an English lawyer and judge . He gained degrees in mathematics and law at Oxford University , although his studies were disrupted by his service in the First World War . He then began his legal career , distinguishing himself as a barrister and becoming a King 's Counsel in 1938 . Denning became a judge in 1944 with an appointment to the Probate , Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice and was made a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1948 after less than five years in the High Court . He became a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary in 1957 and after five years in the House of Lords returned to the Court of Appeal as Master of the Rolls in 1962 , a position he held for twenty years . In retirement he wrote several books and continued to offer opinions on the state of the common law through his writing and his position in the House of Lords . One of the most publicly known judges thanks to his report on the Profumo Affair , Denning was held in high regard by much of the judiciary , the Bar and the public , and was noted for his bold judgments running counter to the law at the time . During his 38 @-@ year career as a judge he made large changes to the common law , particularly while in the Court of Appeal , and although many of his decisions were overturned by the House of Lords several of them were confirmed by Parliament , which passed statutes in line with his judgments . Although appreciated for his role as ' the people 's judge ' and his support for the individual , Denning was also controversial for his campaign against the common law principle of precedent , for comments he made regarding the Birmingham Six and Guildford Four and as Master of the Rolls for his conflict with the House of Lords . = = Early life and studies = = Denning was born on 23 January 1899 in Whitchurch , Hampshire , to Charles Denning , a draper , and his wife Clara Denning ( née Thompson ) . He was one of six children ; his older brother Reginald Denning later became a noted staff officer with the British Army , and his younger brother Norman Denning became Director of Naval Intelligence and Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff ( Intelligence ) . Denning was born two months earlier than expected and almost died at birth ; he was so small and weak that he was nicknamed ' Tom Thumb ' and could fit in a pint pot . He was named after Alfred the Great by his sister Marjorie , and was baptised on 23 April 1899 at All Hallows Church , Whitchurch . Denning , along with his older brother Gordon , began his schooling at the National School of Whitchurch , one of many set up by the National Society for the Education of the Poor . Both boys won scholarships to Andover Grammar School , where Denning excelled academically , winning four prizes for English essays on the subjects of " The Great Authors " , " Macaulay " , " Carlyle " and " Milton " . The outbreak of the First World War saw most of the schoolmasters leave to join the British armed forces , being replaced by female teachers . At the time Denning wanted to become a mathematician , but none of the new teachers knew enough mathematics to teach him ; instead , he taught himself . He qualified to study at University College , Southampton , but was advised to stay at school and apply to Oxford or Cambridge in a few years . He sat the Oxbridge examination when he was sixteen and was awarded a £ 30 a year exhibition to study mathematics at Magdalen College , Oxford ; the money was not enough to live on , but he accepted nevertheless . Although he had been accepted by a college he still needed to gain entry to the university as a whole , which meant passing exams including Greek – which had not been taught at Andover Grammar School . Denning managed to teach himself enough of the subject to pass , and matriculated to Oxford in 1916 . In addition to his Magdalen Scholarship he had a scholarship from Hampshire County Council worth £ 50 a year . After arriving he made a favourable impression on Sir Herbert Warren , the President of Magdalen College , who upgraded the exhibition to a Demyship of £ 80 a year and arranged for the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths to give Denning a £ 30 a year scholarship . Despite military training in the early morning and evening , Denning worked hard at his studies , and obtained a First in Mathematical Moderations , the first half of his mathematics degree , in June 1917 . = = War service = = Denning was told he would be ineligible to serve in the Armed Forces because of a systolic heart murmur , which he believed the doctor diagnosed because he was tired of sending young men off to die . He successfully appealed against the decision , and enlisted on 14 August 1917 as a cadet in the Hampshire Regiment before being sent to the Royal Engineers Oxford University Officer Training Corps . He trained at Newark and was temporarily commissioned as a second lieutenant on 17 November 1917 . Although he was old enough to serve in the armed forces , regulations meant that he was not allowed to serve in France until he was nineteen . In March 1918 the German Army advanced closer to Amiens and Paris , and Denning 's unit was sent to France to help stop the advance . Under continuous shell fire for three months , the company and the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division held their section of the line , with a unit under Denning 's command building a bridge to allow infantry to advance over the River Ancre . Denning went two days without sleep while building these bridges ; shortly after one was completed , a German aeroplane dropped a bomb on it , forcing them to start again . The unit advanced over the River Ancre and the Canal du Nord , but Denning fell ill with influenza and was in hospital for the last few days of the war . = = Return to Oxford = = Denning was demobilised on 6 February 1919 , and returned to Magdalen College four days later . He initially thought about turning to applied mathematics , but decided on pure mathematics . He studied hard , not participating in any of the university 's numerous societies or clubs so that he could better focus on his work , and graduated in 1920 with a first in Mathematical Greats . He was offered a job teaching mathematics at Winchester College for £ 350 a year , which he accepted . As well as mathematics , he taught geology , despite not having studied it ; instead , he " read up on [ it ] the night before " . He found the job boring , and after viewing the Assize Court at Winchester Castle decided he would like to be a barrister . On the advice of Herbert Warren , he returned to Magdalen to study Jurisprudence in October 1921 . Thanks to Warren , Denning was elected to the Eldon Law Scholarship , worth £ 100 a year , to finance his studies ; when the news of Denning 's election was brought , Warren wrote " you are a marked man . Perhaps you will be a Lord of Appeal some day " . Denning took his final examinations in June 1922 and impressed the examiner , Geoffrey Cheshire , by correctly answering questions on the Law of Property Act which had been given Royal Assent only a few days before . Denning gained a first in all his subjects except jurisprudence , which he described as " too abstract a subject for my liking " . He did not return to study for a Bachelor of Civil Law ( BCL ) but instead attempted to gain a " prize fellowship " at All Souls College , Oxford ; he failed to be accepted , something he put down to his poor pronunciation of Latin . = = The Bar = = Denning was admitted to Lincoln 's Inn on 4 November 1921 , choosing it because the Under Treasurer was a graduate of Magdalen College . On the advice of his brother 's friend Frank Merriman he applied to 4 Brick Court , Middle Temple Lane , a small set of chambers run by Henry O 'Hagan . He was accepted and began work there in September 1922 , before he had taken his final bar exam . He finished his final exam in May 1923 and came top in the bar examination , with the Inn awarding him a 100 guineas a year studentship of three years . He was called to the Bar on 13 June 1923 , and was offered a tenancy by O 'Hagan . His first few years were spent receiving small briefs from a variety of clients , including work prosecuting those who failed to pay rail tickets and fines . During this time he also wrote a manual for the railway police giving guidance on incidents such as taxi drivers who refused to take a customer to a destination within the area specified by the Public Carriage Office ( which they were legally obliged to do ) . He wrote his first article in 1924 titled " Quantum Meruit and the Statute of Frauds " on the decision in Scott v Pattison [ 1923 ] 2 KB 723 ; it was accepted by the Law Quarterly Review and published in January 1925 . His work steadily increased in amount and quality throughout the 1920s and ' 30s . By the 1930s he was making most of his court appearances in the senior courts such as the High Court of Justice ; in 1932 he was advised by his clerk that he should not be seen in the County Courts , and that he should leave this work for lesser members of the chambers . In 1929 he helped edit several chapters of Smith 's Leading Cases ( 13th ed . ) and in 1932 acted as a supervising editor for the 9th edition of Bullen & Leake 's Precedents for Pleadings in the King 's Bench Division . In 1932 he moved to his own set of chambers in Brick Court , and by 1936 he was earning over £ 3 @,@ 000 a year . A notable case was L 'Estrange v F Graucob Ltd [ 1934 ] 2 KB 394 , where he successfully argued an exemption clause was incorporated because a contract was signed . This was counter to his work as a judge , where he tried to minimise their impact , but he said that ' If you are an advocate you want your client to win . If you are a judge you don 't care who wins exactly . All you are concerned about is justice ' . From 1937 until 1944 he worked as Chancellor of the Diocese of Southwark , and from 1942 to 1944 was Chancellor of the Diocese of London . He applied to become a King 's Counsel on 15 January 1938 . The appointments were announced on 7 April ; he was sworn in on 9 April and received letters of congratulation from , among others , Rayner Goddard . After the start of the Second World War , Denning volunteered ; he was too old for active service , and was instead appointed legal advisor to the North East Region . In 1942 he took the case of Gold v Essex County Council [ 1942 ] 2 KB 293 , which changed the law to make hospitals liable for the professional negligence of their staff . In December 1943 a judge was taken ill , and Denning was asked to take his place as a Commissioner of Assize . This was regarded as a ' trial ' for membership of the judiciary , and Denning was appointed Recorder of Plymouth on 17 February 1944 . On 6 March 1944 , while arguing a case in the House of Lords , Denning was taken aside by the Lord Chancellor and told that he wanted Denning to become a judge at the High Court of Justice in the Probate , Admiralty and Divorce Division . Denning accepted , and the announcement was made before the conclusion of the trial . = = High Court = = Denning was officially appointed on 7 March 1944 with a salary of £ 5 @,@ 000 , and received the customary knighthood on 15 March 1944 . After becoming a judge Denning was also elected a Bencher of Lincoln 's Inn , and became its Treasurer in 1964 . Denning had little experience with divorce law and disliked it ; it was seen as an inferior type of law . There were few good barristers specialising in divorce law ; two other barristers were sworn into the Probate , Divorce and Admiralty Division along with Denning , and of the three only one had ever practised divorce law . His work as a divorce judge was relatively sound ; his decisions were overturned only once , in Churchman v Churchman [ 1945 ] 2 All ER 190 . With the appointment of Lord Jowitt as Lord Chancellor in 1945 Denning was transferred to the King 's Bench Division , where Jowitt thought his talents would be better put to use ( with Hildreth Glyn @-@ Jones QC , later a High Court judge , greeting him with the words ' welcome home ' ) . In 1946 he travelled the Western Circuit but was recalled by the Lord Chancellor to chair a committee looking at the reform of procedure in divorce cases . He continued working as a judge while chairing the daily committee . The committee was appointed on 26 June 1946 and published its first report in July , which reduced the time between decree nisi and decree absolute from 6 months to 6 weeks . The second report was published in November , recommending that County Court judges should be appointed to try cases , and the final report was published in February 1947 recommending the establishment of a Marriage Welfare Service . The reports were well received by the public and led to Denning being invited in 1949 to become President of the National Marriage Guidance Council . His appointment to the King 's Bench Division allowed him to hear pension appeals , and he attempted to reform the principles applied by the government minister and the Pensions Tribunals . In Starr v Ministry of Pensions [ 1946 ] 1 KB 345 he ruled that it was up to the tribunals to prove that an injury was not due to war service , reversing the previous state of affairs where a claimant would have to prove their injuries were due to war service before they would be granted a pension . In James v Minister of Pensions [ 1947 ] KB 867 he also allowed for judges to approve time extensions for the claimant to gather more evidence when such extensions had been rejected by the Tribunal . These two cases made a large difference to applicants , and he received praise from both the British Legion and the public . The government refused to do anything about those servicemen who had been rejected by the courts prior to Denning 's judgment , which provoked public outcry under the slogan ' Fit for Service , Fit for Pension ' . The British Legion chose 73 cases and asked Denning to let the Legion present them while the courts were not sitting ; Denning heard all 73 cases on 11 July 1946 . In 1947 he decided in Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd [ 1947 ] KB 130 ( known as the ' High Trees ' case ) , which was a milestone in English contract law . It resurrected the principle of promissory estoppel established in Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co ( 1876 – 77 ) LR 2 App Cas 439 and has been both praised and criticised by lawyers and legal theorists . As a High Court judge Denning sentenced people to death , which he said at the time " didn 't worry [ him ] in the least " . Denning maintained that for murder , death was the most appropriate penalty , and that in cases where mistakes had been made there was always an appeals system . In the 1950s there was growing opposition to the use of the death penalty , and a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate abolishing it . Denning told the Commission in 1953 that " the punishment inflicted for grave crimes should adequately reflect the revulsion felt by the great majority of citizens for them " . He later changed his mind about capital punishment , regarding it as unethical . In 1984 he wrote " Is it right for us , as a society , to do a thing – hang a man – which none of us individually would be prepared to do or even witness ? The answer is ' no , not in a civilised society ' " . = = Court of Appeal = = After less than five years as a judge , Denning was appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal on 14 October 1948 . He was sworn in as a Privy Counsellor on 25 October 1948 . As a Lord Justice of Appeal he continued to make reforming judgments in a variety of areas , particularly in family law and the rights of deserted wives . In 1952 the Court of Appeal heard Bendall v McWhirter [ 1952 ] 2 QB 466 and ruled that a deserted wife occupying the marital home had a personal licence to stay there . The decision provoked disapproval among the judiciary and from the public ; a correspondent wrote : Dear Sir : You are a disgrace to all mankind to let these women break up homes and expect us chaps to keep them while they rob us of what we have worked for and put us out on the street . I only hope you have the same trouble as us . So do us all a favour and take a Rolls and run off Beachy Head and don 't come back . The House of Lords effectively nullified Denning 's work with the case National Provincial Bank Ltd v Ainsworth [ 1965 ] AC 1175 in 1965 , which ruled that the deserted wife had no licence to stay . The decision was very unpopular and led to the passing of the Matrimonial Homes Act 1967 , which partially restored Denning 's judgment in the form of a statute . Much of his work in favour of the deserted wife was based around his interpretation of the Married Women 's Property Act 1882 , which the House of Lords unanimously overruled in Pettitt v Pettitt [ 1970 ] AC 777 in 1970 . Further notable decisions by Denning in this area were Heseltine v Heseltine [ 1971 ] 1 WLR 342 in 1971 and Wachtel v Wachtel [ 1973 ] Fam 72 in 1973 , which created basic rules for dividing family assets in a divorce case , something which had not previously been established in the law . In 1951 he gave a noted dissenting judgment in the case Candler v Crane , Christmas & Co regarded as a ' brilliant advancement to the law of negligent misstatements ' and which was later approved of by the House of Lords in Hedley Byrne v Heller & Partners Ltd [ 1963 ] 2 All ER 575 . In Combe v Combe in 1952 he elaborated on his resurrected doctrine of promissory estoppel , saying that it could be a ' shield ' not a ' sword ' ; it could be used to defend a claim , but not to create a cause of action where none existed . In 1954 his decision in Roe v Minister of Health [ 1954 ] 2 AER 131 altered the grounds on which hospital staff could be found negligent , a legal precedent he himself had set in Gold v Essex County Council in 1942 . In 1955 his leading judgment in Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation [ 1955 ] 2 QB 327 implemented a way to judge the moment of acceptance in an instantaneous or near @-@ instantaneous method of communication ; like the ' High Trees ' case it is still valid . = = House of Lords = = After the resignation of Lord Oaksey in 1956 Denning was offered a job as a Law Lord . After a period of contemplation ( he worried that such an appointment would reduce his chances of becoming Master of the Rolls or Lord Chief Justice ) he accepted , and was formally offered the job on 5 April 1957 . He was appointed on 24 April 1957 , as Baron Denning , of Whitchurch in the County of Southampton ; for the supporters of his coat of arms he chose Lord Mansfield and Sir Edward Coke . Many members of the judiciary and the Bar approved of his appointment , but he was warned that he should move slowly to reform the court . During his time in the House of Lords he also served as Chairman of the Quarter Sessions of East Sussex . During his time in the House of Lords Denning frequently expressed dissenting opinions , including in a Privy Council case where he argued a dissenting opinion despite the fact that Privy Council cases only allowed one opinion to be expressed . Denning did not enjoy his time in the House of Lords and clashed frequently with Viscount Simonds , who was known as a conservative and orthodox judge . Despite his reputation as a fiercely individual judge , Denning dissented in only 16 % of cases he heard in the House of Lords ; fewer than Lord Keith , who dissented 22 % of the time . On 9 May 1960 , Denning was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Sussex . = = Master of the Rolls = = In 1962 Lord Evershed resigned as Master of the Rolls , and Denning was appointed to replace him on 19 April 1962 with a salary of £ 9 @,@ 000 . Although Denning himself described it as ' a step down ' he was pleased with his appointment , as he had much preferred his time with the Court of Appeal than the House of Lords . Court of Appeal judges sit in threes , and the Lords in fives ( or more ) , so it was suggested that to get his way in the Court of Appeal Denning only had to persuade one other judge whereas in the House of Lords it was at least two . The other ' benefit ' of the Court of Appeal is that it hears more cases than the House of Lords , and so has a greater effect on the law . During his twenty years as Master of the Rolls , Denning could choose both which cases he heard , and the judges with whom he sat . Therefore , on most issues , he effectively had the last word ; comparatively few cases went on to the House of Lords , which was at that time Britain 's highest court of law . As Master of the Rolls he selected cases he felt to be particularly important to hear and , rather than having an American system ( where judges had a rota for taking cases ) , assigned cases to those judges who had expertise in that particular area of law . In 1963 he chaired a committee investigating ways to reduce the archive of legal documents kept by the Public Record Office ; by that point the files for civil cases of the High Court alone occupied four miles of shelving . The final report was presented to the Lord Chancellor on 16 May 1966 , with the conclusion being that ' if our proposals are implemented the Public Record Office alone will be relieved of two hundred tons of records ( occupying 15 @,@ 000 feet of shelving ) ' . The Lord Chancellor took Denning 's report to heart , and had the changes he recommended implemented immediately . = = = Contract law = = = Denning gave the leading judgment in D & C Builders Ltd v Rees [ 1965 ] 2 QB 617 in 1965 . D & C Builders Ltd ( the respondent ) had been hired by Rees ( the appellant ) to do some construction work at his shop , where he sold building materials . The respondent finished the work and repeatedly phoned the appellant to request the money they were owed . After three phone calls spread out over several months the appellant 's wife spoke to the respondents ; she said there were several problems with the work that they had done , and she would only pay £ 300 of the £ 482 owed . The respondents replied that £ 300 would barely cover the costs of the materials , but that they would accept it anyway . If the respondents had not received the money they would have gone bankrupt , something the appellant 's wife was well aware of . In his judgement , Denning modified English case law on part payment and accord and satisfaction , saying that the rules on part payment can be set aside in situations where one of the parties is under duress . The fact that D & C Builders were effectively forced into accepting the lesser amount meant that the payment was not valid . In Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd [ 1971 ] 2 QB 163 in 1971 the Court of Appeal under Denning ruled that when dealing with offer and acceptance between a person and an automated machine the offer was made by the machine . In Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd v Ex @-@ Cell @-@ O Corp Ltd [ 1979 ] 1 WLR 401 in 1979 Denning reformed case law in relation to the so @-@ called ' Battle of the Forms ' . = = = Tort law = = = Denning gave the leading judgment in Letang v Cooper [ 1964 ] 2 All ER 929 in 1964 . Mrs Letang , on holiday in Cornwall , decided to lie down and rest in grass outside a hotel . Cooper drove into the hotel car park and , not seeing Letang , ran over her legs . More than three years after the events , Letang brought a tort case against Cooper , claiming damages for her injuries . The standard tort for personal injuries is that of negligence , which has a three @-@ year statute of limitations , and Letang instead claimed damages under the tort of Trespass to the Person . In his judgment , Denning stated that the tort of Trespass could only be used if the injury was inflicted intentionally ; if it was unintentionally , only negligence could be used . In Spartan Steel and Alloys Ltd v Martin & Co . Ltd [ 1973 ] 1 QB 27 in 1973 he delivered a leading judgment on the subject of the recovery of pure economic loss in negligence . Spartan Steel were a company that manufactured stainless steel in Birmingham , and their factory was powered by electricity . Less than a mile away from the factory Martin & Co were doing maintenance work on a road when they accidentally unearthed and damaged the power cable providing the factory with electricity . Due to the power being off the factory lost a large amount of money ; £ 368 on damaged goods , £ 400 on the profits they would have made from those goods and £ 1 @,@ 767 for the steel they could not make due to the power outage . The question was what Spartan Steel could claim money for . Martin & Co agreed they were negligent , and offered to pay for the damaged goods and the profit that Spartan Steel would have made on those goods , but refused to pay damages for the steel Spartan Steel could not make due to the power outage . In his judgment Denning agreed that they would only have to pay for losses associated with the damaged goods , not the money lost on the steel that could not be made due to the power outage because it counted as pure economic loss . For public policy reasons Denning would not allow the recovery of pure economic loss , stating in his judgement that : Statutory utility providers are never liable for damages caused by their negligence . A blackout is a common hazard and a risk which everyone can be expected to tolerate from time to time . If claims for pure economic loss in such cases were allowed , it might lead to countless claims , some of which may be spurious . It would be unfair to place the entire weight of many comparatively small losses upon the shoulders of one person in such cases . The law does not leave the claimant without remedy by allowing him to recover the economic losses that are directly consequential upon physical damage . The Court of Appeal 's decision in Spartan Steel has been criticised , firstly for being based on public policy rather than any legal principle , and secondly because the main public policy ground for their decision ( that allowing claims of pure economic loss would lead to countless claims ) has never been backed up by evidence . The House of Lords eventually ruled in Junior Books v Veitchi [ 1982 ] 3 All ER 201 that pure economic loss was recoverable . = = = The Profumo Affair = = = Denning became best known as a result of his report into the Profumo Affair . John Profumo was the Secretary of State for War with the British government . At a party in 1961 Profumo was introduced to Christine Keeler , a showgirl , and began having an affair with her . At the same time she was in a relationship with Yevgeni Ivanov , a naval attaché at the embassy of the Soviet Union . On 26 January 1963 Keeler was contacted by police on an unrelated matter and voluntarily gave them information about her relationship with Profumo . The police did not initially investigate ; no crime had been committed , and the morals of ministers were not their concern . Although the relationship lasted only a few weeks it became public knowledge in 1962 . Keeler attempted to publish her memoirs in the Sunday Pictorial in January 1963 but Profumo , still insisting that he had done nothing wrong , forced them to back down with threats of legal action should the story be published . Profumo made a statement in the House of Commons on 22 March , saying that " there was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler " . On 4 June 1963 he contacted the Chief Whip and the Prime Minister 's private secretary and informed them that he had indeed been having an affair with Keeler ; therefore , he sent a letter of resignation to the Prime Minister , which was accepted . On 21 June 1963 Harold Macmillan , the Prime Minister at the time , asked Denning to lead an enquiry into the " circumstances leading to the resignation of the former Secretary of State for War , Mr J. D. Profumo " . He started work on 24 June and began speaking to witnesses a day later . This period of the inquiry took 49 days and involved his speaking to 160 people . He concluded that the primary responsibility for the scandal was with Profumo , for associating with Keeler and for lying to his colleagues , with the greatest error being his false statement in the House of Commons . He also said that the situation had been looked at in the wrong way by police , members of parliament and the security services ; rather than asking if Profumo had committed adultery they should have asked if his conduct had led ordinary people to believe he committed adultery . His analogy was with divorce law ; a man does not need to have committed adultery for his wife to have grounds to divorce him , but rather she simply has to believe that he has committed adultery . This is because such a belief would destroy the trust and confidence within the relationship . This brought criticism from several government ministers including Sir John Hobson , the Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales , saying that it would mean condemning a man on the basis of suspicion rather than evidence . Denning 's final report was 70 @,@ 000 words long and was completed in the summer of 1963 . He signed it on 16 September and it was published ten days later . It was a best @-@ seller ; 105 @,@ 000 copies were sold , 4 @,@ 000 in the first hour , with people queuing outside Her Majesty 's Stationery Office to buy copies . The full report was published in The Daily Telegraph as a supplement and was described as " the raciest and most readable Blue Book ever published " . The report was criticised as a " whitewash " , a claim Denning rejected ; he said that " while the public interest demands that the facts should be ascertained as completely as possible there is a higher interest to be considered , namely the interest of justice to the individual which overrides all others " . = = = National Security = = = In 1977 , Denning upheld the deportation of Mark Hosenball , a journalist who had worked on a story which referred to the existence of GCHQ , which was considered to be a state secret . In the ruling , he argued that the government 's decisions in these cases were beyond legal review , writing : " There is a conflict here between the interests of national security on the one hand and the freedom of the individual on the other . The balance between these two is not for a court of law . It is for the Home Secretary . He is the person entrusted by Parliament with the task . In some parts of the world national security has on occasions been used as an excuse for all sorts of infringements of individual liberty . But not in England . " = = = Illness and controversy = = = In 1979 he began to experience hip and leg problems ; one of his legs had shortened an inch and a half and he had to learn to walk again . Although he remained otherwise in good health this was a sign of his increasing age , and the disabilities that came with it began to affect his judgments as well . While speaking at Cumberland Lodge in 1980 he forgot the details of the case , something shocking for a judge noted for his excellent memory . In the UPW 's anti @-@ apartheid boycott of postal services to and from South Africa , the Freedom Association sought an injunction to prevent the boycott . Lord Denning granted a temporary injunction , and years later wrote of " bad workers " ( who joined the boycott ) and " good workers " ( who worked normally ) . In 1980 , during an appeal by the Birmingham Six ( who were later acquitted ) Lord Denning judged that the men should be stopped from challenging legal decisions . He listed several reasons for not allowing their appeal : Just consider the course of events if their action were to proceed to trial ... If the six men failed it would mean that much time and money and worry would have been expended by many people to no good purpose . If they won , it would mean that the police were guilty of perjury ; that they were guilty of violence and threats ; that the confessions were involuntary and improperly admitted in evidence ; and that the convictions were erroneous . ... That was such an appalling vista that every sensible person would say , " It cannot be right that these actions should go any further . " In 1982 he published What Next in the Law ; in it , he seemed to suggest some members of the black community were unsuitable to serve on juries , and that immigrant groups may have had different moral standards to native Englishmen . His remarks followed a trial over the St Pauls riot in Bristol ; two jurors on the case threatened to sue him and the Society of Black Lawyers wrote to the Lord Chancellor to request that Denning " politely and firmly " be made to retire . Denning apologised for his remarks on 21 May and handed a letter to the Lord Chancellor detailing his resignation , effective as of 29 September . On 5 July George Thomas held a dinner in Denning 's honour at the Speaker 's House . Attending were Margaret Thatcher , Robert Runcie , Lord Hailsham , Geoffrey Howe , Lord Lane , William Whitelaw , Michael Havers and Christopher Leaver . On 30 July 1982 , his last day in court , Denning prepared four judgments and , dressed in his official robes and in the company of the Lord Chief Justice , delivered his farewell speech to over 300 lawyers crowded into the court . He delivered his last judgment on 29 September in George Mitchell ( Chesterhall ) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd [ 1983 ] 2 AC 803 and , characteristically , dissented . = = Retirement and death = = In retirement Denning moved to Whitchurch and continued the work he had done outside court hours , lecturing and presenting awards . He also on occasion dispensed legal advice ; in February 1983 he advised Patrick Evershed on the statutory duties of water suppliers . Further hip troubles were resolved with a full replacement in March 1983 , although a fall later that year forced him to stay at home for six weeks . With free time on his hands Denning spoke in the House of Lords on matters that interested him , supporting an amendment to the Abortion Act 1967 and bills designed to allow the administration of companies in financial difficulties . In 1983 he published the final volume of his autobiography The Closing Chapter and a year later published Landmarks in the Law . His final book titled Leaves from my Library was published in 1986 ; it was a collection of his favourite pieces of prose , and was subtitled " An English Anthology " . He appeared in an episode of the children 's television programme Jim 'll Fix It , helping to grant a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old girl 's wish to be a barrister for a day . By 1989 his health was failing ; he was suffering from dizzy spells , and after falling from a train at Waterloo Station he was advised he should not visit London again unless he was driven . In the summer of 1990 he agreed to a taped interview with A.N. Wilson , to be published in The Spectator . They discussed the Guildford Four ; Denning remarked that if the Guildford Four had been hanged " They 'd probably have hanged the right men . Just not proved against them , that 's all " . His remarks were controversial and came at a time when the issue of miscarriage of justice was a sensitive topic . He had expressed a similar controversial opinion regarding the Birmingham Six in 1988 , saying : " Hanging ought to be retained for murder most foul . We shouldn 't have all these campaigns to get the Birmingham Six released if they 'd been hanged . They 'd have been forgotten , and the whole community would be satisfied ... It is better that some innocent men remain in jail than that the integrity of the English judicial system be impugned . " On 25 November 1997 he was made a member of the Order of Merit ; by this point he was too weak to travel to London to receive it , so instead a representative of the Queen travelled to Whitchurch to present it to him . He celebrated his 100th birthday in Whitchurch on 23 January 1999 , receiving telegrams from both the Queen and Queen Mother . A male choir sang " Happy Birthday to You " and the local church had a new bell named " Great Tom " cast in his honour specifically for the occasion . By this point his health had deteriorated even further ; he was legally blind , required a hearing aid and only ventured outside on a motorised buggy . On 5 March 1999 he fell ill and was rushed to Royal Hampshire County Hospital , where he died of an internal haemorrhage . Denning was buried in his home town of Whitchurch , in the local churchyard . A memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey on 17 June 1999 ; among the tributes received , one was from the Lord Chief Justice Lord Bingham , who described Denning as ' the best @-@ known and best loved judge in our history ' . = = Other work = = As well as his work as a barrister and judge , Denning was involved in supporting student law societies and other groups ; at various times he was Vice @-@ President of Queen 's University Belfast Law Society and a patron of the Legal Research Foundation , the United Law Clerks ' Society and the Commonwealth Legal Education Association . He also spent time as the Vice @-@ President of the Society of Genealogists , Honorary President of the Council for the Protection of Rural England and Honorary President of the Glasgow University Dialectic Society . From 1950 he acted as an administrator and fund @-@ raiser for Cumberland Lodge . After being made aware of the Le Court charity for invalid ex @-@ servicemen by Geoffrey Cheshire Denning became the chairman of the organisation in 1952 . In 1953 he was elected President of Birkbeck College , University of London and on 18 March presented the 1952 Haldane Memorial Lecture on the subject of the rule of law and the welfare state . In 1964 he was made President of the English Association in recognition of his contributions to English prose . He became Chairman of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1962 , resigning in December 1982 . In 1949 he gave four lectures at the Senate House , University of London on behalf of the Hamlyn Trust titled Freedom under the Law . The success of these lectures led to his being invited to speak at many more events ; in early 1950 he spoke at University College , Dublin and in June spoke at the Holdsworth Club meeting at Birmingham University . In February 1953 he gave a speech on ' the need for a new equity ' to the Bentham Club at University College London , and in May gave the thirty @-@ third Earl Grey Memorial Lecture at King 's College , University of Durham ( now , part of Newcastle University ) , on the influence of religion on law . Towards the end of his judicial career he gave the 1980 Richard Dimbleby Lecture on the subject of " Misuse of Power " . In addition to being a Bencher of Lincoln 's Inn in 1944 he was made an Honorary Bencher of Middle Temple in 1972 , Gray 's Inn in 1979 and Inner Temple in 1982 , making him the only person to be elected a Bencher or Honorary Bencher of all four Inns of Court . In 1963 he was made a Doctor of Civil Law by the University of Oxford . He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Hampshire on 2 June 1978 . = = Foreign travels = = Throughout his career Denning travelled to a variety of foreign countries to lecture and learn more about other legal systems . In 1954 he was sponsored by the Nuffield Foundation to travel to South Africa and visit the universities there in the court vacation . He visited all six universities , accompanied by his son Robert and wife Joan , lecturing on the role of the judiciary and the press in safeguarding freedom . In 1955 he travelled to the United States at the behest of the American Bar Association and was elected an honorary member , followed by a trip to Canada a year later as a guest of the Canadian Bar Association , where he was awarded an honorary law doctorate by the University of Ottawa and made a life member of the Canadian Bar Association . In 1958 he visited Israel and from there travelled to Poland , where he was surprised by both the number of female judges and how badly they were paid . In 1961 he travelled again to Israel to give the Lionel Cohen Lecture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . In January 1964 he and his wife Joan travelled to India and Pakistan , visiting major cities such as Madras and Jaipur , meeting eminent jurists and speaking with Jawaharlal Nehru . He again visited Canada and the United States in the long vacation of 1964 and addressed a full conference hall in New York . On 14 August 1965 he and his wife flew to South America for a month @-@ long tour of the continent sponsored by the British Council . The couple visited Brazil , Uruguay , Argentina , Chile and Peru before flying north to visit Mexico City . On 6 January 1966 they flew to Malta , where Denning spoke at various legal conferences and lectures . In the same year they flew to San Francisco , Fiji and finally to New Zealand to take part in the law conference at Dunedin , New Zealand . His lecture at the conference so impressed an Australian visitor that he was invited in 1967 to speak at the Australian Law Society annual conference . While there , he spoke at a student meeting at the University of Sydney ; while the previous speaker received a slow hand @-@ clap , Denning was given a standing ovation and the student law society was named the Denning Law Society in his honour . On the way home the couple made a stop at Delhi , where they gave a dinner for members of the Indian Bar who had welcomed them during their visit in 1964 . In 1968 they again visited Canada , and Denning was given an honorary degree by McGill University . In 1969 he again travelled to India , this time on an official visit with Elwyn Jones and Sir John Widgery . In 1970 he travelled to Fiji to arbitrate in a dispute between some Fijian sugar @-@ cane growers and the Australian owners of the refining mills , which he was permitted to do on the condition he did not take a fee . Denning refused to have any contact with the government as a way to emphasise his neutrality in the situation . The agreements between growers and millers had been based on a contract written in 1961 due to end in March 1970 . The growers did not understand the price formula used and were convinced that they were getting a bad deal ; in response to their demand for better terms the mill @-@ owners threatened to leave Fiji . Despite criticism from both sides at the beginning of the arbitration process Denning came up with a solution which appeased both sides , creating a new formula for working out prices and requiring that the mill owners have an accountant inspect their accounts and report back to the growers . Denning 's decision impressed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , who invited him to report on the banana growing industry in Jamaica in the vacation of 1971 . His foreign travels to lecture on English law led to him being described as the " Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large for the common law " . = = Judicial style = = Denning was noted for his excellent memory , repeating notes almost verbatim in his exams at Oxford and on one occasion identifying the exact book , page and paragraph of text in a judgment that covered a particular situation . As a judge he attempted to make his decisions and the law publicly understandable , believing that the public would not want to follow the law unless they believed and understood that it was just . In his cases he referred to the parties by name in his judgments rather than as " plaintiff " and " defendant " and used short sentences and a " storytelling " style of speech shown in the case Beswick v Beswick where his judgment started : Old Peter Beswick was a coal merchant in Eccles , Lancashire . He had no business premises . All he had was a lorry , scales , and weights . He used to take the lorry to the yard of the National Coal Board , where he bagged coal and took it round to his customers in the neighbourhood . His nephew , John Joseph Beswick , helped him in his business . In March 1962 , old Peter Beswick and his wife were both over 70 . He had had his leg amputated and was not in good health . The nephew was anxious to get hold of the business before the old man died . So they went to a solicitor , Mr. Ashcroft , who drew up an agreement for them . In court Denning preferred to let counsel talk on for as long as they wanted to so that he could get a grasp of the situation without wading through irrelevant court papers ; to prevent them going on too long he sat quietly and allowed them to wind down at their own pace . Denning was also known for his long working schedule ; when he served as Master of the Rolls he sat for five full days a week , and required reserved judgments ( about one case in ten ) to be written during the weekend . He expected the other justices to keep to the same schedule as him , and was repeatedly warned about overwork . Henn Collins wrote him a poem : My brother pray be warned by me And always rise in time for tea And when you feel you must sit late Remember my untoward fate Don 't go on sitting until seven But sit next morning at eleven Unlike most of the judiciary Denning firmly believed that the press should have access to the courts and freedom to criticise magistrates and judges . He believed all legal proceedings should be held in public , quoting Jeremy Bentham when he said that " in the darkness of secrecy all sorts of things can go wrong . If things are really done in public you can see that the judge does behave himself , the newspapers can comment on it if he misbehaves — it keeps everyone in order " . For many years Denning was the president of the Lawyers ' Christian Fellowship , and he once wrote that " Without religion there is no morality , and without morality there is no law . " His Christian beliefs sometimes affected his judgments , particularly on the subject of the sanctity of marriage . In Re L ( infants ) he reversed a decision to give the children of a couple to the wife in a divorce case , believing that should the wife get custody of the children there would be no chance of saving the marriage . = = Legacy = = Denning has been described as the most influential judge of the 20th century , in part because of his changes to the common law and also due to his personalisation of the legal profession . With his judgments on war pensions and his role in the enquiry into the Profumo Affair , Denning became possibly the best known judge ever to belong to the English judiciary , with the public treating Lord Denning and the Court of Appeal as synonymous . He was equally well @-@ loved and controversial , appreciated for his role as ' the peoples judge ' and his support for the common man and disliked by elements of the bar and judiciary for ' uncertainty in the law ' created by his broad judgments . Denning made sweeping changes to the Common Law , with the resurrection of equitable estoppel and his reform of divorce law . A common misconception is that most of his judgments were overturned in the House of Lords ; many were , including the expansion to the doctrine of fundamental breach he set out in Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd , but they let many judgments stand and on occasion agreed with his judgment in situations where he dissented , such as in his final case George Mitchell ( Chesterhall ) Ltd v Finney Lock Seeds Ltd in 1983 . Several law @-@ related things have been named after Denning due to his reputation as a judge , in particular the Lord Denning Scholarship of Lincoln 's Inn and the Denning Law Journal of the University of Buckingham . The law library of Magdalen College , Oxford , where he studied , is known as the Denning Law Library . = = Personal life = = Denning met his future wife Mary Harvey on 25 October 1914 aged fifteen at his confirmation ; she was the daughter of the Vicar of Whitchurch . Denning attempted to court her for many years , but for a long time his love was unrequited , with Mary wanting them to be only friends . After a dance at Beaulieu on 18 January 1930 she finally admitted her love for him , and he returned to Hampshire with her to pick out an engagement ring . Barely six months away from the set date for their wedding Mary was diagnosed with tuberculosis , but she recovered and the couple were married on 28 December 1932 , with the wedding officiated by Cecil Henry Boutflower , Bishop of Southampton . The couple moved to London in 1933 but the city at the time was sooty and foggy . This affected Mary 's health , and after treatment at Guy 's Hospital she was transferred to Brompton Hospital , where she had a lung removed . After recovering , she moved to Southampton to stay with her parents for two years , with Denning visiting every weekend . By 1935 she had fully recovered , and the couple bought a house in Tylers Green , Cuckfield , called Fair Close . Their son , Robert , was born on 3 August 1938 ; he later became a Dean at Magdalen College , Oxford , teaching inorganic chemistry . Mary developed gallstones in 1941 , and after an initial recovery had a haemorrhage on 21 November , dying the next morning . In 1945 Denning met Joan Stuart , a widow with three children : Pauline , Hazel and John . They married on 27 December 1945 , and were by all accounts happy together . On 19 October 1992 she suffered a massive heart attack ; although she survived the initial attack she died a few days later on 23 October .
= Typhoon Meranti ( 2004 ) = Typhoon Meranti was the first of the record nine named storms to develop during August within the 2004 Pacific typhoon season . Forming from an area of low pressure on August 3 , Meranti gradually strengthened . On August 5 , the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , attaining its peak intensity later day . According to the Japan Meteorological Agency , the storm attained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center reported that the storm attained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The following day , the typhoon quickly weakened to a tropical storm due to unfavorable conditions . By August 9 , the system completed an extratropical transition ; the remnants of the storm persisted until August 13 , at which time it was absorbed by a large , non @-@ tropical low . = = Meteorological history = = Typhoon Meranti originated out of an area of low pressure about 475 km ( 295 mi ) south of Wake Island on August 2 . Little deep convection accompanied the weak system despite being situated within an area of moderate diffluence and weak to moderate wind shear . Initially , the system was thought to have been much closer to Wake Island ; however , following the development of deep convection , the location of the center of circulation was corrected . Around 0000 UTC on August 3 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) , the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the western Pacific basin , designated the system as a tropical depression . Development continued as the depression moved into an area of divergence near a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough cell . Several hours after the JMA issued their advisory on the depression , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , stating that the system was likely to develop into a tropical storm within 24 hours . Later on August 3 , the JTWC issued their first advisory on the storm , classifying it as Tropical Depression 14W . Located to the west of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression was steered towards the north . Early the next day , the JTWC upgraded 14W to a tropical storm ; the JMA later upgraded it to a tropical storm around 1200 UTC . At that time , the storm received the name Meranti , a name that was contributed by Cambodia . Little intensification took place until August 5 , at which time convection became increasingly organized and underwent a brief period of rapid intensification . By 1200 UTC , both the JMA and JTWC upgraded Meranti to a typhoon . Several hours later , the storm reached its peak intensity ; the JMA assessed it to have had winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) while the JTWC assessed it to have attained Category 2 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Upon attaining typhoon status , Meranti turned towards the northeast in response to a strengthening near @-@ equatorial ridge south of the typhoon . Visible satellite images of the typhoon depicted a small , ragged eye within a well @-@ developed cyclone . Gale @-@ force winds extended 155 km ( 100 mi ) at this time . Well @-@ developed outflow allowed the storm to maintain its peak intensity for roughly 18 hours before dry air became entrained in the circulation . The combined effects of decreasing sea surface temperatures and increasing wind shear caused Meranti to quickly weaken . By 0600 UTC on August 6 , the eye was no longer visible on satellite imagery and several hours later deep convection rapidly diminished , leading to both agencies downgrading the typhoon to a tropical storm . Later on August 6 , the weakening trend briefly halted as outflow significantly improved due to an area of low pressure north of Meranti . However , wind shear drastically increased , displacing convection to the northwest of the circulation center . By this time , the storm began to undergo an extratropical transition . Due to the influence of a major shortwave trough approaching from the west , Meranti took a sharp northward turn . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the weakening cyclone around 0600 UTC on August 8 . The JMA continued to monitor Meranti as a tropical cyclone until August 9 . Shortly after becoming extratropical , the remnants of the storm executed a slow , counter @-@ clockwise loop until August 12 . Shortly after crossing the International Date Line on August 13 , the storm was absorbed by a large non @-@ tropical low over the Bering Sea . = = Impact = = As Typhoon Meranti never threatened any land masses , no watches or warnings were issued in response to the storm . Although Meranti passed near Wake Island as a tropical depression , no effects were recorded .
= Mindaugas = Mindaugas ( German : Myndowen , Latin : Mindowe , Old East Slavic : Мендог — Mendog , Belarusian : Міндоўг or Mindoūh , c . 1203 – fall 1263 ) was the first known Grand Duke of Lithuania and the only King of Lithuania . Little is known of his origins , early life , or rise to power ; he is mentioned in a 1219 treaty as an elder duke , and in 1236 as the leader of all the Lithuanians . The contemporary and modern sources discussing his ascent mention strategic marriages along with banishment or murder of his rivals . He extended his domain into regions southeast of Lithuania proper during the 1230s and 1240s . In 1250 or 1251 , during the course of internal power struggles , he was baptised as a Roman Catholic ; this action enabled him to establish an alliance with the Livonian Order , a long @-@ standing antagonist of the Lithuanians . During the summer of 1253 he was crowned King of Lithuania , ruling between 300 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 subjects . While his ten @-@ year reign was marked by various state @-@ building accomplishments , Mindaugas 's conflicts with relatives and other dukes continued , and Samogitia ( western Lithuania ) strongly resisted the alliance 's rule . His gains in the southeast were challenged by the Tatars . He broke peace with the Livonian Order in 1261 , possibly renouncing Christianity , and was assassinated in 1263 by his nephew Treniota and another rival , Duke Daumantas . His three immediate successors were assassinated as well . The disorder was not resolved until Traidenis gained the title of Grand Duke c . 1270 . Although his reputation was unsettled during the following centuries and his descendants were not notable , he gained standing during the 19th and 20th centuries . Mindaugas was the only King of Lithuania ; while most of the Lithuanian Grand Dukes from Jogaila onward also reigned as Kings of Poland , the titles remained separate . Now generally considered the founder of the Lithuanian state , he is also now credited with stopping the advance of the Tatars towards the Baltic Sea , establishing international recognition of Lithuania , and turning it towards Western civilization . In the 1990s the historian Edvardas Gudavičius published research supporting an exact coronation date – 6 July 1253 . This day is now an official national holiday , Statehood Day . = = Rise to power = = Lithuania was ruled during the early 13th century by a number of dukes and princes presiding over various fiefdoms and tribes . They were loosely bonded by commonalities of religion and tradition , trade , kinship , joint military campaigns , and the presence of captured prisoners from neighboring areas . Western merchants and missionaries began seeking control of the area during the 12th century , establishing the city of Riga , Latvia in 1201 . Their efforts in Lithuania were temporarily halted by defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236 , but armed Christian orders continued to pose a threat . The country had also undergone incursions by the Mongol Empire . A treaty with Galicia – Volhynia , signed in 1219 , is usually considered the first conclusive evidence that the Baltic tribes in the area were uniting in response to these threats . The treaty 's signatories include twenty Lithuanian dukes and one dowager duchess ; it specifies that five of these were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen . Mindaugas , despite his youth , as well as his brother Dausprungas are listed among the elder dukes , implying that they had inherited their titles . The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describes him as the ruler of all Lithuania in 1236 . His path to this title is not clear . Ruthenian chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled several other dukes , including his relatives . Historian S.C. Rowell has described his rise to power as taking place through " the familiar processes of marriage , murder and military conquest . " During the 1230s and 1240s , Mindaugas strengthened and established his power in various Baltic and Slavic lands . Warfare in the region intensified ; he battled German forces in Kurland , while the Mongols destroyed Kiev in 1240 and entered Poland in 1241 , defeating two Polish armies and burning Kraków . The Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Saule temporarily stabilized the northern front , but the Christian orders continued to make gains along the Baltic coast , founding the city of Klaipėda ( Memel ) . Constrained in the north and west , Mindaugas moved to the east and southeast , conquering Navahrudak , Hrodna , Vawkavysk , and the Principality of Polotsk , but there is no information about any battles for those cities . In 1246 by Chronic of Gustynia he was baptized by Orthodox church in Navahrudak , but later because of political situation he was re @-@ baptized by Catholic church . In about 1239 he appointed his son Vaišvilkas to govern these areas , then known as Black Ruthenia . In 1248 , he sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas , the sons of his brother Dausprungas , along with Vykintas , the Duke of Samogitia , to conquer Smolensk , but they were unsuccessful . His attempts to consolidate his rule in Lithuania met with mixed success ; in 1249 , an internal war erupted when he sought to seize his nephews ' and Vykintas ' lands . = = Path to coronation = = Tautvilas , Edivydas , and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition in opposition to Mindaugas , along with the Samogitians of western Lithuania , the Livonian Order , Daniel of Galicia ( Tautvilas and Edivydas ' brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , and Vasilko of Volhynia . The princes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia , disrupting Vaišvilkas ' supremacy . Tautvilas strengthened his position by traveling to Riga and accepting baptism by the Archbishop . In 1250 , the Order organized a major raid through the lands of Nalšia into the domains of Mindaugas in Lithuania proper , and a raid into those parts of Samogitia that still supported him . Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere , Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position , but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga to further his own interests . He succeeded in bribing Order Master Andreas von Stierland , who was still angry at Vykintas for the defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236 , by sending him " many gifts " . In 1250 or 1251 , Mindaugas agreed to receive baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania , in return for an acknowledgment by Pope Innocent IV as king . The Pope welcomed a Christian Lithuania as a bulwark against Mongol threats ; in turn , Mindaugas sought papal intervention in the ongoing Lithuanian conflicts with the Christian orders . On 17 July 1251 , the pope signed two crucial papal bulls . One ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania , appoint a bishop for Lithuania , and build a cathedral . The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the Holy See , rather than to the Archbishop of Riga . This autonomy was a welcome development . The precise date of Mindaugas ' baptism is not known . His wife , two sons , and members of his court were baptized ; Pope Innocent wrote later that a multitude of Mindaugas ' subjects also received Christianity . The process of coronation and the establishment of Christian institutions would take two years . Internal conflicts persisted ; during the spring or summer of 1251 , Tautvilas and his remaining allies attacked Mindaugas ' warriors and the Livonian Order 's crossbow @-@ men in Voruta Castle . The attack failed , and Tautvilas ' forces retreated to defend themselves in Tviremet Castle ( presumed to be Tverai in Samogitia ) . Vykintas died in 1251 or 1252 , and Tautvilas was forced to rejoin Daniel of Galicia . = = The Kingdom of Lithuania = = Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned during the summer of 1253 . Bishop Henry Heidenreich of Kulm presided over the ecclesiastical ceremonies and Andreas Stirland conferred the crown . 6 July is now celebrated as Statehood Day ( Lithuanian : Valstybės diena ) ; it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania . The exact date of the coronation is not known ; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius , who promulgated this precise date , is sometimes challenged . The location of the coronation also remains unknown . Relative peace and stability prevailed for about eight years . Mindaugas used this opportunity to concentrate on the expansion to the east , and to establish and organize state institutions . He strengthened his influence in Black Ruthenia , in Polatsk , a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin , and in Pinsk . He also negotiated a peace with Galicia – Volhynia , and married his daughter to Svarn , the son of Daniel of Galicia , who would later become Grand Duke of Lithuania . Lithuanian relationships with western Europe and the Holy See were reinforced . In 1255 , Mindaugas received permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown his son as King of Lithuania . A noble court , an administrative system , and a diplomatic service were initiated . Silver long coins , an index of statehood , were issued . He sponsored the construction of a cathedral in Vilnius , possibly on the site of today 's Vilnius Cathedral . Immediately after his coronation , Mindaugas transferred some lands to the Livonian Order – portions of Samogitia , Nadruva , and Dainava — although his control over these western lands was tenuous . There has been much discussion among historians as to whether in later years ( 1255 – 1261 ) Mindaugas gave even more lands to the order . The deeds might have been falsified by the order ; the case for this scenario is bolstered by the fact that some of the documents mention lands that were not actually under the control of Mindaugas and by various irregularities in treaty witnesses and seals . Mindaugas and his antagonist Daniel reached a reconciliation in 1255 ; the Black Ruthenian lands were transferred to Roman , Daniel 's son . Afterwards Mindaugas 's son Vaišvilkas received baptism as a member of the Orthodox faith , becoming a monk and later founding a convent and monastery . Tautvilas 's antagonism was temporarily resolved when he recognized Mindaugas ' superiority and received Polatsk as a fiefdom . A direct confrontation with the Mongols occurred in 1258 or 1259 , when Berke Khan sent his general Burundai to challenge Lithuanian rule , ordering Daniel and other regional princes to participate . The Novgorod Chronicle describes the following action as a defeat of the Lithuanians , but it has also been seen as a net gain for Mindaugas . A single sentence in the Hypatian Chronicle mentions Mindaugas defending himself in Voruta against his nephews and Duke Vykintas ; two other sources mention " his castle " . The location of Voruta is not specified , and this has led to considerable speculation , along with archeological research , concerning the seat of his court . At least fourteen different locations have been proposed , including Kernavė and Vilnius . The ongoing formal archeological digs at Kernavė began in 1979 after a portion of the site named " Mindaugas Throne hill @-@ fort " collapsed . The town now hosts a major celebration on Statehood Day . = = Assassination and aftermath = = The Livonian Order used their alliance with Mindaugas to gain control over Samogitian lands . In 1252 he approved the Order 's construction of Klaipeda Castle . Their governance , however , was seen as oppressive . Local merchants could only conduct transactions via Order @-@ approved intermediaries ; inheritance laws were changed ; and the choices among marriage partners and residencies were restricted . Several pitched battles ensued . In 1259 the Order lost the Battle of Skuodas , and in 1260 it lost the Battle of Durbe . The first defeat encouraged a rebellion by the Semigalians , and the defeat at Durbe spurred the Prussians into the Great Prussian Rebellion , which lasted for 14 years . Encouraged by these developments and by his nephew Treniota , Mindaugas broke peace with the Order . The gains he had expected from Christianization had proven to be minor . Mindaugas may have reverted to paganism afterwards . His motivation for conversion is often described by modern historians as merely strategic . The case for his apostasy rests largely on two near @-@ contemporary sources : a 1324 assertion by Pope John XXII that Mindaugas had returned to error , and the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . The chronicler writes that Mindaugas continued to practice paganism , making sacrifices to his god , burning corpses , and conducting pagan rites in public . Historians have pointed to the possibility of bias in this account , since Mindaugas had been at war with Volhynia . Pope Clement IV , on the other hand , wrote in 1268 of " Mindaugas of happy memory " ( clare memorie Mindota ) , expressing regret at his murder . In any event , the Lithuanians were not prepared to accept Christianity , and Mindaugas ' baptism had little impact on further developments . The majority of the population and the nobility remained pagan ; his subjects were not required to convert . The cathedral he had built in Vilnius was superseded by a pagan temple , and all the diplomatic achievements made after his coronation were lost , although the practice of Christianity and intermarriage were well tolerated . Regional conflicts with the Order escalated . Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod , Tautvilas , and Tautvilas 's son Constantine agreed to form a coalition in opposition to Mindaugas , but their plans were unsuccessful . Treniota emerged as the leader of the Samogitian resistance ; he led an army to Cēsis ( now in Latvia ) , reaching the Estonian coast , and battled Masovia ( now in Poland ) . His goal was to encourage all the conquered Baltic tribes to rise up against the Christian orders and unite under Lithuanian leadership . His personal influence grew while Mindaugas was concentrating on the conquest of Ruthenian lands , dispatching a large army to Bryansk . Treniota and Mindaugas began to pursue different priorities . The Rhymed Chronicle mentions Mindaugas 's displeasure at the fact that Treniota did not create any alliances in Latvia or Estonia ; he may have come to prefer diplomacy . In the midst of these events Mindaugas ' wife Morta died , and he took her sister , Daumantas ' wife , as his own . In retaliation , Daumantas and Treniota assassinated Mindaugas and two of his sons in fall 1263 . According to a late medieval tradition , the assassination took place in Aglona . He was buried along with his horses , in accordance with ancestral tradition . After Mindaugas ' death , Lithuania lapsed into internal disorder . Three of his successors — Treniota , his son @-@ in @-@ law Svarn , and his son Vaišvilkas — were assassinated during the next seven years . Stability did not return until the reign of Traidenis , designated Grand Duke c . 1270 . = = Legacy = = Mindaugas held a dubious position in Lithuanian historiography until the Lithuanian national revival of the 19th century . While pagan sympathizers held him in disregard for betraying his religion , Christians saw his support as lukewarm . He received only passing references from Grand Duke Gediminas and was not mentioned at all by Vytautas the Great . His known family relations end with his children ; no historic records note any connections between his descendants and the Gediminids dynasty that ruled Lithuania and Poland until 1572 . A 17th @-@ century rector of Vilnius University held him responsible for the troubles then being experienced by the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( " the seed of internal discord among the Lithuanians had been sown " . ) A 20th @-@ century historian charged him with the " destruction of the organization of the Lithuanian state " . The first academic study of his life by a Lithuanian scholar , Jonas Totoraitis ( Die Litauer unter dem König Mindowe bis zum Jahre 1263 ) was not published until 1905 . In the 1990s historian Edvardas Gudavičius published his findings pinpointing a coronation date , which became a national holiday . The 750th anniversary of his coronation was marked in 2003 by the dedication of the Mindaugas Bridge in Vilnius , numerous festivals and concerts , and visits from other heads of state . In Belarus , there is the legendary Mindaugas ' Hill in Navahrudak , mentioned by Adam Mickiewicz in his 1828 poem Konrad Wallenrod . A memorial stone on the Mindaugas ' hill was installed in 1993 and a metal sculpture of Mindaugas in 2014 . Mindaugas is the primary subject of the 1829 drama Mindowe , by Juliusz Słowacki , one of the Three Bards . He has been portrayed in several 20th @-@ century literary works : the Latvian author Mārtiņš Zīverts ' tragedy Vara ( Power , 1944 ) , Justinas Marcinkevičius ' drama @-@ poem Mindaugas ( 1968 ) , Romualdas Granauskas ' Jaučio aukojimas ( The Offering of the Bull , 1975 ) , and Juozas Kralikauskas ' Mindaugas ( 1995 ) . Coronation of Mindaugas and creation of the Grand Duchy is the main topic of the 2002 Belarusian novel Alhierd 's Lance by Volha Ipatava dedicated to the 750th anniversary of the coronation .
= The Cheese Special = The Cheese Special is a 1913 American silent short comedy film featuring Max Asher and marking the film debut of Louise Fazenda . The scenario was written by Allen Curtis , but the identity of the director is unknown . It was the first production released by the newly formed Joker productions , as part of the Universal Film Manufacturing Company . The film is presumed to be lost and there is no published synopsis of the film . Known production details state that it was shot on a beach resort and used a miniature train . The film had a wide release and was reviewed by The Moving Picture World as a low comedy suited for the burlesque theaters . = = Plot = = No known script or plot of the film has surfaced , but the highlight of the film was summarized in the Corsicana Daily Sun as " a roaring Joker comedy in which Dauntless Dan stops the train with one hand and rescues the heroine with the other while the villain hisses between his teeth . " = = Cast = = Max Asher Louise Fazenda as heroine / Schmaltz 's daughter Henry Mann as Schmaltz Lee Morris Bobby Vernon as Sylvion De Jardins = = Production = = Few details are known about the production of the film , but it was shot on a beach resort and used a miniature train . Due the lack of credits , both Louise Fazenda and Henry Mann 's roles were provided by Photoplay , in response to an reader inquiry . The film was the first release by the new Joker productions , which was dedicated to producing only short comedy films . Kalton C. Lahue and Samuel Gill credit this production as being Louise Fazenda 's film debut . Film historian Richard E. Braff notes that Allen Curtis as the writer , but provides no directorial credits . The single reel production was released on October 25 , 1913 . = = Reception = = The new Joker line was billed as one of the " best comedies yet " by advertisers wanting to draw crowds to the theaters , but there may have been truth in the claims because it was cited as one of Max Asher 's best roles in a 1914 edition of Moving Picture World . The film had a wide release with showings in Indiana , Kansas , Ohio , North Carolina , Maryland , Pennsylvania , Texas , and in Chicago , Illinois . The Moving Picture World review of the film noted that it was a low comedy suitable for the burlesque houses with " less particular audiences " than finer establishments because one of the minor characters spat frequently on camera , interrupting the humor and thus making it unfit for the best theaters . Another newspaper review claimed that it was one of the best comedies released in months , but ended up referring to the film as " The Chinese Special " . The date of disappearance is unknown , but Universal destroyed its remaining copies of silent era films in 1948 . The film is presumed to be lost .
= James Walker ( Australian politician ) = James Thomas Walker ( 20 March 1841 – 18 January 1923 ) was a Scottish @-@ born Australian banker and politician . Walker was born in Scotland but spent his early childhood in New South Wales , before returning to Scotland with his family to study finance . Joining the Bank of New South Wales , he returned to Australia and held various financial positions in New South Wales and Queensland . Gaining a public reputation for financial expertise , he was active in the Federationist cause and was a delegate to the 1897 Constitutional Convention , where he was a significant figure in the development of Commonwealth finance schemes . After assisting the successful " Yes " campaign for the 1898 referendum , he was elected to the Senate in 1901 as a Free Trader . As a senator , Walker continued to focus on finance , although his views on social policy sometimes saw him on the outside of his party . He supported the White Australia policy but disagreed with key elements , and was a leader in opposition to the dictation test , by which a potential immigrant was required to pass a test in any European language before their application was accepted . He also campaigned for a transcontinental railway and for a capital city to be located on federal territory . Attempts to guide financial reform through the parliament as a backbench senator led to frustration , and Walker retired due to ill health in 1913 with his legislation unpassed . = = Early life and career = = Walker was born on Leith Walk in Edinburgh to grazier John William Walker and his wife Elizabeth , née Waterston . The family migrated to New South Wales in 1844 and settled on Castlereads Station near Boorowa . In 1849 , John Walker sold the property to Hamilton Hume and returned to Scotland . James was educated at the Edinburgh Institution and King 's College London before returning to Edinburgh in 1857 . After several years in Scotland working first for the paper manufacturers Cowan & Sons , and then for stockbroker Robert Allan , he joined the Bank of New South Wales ' London branch in March 1860 ; his cousin , Thomas Walker , was one of the bank 's directors . In January 1862 he departed for Melbourne on Swiftsure and was posted to the bank 's Sydney office . Walker was then sent by the bank to Rockhampton in Queensland , where he worked as an accountant until 1866 when he was appointed manager of the Townsville branch . In 1867 he was transferred to the Toowoomba branch , which he managed until 1878 when he was promoted assistant inspector in Brisbane . He married Janette Isabella Palmer on 16 April 1868 at Range View . In 1885 he resigned from the Bank of New South Wales to become the first manager of the Royal Bank of Queensland , but in 1887 he returned to New South Wales to manage the estate of Eadith Walker , the daughter of his late cousin Thomas . = = Federation = = Walker had a strong interest in Federation and was a member of the Australasian Federation League of New South Wales . In 1896 he attended the People 's Federal Convention in Bathurst , where he proposed a financial scheme that would provide savings for a federal government based on income from state taxes and federal spending . His reputation for financial expertise saw him elected to the Australian Federal Convention in 1897 . There he supported equal representation for all states in an upper house , Commonwealth control of railways , and a national capital on federal territory . He reiterated his financial proposals , but was overlooked for the finance and trade committee , having been described by Alfred Deakin as " a mere commercial man " . Despite this setback , Walker continued to play an active part in the development of the Australian Constitution . He had the name of the federal upper house changed from the " States Assembly " to the Senate , although his proposal that the federated colonies adopt the name " Commonwealth of Australasia " , with a view to the future inclusion of New Guinea , New Zealand and Fiji , was not adopted . He also supported a minimum age for senators of twenty @-@ five , rather than twenty @-@ one , and voted for Paddy Glynn 's proposal to include recognition of a " Divine Sovereign " in the Constitution . The second session of the Convention took place in Sydney in September 1897 . Walker was appointed to a subcommittee on federal finance , which proposed a financial scheme based on Walker 's Bathurst proposal that was adopted by the Convention . He was active in the Federation referendum campaign , travelling around New South Wales to encourage a " Yes " vote . He mostly focused on financial issues , and in 1899 went to Western Australia , the most reluctant colony , to increase support . Following the success of the referendum , Walker was encouraged to stand for the Senate by a petition of over 6500 signatures . A staunch free trader , Walker campaigned as part of the Free Trade Party 's endorsed ticket . He had resigned as president of the Bank of New South Wales in 1897 , but remained a director . At the first federal election in March 1901 , Walker was elected as a New South Wales Senator at the head of the poll . = = Senate career = = As a senator , Walker devoted his support to a variety of causes , including a transcontinental railway and equal pay for women . He opposed a federal old @-@ age pension scheme on the grounds of lack of funds , and also opposed the Immigration Restriction Bill , although he supported the White Australia policy in principle . He opposed the proposed form of the dictation test and supported James Macfarlane 's amendment requiring the test to be administered in a language known to the immigrant , moving his own amendment after Macfarlane 's was defeated . He also expressed reservations about the deportation of Kanaka labourers , supporting the reduction in their use but advocating that those resident in Australia for at least five years be permitted to remain . He vigorously opposed compulsory arbitration , and voted against the Conciliation and Arbitration Bill . Re @-@ elected as an Anti @-@ Socialist in 1906 , Walker expressed the view that the three @-@ party system of the Australian Parliament 's first decade was dysfunctional , and implored electors to vote " for either socialism or anti @-@ socialism , and so end this triangular government " . He continued to support the transcontinental railway and lamented the slow progress of the decision on a site for the federal capital , and supported a higher rate of immigration and the watering down of the Immigration Restriction Act . In 1908 , he introduced the Commonwealth Companies Reserve Liabilities Bill , which permitted special reserve funds for banks to assist shareholders during a financial crisis , and in 1910 followed with the similar Commonwealth Banking Companies Reserve Liabilities Bill . He complained of the difficulty of passing private senators ' bills , and at the 1913 election he retired , suffering from ill health . = = Later life = = Walker maintained an interest in politics after his retirement , and remained a director of the Bank of New South Wales until 1921 . He had been president of the Australian Golf Club ( 1903 – 19 ) , a director of the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital , and a member of the Presbyterian Church 's finance committee . A fellow of the Institute of Bankers in London since 1886 and vice @-@ president of the Australian Economic Association , he also continued as a director of the Australian Mutual Provident Society and a councillor of St Andrew 's College at the University of Sydney . Walker died on 18 January 1923 at Woollahra in Sydney , and was survived by his wife and five of their seven children . Buried at South Head Cemetery , his estate at his death was worth £ 27 @,@ 697 .
= Hurricane Marty ( 2015 ) = Hurricane Marty was a tropical cyclone that produced heavy rains and flooding in several states in Southwestern and Western Mexico . The twentieth named storm and twelfth hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Marty developed from a tropical wave on September 26 , 2015 to the southwest of Acapulco , Guerrero , in Mexico . Initially a tropical depression , the system strengthened into a tropical storm early on the following day . Due to favorable atmospheric conditions , Marty continued to intensify , but wind shear sharply increased as the storm approached a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough . Despite this , the cyclone deepened further , becoming a hurricane on September 28 and peaking with sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) shortly thereafter . Wind shear quickly took its toll on the hurricane , weakening it to a tropical storm early on September 29 . About 24 hours later , Marty degenerated into a post @-@ tropical low pressure area offshore Guerrero . The low further degenerated into a trough later on September 30 , and eventually dissipated on October 4 . In anticipation of the storm , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in the states of Guerrero and Michoacán . Flooding occurred , particularly in Guerrero , where areas near Acapulco observed 5 to 6 in ( 130 to 150 mm ) of rainfall . There were several landslides and over 300 homes in the municipality of Coyuca de Benitez were flooded . The remnants also caused severe flooding in Sonora . About 800 homes and 400 vehicles were damaged in the city of Guaymas alone . Total damage in the state reached 500 million pesos ( US $ 30 million ) . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 10 . Tracking westward , the wave split into two portions , with the slower @-@ moving northern portion ultimately developing into Atlantic Tropical Depression Nine on September 16 . The southern portion crossed Venezuela and Colombia and emerged into the Pacific , where a large area of deep convection began to form . A well @-@ defined low pressure area developed on September 26 , and organized into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 p.m. CDT ) the same day while situated about 335 mi ( 540 km ) southwest of Acapulco , Guerrero . Six hours later , after banding features became more defined and intensity estimates using the Dvorak technique showed a slight increase in intensity , the depression was classified as a tropical storm and was accordingly named Marty by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) . At the time , the storm was moving slowly northward due to the influence of a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough . Located in a favorable environment of sea surface temperatures around 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and low vertical wind shear , Marty strengthened steadily . Early on September 27 , the NHC noted that rapid intensification was possible . However , as Marty neared the base of the trough , westerly vertical wind shear increased rapidly , causing the low @-@ level circulation center to be partially exposed . Despite the hostile wind shear , the cyclone reformed a central dense overcast and intensified into a hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 a.m. CDT ) on September 28 , as a mid @-@ level eye feature was seen in microwave satellite imagery . Operationally , the NHC upgraded Marty to a hurricane nine hours later , after a reconnaissance aircraft flight observed hurricane @-@ force winds . At 18 : 00 UTC , Marty attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 987 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) . Computer forecast models indicated that the storm would pass within just 25 mi ( 40 km ) of the Southwestern Mexican coast on September 29 or September 30 . Turning north and northeast while under the influence of the aforementioned trough , Marty began to weaken soon after peak intensity as deep convection was displaced to the east due to the strong westerly shear ; the low @-@ level circulation center became fully exposed in a span of three hours late on September 28 . Upwelling of cooler waters further decayed the deep convection , prompting the NHC to downgrade Marty to a tropical storm at 06 : 00 UTC ( 1 a.m. CDT ) on September 29 . Continuing to steadily weaken , Marty degenerated into a post @-@ tropical low a day later about 140 mi ( 225 km ) west @-@ southwest of Acapulco , while still producing gale @-@ force winds . The shallow system turned westwards in the low @-@ level flow and eventually opened up into a trough twelve hours later about 195 mi ( 315 km ) west of Acapulco . The low became closed once again on October 1 , however , it failed to produce sufficient organized deep convection to re @-@ qualify as a tropical cyclone . It turned north @-@ northeastwards towards the southern Gulf of California , however it dissipated before reaching the coast of Western Mexico . The remnant moisture continued into Northwestern Mexico and caused flooding in Sonora . = = Preparations and impact = = In preparation for the arrival of Marty , classes were suspended in Acapulco and the Costa Grande region . The Mexican Navy was put on standby to deal with incidents occurring within the zones of Chiapas , Guerrero , Michoacan and Jalisco . The Government of Mexico issued multiple watches and warnings for coastal communities across Guerrero ; by 21 : 00 UTC ( 4 p.m. CDT ) on September 28 , a tropical storm watch was in effect for west of Lázaro Cárdenas to Punta San Telmo , a tropical storm warning for Acapulco to east of Tecpán de Galeana , and a hurricane warning for Tecpán de Galeana to Lázaro Cárdenas . These were discontinued as Marty weakened and moved away from the region ; all had been cancelled by early on September 30 . Stalling south of Mexico , Marty produced heavy rains , mainly in the state of Guerrero . Many areas reported at least 2 in ( 50 mm ) of rain between September 26 and October 1 ; coastal areas near and west of Acapulco received up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) . As river levels rose , a state of emergency was declared for eight municipalities , which was only concluded on September 30 . Two landslides occurred in Chilpancingo ; several others occurred in Coyuca de Benitez and Sierra de Atoyac . More than 300 homes were flooded with up to 6 in ( 15 cm ) of water in Coyuca de Benitez . Three temporary shelters were opened in Barra de Coyuca , however , they were closed as no one moved in . As the remnants of Marty moved into northwestern Mexico , heavy rains and flooding rendered 35 @,@ 000 people homeless in Sonora . A state of emergency was declared in 16 municipalities . Flooding in Guaymas , which was hit hardest , damaged 800 homes and 400 vehicles ; three people sustained injuries when a wall collapsed . The Mexico @-@ Nogales Highway between Guaymas and Ciudad Obregón had to be closed due to the floods . Total estimated damage in the state amounted to 500 million pesos ( US $ 30 million ) .
= Peace on Earth ( Casting Crowns album ) = Peace on Earth is the first Christmas album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Produced by Mark Hall and Mark A. Miller , it was released on October 7 , 2008 . Intended by Hall to bring out the worshipful aspect of Christmas , the album does not have songs relating to secular Christmas traditions , instead featuring a mix of traditional Christmas carols and original songs . As co @-@ producer , Hall attempted to differentiate the album from their previous ones by attempting to use creative ideas they had not tried before , and he also wanted to utilize the band 's female members in a broader and more visible role on the album . Upon its release , Peace on Earth met with mixed reviews . Some critics praised the album 's emphasis on traditional Christmas songs and the worship aspect of Christmas , while others criticized the album 's original songs and felt it was a disappointment in comparison to the band 's previous albums . The album peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Albums and Catalog Albums charts , number two on the Holiday Albums chart , and number fifteen on the Billboard 200 . Peace on Earth has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipments of five hundred thousand copies in the United States . = = Background and recording = = According to Casting Crowns ' lead vocalist Mark Hall , Peace on Earth was written based on the question " How do you know there 's peace on earth in a world that isn 't very peaceful ? " Hall opined that when people hear Christmas carols , they often don 't hear their true message . Hall intended the album to help people rediscover the worshipful nature behind the carols . As an example of a message he wanted people to hear , he gave " I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day " , a song written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow about his rediscovery of hope amidst several personal tragedies . Hall felt that the song 's message of hope was one that his kids and their generation needed to hear . As a co @-@ producer on the album , Hall wanted to introduce aspects and ideas that the band had not done before , and he felt the album offered a chance to branch out . He wanted the band 's female members , Megan Garrett and Melodee DeVevo , to play a more prominent role , in part to show people " the gifts they have " . = = Composition = = Peace on Earth does not contain material relating to secular Christmas traditions like Santa Claus or Jack Frost , instead featuring a mix of traditional Christmas carols and original songs . " I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day " , instead of using a carol of bells , has a choir of children personifying the bells by singing the refrain of ' peace on earth ' . " While You Were Sleeping " , originally included on the band 's 2005 album Lifesong , is included in its original form . On the Lifesong version , the band had altered the song ( originally written as a Christmas song ) to remove the most " seasonal " elements ; the version included on Peace on Earth features the lyrics in their original form . On " God Is With Us " , originally recorded by Amy Grant , Hall shares lead vocal duties with the band 's female members . " O Come , O Come , Emmanuel " is an instrumental piece , which makes extensive use of DeVevo 's violin playing . " Away in a Manger " was originally included on WOW Christmas ( 2005 ) , and is included on Peace on Earth in that form . = = Commercial reception = = Peace on Earth was released on October 7 , 2008 . It debuted at number four on the Billboard Christian Albums chart as well as at number two on the Holiday Albums chart and number fifty @-@ six on the Billboard 200 . It reached a peak of number one , two , and fifteen on those charts , respectively , as well as a peak of number one on the Catalog Albums chart . In the United States , it ranked as the thirtieth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2008 , the fifth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2009 , and the 151st best @-@ selling album of 2009 . Peace on Earth received a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in November 2009 , signifying shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album 's lead single , " I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day " , peaked at number three on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and number one on the Hot Christian AC chart ; it also became the band 's first and only entry on the Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at number twenty @-@ six . Several other songs from the album also charted ; " Away in a Manger " charted in 2005 following its appearance on WOW Christmas , peaking at number seven on the Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC chart . " While You Were Sleeping " peaked at number eight on the Christian Songs chart and number four on the Hot Christian AC chart , and " Joy to the World " peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the Christian Songs chart . = = Critical reception and accolades = = Upon its release , Peace on Earth met with a mixed reception from music critics . Jared Johnson of Allmusic gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , praising it for its " wide appeal " and for having " a cohesive set of songs that brings out the worship aspect of the holidays " and particularly praising " While You Were Sleeping " and " O Come , O Come , Emmanuel " . Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine gave it 3 out of 5 stars , regarding it as a let @-@ down in comparison to the band 's previous albums as well as holiday albums that other artists had put out . Russ Breimier of Christianity Today gave it 2 out of 5 stars , describing it as " predictable " . However , he praised " While You Were Sleeping " as an example of Mark Hall 's " bold , poignant songwriting " . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave the album a perfect 10 out of 10 stars , saying that it " bucks all the trends in that it doesn 't contain saccharine , sleigh bell @-@ drenched arrangements nor those ghastly songs about Santa and chestnuts roasting in an open fire " and praising it as an " inventive and on occasions brilliant exploration of the wonders of the incarnation " . Justin Mabee of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album 3 out of 5 stars , praising the traditional Christmas songs on the album but criticizing the original songs as having a " forced feel to them , almost like Casting Crowns wanted to do a whole album of traditional songs , but were told differently " ; he remarked that " this would have probably worked better , because the originality is lacking in these few original Christmas tunes " . At the 40th GMA Dove Awards , Peace on Earth was nominated for and received the award for Christmas Album of the Year . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel and credits = = Credits taken from the album liner notes = = Charts and certifications = =
= Kanche = Kanche ( English : The Fence ) is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language war film written and directed by Krish . It features Varun Tej , Pragya Jaiswal , and Nikitin Dheer in the lead roles . Y. Rajeev Reddy and J. Sai Babu produced the film under their banner , First Frame Entertainment . Kanche revolves around the enmity between two friends — Dhupati Haribabu and Eeshwar Prasad . Haribabu and Eeshwar 's sister Sitadevi graduate from the University of Madras in the late 1930s and fall in love . Due to the prevailing casteism in their native village , Eeshwar opposes their relationship and kills Sitadevi accidentally . Years later , Haribabu joins the British Indian Army as a captain to fight against the Axis Powers in World War II and Eeshwar , now a colonel , is his commanding officer . Krish began research on the film 's subject after seeing a bomb , dropped by the Imperial Japanese Army , preserved in a museum in Vishakhapatnam during the filming of Vedam ( 2010 ) . He worked on the film 's screenplay for nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months and considered it his most ambitious project . Chirantan Bhatt composed the film 's soundtrack and score , marking his debut in Telugu cinema . V. S. Gnanasekhar was the film 's director of photography ; Sahi Suresh was the film 's art director , and Sai Madhav Burra penned the film 's dialogue . Principal photography commenced on 27 February 2015 in Hyderabad . Kanche was filmed in Tatipaka , Draksharamam , Kapotavaram , and in Peruru Agraharam near Palakollu . Major sets were erected in Ramoji Film City , Hyderabad . The war sequences were filmed in Georgia and the film 's unit was allotted 700 guns , four tanks , and a machine gun from the Georgia Military Institute a military training school . Principal photography was wrapped up on 6 July 2015 . Kanche was filmed in 55 working days , 35 of which were in Georgia . Promoted as Telugu cinema 's first World War II @-@ based film , Kanche was released worldwide on 22 October 2015 , on 700 screens , and received positive reception from critics . It grossed ₹ 200 million on a budget of ₹ 180 million , and became the 14th highest grossing Telugu film of the year . Kanche earned the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu at the 63rd National Film Awards ceremony . = = Plot = = In 1936 , Dhupati Haribabu and Rachakonda Sitadevi meet at the Madras Cultural Club in Madras Presidency on the latter 's birthday and realise that they are studying at the same college , the University of Madras . Sitadevi is the princess of Rachakonda estate , whereas Haribabu belongs to a lower caste and is the grandson of a local barber . By the time they graduate , they have fallen in love , and leave for their native town , Devarakonda . Haribabu is introduced to Sitadevi 's brother Eeshwar and they become friends . Eeshwar , and his grandfather Pedababu , learn of Haribabu and Sitadevi 's affair and instigate a fight between people of both castes . Hundreds of people from both sides die and a fence ( Kanche ) is erected to separate the two groups forever . While Eeshwar and Pedababu decide to marry off Sitadevi to a bridegroom of their choice , Haribabu arrives back from town and is severely injured when he is stabbed . Sitadevi looks after him secretly in her bedroom , and on the wedding day , a frustrated Haribabu marries Sitadevi , in the presence of her grandmother , and leaves . That evening , Eeshwar and Haribabu duel , and in the process Sitadevi is killed accidentally . During World War II , as a member of the allied nations , the British Raj send over two and a half million Indian volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers . Haribabu joins them as a captain and Eeshwar , now a colonel , is his commanding officer . In May 1944 , the Nazis attack the Indian army in the Italian Campaign , and capture them . Haribabu , his friend Dasu , and three other soldiers escape . They decide to save the captured troops and follow the Nazis . They take shelter in an Italian baker 's house and his granddaughter saves them from the Nazis . She reveals that the Nazis want to kill a little girl whose parents were a German doctor and a Jew . The Nazis find the doctor and a group of civilians , and Haribabu , along with his cohorts , rescues them . The soldiers find the captured troops in an old building and rescue them from the Nazis . When Eeshwar asks Haribabu why he saved him despite the rivalry between them , he replies that Sitadevi 's love for Eeshwar made him do so . They leave with the civilians and find a German base near a river which they can use to escape . When Haribabu formulates a plan , Eeshwar , who still hates him , points out that the plan is flawed . Haribabu reminds him that World War II commenced because of racism and he does not want to see the same bloodshed repeated here that happened in their village . The soldiers raid all the tents and find a boat in which the civilians and the other soldiers board . To divert the German army 's attention , Haribabu continues to fight alone until the boat reaches safety . Severely injured , Haribabu dies with a smile , thinking of the memories of his life with Sitadevi . Eeshwar is shocked to see Haribabu die and carries his body back to his village . He also reads the letters Haribabu had written to Sitadevi during the war and realises that humans should not be divided by caste . He reaches the village and asks Haribabu 's grandfather to dig the grave . Eeshwar calls Haribabu a great human , soldier , lover , son and mainly a good friend whom he never recognised . He acknowledges that without the borderlines of caste , Haribabu would have been happy with Sitadevi and salutes him . Pedababu orders the fences ' removal and the people continue to live happily . = = Cast = = Varun Tej as Dhupati Haribabu Pragya Jaiswal as Rachakonda Sitadevi Nikitin Dheer as Eeshwar Prasad Srinivas Avasarala as Dasu , Haribabu 's friend Gollapudi Maruti Rao as Dhupati Haribabu 's grandfather Sowcar Janaki as Sitadevi 's grandmother Ravi Prakash as Janardhan Sastry Singeetham Srinivasa Rao as a pianist in Madras Cultural Club ( cameo appearance ) = = Production = = = = = Development = = = During the filming of Vedam ( 2010 ) in Vishakhapatnam , Krish visited a museum which displayed a bomb dropped by the Imperial Japanese Army on the city during World War II . The bomb was used with the intention of creating a situation similar to the attack on Pearl Harbor . After further research , Krish learned that over 2 @.@ 5 million Indian soldiers participated in World War II , and 2000 Telugu people from Madhavaram , West Godavari were sent to the war by the British government in India . Krish worked on the film 's screenplay for nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , and cited the process of obtaining accurate details as the reason for the length of time it took to finish . Krish gathered most of the information using the Google search engine and two teams were employed — one in India , the other in Italy . He chose to narrate a love story set in the 1930s and focused on the macro and micro divisions between people , countries , races and religions . During the production of Gabbar Is Back , Krish 's collaboration with Varun Tej was reported in January 2015 ; Ramoji Rao was to produce the film under the banner Ushakiron Movies jointly with Krish 's banner First Frame Entertainment . Pragya Jaiswal , who auditioned for Gabbar Is Back , was signed as the film 's female lead . The film was officially launched on 27 February in Hyderabad and was titled Kanche . Kanche translates to fence in English and Krish relates that the film focuses on the effects of a fence on friendship . On the 75th anniversary of World War II , Krish told the Indo @-@ Asian News Service on 1 September that Kanche is his " most ambitious project " and also the first Telugu film set in World War II . Sai Madhav Burra , who collaborated with Krish on Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum ( 2013 ) , was signed to write the film 's dialogues . V. S. Gnanasekhar was signed as the film 's director of photography , and Sahi Suresh was selected as the film 's art director . Because of discontinuing his studies at a young age , Suresh was not knowledgeable about World War II , and spent three to four months watching old war films and reading about the war . Chirantan Bhatt , who collaborated earlier with Krish on Gabbar Is Back , was signed to compose the film 's soundtrack and score . Kanche marked Bhatt 's debut in Telugu cinema . Rama Krishna Arram and Suraj Jagtap edited the film . Kanche was produced on a budget of ₹ 180 million . = = = Casting = = = Varun Tej played the role of Dhupati Haribabu , a captain in the British Indian Army . Varun Tej described the first phase of Haribabu 's character as a 23 @-@ year old " college pass @-@ out , happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , chilled out guy " . He had to modify his diction according to the timeline and observed the dialogue delivery of actors in old Telugu films . For the second phase , Varun Tej was trained by an army officer on a soldier 's body language , and the way to hold guns among other things . He watched films like Saving Private Ryan ( 1988 ) , The Thin Red Line ( 1998 ) , Inglourious Basterds ( 2009 ) , and Fury ( 2014 ) as well . He underwent training in a boot camp for more than a week , during the gap between the Indian and Georgia schedules . During the filming of the war sequences in Georgia , Varun Tej was provided with an original Thompson submachine gun , which was manufactured in 1939 , and used during the actual war . Jaiswal played the role of Sitadevi , a princess whose character was modelled on Maharani Gayatri Devi of Jaipur . After auditioning for the role , Jaiswal watched Krish 's Vedam and Krishnam Vande Jagadgurum to understand his work and was " really touched " by the former . Krish advised her not to watch any old Telugu films but try to analyse old English and Hindi films instead . Jaiswal opined that her character needed to focus " more on expressions than acting " . She joined kathak classes after the film 's shoot began , and no workshops were conducted for her . Nikitin Dheer was chosen to play Colonel Eeshwar Prasad in the film , because Krish , who wanted an actor to match Varun Tej 's persona , was impressed with his performance in Chennai Express ( 2013 ) . Srinivas Avasarala was cast as Dasu , Haribabu 's friend and another volunteer soldier from the British Indian Army , who quotes writer Sri Sri as his friend Srinivasa Rao . Avasarala was trained in the use of guns in Hyderabad and received training from an army officer along with Varun Tej on body language and other important aspects . Gollapudi Maruthi Rao and Sowcar Janaki were cast as Haribabu 's grandfather and Sitadevi 's grandmother respectively . Filmmaker Singeetham Srinivasa Rao made a cameo appearance as a pianist in Madras Cultural Club , where Haribabu works as a part @-@ time employee . Krish described Rao 's cameo a " colourful " one and added that his look was inspired by that of Colonel Sanders , the founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken . 700 people were required to form an army and the film 's unit selected nearly 100 Non @-@ resident Indians apart from the local people . They were given formal training before they went on the film 's sets . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography commenced on 27 February 2015 at Hyderabad . The second schedule commenced on 23 March at Tatipaka , a village near Razole in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh . Apart from Draksharamam and Kapotavaram , the village portions were filmed in Peruru Agraharam , Palakollu as Krish wanted a primitive settlement with poor infrastructure and palaces , resembling one of the pre @-@ independence era . The film 's crew then put up flower and fruit markets , and purchased antiques from a flea market . The local people extended their support to the film 's crew in return for the laying down of proper roads . In other villages where there was better infrastructure , Suresh and his crew spoke to village heads and covered most of the roads with sand and mud . The houses were whitewashed for the film 's shoot and were restored with their previous colours later . As all the houses in those villages were constructed using reinforced concrete , a team of 70 members were summoned from Hyderabad to recreate 1940s style . According to Suresh , the " nativity feel came alive " due to the presence of coconut trees . The steam engine and the interiors of the first class compartments in the train Haribabu and Sitadevi travel in from Madras to Devarakonda were designed in Ramoji Film City , Hyderabad . Suresh 's experience working as an art director on Venkatadri Express ( 2013 ) helped him . The construction of the palace where Sitadevi lives took four to five days to complete at a cost of ₹ 4 million . The war sequences were filmed in Georgia . The film 's crew finalised 20 locations and the filming of the war sequences lasted for 35 days . With the assistance of the Government of Georgia , huge sets were erected , including a German military base camp fitted with trenches and bunkers . For the film 's shoot , Krish hired a few telegraph machines , typewriters , and coffee cups and saucers manufactured during the timeline of the World War II . Some key action sequences were filmed in a few old , dilapidated buildings located near Georgia and Varun Tej performed his stunts without a body double . A few sequences were filmed at the Ananuri Bridge in Tbilisi , Georgia . 700 guns , four tanks , and a machine gun used in the war were allotted from the Georgia Military Institute military school . The Georgian Armed Forces trained the film 's unit to use these weapons properly . The rent for each tank was 5000 dollars per day , and another tank was designed by Suresh and his crew . Thousands of bullets were used every day and 15 people were employed to load the guns . On the last day of the filming of the climax episode , Varun Tej used more than 7000 bullets . For filming few bomb @-@ blast sequences , the film 's unit consulted several Hollywood technicians . Principal photography was wrapped up on 6 July , after a shoot of 55 working days . = = Music = = The official soundtrack of Kanche composed by Chirantan Bhatt consists of six songs , including instrumental theme music . The lyrics for the remaining five songs were penned by Sirivennela Sitaramasastri . Kanche marked Bhatt 's debut in South Indian cinema . Krish worked with Bhatt on Gabbar Is Back and asked him to compose a song for Kanche . Impressed with it , Krish signed him as the film 's music director . Bhatt found Kanche to be " an intense and emotional story " and ensured that the music was not generic and in sync with the film 's scale . Krish also provided a few references to the works of Ilaiyaraaja and M. M. Keeravani to Bhatt during the composing sessions . Bhatt used tabla tarang ( an Indian melodic percussion instrument consisting of more than ten drums ) and sarod ( an Indian lute @-@ like stringed instrument ) predominantly in the instrumentation as he felt that the songs had to : " depict a lot of mood and emotions " . The song " Nijamenani Nammani " was composed using Charukesi raga and Nandini Srikar , who provided the additional vocals along with Shreya Ghoshal who was not listed in the album 's credits . Abhay Jodhpurkar initially provided the vocals for the raw cut of the song " Itu Itu Ani Chitikelu Evvarivo " , which was recorded in two hours at his friend 's studio . Bhatt found his voice apt and retained it in the final version without any further improvements . The songs " Itu Itu Ani Chitikelu Evvarivo " , and " Bhaga Bhagamani " were composed using the Natabhairavi , and Kamavardani ragas ; Bhatt used both Charukesi and Kamavardani ragas for " Raa Mundadugeddam " . After releasing a teaser of the song " Nijamenani Nammani " on YouTube , Varun Tej released the song " Itu Itu Ani Chitikelu Evvarivo " sung by Jodhpurkar and Ghoshal at the Radiocity FM station in Hyderabad on the eve of Ganesh Chaturthi ( 17 September 2015 ) . The soundtrack , marketed by Aditya Music , was released at a promotional event on the same day at Hyderabad with actor Ram Charan in attendance as the guest of honour . Karthik Srinivasan of The Hindu called " Nijamenani Nammani " the soundtrack 's best song and praised the renditions by Ghoshal and Srikar . The Times of India gave the soundtrack 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and opined that the themed style of the soundtrack is a : " delightful change from the song and dance routine seen these days " . Behindwoods gave the soundtrack 3 @.@ 25 stars out of 5 and called it a : " musical and lyrical feast for the ears " . Track listing All lyrics written by Sirivennela Sitaramasastri . = = Release and reception = = Kanche was initially scheduled for a worldwide release on 2 October 2015 . The film 's release was postponed to 6 November to avoid clashing with the releases of Puli and Singh Is Bliing . Due to a delay in post @-@ production activities , Akhil : The Power of Jua , which was initially scheduled for a worldwide release on 22 October , was postponed and Kanche was confirmed for release on 22 October during the Vijayadasami festival season . Kanche was released at 400 screens across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana , and at 150 screens in rest of India . Though 80 screens were booked initially in the overseas market for the film 's release , the screen count was later increased to 150 , of which 130 screens were in the United States . = = = Critical reception = = = Kanche received positive reviews from the critics . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu remarked that Kanche is a film that does not stand out " merely by being different , but also because it ’ s earnest " , and added that Krish " Step [ s ] across the fence to a new world of storytelling " . Praising Krish 's choice of genre , Suresh Kavirayani of the Deccan Chronicle gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , stating , " If you are looking for a change from the regular action @-@ masala @-@ song @-@ dance @-@ drama kind of films , you should watch Kanche " . Kavirayani added : " The war scenes look authentic . Credit to cinematographer [ V. S. Gnanasekhar ] for capturing the war scenes . Kanche is no less than any Hollywood film as far as the war scenes are concerned " . Rajeswari Kalyanam of The Hans India also gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and stated : " With Kanche , Jagarlamudi Krish has once again proven his ability to choose an offbeat theme , weave an engrossing tale and give it a technically brilliant cinematic rendition " . Pranita Jonnalagedda of The Times of India gave Kanche 3 stars out of 5 and stated : " Kanche is a daring attempt for mainstream [ Telugu cinema ] . While there 's an interesting story which is told really well , you will be left with the lingering feeling that it could have been a lot better " . Sify too gave Kanche 3 stars out of 5 and called it a film that is " [ s ] uitable only for discerning audiences " and praised the storyline , performances , production design , and dialogues . Behindwoods gave the film 3 stars out of 5 as well and called it a " commendable attempt " and added : You don ’ t get to see too many Indian films being made on war , especially South Indian industry hasn ’ t made many . ( sic ) Even the ones that have been made have not made a huge impact , especially with it comes to battle scenes . But that is where Kanche scores big time . The war sequence looks authoritative and intriguing . It travels throughout and the intensity has been maintained right through " . = = = Box office = = = Kanche grossed approximately ₹ 55 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 38 @.@ 5 million globally , thereby performing better than Raju Gari Gadhi and Columbus . According to trade analyst Taran Adarsh , Kanche earned US $ 53 @,@ 057 from its paid previews ; it amassed US $ 46 @,@ 751 on its first day and US $ 92 @,@ 998 on its second day , taking its two @-@ day United States box office total to US $ 192 @,@ 806 ( ₹ 12 @.@ 5 million ) . The first weekend global box office gross and distributor share figures stood at approximately ₹ 130 million and ₹ 70 million respectively . In its first weekend at the United States box office , Kanche collected US $ 380 @,@ 361 ( ₹ 24 @.@ 7 million ) . It earned US $ 6 @,@ 826 ( ₹ 0 @.@ 443 million ) from two screens in Canada and MYR15,921 ( ₹ 0 @.@ 243 million ) from 2 screens at the Malaysian box office in its opening weekend , thereby managing to recover 100 % of the overseas distributors ' investments . In ten days , Kanche collected US $ 489 @,@ 701 ( ₹ 32 @.@ 1 million ) at the United States box office , US $ 9 @,@ 261 ( ₹ 0 @.@ 607 million ) at the Canada box office , and MYR19,316 ( ₹ 0 @.@ 295 million ) at the Malaysian box office respectively , taking its ten @-@ day overseas box office total to US $ 503 @,@ 461 ( ₹ 33 million ) . Kanche earned US $ 522 @,@ 325 ( ₹ 34 @.@ 7 million ) in 17 days at the United States box office . After losing many screens due to new releases in the United States , Kanche 's 31 @-@ day total stood at US $ 527 @,@ 724 ( ₹ 35 million ) . In its lifetime run , Kanche grossed ₹ 200 million globally , with a distributor share of ₹ 140 million , and was declared a commercial success and also the 14th highest grossing Telugu film of the year . = = Awards = = Kanche earned the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu at the 63rd National Film Awards ceremony .
= Battle of Brunanburh = The Battle of Brunanburh was fought in 937 between Æthelstan , King of England , and an alliance of Olaf Guthfrithson , King of Dublin ; Constantine , King of Scotland ; and Owen , King of Strathclyde . Following an unchallenged large @-@ scale invasion of Scotland by Æthelstan in 934 , possibly launched because of a peace treaty violation by Constantine , it became apparent that Æthelstan could only be defeated by an allied force of his enemies . Olaf led Constantine and Owen in the alliance . In August 937 , Olaf and his army crossed the Irish Sea to join forces with Constantine and Owen , and the invaders were routed in the subsequent battle against Æthelstan . The poem Battle of Brunanburh in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recounted that there were " never yet as many people killed before this with sword 's edge ... since from the east Angles and Saxons came up over the broad sea " . Æthelstan 's victory prevented the dissolution of England 's unity . The historian Æthelweard , perhaps writing sometime around 975 , said that " [ t ] he fields of Britain were consolidated into one , there was peace everywhere , and abundance of all things " . The battle has been called " the greatest single battle in Anglo @-@ Saxon history before Hastings " . The site of the battle is unknown , but scholars have proposed many possible locations . = = Background = = After Æthelstan defeated the Vikings at York in 927 , King Constantine of Scotland , King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth , Ealdred I of Bamburgh , and King Owen I of Strathclyde ( or Morgan ap Owain of Gwent ) accepted Æthelstan 's overlordship at Eamont , near Penrith . He became King of England , and there was peace until 934 . Æthelstan invaded Scotland with a large force , both ground and naval , in 934 . Although the motivation for this invasion is uncertain , John of Worcester stated that the cause was Constantine 's violation of the peace treaty made in 927 . Æthelstan evidently travelled through Beverley , Ripon , and Chester @-@ le @-@ Street . The army harassed the Scots up to Kincardineshire , and the navy up to Caithness . Æthelstan 's force was never engaged . Following Æthelstan 's invasion of Scotland , it became apparent that he could only be defeated by an allied force of his enemies . The leader of the alliance was Olaf Guthfrithson , King of Dublin . The other two members were Constantine II , King of Scotland ; and Owen , King of Strathclyde . ( According to John of Worcester , Constantine was Olaf 's father @-@ in @-@ law . ) Though they had all been enemies in living memory , historian Michael Livingston points out that " they had agreed to set aside whatever political , cultural , historical , and even religious differences they might have had in order to achieve one common purpose : to destroy Æthelstan " . In August 937 , Olaf crossed the Irish Sea with his army to join forces with Constantine and Owen , and in Livingston 's opinion this suggests that the battle of Brunanburh occurred in early October of that year . According to Paul Cavill , the invading armies raided Mercia , from which Æthelstan obtained Saxon troops as he travelled north to meet them . However , Michael Wood notes that no source mentions any intrusion into Mercia . John of Worcester wrote that the invaders entered via the Humber , and is the only chronicle writer to mention this . Because of the lack of sources supporting the claim , along with other issues , philologist Paul Cavill argues John 's statement is not true . According to Symeon of Durham , Olaf had 615 ships , but this number is likely exaggerated . Livingston theorises that the invading armies entered England in two waves : Constantine and Owen coming from the north , possibly engaging in some skirmishes with Æthelstan 's forces as they followed the Roman road across the Lancashire plains between Carlisle and Manchester , with Olaf 's forces joining them on the way . It is possible , Livingston speculates , that the battle site at Brunanburh was chosen in agreement with Æthelstan , on which " there would be one fight , and to the victor went England " . = = Battle = = Surviving documents that mention the battle include accounts from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , the writings of Anglo @-@ Norman historian William of Malmesbury , and the Annals of Clonmacnoise . In Snorri Sturluson 's Egils saga , the antihero , mercenary , berserker and skald , Egill Skallagrimsson , served as a trusted warrior for Æthelstan . The name of the battle appears in various forms in early sources : Brunanburh ( in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle or the chronicle of John of Worcester , or in accounts derived from them ) , Brunandune ( Aethelweard ) , Brunnanwerc or Bruneford or Weondune ( Symeon of Durham and accounts derived from him ) , Brunefeld or Bruneford ( William of Malmesbury and accounts derived from him ) , Duinbrunde ( Scottish traditions ) , Brun ( Welsh traditions ) , plaines of othlynn ( Annals of Clonmacnoise ) , and Vinheithr ( Egil 's Saga ) , among others . The main source of information about the battle is the praise @-@ poem Battle of Brunanburh in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . After travelling north through Mercia , Æthelstan , his brother Edmund , and the combined Saxon army from Wessex and Mercia met the invading armies and attacked them . In a battle that lasted all day , the Saxons fought the invaders and finally forced them to break up and flee . There was probably a prolonged period of hard fighting before the invaders were finally defeated . According to the poem , the Saxons " split the shield @-@ wall " and " hewed battle shields with the remnants of hammers ... [ t ] here lay many a warrior by spears destroyed ; Northern men shot over shield , likewise Scottish as well , weary , war sated " . Wood states that all large battles were described in this manner , so the description in the poem is not unique to Brunanburh . The invaders had attempted to take refuge in trenches fortified with timber , but the Saxons overran them . Æthelstan and his army pursued the invaders until the end of the day , slaying great numbers of enemy troops . The poem states that " they pursued the hostile people ... hew [ ing ] the fugitive grievously from behind with swords sharp from the grinding " . Olaf fled and sailed back to Dublin with the remnants of his army , and Constantine escaped to Scotland ; Owen 's fate is not mentioned . The poem states that the Northmen " [ d ] eparted ... in nailed ships " and " sought Dublin over the deep water , leaving Dinges mere to return to Ireland , ashamed in spirit . " In contrast , the poem records that Æthelstan and Edmund victoriously returned to Wessex , stating that " the brothers , both together , King and Prince , sought their home , West @-@ Saxon land , exultant from battle . " It is universally agreed by scholars that the invaders were routed by the Saxons . According to the Chronicle , " countless of the army " died in the battle , and there were " never yet as many people killed before this with sword 's edge ... since from the east Angles and Saxons came up over the broad sea " . The Annals of Ulster describe the battle as " great , lamentable and horrible " and record that " several thousands of Norsemen ... fell " . Among the casualties were five kings and seven earls from Olaf 's army . The poem records that Constantine lost several friends and family members in the battle , including his son . The largest list of those killed in the battle is contained in the Annals of Clonmacnoise , which names several kings and princes . A large number of Saxons also died in the battle , including two of Æthelstan 's cousins , Alfric and Athelwin . = = Aftermath = = Æthelstan 's decisive victory prevented the dissolution of England 's unity . Foot writes that " [ e ] xaggerating the importance of this victory is difficult " . Livingston wrote that the battle was " the moment when Englishness came of age " and " one of the most significant battles in the long history not just of England but of the whole of the British isles " . The battle has been called " the greatest single battle in Anglo @-@ Saxon history before Hastings " by Alfred Smyth , but he also states that its consequences beyond Æthelstan 's reign have been overstated . Alex Woolf describes it a " pyrrhic victory " for Æthelstan : the campaign seems to have ended in a stalemate , his power appears to have declined , and after he died Olaf acceded to the Kingdom of Northumbria without resistance . However , England was once again unified by the time Edmund I died in 946 . The Norse lost all remaining territory in York and Northumbria in 954 , when Eric Bloodaxe died . Æthelweard , writing in the late 900s , said that the battle was " still called the ' great battle ' by the common people " and that " [ t ] he fields of Britain were consolidated into one , there was peace everywhere , and abundance of all things " . = = Location = = The location of the battle is unknown . However , according to Michael Livingston , the case for a location in the Wirral has wide support among current historians . Charters from the 1200s suggest that Bromborough ( a town on the Wirral Peninsula ) was originally named Brunanburh ( which could mean " Bruna 's fort " ) . In his essay " The Place @-@ Name Debate " , Paul Cavill listed the steps by which this transition may have occurred . Evidence suggests that there were Scandinavian settlements in the area starting in the late 800s , and the town is also situated near the River Mersey , which was a commonly used route by Vikings sailing from Ireland . Additionally , the Chronicle states that the invaders escaped at Dingesmere , and Dingesmere could be interpreted as " mere of the Thing " . The word Thing ( or þing , in Old Norse ) might be a reference to the Viking Thing ( or assembly ) at Thingwall on the Wirral . In Old English , mere refers to a body of water , although the specific type of body varies depending on the context . In some cases , it refers to a wetland , and a large wetland is present in the area . Therefore , in their article " Revisiting Dingesmere " , Cavill , Harding , and Jesch propose that Dingesmere is a reference to a marshland or wetland near the Viking Thing at Thingwall on the Wirral Peninsula . Since the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle describes the battle as taking place " ymbe Brunanburh " ( " around Brunanburh " ) , numerous locations near Bromborough have been proposed , including the Brackenwood Golf Course in Bebington , Wirral ( formerly within the Bromborough parish ) . Many other sites have been suggested ; historian Paul Hill identified over thirty possibilities . Michael Wood published a 2014 article suggesting a Yorkshire location ; philologist Andrew Breeze favours Durham , and Kevin Halloran argues for southern Scotland . Tim Clarkson discounts locations other than southern Scotland or northern England as a battle site , given the logistical capacity of the kingdoms of Alba and Strathclyde . Other possibilities include : Barnsdale , South Yorkshire : The civil parish of Burghwallis was recorded as " Burg " in the Domesday book , likely because of a Roman fort situated near the place where the Great North Road ( Ermine Street ) is met by the road from Templeborough . The site is overlooked by a hill called " Barnsdale Bar " , past which flows the River Went . Michael Wood has suggested this site , noting the similarity between Went and Symeon of Durham 's Wendun . Brinsworth , South Yorkshire : Michael Wood suggests Tinsley Wood , near Brinsworth , as a possible site of the battle . He notes that there is a hill nearby , White Hill , and observes that the surrounding landscape is strikingly similar to the description of the battlefield contained in Egil 's Saga . There is an ancient Roman temple on White Hill , and Wood states that the name Symeon of Durham used for the place of the battle , Weondun , means " the hill where there had been a pagan Roman sanctuary or temple " . According to Wood , Frank Stenton believed that this piece of evidence could help in finding the location of the battle . There is also a Roman fort nearby , and burh means " fortified place " in Old English ; Wood suggests that this fort may have been Brunanburh . Bromswold : According to Alfred Smyth , the original form of the name Bromswold , Bruneswald , could fit with Brunanburh and other variants of the name . Burnley : In 1856 , Burnley Grammar School master and antiquary Thomas T. Wilkinson published a paper suggesting that the battle occurred on the moors above Burnley , noting that the town stands on the River Brun . His work was subsequently referenced and expanded by a number of local authors . Burnswark , situated near Lockerbie in southern Scotland : Burnswark is a hill 280 metres ( 920 ft ) tall , and is the site of two Roman military camps and many fortifications from the Iron Age . It was initially suggested as the site of the battle by George Neilson in 1899 and was the leading theory in the early 1900s , having obtained support from historians such as Charles Oman . Kevin Halloran argues that the different forms used by various authors when naming the battle site associate it with a hill and fortifications , since burh ( used by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle poem ) means " a fortified place " , and dune ( used by Æthelweard and Symeon of Durham , in names such as Brunandune and We ( o ) ndune ) means " a hill " . He also states that the name " Burnswark " could be related to Bruneswerce , another alternative name for the battle site used by Symeon of Durham and Geoffrey Gaimar . Lanchester , County Durham : Andrew Breeze has argued for Lanchester , since the Roman fort of Longovicium overlooks the point where the road known as Dere Street crossed the River Browney .
= Sandefjord Airport Station = Sandefjord Airport Station ( Norwegian : Sandefjord lufthavn stasjon ) , also known as Torp Station ( Torp stasjon ) , is on the Vestfold Line in Sandefjord , Norway . It is served with regional trains operated by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . Located close to Sandefjord Airport , Torp , the station is served by a free four @-@ minute shuttle bus service from the station to the airport . The trains operate northwards via towns in Vestfold to Drammen and Oslo and onwards via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen to towns in Hedmark and Oppland . Southwards , the trains serve Sandefjord , Larvik and Grenland . The station opened as Raastad , later Råstad , in 1881 . It had a single building , designed by Balthazar Lange . It was upgraded with a passing loop in 1910 , but this was removed in 1971 , and the station was closed in 1978 . In 2008 , the station reopened to serve the airport . The station is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . = = Service = = Torp Station 's primary function is to serve as an airport rail link for Sandefjord Airport . The station is served by regional trains that operate northwards via towns such as Tønsberg , Holmestrand and Drammen to Oslo Central Station and onwards via Oslo Airport to Hamar and Lillehammer , calling at several other smaller stations . Southwards , the trains serve Sandefjord , Larvik , Porsgrunn and Skien . Travel time to Oslo is 1 hour and 48 minutes , and to Oslo Airport it is 2 hours 23 minutes . The station is equipped with a shed , but no other amenities , and also lacks a ticket machine . The platform ( but not necessarily the train ) is wheelchair accessible . There are about ten parking spaces at the station . A shuttle bus corresponds to all trains during the opening hours of the airport , and a bus trip takes four minutes to the airport terminal . The shuttle bus leaves the airport ten minutes before each train 's scheduled departure . The bus is operated by NSB , and is included in the price of the train ticket . There are 42 bus departures each day . The train supplements a coach service , Torp Expressen operated by UniBuss , to Oslo , and a local bus service to Sandefjord , operated by Vestviken Kollektivtrafikk . = = History = = The station was originally named Raastad , and opened as part of the Vestfold Line on 7 December 1881 . It was located in the former municipality of Sandar , that was also served by Jåstad Station . Raastad was equipped with a wooden station building designed by Balthazar Lange , and cargo expedition . There was initially only one track , but on 1 July 1910 , a passing loop was installed at the station , allowing trains to pass . The station was renamed Råstad in April 1921 . In 1969 – 70 the passing loop was extended , but already on 15 September 1971 it was disabled , and subsequently removed , with the automation of the signaling . The station became unmanned on 1 October 1971 and was closed on 28 May 1978 . The following day , the new InterCity Express services started on the Vestfold Line . Sandefjord Airport experienced a rapid growth as an airport for low @-@ cost carriers serving Eastern Norway since the late 1990s . Along with the success of the Airport Express Train that connects Oslo with Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , and the decision to provide a shuttle service to the competing Moss Airport , Rygge from Rygge Station , local politicians took initiative to open a dedicated stop for the airport . During the planning of high @-@ speed upgrade of the line , plans called to move the line to create a station integrated in the airport terminal , as had been done with Oslo Airport Station and Trondheim Airport Station . However , as the construction of a new Vestfold Line was put on hold , an intermediate solution was found to reopen Råstad Station , and offer a shuttle bus to the airport . On 16 May 2007 , Vestfold County Municipality announced that they would forward the investment costs of NOK 7 million for the new station , with a payback from the National Rail Administration by 2012 . The latter would build , own and operate the station . The station opened on 21 January 2008 , and the new platform is located on the east side of the tracks . The old station building , location in the west side , has been converted into a museum . During the first year , 80 @,@ 000 passengers used the station , sufficient to make the NOK 4 @.@ 5 million used by NSB on the shuttle bus profitable .
= 2003 Afro @-@ Asian Games = The 2003 Afro @-@ Asian Games , officially known as the First Afro @-@ Asian Games or I Afro @-@ Asian Games and unofficially known as the Inaugural Afro @-@ Asian Games , was a major international multi @-@ sport event held in Hyderabad , India , from October 24 ( excluding football and hockey , which began on October 22 and October 23 respectively ) to November 1 , 2003 . The Afro @-@ Asian Games was the largest sporting event ever to be held in Hyderabad , and one of the largest in India , second only to the 2010 Commonwealth Games by athletes ' volume . The scale of these Games exceeds even the two Asian Games held in Delhi in 1951 ( both by athletes ' volume and by number of participating nations ) and 1982 ( by number of participating nations ) . More than 2000 athletes from 96 countries competed in the Games . A total of 131 sporting events in eight disciplines were conducted . Also , 120 countries sent 1 @,@ 565 official representatives to these Games . The First Afro @-@ Asian Games were held after nearly two decades of delays , shifts and cancellations . The prolonged amount of time for these Games considerably reduced interest in them . After the preliminary decision of hosting the Games , the venue was shuttled between New Delhi and Kuwait City . At the last moment , New Delhi was outfavoured by Hyderabad , which had hosted the National Games of India in 2002 . These Games , however , had lesser scope than the Asian Games or Commonwealth Games , since 96 nations participated in only eight disciplines . The Games witnessed only one new world record . Thirty @-@ seven countries - an unprecedented 39 % of the participating nations - won at least one medal in these Games . = = History = = The idea to hold an inter @-@ continental sporting event between Asia and Africa was initiated in April 1983 , with New Delhi as the proposed venue . However , for unknown circumstances , the venue was shifted to Kuwait and the Games were proposed to be held in 1985 . Political instability led to the cancellation of the Games . In 1989 , the proposal was reconsidered , with New Delhi again chosen as the venue for the Games . The Games were then scheduled for 1991 . The plans went wrong due to inefficient communication between the members , and so could not come into force . In 1999 , a proposal for the renewal of the Games was accepted . Subsequently , Pune and then New Delhi were proposed as venues . However , they were postponed till November 2001 . Slow preparations led to indefinite postponement again . After the occurrence of 9 / 11 , Delhi pulled out . This led to the circulation of rumours that the games were " jinxed " . Later , the IOA announced that the Olympic Council of Asia ( OCA ) and the Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa ( ANOCA ) had sanctioned 2003 as the new date for the Games . Also , the venue was changed to Hyderabad after Delhi pulled out . Most critics point to the successful hosting of the 32nd National Games of India , which were held at Hyderabad , as the main reason for Hyderabad being chosen . = = Preparation = = The Indian Government spent ₹ 1 @.@ 03 billion ( US $ 22 @.@ 92 million ) , for the Afro @-@ Asian Games , making these Games one of the most expensive sporting events held in Hyderabad . All preparations were completed within 60 days before the events began . = = = General Preparation = = = The Indian Olympic Association ( IOA ) decided to set up a central head of the development for the Games . Thus , the Afro @-@ Asian Games Secretariat was set up at the Greenlands Guest House to organize , monitor and manage all the activities related to the Games . 17 functional organizing sub @-@ committees were formed to oversee the development of the venues and other infrastructure . The various functions were divided within these committees . The special officer @-@ in @-@ charge of the Games was Sabyasachi Ghosh , while the Secretary @-@ General of the Games was Ali Moradi . A large development Planning Association meant a great amount of inter @-@ connectivity and communication requirements . A 24 @-@ hour call centre with interpreters was set up , using a Closed User Group ( CUG ) circuit . A large " web " of networking facilities was built to connect all the hotels , media centres , stadia and Transportation Committees . This would help in easing pressure on any one committee . Since the African continent is not very well @-@ connected , an Accreditation Committee was dispatched to Abuja - in Nigeria - the host city of the 2003 All @-@ Africa Games . The Accreditation committee brought all sports @-@ persons and officials from Africa to Hyderabad . = = = Technology = = = The software company CMC Limited had developed a Games and Event Management System ( GEMS ) , which helped the organizers to efficiently manage events across the sports venues . It worked closely with Doordarshan , the official television broadcasters of the Games , to provide results of sporting competitions and live Games information . Additionally , cutting @-@ edge technology like the implementation of geo @-@ referenced maps and Geographic Information System ( GIS ) was implemented , so as to ensure a smooth and rapid flow of work . = = = Transport = = = In the month of September , less than a month away from the Afro @-@ Asian Games , the Transport Ministry of Hyderabad released a large number of luxury vehicles , to be used in the Games . It was the second time in the span of one year that the Transport Ministry had done so - the first time being for the 32nd National Games of India . In an effort to spruce up the city in time for the Games , the organizers arranged several buses , vans and cars to ferry the athletes and the guests . = = = Accommodation = = = Accommodation of the athletes and foreign officials posed a serious problem to the organisers . Contrary to what the Olympics and related multi @-@ sport events provide , no actual Games Village was available for the athletes to stay . The Sports Authority of Andhra Pradesh ( SAAP ) had initially wanted to have a separate Games Village for the Games , but could not arrange for it . Even though Hyderabad had hosted the 32nd National Games of India in 2002 , for which a Games Village had been built , the organizers could not utilise it due to severe financial problems . It was estimated that about ₹ 800 million ( US $ 16 million ) would be required to upgrade the existing Games Village . The Government of Andhra Pradesh and the Sports Authority of Andhra Pradesh ( SAAP ) instead opted to obtain bulk bookings from all the major hotels in the city so as to provide accommodation for the athletes , foreign dignitaries and the media . = = = Security = = = About 1400 police personnel were drawn from various districts of Andhra Pradesh to provide the first layer of security . In addition to this , over 5000 city policemen were deployed in various places , including the event venues and all the major hotels of the city . Strict anti @-@ sabotage measures were taken to provide security at the athlete hotels . Also , a 24 @-@ hour access control system was placed , with sniffer dogs used to sanitise the area . To facilitate foreign athletes and officials , four immigration counters were set up at the airport . A time limit of 30 minutes was laid down to clear any athlete or official . To improve security speed , six interpreters of Russian , Japanese , Mandarin Chinese , Korean , French and Arabic were present at the airport . In addition , 24 specially trained immigration personnel were stationed round the clock in the airport . = = Pressure on Organizing Committee = = There was a lot of pressure upon the Secretariat for the smooth performance of these Games , as the IOA would keenly observe the Afro @-@ Asian Games , in preparation for the 2010 Commonwealth Games at Delhi , India . Also , officials from Beijing , China - the venue of 2008 Summer Olympics - and Doha , Qatar - the host of 2006 Asian Games - would attend the Afro @-@ Asian Games , and keenly observe the way the Games functioned . However , hosting of the Games was not the only major issue for the Committee . The Afro @-@ Asian Games would see the participation of various nations which are not in good terms with some other nations . The then Prime Minister of India , Atal Behari Vajpayee , had hinted that " some nations might withdraw from the Games , rather than get embroiled in international conflicts " . = = Marketing = = Logo The logo of the Afro @-@ Asian Games was the Charminar - Hyderabad 's most famous landmark - surrounded by a string of pearls . Hyderabad is also famous for its pearls . The official logo of the Games was unveiled , along with the official website , by Chief Minister Chandrababu Naidu on September 3 , 2003 . Mascot The Mascot for these Games was Sheroo , also spelt Sheru , a cartoon lion . Subsequently , a variation of the name ' Sheroo ' , called ' Shera ' , would be given for the mascot of the 2010 Commonwealth Games . Sponsorships Several Indian corporates such as Indian Oil Corporation ( IOC ) , GVK Group and State Bank of Hyderabad provided sponsorships worth INR 10 million each towards the staging of several events of the inaugural Games . Several other corporates such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation ( ONGC ) , Videocon and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited ( BPCL ) also contributed to the Games . Also , Florida @-@ based IMG Academy assisted in the conduct of the Games . = = Participating countries = = The First Afro @-@ Asian Games were the first time that Asia and Africa came together for such a large event . 43 Asian countries and 53 African countries participated in this sporting event . Below is a list of all the participating countries in the Inaugural Afro @-@ Asian Games . = = Venues = = The events of the Games were held across eight stadiums , spread throughout the suburb of Gachibowli . The venues were : = = Sports = = The program of the Afro @-@ Asian Games was almost the same as that of the Asian Games , the only difference being in the number of sports . These Games witnessed eight disciplines in eight sports . Synchronised swimming and diving were not contested . The list of sports is given below ( Number in parentheses indicates number of events ) . Athletics ( 41 ) Boxing ( 11 ) Football ( 1 ) Field hockey ( 2 ) Shooting ( 16 ) Swimming ( 38 ) Tennis ( 7 ) Weightlifting ( 15 ) = = = Calendar = = = The 2003 Afro @-@ Asian Games Calendar is given below . * The shooting events include 50 birds and 75 birds events . = = = Qualification = = = Qualification for the Games depended upon the performance of the countries in other major multi @-@ sport events . Since these Games featured delegations from two continents , the qualification criteria for nations from the different continents was different . The qualification of the African nations was based on their performance in the 2003 All @-@ Africa Games held in Abuja , Nigeria . The qualification for the Asian nations was based on their performance in the 2002 Asian Games held in Busan , South Korea . = = Media coverage = = = = = Television = = = The official television host broadcaster of the Afro @-@ Asian Games was DD Sports , India 's first sports channel . The experience gained through broadcasting these Games would prove to be extremely helpful for its parent company Doordarshan , as they broadcast the 2004 Olympic Games live and will also be telecasting the 2010 Commonwealth Games . However , the schedule of the Games clashed with an ongoing Triangular Cricket Tournament , and the events were aired on DD Metro . Doordarshan deployed 350 personnel , 10 outdoor broadcasting vans and 86 cameras for obtaining coverage of the Games . Additionally , five cameras were used for the Sports news and the sidelights . = = = Radio = = = India 's premier radio broadcaster , the All India Radio ( A.I.R ) , was the official radio partner of the Games . The AIR hired 150 programmers and engineers for the coverage of the Games . = = Ceremonies = = The opening and closing ceremonies were described as " eye @-@ filling " and " opulent " by several media centers . The ceremonies cost INR 150 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 34 million ) to execute . Children from India , China and some African nations had practiced for a reported 21 days to ensure the success of the beginning and the end of the Inaugural Games . The settings utilised for the ceremonies were designed by well @-@ known art director and film production designer Nitin Chandrakant Desai . = = = Opening ceremony = = = The Opening ceremony of the Games were held in the GMC Balayogi Stadium - the main stadium of the events - at 5 : 30 pm IST . The organisers considered it as " a benchmark of the Games " . The Opening ceremony of the Games showcased the cultural heritage of both the attending continents - Asia and Africa . 30 @,@ 000 people came to watch the beginning of the gala sporting event . The ceremony , which was hosted by Bollywood actor Priyanka Chopra , was spread over a time period of two hours and forty minutes . Many celebrities , like actor Sanjay Dutt and tennis player Leander Paes graced the occasion . Also , six @-@ time pole vault winner Sergey Bubka , along with his wife , attended the ceremony . Around 12 @,@ 000 schoolchildren and college students came up with a show depicting the vast and vibrant culture of the two continents . Chief Guest L K Advani declared the Games open . Shooter Anjali Bhagwat took the Athlete 's Oath . This was followed by a laser show , fireworks and a space cannon show . The highlight of the Opening ceremony was the Umojas - a group of professional tribal dancers from Africa . There were other international showcases - the spiritual chanting by the Chinese monks , and the peace prayers by thousands of schoolchildren . Singer Shankar Mahadevan sang the theme song . Bollywood divas Shilpa Shetty , Simran and Urmila Matondkar did dance performances . Unlike the Olympic Games , there was no individual march past for the countries . The countries came in batches of two - Asian countries in one batch and African countries in another . = = = Closing ceremony = = = The closing ceremony of the Games was marked by lights , colour and technology . The closing ceremony was hosted by Yukta Mookhey . President APJ Abdul Kalam officially closed the Games , in front of a near capacity crowd . His closing words were : " I congratulate all the athletes and officials who were part of the Games . When I see thousands of sportspersons I am sure the combined power of youth through sport will be the most powerful resource on earth . " As he did so , the Stadium was lit up in a pyrotechnics display , and fireworks burst in the sky . A " daredevil " act was done by a few service personnel , who came riding on motorcycles . A fly @-@ past of the Indian Army airplanes , trailing smoke in the colours of the Indian flag took place as the dignitaries took their seats . The expected " high @-@ point " of the closing ceremony was the show of camaraderie between the sportspersons of the two continents . However , few athletes trooped into the Stadium for that purpose . The " camaraderie ceremony " was followed by speeches of various important people , among them being IOA President Suresh Kalmadi , IOA and OCA Secretary @-@ General Raja Randhir Singh , ANOCA President Alfa Ibrahim Diallo , Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister Chandrababu Naidu and Union Minister for Youth Affairs and Sports Vikram Verma . The speeches were shortly followed by a memento presentation . As night fell , hundreds of Army recruits brought lighted torches , and did the " mashal dance " . Laser lights and several technological innovations followed . Sheroo , the mascot , was bid farewell by noted Indian singer Hariharan and many costumed children . The Umojas performed yet again at the closing ceremony . The Chinese State circus was considered " breath @-@ taking " . Lebanese singer Diana Haddad , Egyptian singer Hisham Abbas and Indian singer Remo Fernandes performed at the closing ceremony as well . The host country was portrayed by a number of traditional folk dances , after which the Games officially ended . = = Highlights = = Africa was the clear leader in the athletics , winning 73 medals as compared to Asia 's 47 , even though the maximum number of nation @-@ wise medals were garnered by Asian nations ( China and India ) . Four time Olympic medallist Frankie Fredericks ( Namibia ) won the 200 metres race – the last major tournament win of his distinguished 17 @-@ year @-@ long career . Indian tennis player Sania Mirza won four gold medals in the tournament , thereby becoming the largest gold @-@ medal winner in the tennis tournament . Sun Dan , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old Chinese Army officer of the 75 @-@ kg category , lifted a weight of 168 @.@ 5 kg , breaking the previous world record of 168 kg ( set by her compatriot Tang Gonghong ) . In addition , Nigerian athlete Mike Eamson hoisted a weight of 210 kg , which was the heaviest weight ever lifted in India according to the organisers . Asia won the dual @-@ continental event with 82 gold medals , against Africa 's 49 . = = Medal table = = The official medal tally of the Afro @-@ Asian Games is given below . China bagged the largest number of gold medals , followed by the host India in second place . Athletes from India won the most number of total medals , with 80 . Host nation = = Legacy = = The success of the Games was a point in favor of India being able to host a major international sporting event . Subsequently , this success was used in the bidding of the 2010 Commonwealth Games , which was ultimately awarded to Delhi . In addition , the hospitality sector received a major boost due to the games , as hotels and guest houses received large booking orders from people who were coming to see the Games - media @-@ persons , delegates , officials , visitors , sports @-@ persons , etc . Tourism also benefited from the Games , and the State Tourism Department showed many foreign journalists key tourism spots in the city . Many famous places such as the Charminar and the Chowmahalla Palace saw record number of visitors . Also , famous local markets witnessed exceptional growth in sales and business , as demand peaked during the Games . Business of the world @-@ renowned pearls of Hyderabad increased by about 50 % , generating revenue of ₹ 50 million in one week . The rise in buyers was mainly driven by African visitors , who prefer pearls as jewellery . Also , sale of gold jewellery increased substantially , being driven by a large number of Muslim visitors who looked for traditional and intricate designs . In addition , bangles became the center of attraction for Chinese and African athletes .
= Hugh Bradner = Hugh Bradner ( November 5 , 1915 – May 5 , 2008 ) was an American physicist at the University of California who is credited with inventing the neoprene wetsuit , which helped to revolutionize scuba diving . A graduate of Ohio 's Miami University , he received his doctorate from California Institute of Technology in Pasadena , California , in 1941 . He worked at the US Naval Ordnance Laboratory during World War II , where he researched naval mines . In 1943 , he was recruited by Robert Oppenheimer to join the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory . There , he worked with scientists including Luis Alvarez , John von Neumann and George Kistiakowsky on the development of the high explosives and exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators required by atomic bombs . After the war , Bradner took a position studying high @-@ energy physics at the University of California , Berkeley , under Luis Alvarez . Bradner investigated the problems encountered by frogmen staying in cold water for long periods of time . He developed a neoprene suit which could trap the water between the body and the neoprene , and thereby keep them warm . He became known as the " father of the wetsuit . " Bradner worked on the 1951 Operation Greenhouse nuclear test series on Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands . He joined the Scripps Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics as a geophysicist in 1961 . He remained there for the rest of his career , becoming a full professor in 1963 , and retiring in 1980 . In retirement , continued to work both on oceanographic research , as well as on the DUMAND deep ocean neutrino astronomy project . = = Early life = = Hugh Bradner was born in Tonopah , Nevada , on November 5 , 1915 , but he was raised in Findlay , Ohio . His father , Donald Byal Bradner , was briefly director of the Chemical Warfare Service at Maryland 's Edgewood Arsenal . His mother was Agnes Claire Bradner née Mead . He had an older brother , Mead Bradner . Bradner graduated from Ohio 's Miami University in 1936 and later received his doctorate from California Institute of Technology in Pasadena , California , in 1941 , writing his thesis on " Electron @-@ optical studies of the photoelectric effect " under the supervision of William Vermillion Houston . = = Manhattan Project = = After receiving his doctorate from Caltech , Bradner worked at the US Naval Ordnance Laboratory where he researched naval mines until 1943 . He was recruited by Robert Oppenheimer to join the Manhattan Project in 1943 at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , which helped to develop the first atomic bomb . Bradner helped to develop a wide range of technology needed for the bomb , including research on the high explosives and exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators needed to implode the atomic bomb , developed the bomb 's triggering mechanism , and even helped design the new town around the laboratory . He worked closely with some of the most scientists including Luis Alvarez , John von Neumann and George Kistiakowsky . He witnessed the Trinity test , the first nuclear weapons test , at Alamogordo on July 16 , 1945 . Bradner met his future wife , Marjorie Hall Bradner , who was also working as a secretary on the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory . The couple were married in Los Alamos in 1943 . Security at the top secret facility was so tight that neither Bradner 's nor Hall 's parents were allowed to attend the ceremony , though Oppenheimer was among the wedding guests . The couple remained together for over 65 years until she died on April 10 , 2008 at the age of 89 . = = Wetsuit = = After the war , Bradner took a position studying high @-@ energy physics at the University of California , Berkeley under Luis Alvarez , whom he had worked with at the Manhattan Project . He remained at the University until 1961 . He worked on the 1951 atomic bombing test on Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands , which was part of the Operation Greenhouse nuclear test series . Bradner 's job at Berkeley required him to do a number of underwater dives . He had previously talked to United States Navy frogmen during World War II concerning the problems of staying in cold water for long periods of time , which causes the diver to lose large amounts of body heat quickly . He worked on developing a new suit that would counter this in the basement of his family 's home on Scenic Avenue in Berkeley , California , and researched the new wetsuit at a conference in Coronado , California , in December 1951 . According to the San Francisco Chronicle , the wetsuit was invented in 1952 . Bradner and other engineers founded the Engineering Development Company ( EDCO ) in order to develop it . He and his colleagues tested several versions and prototypes of the wetsuit at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla , California . Scripps scientist and engineer Willard Bascom advised Bradner to use neoprene for the suit material , which proved successful . He found that it " would trap the water between the body and the neoprene , and the water would heat up to body temperature and keep you warm " . A 1951 letter showed that Bradner clearly understood that the insulation in such a suit was not provided by the water between the suit and the skin , but rather that this layer of water next to the skin , if trapped , would quickly heat to skin temperature , if the material in the suit were insulative . Thus , the suit only needed to limit purging by fresh cold water , and it did not need to be dry to work . He applied for a U.S. patent for the wetsuit , but his patent application was turned down due to its similar design with the flight suit . The United States Navy also did not adopt the new wetsuits because of worries that the neoprene in the wetsuits might make its swimmers easier to spot by underwater sonar and , thus , could not exclusively profit from his invention . Bradner and his company , EDCO , tried to sell his wetsuits in the consumer market . However , he failed to successfully penetrate the wetsuit market the way others have done - including Bob Meistrell and Bill Meistrell , the founders of Body Glove , and Jack O 'Neill . Various claims have been made over the years that it was the O 'Neill or the Meistrell brothers who actually invented the wetsuit instead of Bradner , but recent researchers have concluded that it was Bradner who created the original wetsuit , and not his competitors . In 2005 the Los Angeles Times concluded that Bradner was the " father of the wetsuit " , and a research paper published by Carolyn Rainey at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1998 provided corroborating evidence . = = Later career and life = = Bradner joined the Scripps Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics as a geophysicist in 1961 . He became a full professor in 1963 and retired in 1980 . He remained interested in oceanography , scuba diving , seashell collecting and the outdoors throughout his later years , and continued to work both on oceanographic research , as well as on the DUMAND deep ocean neutrino astronomy project , which combined his two careers in physics and oceanography . Hugh Bradner died at the age of 92 at his home in San Diego , California , on May 5 , 2008 , from complications of pneumonia . He was survived by his daughter , Bari Cornet , three grandchildren and one great @-@ granddaughter .
= Tropical Storm Delia ( 1973 ) = Tropical Storm Delia was the first tropical cyclone on record to make landfall in the same city twice . Forming out of a tropical wave on September 1 , 1973 , Delia gradually strengthened into a tropical storm as it moved north by September 3 . After reaching this strength , the storm turned more westward and further intensified , nearly attaining hurricane status the next day . The storm peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) . Several hours later , Delia made landfall near Freeport , Texas ; however , the storm began to execute a counterclockwise loop , causing it to move back over the Gulf of Mexico . On September 5 , the storm made another landfall in Freeport before weakening to a depression . The remnants of Delia eventually dissipated early on September 7 over northern Mexico . Due to the erratic movement of the storm along the Texas coastline , significant rainfall fell in areas near the center and in parts of Louisiana . This led to widespread flooding , especially of farmland , that left $ 6 million in damages . Five people were killed during the storm . = = Meteorological history = = Tropical Storm Delia originated from a tropical wave that formed over the central Caribbean Sea in late August 1973 . Tracking towards the west @-@ northwest , convective activity increased and the overall structure of the system improved . By August 31 , a weak area of low pressure formed over the Gulf of Honduras . This system tracked northward and further organized into a tropical depression just off the southeastern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on September 1 . Gradually intensifying , the depression became a tropical storm on September 3 as it turned towards the west . In accordance with its upgrade , it was given the name Delia . This upgrade followed a reconnaissance mission into the system that found sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . A complex steering patter formed later that day , resulting in a more hostile environment for the cyclone . As Delia neared the Texas coastline , it managed to intensify into a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and reconnaissance reported winds well in excess of hurricane @-@ force in numerous squalls associated with the storm . The lowest pressure was recorded at 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) . However , Delia was not classified a hurricane as it had not developed an eyewall around the center of circulation . Delia subsequently made its first landfall at Freeport , Texas late on September 4 . After executing a counterclockwise loop , the storm made its second landfall in Freeport on September 5 . After moving inland , the storm quickly weakened , becoming a depression on September 6 before dissipating early the next day over northern Mexico . = = Preparations and impact = = On September 3 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued gale warnings and hurricane watches for areas between Lake Charles , Louisiana and the mouth of the Mississippi . Later that day , they were extended westward to Palacios , Texas and eventually , warnings for areas east of Morgan City , Louisiana were canceled . Due to the unexpected loop taken by Delia , gale warnings were extended as far south as Baffin Bay , Texas . By September 6 , the NHC discontinued all watches and warnings associated with the storm . Around this time , the National Weather Service issued flood warnings , and warned residents about the possibility of tornadoes forming with the weakening tropical cyclone . In Cameron , Louisiana , an estimated 6 @,@ 000 residents were evacuated with memories of Hurricane Audrey , a storm that killed 575 in the city , still fresh . Due to the erratic track of the storm along the Texas coastline , widespread heavy rains fell in areas near the storm and in Louisiana . Tides up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , in addition to rainfall up to 13 @.@ 9 in ( 350 mm ) , caused significant flooding in the Galveston @-@ Freeport area . Up to $ 3 million was reported in damages to homes due to the flooding . In southern Louisiana , numerous areas received more than 10 in ( 250 mm ) of rain and most of the state recorded at least 3 in ( 76 mm ) . This rainfall led to widespread flooding , particularly in agricultural areas . Damages to crops amounted to $ 3 million . In addition to the flooding rains produced by Delia , eight tornadoes also touched down due to the storm , injuring four people . Five people were killed during Delia , two of which were directly related to the storm . Two of the other deaths resulted from a car crash , triggered by slick roads , with the two occupants of a pickup truck being killed . The fifth death resulted occurred while a man was boarding up his home and suffered a stress @-@ induced heart attack . The outer bands of the storm also produced significant rainfall in Arkansas and Oklahoma , peaking at 9 @.@ 72 in ( 247 mm ) and 8 @.@ 22 in ( 209 mm ) respectively .
= Mike Garcia ( baseball , born 1923 ) = Edward Miguel " Mike " Garcia ( November 17 , 1923 – January 13 , 1986 ) , nicknamed " Big Bear " and " Mexican Mike " , was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Garcia grew up In Orosi California and entered minor league baseball at the age of 18 . After one season , he joined the U.S. Army and served for three years . Following his military discharge , Garcia returned to baseball . He was promoted to the MLB in 1948 . He played 12 of his 14 major league seasons for the Cleveland Indians . From 1949 to 1954 , Garcia joined Bob Lemon , Early Wynn , and Bob Feller on the Indians ' " Big Four " pitching staff . Historians consider the " Big Four " to be one of the greatest starting pitching rotations in baseball history . During those six seasons with the " Big Four " , Garcia compiled a record of 104 wins against 57 losses . He had two 20 @-@ win seasons and led the American League ( AL ) in earned run average ( ERA ) and shutouts twice each . Garcia 's best season came in 1954 when the Indians won a league record 111 games . Baseball historian Stephen Lombardi said that Garcia may have been the best AL pitcher that year . Garcia remained with the Indians until 1959 , but never duplicated the success he had achieved in 1954 . In his last five seasons with Cleveland , he finished with losing records three times . After leaving the Indians , Garcia spent a season with the Chicago White Sox and a season with the Washington Senators . Garcia retired from baseball in 1961 . He developed diabetes within a few years and suffered from kidney disease and heart problems until his death . Garcia died outside of Cleveland at the age of 62 and was buried in his home state of California . He was the only member of the " Big Four " not elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame , but he has been included on a list of the 100 Greatest Indians and has been inducted into the Cleveland Indians Hall of Fame . Baseball experts and former teammates have commented on Garcia 's overpowering pitching , his fine control and his low ERA . = = Early life = = Garcia was born in San Gabriel , California . He grew up on a ranch in Orosi , California , where his Mexican father , Merced Garcia , moved the family when Mike was two years old . Mike 's father raised horses , and Mike aspired to race them . He participated in one race and was thrown from the horse . Garcia played four years of high school baseball , the first three years at Orosi High School and the last at Visalia High School . Garcia was pitching in semipro baseball when Cleveland Indians scout Willis Butler noticed him in Tulare , California . In 1942 Butler signed him as an amateur free agent to the organization 's Class D farm team , the Appleton Papermakers of the Wisconsin State League . Garcia earned a 10 – 10 win – loss record with Appleton . He spent the next three years as a signalman in the United States Army during World War II . Garcia was discharged from the military at the age of 22 and returned to the Cleveland organization . He played for the Class C Bakersfield Indians of the California League . With Bakersfield , Garcia 's ERA and strikeouts led the league and he earned 22 wins . In 1947 he joined the Cleveland Indians during spring training , but he was assigned to the Class A Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons of the Eastern League by Cleveland coach Bill McKechnie . He finished the season with 17 wins and a 3 @.@ 24 ERA . In 1948 , he pitched for the Double @-@ A Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League and earned 19 wins . = = Major league career = = = = = Early career = = = Garcia debuted with the Indians on October 8 , 1948 , just before the Indians played in the 1948 World Series . He allowed three hits and no runs in two innings , and he struck out one batter . The Indians won the World Series in six games . It was the franchise 's second World Series victory , but Garcia did not make a World Series appearance . Nicknamed " The Big Bear " by teammate Joe Gordon for his large frame , Garcia was listed at 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) , 200 lb ( 91 kg ) during his career . Garcia said that his actual playing weight was between 215 – 220 lb ( 97 – 100 kg ) . Garcia also acquired the nickname " Mexican Mike " in the press . However , Garcia 's minority status was not a novelty . The Indians had signed Larry Doby , the first black player in the American League , in 1947 . The 1951 team would add manager Al López and Latino players Minnie Miñoso and Jesse Flores to a squad that already included Garcia and Mexican player Bobby Ávila . Early on , Garcia was paired to room with Avila , who had just signed with the team and did not speak English . Garcia served as a translator for Avila well beyond their first season together . Garcia returned to the Indians in 1949 . A newspaper article predicted that Garcia might fill big needs in the Cleveland bullpen . Garcia saw action as a starter and as a relief pitcher that year , starting 20 of his 41 regular season appearances . He finished his rookie season with a 14 – 5 record , a league @-@ leading 2 @.@ 36 ERA , 94 strikeouts and five shutouts . Fellow pitcher Bob Feller said , " From the beginning , Mike was a sneaky quick pitcher . For a big guy , he was certainly mobile . " One year removed from his rookie season , expectations from Indians General Manager Hank Greenberg and pitching coach Mel Harder were for Garcia to become a key piece of the Indians ' rotation . " Garcia has all the potentialities of a really great pitcher . I see no reason he should not reach greatness this season " , Greenberg said . Garcia finished the 1950 season 11 – 11 . By the 1951 season , media sources had given the nickname " Big Four " to the pitching combination of Garcia , Bob Feller , Bob Lemon and Early Wynn . Garcia had learned to control the curveball that Harder taught him in spring training of 1949 . Harder said that Garcia already had a terrific fastball , but that he became a good pitcher by learning the curveball and working on his control . Cleveland sportswriter Hal Lebovitz wrote , " Garcia , until the day he died , would tell me how much of the success he owed to Harder . " Garcia also once admitted to throwing an occasional spitball , an illegal pitch . " Maybe a dozen in my life . I 'm sure plenty of the great pitchers did " , he said . Garcia pitched a 10 @-@ hit complete game on June 4 , 1951 in an 8 – 2 Cleveland win , helping the Indians beat New York Yankees pitcher Ed Lopat for the first time in two years . Before the game , Lopat 's record was 8 – 0 on the season . Garcia improved his season mark to 5 – 3 . On August 7 against the St. Louis Browns , Garcia reached a career @-@ high 15 wins . In a 5 – 1 victory , he also recorded his second career home run . Garcia won 20 games in 1951 and finished fifth in the AL with six saves . = = = All @-@ Star seasons = = = In 1952 , Garcia made his first of three consecutive All @-@ Star teams . As the Indians battled for the 1952 American League pennant heading into September , he began the month with three consecutive shutouts during an eight @-@ game Indian win streak . The Indians faced Ed Lopat and the Yankees again on September 14 in what Associated Press columnist Jack Hand labeled " one BIG game . " In a 7 – 1 loss , Garcia gave up four earned runs on five hits in three innings . He finished the 1952 season with a 22 – 11 record , 143 strikeouts , an AL @-@ best six shutouts and four saves . He was second in the league in ERA ( 2 @.@ 37 ) , games ( 46 ) and innings pitched ( 292 @.@ 1 , behind Lemon ) . Only Wynn had more wins ( 23 ) among right @-@ handers ; Garcia and Lemon had 22 each , and the pair tied for the league lead with 36 starts . Garcia finished ninth in the 1952 MVP voting . In 1953 , Garcia and Lemon were named pitchers on the AL All @-@ Star squad . Doby and Al Rosen were also on the team , with Rosen selected as the game 's MVP . Garcia finished the season 18 – 9 ; he pitched a career @-@ high 29 complete games with 134 strikeouts and a 3 @.@ 25 ERA . Like the previous season , Lemon and Garcia finished first and second in the American League in innings pitched . Garcia was labeled " one of the hardest @-@ throwing pitchers in the game " by The Cleveland Press Guide . As Feller 's dominance faded in the latter part of his career , Garcia , Lemon , and Wynn were increasingly referred to as the " Big Three " . On May 16 , 1954 , Garcia pitched a one @-@ hitter against the Philadelphia Athletics in a 6 – 0 Indians win . Garcia called it the finest game of his career . He was selected for his third and final All @-@ Star Game when American League manager Casey Stengel added him , Lemon , and Doby to an American League roster that already featured Avila and top vote @-@ getter Al Rosen . During a late July exhibition game , Garcia learned that his father had died at the age of 65 ; Garcia 's son Michael was born the same day . He missed several games that year with a broken blood vessel in his throwing hand , but he managed 45 appearances on the season . Entering the final regular season game in 1954 , Garcia had 19 wins ; he would have received a bonus if he collected 20 wins . After pitching 12 innings , he left with the score tied at 6 – 6 . The Tigers won after 13 innings , 8 – 7 . Earning a no @-@ decision , Garcia failed to reach the 20 @-@ win mark . However , Greenberg had assured Garcia he would receive a bonus whether he won 20 games or not . Garcia pitched six innings or more in six out of his seven August appearances . He earned wins in three out of his last four appearances , and pitched seven innings or more in all four appearances . The team finished 111 – 43 . The win total broke a 154 @-@ game season record , and the team had the lowest team ERA ( 2 @.@ 78 ) in the AL since the Dead @-@ ball era season of 1919 . Garcia was 19 – 8 with 129 strikeouts , again leading the AL in both ERA ( 2 @.@ 64 ) and shutouts ( 5 ) . In the 1954 World Series , the heavily favored Indians were defeated by the New York Giants . Garcia started game three , but was replaced by a pinch hitter in the bottom of the third inning , already trailing 4 – 0 . Author Jonathan Knight described the progression of the game : " ... a throwing error by George Strickland , and Mike Garcia had struggled in the opening frame , allowing three baserunners , as panic began to creep into Municipal Stadium . For the first time all year , it was warranted . " The Giants won the game , 6 – 2 , and would win game four to claim the Series . = = = Final years with Indians = = = From 1955 – 1959 , Garcia finished with losing records in three of five seasons . The 1955 season represented Garcia 's first losing record ( 11 – 13 ) and his first season ERA over 4 @.@ 00 . The 1954 ERA leader finished 1955 with a 4 @.@ 02 ERA . The Indians finished in second place in the AL at 93 – 61 , three games behind the Yankees . Garcia repeated a losing mark on the 1956 season ( 11 – 12 ) , the only time in his career he finished with consecutive losing seasons . He and Wynn were among those who tied for second place in shutouts on the season ( 4 ) behind fellow Indian Herb Score . Cleveland finished 88 – 66 and nine games behind first place , which went to the Yankees again . Lopez was replaced as manager by Kerby Farrell . In spring training before the 1957 season , Farrell observed that the league 's best pitching staff could not carry the team alone . Garcia ended the season 12 – 8 with a 3 @.@ 75 ERA , but the Indians finished sixth in the American League . Their 76 – 77 finish was the club 's first losing record since 1946 . Bobby Bragan replaced Farrell as manager to begin the 1958 season . During a spring training game in March , Garcia slipped on a wet pitcher 's mound and injured his back . He did not make his first regular season appearance until April 27 and he underwent surgery in June for a herniated disc . He finished the season with a 1 – 0 record in six appearances and eight innings of work . That same month , Bragan was fired as manager . He was replaced by former Indians player Joe Gordon , and the Indians finished 77 – 76 . Garcia elected to become a free agent in the offseason , but he returned to the Indians , saying that his home and his dry cleaning business were in Cleveland . " Everything being equal , I 'll sign with the Indians if I decide I 'm able to pitch ... This is a friendly city and I like it " , he said . During a spring training game in March 1959 , Garcia was hit in the knee by a Billy Consolo line drive and was carried off the field on a stretcher and taken to a Tucson hospital . He did not make his first season start until May 3 , when he allowed four hits and no earned runs in a complete game loss . He finished with a 3 – 6 record , a 4 @.@ 00 ERA and 72 innings pitched in his twelfth and final season with the Indians . = = = Chicago White Sox and Washington Senators ( 1960 – 61 ) = = = Garcia signed with the Chicago White Sox for the 1960 season , reuniting with manager Al López and former Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck . Veeck said , " Our reports on Mike were real good . He might help us in 1960 . " He appeared in 15 games and pitched 17 @.@ 2 innings with 4 @.@ 58 ERA and 0 – 0 record . In July 1961 , the expansion Washington Senators signed the 37 @-@ year @-@ old Garcia to a contract . The Senators placed him on waivers before the end of the season . He finished with a 0 – 1 record , pitched 19 innings in 16 games and earned a 4 @.@ 74 ERA . Garcia finished his major league career with a 142 – 97 record , 1 @,@ 117 strikeouts , a 3 @.@ 27 ERA , 27 shutouts and 23 saves in 428 games ( 281 starts ) and 2 @,@ 174 @.@ 6 innings . = = Outside of baseball = = Garcia married Gerda Martin on January 13 , 1951 ; they had three children . He served as a sponsor for Camel cigarettes during his playing days . Garcia raced midget cars during and after his baseball career . Garcia injured the index finger of his throwing hand while working on a midget car in late 1959 , but the wound was repaired without lasting effects . = = Illness and death = = Garcia developed diabetes in his forties . As a result , he suffered from kidney disease and heart damage in the last years of his life . Faced with dialysis three times per week , Garcia joined his former teammates at fundraising events to defray his medical expenses . He died in Fairview Park , Ohio on January 13 , 1986 at the age of 62 . He died on his thirty @-@ fifth wedding anniversary . He was buried in his hometown of Visalia , California . Garcia , whose annual salary was never greater than $ 35 @,@ 000 , died with more than $ 100 @,@ 000 in outstanding medical bills . = = Legacy = = Garcia was not selected a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame . His normal window of eligibility has closed , and he would only be elected by decision of the Hall 's Veterans Committee . Baseball historian Bill James dismissed Garcia 's low ERA due to the " cold , cavernous Cleveland Municipal Stadium , which at that time had a pitcher 's mound higher than white cliffs of Dover " . Referring to Garcia 's great seasons of 1949 to 1954 , baseball historian Wayne Corbett countered , " Garcia 's more famous teammates enjoyed the same home @-@ field advantage , but it was Garcia who recorded the staff 's lowest ERA in four of those six seasons . " Historian Stephen Lombardi wrote , " It is a shame that Mike Garcia is sometimes disregarded . A career such as his does not deserve to fade away from the memory of the overall baseball public . " Cleveland sportswriter and Hall of Fame voter Hal Lebovitz wrote , " If Garcia had pitched long enough , he probably would be in the Hall of Fame . " Teammates have recalled the difficulty that Garcia presented for opposing hitters . George Strickland , who roomed with Garcia on road trips for several seasons , described Garcia as " a big , strong , powerful pitcher " who threw a " very heavy ball . " Bob Lemon describes his pitches similarly . " Hitting a Garcia pitch was like hitting a shotput " , Lemon said . Lemon also commented on his deceptive control . " Mike was a sneak . His physical size belied really fine control " , said Lemon . Garcia was named one of the 100 Greatest Indians in March 2001 and inducted into the Cleveland Indians Hall of Fame on August 11 , 2007 . Each year , the Indians organization gives the Mike Garcia Award to an area high school student who demonstrates " outstanding success in the classroom , on the field , and in their community . "
= Aphrodite ( album ) = Aphrodite is the eleventh studio album by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , released on 30 June 2010 . Beginning in early 2009 , the singer met with British singer @-@ songwriter Nerina Pallot to begin recording sessions for a new album . Although successful at first , the sessions later became unproductive ; Minogue then began working with British electronic music producer Stuart Price , who became the executive producer of the album . The two collaborated with various producers and writers on the album , including Jake Shears , Calvin Harris , Sebastian Ingrosso and Pascal Gabriel . Aphrodite follows a musical approach largely similar to Minogue 's previous albums and is primarily a dance @-@ pop and disco record . It draws influences from various dance @-@ based genres including electropop , hi @-@ NRG , club and rave music . Upon its release , Aphrodite was met with generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented it as a return to form for Minogue . However , critics were divided on its production ; many felt Price 's production helped make the album cohesive , while some felt it made the album sound too similar to Minogue 's previous work and lacked innovation . Commercially , Aphrodite was a success . In Minogue 's native country Australia , it peaked at number two on the Australian Albums chart , and was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number one on the UK Albums chart , a feat accomplished by Minogue 's debut studio album Kylie ( 1988 ) during the same week 22 years prior . Aphrodite was the fourth studio album by Minogue to peak atop the UK albums chart and made her the first solo artist to have a number one album in four different decades in the region , achieving this in the 1980s , 1990s , 2000s and 2010s . She also became a Guinness World Record @-@ holder for achieving the most consecutive decades with top five albums in the United Kingdom . The British Phonographic Industry certified Aphrodite platinum . The album also achieved strong charting internationally , reaching the top @-@ five in countries like Belgium , France , Greece , Spain and Switzerland . It became Minogue 's second highest @-@ charting album in the United States by peaking at number 19 on the Billboard 200 chart . Four singles were released from Aphrodite . Its lead single " All the Lovers " was a commercial success , peaking at number three in the United Kingdom and reaching the top ten in numerous countries like France , Italy , Scotland and Spain . In Australia , it narrowly missed the top ten by peaking at number 13 on the singles chart . " Get Outta My Way " was released as the second single and reached the top 20 in the United Kingdom , but underperformed in Australia after failing to peak inside the top 50 . Similarly , the third single " Better than Today " missed the top 50 in Australia , and additionally missed the top 20 in the United Kingdom . In response to their poor chart performances , Minogue expressed disappointment in her label and stated that no further singles would be released . Despite this statement , " Put Your Hands Up ( If You Feel Love ) " was released as the fourth and final single from Aphrodite and peaked at number 50 in Australia . In the United States , all four singles released from the album peaked atop the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . To further promote the album , Minogue embarked on the successful Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour in 2011 . = = Background and production = = Following her recovery from breast cancer , Minogue released her tenth studio album X in 2007 . Slated to be released as Minogue 's comeback album , X went platinum in her native country Australia after it debuted at number one on the Australian Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , the album entered and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart and was eventually certified platinum . Critical reception towards X was generally favourable , although many critics felt that it lacked introspection from Minogue 's side due to its lack of consistency and high amount of " filler " tracks . In retrospect , critics argued that the album did not serve as a worthy comeback for Minogue . Soon , Minogue began working on her eleventh studio album Aphrodite . The initial recording sessions began in April 2009 when Minogue met with British singer @-@ songwriter Nerina Pallot , with whom she readied the track " Better than Today " . Its live instrumentation , along with the fact that X had been burdened by contributions from too many producers , prompted Minogue 's record label Parlophone to decide on a more natural and less convoluted production style for Aphrodite . Later sessions with Pallot proved to be less successful , as her suggested songs were " rapidly supplemented with tracks from a wide range " of contributors . Minogue felt her sessions with Pallot did not yield any dance @-@ pop tracks ; fearing that she was " going down the same road , doing the rounds of all the pop dynamos but lacking any cohesive quality , " she approached her close friend Jake Shears , male lead singer of American pop group Scissor Sisters , for advice . Shears encouraged her to work with Stuart Price , a Grammy award @-@ winning British electronic music producer who had collaborated with Scissor Sisters on their third studio album Night Work ( 2010 ) . Miles Leonard , chairman of Parlophone , enlisted Price as the executive producer of the album . He had previously served as the executive producer of American recording artist Madonna 's tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , and international news agency Reuters regarded him as " one of the most in @-@ demand pop producers " . In an interview with a writer for Popjustice , Price revealed that he got involved in the production of Aphrodite after he met Minogue for a writing session in October 2009 . As executive producer , Price was responsible for " shaping the album 's sound " , deciding its track listing , and mixing the songs in order to ensure that they " feel like they 're part of the same album " . Popjustice commented that every song on the album has " gone through a bit of a Stuart Price filter so that it doesn 't sound like some dickhead [ sic ] A & R has just aimlessly scooped a load of tracks off a shelf " . Aphrodite marked the first time Minogue enlisted an executive producer ; discussing the process , she said " It was just the best experience , and funnily enough I think it 's the most cohesive album I 've had since the beginning of my career , back in the PWL days , where by its very nature made it cohesive . There 's a lot to be said for working with different producers and trying different stuff which has worked really well for me in the past but I definitely wanted someone to tie this together as Stuart has done so beautifully [ ... ] so that it existed as a real body of work " . Minogue and Price subjected songs on Aphrodite to a " Parton Test " , as they " knew a song would work if it made sense when sung in the style of Dolly Parton " . Shears also contributed to the album , while two of Pallot 's collaborations with Minogue were kept . Additional collaborators on the album include Scottish disc jockey Calvin Harris , Swedish disc jockey Sebastien Ingrosso and Belgian musician Pascal Gabriel . = = Composition = = Billed by her record label Parlophone as her comeback album , Aphrodite is a celebration of Minogue 's " dance @-@ floor roots " , and is primarily a dance @-@ pop and disco album . Its title alludes to the Greek goddess of love , beauty , pleasure , and procreation . " All the Lovers " , one of the last tracks to be recorded for the album , is a " squiggly " electropop @-@ influenced disco song written by Jim Eliot and Mima Stilwell , who had previously collaborated with Minogue on " 2 Hearts " , the lead single from X. It is similar to Minogue 's 2004 single " I Believe in You " , but has a " more danceable edge " , and features a " gauzy , heartbeat rhythm " and 1980s @-@ stylised synthesiser riffs . The song was met with critical acclaim from music critics and was frequently commended for its production and chorus . The second track " Get Outta My Way " combines electronic music and bubblegum pop with disco elements . The song focuses on a " frustrated and furious " Minogue delivering " wispy " vocals in a form of a warning to her uncaring partner , indicating that she may leave him and start " grinding away with another chap " . Its lyrical content is suggestive in nature . The song received generally favourable reviews from music critics and was complimented for its musical composition and subject matter . " Put Your Hands Up ( If You Feel Love ) " is a hi @-@ NRG @-@ influenced club song . Receiving mixed critical reviews , its lyrics were criticised for being clichéd although one critic named it a " concert hit waiting to happen . " " Closer " takes a darker and more atmospheric approach , featuring " sighing background vocals and spiralling harpsichord @-@ esque synths . " Critics felt that it was one of the more interesting and experimental songs of the album . Although Price said that no ballads were included in the album , critics opined that the downtempo pop song " Everything is Beautiful " was penned like one . " Aphrodite " , the title track of the album , is a nineties @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop song which features a " foot @-@ stomping " beat and " military drummed " instrumentation , similar to that of a marching band . Stuart Price likened the song to Janet Jackson for its " ' Rhythm Nation ' -esque qualities . " The song , one of Minogue 's two collaborations with Pallot that were kept on the track list , is penned like a dance anthem through which Minogue " brags " about her sexual prowess . It was met with critical acclaim by most music critics , and was declared to be one of the strongest tracks on the album . Minogue wrote the melancholic seventh track " Illusion " with Price . " Better Than Today " , the first track to be recorded for the album and the second collaboration with Pallot , is a " breezy summertime " pop song with influences of electropop and country music . It was complimented as likeable and a stand @-@ out , but criticised for its monotony . Rave music acts as a significant influence on " Too Much " , a disco and synthpop track written by Minogue , Jake Shears , and Calvin Harris . Critics were divided on the track , with its energy being praised but Harris ' production being disapproved of . The dance @-@ rock song " Cupid Boy " finds inspiration from English alternative rock band New Order and features Minogue delivering " lusty " vocals over a retro bass line . Its intro , New Order @-@ influenced bass line , and rock guitar instrumentation positively surprised critics . " Looking for an Angel " , one of the first songs Minogue and Price wrote together , is composed of " celestial synth strings " and contains an extended breakdown . Price 's production of the song received mixed opinions from critic . The set closes with the electropop track " Can 't Beat the Feeling " , which is similar to the work of French electronic music duo Daft Punk . Its energetic composition and placement as the closing track was appreciated by critics . = = Singles = = Four singles were released to promote Aphrodite . " All the Lovers " was released as its lead single in June 2010 . Explaining her decision to release it as the lead single , Minogue said that " as I was recording it I knew that " All The Lovers " had to be the first single ; it sums up the euphoria of the album perfectly . It gives me goose @-@ bumps , so I 'm really excited to hear what everyone thinks of it " . Commercially , " All the Lovers " performed well , particularly in Europe . It peaked at number three on the UK Singles chart , where it was later certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 units . The single also reached the top ten in France , Italy , where it was later certified gold , Scotland , and Spain , where it peaked atop the physical singles chart . In Australia , " All the Lovers " missed peaking inside the top ten by reaching number 13 on the singles chart . In this region , it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . In the United States , the song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Joseph Kahn and features Minogue singing the song , dressed in a white cobweb @-@ style T @-@ shirt worn over a black bra and knickers , while standing atop a mountain of lingerie @-@ clad couples caressing each other . " Get Outta My Way " was released as the second single , on 27 September 2010 . While it was moderately successful in the United Kingdom , and reached number 14 on the UK Singles chart , it was a commercial disappointment in Australia and only managed to peak at number 69 on the singles chart . In the United States , the song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The accompanying music video , directed by AlexandLiane , features Minogue , and a number of male models , performing various dance routines wearing a gold chain mini dress , a red silk mini trench and an LBD . " Better than Today " was released as the third single from the album , on 3 December 2010 . Although critics were generally favourable towards the song as a track on the album , some dismissed its release as a single due to its overly sweet @-@ sounding composition . The single was less successful than " All the Lovers " and " Get Outta My Way " . It peaked at number 55 on the Australian singles chart , and thus became the second single release from Aphrodite to miss charting inside the top 50 . In the United Kingdom , it missed charting inside the top 20 by peaking at number 32 on the UK singles chart . In the United States , the song became the third consecutive single release from the album to peak at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . An old school arcade game @-@ inspired music video was directed for the song by Minogue and her stylist William Baker . Following the poor chart performance of " Get Outta My Way " and " Better Than Today " , Minogue expressed disappointment in her record label Parlophone , saying : " It 's confusing . I felt a little let down with my releases from Aphrodite . I was caught out like a lot of artists were , with record companies figuring out how to do single releases these days . I remember doing a promo for one of the last singles and it just felt really old @-@ fashioned . I 'm pretty computer @-@ savvy , something didn 't feel right , but no one said anything to me . You get Britney releasing " Hold It Against Me " and Gaga 's " Born This Way " available on iTunes the day you hear it first . That 's how it should be . And there 's me waiting for a mid @-@ week chart figure like it 's 1989 . " Although Minogue mentioned that " Better Than Today " would be the last single to be released from Aphrodite , " Put Your Hands Up ( If You Feel Love ) " was released as the fourth and final single from the album , on 29 May 2011 . The single managed to reach the top 50 in Australia , peaking at number 50 on the singles chart . It peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , thus becoming the fourth single from Aphrodite to peak atop the chart . No official music video for the single was commissioned , although a lyric video for a remixed version of the song by Pete Hammond was released . = = Release and promotion = = Aphrodite was released in Australia on 2 July 2010 in digital download , standard CD , and vinyl formats . In the United Kingdom , it was released on 5 July 2010 . A special " Experience Edition " CD , which contains a 28 page booklet , unseen footage from Minogue 's 2009 For You , For Me tour , behind the scenes footage of the promotional photo and video shoots of the album , an exclusive interview , and a previously unreleased bonus track entitled " Mighty Rivers " , was also released on the same day . The artwork of the album captures Minogue " transformed into a goddess " as she is dressed in a dark blue , metal @-@ adorned , silk muslin gown , taken from French fashion designer Jean Paul Gaultier 's spring @-@ summer 2010 haute couture collection . Gaultier had previously designed the costumes for Minogue 's KylieX2008 and For You , For Me tours . On 6 July , Minogue celebrated the worldwide release of the album with a performance held at the Pacha Club at Ibiza , Spain . It was released in the United States on the same day . = = = Tour = = = To promote Aphrodite , Minogue embarked on the Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour , beginning in early 2011 . The tour was staged by the creative team behind Disneyland Resort 's World of Color show , and the budget of the tour was reported to be around $ 25 million . Concert shows were held at Europe , North America , Asia , Australia and Africa . Minogue 's costumes and wardrobe was designed by her frequent collaborators Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana , owners of the Italian luxury industry fashion house Dolce and Gabbana . The concert shows were spectacles " loosely based around Greek mythology " . The entire tracklist of the album , excluding only the song " Too Much " , was included in the setlist of the tour ; other songs were taken from Minogue 's previous studio albums , such as Light Years ( 2000 ) and Fever ( 2001 ) . The tour was a commercial success , and ranked at number 21 on Pollstar 's year @-@ end " Top 25 Worldwide Tours " list , with a total gross of $ 52 @.@ 8 million and ticket sales of 527 @,@ 683 units . A live album of the concert show held at the O2 Arena in London , was released as Aphrodite Les Folies : Live in London , on 7 June 2011 . = = Critical reception = = The album received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Aphrodite received an average score of 67 based on 21 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Ben Norman from About.com appreciated Price 's production , noting Aphrodite to be more consistent than X. Although the critic mentioned that the songs do not provide the " immediate appeal " , like those in X did , he labelled Aphrodite " another knockout hit album " from Minogue and the " Do Not Miss album of 2010 " . Tim Sendra from AllMusic commended Minogue 's choice of collaborators and producers , commenting that the album is the " work of someone who knows exactly what her skills are and who to hire to help showcase them to perfection " . He also appreciated the album 's cohesion and commercial prospect , and named it " one of her best " . The Billboard review of the album complimented Price 's " ability to create consistent sound without sacrificing each track 's individuality " , and termed Aphrodite a " journey cohesive , fun and fitting for a goddess " . Ian Wade from BBC Music gave the album an extremely positive review and found it to be an " astonishing return to form " for Minogue . Wade commended her for returning to her roots and becoming the " Kylie of Fever and Light Years " ; he concluded the review by calling Aphrodite an " all @-@ killer , flags @-@ aloft amazing triumph " and that " not liking this ( album ) would be like not being keen on breathing " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy felt that it was her best album since Fever and admitted that while Aphrodite isn 't " deep " , it " sure ain 't dumb either " , opining that it is meant to be heard for relaxation and enjoyment . Mikael Wood praised the tracks ' danceability and concluded that " The diminutive Australian diva is still delivering disco thunder from Down Under " . Priya Elan from NME felt that Price was the " perfect choice of musical partner " and complimented him for producing Minogue 's " most unified work in ages " . Christel Loar from PopMatters found the album similar to Light Years and Fever and commended the production , opining that while " dance pop with this much gloss and unabashed glee is relegated to the realms of guilty pleasure " , Aphrodite is " that rare representation of perfect production that is just pleasure , pure and simple " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone labelled the album Minogue 's " finest work since 1997 's underrated Impossible Princess " . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph complimented Price for enlisting a " top notch " team of collaborators and termed Aphrodite a " mainstream pop blast " . Barry Walters from Spin commended Minogue for returning to her original style of music , saying " Finally even the suits realize that no one wants ersatz hip @-@ hop or Americanized AOR from Australia 's ultimate pop tart " . However , many critics were displeased with Minogue 's lack of innovation on Aphrodite . Helen Clarke from MusicOMH gave the album an overall positive review and appreciated Minogue for " just what she does , and somehow it works " , but did mention that it " fails to quite hit the spot " . Jon Parales from The New York Times found the album too similar to the work of Madonna , especially her studio albums Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) and Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , and commented that " No one 's asking for reality in this ( Minogue 's ) pop bubble — just a little bit more innovation " . Kitty Empire from The Observer enjoyed the album and complimented Price for " lending a sleek cohesion to the whole ( album ) " , but opined that Aphrodite " lacks the depth and chutzpah of some of her rivals ' efforts " . Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani noted it to be " more stylistically coherent than the abovementioned albums " and predicted that it would " no doubt please longtime fans " , but also criticized Price 's shallow " antiseptic " production which he felt was not able to complement Minogue 's voice . James Reed from The Boston Globe gave the album a negative review and criticized it for being too dated , commenting that its " release date is 2010 , but its freshness seal is clearly stamped 2000 ( circa Minogue 's Light Years ) [ sic ] " . He called the album Minogue 's " least interesting work she 's made in a decade " and a " letdown " , and concluded by saying that " simply being fabulous isn 't enough " . Caroline Sullivan from The Guardian acknowledged the album 's " sharp production " , but commented that the album is " only as good as Kylie herself " and criticized it for being uninteresting ; she concluded by saying that " Perhaps thinking outside the box – an acoustic album ? – is what 's needed next " . Margaret Wappler from the Los Angeles Times commented on the album 's dependency on " old reliable " music and concluded " Our midnight bird ( Minogue ) has been in the club for a long time , however , and it shows " . Sophia Money @-@ Coutts from The National was not impressed with Minogue for bringing " the usual stuff about being completely herself on this album and how happy that has made her " and also criticized Price for not producing anything inventive . The critic was specifically negative towards billing Aphrodite as a comeback similar to Fever , because she felt it lacked new and diverse material from Minogue 's previous efforts ; she summed up by saying that " Criticising Kylie feels like swearing at the Dalai Lama , but this is a princess that needs a slight prod " . = = = Accolades and recognition = = = In 2010 , Aphrodite was nominated for " Best Pop Release " at the ARIA Music Awards , but lost to Sia Furler 's We Are Born ; Minogue was nominated for " Best Female Artist " , but lost to Megan Washington . AllMusic included Aphrodite on their list of " Favorite Pop Albums of 2010 " year @-@ end list . Idolator included the album on their list of " 10 Out of ' 10 : Idolator 's Favorite Albums of the Year " list , with critic Robbie Daw writing that " hooking up with producer Stuart Price turned out to be the perfect way for Kylie to give her already impressive career a fresh jolt " and that " Aphrodite pretty much was my Summer 2010 " . Minogue finished at number 40 on music website Last.fm 's " Best of 2010 " list , which is compiled on the basis of amount of " scrobbles " an album gets on the site . At the 2011 Virgin Media Music Awards , Aphrodite was voted the " Best Album " by British music fans . The lead single " All the Lovers " also received an award , being voted " Best Single " . At the 2011 Brit Awards , Minogue received her eighth nomination for " Best International Female Solo Artist " . = = Commercial performance = = On the chart date of 18 July 2010 , Aphrodite debuted and peaked at number two on the Australian Albums chart ; it stayed in the position for three weeks . It spent a total of 15 weeks on the chart , and by 2011 , Aphrodite had been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . In the United Kingdom , Aphrodite debuted at number one on UK Albums chart , selling 79 @,@ 000 copies on the chart date of 17 July 2010 @.@ and at number two on the Top Electronic Albums chart . The same feat had been accomplished by Minogue 's debut studio album Kylie ( 1988 ) during the same week 22 years prior . Aphrodite was Minogue 's fourth studio album to peak at number one in the region , after Kylie , Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) , and Fever , and her tenth studio album to chart within the top 10 . The album spent one week at number one and a total of 29 weeks in the top 40 of the chart . In April 2011 , Aphrodite was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units . Minogue became a Guinness World Record @-@ holder for become the female artist with the most consecutive decades with top five albums in the United Kingdom . She also became the first solo artist to have a number one album in four different decades in the United Kingdom , in the 1980s , 1990s , 2000s and 2010s . In Austria , the album entered and peaked at number three on the Austrian Albums charts and stayed on the chart for a total of 10 weeks . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , it entered the Ultratop chart at number six and peaked at number four , spending a total of 12 weeks on the chart . It was more successful in the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of the country , where it entered the Ultratop chart at number 11 and peaked at number three , spending a total of 16 weeks on the chart . In Belgium , Aphrodite was certified gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) for sales of 10 @,@ 000 units . In France , the album entered and peaked at number three on the French Albums chart , and spent a total of 23 weeks on the chart . Similarly , in Germany , it entered and peaked at number three on the German Albums chart , spending a total of 12 weeks on the chart . In Greece , Aphrodite entered the Greek Albums chart at number 28 and peaked at number one , spending a total of seven weeks on the chart . It was Minogue 's first album to chart in the region . In Spain , the album entered the Spanish Albums chart at number three and peaked at number two , spending a total of 37 weeks on the chart and becoming Minogue 's highest @-@ charting album in the region . In Switzerland , Aphrodite entered and peaked at number two on the Swiss Albums , spending a total of 13 weeks on the chart . In Canada , Aphrodite became Minogue 's highest @-@ charting album to date by peaking at number eight on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart . In the United States , the album peaked at number 19 on the Billboard 200 chart , spending a total of three weeks on the chart . It marked Minogue 's second @-@ highest @-@ charting album in the region , behind only Fever , which peaked at number three . It also debuted and peaked at number one on the Billboard European Albums chart , and at number two on the Top Electronic Albums chart . = = Track listing = = Credits for Aphrodite adapted from liner notes . = = = Les Folies Tour Edition = = = On 28 June 2011 , a three @-@ disc remix collection of Aphrodite , subtitled the Les Folies Tour Edition , was released . It contains remixes of the original songs by various producers such as Pete Hammond , Denzal Park , Muscles , and Bimbo Jones . Notes ^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer = = Personnel = = Credits for Aphrodite adapted from liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = =
= Hurricane Bonnie ( 1992 ) = Hurricane Bonnie was a long @-@ lived storm in the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the third tropical storm ( including the April subtropical storm ) and second hurricane of the 1992 season . Bonnie formed at high latitudes in the central Atlantic on September 17 . Devoid of any real steering currents for much of its lifespan , it was nearly stationary for over a week in the central Atlantic Ocean . On September 27 , it began to slowly track east and northeast towards the Azores . Just before becoming extratropical , it affected the Azores on September 30 , although no damage was reported . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of the system was a cold front that moved off the U.S. East Coast on September 11 . The front moved gradually off the coast and into the subtropical Atlantic Ocean before becoming stationary just east of Bermuda on September 15 . Over the next two days , the cloud cover slowly detached itself from the front and form into a tropical low in its own right . On the afternoon of September 17 , the system was organized enough to be declared Tropical Depression Four . The depression organized steadily that evening and into the morning of September 18 . Later that day , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie and it began to move slowly to the northeast . Like most storms that develop in higher latitudes , Bonnie was embedded in a larger @-@ scale cyclonic circulation at first , which minimized shear ( allowing it to develop ) and provided weak steering currents . The low shear allowed Bonnie to rapidly develop and a small but well @-@ defined eye formed late that morning . The storm was upgraded to a hurricane later that day while meandering in the open ocean . The intensification rate slowed down after becoming a hurricane . In addition , Bonnie began to slowly move more to the northeast on September 19 as steering currents slowly developed . Bonnie strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale that morning as well , peaking at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) with a 970 mbar central pressure . The general track and intensity maintained itself throughout the day and into September 20 , when the eye became less distinct and Bonnie weakened slightly , although remaining a Category 2 hurricane . Early on September 21 , the eye became better defined once again and Bonnie restrengthened slightly while continuing its slow northeast motion . That afternoon , the storm gradually strengthened some more and reached its peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a central pressure of 965 mbar , just under Category 3 intensity . Bonnie maintained its strength through the evening and into the early morning of September 22 , when it began to weaken very gradually and level off . Bonnie also began to turn more eastward at that point before it became held up by a blocking mid @-@ latitude ridge of high pressure , which stalled the motion . Bonnie remained virtually stationary until the morning of September 23 when it drifted very slowly to the west @-@ southwest in response to the ridge . It also began to gradually weaken as the low @-@ level center became exposed and the storm became poorly organized . Convection also diminished , and on the afternoon of September 24 , Bonnie was downgraded to a tropical storm as it drifted over cooler waters . Bonnie continued to lose most of its deep convection during the day on September 25 as it began to make a turn back around to the south . That evening , Bonnie was downgraded to a tropical depression . The weakening trend ended early on September 26 and Bonnie regained tropical storm status that afternoon as deep convection re @-@ established itself . Bonnie continued its change in direction , turning to the southeast at this point as it slowly redeveloped despite being in a high @-@ shear environment . It had also briefly showed signs of becoming extratropical on September 27 as it made the turn to the northeast as a weak tropical storm , and was operationally declared extratropical at that point until the afternoon of September 28 . During that period , Bonnie actually strengthened back into a high @-@ end tropical storm . Bonnie roughly followed Hurricane Charley 's path towards the Azores thereafter . The storm became entrenched in an environment with greater wind shear , although it only weakened slightly on September 29 as it accelerated towards the northeast . The storm crossed over the Azores on September 30 as a strong tropical storm with 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . After that , Bonnie quickly lost its tropical characteristics and was declared extratropical late that afternoon , just east of the Azores . The extratropical low drifted back to the southwest in a clockwise loop , actually approaching the Azores once again while dissipating . It dissipated on October 2 . = = Impact = = When Bonnie passed over the Azores only four days after Charley , it resulted in tropical storm @-@ force winds across much of the island chain . Lajes Air Base reported sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) with gusts to 59 mph ( 94 km / h ) . In addition , one man was killed by a rock fall on the island of São Miguel . No damage was reported in the Azores .
= Mary Martha Sherwood = Mary Martha Sherwood ( née Butt ; 6 May 1775 – 22 September 1851 ) was a prolific and influential writer of children 's literature in 19th @-@ century Britain . She composed over 400 books , tracts , magazine articles , and chapbooks . Among her best known works are The History of Little Henry and his Bearer ( 1814 ) , The History of Henry Milner ( 1822 – 37 ) , and The History of the Fairchild Family ( 1818 – 47 ) . While Sherwood is known primarily for the strong evangelicalism that coloured her early writings , her later works are characterized by common Victorian themes , such as domesticity . Sherwood 's childhood was uneventful , although she recalled it as the happiest part of her life . After she married Captain Henry Sherwood and moved to India , she converted to evangelical Christianity and began to write for children . Although her books were initially intended only for the children of the military encampments in India , the British public also received them enthusiastically . The Sherwoods returned to England after a decade in India and , building upon her popularity , Sherwood opened a boarding school and published scores of texts for children and the poor . Many of Sherwood 's books were bestsellers and she has been described as " one of the most significant authors of children 's literature of the nineteenth century " . Her depictions of domesticity and Britain 's relationship with India may have played a part in shaping the opinions of many young British readers . However , her works fell from favor as a different style of children 's literature came into fashion during the late nineteenth century , one exemplified by Lewis Carroll 's playful and nonsensical Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . = = Early life = = Sherwood was born on 6 May 1775 , in Stanford @-@ on @-@ Teme , Worcestershire , as the eldest daughter and second child of Martha Butt and Reverend George Butt , the chaplain in ordinary to George III . In her autobiography , Sherwood describes herself as an imaginative and playful child . She composed stories in her head before she could write and begged her mother to copy them down . Sherwood remembered her childhood as a delightful time filled with exciting " adventures " undertaken with her brother . She even makes the best of the " stocks " that she was forced to stand in while she did her lessons : It was the fashion then for children to wear iron collars round the neck , with back @-@ boards strapped over the shoulders . To one of these I was subjected from my sixth to my thirteenth year . I generally did all my lessons standing in stocks , with this same collar round my neck ; it was put on in the morning , and seldom taken off till late in the evening . . . And yet I was a very happy child , and when relieved from my collars I not unseldom manifested my delight by starting from our hall @-@ door and taking a run for half a mile through the woods . Sherwood and her sister , Lucy Lyttelton 's education was wide @-@ ranging for girls during the late eighteenth century : Sherwood learned Latin and Greek and was permitted to read freely in her father 's library . Sherwood states in her autobiography that she was tall and ungainly for her age and that she hid in the woods with her doll to escape visitors . But she seems to have enjoyed attending Madame St. Quentin 's School for Girls at Reading Abbey , which was run by French émigrés and was the same school Jane Austen had attended . Sherwood seems to have had a generally happy childhood , marred only by the intrusion of the French Revolution and the upheavals it caused throughout Europe . Sherwood spent some of her teenage years in Lichfield , where she enjoyed the company of the eminent naturalist Erasmus Darwin , the educational reformer Richard Lovell Edgeworth , his daughter Maria Edgeworth — who later became a famous writer in her own right — and the celebrated poet Anna Seward . Although she was intellectually stimulated by this group of gifted writers , she was distressed by their lack of faith and later described Richard Edgeworth as an " infidel . " She also criticized Seward 's persona of the female author , writing in her autobiography that she would never model herself after a woman who wore a wig and accumulated male flatterers . Despite what she viewed as the pitfalls of fame , she was determined to become a writer and when she was seventeen her father , who encouraged her writing , helped her publish her first story , Traditions ( 1795 ) . When Sherwood 's father died in 1795 , her family retired from its active social life , since her mother preferred seclusion , and moved to Bridgnorth , Shropshire . At Bridgnorth Sherwood began writing sentimental novels ; in 1802 she sold Margarita for £ 40 to Mr. Hazard of Bath , and The History of Susan Grey , a Pamela @-@ like novel , for £ 10 . During this time she also taught at a local Sunday school . = = Marriage and India = = On 30 June 1803 , Sherwood became an army wife by marrying her cousin , Captain Henry Sherwood ( 1776 – 1849 ) ( cousin marriage was a common practice before the twentieth century ) . For several years , she accompanied her husband and his regiment , the 53rd Foot , on numerous postings throughout Britain . In 1804 , Capt. Sherwood was promoted to paymaster , which slightly improved the couple 's finances . In 1805 the regiment was ordered to India and the Sherwoods were forced to leave their first child , Mary Henrietta , with Sherwood 's mother and sister in England . Sherwood 's four @-@ month sea voyage to India was difficult ; she was again pregnant and the regiment 's ship was attacked by French warships . The Sherwoods stayed in India for eleven years , moving with the army and an ever @-@ increasing family from Calcutta ( Kolkata ) to Dinapore ( Danapur ) to Berhampore ( Baharampur ) to Cawnpore ( Kanpur ) to Meerut ( Meerut ) . They had six children in India : Henry ( 1805 – 1807 ) , Lucy Martha ( 1807 – 1808 ) , Lucy Elizabeth ( 1809 – 1835 ) , Emily ( 1811 – 1833 ) , Henry Martyn ( 1813 – ? ) , and Sophia ( 1815 – ? ) . The deaths of the infants Henry and Lucy Martha and later of young Emily and Lucy Elizabeth affected Sherwood deeply ; she frequently named the heroes and heroines of her books ( many of whom die ) after her late children . Following the agonizing death of her second child , Henry , of whooping cough , Sherwood began to consider converting to evangelical Christianity . The famous missionary Henry Martyn ( for whom she named her sixth child ) finally convinced her ; but it was the chaplain to the company , Mr. Parson , who first made her aware of her " human depravity " and her need for redemption . After her conversion , she was anxious to pursue evangelical missionary work in India , but she first had to persuade the East India Company that its policy of religious neutrality was ill @-@ conceived . Because there was social and political support for missionary programs in Britain , the Company eventually approved her endeavors . Sherwood established schools for both the children of army officers and the local Indian children attached to the camp . The children were often taught in her home , as no buildings were available . The first school began with 13 children and grew to over 40 , with pupils ranging from the very young to adolescents ; uneducated soldiers also attended at times . Sherwood discovered that traditional British teaching materials did not appeal to children raised in India , and therefore wrote her own Indian- and army @-@ themed stories , such as The History of Little Henry and his Bearer ( 1814 ) and The Memoirs of Sergeant Dale , his Daughter and the Orphan Mary ( 1815 ) . Sherwood also adopted neglected or orphaned children from the camp . In 1807 she adopted Annie Child , a three @-@ year @-@ old who had been given too much medicinal gin and in 1808 a malnourished two @-@ year @-@ old Sally Pownal . She found homes for those she could not adopt and founded an orphanage . In 1816 , on the advice of doctors , she and her family returned to Britain ; in her autobiography Sherwood relates that she was continually ill in India and it was believed at the time that neither she nor any of her children could survive in a tropical climate . = = Return to Britain and death = = When the Sherwoods returned to Britain , they were financially strapped . Captain Sherwood , having been put on half @-@ pay , opened a school in Henwick , Worcestershire . Relying on her fame as an author and her teaching experience in India , Sherwood also decided to establish a boarding school for girls in Wick ; it remained in operation for eight years . She taught English , French , astronomy , history , geography , grammar , writing and arithmetic . At the same time , she wrote hundreds of tracts , novels and other works for children and the poor , increasing her popularity in both the United States and Britain . The History of Henry Milner ( 1822 ) was one of Sherwood 's most successful books ; children sent her fan mail , begging her to write a sequel — one sent her " ornamental pens " with which to do so . Babies were named after the hero . Sherwood published much of what she wrote in The Youth 's Magazine , a children 's periodical that she edited for over two decades . By the 1830s , the Sherwoods had become more prosperous and the family decided to travel to the continent . The texts that Sherwood wrote following this trip reflect her exposure to French culture in particular . She also embarked on a large and complex Old Testament project at this time , for which she learned Hebrew . To assist her , her husband assembled , over the course of ten years , a large Hebrew @-@ English concordance . Unfortunately , Sherwood 's autobiography provides scant details regarding the last forty @-@ odd years of her life . However , we do know that even in her seventies , Sherwood wrote for four or five hours a day ; many of these books were co @-@ authored with Sherwood 's daughter , Sophia . According to M. Nancy Cutt , a Sherwood scholar , this joint authorship led to a " watery sentimentality " not evident in Sherwood 's earlier works as well as a greater emphasis on issues of class . In 1849 , the Sherwoods moved to Twickenham , Middlesex , and in December of that year Captain Sherwood died . Sherwood herself died almost two years later on 20 September 1851 . = = Literary analysis = = Sherwood scholar M. Nancy Cutt has argued that Sherwood 's career can be usefully divided into three periods : ( 1 ) her romantic period ( 1795 – 1805 ) , during which she wrote a few sentimental novels ; ( 2 ) her evangelical period ( 1810 – c . 1830 ) , during which she produced her most popular and influential works ; and ( 3 ) her post @-@ evangelical period ( c . 1830 – 1851 ) . Several underlying themes pervade most of Sherwood 's works throughout these periods : " her conviction of inherent human corruption " ; her belief that literature " had a catechetical utility " for every rank of society ; her belief that " the dynamics of family life " should reflect central Christian principles ; and her " virulent " anti @-@ Catholicism . = = = Early writings : sentimental novels = = = Sherwood 's earliest works are the sentimental novels Traditions ( 1795 ) and Margarita ( 1795 ) ; although both are more worldly than her later works , neither received much recognition . By contrast , The History of Susan Gray , which was written for the girls of her Sunday school class in Bridgnorth , made Sherwood a famous author . Like Hannah More 's tracts , the novel is designed to teach middle @-@ class morality to the poor . This novel — which Patricia Demers , a children 's literature scholar , describes as a " purified Pamela " — tells the story of Susan , an orphaned servant girl , who " resists the advances of a philandering soldier ; though trembling with emotion at the man 's declaration of love and promise of marriage . " The reader is regularly reminded of the " wages of sin " since Susan 's story is told from her deathbed . A separate narrator , seemingly Sherwood , often interrupts the tale to warn readers against particular actions , such as becoming a " bad woman . " Despite a didactic tone that is often distasteful to modern readers , Susan Gray was so popular at the time of its release that it was pirated by multiple publishers . In 1816 , Sherwood published a revised and " improved " version , which Sarah Trimmer positively reviewed in The Guardian of Education . Sherwood wrote a companion story , The History of Lucy Clare , which was published in 1810 . = = = French literary influences = = = Although Sherwood disagreed with the principles espoused by French revolutionaries , her own works are modeled on French children 's literature , much of which is infused with Rousseauvian ideals . For example , in The History of Henry Milner , Part I ( 1822 ) and The History of the Fairchild Family , Part I ( 1818 ) Sherwood adopts Arnaud Berquin 's " habitual pattern of small domestic situations acted out by children under the eye of parents or fellows . " Likewise , The Lady of the Manor ( 1823 – 29 ) shares similar themes and structures with Madame de Genlis ' Tales of the Castle ( 1785 ) . David Hanson , a scholar of nineteenth @-@ century literature , has questioned this interpretation , however , arguing that the tales told by the maternal figure in The Lady of the Manor demonstrate a " distrust of parents , " and of mothers in particular , because they illustrate the folly of overly permissive parenting . In these inset stories , only outsiders discipline children correctly . One of Sherwood 's aims in her evangelically themed The History of Henry Milner ( 1822 – 37 ) was to challenge what she saw as the irreligion inherent in French pedagogy . Henry Milner was written in direct response to Thomas Day 's The History of Sandford and Merton ( 1783 – 89 ) , a novel founded on the philosophy of Rousseau ( whose writings Sherwood had lambasted as " the well @-@ spring of infidelity " ) . Nevertheless , as children 's literature scholar Janis Dawson points out , the structure and emphasis of Henry greatly resemble Rousseau 's own Emile ( 1762 ) : their pedagogies are very similar , even if their underlying assumptions about childhood are diametrically opposed . Both books isolate the child in order to encourage him to learn from the natural world , but Sherwood 's Henry is naturally depraved while Rousseau 's Emile is naturally good . As the series progressed , however , Sherwood 's views of religion changed ( she became a universalist ) , causing her to place greater emphasis on childhood innocence in the later volumes . = = = Evangelicalism = = = The strongest themes in Sherwood 's early evangelical writings are the need to recognize one 's innate " depravity " and the need to prepare oneself for eternity . For Sherwood , the most important lessons emphasize " faith , resignation , and implicit obedience to the will of God . " In her adaptation of John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress ( 1678 ) — The Infant 's Progress ( 1821 ) — she represents original sin as a child named " In @-@ bred Sin " who tempts the young pilgrims on their way to the Celestial City ( Heaven ) and it is these battles with In @-@ bred Sin that constitute the major conflict of the text . The allegory is complex and , as Demers admits , " tedious " for even the " willing reader . " Thus , " some young readers may have found [ In @-@ bred Sin 's ] activities more interesting than the spiritual struggles of the little heroes , reading the book as an adventure story rather than as a guide to salvation . " Such religious allegory , although not always so overt , continued to be a favorite literary device of Sherwood 's . Sherwood also infused her works with political and social messages dear to evangelicals during the teens and twenties , such as the crucial role of missions , the value of charity , the evils of slavery and the necessity of Sabbath observance . She wrote Biblically based introductions to astronomy and ancient history so that children would have Christian textbooks . As Cutt argues , " the intent of these ( as indeed of all Evangelical texts ) was to offset the deistic tendency to consider knowledge an end in itself . " Sherwood also revised classic children 's books to make them appropriately religious , such as Sarah Fielding 's The Governess ( 1749 ) . Sherwood 's efforts to make religion more palatable through children 's fiction were not always regarded favorably by the entire evangelical community ; The Evangelical Magazine harshly reviewed her Stories Explanatory of the Church Catechism ( 1817 ) , complaining that it was overly reliant on exciting fictional tales to convey its religious message . = = = = The History of the Fairchild Family ( 1818 – 1847 ) = = = = As Cutt argues , " the great overriding metaphor of all [ Sherwood 's ] work is the representation of divine order by the harmonious family relationship ( inevitably set in its own pastoral Eden ) . . . No writer made it clearer to her readers that the child who is dutiful within his family is blessed in the sight of God ; or stressed more firmly that family bonds are but the earthly and visible end of a spiritual bond running up to the very throne of God . " Demers has referred to this " consciously double vision " as the quintessentially Romantic element of Sherwood 's writing . Nowhere is this theme more evident than in Sherwood 's The History of the Fairchild Family , the first part of which was published in 1818 . Of all of Sherwood 's evangelically themed books , The History of the Fairchild Family was the most popular . When she published it with John Hatchard of Piccadilly , she assured it and the ten other books she published with him a " social distinction " not attached to her other publications . The Fairchild Family tells the story of a family striving towards godliness and consists of a series of lessons taught by the Fairchild parents to their three children ( Emily , Lucy and Henry ) regarding not only the proper orientation of their souls towards Heaven but also the right earthly morality ( envy , greed , lying , disobedience , and fighting are immoral ) . The overarching narrative of the tale also includes a series of tract @-@ like stories which illustrate these moral lessons . For example , stories of the deaths of two neighborhood children , Charles Trueman and Miss Augusta Noble , help the Fairchild children to understand how and why they need to look to the state of their own hearts . The faithful and " true " Charles has a transcendent deathbed experience , suggesting that he was saved ; by contrast , the heedless and disobedient Augusta burns up while playing with candles and is presumably damned . Unlike previous allegorical literature with these themes , such as Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress , Sherwood domesticated her story — actions in the children 's day @-@ to @-@ day lives , such as stealing fruit , are of supreme importance because they relate directly to their salvation . Each chapter also includes prayers and hymns ( by Philip Doddridge , Isaac Watts , Charles Wesley , William Cowper and Ann and Jane Taylor , among others ) that are thematically linked to it . The Fairchild Family continued to be a bestseller ( remaining in print until 1913 ) despite the increasingly popular Wordsworthian image of childhood innocence . In fact , one scholar has even suggested that it " influenced Dickens 's depictions of Pip 's fears of the convict , the gibbet , and ' the horrible young man ' at the close of Chapter 1 " in Great Expectations ( 1860 – 61 ) . Children 's literature scholar Gillian Avery has argued that The Fairchild Family was " as much a part of English childhood as Alice was later to become . " Although the book was popular , some scraps of evidence have survived suggesting that readers did not always interpret it as Sherwood would have wanted . Lord Frederic Hamilton writes , for instance , that " there was plenty about eating and drinking ; one could always skip the prayers , and there were three or four very brightly written accounts of funerals in it . " Although The Fairchild Family has gained a reputation in the twentieth century as an oppressively didactic book , in the early nineteenth century it was viewed as delightfully realistic . Charlotte Yonge ( 1823 – 1901 ) , a critic who also wrote children 's literature , praised " the gusto with which [ Sherwood ] dwells on new dolls " and " the absolutely sensational naughtiness " of the children . Most twentieth @-@ century critics , including George Orwell , who called it " an evil book " , have condemned the book 's harshness , pointing to the Fairchilds ' moral @-@ filled visit to a gibbet with a rotting corpse swinging from it ; but Cutt and others argue that the positive depiction of the nuclear family in the text , particularly Sherwood 's emphasis on parents ' responsibility to educate their own children , was an important part of the book 's appeal . She argues that Sherwood 's " influence , " via books such as the Fairchild Family , " upon the domestic pattern of Victorian life can hardly be overestimated . " The Fairchild Family was so successful that Sherwood wrote two sequels , one in 1842 and one in 1847 . These reflected her changing values as well as those of the Victorian period . Significantly , the servants in Part I , " who are almost part of the family , are pushed aside in Part III by their gossiping , flattering counterparts in the fine manor @-@ house . " But the most extensive thematic change in the series was the disappearance of evangelicalism . Whereas all of the lessons in Part I highlight the children 's " human depravity " and encourage the reader to think in terms of the afterlife , in Parts II and III , other Victorian values such as " respectability " and filial obedience come to the fore . Dawson describes the difference in terms of parental indulgence ; in Parts II and III , the Fairchild parents employ softer disciplinary tactics than in Part I. = = = = Evangelical tract literature in the 1820s and 1830s = = = = During the 1820s and 1830s , Sherwood wrote a great many tracts for the poor ; like her novels for the middle class , they " taught the lessons of personal endurance , reliance on Providence , and acceptance of one 's earthly status . " Emphasizing individual experience and one 's personal relationship with God , they discouraged readers from attributing their successes or failures to " larger economic and political forces . " In this , they resembled the Cheap Repository Tracts , many of which were written by Hannah More . As Linda Peterson , a scholar of nineteenth @-@ century women 's literature , argues , Sherwood 's tracts use a Biblical " interpretative frame " in order to highlight the fleetingness of earthly things . For example , in A Drive in the Coach through the Streets of London ( 1819 ) , Julia is granted the privilege of shopping with her mother only if she will " behave wisely in the streets " and " not give [ her ] mind to self @-@ pleasing . " Of course , she cannot keep this promise and she eagerly peeks in at every store window and begs her mother to buy her everything she sees . Her mother therefore allows her to select one item from every shop . Julia , ecstatic , chooses , among other things , blue satin boots , a penknife , and a new hat with flowers , until the pair reach the undertaker 's shop . There her mood droops considerably and she realizes the moral of the lesson , recited by her mother , as she picks out a coffin : " but she that liveth in pleasure is dead while she liveth " ( 1 Timothy 5 : 6 ) . = = = = Anti @-@ Catholicism in the 1830s = = = = Sherwood 's vigorous anti @-@ Catholicism appears most obviously in her works from the 1820s and 1830s . During the 1820s in Britain , Catholics were agitating for greater civil rights and it was at this time that Sherwood wrote her most sustained attacks against them . When the Catholic Emancipation Act was passed in 1829 , Sherwood and many like her were frightened of the influence that Catholics might gain in the government . Therefore , she wrote Victoria ( 1833 ) , The Nun ( 1833 ) and The Monk of Cimies ( 1834 ) in order to illustrate some of the dangers of Catholicism . The Monk narrates , in the first person , Edmund Etherington 's decision to renounce the Church of England and join the Catholic church . While a monk , he ridicules his fellow brothers , plans a murder and debauches a young woman . But evangelicals were not all in agreement on the issue of Catholic Emancipation and some were uncomfortable with these books ; one evangelical reviewer called The Monk of Cimies " unfair and unconvincing . " = = = Colonialism = = = While in India , Sherwood wrote a series of texts based on colonial life . Her most popular work , The History of Little Henry and his Bearer ( 1814 ) , tells the story of a young British boy who , on his deathbed , converts Boosy , the Indian man who has taken care of him throughout his childhood . The book was enormously successful ; it reached 37 editions by 1850 and was translated into French , German , Spanish , Hindustani , Chinese , and Sinhalese . Sherwood 's tale blends the realistic with the sentimental and introduces her readers to Hindustani words and descriptions of what she felt was authentic Indian life . As Cutt explains , " with this work , the obituary tract ( which invariably stressed conversion and a Christian death ) had assumed the colouring of romance . " Sherwood also wrote a companion story titled Little Lucy and her Dhaye ( 1825 ) that told a similar tale but from a little girl 's perspective . In The Indian Pilgrim ( 1818 ) Sherwood tried to adapt Pilgrim 's Progress for the Indian context ; the work focused on " the supposed depravity and pagan idolatry of Brahmans , fakirs , nautch ( dance ) girls , and soldiers ' temporary wives . " This text demonstrates Sherwood 's religious biases : " Muslims and Jews receive better treatment than Hindus because of their belief in one God , but Roman Catholics fare little better than the Hindu idolaters . " The Indian Pilgrim , although never published in India , was popular in Britain and America . Sherwood also wrote texts for Indian servants of British families in the style of British writings for the poor . One of these was The Ayah and Lady ( 1813 ) in which the ayah , or maid , is " portrayed as sly , selfish , lazy , and untrustworthy . Her employers are well aware of her faults , yet they tolerate her . " A more culturally sensitive and realistic portrayal of Indians appears in The Last Days of Boosy ( 1842 ) , a sequel to The History of Little Henry and his Bearer , in which the converted Boosy is cast out of his family and community because of his conversion to Christianity . Colonial themes were a constant thread in Sherwood 's texts ; The History of Henry Milner ( 1822 – 37 ) , its sequel John Marten ( 1844 ) , and The Indian Orphans ( 1839 ) all evince Sherwood 's interest in these topics . Her writings on India reveal her strong sense of European , if not specifically British , superiority ; India therefore appears in her works as a morally corrupt land in need of reformation . She wrote The History of George Desmond ( 1821 ) to warn young men of the dangers of emigrating to India . Sherwood 's books shaped the minds of several generations of young Britons . According to Cutt , Sherwood 's depictions of India were among the few available to young British readers ; such children " acquired a strong conviction of the rightness of missions , which , while it inculcated sincere concern for , and a genuine kindness towards an alien people for whom Britain was responsible , quite destroyed any latent respect for Indian tradition . " Cutt attributes the growing paternalism of nineteenth @-@ century British polices on India in part to the widespread popularity of Sherwood 's books . Using a postcolonial analysis , Nandini Bhattacharya emphasizes the complex relationship between Sherwood 's evangelicalism and her colonialism . She argues that Sherwood 's evangelical stories demonstrate the deep colonial " mistrust of feminized agency , " represented by a dying child in Little Henry and his Bearer . Henry " subvert [ s ] the colonialist 's fantasy of universal identity by generating a subaltern identity that mimics and explodes that fantasy . " But , ultimately , Bhattacharya argues , Sherwood creates neither a completely colonialist text nor a subaltern text ; the deaths of children such as Henry eliminate any possibility for an alternative consciousnesses to mature . = = = Later writings : Victorianism = = = By 1830 , Sherwood 's works had drifted away from evangelicalism and her novels and stories reflected more conventional Victorian plots and themes . For example , Gipsy Babes ( 1826 ) , perhaps inspired by Walter Scott 's Guy Mannering ( 1815 ) , emphasizes " human affections . " In 1835 , she published a Gothic novel for adolescents titled Shanty the Blacksmith ; it employs all the tropes of the genre — " lost heir , ruined castle , humble helpers and faithful retainer , sinister and mysterious gypsies , prisoner and plot " in what Cutt calls " a gripping " and " exciting tale . " In 1835 Sherwood published the novel Caroline Mordaunt ; it tells the story of a young woman forced to become a governess . Her parents die when she is young , but luckily her relatives pay to educate her so that she can earn her own living . The novel follows her progress from a flighty , discontented girl to a reliable , content woman ; she learns how to accommodate herself to the whims of the proud nobility , silly literati , and dogmatic evangelicals . She realizes that in her dependent position she must content herself with less than complete happiness . Once she recognizes this , though , she finds God and , in the last chapter , an ideal husband , thus granting her near complete happiness . Cutt suggests that Sherwood drew on the works of Jane Austen and Jane Taylor for a new " lively , humorous , and satirical strain " in works such as this . In both later works such as Caroline Mordaunt and her earlier evangelical texts , Sherwood participated in the Victorian project of prescribing gender roles ; while her later works outlined ever more stringent and narrow roles for each sex , her early works such as The Fairchild Family suggested such demarcations as well : Lucy and Emily learn to sew and keep house while Henry tends the garden and learns Latin . = = Legacy = = As Britain 's education system became more secularized in the second half of the nineteenth century , Sherwood 's evangelical books were used mainly to teach the poor and in Sunday schools . Hence her missionary stories were the most influential of all her works . According to Cutt , " these stories , which in themselves kept alive the missionary spirit and perpetuated that paternal attitude towards India that lasted into the [ twentieth century ] , were widely imitated " and " an unfortunate assumption of racial superiority was fostered by the over @-@ simplification of some of Mrs. Sherwood 's successors . " These books influenced Charlotte Maria Tucker ( " A.L.O.E. " ) and even perhaps Rudyard Kipling . In the United States , Sherwood 's early works were very popular and were republished well into the 1840s ; after that , a tradition of specifically American children 's literature began to develop with authors such as Louisa May Alcott . Sherwood was also instrumental in developing the ideology of the Victorian family . Cutt acknowledges that " the omniscient Victorian parent was not the creation of Mrs. Sherwood , but of the Victorians themselves ; nevertheless , by presenting the parent as God 's vicar in the family , she had planted and fostered the idea . " This in turn increased the value placed on childhood innocence . The prevalence of death in Sherwood 's early stories and her vivid portrayal of its worldly and otherworldly consequences have often caused twentieth @-@ century critics to deride her works . Nevertheless , Sherwood 's stories prepared the literary ground for writers such as Charles Kingsley and Charlotte Yonge . It has even been suggested that John Ruskin used Henry Milner as the basis for his imaginative autobiography Praeterita ( 1885 – 89 ) . Sherwood 's narrative experiments with a variety of genres allowed other writers to pursue innovative forms of children 's fiction . Furthermore , her imaginative use of tracts domesticated reformist literature and also encouraged radical writers such as Harriet Martineau to employ the same genre , if to opposite ends . Because of the popularity of Sherwood 's works and their impact on later writers , Janis Dawson writes : " though her books are no longer widely read , she is regarded as one of the most significant authors of children 's literature of the nineteenth century . " = = Selected works = = This is a list of some of Sherwood 's most important works . For a more complete list of her works that includes her many chapbooks and religious tracts , see the list of works by Mary Martha Sherwood . The History of Little Henry and his Bearer ( 1814 ) The History of Susan Gray ( 1815 ) ( revised ) Stories Explanatory of the Church Catechism ( 1817 ) The History of the Fairchild Family ( 1818 ) The Indian Pilgrim ( 1818 ) An Introduction to Geography ( 1818 ) The Governess , or The Little Female Academy ( 1820 ) The History of George Desmond ( 1821 ) The Infant 's Progress ( 1821 , 2nd edition ) The History of Henry Milner ( 1822 ) The History of Little Lucy and her Dhaye ( 1823 ) The Lady of the Manor ( 1823 – 29 ) The Monk of Cimies ( 1834 ) Caroline Mordaunt , or The Governess ( 1835 ) Shanty the Blacksmith ( 1835 ) The Last Days of Boosy , the Bearer of Little Henry ( 1842 ) The Youth 's Magazine ( 1822 – 48 ) – " This periodical . . . brought out tales , tracts , and articles by Mrs. Sherwood for over twenty @-@ five years ( signed at first M.M. , and after 1827 , M.M.S. ) The earlier tales were rapidly reprinted by Houlston , Darton , Melrose , Knight and Lacey and the R.T.S. [ Religious Tract Society ] , as well as by various American publishers . " The Works of Mrs. Sherwood by Harper & Bros. ( 1834 – 57 ) – most complete collected works = = = Online full @-@ text resources = = = Works by Mary Martha Sherwood at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Mary Martha Sherwood at Internet Archive History of the Fairchild Family Part I ( 1818 ) The Lady of the Manor ( 1823 – 29 ) Père la Chaise ( 1823 ) Arzoomund ( 1829 , 2nd edition ) The Indian Pilgrim ( 1858 edition ) The History of the Fairchild Family , Part III ( 1847 ) The Little Woodman and his Dog Cæsar and the Orphan Boy ( 1860 edition ) The History of Little Henry and his Bearer ( 1816 , 7th edition ) The Infant 's Progress ( 1821 , 2nd edition ) The History of Henry Milner Part IV ( 1837 ) Shanty the Blacksmith ( 1852 ) Roxobel , Vol . 1 ( 1831 ) The Orphans of Normandy ( 1828 , 2nd edition ) Emancipation ( 1829 ) The Lily of the Valley ( 1844 , 6th edition ) The Latter Days ( 1833 ) The Fairy Knoll ( 1848 ) The Little Momiere ( 1833 ) Katharine Seward ( 1837 , 3rd edition ) The Garland ( 1835 ) Jamie Gordon ( 1851 )
= Webster 's Brewery = Webster 's Brewery ( Samuel Webster & Sons Ltd ) , was founded in 1838 by Samuel Webster and operated at the Fountain Head Brewery in Halifax , West Riding of Yorkshire , England . Webster 's Green Label , a light mild , and Yorkshire Bitter gained national distribution after the company was taken over by Watney Mann in 1972 . Throughout the 1970s it was known for the advertising slogan : " Drives out the northern thirst " . The brewery was closed with the loss of 400 jobs in 1996 . The brand had suffered lower sales after marketing support was withdrawn following its acquisition by Courage Brewery in 1990 . After the brewery 's closure , Webster 's beers were initially brewed at the John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster before moving to the Thomas Hardy Brewery at Burtonwood in 2004 . Silvan Brands have owned the company since 2003 when they acquired it from Scottish & Newcastle . = = History = = = = = Origins : 1838 – 1900 = = = Samuel Webster ( 1813 – 1872 ) was born in Ovenden , a small village about 2 miles from Halifax town centre . He was the eldest of seven brothers born into a Congregationalist family of the 10 acre @-@ owning farmer James Webster . Webster acquired the small Fountain Head Brewery in Ovenden Wood in 1838 when he was 25 and opened an office in Union Cross Yard , Halifax . The company bought its first public house in 1845 . In 1860 he was joined in partnership by his three sons Isaac , George Henry and Samuel Green , and the firm began trading as Samuel Webster & Sons . Samuel Webster died in 1872 , leaving his sons to continue the business . The firm also imported and sold wines and cigars , in addition to its brewing concerns . By 1880 the company had 100 tied houses . In March 1890 Samuel Webster & Sons became a registered company with £ 175 @,@ 000 ( £ 17 @.@ 5 million in 2010 ) of capital and Isaac Webster , Samuel 's eldest son , its first chairman . In 1892 net profit was £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 million in 2010 ) . In 1896 the company took over H & T T Ormerod of Brighouse , West Yorkshire which could trace its origins back to 1760 . Isaac Webster died in 1899 , leaving an estate of £ 87 @,@ 454 ( £ 9 million ) . By 1900 the company 's office had moved to 57 Northgate , Halifax . = = = 20th @-@ century consolidation = = = The temperance movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , and emergency laws aimed at restricting drinking during the First World War created difficult trading conditions for brewers . In 1919 net profit was reported at £ 22 @,@ 325 ( £ 900 @,@ 000 at 2010 prices ) . Samuel Wentworth Webster , a director of the company and grandson of the founder , died in 1928 with a personalty of £ 45 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 @.@ 2 million in 2010 ) . In 1928 , one of the brewery 's most successful beers was launched ; Webster 's Green Label , a light mild ale . In 1929 the company 's entire stock of properties , land and brewery buildings was valued at £ 468 @,@ 833 ( £ 23 @.@ 2 million in 2010 ) . The company took over Joseph Stocks of Halifax in December 1932 , which could trace its origins back to 1790 . In 1957 , Webster 's took over the brewer , John Ainley & Sons of Huddersfield and Woodhead Brothers of Elland , near Halifax , a mineral water manufacturer . The company dray horses , used for local beer deliveries , were retired by the end of the 1950s . In 1961 Webster 's bought Daniel Fielding & Sons of Halifax , which added 19 public houses to their tied estate . The same year the company sought out partnership with the national brewer Watney Mann in order to benefit from the technical knowledge of the much larger company . In return Webster 's brewed and sold the brewery conditioned Watney 's Red Barrel ale throughout their tied estate . In 1962 , a reciprocal trading agreement was reached with Ind Coope 's North East division which saw Webster 's houses stock lager for the first time . That same year the group won the contract to bottle Tuborg for West Yorkshire . In September 1966 , a friendly takeover of the Bradford brewers J. Hey & Company Ltd added 73 public houses to their estate . Webster 's had a market value of £ 3 @.@ 3 million , and J. Hey had a value of £ 1 million . The combined group had assets of over £ 4 @.@ 5 million ( £ 65 million in 2010 prices ) . Webster 's continued to bottle Guinness under their Hey & Humphries subsidiary label into the late 1980s . Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s , consolidation , a good product and successful marketing made the company successful , according to The Times , with the social club trade accounted for around half of turnover . By 1967 Watney Mann owned 18 @.@ 4 per cent of the company , and Webster 's had a market capitalisation of £ 6 million ( £ 85 million in 2010 prices ) and owned 320 public houses and 12 off licences . Watney Mann had gradually increased their share to 27 @.@ 1 per cent by 1972 when it initiated a takeover of the rest of the company . Samuel Webster & Sons was offered £ 18 million for the 73 per cent of the company that Watney did not already own . The Watney Mann offer valued the entire company at almost £ 250 million in 2010 prices . The takeover was a friendly one , and dependent upon the agreement of the Webster family , who owned 20 per cent of the company . Watney Mann was motivated by an increase to their tied estate . Following the takeover , Webster 's continued as a regional subsidiary of the Watney Mann brewing empire , responsible for Yorkshire , Humberside , north Derbyshire and north Nottinghamshire . The takeover saw heavy investment in the brewery and the Webster 's brands enjoyed increased distribution nationally . That same year , Watney Mann itself was taken over by Grand Metropolitan . In 1979 , Webster 's employed a total of 1 @,@ 500 people across production , distribution and retailing . The early 1980s saw the " gradual transformation " of Webster 's into a national brand . In 1985 , Grand Met merged the Wilson Brewery of Manchester ( which Watney Mann had bought in 1960 ) with Webster 's to form Samuel Webster and Wilsons Ltd . In 1986 , Wilsons Brewery was closed down and production of Wilsons Original Bitter and Wilsons Mild was moved to Halifax . By 1988 Webster 's was supplying around 1000 pubs in the North of England , and as far afield as North Wales . Moving out of the brewing industry , Grand Met sold Webster 's to Courage in 1990 . By that year Webster 's had an annual revenue of around £ 100 million and claimed 7 per cent of the national bitter market . However Courage owned the higher selling John Smith 's ale brand , and Webster 's was deprioritised . The brands suffered further after the Scottish & Newcastle takeover of Courage , as S & N , with their own Theakstons brand , now owned three major bitter brands from Yorkshire alone . By 1996 Scotland on Sunday described the brand as " staid " and argued that it " never caught on outside its Yorkshire heartland . " By this time John Smith 's was outselling Webster 's three to one . Following the closure of the Fountain Head Brewery in 1996 , Webster 's beers were initially brewed at Scottish Courage 's John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster , but were subsequently moved to the Thomas Hardy Brewery at Burtonwood in 2004 . Scottish & Newcastle sold the Webster 's brands to Silvan Brands in 2003 . The chairman Brian Stewart defended the sale , claiming : " Webster 's was a brand that did not have a strong brand franchise . What has happened is that brands [ which ] consumers demand are still here " . In 2011 , H B Clark took over the distribution rights for the Webster 's brands in the north of England . The bitter is now simply known as Webster 's Bitter . In 2015 , Silvan Brands Ltd dissolved and the brand is believed no longer to be sold . = = Fountain Head Brewery = = The brewery site was chosen for its Pennine spring which provided the ready water supply necessary for brewing . The water was rich in magnesium sulphate which added bitterness to the beer and provided it with a dry finish . In 1873 the brewery was extended and redeveloped . In 1890 the brewery was linked to the Halifax High Level Railway network , which facilitated the brewery 's distribution . In 1900 the Château @-@ influenced maltings building was built as part of a £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 million in 2010 ) development project . By 1958 the company 's existing offices in Northgate , Halifax , were proving too small for the expanding company , and new offices were custom built on the Ovenden Wood site . The landmark maltings building was closed in 1960 as its 12 @,@ 000 stone ( 76 @,@ 000 kg ) per annum capacity proved insufficient for the brewery 's increasing needs , and the building was used for storage . In 1973 , Watney Mann commissioned a new brewhouse . In 1979 a new £ 6 million lager plant was started , initially brewing Holsten . By the early 1980s the brewery had beer production volumes of around 400 @,@ 000 barrels per annum and employed around 600 people . At this time , the brewery was described as " wonderfully traditional " by Roger Protz and had open fermentation vessels , mash tuns and copper brewing vessels . Production of Budweiser began in 1984 . Having previously been used for storage , in 1986 the historic Long Can Hall was converted to function as the brewery 's visitor 's centre . A £ 10 million expansion project was embarked upon at the brewery in 1988 . Construction of a new plant increased brewing capacity from 1 million to 1 @.@ 3 million barrels a year . In 1989 , the derelict former maltings building was converted into brewery offices in a £ 4 million project . Also , a new distribution depot was constructed in Elland . In 1990 , the Old Maltings was categorised as a Grade II listed building . By 1990 , most of the Fountain Head Brewery was dedicated to brewing Webster 's and Wilsons ales . The brewery 's bottling line was closed in 1991 , resulting in the loss of 54 jobs . At the time of the brewery 's closure in November 1996 , it employed 184 people on a ten hectare site . As well as Webster 's and Wilson 's beers , the brewery had been producing the lager brands Foster 's and Molson . The brewery had been running at " well below " 50 per cent of its 1 @.@ 3 million barrel capacity which was deemed " unsustainable " according to Scottish & Newcastle management . Although productivity per employee had been the highest of any of Scottish & Newcastle 's brewing plants it was claimed that it would have required substantial investment if it was to remain competitive . In 2004 , housing was built on the former brewery site . After a period of dormancy , the Old Maltings reopened as a children 's day nursery in 2007 , and a school and community centre was opened alongside the nursery in 2011 . The Maltings College sixth form opened at the site in 2013 . = = Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter = = Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter was launched in the summer of 1982 . Largely a cask product , by 1984 Grand Metropolitan had transformed Yorkshire Bitter into a " massive " national brand , available in the company 's 5 @,@ 000 tied houses and 15 @,@ 000 free houses . It was marketed as their response to the growing popularity of Yorkshire bitter in the south of England , particularly John Smith 's . Yorkshire Bitter was the highest selling off trade bitter by 1985 with 18 per cent of the market . It had become the fifth best selling bitter nationally by 1989 , helped by a competitive pricing policy , and was the highest selling bitter in London . The beer was not without its critics , with the 1990 Good Beer Guide describing it as " weak flavour [ ed ] , reminiscent of a poor quality home brew – worty , bland , cloying , with a dirty finish on the tongue " . In 1993 , Yorkshire Bitter was reduced from 3 @.@ 8 per cent to 3 @.@ 5 per cent ABV in order to save money on duty . When Scottish & Newcastle acquired the John Smith 's and Webster 's bitter brands as part of their takeover of Courage in 1995 , the lower selling Webster 's brands were deprioritised , and virtually all marketing support ceased . Roger Protz has described the brand as " almost redundant " and production of cask conditioned Webster 's beer was ended in 2010 . = = Advertising = = Webster 's Pennine Bitter was known for its slogan : " Drives out the northern thirst " , first used in 1970 and supported throughout the 1970s by a local television campaign featuring Yorkshire cricketer Fred Trueman . In the advertisements , Trueman would breathe fire after drinking his pint of Pennine Bitter and say " We like things right in Yorkshire – like our beer . Webster 's Pennine Bitter . Drives out the northern thirst " . The comedian Charlie Williams appeared in television advertisements for Yorkshire Bitter in 1984 – 85 . One of the Williams advertisements featured a cameo from Yorkshire cricketers Fred Trueman and Ray Illingworth . The Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter " Talking horses " campaign ran from 1986 until 1992 with the slogan " It 's right tasty is Webster 's " . Dray horses were used in the 1980s , but replaced by animatronic puppets in the 1990s . = = = Sponsorship = = = The company sponsored The Hallé orchestra to appear in Halifax to sell out audiences in 1966 and 1967 . In the summer of 1984 , Webster 's Yorkshire Bitter invested £ 100 @,@ 000 into English cricket , with the aim of finding six fast bowlers by winter . From 1986 to 1992 , Webster 's sponsored Bradford Northern RLFC rugby league team , and Halifax RLFC from 1992 to 1993 , Dinnington Colliery Band from 1987 to 1990 , the UK Open darts championship in 1989 and 1990 , and the World Matchplay darts tournament in 1995 and 1996 .
= Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception ( Hong Kong ) = The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception ( Chinese : 聖母無原罪主教座堂 ) is a late 19th @-@ century English Gothic revival church that serves as the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong . It is located in the Mid @-@ Levels area of the city at 16 Caine Road . Groundbreaking and construction of the cathedral began in 1883 after the previous cathedral , on Wellington Street , was destroyed by fire . Built from brick and stone , the new cathedral was designed by the London @-@ based architectural firm Crawley and Company . The church opened on 7 December 1888 , the day before the Feast of the Immaculate Conception , and was consecrated in 1938 . Three years later , it was damaged during the Battle of Hong Kong , but remained untouched throughout the subsequent Japanese occupation of Hong Kong . At the turn of the century , the cathedral underwent an extensive and costly program of refurbishment , which was completed in 2002 . The cathedral is listed as a Grade I historic building by the Government of Hong Kong . = = History = = = = = Original structure ( 1843 – 1859 ) = = = After the First Opium War , Hong Kong was ceded to the British in the Treaty of Nanking and the colony soon became a popular stopover for missionaries travelling onwards to China . The parish was established in 1842 by Theodore Joset , the first Prefect Apostolic of Hong Kong , and work began on a new and permanent church soon afterwards . The new church was located at the junction of Pottinger Street and Wellington Street . Construction was completed in 1843 . Within the next few years , the number of Catholics in the parish grew significantly , partly due to the emigration of people from neighbouring Macau . The Portuguese colony was in gradual decline , and many people who resided there sought better opportunities in the young and prospering colony of Hong Kong . In 1859 , just sixteen years after it was built , the church was destroyed by fire . This was not uncommon , however , as devastating fires frequently plagued the developing colony , and a new cathedral was quickly built on the same site . It featured iconic twin steeples at its facade . However , the Victoria Harbour waterfront district where the church was situated became more overcrowded with the rapid growth of Hong Kong at the time , and it became apparent that a permanent and larger cathedral was necessary . As a result , plans were made for a new church on a more elevated ground in Mid @-@ Levels , located close to the Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens . The original site was redeveloped as a commercial and residential area . A small park along Lok Hing Lane is located nearby . = = = Present @-@ day cathedral = = = A new site for the cathedral was selected above Caine Road by the Glenealy Ravine and the cornerstone of the new church was laid on 8 December 1883 . Crawley and Company of London were hired to be the architects and five years later , construction was completed . The church opened on 7 December 1888 , the vigil of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception , and was blessed one day later . The construction of the cathedral cost US $ 15 @,@ 400 , and since a Catholic church can only be consecrated once it has become free from debt , the cathedral did not have its rite of consecration held until 8 December 1938 , exactly fifty years after it first opened . The ceremony was officiated by the Vicar Apostolic of Hong Kong Enrico Valtorta , the Bishop of Macau José da Costa Nunes and the Bishop Emeritus of Canton ; three of the cathedral 's altars were also consecrated . During the Second World War , the cathedral suffered damage on its anniversary in 1941 , when a Japanese shell was dropped onto it during the Battle of Hong Kong . However , it survived the war relatively unscathed due to a decree made a century before . When the mission in Hong Kong was first established in 1841 , Pope Pius IX ruled that , although the colony was under British rule , the Prefecture Apostolic should remain under the administration of the Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions ( PIME ) , a missionary society from Italy . As a result , the Japanese treated the cathedral as being under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Italy , with whom they were not at war . Because of this , the cathedral was spared from being ransacked and plundered by the occupying forces and its archives were preserved better than other churches throughout Hong Kong , having been left " relatively unscathed . " After the conclusion of the war , the cathedral underwent a series of renovations . The roof — which was previously made of timber — was replaced with a concrete one in 1952 due to damage from termites . The reordering of the sanctuary took place in 1969 after the Second Vatican Council , in which the main altar was moved to the cathedral 's crossing . In 1988 , air conditioning was installed and the roof underwent reparation . Significant leaks in the roof were reported in 1997 and a massive restoration project took place . This entailed fixing the roof , repainting the walls and the niche housing the statue of the Immaculate Conception , replacing tiles , enhancing the lighting and sound system and installing new stained glass windows in the Chapel of Our Lord 's Passion , which was rededicated to the Chinese Martyrs . The renovation was completed on 8 December 2002 and cost a total of US $ 1 @.@ 1 million . The project 's success in preserving the building 's heritage resulted in the cathedral being given an honourable mention at the 2003 UNESCO Asia Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture Heritage Conservation and presented with the award on its anniversary in 2003 . The cathedral holds a Red Mass every other year for the Judiciary of Hong Kong , alternating with St. John 's Cathedral in hosting the annual opening of the Assizes . = = Architecture = = = = = Interior = = = The cathedral , built in an English Gothic style , is cruciform in the shape of the Latin cross . The exterior walls of the church were built from brick and stone , while its base and columns were made of granite . Its dimensions are 82 m ( 269 ft ) long , 40 m ( 131 ft ) wide and 23 @.@ 7 m ( 78 ft ) tall , with the tower at the centre rising to 33 @.@ 7 m ( 111 ft ) . = = = Altar of St. Joseph = = = Located to the right of the main altar and sanctuary is the side altar of St. Joseph . It was given to the cathedral by King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and the donation was facilitated by Joseph Mary Sala , an expatriate living in Hong Kong who was from the nobility of Italy . It is adorned by the royal coat of arms of the House of Savoy ; this conspicuous symbol of Italy was said to have helped the cathedral identify itself as Italian rather than British , and thus , remain untouched throughout the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong , as the Kingdom of Italy and Empire of Japan were both signatories to the Tripartite Pact . = = = Altar of the Sacred Heart = = = Located to the left of the main altar is the side altar of the Sacred Heart . It was previously used as the high altar of the original cathedral at Wellington Street . It now houses the Blessed Sacrament — serving as the cathedral 's main tabernacle after the removal of the high altar in 1969 — and is reserved for Eucharistic adoration . = = = Chapel of Our Lord 's Passion = = = Located to the right of the cathedral 's sacristy is the side chapel of Our Lord 's Passion . Given by J.J. Braga , a parishioner from Portugal , it was rededicated to the Chinese Martyrs after the 1997 – 2002 renovation . The chapel was chosen out of the four to commemorate the then @-@ newly canonised saints because it was the most thematically similar , in that the martyrs gave up their lives for the faith , emulating Jesus ' sacrifice to save mankind . New stained glass windows were installed depicting the saints . = = = Crypt = = = A crypt was constructed beneath the former Chapel of St. Anthony in 2009 to house the remains of former Bishops of Hong Kong . This consists of two Vicar Apostolics , Timoleon Raimondi and Dominic Pozzoni , and all five deceased bishops — Enrico Valtorta , Lorenzo Bianchi , Francis Hsu , Peter Lei and John Wu . Bianchi 's remains were interred later than the others due to the fact that he was buried in Milan . Thus , the diocese had to apply for permission to allow for some of his remains to be transported back to Hong Kong ; the request was eventually granted . The inspiration for the crypt came from the design of a traditional Chinese family house , which would contain the remains of ancestors . The Bishop at the time , Joseph Cardinal Zen , felt that the crypt would be a " symbolic move to inherit the teachings of previous generations in order to inspire future ones . " Because the cathedral is a Grade I historic building , prior approval had to be obtained from the Buildings Department before any construction work could be carried out . = = Treasures = = = = = Relics of the Chinese Martyrs = = = Shortly after the canonisation of the 120 Chinese Martyrs on 1 October 2000 , the relics of sixteen of them were placed at the Chapel of Our Lord 's Passion . They are stored in a relic box — designed locally by Sister Paola Yue — that is situated at the foot of the side altar . = = = Relic of Pope John Paul II = = = In November 2011 , a lock of John Paul II 's hair was brought to the cathedral after the Holy See granted the Diocese of Hong Kong a relic from the late pontiff . The diocese had earlier requested this , since they felt this would symbolically accomplish the Pope 's longtime dream of visiting China . He had constantly stated his intent of visiting the country , but never did so due to the longstanding tensions and strained relations between China and the Holy See . Bishop John Tong Hon expressed his hope that the relic would be able to venerated by the Mainland Chinese faithful who visited Hong Kong , the only city on Chinese soil and the first city in Asia to house a relic of John Paul II . It is currently displayed in the same chapel as the bishops ' crypt .
= Aransas Bay = Aransas Bay is a bay on the Texas gulf coast , approximately 30 miles ( 48 km ) northeast of Corpus Christi , and 173 miles ( 278 km ) south of San Antonio . It is separated from the Gulf of Mexico by San José Island ( also referred to as St. Joseph Island ) . Aransas Pass is the most direct navigable outlet into the Gulf of Mexico from the bay . The cities of Aransas Pass and Port Aransas are located at the southern end , and Rockport is found on the central western shore . The bay is oriented laterally northeast @-@ southwest , and is extended by Redfish Bay to the southwest , Copano Bay to the west , Saint Charles Bay to the north , and Mesquite Bay to the northeast . Aransas Bay is part of the Mission @-@ Aransas National Estuarine Research Reserve . There is a rich history of settlements on the bay , including : ancient Native American campgrounds dating back millennia ; 19th @-@ century European immigrant towns such as Lamar and Aransas ; and the present day cities of Rockport , Fulton and Aransas Pass . Resources such as shrimp , fish , oysters and oil are found in or near the bay , and contribute to the local economies . = = History = = Humans first inhabited the area surrounding Aransas Bay approximately 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 years ago . The name derives from a group of indigenous people called the Aransas Indians , whose 4 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old campsites have been found near the bay . The nomadic Aransas , left the area circa 1200 to 1300 CE . According to archeologists , the Karankawa and Coahuiltecan had coalesced as people and migrated into the area by 1400 . They had severe losses and were much reduced by the 1800s due to new infectious diseases contracted from European explorers . Alonso Álvarez de Pineda of Spain is believed to be the first European to sail the bay , circa 1519 . For over a century later , the Spanish had little interest in the area until the French established a colony in Texas in the late 17th century . At this time , Alonso De León was ordered to found a settlement in the area , but no permanent colony on the bay was ever established . During the years of Mexican control , the bay was put off limits to settlement by the authorities . An empresario granted in 1828 allowed Irish and Mexican immigration . In 1832 , the settlement of Aransas City on the bay , was founded by James Power . After the development of the nearby port Lamar in 1840 , Aransas City was deserted by 1846 . But Lamar soon met a similar fate , after being burnt to the ground during the American Civil War . The city of Aransas , which was founded on San Jose Island around the same time as Lamar , was also destroyed in the fighting . During the war , the bay was a strategically significant waterway for the transfer of freight , due to its protection from Gulf seas by barrier islands . As a result of the destruction from the war , the new ports of Fulton and Rockport were developed in the later 1860s . At first , Rockport was intended as a deep @-@ water port , but after a series of mishaps , Aransas Pass was selected when deepening was approved in 1879 . By 1912 , a 100 feet wide and 8 ½ feet deep channel was operational . After hurricanes ransacked the port in 1916 and 1919 , the United States Army Corps of Engineers chose Corpus Christi as the preferred deepwater port for the lower Gulf coast . Later twentieth @-@ century development has been based on the area 's natural beauty . In the 1960s , the affluent resort of Key Allegro , located between Rockport and Fulton , was founded . By 2000 , 24 @,@ 615 people lived in the surrounding Aransas County , including the cities of Rockport , Fulton , Aransas Pass and the unincorporated Key Allegro , Holiday Beach and Estes . The outer Refugio County located on the shore of Copano Bay , had 7 @,@ 828 residents . = = Features = = On average , the Aransas Bay system is 3 meters deep , and covers approximately 539 square kilometers . The system is made up of the bay itself and its extensions . The main extensions include : Saint Charles Bay , to the east of the Lamar peninsula ; Copano Bay , to the west of both the Live Oak and Lamar peninsulas , Mesquite Bay to the bay 's northeast , and Redfish Bay to the southwest . Redfish Bay is sometimes considered an extension of Corpus Christi Bay . Every second , approximately 28 cubed meters of water flows into the bay . The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Cedar Bayou and Aransas Pass . As a result of the seawater exchange , the bay 's salinity is 15 parts per thousand , compared to the seawater average of 35 ppt . This discrepancy is brought about by the volume of fresh water that empties into the bay and its extensions , from Copano Creek , Mission River and Aransas River , forming the Mission @-@ Aransas estuary . Fresh water flows also arrive from the impact of the Guadalupe River on San Antonio Bay . Combined , the fresh water influence is 60 to 70 percent of the system 's volume , which is judged to be minimal . Texas State Highway 35 runs parallel to the shore of Aransas Bay on its route from Corpus Christi to Houston . The highway includes the 1 @.@ 5 mile long Copano Bay causeway , which connects the Live Oak and Lamar peninsulas at the confluence of Copano and Aransas Bays . The first causeway was constructed in 1933 , but was replaced in 1966 with the Lyndon Baines Johnson causeway . The former causeway was transformed into a fishing pier in later years . In 1981 , nearly 10 @,@ 000 vehicles passed over the bridge on a daily basis . = = Ecosystem = = A wide variety of wildlife can be found in and around Aransas Bay . According to Texas Parks and Wildlife , the following fish have been caught in the bay : catfish , black drum , red drum , eel , southern flounder , crevalle jack , yellowtail amberjack , ladyfish , silver perch , pigfish , pinfish , sea trout , blacktip shark , bull shark , sheepshead , mangrove snapper , common snook and toadfish . Shrimp , Oysters and crabs also reside in the waters . The sea grass carpets found at numerous locations , provide a habitat and an ideal place for fish to spawn . The grasses also act as a filter , clearing the bay of environmental contaminants . Many birds migrate to the area around Aransas Bay , most notably to the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge . Year @-@ round residents include least grebe , brown pelican , neotropic cormorant , white @-@ faced ibis , roseate spoonbill , black @-@ bellied whistling @-@ duck , mottled duck , white @-@ tailed hawk , crested caracara , pauraque , golden @-@ fronted woodpecker , great kiskadee , green jay , long @-@ billed thrasher , olive sparrow , seaside sparrow , and bronzed cowbird . The endangered whooping crane has also been spotted near the bay . Despite the fact that there were only 15 in 1900 , over 180 are found in the wild today . The whooping crane 's and other birds ' survival depends on the availability of blue crab . Thousands of crab traps have been removed to preserve the population . = = Industry = = Given the location of Aransas bay , shipping has always been a major industry . Following the Civil War , the meatpacking industry became a major source of income for ports on the bay , especially Rockport and Fulton , where numerous slaughterhouses were constructed . In the early years of meatpacking , cattle were slaughtered strictly for their hide since there was no way to refrigerate the meat . As a result , most of the left over cow parts not used as pig feed , were disposed in the bay . This changed in 1871 , when an ice machine was installed in a packing plant . By this time , the meatpacking industry near Aransas Bay reached its prime . Prior to the decline of the industry in the area , in 1880 , 93 % of the beef from Texas slaughterhouses were processed in Rockport @-@ Fulton . Along with fishing , oyster farming and most notably shrimping became major industries on the bay in the early 20th century . Shipbuilding also developed and reached its prime following the first World War . During World War II , the United States Navy took over several shipyards . In 1936 , oil was discovered on the bay . By 1946 , 13 wells were in operation . In 1990 , 498 @,@ 703 barrels were produced , part of the 77 million barrels produced between 1936 and 1990 . Today , tourism is a prosperous industry . Numerous hotels are set up along the bay for individuals wanting to fish , bird or sight @-@ see . A large concentration of hotels are located in Rockport , where the bay 's only beach ( Rockport Beach ) is located .
= East Washington Avenue Bridge = The East Washington Avenue Bridge refers to the bridges that have connected East Washington Avenue over the Pequonnock River in Bridgeport , Connecticut . Records state that a bridge was first constructed on the site in 1836 , but no description of the bridge has been found . The second bridge was a truss swing design and underwent heavy repair and modernization in 1893 . The third design was a movable Strauss underneath @-@ counter weight deck @-@ girder bascule bridge . The plans were drafted by James A. McElroy , using Joseph B. Strauss 's design in 1916 . However , construction was delayed for years because of a dispute with the contractor and a lack of funds . The bridge was completed by Bridgeport Dry Dock and Dredging when the State of Connecticut appropriated $ 350 @,@ 000 to erect the bridge . Completed in 1925 , the bridge underwent several modifications throughout its service life . On July 26 , 1983 , the bridge was closed after it was found to be in danger of collapse . It reopened after repair , but was closed in the 1990s before being replaced with a modern bascule bridge in 1998 . In 2010 , the report listed the deck and superstructure conditions as " Good " and the substructure condition as " Satisfactory " . = = Original bridge = = The East Washington Avenue Bridge serves an area that was previously known as Pembroke , the name stemming from the 1650s , that grew to become a prosperous agricultural community . East of Pembroke was the village of Newfield , which was chartered as the borough of Bridgeport in 1800 . In 1821 , it became the township of Bridgeport before being chartered as a city in 1836 . The need for the bridge arose when Reverend Birdsey Noble purchased 50 acres from Senator Wright ; with the intention of selling housing lots . The location of the bridge was originally planned to be one quarter of a mile to the south , but it was changed through public opposition , and a toll bridge was constructed in 1836 . The description of this bridge and details of its service life and replacement have not been found in records . = = Second bridge = = The design of the second East Washington Avenue Bridge is unknown , but the survey in 1916 for its replacement documented a cantilever through truss swing that was 184 ft ( 56 m ) long . The bridge was heavily repaired and remodeled in 1893 , around this same period a trolley line was added . Two decades later , the bridge needed to be replaced and restrictions were made to extend the service life of the bridge , with trolleys , then heavy trucks being banned . The bridge 's service life ended in 1917 with its closure . = = Third bridge = = The City of Bridgeport appointed a bridge commission to replace the aging East Washington Avenue Bridge on December 7 , 1915 . The commission chose a Joseph B. Strauss 's patented design from the Strauss Bascule Bridge Company of Chicago , Illinois . The city engineer James A. McElroy drew up the plans for the bridge 's specifications and the plans were completed on February 17 , 1916 . The steel for the construction was ordered from the Penn Bridge Company . The project was suspended because of a dispute with the contractor and a lack of funds to erect the bridge , but in 1923 the State of Connecticut appropriated $ 350 @,@ 000 to complete the project . Only two bids for the bridge 's erection were placed , the first by Bridgeport Dry Dock and Dredging for $ 326 @,@ 575 and the second by C. W. Blakeslee and Sons for $ 389 @,@ 492 with estimations varying based on extra work needed . Bridgeport Dry Dock and Dredging won the contract and the materials were shipped to Bridgeport , with work beginning mid @-@ 1924 . The completed bridge included an operator 's house and a public toilet building . The bridge , costing over $ 550 @,@ 000 in total , was turned over to the city on October 14 , 1925 . = = = Service life = = = The original bascule deck of creosote @-@ impregnated yellow pine and the spruce plank sidewalks were replaced with concrete in the early 1940s . In 1960 , the original fender system was replaced . In June 1968 , the ornamental lamps were replaced with modern street lights . A 1979 inspection of the bridge found it listed in " poor condition " and recommended repairs totaling $ 820 @,@ 000 to be completed by 1985 . A 1980 report by the Connecticut Department of Transportation listed the East Washington Avenue bridge as 1 of the 127 bridges in " poor condition " ; requiring " immediate " repair . The report defines " poor condition " as serviceable and not in danger of collapse . The Hartford Courant states that the 1979 report went unnoticed for four years and another inspection was carried out in 1982 ; also listing the bridge in " poor condition " . After the Mianus River Bridge collapsed on June 29 , 1983 , a state @-@ wide assessment of bridges began . An engineering firm , Flaherty and Giavara , reported that a critical beam had nearly rusted through , prompting the bridge 's closure . Bridgeport 's mayor Leonard S. Paoletta said " the bridge could [ collapse ] at any moment . " The bridge was closed on July 26 , 1983 , around 3 p.m. Eastern Standard Time as a response to Flaherty and Giavara 's report . Repairs were completed and the bridge was reopened on August 10 , 1983 . The repairs billed at $ 5 @,@ 000 were a temporary solution and the bridge was slated to close in February 1984 when $ 1 @.@ 5 million in funds were unavailable . = = Current bridge = = The bridge was closed in the 1990s and a replacement bridge was required . In 1998 , the demolition and construction of a modern bascule bridge replaced the previous East Washington Avenue Bridge . The railings were upgraded and the original operator 's house and connected toilet @-@ building were restored . In 2010 , the current state of the bridge listed the deck and superstructure conditions as " Good " and the substructure condition as " Satisfactory " . In 2013 , the East Washington Avenue Bridge was described by officials as rarely opening to accommodate marine traffic .
= No Debes Jugar = " No Debes Jugar " ( English : " You Shouldn 't Play Around " ) is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her first live album Live ! ( 1993 ) . It was composed by Selena y Los Dinos keyboardist Ricky Vela and Selena 's brother and principal record producer A.B. Quintanilla III . The song was produced by Quintanilla III and Argentine music producer Bebu Silvetti . " No Debes Jugar " was released as the lead single from Live ! . It peaked at number 3 on the US Hot Latin Tracks on the week ending 14 August 1993 . On the week ending 9 April 2011 , " No Debes Jugar " entered the Regional Mexican Digital Songs chart . Lyrically the song describes a woman whose life is centered on being unappreciated by her boyfriend . She finally stands up for herself announcing that she is done playing around and threatens to leave . The central theme explored on the song suggests women empowerment in its lyrical content . " No Debes Jugar " is an uptempo Mexican cumbia song with influences of Rock en Español . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics who praised its originality and mixing of music genres . " No Debes Jugar " received a " Song of the Year " nomination from the 1994 Tejano Music Awards and the 1994 Lo Nuestro Awards . The song has been covered by Mexican American singer Jennifer Peña , Puerto Rican salsa singer La India , Mexican contestant Érika Alcocer Luna , and Mexican band Banda El Grullo . = = Background and composition = = " No Debes Jugar " was written by Selena y Los Dinos keyboardist Ricky Vela and Selena 's brother , principle record producer and songwriter A.B. Quintanilla III . It was produced by Quintanilla III and Argentine music producer Bebu Silvetti . The song was intended to be one of three studio tracks for Selena 's Live ! ( 1993 ) album . Vela had written most of the lyrics while touring with Los Dinos in the 1992 @-@ 93 period . Quintanilla III later co @-@ wrote the song after Vela finished the lyrics . Quintanilla III only made a few adjustments to the song and began adding music notes for pre @-@ production . " No Debes Jugar " was recorded in Corpus Christi , Texas at Selena 's father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ' s recording studio Q @-@ Productions . After recording sessions were done , EMI Latin argued that the song should be the lead single from Live ! . Before the album was released , the song was mixed by Brian " Red " Moore , a family friend . " No Debes Jugar " is an uptempo Mexican cumbia song with influences of Rock en Español . Written in the key of E @-@ flat major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 89 beats per minute . It centers the organ as its musical instrument foundation . Ramiro Burr of the Houston Chronicle stated that Selena blended Mexican polka rhythms with melodic , synth @-@ driven pop hooks in " No Debes Jugar " and " La Llamada " . Lyrically , the song describes a woman whose life is centered on being unappreciated by her boyfriend . She finally stands up for herself announcing that she is done playing around and threatens to leave . The central theme explored on the song suggests women empowerment . = = Critical reception and covers = = Jim Beal Jr. of the San Antonio Express @-@ News wrote that " No Debes Jugar " " outshines " the rest of the songs on Live ! including the two other studio tracks . An editor from the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram praised Selena 's usage of different genres when recording " No Debes Jugar " , which the editor believed helped the song to be distinguished when played on radio . Sally Jacobs of the Boston Globe noted the originality of " No Debes Jugar " as being Selena 's trademark . Jacobs also believed that it is one of her cumbia signature songs and most popular cumbia song . " No Debes Jugar " received a " Song of the Year " nomination at the 1994 Tejano Music Awards , and " Regional Mexican Song of the Year " at the 1994 Lo Nuestro Awards Awards . It was among the " Top 10 Spanish Hits of 1993 " according to the Orlando Sentinel . According to the Austin American @-@ Statesman , " No Debes Jugar " was the best Tejano single of 1993 . Mexican American Latin pop artist Jennifer Peña covered " No Debes Jugar " when she was 12 at the Jim Wells County Fair in Corpus Christi , Texas . Puerto Rican salsa singer La India covered the song during the Selena ¡ VIVE ! concert . Michael Clark of the Houston Chronicle wrote that " India belted effortless notes that wafted to the rafters on " No Debes Jugar " " . On the second season of La Academia , contestant Érika Alcocer Luna covered " No Debes Jugar " . Mexican band Banda El Grullo recorded the song for their album 30 Numeros 1 en Banda . = = Track listing = = CD Single " No Debes Jugar " — 3 : 49 = = Credits and personnel = = All credits were taken from the Live ! album notes . = = Charts = = = = Awards and nominations = =
= Eighth Army Ranger Company = The Eighth Army Ranger Company , also known as the 8213th Army Unit , was a Ranger light infantry company of the United States Army that was active during the Korean War . As a small special forces unit , it specialized in irregular warfare . Intended to combat the North Korean ( NK ) commandos who had been effective at infiltration and disruption behind United Nations ( UN ) lines , the Eighth Army Ranger Company was formed at the height of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter in September 1950 and was the first U.S. Army Ranger unit created since World War II . The company went into action as a part of the 25th Infantry Division during the UN advance into North Korea in October and November . It was best known for its defense of Hill 205 against an overwhelming Chinese attack during the Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on River which resulted 41 of the 51 Rangers becoming casualties . The company later undertook a number of other combat missions during late 1950 and early 1951 , conducting infiltration , reconnaissance and raiding . It scouted Chinese positions during Operation Killer and struck behind Chinese lines during Operation Ripper before being deactivated at the end of March 1951 . The company saw 164 days of continuous combat and was awarded a Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation . Military historians have since studied the economy of force of the company 's organization and utilization . Although the experimental unit led to the creation of 15 more Ranger companies , historians disagree on whether the unit was employed properly as a special forces unit and whether it was adequately equipped for the missions it was designed to conduct . = = Origins = = Following the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 , the North Korean People 's Army had invaded the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) with 90 @,@ 000 well @-@ trained and equipped troops who had easily overrun the smaller and more poorly equipped Republic of Korea Army . The United States ( U.S. ) and United Nations ( UN ) subsequently intervened , beginning a campaign to prevent South Korea from collapsing . The U.S. troops engaged the North Koreans first at the Battle of Osan , and were badly defeated by the better @-@ trained North Koreans on 5 July . By August , U.S. and UN forces had been pushed back to the Pusan Perimeter . At the same time , North Korean agents began to infiltrate behind UN lines and attack military targets and cities . UN units , spread out along the Pusan Perimeter , were having a difficult time repelling these units as they were untrained in combating guerrilla warfare . North Korean special forces units like the NK 766th Independent Infantry Regiment had been successful in defeating ROK troops , prompting Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton Collins to order the creation of an elite force which could " infiltrate through enemy lines and attack command posts , artillery , tank parks , and key communications centers or facilities . " All U.S. Army Ranger units had been disbanded after World War II because they required time @-@ consuming training , specialization , and expensive equipment . Yet with the defeat of the NK 766th Regiment at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , and the strength of U.S. infantry units in question , U.S. commanders felt recreating Ranger units was essential to beginning a counteroffensive . In early August as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter was beginning , the Eighth United States Army ordered Lieutenant Colonel John H. McGee , the head of its G @-@ 3 Operations Miscellaneous Division , to seek volunteers for a new experimental Army Ranger unit . McGee was given only seven weeks to organize and train the unit before it was sent into combat , as commanders felt the need for Rangers was dire , and that existing soldiers could be trained as Rangers in a relatively short period of time . Because of this limitation , volunteers were solicited only from existing Eighth Army combat units in Korea , though subsequent Ranger companies were able to recruit Ranger veterans from World War II . From the Eighth Army replacement pool , McGee recruited Second Lieutenant Ralph Puckett , newly commissioned from West Point and with no combat experience , to serve as the company commander . Second Lieutenants Charles Bunn and Barnard Cummings , Jr . , became Puckett 's two platoon leaders . Several hundred enlisted men volunteered from the Eighth Army , though few had combat experience . Through a quick and informal selection process , Puckett picked the men to fill out the company based on weapons qualifications , athleticism , and duty performance . There was no time to administer physical fitness tests for the applicants , and unmarried men younger than 26 were preferred . Recruits were told they would receive no hazard pay . Once Puckett had selected 73 enlisted men , the Eighth Army Ranger Company was formally organized at Camp Drake , Japan , on 25 August 1950 . Three days later , it sailed from Sasebo to Pusan , South Korea , aboard the ferry Koan Maru . Upon arrival , the company was sent to the newly established Eighth Army Ranger Training Center for seven weeks of specialized training . This took place at " Ranger Hill " near Kijang , where the men became skilled in reconnaissance , navigation , long @-@ range patrolling , motorized scouting , setting up roadblocks , maintaining camouflage and concealment , and adjusting indirect fire . They also undertook frequent live fire exercises , many at night , simulating raids , ambushes and infiltration , using North Korean operatives that were known to be hiding in the area as an opposing force . Adopting techniques that had been established during World War II , they worked 60 hours per week , running 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) each day and frequently undertaking 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) speed marches . The troops also all shaved their hair into mohawks , under orders of the officers who wanted to build esprit de corps . Of the original 76 men who started the course , 12 either dropped out or were injured , and as a result 10 South Korean troops , known as KATUSAs , were attached to the unit to fill its ranks . = = = Organization = = = Established to experiment with the notion of deploying small light infantry units that specialized in infiltration and irregular warfare to Korea , the Eighth Army Ranger Company was created with an organization that was unique to other U.S. Army units . Consisting of three officers and 73 enlisted men , it was organized as a company of two platoons based on the Table of Organization and Equipment documents used to raise Ranger units during World War II . Within each platoon , a headquarters element of five men provided command and control . In addition , both platoons had thirty @-@ six men in three squads – two assault squads and one heavy weapons squad – and were furnished with a 60 mm M2 mortar , two M20 Super Bazookas , and a M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle as well as the M1 Garand and M2 Carbines that the majority of the men were armed with . One man from each platoon was designated as a sniper . The company was assigned no vehicles , and no provision was made for mess facilities or to provide medical assets . As no independent battalion @-@ level headquarters existed in Korea , the company had to be attached to a higher formation at all times . Employing the Sub Intelligent Numbers Selector theory that assigned non @-@ descript unit names and randomized numerical designations to formations in order to disguise their role from the enemy , the company was designated the 8213th Army Unit . Upon formation , it was decided that the company would be considered an ad hoc , or provisional unit , which meant it did not have a permanent lineage and was only a temporary formation , akin to a task force . This decision was unique to the Eighth Army Ranger Company , as subsequent companies assumed the lineage of Ranger units from World War II , and veterans later expressed resentment with the choice as it prevented the company from accruing its own campaign streamers or unit decorations . While subsequent Ranger companies were authorized shoulder sleeve insignia with the distinctive black and red scroll of their World War II predecessors , the Eighth Army Ranger Company wore the shoulder patch of the Eighth United States Army , which commanded all UN troops in Korea . = = History = = = = = Advance = = = By the time the Eighth Army Ranger Company completed training on 1 October , UN forces had broken out of the Pusan Perimeter following an amphibious landing at Inchon . The company was subsequently committed to the offensive from Pusan Perimeter . On 8 October it was redesignated the 8213th Army Unit signifying its activation as a unit , and on 14 October Puckett took an advance force to join the US 25th Infantry Division at Taejon , as part of the US IX Corps . The Rangers ' first assignment was to probe north to Poun with the division 's reconnaissance elements in search of pockets of guerrillas which had been isolated during the UN breakout from Pusan . The platoons moved to two villages near Poun and began a northward sweep with the 25th Infantry Division . The troops then rapidly moved 175 miles ( 282 km ) to Kaesong where they eliminated the last North Korean resistance south of the 38th Parallel . In these missions , the Eighth Army Ranger Company saw frequent combat with small groups of North Korean troops . During this time they also scrounged supplies from local units , including commandeering a jeep , and taking rice and other rations from the countryside . With South Korea liberated , the Rangers led the 25th Infantry Division 's advance into North Korea . Acting as a spearhead , they sent out reconnaissance patrols ahead of the divisional main body and set up roadblocks to limit the movement of retreating North Korean forces . The Rangers became a part of " Task Force Johnson " with the 25th Infantry Division Reconnaissance Company and the 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry in November to probe and clear the Uijeongbu , Dongducheon , and Shiny @-@ ri areas of North Korean elements . On 18 November , the Rangers were detached from Task Force Johnson and returned to Kaesong , where they were attached to the 89th Medium Tank Battalion . On 20 November , the 89th Medium Tank Battalion moved to join the renewed UN offensive north to destroy the remaining North Korean troops and advance to the Yalu River . The battalion was designated " Task Force Dolvin " and ordered to spearhead the drive . At 01 : 00 that morning they advanced to Kunu @-@ ri , reaching the front lines at Yongdungpo by 16 : 00 . = = = Hill 205 = = = On 23 November , the 25th Infantry Division rested in preparation for its final advance to the Yalu , which was to begin the next day at 10 : 00 . As the division spent the day enjoying a Thanksgiving Day meal , the Rangers scouted 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the planned line of departure but made no contact with North Korean forces . On 24 November , the company moved out on time in the center of Task Force Dolvin 's advance , riding on tanks from B Company , 89th Tank Battalion , including M4A3 Sherman and M26 Pershings . About 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) into their advance , they rescued 30 U.S. prisoners of war from the 8th Cavalry Regiment who had been captured at the Battle of Unsan but abandoned by the retreating Chinese . At 14 : 00 they reached their objective at Hill 222 . As soon as the Rangers dismounted the tanks , the troops came under mortar fire . One Ranger was subsequently killed , the company 's first fatality since its formation . Cummings and 2nd Platoon advanced 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) to the crest of the hill . At that time the tanks of the 89th mistakenly opened fire on the Rangers , causing a number of friendly fire casualties including two killed , before Puckett was able to signal them to stop . The Rangers took up positions on Hill 222 for the night . An additional two men became weather casualties , suffering frostbite that evening as temperatures fell to 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) . The next day , 25 November , Task Force Dolvin resumed its advance , with 51 Rangers of the Eighth Army Ranger Company continuing north on the 89th 's tanks . The troops immediately ran into Chinese resistance as they began to advance . On both flanks , Task Force Dolvin troops encountered sporadic resistance throughout the morning , but were able to capture their objectives . The Eighth Army Ranger Company rode the tanks a further 5 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north to Hill 205 . As the Rangers and tanks approached the hill they came under mortar and small arms fire , but were able to capture the hill after light Chinese resistance , suffering four wounded in the process . The Rangers then established a perimeter on the position and spent the remainder of the day fortifying it . The Chinese Second Phase Offensive was launched that evening , with the unprepared UN troops hit all along the Korean front as 300 @,@ 000 Chinese troops swarmed into Korea . Several kilometers away on the Rangers ' left flank , the U.S. 27th Infantry Regiment 's E Company was hit with a heavy Chinese attack at 21 : 00 , alerting the Rangers to a pending attack . At 22 : 00 , troops of the Chinese 39th Army began a frontal assault on Hill 205 , signaled by drums and whistles . An estimated platoon @-@ sized force of Chinese made the first attack . The Rangers fought back with heavy small arms fire and several pre @-@ sighted artillery concentrations , repulsing this first attack at 22 : 50 . A number of Rangers were wounded in this attack , including Puckett , who refused evacuation . At 23 : 00 the Chinese launched a second attack which was quickly repelled , as was a third attack several minutes later . Both of these attacks were an estimated company in strength . The Rangers inflicted heavy casualties each time as a result of a well @-@ established defensive perimeter , though the platoon of tanks at the foot of the hill opposite the Chinese attack were unable to assist the Rangers , as the crews had no experience in night operations . By 23 : 50 the Chinese began attacking in greater numbers , with an estimated two companies advancing at a time , moving to within hand grenade range . The Rangers began to run low on ammunition while their casualties continued to mount , and Puckett was wounded again . Over the course of several hours the Chinese launched a fourth and a fifth attack , each of which was narrowly pushed back by the Rangers . The Rangers were then ordered to fix bayonets in preparation for the next attack . At 02 : 45 , the Chinese began a sixth and final attack with a heavy mortar barrage which inflicted heavy casualties on the remaining Rangers , including Cummings , who was killed instantly by a mortar shell and Puckett , who was severely wounded . The Chinese then sent a reinforced battalion of 600 infantry at the hill , while simultaneously striking other elements of Task Force Dolvin , preventing artillery from providing effective support . Without artillery support of their own , and low on ammunition , they were overwhelmed by the subsequent Chinese attack . The Chinese forces swarmed the hill in overwhelming numbers , and many of the Rangers were shot and killed in their foxholes or stabbed with bayonets . The company was destroyed in the fighting , with the survivors retreating from the hill . Three Rangers later chased away Chinese troops as they tried to capture the severely wounded Puckett . The remaining Rangers gathered at an assembly area at the base of the hill under First Sergeant Charles L. Pitts , the highest ranking unwounded member of the company , and withdrew . The Rangers suffered over 80 percent casualties on Hill 205 ; of the 51 who captured the hill , 10 were killed or missing and another 31 wounded . = = = 1951 raids = = = The heavy casualties on Hill 205 rendered the company ineffective , and for several weeks it was only capable of being used to conduct routine patrols or as a security force for divisional headquarters elements . Puckett was evacuated to recover from his wounds . On 5 December , Captain John P. Vann assumed command of the company , and Captain Bob Sigholtz , a veteran of Merrill 's Marauders , was also assigned to the unit . Yet with the company 's casualties being replaced by regular soldiers who had no Ranger training it did not return to full combat capability after the Hill 205 battle . The replacements were subsequently given cursory training between missions , but U.S. military historians contend that the inexperienced replacements dramatically decreased the usefulness of the company as a special forces unit . The company participated in a few isolated missions in late 1950 and early 1951 , including the recapture of Ganghwa Island from Chinese forces while attached to the Turkish Brigade . It advanced with the 25th Division during Operation Killer in late February as part of an effort to push Chinese forces north of the Han River . During that operation the company was employed as a scouting force , probing the strength of Chinese formations as they launched raids and attacks on the 25th Infantry Division . The frequent scouting missions were also intended to draw Chinese fire and determine the locations of their units . Returning to action , the company 's 2nd Platoon effected a crossing of the Han River at 22 : 00 on 28 February 1951 for a raid on Yangsu @-@ ri to destroy Chinese positions and capture a prisoner . Despite difficulties crossing the icy river the platoon moved into the village after 23 : 00 , finding it deserted . After probing 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north and finding no Chinese , the Rangers returned to UN lines . On 1 March , 1st Platoon conducted a follow @-@ up mission to scout railroad tunnels north of the village but had to turn back as heavy ice blocked its boats from crossing , and several men fell into the freezing water . During the first days of March , the company stepped up its patrols across the Han River , this time with a renewed emphasis on determining the locations of Chinese forces and pinpointing their strongpoints , in preparation for the next major offensive . = = = Operation Ripper = = = Vann was replaced by Captain Charles G. Ross on 5 March 1951 . At the same time , the UN began Operation Ripper to drive the Chinese north of the 38th Parallel . As the 25th Infantry Division attacked forward , the Eighth Army Ranger Company scouted 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) ahead of the general attack , reconnoitering Chinese positions . For much of the month they were utilized as a flank security force for the 25th Infantry Division , holding successive blocking positions as elements of the division advanced . On 18 March , they were sent a further 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of the front lines to set up an ambush at a road and railway line which ran through a defile . Chinese troops were retreating through this defile , and at 15 : 30 on 19 March Ross assembled the men nearby . Through the night they established roadblocks and prepared to attack oncoming Chinese troops , but none passed through the area , and Ross took the company back to UN lines at 05 : 00 . The company 's final mission came on 27 March , an infiltration 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north to Changgo @-@ ri to reconnoiter the size of a Chinese force holding there and to prevent it from setting a rearguard . The 25th Infantry Division would then attack and overwhelm the Chinese concentration more easily . The Rangers began their advance at 22 : 00 and arrived at the village at 01 : 00 . Ross then ordered 2nd Platoon to conduct a stealth attack into the village which destroyed an outpost and a food cache and caught the Chinese troops by surprise . The Rangers temporarily succeeded in pushing the sizable Chinese force out of the village and into a trench , inflicting heavy casualties on it in the process . The Chinese , estimated to be a battalion , subsequently attempted to counterattack but were repulsed by the Rangers . Following this , Ross ordered the company to withdraw back to UN lines , arriving there at 05 : 00 having suffered no casualties in the action . The Eighth Army Ranger Company was deactivated on 31 March 1951 . Some of its equipment was subsequently consolidated with the 5th Ranger Infantry Company , which was newly arrived in Korea and had been assigned to the 25th Infantry Division . The men of the new Ranger company had formally attended Ranger School , though they were inexperienced and less effective in their initial actions with the division . In the meantime , most of the men of the former Eighth Army Ranger Company were transferred to other units of the 25th Infantry Division , while those who were paratrooper qualified through the United States Army Airborne School were allowed to transfer to the 187th Regimental Combat Team or one of the other Ranger companies then beginning to arrive in Korea . During its brief existence , the Eighth Army Ranger Company saw 164 days of combat and was awarded a Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation . = = Analysis = = In September 1950 , on Collins ' orders the Ranger Training Center was moved to Fort Benning , Georgia , and in October the 1st , 2nd , 3rd , and 4th Ranger Companies began training . The effective employment of the Eighth Army Ranger Company had demonstrated the viability of the concept to Army planners , and the subsequent Chinese attacks in November reinforced the need for more such units . As a result , the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 8th Ranger Companies were ordered to form . Altogether , another fifteen Ranger companies would be formed in 1950 and 1951 , and six of them would see combat in Korea . Subsequent military science studies of the use of Rangers during the Korean War have focused on analysing their economy of force by looking at how well the U.S. military employed them as special forces . In an analysis of the operations of all Ranger units in the Korean War , Major Chelsea Y. Chae proposed in a 1996 thesis to the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College that they were misused and ineffective in general , and that in particular the Eighth Army Ranger Company had been poorly employed . Chae noted that the Ranger formations ' lack of support personnel made them a logistic and administrative liability , as they had to be attached to conventional units for support . Furthermore , he argued that the Rangers ' small formation sizes meant that they lacked the manpower to conduct basic tactical maneuvers , and their employment with divisional elements did not provide them with the intelligence information necessary for effective infiltration operations . He concluded that these problems were due to a " lack of understanding of Ranger capabilities , limitations inherent in Rangers ' force structure , and basic distrust of elite forces . " However , retired Colonel Thomas H. Taylor , a military historian , contended in his 1996 book that in spite of their original purpose of short range infiltration , the Eighth Army Ranger Company was employed well for the missions they conducted , most of which were reactionary and borne out of a need to rapidly counter North Korean and Chinese attacks . Taylor noted that particularly in their earlier missions , the Rangers had been successful at operating as a night combat force , a skill that the rest of the U.S. forces in Korea were largely untrained in . Taylor also believed that the Rangers , who were drawn from replacement and occupation units in Japan , effectively gave the 25th Infantry Division an extra force it would not otherwise have possessed , allowing it to employ its conventional forces elsewhere . Taylor praised division commander Major General William B. Kean for his employment of the Rangers , and argued that the successes of the subsequent Ranger companies validated the existence of the Eighth Army Ranger Company .
= Abbas Kiarostami = Abbas Kiarostami ( Persian : عباس کیارستمی pronunciation ; 22 June 1940 – 4 July 2016 ) was an Iranian film director , screenwriter , photographer and film producer . An active film @-@ maker from 1970 , Kiarostami had been involved in over forty films , including shorts and documentaries . Kiarostami attained critical acclaim for directing the Koker trilogy ( 1987 – 94 ) , Close @-@ Up ( 1990 ) , Taste of Cherry ( 1997 ) – which was awarded the Palme d 'Or at the Cannes Film Festival that year – and The Wind Will Carry Us ( 1999 ) . In his later works , Certified Copy ( 2010 ) and Like Someone in Love ( 2012 ) , he filmed for the first time outside Iran : in Italy and Japan , respectively . Kiarostami had worked extensively as a screenwriter , film editor , art director and producer and had designed credit titles and publicity material . He was also a poet , photographer , painter , illustrator , and graphic designer . He was part of a generation of filmmakers in the Iranian New Wave , a Persian cinema movement that started in the late 1960s and includes pioneering directors such as Masoud Kimiai , Sohrab Shahid Saless , Dariush Mehrjui , Bahram Beyzai , Nasser Taghvai and Parviz Kimiavi . These filmmakers share many common techniques including the use of poetic dialogue and allegorical storytelling dealing with political and philosophical issues . Kiarostami had a reputation for using child protagonists , for documentary @-@ style narrative films , for stories that take place in rural villages , and for conversations that unfold inside cars , using stationary mounted cameras . He is also known for his use of Persian poetry in the dialogue , titles , and themes of his films . Kiarostami 's films contain a notable degree of ambiguity , an unusual mixture of simplicity and complexity , and often a mix of fictional and documentary elements . The concepts of change and continuity , in addition to the themes of life and death , play a major role in Kiarostami 's works . = = Early life and background = = Kiarostami was born in Tehran . His first artistic experience was painting , which he continued into his late teens , winning a painting competition at the age of 18 shortly before he left home to study at the University of Tehran School of Fine Arts . He majored in painting and graphic design , and supported his studies by working as a traffic policeman . As a painter , designer , and illustrator , Kiarostami worked in advertising in the 1960s , designing posters and creating commercials . Between 1962 and 1966 , he shot around 150 advertisements for Iranian television . In the late 1960s , he began creating credit titles for films ( including Gheysar by Masoud Kimiai ) and illustrating children 's books . = = Film career = = = = = 1970s = = = In 1969 , when the Iranian New Wave began with Dariush Mehrjui 's film Gāv , Kiarostami helped set up a filmmaking department at the Institute for Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults ( Kanun ) in Tehran . Its debut production and Kiarostami 's first film was the twelve @-@ minute The Bread and Alley ( 1970 ) , a neo @-@ realistic short film about a schoolboy 's confrontation with an aggressive dog . Breaktime followed in 1972 . The department became one of Iran 's most noted film studios , producing not only Kiarostami 's films , but acclaimed Persian films such as The Runner and Bashu , the Little Stranger . In the 1970s , Kiarostami pursued an individualistic style of film making . When discussing his first film , he stated : Bread and Alley was my first experience in cinema and I must say a very difficult one . I had to work with a very young child , a dog , and an unprofessional crew except for the cinematographer , who was nagging and complaining all the time . Well , the cinematographer , in a sense , was right because I did not follow the conventions of film making that he had become accustomed to . Following The Experience ( 1973 ) , Kiarostami released The Traveler ( Mossafer ) in 1974 . The Traveler tells the story of Qassem Julayi , a troubled and troublesome boy from a small Iranian city . Intent on attending a football match in far @-@ off Tehran , he scams his friends and neighbors to raise money , and journeys to the stadium in time for the game , only to meet with an ironic twist of fate . In addressing the boy 's determination to reach his goal , alongside his indifference to the effects of his amoral actions , the film examined human behavior and the balance of right and wrong . It furthered Kiarostami 's reputation for realism , diegetic simplicity , and stylistic complexity , as well as his fascination with physical and spiritual journeys . In 1975 , Kiarostami directed two short films So Can I and Two Solutions for One Problem . In early 1976 , he released Colors , followed by the fifty @-@ four @-@ minute film A Wedding Suit , a story about three teenagers coming into conflict over a suit for a wedding . Kiarostami 's first feature film was the 112 @-@ minute Report ( 1977 ) . It revolved around the life of a tax collector accused of accepting bribes ; suicide was among its themes . In 1979 , he produced and directed First Case , Second Case . = = = 1980s = = = In the early 1980s , Kiarostami directed several short films including Toothache ( 1980 ) , Orderly or Disorderly ( 1981 ) , and The Chorus ( 1982 ) . In 1983 , he directed Fellow Citizen . It was not until his release of Where Is the Friend 's Home ? that he began to gain recognition outside Iran . The film tells a simple account of a conscientious eight @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy 's quest to return his friend 's notebook in a neighboring village lest his friend be expelled from school . The traditional beliefs of Iranian rural people are portrayed . The film has been noted for its poetic use of the Iranian rural landscape and its realism , both important elements of Kiarostami 's work . Kiarostami made the film from a child 's point of view . Where Is the Friend 's Home ? , And Life Goes On ( 1992 ) ( also known as Life and Nothing More ) , and Through the Olive Trees ( 1994 ) are described by critics as the Koker trilogy , because all three films feature the village of Koker in northern Iran . The films also relate to the 1990 Manjil – Rudbar earthquake , in which 40 @,@ 000 people died . Kiarostami uses the themes of life , death , change , and continuity to connect the films . The trilogy was successful in France in the 1990s and other Western European countries such as the Netherlands , Sweden , Germany and Finland . But , Kiarostami did not consider the three films to comprise a trilogy . He suggested that the last two titles plus Taste of Cherry ( 1997 ) comprise a trilogy , given their common theme of the preciousness of life . In 1987 , Kiarostami was involved in the screenwriting of The Key , which he edited but did not direct . In 1989 , he released Homework . = = = 1990s = = = Kiarostami 's first film of the decade was Close @-@ Up ( 1990 ) , which narrates the story of the real @-@ life trial of a man who impersonated film @-@ maker Mohsen Makhmalbaf , conning a family into believing they would star in his new film . The family suspects theft as the motive for this charade , but the impersonator , Hossein Sabzian , argues that his motives were more complex . The part @-@ documentary , part @-@ staged film examines Sabzian 's moral justification for usurping Makhmalbaf 's identity , questioning his ability to sense his cultural and artistic flair . Ranked # 42 in British Film Institute 's The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time , Close @-@ Up received praise from directors such as Quentin Tarantino , Martin Scorsese , Werner Herzog , Jean @-@ Luc Godard , and Nanni Moretti and was released across Europe . In 1992 , Kiarostami directed Life , and Nothing More ... , regarded by critics as the second film of the Koker trilogy . The film follows a father and his young son as they drive from Tehran to Koker in search of two young boys who they fear might have perished in the 1990 earthquake . As the father and son travel through the devastated landscape , they meet earthquake survivors forced to carry on with their lives amid disaster . That year Kiarostami won a Prix Roberto Rossellini , the first professional film award of his career , for his direction of the film . The last film of the so @-@ called Koker trilogy was Through the Olive Trees ( 1994 ) , which expands a peripheral scene from Life and Nothing More into the central drama . Critics such as Adrian Martin have called the style of filmmaking in the Koker trilogy as " diagrammatical " , linking the zig @-@ zagging patterns in the landscape and the geometry of forces of life and the world . A flashback of the zigzag path in Life and Nothing More ... ( 1992 ) in turn triggers the spectator 's memory of the previous film , Where Is the Friend 's Home ? from 1987 , shot before the earthquake . This symbolically links to the post @-@ earthquake reconstruction in Through the Olive Trees in 1994 . In 1995 , Miramax Films released Through the Olive Trees in the US theaters . Kiarostami next wrote the screenplays for The Journey and The White Balloon ( 1995 ) , for his former assistant Jafar Panahi . Between 1995 and 1996 , he was involved in the production of Lumière and Company , a collaboration with 40 other film directors . Kiarostami won the Palme d 'Or ( Golden Palm ) award at the Cannes Film Festival for Taste of Cherry . It is the drama of a man , Mr. Badii , determined to commit suicide . The film involved themes such as morality , the legitimacy of the act of suicide , and the meaning of compassion . Kiarostami directed The Wind Will Carry Us in 1999 , which won the Grand Jury Prize ( Silver Lion ) at the Venice International Film Festival . The film contrasted rural and urban views on the dignity of labor , addressing themes of gender equality and the benefits of progress , by means of a stranger 's sojourn in a remote Kurdish village . An unusual feature of the movie is that many of the characters are heard but not seen ; at least thirteen to fourteen speaking characters in the film are never seen . = = = 2000s = = = In 2000 , at the San Francisco Film Festival award ceremony , Kiarostami was awarded the Akira Kurosawa Prize for lifetime achievement in directing , but surprised everyone by giving it away to veteran Iranian actor Behrooz Vossoughi for his contribution to Iranian cinema . In 2001 , Kiarostami and his assistant , Seifollah Samadian , traveled to Kampala , Uganda at the request of the United Nations International Fund for Agricultural Development , to film a documentary about programs assisting Ugandan orphans . He stayed for ten days and made ABC Africa . The trip was originally intended as a research in preparation for the filming , but Kiarostami ended up editing the entire film from the video footage shot there . The high number of orphans in Uganda has resulted from the deaths of parents in the AIDS epidemic . Time Out editor and National Film Theatre chief programmer , Geoff Andrew , said in referring to the film : " Like his previous four features , this film is not about death but life @-@ and @-@ death : how they 're linked , and what attitude we might adopt with regard to their symbiotic inevitability . " The following year , Kiarostami directed Ten , revealing an unusual method of filmmaking and abandoning many scriptwriting conventions . Kiarostami focused on the socio @-@ political landscape of Iran . The images are seen through the eyes of one woman as she drives through the streets of Tehran over a period of several days . Her journey is composed of ten conversations with various passengers , which include her sister , a hitchhiking prostitute , and a jilted bride and her demanding young son . This style of filmmaking was praised by a number of critics . A. O. Scott in The New York Times wrote that Kiarostami , " in addition to being perhaps the most internationally admired Iranian filmmaker of the past decade , is also among the world masters of automotive cinema ... He understands the automobile as a place of reflection , observation and , above all , talk . " In 2003 , Kiarostami directed Five , a poetic feature with no dialogue or characterization . It consists of five long shots of nature which are single @-@ take sequences , shot with a hand @-@ held DV camera , along the shores of the Caspian Sea . Although the film lacks a clear storyline , Geoff Andrew argues that the film is " more than just pretty pictures " . He adds , " Assembled in order , they comprise a kind of abstract or emotional narrative arc , which moves evocatively from separation and solitude to community , from motion to rest , near @-@ silence to sound and song , light to darkness and back to light again , ending on a note of rebirth and regeneration . " He notes the degree of artifice concealed behind the apparent simplicity of the imagery . Kiarostami produced 10 on Ten ( 2004 ) , a journal documentary that shares ten lessons on movie @-@ making while he drives through the locations of his past films . The movie is shot on digital video with a stationary camera mounted inside the car , in a manner reminiscent of Taste of Cherry and Ten . In 2005 and 2006 , he directed The Roads of Kiarostami , a 32 @-@ minute documentary that reflects on the power of landscape , combining austere black @-@ and @-@ white photographs with poetic observations , engaging music with political subject matter . Also in 2005 , Kiarostami contributed the central section to Tickets , a portmanteau film set on a train traveling through Italy . The other segments were directed by Ken Loach and Ermanno Olmi . In 2008 , Kiarostami directed the feature Shirin , which features close @-@ ups of many notable Iranian actresses and the French actress Juliette Binoche as they watch a film based on a partly mythological Persian romance tale of Khosrow and Shirin , with themes of female self @-@ sacrifice . The film has been described as " a compelling exploration of the relationship between image , sound and female spectatorship . " That summer , he directed Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's opera Così fan tutte conducted by Christophe Rousset at Festival d 'Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence starring with William Shimell . But the following year 's performances at the English National Opera was impossible to direct because of refusal of permission to travel abroad from his country . = = = 2010s = = = Certified Copy ( 2010 ) , again starring Juliette Binoche , was made in Tuscany and was Kiarostami 's first film to be shot and produced outside Iran . The story of an encounter between a British man and a French woman , it was entered in competition for the Palme d 'Or in the 2010 Cannes Film Festival . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian describes the film as an " intriguing oddity " , and said , " Certified Copy is the deconstructed portrait of a marriage , acted with well @-@ intentioned fervour by Juliette Binoche , but persistently baffling , contrived , and often simply bizarre – a highbrow misfire of the most peculiar sort . " He concluded that the film is " unmistakably an example of Kiarostami 's compositional technique , though not a successful example . " Roger Ebert , however , praised the film , noting that " Kiarostami is rather brilliant in the way he creates offscreen spaces . " Binoche won the Best Actress Award at Cannes for her performance in the film . Kiarostami 's final film , Like Someone in Love , set and shot in Japan , received mostly positive reviews by critics . = = = Film festival work = = = Kiarostami was a jury member at numerous film festivals , most notably the Cannes Film Festival in 1993 , 2002 and 2005 . He was also the president of the Caméra d 'Or Jury in Cannes Film Festival 2005 . He was announced as the president of the Cinéfondation and short film sections of the 2014 Cannes Film Festival . Other representatives include the Venice Film Festival in 1985 , the Locarno International Film Festival in 1990 , the San Sebastian International Film Festival in 1996 , the São Paulo International Film Festival in 2004 , the Capalbio Cinema Festival in 2007 ( in which he was president of the jury ) , and the Küstendorf Film and Music Festival in 2011 . He also made regular appearances at many other film festivals across Europe , including the Estoril Film Festival in Portugal . = = Cinematic style = = = = = Individualism = = = Though Kiarostami has been compared to Satyajit Ray , Vittorio de Sica , Éric Rohmer , and Jacques Tati , his films exhibit a singular style , often employing techniques of his own invention . During the filming of The Bread and Alley in 1970 , Kiarostami had major differences with his experienced cinematographer about how to film the boy and the attacking dog . While the cinematographer wanted separate shots of the boy approaching , a close @-@ up of his hand as he enters the house and closes the door , followed by a shot of the dog , Kiarostami believed that if the three scenes could be captured as a whole it would have a more profound impact in creating tension over the situation . That one shot took around forty days to complete , until Kiarostami was fully content with the scene . Kiarostami later commented that the breaking of scenes would have disrupted the rhythm and content of the film 's structure , preferring to let the scene flow as one . Unlike other directors , Kiarostami showed no interest in staging extravagant combat scenes or complicated chase scenes in large @-@ scale productions , instead attempting to mold the medium of film to his own specifications . Kiarostami appeared to have settled on his style with the Koker trilogy , which included a myriad of references to his own film material , connecting common themes and subject matter between each of the films . Stephen Bransford has contended that Kiarostami 's films do not contain references to the work of other directors , but are fashioned in such a manner that they are self @-@ referenced . Bransford believes his films are often fashioned into an ongoing dialectic with one film reflecting on and partially demystifying an earlier film . He continued experimenting with new modes of filming , using different directorial methods and techniques . A case in point is Ten , which was filmed in a moving automobile in which Kiarostami was not present . He gave suggestions to the actors about what to do , and a camera placed on the dashboard filmed them while they drove around Tehran . The camera was allowed to roll , capturing the faces of the people involved during their daily routine , using a series of extreme @-@ close shots . Ten was an experiment that used digital cameras to virtually eliminate the director . This new direction towards a digital micro @-@ cinema is defined as a micro @-@ budget filmmaking practice , allied with a digital production basis . Kiarostami 's cinema offers a different definition of film . According to film professors such as Jamsheed Akrami of William Paterson University , Kiarostami consistently tried to redefine film by forcing the increased involvement of the audience . In his later years , he also progressively trimmed the timespan within his films . Akrami thinks that this reduces the filmmaking from a collective endeavor to a purer , more basic form of artistic expression . = = = Fiction and non @-@ fiction = = = Kiarostami 's films contain a notable degree of ambiguity , an unusual mixture of simplicity and complexity , and often a mix of fictional and documentary elements ( docufiction ) . Kiarostami has stated , " We can never get close to the truth except through lying . " The boundary between fiction and non @-@ fiction is significantly reduced in Kiarostami 's cinema . The French philosopher Jean @-@ Luc Nancy , writing about Kiarostami , and in particular Life and Nothing More ... , has argued that his films are neither quite fiction nor quite documentary . Life and Nothing More ... , he argues , is neither representation nor reportage , but rather " evidence " : [ I ] t all looks like reporting , but everything underscores ( indique à l 'évidence ) that it is the fiction of a documentary ( in fact , Kiarostami shot the film several months after the earthquake ) , and that it is rather a document about " fiction " : not in the sense of imagining the unreal , but in the very specific and precise sense of the technique , of the art of constructing images . For the image by means of which , each time , each opens a world and precedes himself in it ( s 'y précède ) is not pregiven ( donnée toute faite ) ( as are those of dreams , phantasms or bad films ) : it is to be invented , cut and edited . Thus it is evidence , insofar as , if one day I happen to look at my street on which I walk up and down ten times a day , I construct for an instant a new evidence of my street . For Jean @-@ Luc Nancy , this notion of cinema as " evidence " , rather than as documentary or imagination , is tied to the way Kiarostami deals with life @-@ and @-@ death ( cf. the remark by Geoff Andrew on ABC Africa , cited above , to the effect that Kiarostami 's films are not about death but about life @-@ and @-@ death ) : Existence resists the indifference of life @-@ and @-@ death , it lives beyond mechanical " life , " it is always its own mourning , and its own joy . It becomes figure , image . It does not become alienated in images , but it is presented there : the images are the evidence of its existence , the objectivity of its assertion . This thought — which , for me , is the very thought of this film [ Life and Nothing More ... ] — is a difficult thought , perhaps the most difficult . It 's a slow thought , always under way , fraying a path so that the path itself becomes thought . It is that which frays images so that images become this thought , so that they become the evidence of this thought — and not in order to " represent " it . In other words , wanting to accomplish more than just represent life and death as opposing forces , but rather to illustrate the way in which each element of nature is inextricably linked , Kiarostami devised a cinema that does more than just present the viewer with the documentable " facts , " but neither is it simply a matter of artifice . Because " existence " means more than simply life , it is projective , containing an irreducibly fictive element , but in this " being more than " life , it is therefore contaminated by mortality . Nancy is giving a clue , in other words , toward the interpretation of Kiarostami 's statement that lying is the only way to truth . = = = Themes of life and death = = = The concepts of change and continuity , in addition to the themes of life and death , play a major role in Kiarostami 's works . In the Koker trilogy , these themes play a central role . As illustrated in the aftermath of the 1990 Tehran earthquake disaster , they also represent the power of human resilience to overcome and defy destruction . Unlike the Koker films , which convey an instinctual thirst for survival , Taste of Cherry explores the fragility of life and focuses on how precious it is . Symbols of death abound in The Wind Will Carry Us , with the scenery of the graveyard , the imminence of the old woman 's passing , and the ancestors referred to early in the film by the character Farzad . Such devices prompt the viewer to reflect on the parameters of the afterlife and immaterial existence . The viewer is asked to consider what constitutes the soul , and what happens to it after death . In discussing the film , Kiarostami said that he is the person who raises questions , rather than answers them . Some film critics believe that the assemblage of light versus dark scenes in Kiarostami 's film grammar , such as in Taste of Cherry and The Wind Will Carry Us , suggests the mutual existence of life with its endless possibilities , and death as a factual moment of anyone 's life . = = = Visual and audio techniques = = = Kiarostami 's style is notable for the use of panoramic long shots , such as in the closing sequences of Life and Nothing More and Through the Olive Trees , where the audience is intentionally distanced physically from the characters in order to stimulate reflection on their fate . Taste of Cherry is punctuated throughout by shots of this kind , including distant overhead shots of the suicidal Badii 's car moving across the hills , usually while he is conversing with a passenger . However , the visual distancing techniques stand in juxtaposition to the sound of the dialog , which always remains in the foreground . Like the coexistence of a private and public space , or the frequent framing of landscapes through car windows , this fusion of distance with proximity can be seen as a way of generating suspense in the most mundane of moments . This relationship between distance and intimacy , between imagery and sound , is also present in the opening sequence to The Wind Will Carry Us . Michael J. Anderson has argued that such a thematic application of this central concept of presence without presence , through using such techniques , and by often referring to characters which the viewer does not see and sometimes not hear directly affects the nature and concept of space in the geographical framework in which the world is portrayed . Kiarostami 's use of sound and imagery conveys a world beyond what is directly visible and / or audible , which Anderson believes emphasizes the interconnectedness and shrinking of time and space in the modern world of telecommunications . Other commentators such as film critic Ben Zipper believe that Kiarostami 's work as a landscape artist is evident in his compositional distant shots of the dry hills throughout a number of his films directly impacting on his construction on the rural landscapes within his films . = = = Poetry and imagery = = = Ahmad Karimi @-@ Hakkak , of the University of Maryland , argues that one aspect of Kiarostami 's cinematic style is that he is able to capture the essence of Persian poetry and create poetic imagery within the landscape of his films . In several of his movies such as Where is the Friend 's Home and The Wind Will Carry Us , classical Persian poetry is directly quoted in the film , highlighting the artistic link and intimate connection between them . This in turn reflects on the connection between the past and present , between continuity and change . The characters recite poems mainly from classical Persian poet Omar Khayyám or modern Persian poets such as Sohrab Sepehri and Forough Farrokhzad . One scene in The Wind Will Carry Us has a long shot of a wheat field with rippling golden crops through which the doctor , accompanied by the filmmaker , is riding his scooter in a twisting road . In response to the comment that the other world is a better place than this one , the doctor recites this poem of Khayyam : However , the aesthetic element involved with the poetry goes much farther back in time and is used more subtly than these examples suggest . Beyond issues of adaptation of text to film , Kiarostami often begins with an insistent will to give visual embodiment to certain specific image @-@ making techniques in Persian poetry , both classical and modern . This prominently results in enunciating a larger philosophical position , namely the ontological oneness of poetry and film . It has been argued that the creative merit of Kiarostami 's adaptation of Sohrab Sepehri and Forough Farrokhzad 's poems extends the domain of textual transformation . Adaptation is defined as the transformation of a prior to a new text . Sima Daad of the University of Washington contends that Kiarostami 's adaptation arrives at the theoretical realm of adaptation by expanding its limit from inter @-@ textual potential to trans @-@ generic potential . = = = Spirituality = = = Kiarostami 's films often reflect upon immaterial concepts such as soul and afterlife . At times , however , the very concept of the spiritual seems to be contradicted by the medium . Some film theorists have argued that The Wind Will Carry Us provides a template by which a filmmaker can communicate metaphysical reality . The limits of the frame , the material representation of a space in dialog with another that is not represented , physically become metaphors for the relationship between this world and those which may exist apart from it . By limiting the space of the mise en scène , Kiarostami expands the space of the art . Kiarostami 's " complex " sound @-@ images and philosophical approach have caused frequent comparisons with " mystical " filmmakers such as Andrei Tarkovsky and Robert Bresson . While acknowledging substantial cultural differences , much of Western critical writing about Kiarostami positions him as the Iranian equivalent of such directors , by virtue of a similarly austere , " spiritual " poetics and moral commitment . Some draw parallels between certain imagery in Kiarostami 's films with that of Sufi concepts . While most English @-@ language writers , such as David Sterritt and the Spanish film professor Alberto Elena , interpret Kiarostami 's films as spiritual , other critics , including David Walsh and Hamish Ford , have not rated its influence in his films as lower . = = Poetry , art and photography = = Kiarostami , along with Jean Cocteau , Satyajit Ray , Derek Jarman , Alejandro Jodorowsky , and Gulzar , was a filmmaker who expressed himself in other genres , such as poetry , set designs , painting , or photography . They expressed their interpretation of the world and their understanding of our preoccupations and identities . Kiarostami was a noted photographer and poet . A bilingual collection of more than 200 of his poems , Walking with the Wind , was published by Harvard University Press . His photographic work includes Untitled Photographs , a collection of over thirty photographs , mostly of snow landscapes , taken in his hometown Tehran , between 1978 and 2003 . In 1999 , He also published a collection of his poems . Kiarostami also produced Mozart 's opera , Così fan tutte , which premiered in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence in 2003 before being performed at the English National Opera in London in 2004 . Riccardo Zipoli , from the Ca ' Foscari University of Venice , has studied the relations and interconnections between Kiarostami 's poems and his films . The results of the analysis reveal how Kiarostami 's treatment of " uncertain reality " is similar in his poems and films . Kiarostami 's poetry is reminiscent of the later nature poems of the Persian painter @-@ poet , Sohrab Sepehri . On the other hand , the succinct allusion to philosophical truths without the need for deliberation , the non @-@ judgmental tone of the poetic voice , and the structure of the poem — absence of personal pronouns , adverbs or over reliance on adjectives — as well as the lines containing a kigo ( きご季語 , a " season word " ) gives much of this poetry a haikuesque characteristic . All of the original poetry books by Kiarostami alongside his selections from Persian classic and contemporary poets including Nima , Hafez , Rumi and Saadi were translated into English by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin in 2015 and were published as bilingual ( Persian / English ) editions in New York City . Kiarostami has two other poetry books which are anthologies entitled Night with his selections from a variety of classical and contemporary Persian poets on the topic of Night which were translated into English as well . = = Personal life = = In 1969 , Kiarostami married Parvin Amir @-@ Gholi . They had two sons , Ahmad ( born 1971 ) and Bahman ( 1978 ) . They divorced in 1982 . Kiarostami was one of the few directors who remained in Iran after the 1979 revolution , when many of his peers fled the country . He believes that it was one of the most important decisions of his career . His permanent base in Iran and his national identity have consolidated his ability as a filmmaker : When you take a tree that is rooted in the ground , and transfer it from one place to another , the tree will no longer bear fruit . And if it does , the fruit will not be as good as it was in its original place . This is a rule of nature . I think if I had left my country , I would be the same as the tree . Kiarostami frequently wore dark spectacles or sunglasses , which he required because of a sensitivity to light . = = = Illness and death = = = In March 2016 , Kiarostami was hospitalized due to intestinal bleeding and reportedly went into a coma after undergoing two operations . Sources , including a Ministry of Health and Medical Education spokesman , reported that Kiarostami was suffering from gastrointestinal cancer . On 3 April 2016 , Reza Paydar , the director of Kiarostami 's medical team , made a statement denying that the filmmaker had cancer . However , in late June he left Iran for treatment in a Paris hospital , where he died on 4 July . Just last week before his death , Kiarostami had been invited to join the Academy Awards in Hollywood as part of efforts to increase the diversity of its OSCAR judges . Ali Ahani , Iran 's ambassador to France stated that Kiarostami 's body will be transferred to Iran to be buried at Behesht @-@ e Zahra cemetery . However , it was later announced that his body will be buried in Lavasan , a resort town about 40 kilometers northeast of Tehran , based on his own will , after it is flown back to Tehran from Paris . His body was returned to Tehran 's Imam Khomeini International Airport on 8 July , while a crowd of Iranian film directors , actors , actresses and other artists were in Tehran airport to pay their respects . Mohammad Shirvani , a close friend to Kiarostami wrote in his Facebook account a quote from him on 8 June 2016 that he has criticized his medical team : " I do not believe I could stand and direct any more films . They destroyed that [ digestive system ] . " After this comment , a campaign was set by Iranians in twitter and Facebook to follows Kiarostami 's health and possible medical error in his treatment . However , Ahmad Kiarostami , elder son of Kiarostami denied any medical errors in his father 's treatment after Shirvani 's comment and said that his father 's health is not emergency . After Kiarostami 's death , Alireza Zali , Head of Kiarostami 's Medical Council Organization sent a letter to his French counterpart Patrick Bouet urged him to send the medical dossier of Kiarostami to Iran for more researches about possible medical error . He added evaluating the aspects of the death of the Iranian artist is considered as a grave concern of Iran 's Medical Council Organization . He said the Medical Council Organization had established an expert group for evaluating the medical dossier of Kiarostami in Iran . On 13 July 2016 , and nine days after Kiarostami 's death , his family officially complained from Kiarostami 's personal doctor for mistake in his treatment . Dariush Mehrjui , famous Iranian cinema director also criticized Kiarostami 's medical team and demanded them for a trial . = = = = Reactions = = = = Martin Scorsese said he was " deeply shocked and saddened " by the news . Oscar @-@ winning Iranian film @-@ maker Asghar Farhadi – who had been due to fly to Paris to visit his friend – said he was " very sad , in total shock " . Mohsen Makhmalbaf echoed the sentiment , saying Iran 's cinema owes its global reputation to his fellow director , but that this visibility did not translate into a greater visibility for his work in his homeland . " Kiarostami gave the Iranian cinema the international credibility that it has today , " he told The Guardian . " But his films were unfortunately not seen as much in Iran . He changed the world 's cinema ; he freshened it and humanised it in contrast with Hollywood 's rough version . " Persian mystic and poet Jalal al @-@ Din Rumi 's 22nd niece Esin Celebi also expressed her condolences over the demise of Kiarostami in a separate message . Iran 's representative office at the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , UNESCO also opened a memorial book for signature to honour Kiatostami . Iranian President Hassan Rouhani said on Twitter that the director 's " different and profound attitude towards life and his invitation to peace and friendship " would be a " lasting achievement . " Foreign Minister Mohammad @-@ Javad Zarif also said Kiarostami 's death was a loss for international cinema . In a statement , French President François Hollande praised the director for forging " close artistic ties and deep friendships " with France . Medias , such as The New York Times , CNN , The Guardian , The Huffington Post , The Independent , Associated Press , Euronews and Le Monde also reacted to Kiarostami 's death . The New York Times wrote : " Abbas Kiarostami , Acclaimed Iranian Filmmaker , Dies at 76 " and Peter Bradshaw payed tribute to Kiarostami : " a sophisticated , self @-@ possessed master of cinematic poetry " The crowd that had gathered for this service in Paris held a vigil by the River Seine . They then allowed the Seine waves to take photos of Kiarostami that the crowd had left on the river floating . It was symbolic moment of saying goodbye to a film director that many Iranians have come to passionately appreciate . = = = = Funeral = = = = Artists , cultural authorities , government officials and the Iranian people gathered to say goodbye to Kiarostami on 10 July , in an emotional funeral , six days after his passing in France . The ceremony was held at the Center for the Intellectual Education of Children , where he began his film @-@ making career some 40 years ago . Attendees held banners with the titles of his movies and pictures of his most famous posters , as they praised the support Kiarostami contribution to culture , and particularly , to filmmaking in Iran . The ceremony was hosted by famous Iranian actor Parviz Parastooie , and included speeches by painter Aidin Aghdashlou and by also prize @-@ winning film director Asghar Farhadi , who stressed his professional abilities . He was later buried in a private ceremony in northern Tehran town , Lavasan . = = Reception and criticism = = Kiarostami has received worldwide acclaim for his work from both audiences and critics , and , in 1999 , he was voted the most important film director of the 1990s by two international critics ' polls . Four of his films were placed in the top six of Cinematheque Ontario 's Best of the ' 90s poll . He has gained recognition from film theorists , critics , as well as peers such as Jean @-@ Luc Godard , Nanni Moretti ( who made a short film about opening one of Kiarostami 's films in his theater in Rome ) , Chris Marker , and Ray Carney . Akira Kurosawa said of Kiarostami 's films : " Words cannot describe my feelings about them ... When Satyajit Ray passed on , I was very depressed . But after seeing Kiarostami 's films , I thanked God for giving us just the right person to take his place . " Critically acclaimed directors such as Martin Scorsese have commented that " Kiarostami represents the highest level of artistry in the cinema . " The Austrian director Michael Haneke has admired the work of Abbas Kiarostami as among the best of any living director . In 2006 , The Guardian 's panel of critics ranked Kiarostami as the best contemporary non @-@ American film director . Critics such as Jonathan Rosenbaum have argued that " there 's no getting around the fact that the movies of Abbas Kiarostami divide audiences — in this country , in his native Iran , and everywhere else they 're shown . " Rosenbaum argues that disagreements and controversy over Kiarostami 's movies have arisen from his style of film @-@ making because what in Hollywood would count as essential narrative information is frequently missing from Kiarostami 's films . Camera placement , likewise , often defies standard audience expectations : in the closing sequences of Life and Nothing More and Through the Olive Trees , the audience is forced to imagine the dialogue and circumstances of important scenes . In Homework and Close @-@ Up , parts of the soundtrack are masked or silenced . Critics have argued that the subtlety of Kiarostami 's cinematic expression is largely resistant to critical analysis . While Kiarostami has won significant acclaim in Europe for several of his films , the Iranian government has refused to permit the screening of his films. he responded , " The government has decided not to show any of my films for the past 10 years ... I think they don 't understand my films and so prevent them being shown just in case there is a message they don 't want to get out " . In the wake of the September 11 attacks , Kiarostami was refused a visa to attend the New York Film Festival . The festival director , Richard Peña , who had invited him said , " It 's a terrible sign of what 's happening in my country today that no one seems to realize or care about the kind of negative signal this sends out to the entire Muslim world " . The Finnish film director Aki Kaurismäki boycotted the festival in protest . Kiarostami had been invited by the New York Film Festival , as well as Ohio University and Harvard University . In 2005 , London Film School organized a workshop as well as festival of Kiarostami 's work , titled " Abbas Kiarostami : Visions of the Artist " . Ben Gibson , Director of the London Film School , said , " Very few people have the creative and intellectual clarity to invent cinema from its most basic elements , from the ground up . We are very lucky to have the chance to see a master like Kiarostami thinking on his feet . " In 2007 , the Museum of Modern Art and MoMA PS1 coorganized a festival of the Kiarostami 's work titled Abbas Kiarostami : Image Maker . Kiarostami and his cinematic style have been the subject of several books and two films , Opening Day of Close @-@ Up ( 1996 ) , directed by Nanni Moretti and Abbas Kiarostami : The Art of Living ( 2003 ) , directed by Fergus Daly . Kiarostami was a member of the advisory board of World Cinema Foundation . Founded by the director Martin Scorsese , its goal is to find and reconstruct world cinema films that have been long neglected . = = = Honors and awards = = = Kiarostami has won the admiration of audiences and critics worldwide and received at least seventy awards up to the year 2000 . Here are some representatives : Prix Roberto Rossellini ( 1992 ) Prix Cine Decouvertes ( 1992 ) François Truffaut Award ( 1993 ) Pier Paolo Pasolini Award ( 1995 ) Federico Fellini Gold Medal , UNESCO ( 1997 ) Palme d 'Or , Cannes Film Festival ( 1997 ) Honorary Golden Alexander Prize , Thessaloniki International Film Festival ( 1999 ) Silver Lion , Venice Film Festival ( 1999 ) Akira Kurosawa Award ( 2000 ) Honorary doctorate , École Normale Supérieure ( 2003 ) Konrad Wolf Prize ( 2003 ) President of the Jury for Caméra d 'Or Award , Cannes Festival ( 2005 ) Fellowship of the British Film Institute ( 2005 ) Gold Leopard of Honor , Locarno International Film Festival ( 2005 ) Prix Henri @-@ Langlois Prize ( 2006 ) Honorary doctorate , University of Toulouse ( 2007 ) World 's great masters , Kolkata International Film Festival ( 2007 ) Glory to the Filmmaker Award , Venice Film Festival ( 2008 ) Honorary doctorate , University of Paris ( 2010 ) Lifetime Achievement Award for Contribution to World Cinematography ( BIAFF - Batumi International Art @-@ house film Festival , 2010 ) Japan 's Medal of Honor ( 2013 ) Austrian Decoration for Science and Art ( 2014 ) Honorary Golden Orange Prize , International Antalya Film Festival ( 2014 ) = = Books by Kiarostami = = Havres : French translation by Tayebeh Hashemi and Jean @-@ Restom Nasser , ÉRÈS ( PO & PSY ) ; Bilingual edition ( 3 June 2010 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 7492 @-@ 1223 @-@ 4 . Abbas Kiarostami : Cahiers du Cinema Livres ( 24 October 1997 ) ISBN 2 @-@ 86642 @-@ 196 @-@ 5 . Walking with the Wind ( Voices and Visions in Film ) : English translation by Ahmad Karimi @-@ Hakkak and Michael C. Beard , Harvard Film Archive ; Bilingual edition ( 28 February 2002 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 00844 @-@ 8 . 10 ( ten ) : Cahiers du Cinema Livres ( 5 September 2002 ) ISBN 2 @-@ 86642 @-@ 346 @-@ 1 . With Nahal Tajadod and Jean @-@ Claude Carrière Avec le vent : P.O.L. ( 5 May 2002 ) ISBN 2 @-@ 86744 @-@ 889 @-@ 1 . Le vent nous emportera : Cahiers du Cinema Livres ( 5 September 2002 ) ISBN 2 @-@ 86642 @-@ 347 @-@ X. La Lettre du Cinema : P.O.L. ( 12 December 1997 ) ISBN 2 @-@ 86744 @-@ 589 @-@ 2 . Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . With the Wind -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 0990530825 Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Wind and Leaf -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 0990530833 Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . A Wolf on Watch -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 0990530841 Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Wine ( poetry by Hafez ) -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 1942782128 Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Tears ( poetry by Saadi ) -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 1942782098 Kiarostami , Abbas- ( Translation by Iman Tavassoly and Paul Cronin ) . Water ( poetry by Nima ) -Persian / English dual language- Sticking Place ( 2015 ) ISBN 1942782179
= British Empire = The British Empire comprised the dominions , colonies , protectorates , mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom . It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries . At its height , it was the largest empire in history and , for over a century , was the foremost global power . By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people , one @-@ fifth of the world 's population at the time , and covered more than 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 33 @,@ 670 @,@ 000 km2 ) , almost a quarter of the Earth 's total land area . As a result , its political , legal , linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread . At the peak of its power , the phrase " the empire on which the sun never sets " was often used to describe the British Empire , because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories . During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries , Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe , and in the process established large overseas empires . Envious of the great wealth these empires generated , England , France , and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia . A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England ( and then , following union between England and Scotland in 1707 , Great Britain ) the dominant colonial power in North America and India . The independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies . British attention soon turned towards Asia , Africa , and the Pacific . After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ( 1792 – 1815 ) , Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century ( with London the largest city in the world from about 1830 ) . Unchallenged at sea , British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ( " British Peace " ) , a period of relative peace in Europe and the world ( 1815 – 1914 ) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman . In the early 19th century , the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain ; by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 the country was described as the " workshop of the world " . The British Empire expanded to include India , large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world . Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies , British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions , such as Asia and Latin America . Domestically , political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez @-@ faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise . During this century , the population increased at a dramatic rate , accompanied by rapid urbanisation , causing significant social and economic stresses . To seek new markets and sources of raw materials , the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt , South Africa , and elsewhere . Canada , Australia , and New Zealand became self @-@ governing dominions . By the start of the 20th century , Germany and the United States challenged Britain 's economic lead . Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War , during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire . The conflict placed enormous strain on the military , financial and manpower resources of Britain . Although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I , Britain was no longer the world 's pre @-@ eminent industrial or military power . In the Second World War , Britain 's colonies in South @-@ East Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan . Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies , the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire . India , Britain 's most valuable and populous possession , achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire . The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire . Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty . After independence , many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations , a free association of independent states . The United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations , a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms , that share one monarch — Queen Elizabeth II . = = Origins ( 1497 – 1583 ) = = The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms . In 1496 King Henry VII of England , following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration , commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to discover a route to Asia via the North Atlantic . Cabot sailed in 1497 , five years after the European discovery of America , and although he successfully made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland ( mistakenly believing , like Christopher Columbus , that he had reached Asia ) , there was no attempt to found a colony . Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was heard of his ships again . No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , during the last decades of the 16th century . In the meantime the Protestant Reformation had turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies . In 1562 , the English Crown encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave @-@ raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic trade system . This effort was rebuffed and later , as the Anglo @-@ Spanish Wars intensified , Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic , laden with treasure from the New World . At the same time , influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee ( who was the first to use the term " British Empire " ) were beginning to press for the establishment of England 's own empire . By this time , Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific ocean , Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China , and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area , later to become New France . = = = Plantations of Ireland = = = Although England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies , it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement of Ireland with Protestants from England and Scotland , drawing on precedents dating back to the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 . Several people who helped establish the Plantations of Ireland also played a part in the early colonisation of North America , particularly a group known as the West Country men . = = " First " British Empire ( 1583 – 1783 ) = = In 1578 , Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration . That year , Gilbert sailed for the West Indies with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America , but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic . In 1583 he embarked on a second attempt , on this occasion to the island of Newfoundland whose harbour he formally claimed for England , although no settlers were left behind . Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England , and was succeeded by his half @-@ brother , Walter Raleigh , who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584 . Later that year , Raleigh founded the colony of Roanoke on the coast of present @-@ day North Carolina , but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail . In 1603 , James VI , King of Scots , ascended ( as James I ) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London , ending hostilities with Spain . Now at peace with its main rival , English attention shifted from preying on other nations ' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies . The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century , with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean , and the establishment of private companies , most notably the English East India Company , to administer colonies and overseas trade . This period , until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century , has subsequently been referred to by some historians as the " First British Empire " . = = = Americas , Africa and the slave trade = = = The Caribbean initially provided England 's most important and lucrative colonies , but not before several attempts at colonisation failed . An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years , and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits . Colonies in St Lucia ( 1605 ) and Grenada ( 1609 ) also rapidly folded , but settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts ( 1624 ) , Barbados ( 1627 ) and Nevis ( 1628 ) . The colonies soon adopted the system of sugar plantations successfully used by the Portuguese in Brazil , which depended on slave labour , and — at first — Dutch ships , to sell the slaves and buy the sugar . To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of this trade remained in English hands , Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies . This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces — a series of Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars — which would eventually strengthen England 's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch . In 1655 , England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish , and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas . England 's first permanent settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown , led by Captain John Smith and managed by the Virginia Company . Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck there of the Virginia Company 's flagship , and in 1615 was turned over to the newly formed Somers Isles Company . The Virginia Company 's charter was revoked in 1624 and direct control of Virginia was assumed by the crown , thereby founding the Colony of Virginia . The London and Bristol Company was created in 1610 with the aim of creating a permanent settlement on Newfoundland , but was largely unsuccessful . In 1620 , Plymouth was founded as a haven for puritan religious separatists , later known as the Pilgrims . Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive of many English would @-@ be colonists to risk the arduous trans @-@ Atlantic voyage : Maryland was founded as a haven for Roman Catholics ( 1634 ) , Rhode Island ( 1636 ) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut ( 1639 ) for Congregationalists . The Province of Carolina was founded in 1663 . With the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in 1664 , England gained control of the Dutch colony of New Netherland , renaming it New York . This was formalised in negotiations following the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War , in exchange for Suriname . In 1681 , the colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn . The American colonies were less financially successful than those of the Caribbean , but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants who preferred their temperate climates . In 1670 , Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert 's Land , which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada . Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French , who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France . Two years later , the Royal African Company was inaugurated , receiving from King Charles a monopoly of the trade to supply slaves to the British colonies of the Caribbean . From the outset , slavery was the basis of the British Empire in the West Indies . Until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 , Britain was responsible for the transportation of 3 @.@ 5 million African slaves to the Americas , a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic . To facilitate this trade , forts were established on the coast of West Africa , such as James Island , Accra and Bunce Island . In the British Caribbean , the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 percent in 1650 to around 80 percent in 1780 , and in the 13 Colonies from 10 percent to 40 percent over the same period ( the majority in the southern colonies ) . For the slave traders , the trade was extremely profitable , and became a major economic mainstay for such western British cities as Bristol and Liverpool , which formed the third corner of the so @-@ called triangular trade with Africa and the Americas . For the transported , harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven . In 1695 , the Scottish Parliament granted a charter to the Company of Scotland , which established a settlement in 1698 on the isthmus of Panama . Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada , and afflicted by malaria , the colony was abandoned two years later . The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland — a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise — and ended Scottish hopes of establishing its own overseas empire . The episode also had major political consequences , persuading the governments of both England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries , rather than just crowns . This occurred in 1707 with the Treaty of Union , establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain . = = = Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia = = = At the end of the 16th century , England and the Netherlands began to challenge Portugal 's monopoly of trade with Asia , forming private joint @-@ stock companies to finance the voyages — the English , later British , East India Company and the Dutch East India Company , chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively . The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade , an effort focused mainly on two regions ; the East Indies archipelago , and an important hub in the trade network , India . There , they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other . Although England ultimately eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power , in the short term the Netherlands ' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia . Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne , bringing peace between the Netherlands and England . A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England , but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability , and by 1720 , in terms of sales , the British company had overtaken the Dutch . = = = Global conflicts with France = = = Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered the Nine Years ' War as allies , but the conflict — waged in Europe and overseas between France , Spain and the Anglo @-@ Dutch alliance — left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch , who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget on the costly land war in Europe . The 18th century saw England ( after 1707 , Britain ) rise to be the world 's dominant colonial power , and France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage . The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philippe of Anjou , a grandson of the King of France , raised the prospect of the unification of France , Spain and their respective colonies , an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe . In 1701 , England , Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession , which lasted until 1714 . At the concluding Treaty of Utrecht , Philip renounced his and his descendants ' right to the French throne and Spain lost its empire in Europe . The British Empire was territorially enlarged : from France , Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia , and from Spain , Gibraltar and Minorca . Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean . Spain also ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento ( permission to sell slaves in Spanish America ) to Britain . During the middle decades of the 18th century , there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent , the Carnatic Wars , as the English East India Company ( the Company ) and its French counterpart , the Compagnie française des Indes orientales , struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire . The Battle of Plassey in 1757 , in which the British , led by Robert Clive , defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies , left the Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India . France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states , ending French hopes of controlling India . In the following decades the Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control , either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the British Indian Army , the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys . The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) involving France , Britain and the other major European powers . The signing of the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) had important consequences for the future of the British Empire . In North America , France 's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert 's Land , and the ceding of New France to Britain ( leaving a sizeable French @-@ speaking population under British control ) and Louisiana to Spain . Spain ceded Florida to Britain . Along with its victory over France in India , the Seven Years ' War therefore left Britain as the world 's most powerful maritime power . = = = Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies = = = During the 1760s and early 1770s , relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained , primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament 's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent . This was summarised at the time by the slogan " No taxation without representation " , a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen . The American Revolution began with rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self @-@ government . In response Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule , leading to the outbreak of war in 1775 . The following year , in 1776 , the United States declared independence . The entry of France to the war in 1778 tipped the military balance in the Americans ' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781 , Britain began negotiating peace terms . American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783 . The loss of such a large portion of British America , at the time Britain 's most populous overseas possession , is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the " first " and " second " empires , in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia , the Pacific and later Africa . Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations , published in 1776 , had argued that colonies were redundant , and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion , dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal . The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith 's view that political control was not necessary for economic success . Events in America influenced British policy in Canada , where between 40 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from America following independence . The 14 @,@ 000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys , then part of Nova Scotia , felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax , so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784 . The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada ( mainly English @-@ speaking ) and Lower Canada ( mainly French @-@ speaking ) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities , and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain , with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution . Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars , as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy . The US declared war , the War of 1812 , and invaded Canadian territory as Britain invaded American territory , but the pre @-@ war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent , ensuring Canada 's future would be separate from that of the United States . = = Rise of the " Second " British Empire ( 1783 – 1815 ) = = = = = Exploration of the Pacific = = = Since 1718 , transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various criminal offences in Britain , with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year across the Atlantic . Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the 13 Colonies in 1783 , the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia . The western coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer Willem Jansz in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company , but there was no attempt to colonise it . In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific Ocean , claimed the continent for Britain , and named it New South Wales . In 1778 , Joseph Banks , Cook 's botanist on the voyage , presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement , and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail , arriving in 1788 . Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840 . The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold , mainly because of gold rushes in the colony of Victoria , making its capital Melbourne the richest city in the world and the largest city after London in the British Empire . During his voyage , Cook also visited New Zealand , first discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642 , and claimed the North and South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively . Initially , interaction between the indigenous Māori population and Europeans was limited to the trading of goods . European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century , with numerous trading stations established , especially in the North . In 1839 , the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand . On 6 February 1840 , Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi . This treaty is considered by many to be New Zealand 's founding document , but differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text have meant that it continues to be a source of dispute . = = = War with Napoleonic France = = = Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon , in a struggle that , unlike previous wars , represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations . It was not only Britain 's position on the world stage that was threatened : Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself , just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe . The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win . French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy , which won a decisive victory over a Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805 . Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied , including those of the Netherlands , which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810 . France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815 . Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties : France ceded the Ionian Islands , Malta ( which it had occupied in 1797 and 1798 respectively ) , Mauritius , St Lucia , and Tobago ; Spain ceded Trinidad ; the Netherlands Guyana , and the Cape Colony . Britain returned Guadeloupe , Martinique , French Guiana , and Réunion to France , and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands , while gaining control of Ceylon ( 1795 – 1815 ) . = = = Abolition of slavery = = = With support from the British abolitionist movement , Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807 , which abolished the slave trade in the empire . In 1808 , Sierra Leone was designated an official British colony for freed slaves . The Slavery Abolition Act passed in 1833 abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834 ( with the exception of St. Helena , Ceylon and the territories administered by the East India Company , though these exclusions were later repealed ) . Under the Act , slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of 4 to 6 years of " apprenticeship " . = = Britain 's imperial century ( 1815 – 1914 ) = = Between 1815 and 1914 , a period referred to as Britain 's " imperial century " by some historians , around 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square miles ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire . Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival , other than Russia in central Asia . Unchallenged at sea , Britain adopted the role of global policeman , a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica , and a foreign policy of " splendid isolation " . Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies , Britain 's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries , such as China , Argentina and Siam , which has been characterised by some historians as " Informal Empire " . British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph , new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century , allowing it to control and defend the empire . By 1902 , the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables , the so @-@ called All Red Line . = = = East India Company in Asia = = = The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia . The Company 's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years ' War , and the two continued to co @-@ operate in arenas outside India : the eviction of Napoleon from Egypt ( 1799 ) , the capture of Java from the Netherlands ( 1811 ) , the acquisition of Singapore ( 1819 ) and Malacca ( 1824 ) and the defeat of Burma ( 1826 ) . From its base in India , the Company had also been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to China since the 1730s . This trade , illegal since it was outlawed by the Qing dynasty in 1729 , helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea , which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China . In 1839 , the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20 @,@ 000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War , and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island , at that time a minor settlement . During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company . A series of Acts of Parliament were passed , including the Regulating Act of 1773 , Pitt 's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company 's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired . The Company 's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion , a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys , Indian troops under British officers and discipline . The rebellion took six months to suppress , with heavy loss of life on both sides . The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858 , establishing the British Raj , where an appointed governor @-@ general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India . India became the empire 's most valuable possession , " the Jewel in the Crown " , and was the most important source of Britain 's strength . A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died . The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule . Later , under direct British rule , commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies , which took until the early 1900s to have an effect . = = = Rivalry with Russia = = = During the 19th century , Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire , Qajar dynasty and Qing Dynasty . This rivalry in Eurasia came to be known as the " Great Game " . As far as Britain was concerned , defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India . In 1839 , Britain moved to pre @-@ empt this by invading Afghanistan , but the First Anglo @-@ Afghan War was a disaster for Britain . When Russia invaded the Turkish Balkans in 1853 , fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and Middle East led Britain and France to invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities . The ensuing Crimean War ( 1854 – 56 ) , which involved new techniques of modern warfare , and was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica , was a resounding defeat for Russia . The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades , with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia , Kazakhstan , and Turkmenistan . For a while it appeared that another war would be inevitable , but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo @-@ Russian Entente . The destruction of the Russian Navy by the Japanese at the Battle of Port Arthur during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 also limited its threat to the British . = = = Cape to Cairo = = = The Dutch East India Company had founded the Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies . Britain formally acquired the colony , and its large Afrikaner ( or Boer ) population in 1806 , having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands , following the invasion of the Netherlands by France . British immigration began to rise after 1820 , and pushed thousands of Boers , resentful of British rule , northwards to found their own — mostly short @-@ lived — independent republics , during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s . In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British , who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and with several African polities , including those of the Sotho and the Zulu nations . Eventually the Boers established two republics which had a longer lifespan : the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic ( 1852 – 77 ; 1881 – 1902 ) and the Orange Free State ( 1854 – 1902 ) . In 1902 Britain occupied both republics , concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) . In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III , linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean . Initially the Canal was opposed by the British ; but once opened , its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the " jugular vein of the Empire " . In 1875 , the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma 'il Pasha 's 44 percent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £ 4 million ( £ 340 million in 2013 ) . Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway , it did give Britain leverage . Joint Anglo @-@ French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882 . The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position , but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople , which made the Canal officially neutral territory . With French , Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly incursion of tropical Africa , the Berlin Conference of 1884 – 85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the " Scramble for Africa " by defining " effective occupation " as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims . The scramble continued into the 1890s , and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan . A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896 , and rebuffed a French attempted invasion at Fashoda in 1898 . Sudan was nominally made an Anglo @-@ Egyptian Condominium , but a British colony in reality . British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes , pioneer of British expansion in Africa , to urge a " Cape to Cairo " railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral @-@ rich South . During the 1880s and 1890s , Rhodes , with his privately owned British South Africa Company , occupied and annexed territories subsequently named after him , Rhodesia . = = = Changing status of the white colonies = = = The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report , which proposed unification and self @-@ government for Upper and Lower Canada , as a solution to political unrest there . This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840 , which created the Province of Canada . Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848 , and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies . With the passage of the British North America Act , 1867 by the British Parliament , Upper and Lower Canada , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into the Dominion of Canada , a confederation enjoying full self @-@ government with the exception of international relations . Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self @-@ government after 1900 , with the Australian colonies federating in 1901 . The term " dominion status " was officially introduced at the Colonial Conference of 1907 . The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule . Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852 . Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister , William Gladstone , who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada 's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire , but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament . Although the bill , if passed , would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation , many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break @-@ up of the empire . A second Home Rule bill was also defeated for similar reasons . A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914 , but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising . = = World wars ( 1914 – 1945 ) = = By the turn of the 20th century , fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of " splendid isolation " . Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war . Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy , Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907 , respectively . = = = First World War = = = Britain 's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War . Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany 's overseas colonies in Africa . In the Pacific , Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and Samoa respectively . Plans for a post @-@ war division of the Ottoman Empire , which had joined the war on Germany 's side , were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes – Picot Agreement . This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca , who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers , giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state . The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies also committed the colonies and Dominions , which provided invaluable military , financial and material support . Over 2 @.@ 5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions , as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies . The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home , and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right . The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day . Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light . The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co @-@ ordinate imperial policy . Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919 , the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square miles ( 4 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ) and 13 million new subjects . The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates . Britain gained control of Palestine , Transjordan , Iraq , parts of Cameroon and Togoland , and Tanganyika . The Dominions themselves also acquired mandates of their own : the Union of South Africa gained South @-@ West Africa ( modern @-@ day Namibia ) , Australia gained New Guinea , and New Zealand Western Samoa . Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions . = = = Inter @-@ war period = = = The changing world order that the war had brought about , in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers , and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland , caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy . Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan , Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States . This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Japan and Germany helped in part by the Great Depression , for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations . Although the issue of the empire 's security was a serious concern in Britain , at the same time the empire was vital to the British economy . In 1919 , the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led members of Sinn Féin , a pro @-@ independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster in the 1918 British general election , to establish an Irish assembly in Dublin , at which Irish independence was declared . The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration . The Anglo @-@ Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty , creating the Irish Free State , a Dominion within the British Empire , with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown . Northern Ireland , consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act , immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom . A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for independence . Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that war @-@ time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts . This led to tension , particularly in the Punjab region , where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre . In Britain public opinion was divided over the morality of the event , between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy , and those who viewed it with revulsion . The subsequent Non @-@ Co @-@ Operation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident , and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years . In 1922 , Egypt , which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War , was granted formal independence , though it continued to be a British client state until 1954 . British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian Treaty in 1936 , under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone . In return , Egypt was assisted to join the League of Nations . Iraq , a British mandate since 1920 , also gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932 . In Palestine , Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arab and Jewish communities . The 1917 Balfour Declaration , which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate , stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine , and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power . This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population , who openly revolted in 1936 . As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s , Britain judged the support of the Arab population in the Middle East as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland , and shifted to a pro @-@ Arab stance , limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency . The ability of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy , independent of Britain , was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference . Britain 's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa , and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . After pressure from Ireland and South Africa , the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration , declaring the Dominions to be " autonomous Communities within the British Empire , equal in status , in no way subordinate one to another " within a " British Commonwealth of Nations " . This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster . The parliaments of Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Union of South Africa , the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control , they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent . Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933 , suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression . Ireland distanced itself further from Britain with the introduction of a new constitution in 1937 , making it a republic in all but name . = = = Second World War = = = Britain 's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Newfoundland and South Africa . All soon declared war on Germany , but the Irish Free State chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war . After the German occupation of France in 1940 , Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany , until the entry of the Soviet Union to the war in 1941 . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States , but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war . In August 1941 , Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter , which included the statement that " the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live " should be respected . This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany , or the peoples colonised by European nations , and would later be interpreted differently by the British , Americans , and nationalist movements . In December 1941 , Japan launched , in quick succession , attacks on British Malaya , the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor , and Hong Kong . Churchill 's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe , but the manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain 's standing and prestige as an imperial power . Most damaging of all was the fall of Singapore , which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar . The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand , which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces , into closer ties with the United States . This resulted in the 1951 ANZUS Pact between Australia , New Zealand and the United States of America . = = Decolonisation and decline ( 1945 – 1997 ) = = Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War , the effects of the conflict were profound , both at home and abroad . Much of Europe , a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries , was in ruins , and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union , who now held the balance of global power . Britain was left essentially bankrupt , with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a $ US 4 @.@ 33 billion loan ( US $ 56 billion in 2012 ) from the United States , the last instalment of which was repaid in 2006 . At the same time , anti @-@ colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations . The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union . In principle , both nations were opposed to European colonialism . In practice , however , American anti @-@ communism prevailed over anti @-@ imperialism , and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check . The " wind of change " ultimately meant that the British Empire 's days were numbered , and on the whole , Britain adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies once stable , non @-@ Communist governments were available to transfer power to . This was in contrast to other European powers such as France and Portugal , which waged costly and ultimately unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact . Between 1945 and 1965 , the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to five million , three million of whom were in Hong Kong . = = = Initial disengagement = = = The pro @-@ decolonisation Labour government , elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee , moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire : that of Indian independence . India 's two major political parties — the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League — had been campaigning for independence for decades , but disagreed as to how it should be implemented . Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state , whereas the League , fearing domination by the Hindu majority , desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim @-@ majority regions . Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than 1948 . When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent , the newly appointed ( and last ) Viceroy , Lord Mountbatten , hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947 . The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan . Millions of Muslims subsequently crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa , and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives . Burma , which had been administered as part of the British Raj , and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948 . India , Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth , while Burma chose not to join . The British Mandatory Palestine , where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority , presented the British with a similar problem to that of India . The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust , while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state . Frustrated by the intractability of the problem , attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence , Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve . The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state . Following the defeat of Japan in the Second World War , anti @-@ Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British , who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony , valuing it as a source of rubber and tin . The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malayan @-@ Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority , on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled , independence would be granted . The Malayan Emergency , as it was called , began in 1948 and lasted until 1960 , but by 1957 , Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth . In 1963 , the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore , Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia , but in 1965 Chinese @-@ majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations . Brunei , which had been a British protectorate since 1888 , declined to join the union and maintained its status until independence in 1984 . = = = Suez and its aftermath = = = In 1951 , the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain , under the leadership of Winston Churchill . Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain 's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire , with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre @-@ eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India . However , Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser 's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952 , and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self @-@ determination by 1955 , with independence to follow . Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956 . In July 1956 , Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal . The response of Anthony Eden , who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister , was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal . Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower , by his lack of consultation , and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion . Another of Eisenhower 's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side . Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency . Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives , UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces , and Eden resigned . The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain 's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain 's decline on the world stage , demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence , if not the full support , of the United States . The events at Suez wounded British national pride , leading one MP to describe it as " Britain 's Waterloo " and another to suggest that the country had become an " American satellite " . Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain 's political leaders as " Suez syndrome " where they “ went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing ” , from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982 . While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken , it did not collapse . Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region , intervening in Oman ( 1957 ) , Jordan ( 1958 ) and Kuwait ( 1961 ) , though on these occasions with American approval , as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan 's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States . Britain maintained a military presence in the Middle East for another decade . On 16 January 1968 , a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound , Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez , which included the ones in the Middle East , and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971 , instead of 1975 as earlier planned . By that time over 50 @,@ 000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East , including 30 @,@ 000 in Singapore . The British withdrew from Aden in 1967 , Bahrain in 1971 , and Maldives in 1976 . = = = Wind of change = = = Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town , South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of " the wind of change blowing through this continent " . Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria , and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly . To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s — Sudan , the Gold Coast and Malaya — were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s . Britain 's remaining colonies in Africa , except for self @-@ governing Southern Rhodesia , were all granted independence by 1968 . British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process . Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight @-@ year Mau Mau Uprising . In Rhodesia , the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 , which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980 , as the new nation of Zimbabwe . In the Mediterranean , a guerrilla war waged by Greek Cypriots ended in ( 1960 ) an independent Cyprus , with the UK retaining the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia . The Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo were amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta , though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain . Most of the UK 's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation , established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government , but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members . Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands in the 1970s and 1980s , but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence . The British Virgin Islands , Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain , while Guyana achieved independence in 1966 . Britain 's last colony on the American mainland , British Honduras , became a self @-@ governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973 , achieving full independence in 1981 . A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved . British territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980 . Vanuatu 's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French @-@ speaking communities , as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France . Fiji , Tuvalu , the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea chose to become Commonwealth realms . = = = End of empire = = = In 1980 , Rhodesia , Britain 's last African colony , became the independent nation of Zimbabwe . The New Hebrides achieved independence ( as Vanuatu ) in 1980 , with Belize following suit in 1981 . The passage of the British Nationality Act 1981 , which reclassified the remaining Crown colonies as " British Dependent Territories " ( renamed British Overseas Territories in 2002 ) meant that , aside from a scattering of islands and outposts the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete . In 1982 , Britain 's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands , acting on a long @-@ standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire . Britain 's ultimately successful military response to retake the islands during the ensuing Falklands War was viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain 's status as a world power . The same year , the Canadian government severed its last legal link with Britain by patriating the Canadian constitution from Britain . The 1982 Canada Act passed by the British parliament ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution . Similarly , the Constitution Act 1986 reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain , and the Australia Act 1986 severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states . In 1984 , Brunei , Britain 's last remaining Asian protectorate , gained its independence . In September 1982 the Prime Minister , Margaret Thatcher , traveled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese government on the future of Britain 's last major and most populous overseas territory , Hong Kong . Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking , Hong Kong Island itself had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity , but the vast majority of the colony was constituted by the New Territories , which had been acquired under a 99 @-@ year lease in 1898 , due to expire in 1997 . Thatcher , seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands , initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty , though this was rejected by China . A deal was reached in 1984 — under the terms of the Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration , Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People 's Republic of China , maintaining its way of life for at least 50 years . The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many , including Charles , Prince of Wales , who was in attendance , " the end of Empire " . = = Legacy = = Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles , which were renamed the British Overseas Territories in 2002 . Some are uninhabited except for transient military or scientific personnel ; the remainder are self @-@ governing to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK for foreign relations and defence . The British government has stated its willingness to assist any Overseas Territory that wishes to proceed to independence , where that is an option . British sovereignty of several of the overseas territories is disputed by their geographical neighbours : Gibraltar is claimed by Spain , the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are claimed by Argentina , and the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles . The British Antarctic Territory is subject to overlapping claims by Argentina and Chile , while many countries do not recognise any territorial claims in Antarctica . Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 53 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations , a non @-@ political , voluntary association of equal members , comprising a population of around 2 @.@ 2 billion people . Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to share the British monarch , Queen Elizabeth II , as their head of state . These sixteen nations are distinct and equal legal entities – the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , New Zealand , Papua New Guinea , Antigua and Barbuda , The Bahamas , Barbados , Belize , Grenada , Jamaica , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Solomon Islands and Tuvalu . Decades , and in some cases centuries , of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire . The empire established the use of English in regions around the world . Today it is the primary language of up to 400 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first , second or foreign language . The spread of English from the latter half of the 20th century has been helped in part by the cultural and economic influence of the United States , itself originally formed from British colonies . Except in Africa where nearly all the former colonies have adopted the presidential system , the English parliamentary system has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies , and English common law for legal systems . The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for several former colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific . British Protestant missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread the Anglican Communion to all continents . British colonial architecture , such as in churches , railway stations and government buildings , can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire . Individual and team sports developed in Britain — particularly football , cricket , rugby , netball , lawn bowls , lawn tennis and golf — were also exported . The British choice of system of measurement , the imperial system , continues to be used in some countries in various ways . The convention of driving on the left hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire . Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions , contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas . The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples . Millions left the British Isles , with the founding settler populations of the United States , Canada , Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland . Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities , and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe . Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland . Millions of people moved to and from British colonies , with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of the empire , such as Malaysia and Fiji , and Chinese people to Malaysia , Singapore and the Caribbean . The demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies .
= The History of Sir Charles Grandison = The History of Sir Charles Grandison , commonly called Sir Charles Grandison , is an epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson first published in February 1753 . The book was a response to Henry Fielding 's The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling , which parodied the morals presented in Richardson 's previous novels . The novel follows the story of Harriet Byron who is pursued by Sir Hargrave Pollexfen . After she rejects Pollexfen , he kidnaps her , and she is only freed when Sir Charles Grandison comes to her rescue . After his appearance , the novel focuses on his history and life , and he becomes its central figure . The novel incorporates an epistolary format similar to Richardson 's previous novels , Clarissa and Pamela . Unlike those novels , Charles Grandison , the leading male character , is a morally good man and lacks the villainous intent that is manifested by the Lovelace or Mr. B ( characters of Clarissa and Pamela respectively ) . Richardson was motivated to create such a male figure because of the prompting of his many female friends who wanted a counterpart to the virtues exhibited by Richardson 's female characters . = = Background = = The exact relationship between Fielding 's The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling and Richardson 's The History of Sir Charles Grandison cannot be known , but the character Charles Grandison was designed as a morally " better " hero than the character Tom Jones . In 1749 , a friend asked Richardson " to give the world his idea of a good man and fine gentleman combined " . Richardson hesitated to begin such a project , and he did not work on it until he was prompted the next year ( June 1750 ) by Mrs. Donnelland and Miss Sutton , who were " both very intimate with one Clarissa Harlowe : and both extremely earnest with him to give them a good man " . Near the end of 1751 , Richardson sent a draft of the novel to Mrs. Donnellan , and the novel was being finalised in the middle of 1752 . While Thomas Killingbeck , a compositor , and Peter Bishop , a proofreader , were working for Richardson in his print shop during 1753 , Richardson discovered that printers in Dublin had copies of The History of Sir Charles Grandison and began printing the novel before the English edition was to be published . Richardson suspected that they were involved with the unauthorized distribution of the novel and promptly fired them . Immediately following the firing , Richardson wrote to Lady Bradshaigh , 19 October 1753 : " the Want of the same Ornaments , or Initial Letters [ factotums ] , in each Vol. will help to discover them [ if exported into England ] , although they should put the Booksellers Names that I have affixed . I have got some Friends to write down to Scotland , to endeavour to seize their Edition , if offered to be imported " . There were four Dublin presses used to make unauthorized copies the novel , but none of them were able to add the ornaments that could effectively mimic Richardson 's own . However , there were still worries about the unlicensed copies , and Richardson relied on seven additional printers to speed up the production of Grandison . In November 1753 , Richardson ran an ad in the The Gentleman 's Magazine to announce the " History of Sir Charles Grandison : in a Series of Letters published from the Originals , — By the Editor of Pamela and Clarissa , London : Printed for S. Richardson , and sold by Dodsley in Pall Mall and others . " The first four volumes were published on 13 November 1753 and the next two volumes appeared in December . The final volume was published in March to complete a seven volume series while a six volume set was simultaneously published . Richardson held the sole copyright to Grandison , and , after his death , twenty @-@ fourth shares of Grandison were sold for 20 pounds each . Posthumous editions were published in 1762 ( including revisions by Richardson ) and 1810 . = = Plot summary = = As with his previous novels , Richardson prefaced the novel by claiming to be merely the editor , saying , " How such remarkable collections of private letters fell into the editor 's hand he hopes the reader will not think it very necessary to enquire " . However , Richardson did not keep his authorship secret and , on the prompting of his friends like Samuel Johnson , dropped this framing device from the second edition . The novel begins with the character of Harriet Byron leaving the house of her uncle , George Selby , to visit Mr. and Mrs. Reeves , her cousins , in London . She is an orphan who was educated by her grandparents , and , though she lacks parents , she is heir to a fortune of fifteen thousand pounds , which causes many suitors to pursue her . In London , she is pursued by three suitors , Mr. Greville , Mr. Fenwick and Mr. Orme . This courtship is followed by more suitors : Mr. Fowler , Sir Rowland Meredith and Sir Hargrave Pollexfen . The final one , Pollexfen , pursues Byron vigorously , which causes her to criticise him over a lack of morals and decency of character . However , Pollexfen does not end his pursuits of Byron until she explains that she could never receive his visits again . Pollexfen , unwilling to be without Byron , decides to kidnap her while she attended a masquerade at the Haymarket . She is then imprisoned at Lisson Grove with the support of a widow and two daughters . While he keeps her prisoner , Pollexfen makes it clear to her that she shall be his wife , and that anyone who challenges that will die by his hand . Byron attempts to escape from the house , but this fails . To prevent her from trying to escape again , Pollexfen transports Byron to his home at Windsor . However , he is stopped at Hounslow Heath , where Charles Grandison hears Byron 's pleas for help and immediately attacks Pollexfen . After this rescue , Grandison takes Byron to Colnebrook , the home of Grandison 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the " Earl of L. " After Pollexfen recovers from the attack , he sets out to duel Grandison . However , Grandison refuses on the grounds that dueling is harmful to society . After explaining why obedience to God and society are important , Grandison wins Pollexfen over and obtains his apology to Byron for his actions . She accepts his apology , and he follows with a proposal to marriage . She declines because she , as she admits , is in love with Grandison . However , a new suitor , the Earl of D , appears , and it emerges that Grandison promised himself to an Italian woman , Signorina Clementina della Porretta . As Grandison explains , he was in Italy years before and rescued the Barone della Porretta and a relationship developed between himself and Clementina , the baron 's only daughter . However , Grandison could not marry her , as she demanded that he , an Anglican Protestant , become a Catholic , and he was unwilling to do so . After he left , she grew ill out of despair , and the Porrettas were willing to accept his religion , if he would return and make Clementina happy once more . Grandison , feeling obligated to do what he can to restore Clementina 's happiness , returns to Italy ; however , Clementina determines she can never marry a " heretic " , and so Grandison returns to England and Harriet who accepts him . They are married ; and everyone is accorded their just deserts . In a " Concluding Note " to Grandison , Richardson writes : " It has been said , in behalf of many modern fictitious pieces , in which authors have given success ( and happiness , as it is called ) to their heroes of vicious if not profligate characters , that they have exhibited Human Nature as it is . Its corruption may , indeed , be exhibited in the faulty character ; but need pictures of this be held out in books ? Is not vice crowned with success , triumphant , and rewarded , and perhaps set off with wit and spirit , a dangerous representation ? " In particular , Richardson is referring to novels of Fielding , his literary rival . This note was published with the final volume of Grandison in March 1754 , a few months before Fielding left for Lisbon . Before Fielding died in Lisbon , he included a response to Richardson in his preface to Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon . = = Structure = = The epistolary form unites The History of Sir Charles Grandison with Richardson 's Pamela and Clarissa , but Richardson uses the form in a different way for his final work . In Clarissa , the letters emphasise the plot 's drama , especially when Lovelace alters Clarissa 's letters . However , the dramatic mood is replaced in Grandison with a celebration of Grandison 's moral character . In addition to this lack of dramatic emphasis , the letters of Grandison do not serve to develop character , as the moral core of each character is already complete at the outset . In Richardson 's previous novels , the letters operated as a way to express internal feelings and describe the private lives of characters ; however , the letters of Grandison serve a public function . The letters are not kept to individuals , but forwarded to others to inform a larger community of the novel 's action . In return , letters share the recipients ' responses to the events detailed within the letters . This sharing of personal feelings transforms the individual responders into a chorus that praises the actions of Grandison , Harriet , and Clementina . Furthermore , this chorus of characters emphasises the importance of the written word over the merely subjective , even saying that " Love declared on paper means far more than love declared orally " . = = Themes = = 20th century literary critic Carol Flynn characterises Sir Charles Grandison as a " man of feeling who truly cannot be said to feel " . Flynn claims that Grandison is filled with sexual passions that never come to light , and he represents a perfect moral character in regards to respecting others . Unlike Richardson 's previous novel Clarissa , there is an emphasis on society and how moral characteristics are viewed by the public . As such , Grandison stresses characters acting in the socially accepted ways instead of following their emotional impulses . The psychological realism of Richardson 's earlier work gives way to the expression of exemplars . In essence , Grandison promises " spiritual health and happiness to all who follow the good man 's exemplary pattern " . This can be taken as a sort of " political model of the wise ruler " , especially with Charles 's somewhat pacifist methods of achieving his goals . Although Flynn believes that Grandison represents a moral character , she finds Grandison 's " goodness " " repellent " . Richardson 's other characters , like Clarissa , also exhibit high moral characters , but they are capable of changing over time . However , Grandison is never challenged in the way that Clarissa is , and he is a static , passive character . Grandison , in all situations , obeys the dictates of society and religion , fulfilling obligations rather than expressing personality . However , a character like Harriet is able to express herself fully , and it is possible that Grandison is prohibited from doing likewise because of his epistolary audience , the public . In terms of religious responsibility , Grandison , is unwilling to change his faith , and Clementina initially refuses to marry him over his religion . Grandison attempts to convince her to reconsider by claiming that " her faith would not be at risk " . Besides his dedication to his own religion , and his unwillingness to prevent Clementina from being dedicated to her own , he says that he is bound to helping the Porretta family . Although potentially controversial to the 18th century British public , Grandison and Clementina compromise by agreeing that their sons would be raised as Protestants and their daughters raised as Catholics . In addition to the religious aspects , the work gives " the portrait of how a good marriage should be created and sustained " . To complement the role of marriage , Grandison opposes " sexual deviance " in the 18th century . = = Critical response = = Samuel Johnson was one of the first to respond to the novel , but he focused primarily on the preface : " If you were to require my opinion which part [ in the preface ] should be changed , I should be inclined to the supression of that part which seems to disclaim the composition . What is modesty , if it deserts from truth ? Of what use is the disguise by which nothing is concealed ? You must forgive this , because it is meant well . " Sarah Fielding , in her introduction to The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia , claims that people have an " insatiable Curiosity for Novels or Romances " that tell of the " rural Innocence of a Joseph Andrews , or the inimitable Virtues of Sir Charles Grandison " . Andrew Murphy , in the Gray 's Inn Journal , emphasised the history of the production when he wrote : Mr. Richardson , Author of the celebrated Pamela , and the justly admired Clarissa ... an ingenuous Mind must be shocked to find , that Copies of very near all this Work , from which the Public may reasonable expect both Entertainment and Instruction , have been clandestinely and fraudulently obtained by a Set of Booksellers in Dublin , who have printed of the same , and advertised it in the public Papers .... I am not inclined to cast national Reflections , but I must avow , that I looked up this to be a more flagrant and atrocious Proceeding than any I have heard of for a long Time . Sir Walter Scott , who favoured the bildungsroman and open plots , wrote in his " Prefatory Memoir to Richardson " to The Novels of Samuel Richardson ( 1824 ) : In his two first novels , also , he shewed much attention to the plot ; and though diffuse and prolix in narration , can never be said to be rambling or desultory . No characters are introduced , but for the purpose of advancing the plot ; and there are but few of those digressive dialogues and dissertations with which Sir Charles Grandison abounds . The story keeps the direct road , though it moves slowly . But in his last work , the author is much more excursive . There is indeed little in the plot to require attention ; the various events , which are successively narrated , being no otherwise connected together , than as they place the character of the hero in some new and peculiar point of view . The same may be said of the numerous and long conversations upon religious and moral topics , which compose so great a part of the work , that a venerable old lady , whom we well knew , when in advanced age , she became subject to drowsy fits , chose to hear Sir Charles Grandison read to her as she sat in her elbow @-@ chair , in preference to any other work , ' because , ' said she , ' should I drop asleep in course of the reading , I am sure , when I awake , I shall have lost none of the story , but shall find the party , where I left them , conversing in the cedar @-@ parlour . ' — It is probable , after all , that the prolixity of Richardson , which , to our giddy @-@ paced times , is the greatest fault of his writing , was not such an objective to his contemporaries . Although Scott is antipathetic towards Richardson 's final novel , not everyone was of the same opinion ; Jane Austen was a devotee of the novel , which was part of her mental furniture to the point where she could claim to describe " all that was ever said or done in the cedar parlour " . She would for example casually compare a flower in a new cap she got to the white feather described by Harriet Byron as being in hers . Nevertheless , throughout her life she also subjected Grandison to much affectionate , even satirical mockery - adapting it into a dramatic lampoon ( not published until 1980 ) around 1800 . Her juvenalia also included a heroine who guyed Harriet Byron 's frequent fainting , through being “ in such a hurry to have a succession of fainting fits , that she had scarcely patience enough to recover from one before she fell into another ” . As late as 1813 , she would respond to a long letter from her sister Cassandra by exclaiming “ Dear me ! ... Like Harriet Byron I ask , what am I to do with my Gratitude ” . Later critics believed that it is possible that Richardson 's work failed because the story deals with a " good man " instead of a " rake " , which prompted Richardson 's biographers Thomas Eaves and Ben Kimpel to claim , this " might account for the rather uneasy relationship between the story of the novel and the character of its hero , who is never credible in his double love – or in any love . " Flynn agrees that this possibility is an " attractive one " , and conditions it to say that " it is at least certain that the deadly weighted character of Sir Charles stifles the dramatic action of the book . " John Mullan suggests that the problem stems from Grandison 's role as a hero when he says , " his hero is able to display his virtue in action ; as a consequence , Sir Charles Grandison presents its protagonist without the minutely analyzed reflexes of emotion that brought his heroines to life . " Some critics , like Mark Kinkead @-@ Weekes and Margaret Doody , like the novel and emphasise the importance of the moral themes that Richardson takes up . In a 1987 article , Kinkead @-@ Weekes admits that the " novel fails at the [ moral ] crisis " and " it must be doubtful whether it could hope for much life in the concluding volumes " . However , those like Jean Hagstrum believe that " Richardson 's last novel is considerably better than can be easily imagined by those who have only heard about it . But admittedly it represents a falling off after Clarissa " . Morris Golden simply claims that the novel is a book for old men .
= Perfectionist ( album ) = Perfectionist is the debut studio album by English singer Natalia Kills . It was released on 1 April 2011 through will.i.am Music Group , Cherrytree Records , KonLive and Interscope . Despite having started out as an actress , Kills later became a rap artist and released a single in 2005 ; however , her label went bankrupt . Songwriting remained her principal activity until 2008 , when she was signed by will.i.am and started recording the album . Kills worked with musicians including Fernando Garibay , Jeff Bhasker , and Martin Kierszenbaum , and created a concept album based on perfectionism . Its lyrical content contains references to love , sex , and money , complemented by a sonority rooted in synthpop and dance @-@ pop . Perfectionist received mixed reviews from music critics , who asserted that the singer 's visual projects were superior to her music . Obtaining top 50 positions in some European countries , the album performed moderately on international record charts . In the United Kingdom and United States , the set attained chiefly low positions ; in the latter , its sales as of September 2013 were of 14 @,@ 000 copies . The album spawned three singles — " Mirrors " , " Wonderland " and " Free " — which were generally successful in Europe and were accompanied by music videos . " Mirrors " managed to peak within the top 5 of the US Hot Dance Club Songs . In association with Guillaume Doubet , Kills produced a web series titled Love , Kills xx in order to promote the album , based on her secret thoughts and desires . Comprising 10 episodes , it features Kills seeking revenge and hurting men . = = Background = = Kills was introduced to singing and dancing at the age of 3 , and until she was 12 , she studied in the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art . Kills initially pursued an acting career , appearing in some TV series including All About Me and The Archers ; however , in her hometown of Leeds , she developed an interest in hip hop music . She subsequently entered various rap battles , for which she started writing lyrics , and in 2003 , Kills won a BBC Radio 1 @-@ sponsored " MC Battle " . From there on , she began writing songs for artists and film soundtracks . Kills released her first single on 21 February 2005 , titled " Don 't Play Nice " , under the moniker Verbalicious and with label All Around the World ; it peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . She was also recording for her debut studio album , then @-@ scheduled for an Easter 2006 release . However , the label entered bankruptcy , causing her record deal to be dissolved and the album shelved . Kills continued to work in the music industry , mainly as a songwriter with the alias of Verbz . In 2007 , she relocated to Los Angeles ; the next year , she lent guest vocals to French artist M. Pokora 's song " They Talk Shit About Me " , and changed her stage name to Natalia Cappuccini , under which she self @-@ released an extended play ( EP ) titled Wommannequin . One of Kills ' demos , " Shopaholic " , was remixed by the Remix Artist Collective . After it was posted in American blogger Perez Hilton 's blog , Kills ' MySpace received a high amount of views , and she reached the top of the social network 's unsigned artists chart . While shopping , she was noticed by a man due to her clothing , and gave him her website address ; he subsequently introduced her to a DJ , who took Kills to the American musician will.i.am 's house . In November 2008 , she signed a contract with the latter 's record label , then an imprint of Interscope . = = Recording = = Kills started to prepare material for Perfectionist after establishing her record deal with will.i.am , who served as an executive producer for the album . During the recording sessions , Kills prominently worked with producers Jeff Bhasker , Fernando Garibay , the album 's second executive producer Martin Kierszenbaum , and Theron " The @-@ Ron " Feemster . Akon and Giorgio Tuinfort co @-@ produced " Mirrors " in collaboration with Kierszenbaum . Bhasker was responsible for the entire album 's songwriting and engineering , and mixed " Zombie " . Feemster and Tuinfort provided instrumentation , along with Zach Kasik , Carlos Keery @-@ Fisher and Robert Horn . More artists including Robert Horn and Tony Ugyal were commissioned for engineering . Most of Perfectionist 's songs were recorded at Cherrytree Recording Studios or Enormous Studios ; the latter served as the recording location for songs produced by Bhasker . " Break You Hard " and " Superficial " were produced at the American Dream , while " Wonderland " was produced at that studio and at The Hive . Kills recorded " Love Is a Suicide " and " Broke " at Paradise Studios , " Mirrors " at Chalice Recording Studios , and " If I Was God " at The Boom Boom Room . Kills described working with will.i.am , " [ ... ] it 's almost difficult having a normal conversation with him because he 's firing out ideas all the time . [ ... ] His entire life revolves around creativity , and that 's something I could really relate to . " Kierszenbaum praised Kills ' work ethic during the recording sessions , stating that she would focus simultaneously on the melodic and lyrical structure of song , as well as its soundscape . He went on to say that she " influenced the timbre of the sound " and assisted the production as if " she 's making a movie . " = = Composition = = Perfectionist is a concept album which focusses on how perfectionism influences Kills . " All the songs revolve around my ambition , celebrations , frustration and disappointments of being a perfectionist " , she stated . " I think we 're all perfectionists – we 're all looking for the best to fulfil our ideologies and dreams . " Kills was also inspired by " women 's obsession " with fashion in general . She described the album 's sound as " dark pop " due to its " opinionated " and " confrontational " lyrics which , according to her , differ from mainstream music . The lyrical content is occasionally comical and uses metaphors frequently . Perfectionist is a dance @-@ pop and synthpop album , characterised by " driving rhythm sections and edgy minor @-@ key melodies " . Its opening track , " Perfection " , runs for thirty seconds and sees a " robotic @-@ sounding " therapist listing Kills ' flaws . " Wonderland " , which fantasises about romance and a relationship 's " perfect ending " , includes synthesizer arrangements and choir sections ; the line " Take me to wonderland " is repeated throughout the song . A track including a bassline , piano , club beats and synths , " Free " samples " Wuthering Heights " by Kate Bush . It was written by Kills when she worked as a waitress , and discusses " bailing on a budget " . " Break You Hard " is an industrial pop song with " hypnotic rhythms " , which talks about " breaking a lover " , while " Zombie " incorporates electronic organs and " mumbling bass " in an electronic R & B sound . " Love Is a Suicide " follows , detailing the " self @-@ destruction " that comes with love , as Kills sings , " It 's so surgical , how you dissect every mistake I make , you ’ re like an animal , you bite me hard " . " Disco @-@ pop " track " Mirrors " references sadomasochist sexual practices , while portraying Kills with a dominatrix @-@ like persona ; it contains electric guitars , and a bassline which Robert Copsey from Digital Spy compared to that of Eurythmics ' " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " . The song 's chorus features Kills singing in a falsetto note . Writing for Consequence of Sound , Alex Young opined that the song discusses " the duplicity of identity , hubris , and objectification " . " Not In Love " is styled in electronica and influenced by acid house . AllMusic writer Jon O 'Brien wrote that it " provides a welcome respite from the album 's constant floor @-@ filling leanings " . On " Acid Annie " , Kills plots a revenge on an ex @-@ boyfriend , while on the synthpop track " Superficial " , she confronts her " consumptive impulses " and appreciation of " finer things . " " Broke " sees Kills talking about money ; " Nothing Lasts Forever " is a duet with Bhasker , who performs under the alias of Billy Kraven . It was noted by O 'Connor for its prominent use of Auto @-@ Tune . Perfectionist closes with " If I Was God " , in which Kills asks her partner if he would love her if she was poor . For musicOMH , Blair Kelly likened its chorus ' melody to that of Bush 's " Running Up That Hill " . = = Release and promotion = = The cover art for Perfectionist , which depicts Kills sitting on an exam chair , with a red cross covering her eyes , was unveiled by Cherrytree on 11 March 2011 . In Austria , Germany and Switzerland , the album was released by Universal Music as a CD and digital download on the first day of April , while in Poland it was issued on 14 April . The American release proceeded on 16 August , as well as for Canada . That day , Kills performed songs from the album at the New York City @-@ based building Atlas , accompanied by a keyboardist . On 19 September , it was released in the United Kingdom . = = = Singles and music videos = = = " Zombie " was selected as Perfectionist 's first promotional single , and was released on 21 December 2009 . Its music video , which features Kills being tortured in a laboratory , was released on 16 March of the following year . The song was used in the sixth episode of the first season of the Syfy reality television series Face Off , aired 2 March 2011 . Despite not having been included in the album , " Activate My Heart " was released as its second promotional single on 13 April 2010 , while an accompanying visual was uploaded on 17 December . " Mirrors " was digitally released as the album 's lead single on 10 August 2010 , while a CD single was issued six months later in Germany . An accompanying music video was released on 1 December 2010 , featuring Kills being dragged into a mirror and subsequently exploring the concepts of vanity , control and sex . The song charted . " Wonderland " followed as the second single from Perfectionist , and was available for purchase on 25 April 2011 . It only charted in Austria and Germany , respectively at number 55 and 45 . Doubet was commissioned to direct its music video , which sees Kills being forced into a mansion , being fed a cooked heart and ultimately climbing up a table , leading to chaos and violence inside the house . Selected as the album 's third single , a remix of " Free " with guest vocals from will.i.am , was released on 24 June 2011 , with an accompanying visual being released ten days later . It obtained top 20 positions in Germany and Austria . A video for " Kill My Boyfriend " was released on 10 January 2012 . It was filmed in France , and depicts Kills attempting to murder her boyfriend by drowning him in a tub of milk . Despite not having been released as a single , it peaked at number 19 on the Flanders Ultratip chart . = = = Love , Kills xx = = = To promote the album , a web series titled Love , Kills xx was written , produced and directed by Kills and Guillaume Doubet . The episodes feature the former as their protagonist ; Akon , Far East Movement and Colette Carr appear as guests . According to Kills , the series are mostly devoid of dialogue in order to center on " emotion and action " . She also said that the visuals were an " expression " of her secret thoughts , regrets and desires . Each episode contains an instrumental of a song from Perfectionist , and most videos contain narration from Kills . The first episode starts with Kills furiously walking with a revolver in direction of a blonde man ; she later ties him up on a bed , as he screams and tries to resist . Kills calls a friend whose name is not revealed , and asks him for help . During the second episode , Kills assassinates another man and takes his photograph ; the next episode , she is arrested by a group — played by Far East Movement — who threaten her . She manages to strangle the leader of the group , and later leaves a message for her anonymous friend , warning him that her face is being distributed on wanted posters . The fourth episode begins with Kills and a man involving in sexual activity . By the morning , the latter wakes up while Kills is asleep , and steals her passport and revolver . Kills is surprised to see that he has left and gets angry after realizing that she was robbed . During the 1970s exploitation film @-@ inspired fifth episode , a victim of Kills denounces her to a detective , revealing that she left him in a desert . In the following episode , Kills runs over the man who robbed her two episodes earlier , with her convertible , and retrieves her passport . As the seventh webisode begins , Kills argues with her new boyfriend , who slaps her . Kills meets with him a week later , telling him that she 's not angry , however she hits him with a baseball bat . In the eighth episode , set in a hotel , Kills wins a checkers game between her and a man — played by Akon — who carries a black box ; she exits the hotel carrying the box . The box , which contains a list of men names , is opened by Kills during the penultimate episode . She takes the list and crosses the name " Jeremy " off it . The camera shifts to a field where Kills makes a man jump from a cliff , by playing a game of " cold , warm and hot " with him . The last episode sees Kills and a friend of hers — interpreted by Carr — burning the car of the latter 's boyfriend . = = = Tour = = = To further promote the album , Kills went on a 58 @-@ date promotional tour , starting from 24 June 2011 and concluding on 22 November 2011 . = = = = Tour dates = = = = A ^ Marked dates supporting The Black Eyed Peas on their The Beginning Massive Stadium Tour . B ^ This concert was a part of the Glastonbury Festival 2011 . C ^ This concert was a part of the Wireless Festival 2011 . D ^ Marked dates supporting Ke $ ha on her Get Sleazy Tour . E ^ Marked dates supporting Katy Perry on her California Dreams Tour . F ^ Marked dates supporting The Sounds on their 2011 tour . = = Reception = = Upon release , Perfectionist received polarized reviews from music critics . Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic summarised it as " formulaic and gimmicky " , and observed that the music was secondary to Kills ' attempts of establishing a mature image . AltSounds staff member Jack Stevin deemed it " disappointing " and unfocused , writing that Kills was not in control of the album and that she had an " air of pretension around " her . Stevin additionally said that Kills was stronger as a " visual artist " . Darryl Sterdan of Canoe.ca rated Perfectionist with three out of five points . Comparing it to the music of Lady Gaga , Kesha and Robyn , he opined , " Guess that 's why it 's not called Innovator . " Writing for Consequence of Sound , Alex Young noted that Kills expressed herself better as a musician through music videos , and surmised that " not all the songs on Perfectionist hit their mark " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner described it as " finely tailored " and " exciting " , and gave it four stars out of five. musicOMH writer Blair Kelly characterised the album as imperfect , " uninspired , unoriginal and obvious " while negatively comparing it to the works of American artist Lady Gaga . In Europe , the album achieved moderate chart success . On the chart issue dated 1 October 2011 , it entered the UK Albums Chart at number 129 . In Austria and Canada , the album respectively reached number 35 and 36 , while in the German and Swiss album charts , it peaked at number 50 and 94 . Perfectionist managed to top the US Heatseekers Albums and reach number 6 of the Dance / Electronic Albums , despite entering the main Billboard 200 chart at number 134 . By August 2013 , it had sold 14 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album reached number 36 . Kills credited the success of the album and its singles with changing her life , commenting , " I had nowhere to live , [ ... ] got on a plane to LA and then two years later I had sold over 800 @,@ 000 singles . I wrote 14 songs and that 's what happened ? [ ... ] I would never have thought this . I would have probably thought I was dead by now . " Kills discussed Perfectionist during 2013 interviews . She revealed that after having lived a deplorable life in London , her ambitions and dreams influenced the album 's lyrics . " I was not as aware of ... how I was " , she stated . " I almost had a bit of fear where everybody wants to be loved , everybody wants to be understood in a way that 's not full of judgment or blame . So I put all of myself into the album and then [ kept ] bits out . " That year , Corner hailed Perfectionist as " one of the most underrated pop collections in recent memory " , and Idolator 's Sam Lansky opined that although it had " killer " choruses , the album suffered from excessive similarities to other artists . = = Track listing = = Notes ^ a signifies a co @-@ producer = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Perfectionist . = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= Igbo Landing = Igbo Landing ( alternatively written as Ibo Landing , Ebo Landing , or Ebos Landing ) is a historic site at Dunbar Creek on St. Simons Island , Glynn County , Georgia . It was the setting of a mass suicide in 1803 by captive Igbo people who had taken control of their slave ship and refused to submit to slavery in the United States . The event 's moral value as a story of resistance towards slavery has symbolic importance in African American folklore and literary history . = = History = = In May 1803 a shipload of captive West Africans , upon surviving the middle passage , were landed by U.S.-paid captors in Savannah by slave ship , to be auctioned off at one of the local slave markets . The ship 's enslaved passengers included a number of Igbo people from what is now Nigeria . The Igbo were known by planters and slavers of the American South for being fiercely independent and resistant to chattel slavery . The group of 75 Igbo slaves were bought by agents of John Couper and Thomas Spalding for forced labor on their plantations in St. Simons Island for $ 100 each . The chained slaves were packed under the deck of a small vessel named the The Schooner York to be shipped to the island ( other sources say the voyage took place aboard The Morovia ) . During this voyage the Igbo slaves rose up in rebellion , taking control of the ship and drowning their captors in the process causing the grounding of the Morovia in Dunbar Creek at the site now locally known as Ibo Landing . The following sequence of events is unclear , as there are several versions concerning the revolt 's development , some of which are considered mythological . Apparently the Africans went ashore and subsequently , under the direction of a high Igbo chief among them , walked in unison into the creek singing in the Igbo language " The Water Spirit brought us , the Water Spirit will take us home " . They thereby accepted the protection of their god Chukwu and death over the alternative of slavery . Roswell King , a white overseer on the nearby Pierce Butler plantation , wrote one of the only contemporary accounts of the incident which states that as soon as the Igbo landed on St. Simons Island they took to the swamp , committing suicide by walking into Dunbar Creek . A 19th century account of the event written in identifies the captain by the surname Patterson , and names Roswell King as the person who recovered the bodies of the drowned . A letter describing the event written by Savannah slave dealer William Mein states that the Igbo walked into the marsh , where 10 to 12 drowned , while some were " salvaged " by bounty hunters who received $ 10 a head from Spalding and Couper . According to some sources , survivors of the Igbo rebellion were taken to Cannon 's Point on St. Simons Island and Sapelo Island . = = Historical context = = Igbo Landing was the final scene of events which in 1803 amounted to a " major act of resistance " by the Africans . These events have had enduring symbolic importance in African @-@ American folklore and literary history . The mutiny by the Igbo people has been referred to as the first " freedom march " in the history of America . Although for more than two centuries most authorities considered the accounts to be an Afro @-@ American folktale , research since 1980 has verified the factual basis of the legend and its historical content . The site was included as a historic resource in a 2009 county survey . The site bears no official historical marker . A sewage disposal plant was built beside the historical site in the 1940s despite local opposition by African Americans . The site is still routinely visited by historians and tourists . The event has recently been incorporated into the history curriculum of coastal Georgia schools . = = Mythology and folklore = = The story of the Igbo slaves who chose death over a life of slavery is a recurring story that has taken deep roots in African American and Gullah folklore . As is typical of oral histories , the facts have evolved over time , in many cases taking on mythological aspects . = = = Myth of the water @-@ walking Africans = = = Floyd White , an elderly African American interviewed by the Federal Writers Project in the 1930s is recorded as saying : Heard about the Ibo ’ s Landing ? That ’ s the place where they bring the Ibos over in a slave ship and when they get here , they ain ’ t like it and so they all start singing and they march right down in the river to march back to Africa , but they ain ’ t able to get there . They gets drown . A typical Gullah telling of the events , incorporating many of the recurrent themes that are common to most myths related to the Igbo Landing , is recorded by Linda S. Watts : The West Africans upon assessing their situation resolved to risk their lives by walking home over the water rather than submit to the living death that awaited them in American slavery . As the tale has it , the tribes people disembark from the ship , and as a group , turned around and walked along the water , traveling in the opposite direction from the arrival port . As they took this march together , the West Africans joined in song . They are reported to have sung a hymn in which the lyrics assert that the water spirits will take them home . While versions of this story vary in nuance , all attest to the courage in rebellion displayed by the enslaved Igbo . = = = Myth of the flying Africans = = = Another popular legend associated with Igbo Landing is known as the myth of the flying Africans . It was recorded from various oral sources in the 1930s by members of the Federal Writers Project . In these cases , the Africans are reputed to have grown wings or turned into vultures , before flying back home to freedom in Africa . Wallace Quarterman , an African American born in 1844 who was interviewed in 1930 , when asked if he had heard about the Igbo landing states : Ain 't you heard about them ? Well , at that time Mr. Blue he was the overseer and . . . Mr. Blue he go down one morning with a long whip for to whip them good . . . . Anyway , he whipped them good and they got together and stuck that hoe in the field and then . . . rose up in the sky and turned themselves into buzzards and flew right back to Africa . . . . Everybody knows about them . As Professor Terri L. Snyder notes : The flying African folktale probably has its historical roots in an 1803 collective suicide by newly imported slaves . A group of Igbo ( variously , Ebo or Ibo ) captives who had survived the middle passage were sold near Savannah , Georgia , and reloaded onto a small ship bound for St. Simon 's Island . Off the coast of the island , the enslaved cargo , who had " suffered much by mismanagement , " " rose " from their confinement in the small vessel , and revolted against the crew , forcing them into the water where they drowned . After the ship ran aground , the Igbos " took to the marsh " and drowned themselves — an act that most scholars have understood as a deliberate , collective suicide . The site of their fatal immersion was named Ebos Landing . The fate of those Igbo in 1803 gave rise to a distinctive regional folklore and a place name . = = = Reported haunting = = = Local people claim that the Igbo Landing and surrounding marshes in Dunbar Creek are haunted by the souls of the dead Igbo slaves . = = Legacy = = In September 2002 the St. Simon African @-@ American Heritage Coalition organized a two @-@ day commemoration with events related to Igbo history and a procession to the site . The 75 attendees came from other states , as well as Nigeria , and Belize and Haiti , where similar resistance had taken place . They gathered to designate the site as holy ground and give the souls rest . The account of the Igbo is now part of the curriculum for coastal Georgia schools . = = = Representation in other media = = = The historical events pertaining to the Igbo slave escape in Dunbar Creek , and the associated myth , have inspired and influenced a number of African @-@ American artists . Examples include Nobel laureate Toni Morrison , who used the myth of the flying Africans in her novel , Song of Solomon , and Alex Haley , who retells the story in his book Roots . The Paule Marshall novel Praisesong for the Widow also was inspired by these events . They are retold from the context of the Gullah descendants in the feature film Daughters of the Dust ( 1993 ) , directed by Julie Dash . Other contemporary artists that allude to , or have integrated the complete tale of the Flying Africans in their work include Joseph Zobel , Maryse Conde , Toni Cade Bambara and Jamaica Kincaid . Imagery from the " Love Drought " portion of Beyonce 's visual album Lemonade ( Beyoncé album ) are said to be inspired by Daughters of the Dust and the story of Igbo Landing .
= Samuel Merrill Woodbridge = The Reverend Samuel Merrill Woodbridge , D.D. , LL.D. ( April 5 , 1819 – June 23 , 1905 ) was an American clergyman , theologian , author , and college professor . A graduate of New York University and the New Brunswick Theological Seminary , Woodbridge preached for sixteen years as a clergyman in the Reformed Church in America . After settling in New Brunswick , New Jersey , he taught for 44 years as professor of ecclesiastical history and church government at the New Brunswick Theological Seminary , and for seven years as professor of " metaphysics and philosophy of the human mind " at Rutgers College ( now Rutgers , The State University of New Jersey ) in New Brunswick . Woodbridge later led the New Brunswick seminary as Dean and President of the Faculty from 1883 to 1901 . He was the author of three books and several published sermons and addresses covering various aspects of Christian faith , theology , church history and government . = = Biography = = Samuel Merrill Woodbridge was born April 5 , 1819 in Greenfield , Massachusetts . He was the third of six children born to the Rev. Sylvester Woodbridge , D.D. ( 1790 – 1863 ) and Elizabeth Gould ( died in 1851 ) . According to a genealogical chart published in Munsey 's Magazine in 1907 , Woodbridge was in the eleventh generation of a family of clergymen dating back to the late 15th century . The earliest clergyman in this ancestral line , the Rev. John Woodbridge ( born in 1493 ) , was a follower of John Wycliffe . Woodbridge attended New York University , receiving a Bachelor of Arts ( A.B. ) degree in 1838 . As an undergraduate student , Woodbridge was a member of the university 's secretive , all @-@ male Eucleian Society and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa . He was awarded a Master of Arts ( A.M. ) from the New Brunswick Theological Seminary in 1841 and was installed as a minister by the Reformed Church 's Classis of New York , a governing body overseeing churches within the region . At this time , his alma mater , New York University , promoted his bachelor 's degree to a Master of Arts . After his graduation from seminary , he served as pastor at the South Reformed Dutch Church in South Brooklyn ( 1841 – 49 ) , at the Second Reformed Church in Coxsackie , New York ( 1849 – 52 ) , and at the Second Reformed Church in New Brunswick , New Jersey ( 1852 – 57 ) . In December 1857 , Woodbridge was appointed to the faculty of two schools in New Brunswick , New Jersey . He would serve 44 years as a professor of ecclesiastical history and church government at New Brunswick Theological Seminary ( from 1857 to 1901 ) and for seven years as a professor of " Metaphysics and Philosophy of the Human Mind " at Rutgers College ( from 1857 to 1864 ) . Both schools were then affiliated with the Protestant Dutch Reformed faith . He was appointed by the Synod to a vacancy in both professorates caused by the death of the Rev. John Ludlow , D.D. ( 1793 – 1857 ) , on September 8 , 1857 . During his tenure at the seminary , Woodbridge also provided instruction in the areas of pastoral , didactic and polemic theology — often when there were vacancies amongst the faculty . In 1883 , the church 's General Synod decided that the " oldest professor in service in the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick be styled Dean of the Seminary , and to him shall be entrusted the discipline of the Institution , according to such regulations as may be agreed upon by the Faculty . " Woodbridge led the seminary as its first Dean of the Seminary , and subsequently as President of the Faculty until his retirement in 1901 . Both positions were predecessors to the present seminary president . During his career , Woodbridge received honorary degrees from Union College ( D.D. 1858 ) and from Rutgers College ( A.M. , 1841 ; D.D. , 1857 ; LL.D. 1883 ) . He retired from teaching in 1901 as an emeritus professor , at the age of 82 . Woodbridge married twice . His first marriage was to Caroline Bergen ( who died in 1861 ) in February 1845 ; the couple had one daughter , Caroline Woodbridge ( born in 1845 ) . On December 20 , 1866 he married his second wife , Anna Wittaker Dayton ( 1823 – 1920 ) , with whom he had two daughters , Anna Dayton Woodbridge ( born in 1869 ) and Mary Elizabeth Woodbridge ( born in 1872 ) . Woodbridge died at the age of 86 on June 23 , 1905 in New Brunswick , New Jersey . He was interred in a family plot in the city 's Elmwood Cemetery . Church historian Charles Edward Corwin recorded that Woodbridge was described as having a strong personality that " made dry subjects to glow with life , " adding that he " was very firm in the faith but his loving heart made him kindly even toward those whose opinion he considered dangerous . " = = Works = = = = = Books = = = 1872 : Analysis of Systematic Theology ( 1st Edition ) 1883 : Analysis of Systematic Theology ( 2nd Edition ) 1895 : Manual of Church History 1896 : Synopsis of Church Government = = = Sermons and discourses = = = Various sermons , addresses , and discourses given in public by Rev. Woodbridge have been printed in newspapers and periodicals , as part of a collection of addresses in books , and as separately published pamphlets . These smaller works include : 1853 : " Principles of Our Government : A Thanksgiving Discourse " 1856 : " Sermon on Human Government " , printed in the New Brunswick Fredonian 1857 : " Inaugural Discourse as Professor of Ecclesiastical History " 1857 : " On the Family " , printed in The Christian Intelligencer 1865 : " Power of the Bible " , printed in The National Preacher and Village Pulpit 1867 : " Address " published in Richard Holloway Steele 's Historical Discourse delivered at the Celebration of the One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of the First Reformed Dutch Church 1869 : " Address " included in Proceedings at the Centennial Anniversary of the Dedication of the North Dutch Church , May 25 , 1869 1871 : " Discourse on Benevolence given before the General Synod at Albany " , printed in Christian Intelligencer 1875 : Faith : It 's True Position in the Life of Man : A Discourse , preached November 22d , 1874 , in the chapel of Rutgers College 1885 : " Historical Theology : An Address " , included in David Demarest 's Centennial of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in America , formerly the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church , 1784 – 1884 1894 : " Characteristics of Dr. Campbell " , included in A Memorial of Rev. William Henry Campbell , D.D. , LL.D. , Late President of Rutgers College 1897 : " Address by Professor Woodbridge " , included in Fortieth Anniversary of the Inauguration of the Rev. S. M. Woodbridge , D.D. , LL.D. , as Professor in the Theological Seminary of the Reformed ( Dutch ) Church in America at New Brunswick , 1857 – 1897
= Katyn massacre = The Katyn massacre ( Polish : zbrodnia katyńska , mord katyński , " Katyń crime " ; Russian : Катынский расстрел Katynskij rasstrel , " Katyn shooting " ) was a series of mass executions of Polish nationals carried out by the NKVD ( " People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs " , a Soviet secret police organisation ) in April and May 1940 . Though the killings took place at several different locations , the massacre is named after the Katyn Forest , where some of the mass graves were first discovered . The massacre was prompted by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria 's proposal to execute all captive members of the Polish officer corps , dated 5 March 1940 , approved by the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , including its leader , Joseph Stalin . The number of victims is estimated at about 22 @,@ 000 . The victims were executed in the Katyn Forest in Russia , the Kalinin and Kharkiv prisons , and elsewhere . Of the total killed , about 8 @,@ 000 were officers imprisoned during the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland , another 6 @,@ 000 were police officers , and the rest were arrested Polish intelligentsia that the Soviets deemed to be " intelligence agents , gendarmes , landowners , saboteurs , factory owners , lawyers , officials , and priests " . The government of Nazi Germany announced the discovery of mass graves in the Katyn Forest in 1943 . When the London @-@ based Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile asked for an investigation by the International Committee of the Red Cross , Stalin immediately severed diplomatic relations with it . The USSR claimed that the victims had been murdered by the Nazis in 1941 and continued to deny responsibility for the massacres until 1990 , when it officially acknowledged and condemned the perpetration of the killings by the NKVD , as well as the subsequent cover @-@ up by the Soviet government . An investigation conducted by the office of the Prosecutors General of the Soviet Union ( 1990 – 1991 ) and the Russian Federation ( 1991 – 2004 ) confirmed Soviet responsibility for the massacres but refused to classify this action as a war crime or an act of genocide . The investigation was closed on the grounds that the perpetrators of the atrocity were already dead , and since the Russian government would not classify the dead as victims of the Great Purge , formal posthumous rehabilitation was deemed inapplicable . In November 2010 , the Russian State Duma approved a declaration blaming Stalin and other Soviet officials for having personally ordered the massacre . = = Background = = At least 111 @,@ 091 people were executed during the Polish Operation of the NKVD ( 1937 – 38 ) . On 1 September 1939 , the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany began . Consequently , Britain and France , obligated by the Anglo @-@ Polish military alliance and Franco @-@ Polish alliance to attack Germany in the case of such an invasion , demanded that Germany withdraw . On 3 September 1939 , after Germany failed to comply , Britain , France , and most countries of the British Empire declared war on Germany , but provided little military support to Poland . They took minimal military action during what became known as the Phoney War . The Soviet invasion of Poland began on 17 September in accordance with the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact . The Red Army advanced quickly and met little resistance , as Polish forces facing them were under orders not to engage the Soviets . About 250 @,@ 000 to 454 @,@ 700 Polish soldiers and policemen were captured and interned by the Soviet authorities . Some were freed or escaped quickly , but 125 @,@ 000 were imprisoned in camps run by the NKVD . Of these , 42 @,@ 400 soldiers , mostly of Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnicity serving in the Polish army , who lived in the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union , were released in October . The 43 @,@ 000 soldiers born in western Poland , then under German control , were transferred to the Germans ; in turn , the Soviets received 13 @,@ 575 Polish prisoners from the Germans . Soviet repressions of Polish citizens occurred as well over this period . Since Poland 's conscription system required every nonexempt university graduate to become a military reserve officer , the NKVD was able to round up a significant portion of the Polish educated class . According to estimates by the Institute of National Remembrance ( IPN ) , roughly 320 @,@ 000 Polish citizens were deported to the Soviet Union ( this figure is questioned by some other historians , who hold to older estimates of about 700 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . IPN estimates the number of Polish citizens who died under Soviet rule during World War II at 150 @,@ 000 ( a revision of older estimates of up to 500 @,@ 000 ) . Of the group of 12 @,@ 000 Poles sent to Dalstroy camp ( near Kolyma ) in 1940 – 1941 , mostly POWs , only 583 men survived ; they were released in 1942 to join the Polish Armed Forces in the East . According to Tadeusz Piotrowski , " during the war and after 1944 , 570 @,@ 387 Polish citizens had been subjected to some form of Soviet political repression " . As early as 19 September , the head of the NKVD , Lavrentiy Beria , ordered the secret police to create the Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees to manage Polish prisoners . The NKVD took custody of Polish prisoners from the Red Army , and proceeded to organise a network of reception centers and transit camps , and to arrange rail transport to prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps in the western USSR . The largest camps were located at Kozelsk ( Optina Monastery ) , Ostashkov ( Stolobny Island on Lake Seliger near Ostashkov ) , and Starobelsk . Other camps were at Jukhnovo ( rail station Babynino ) , Yuzhe ( Talitsy ) , rail station Tyotkino ( 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) from Putyvl ) , Kozelshchyna , Oranki , Vologda ( rail station Zaonikeevo ) , and Gryazovets . Kozelsk and Starobelsk were used mainly for military officers , while Ostashkov was used mainly for Polish Scouting , gendarmes , police officers , and prison officers . Some prisoners were members of other groups of Polish intelligentsia , such as priests , landowners , and law personnel . The approximate distribution of men throughout the camps was as follows : Kozelsk , 5000 ; Ostashkov , 6570 ; and Starobelsk , 4000 . They totaled 15 @,@ 570 men . According to a report from 19 November 1939 , the NKVD had about 40 @,@ 000 Polish POWs : about 8 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 500 officers and warrant officers , 6 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 500 police officers , and 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and non @-@ commissioned officers who were still being held as POWs . In December , a wave of arrests resulted in the imprisonment of additional Polish officers . Ivan Serov reported to Lavrentiy Beria on 3 December that " in all , 1 @,@ 057 former officers of the Polish Army had been arrested " . The 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and non @-@ commissioned officers were assigned to forced labor ( road construction , heavy metallurgy ) . Once at the camps , from October 1939 to February 1940 , the Poles were subjected to lengthy interrogations and constant political agitation by NKVD officers , such as Vasily Zarubin . The prisoners assumed they would be released soon , but the interviews were in effect a selection process to determine who would live and who would die . According to NKVD reports , if the prisoners could not be induced to adopt a pro @-@ Soviet attitude , they were declared " hardened and uncompromising enemies of Soviet authority " . On 5 March 1940 , pursuant to a note to Joseph Stalin from Beria , six members of the Soviet Politburo — Stalin , Vyacheslav Molotov , Lazar Kaganovich , Kliment Voroshilov , Anastas Mikoyan , and Mikhail Kalinin — signed an order to execute 25 @,@ 700 Polish " nationalists and counterrevolutionaries " kept at camps and prisons in occupied western Ukraine and Belarus . The reason for the massacre , according to historian Gerhard Weinberg , was that Stalin wanted to deprive a potential future Polish military of a large portion of its talent : It has been suggested that the motive for this terrible step [ the Katyn massacre ] was to reassure the Germans as to the reality of Soviet anti @-@ Polish policy . This explanation is completely unconvincing in view of the care with which the Soviet regime kept the massacre secret from the very German government it was supposed to impress . ... A more likely explanation is that ... [ the massacre ] should be seen as looking forward to a future in which there might again be a Poland on the Soviet Union 's western border . Since he intended to keep the eastern portion of the country in any case , Stalin could be certain that any revived Poland would be unfriendly . Under those circumstances , depriving it of a large proportion of its military and technical elite would make it weaker . The Soviet leadership , and Stalin in particular , viewed the Polish prisoners as a " problem " as they might resist being under Soviet rule . Therefore the decision was made that the prisoners inside the " special camps " were to be shot as " avowed enemies of Soviet authority " . = = Executions = = The number of victims is estimated at about 22 @,@ 000 , with a lower limit of confirmed dead of 21 @,@ 768 . According to Soviet documents declassified in 1990 , 21 @,@ 857 Polish internees and prisoners were executed after 3 April 1940 : 14 @,@ 552 prisoners of war ( most or all of them from the three camps ) and 7 @,@ 305 prisoners in western parts of the Byelorussian and Ukrainian SSRs . Of them 4 @,@ 421 were from Kozelsk , 3 @,@ 820 from Starobelsk , 6 @,@ 311 from Ostashkov , and 7 @,@ 305 from Byelorussian and Ukrainian prisons . The head of the NKVD POW department , Maj. General P. K. Soprunenko , organized " selections " of Polish officers to be massacred at Katyn and elsewhere . Those who died at Katyn included soldiers ( an admiral , two generals , 24 colonels , 79 lieutenant colonels , 258 majors , 654 captains , 17 naval captains , 85 privates , 3 @,@ 420 non @-@ commissioned officers , and seven chaplains ) , 200 pilots , government representatives and royalty ( a prince , 43 officials ) , and civilians ( three landowners , 131 refugees , 20 university professors , 300 physicians ; several hundred lawyers , engineers , and teachers ; and more than 100 writers and journalists ) . In all , the NKVD executed almost half the Polish officer corps . Altogether , during the massacre , the NKVD executed 14 Polish generals : Leon Billewicz ( ret . ) , Bronisław Bohatyrewicz ( ret . ) , Xawery Czernicki ( admiral ) , Stanisław Haller ( ret . ) , Aleksander Kowalewski ( ret . ) , Henryk Minkiewicz ( ret . ) , Kazimierz Orlik @-@ Łukoski , Konstanty Plisowski ( ret . ) , Rudolf Prich ( murdered in Lviv ) , Franciszek Sikorski ( ret . ) , Leonard Skierski ( ret . ) , Piotr Skuratowicz , Mieczysław Smorawiński , and Alojzy Wir @-@ Konas ( promoted posthumously ) . Not all of the executed were ethnic Poles , because the Second Polish Republic was a multiethnic state , and its officer corps included Belarusians , Ukrainians , and Jews . It is estimated that about 8 % of the Katyn massacre victims were Polish Jews . 395 prisoners were spared from the slaughter , among them Stanisław Swianiewicz and Józef Czapski . They were taken to the Yukhnov camp or Pavlishtchev Bor and then to Gryazovets . Up to 99 % of the remaining prisoners were subsequently murdered . People from the Kozelsk camp were executed in Katyn Forest ; people from the Starobelsk camp were murdered in the inner NKVD prison of Kharkiv and the bodies were buried near the village of Piatykhatky ; and police officers from the Ostashkov camp were murdered in the internal NKVD prison of Kalinin ( Tver ) and buried in Mednoye . Detailed information on the executions in the Kalinin NKVD prison was provided during a hearing by Dmitry Tokarev , former head of the Board of the District NKVD in Kalinin . According to Tokarev , the shooting started in the evening and ended at dawn . The first transport , on 4 April 1940 , carried 390 people , and the executioners had difficulty killing so many people in one night . The following transports held no more than 250 people . The executions were usually performed with German @-@ made .25 ACP Walther Model 2 pistols supplied by Moscow , but Soviet @-@ made 7 @.@ 62 × 38mmR Nagant M1895 revolvers were also used . The executioners used German weapons rather than the standard Soviet revolvers , as the latter were said to offer too much recoil , which made shooting painful after the first dozen executions . Vasily Mikhailovich Blokhin , chief executioner for the NKVD — and quite possibly the most prolific executioner in history — is reported to have personally shot and killed 7 @,@ 000 of the condemned , some as young as 18 , from the Ostashkov camp at Kalinin prison , over a period of 28 days in April 1940 . The killings were methodical . After the condemned individual 's personal information was checked and approved , he was handcuffed and led to a cell insulated with stacks of sandbags along the walls , and a heavy , felt @-@ lined door . The victim was told to kneel in the middle of the cell , and was then approached from behind by the executioner and immediately shot in the back of the head or neck . The body was carried out through the opposite door and laid in one of the five or six waiting trucks , whereupon the next condemned was taken inside and subjected to the same fate . In addition to muffling by the rough insulation in the execution cell , the pistol gunshots were also masked by the operation of loud machines ( perhaps fans ) throughout the night . Some post @-@ 1991 revelations suggest that prisoners were also executed in the same manner at the NKVD headquarters in Smolensk , though judging by the way that the corpses were stacked , some captives may have been shot while standing on the edge of the mass graves . This procedure went on every night , except for the public May Day holiday . Some 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 Polish inmates of Ukrainian prisons and those from Belarus prisons were probably buried in Bykivnia and in Kurapaty respectively . Lieutenant Janina Lewandowska , daughter of Gen. Józef Dowbor @-@ Muśnicki , was the only woman executed during the massacre at Katyn . = = Discovery = = The question about the fate of the Polish prisoners was raised soon after Operation Barbarossa began in June 1941 . The Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile and the Soviet government signed the Sikorski – Mayski agreement , which announced the willingness of both to fight together against Nazi Germany and for a Polish army to be formed on Soviet territory . The Polish general Władysław Anders began organizing this army , and soon he requested information about the missing Polish officers . During a personal meeting , Stalin assured him and Władysław Sikorski , the Polish Prime Minister , that all the Poles were freed , and that not all could be accounted because the Soviets " lost track " of them in Manchuria . Józef Czapski investigated the fate of Polish officers between 1941 and 1942 . In 1942 , with the territory around Smolensk under German occupation , captive Polish railroad workers heard from the locals about a mass grave of Polish soldiers at Kozelsk near Katyn ; finding one of the graves , they reported it to the Polish Underground State . The discovery was not seen as important , as nobody thought the discovered grave could contain so many victims . In early 1943 , Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff , a German officer serving as the intelligence liaison between the Wehrmacht 's Army Group Centre and Abwehr , received reports about mass graves of Polish military officers . These reports stated the graves were in the forest of Goat Hill near Katyn . He passed the reports to his superiors ( sources vary on when exactly the Germans became aware of the graves — from " late 1942 " to January – February 1943 , and when the German top decision makers in Berlin received those reports [ as early as 1 March or as late as 4 April ] ) . Joseph Goebbels saw this discovery as an excellent tool to drive a wedge between Poland , the Western Allies , and the Soviet Union , and reinforcement for the Nazi propaganda line about the horrors of Bolshevism , and American and British subservience to it . After extensive preparation , on 13 April , Reichssender Berlin broadcast to the world that German military forces in the Katyn forest near Smolensk had uncovered a ditch that was " 28 metres long and 16 metres wide [ 92 ft by 52 ft ] , in which the bodies of 3 @,@ 000 Polish officers were piled up in 12 layers " . The broadcast went on to charge the Soviets with carrying out the massacre in 1940 . The Germans brought in a European Red Cross committee called the Katyn Commission , comprising 12 forensic experts and their staff , from Belgium , Bulgaria , Croatia , Denmark , Finland , France , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Romania , Sweden , and Slovakia . The Germans were so intent on proving that the Soviets were behind the massacre that they even included some Allied prisoners of war , among them writer Ferdynand Goetel , the Polish Home Army prisoner from Pawiak . After the war , Goetel escaped with a fake passport due to an arrest warrant issued against him . Jan Emil Skiwski was a collaborator . Józef Mackiewicz has published several texts about the crime . Two of the 12 , the Bulgarian Marko Markov and the Czech František Hájek , with their countries becoming satellite states of the Soviet Union , were forced to recant their evidence , defending the Soviets and blaming the Germans . The Croatian pathologist Eduard Miloslavić managed to escape to the USA . The Katyn massacre was beneficial to Nazi Germany , which used it to discredit the Soviet Union . On 14 April 1943 , Goebbels wrote in his diary : " We are now using the discovery of 12 @,@ 000 Polish officers , murdered by the GPU , for anti @-@ Bolshevik propaganda on a grand style . We sent neutral journalists and Polish intellectuals to the spot where they were found . Their reports now reaching us from ahead are gruesome . The Führer has also given permission for us to hand out a drastic news item to the German press . I gave instructions to make the widest possible use of the propaganda material . We shall be able to live on it for a couple of weeks " . The Germans won a major propaganda victory , portraying communism as a danger to " Western civilization " . The Soviet government immediately denied the German charges . They claimed that the Polish prisoners of war had been engaged in construction work west of Smolensk , and consequently were captured and executed by invading German units in August 1941 . The Soviet response on 15 April to the initial German broadcast of 13 April , prepared by the Soviet Information Bureau , stated that " Polish prisoners @-@ of @-@ war who in 1941 were engaged in construction work west of Smolensk and who ... fell into the hands of the German @-@ Fascist hangmen " . In April 1943 , the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile led by Sikorski insisted on bringing the matter to the negotiation table with the Soviets and on opening an investigation by the International Red Cross . Stalin , in response , accused the Polish government of collaborating with Nazi Germany and broke off diplomatic relations with it . The Soviet Union also started a campaign to get the Western Allies to recognize the pro @-@ Soviet government @-@ in @-@ exile of the Union of Polish Patriots led by Wanda Wasilewska . Sikorski died in an air crash in July — an event that was convenient for the Allied leaders . = = = Soviet actions = = = When , in September 1943 , Joseph Goebbels was informed that the German army had to withdraw from the Katyn area , he wrote a prediction in his diary . His entry for 29 September 1943 reads : " Unfortunately we have had to give up Katyn . The Bolsheviks undoubtedly will soon ' find ' that we shot 12 @,@ 000 Polish officers . That episode is one that is going to cause us quite a little trouble in the future . The Soviets are undoubtedly going to make it their business to discover as many mass graves as possible and then blame it on us " . Having retaken the Katyn area almost immediately after the Red Army had recaptured Smolensk , around September – October 1943 , NKVD forces began a cover @-@ up operation . A cemetery the Germans had permitted the Polish Red Cross to build was destroyed and other evidence removed . Witnesses were " interviewed " and threatened with arrest for collaborating with the Nazis if their testimonies disagreed with the official line . As none of the documents found on the dead had dates later than April 1940 , the Soviet secret police planted false evidence to place the apparent time of the massacre in the summer of 1941 , when the German military had controlled the area . A preliminary report was issued by NKVD operatives Vsevolod Merkulov and Sergei Kruglov , dated 10 – 11 January 1944 , concluding that the Polish officers were shot by German soldiers . In January 1944 , the Soviet Union sent another commission , the Extraordinary State Commission for ascertaining and investigating crimes perpetrated by the German @-@ Fascist invaders to the site ; the very name of the commission implied a predestined conclusion . It was headed by Nikolai Burdenko , the president of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences ( hence the commission is often known as the " Burdenko Commission " ) , who was appointed by Moscow to investigate the incident . Its members included prominent Soviet figures such as the writer Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy , but no foreign personnel were allowed to join the Commission . The Burdenko Commission exhumed the bodies , rejected the 1943 German findings that the Poles were shot by the Soviet army , assigned the guilt to the Nazis , and concluded that all the shootings were done by German occupation forces in autumn of 1941 . Despite a lack of evidence , it also blamed the Germans for shooting Russian prisoners of war used as labor to dig the pits . It is uncertain how many members of the commission were misled by the falsified reports and evidence , and how many actually suspected the truth . Cienciala and Materski note that the Commission had no choice but to issue findings in line with the Merkulov @-@ Kruglov report , and that Burdenko himself most likely was aware of the cover @-@ up . He reportedly admitted something like that to friends and family shortly before his death in 1946 . The Burdenko commission 's conclusions would be consistently cited by Soviet sources until the official admission of guilt by the Soviet government on 13 April 1990 . In January 1944 , the Soviets also invited a group of more than a dozen mostly American and British journalists , accompanied by Kathleen Harriman , the daughter of the new American ambassador W. Averell Harriman , and John F. Melby , third secretary at the American embassy in Moscow , to Katyn . The inclusion of Melby and Harriman was regarded by some at the time as a Soviet attempt to lend official weight to their propaganda . Melby 's report noted the deficiencies in the Soviet case : problematic witnesses ; attempts to discourage questioning of the witnesses ; statements of the witnesses obviously being given as a result of rote memorization ; and that " the show was put on for the benefit of the correspondents " . Nevertheless , Melby , at the time , felt that on balance the Russian case was convincing . Harriman 's report reached the same conclusion and after the war both were asked to explain why their conclusions seemed to be at odds with their findings , with the suspicion that the conclusions were what the State Department wanted to hear . The journalists were less impressed and not totally convinced by the staged Soviet demonstration . Some Western Communists propagated Soviet propaganda , e.g. , Alter Brody ( introduced by Corliss Lamont ) published a text Behind the Polish @-@ Soviet Break . = = = Western response = = = The growing Polish @-@ Soviet tension was beginning to strain Western @-@ Soviet relations at a time when the Poles ' importance to the Allies , significant in the first years of the war , was beginning to fade , due to the entry into the conflict of the military and industrial giants , the Soviet Union and the United States . In retrospective review of records , both British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt were increasingly torn between their commitments to their Polish ally and the demands by Stalin and his diplomats . According to the Polish diplomat Edward Bernard Raczyński , Raczyński and General Sikorski met privately with Churchill and Alexander Cadogan on 15 April 1943 , and told them that the Poles had concrete proof that the Soviets were responsible for the massacre . Raczyński reports that Churchill , " without committing himself , showed by his manner that he had no doubt of it " . Churchill said that " The Bolsheviks can be very cruel " . However , at the same time , on 24 April 1943 , Churchill assured the Soviets : " We shall certainly oppose vigorously any ' investigation ' by the International Red Cross or any other body in any territory under German authority . Such investigation would be a fraud and its conclusions reached by terrorism " . Unofficial or classified UK documents concluded that Soviet guilt was a " near certainty " , but the alliance with the Soviets was deemed to be more important than moral issues ; thus the official version supported the Soviets , up to censoring any contradictory accounts . Churchill asked Owen O 'Malley to investigate the issue , but in a note to the Foreign Secretary he noted : " All this is merely to ascertain the facts , because we should none of us ever speak a word about it . " O 'Malley pointed out several inconsistencies and near impossibilities in the Soviet version . Later , Churchill sent a copy of the report to Roosevelt on 13 August 1943 . The report deconstructed the Soviet account of the massacre and alluded to the political consequences within a strongly moral framework but recognized there was no viable alternative to the existing policy . No comment by Roosevelt on the O 'Malley report has been found . Churchill 's own post @-@ war account of the Katyn affair gives little further insight . In his memoirs , he refers to the 1944 Soviet inquiry into the massacre , which found the Germans responsible , and adds , " belief seems an act of faith " . At the beginning of 1944 , Ron Jeffery , an agent of British and Polish intelligence in occupied Poland , eluded the Abwehr and travelled to London with a report from Poland to the British government . His efforts were at first highly regarded , but subsequently ignored by the British , which a disillusioned Jeffery attributed to the treachery of Kim Philby and other high @-@ ranking communist agents entrenched in the British system . Jeffery tried to inform the British government about the Katyn massacre , but was as a result released from the Army . In the United States a similar line was taken , notwithstanding two official intelligence reports into the Katyn massacre that contradicted the official position . In 1944 , Roosevelt assigned his special emissary to the Balkans , Navy Lieutenant Commander George Earle , to produce a report on Katyn . Earle concluded that the massacre was committed by the Soviet Union . Having consulted with Elmer Davis , director of the United States Office of War Information , Roosevelt rejected the conclusion ( officially ) , declared that he was convinced of Nazi Germany 's responsibility , and ordered that Earle 's report be suppressed . When Earle formally requested permission to publish his findings , the President issued a written order to desist . Earle was reassigned and spent the rest of the war in American Samoa . A further report in 1945 , supporting the same conclusion , was produced and stifled . In 1943 , two U.S. POWs — Lt. Col. Donald B. Stewart and Col. John H. Van Vliet — had been taken by Germans to Katyn for an international news conference . Documents released by the National Archives and Records Administration in September 2012 revealed that Steward and Van Vliet sent coded messages to their American superiors indicating that they saw proof that implicated the Soviets . Three lines of evidence were cited . Firstly , the Polish corpses were in such an advanced state of decay that the Nazis could not have killed the Poles , as they had only taken over the area in 1941 . Secondly , none of the numerous Polish artifacts , such as letters , diaries , photographs and identification tags pulled from the graves , were dated later than the spring of 1940 . Most incriminating was the relatively good state of the men 's uniforms and boots , which showed that they had not lived long after being captured . Later , in 1945 , Van Vliet submitted a report concluding that the Soviets were responsible for the massacre . His superior , Major General Clayton Lawrence Bissell , General George Marshall 's assistant chief of staff for intelligence , destroyed the report . Washington kept the information secret , presumably to appease Stalin and not distract from the war against the Nazis . During the 1951 – 52 Congressional investigation into Katyn , Bissell defended his action before the United States Congress , arguing that it was not in the U.S. interest to antagonize an ally ( the USSR ) whose assistance was still needed against the Empire of Japan . In 1950 Van Vliet recreated his wartime report . In 2014 , a copy of Van Vliet 's 1945 deposition was discovered . = = At the Nuremberg trials = = From 28 December 1945 to 4 January 1946 , seven Wehrmacht servicemen were tried by a Soviet military court in Leningrad . One of them , Arno Düre , who was charged with murdering numerous civilians using machine @-@ guns in Soviet villages , confessed to having taken part in burial ( though not the execution ) of 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 Polish POWs in Katyn . For this he was spared execution and was given 15 years of hard labor . His confession was full of absurdities , and thus he was not used as a Soviet prosecution witness during the Nuremberg trials . He later recanted his confession , claiming that he was forced to confess by the investigators . At the London conference that drew up the indictments of German war crimes before the Nuremberg trials , the Soviet negotiators put forward the allegation , " In September 1941 , 925 Polish officers who were prisoners of war were killed in the Katyn Forest near Smolensk " . The U.S. negotiators agreed to include it , but were " embarrassed " by the inclusion ( noting that the allegation had been debated extensively in the press ) and concluded that it would be up to the Soviets to sustain it . At the trials in 1946 , Soviet General Roman Rudenko raised the indictment , stating that " one of the most important criminal acts for which the major war criminals are responsible was the mass execution of Polish prisoners of war shot in the Katyn forest near Smolensk by the German fascist invaders " , but failed to make the case and the U.S. and British judges dismissed the charges . It was not the purpose of the court to determine whether Germany or the Soviet Union was responsible for the crime , but rather to attribute the crime to at least one of the defendants , which the court was unable to do . = = Cold War views = = In 1951 and 1952 , with the Korean War as a background , a congressional investigation chaired by Rep. Ray Madden and known as the Madden Committee investigated the Katyn massacre . It concluded that the Poles had been killed by the Soviet NKVD and recommended that the Soviets be tried before the International Court of Justice . However , the question of responsibility still remained controversial in the West as well as behind the Iron Curtain . In the United Kingdom in the late 1970s plans for a memorial to the victims bearing the date 1940 ( rather than 1941 ) were condemned as provocative in the political climate of the Cold War . It has also been alleged that the choice made in 1969 for the location of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic war memorial at the former Belarusian village named Khatyn , the site of the 1943 Khatyn massacre , was made to cause confusion with Katyn . The two names are similar or identical in many languages , and were often confused . In Poland , the pro @-@ Soviet authorities covered up the matter in accordance with the official Soviet propaganda line , deliberately censoring any sources that might provide information about the crime . Katyn was a forbidden topic in postwar Poland . Censorship in the Polish People 's Republic was a massive undertaking and Katyn was specifically mentioned in the " Black Book of Censorship " used by the authorities to control the media and academia . Not only did government censorship suppress all references to it , but even mentioning the atrocity was dangerous . In the late 1970s , democracy groups like the Workers ' Defence Committee and the Flying University defied the censorship and discussed the massacre , in the face of arrests , beatings , detentions , and ostracism . In 1981 , Polish trade union Solidarity erected a memorial with the simple inscription " Katyn , 1940 " . It was confiscated by the police and replaced with an official monument with the inscription : " To the Polish soldiers — victims of Hitlerite fascism — reposing in the soil of Katyn " . Nevertheless , every year on the day of Zaduszki , similar memorial crosses were erected at Powązki Cemetery and numerous other places in Poland , only to be dismantled by the police . Katyn remained a political taboo in the Polish People 's Republic until the fall of the Eastern Bloc in 1989 . In the Soviet Union during the 1950s , the head of KGB , Alexander Shelepin , proposed and carried out the destruction of many documents related to the Katyn massacre in order to minimize the chance that the truth would be revealed . His 3 March 1959 note to Nikita Khrushchev , with information about the execution of 21 @,@ 857 Poles and with the proposal to destroy their personal files , became one of the documents that were preserved and eventually made public . = = Revelations = = From the late 1980s on there was increasing pressure on both the Polish and Soviet governments to release documents related to the massacre . Polish academics tried to include Katyn in the agenda of the 1987 joint Polish @-@ Soviet commission to investigate censored episodes of the Polish @-@ Russian history . In 1989 , Soviet scholars revealed that Joseph Stalin had indeed ordered the massacre , and in 1990 Mikhail Gorbachev admitted that the NKVD had executed the Poles and confirmed two other burial sites similar to the site at Katyn : Mednoye and Piatykhatky . On 30 October 1989 , Gorbachev allowed a delegation of several hundred Poles , organized by the Polish association Families of Katyń Victims , to visit the Katyn memorial . This group included former U.S. national security advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski . A mass was held and banners hailing the Solidarity movement were laid . One mourner affixed a sign reading " NKVD " on the memorial , covering the word " Nazis " in the inscription such that it read " In memory of Polish officers murdered by the NKVD in 1941 . " Several visitors scaled the fence of a nearby KGB compound and left burning candles on the grounds . Brzezinski commented that : It isn 't a personal pain which has brought me here , as is the case in the majority of these people , but rather recognition of the symbolic nature of Katyń . Russians and Poles , tortured to death , lie here together . It seems very important to me that the truth should be spoken about what took place , for only with the truth can the new Soviet leadership distance itself from the crimes of Stalin and the NKVD . Only the truth can serve as the basis of true friendship between the Soviet and the Polish peoples . The truth will make a path for itself . I am convinced of this by the very fact that I was able to travel here . Brzezinski further stated that : The fact that the Soviet government has enabled me to be here — and the Soviets know my views — is symbolic of the breach with Stalinism that perestroika represents . His remarks were given extensive coverage on Soviet television . At the ceremony he placed a bouquet of red roses bearing a handwritten message penned in both Polish and English : " For the victims of Stalin and the NKVD . Zbigniew Brzezinski " . On 13 April 1990 , the forty @-@ seventh anniversary of the discovery of the mass graves , the USSR formally expressed " profound regret " and admitted Soviet secret police responsibility . The day was declared a worldwide Katyn Memorial Day ( Polish : Światowy Dzień Pamięci Ofiar Katynia ) . = = Official investigations = = In 1990 , Russian President Boris Yeltsin released the top @-@ secret documents from the sealed " Package № 1 . " and transferred them to the new Polish president Lech Wałęsa . Among the documents was a proposal by Lavrentiy Beria , dated 5 March 1940 , to execute 25 @,@ 700 Poles from Kozelsk , Ostashkov and Starobelsk camps , and from certain prisons of Western Ukraine and Belarus , signed by Stalin ( among others ) . Another document transferred to the Poles was Aleksandr Shelepin 's 3 March 1959 note to Nikita Khrushchev , with information about the execution of 21 @,@ 857 Poles , as well as a proposal to destroy their personal files to reduce the possibility that documents related to the massacre would be uncovered later . The revelations were also publicized in the Russian press , where they were interpreted as being one outcome of an ongoing power struggle between Yeltsin and Gorbachev . In 1991 , the Chief Military Prosecutor for the Soviet Union began proceedings against P. K. Soprunenko for his role in the Katyn murders , but eventually declined to prosecute because Soprunenko was 83 , almost blind , and recovering from a cancer operation . During the interrogation , Soprunenko defended himself by denying his own signature . During Kwaśniewski 's visit to Russia in September 2004 , Russian officials announced that they were willing to transfer all the information on the Katyn massacre to the Polish authorities as soon as it became declassified . In March 2005 the Prosecutor @-@ General ’ s Office of the Russian Federation concluded a decade @-@ long investigation of the massacre . Chief Military Prosecutor Alexander Savenkov announced that the investigation was able to confirm the deaths of 1 @,@ 803 out of 14 @,@ 542 Polish citizens who had been sentenced to death while in three Soviet camps . He did not address the fate of about 7 @,@ 000 victims who had not been in POW camps , but in prisons . Savenkov declared that the massacre was not a genocide , that Soviet officials who had been found guilty of the crime were dead and that , consequently , " there is absolutely no basis to talk about this in judicial terms " . 116 out of 183 volumes of files gathered during the Russian investigation were declared to contain state secrets and were classified . On 22 March 2005 , the Polish Sejm unanimously passed an act requesting the Russian archives to be declassified . The Sejm also requested Russia to classify the Katyn massacre as a crime of genocide . The resolution stressed that the authorities of Russia " seek to diminish the burden of this crime by refusing to acknowledge it was genocide and refuse to give access to the records of the investigation into the issue , making it difficult to determine the whole truth about the murder and its perpetrators . " In late 2007 and early 2008 , several Russian newspapers , including Rossiyskaya Gazeta , Komsomolskaya Pravda , and Nezavisimaya Gazeta printed stories that implicated the Nazis in the crime , spurring concern that this was done with the tacit approval of the Kremlin . As a result , the Polish Institute of National Remembrance decided to open its own investigation . In 2008 , the Polish Foreign Ministry asked the government of Russia about alleged footage of the massacre filmed by the NKVD during the killings , something the Russians have denied exists . Polish officials believe that this footage , as well as further documents showing cooperation of Soviets with the Gestapo during the operations , are the reason for Russia 's decision to classify most of the documents about the massacre . In the following years , 81 volumes of the case were declassified and transferred to the Polish government . As of 2012 , 35 out of 183 volumes of files remain classified . = = Further court hearings = = In June 2008 , Russian courts consented to hear a case about the declassification of documents about Katyn and the judicial rehabilitation of the victims . In an interview with a Polish newspaper , Vladimir Putin called Katyn a " political crime " . On 21 April 2010 , the Russian Supreme Court ordered the Moscow City Court to hear an appeal in an ongoing Katyn legal case . A civil rights group , Memorial , said the ruling could lead to a court decision to open up secret documents providing details about the killings of thousands of Polish officers . On 8 May 2010 , Russia handed over to Poland 67 volumes of the " criminal case No.159 " , launched in the 1990s to investigate the Soviet @-@ era mass killings of Polish officers . The copies of 67 volumes , each having about 250 pages , were packed in six boxes . With each box weighing approximately 12 kg ( 26 @.@ 5 lb ) , the total weight of all the documents stood at about 70 kg ( 154 lb ) . Russian President Dmitry Medvedev handed one of the volumes to the acting Polish president , Bronislaw Komorowski . Medvedev and Komorowski agreed that the two states should continue their efforts in revealing the truth over the tragedy . The Russian president reiterated that Russia would continue declassifying documents on the Katyn massacre . The acting Polish president said that Russia 's move might lay a good foundation for improving bilateral relations . In 2011 , the European Court of Human Rights declared admissible two complaints of relatives of the massacre victims against Russia concerning adequacy of the official investigation . In a ruling on 16 April 2012 , the court found that Russia had violated the rights of victims ' relatives by not providing them with sufficient information about the investigation and described the massacre as a " war crime " . However , it also refused to judge the effectiveness of the Soviet @-@ Russian investigation because the related events took place prior to Russia ratifying the Human Rights Convention in 1998 . The plaintiffs filed an appeal , however the 21 October 2013 ruling essentially reaffirmed the previous one , noting that Russian courts failed to adequately substantiate why some critical information remained classified . = = Polish – Russian relations = = Russia and Poland remained divided on the legal description of the Katyn crime . The Poles considered it a case of genocide and demanded further investigations , as well as complete disclosure of Soviet documents . In June 1998 , Boris Yeltsin and Aleksander Kwaśniewski agreed to construct memorial complexes at Katyn and Mednoye , the two NKVD execution sites on Russian soil . In September of that year , the Russians also raised the issue of Soviet prisoner of war deaths in the camps for Russian prisoners and internees in Poland ( 1919 – 1924 ) . About 16 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 POWs died in those camps due to communicable diseases . Some Russian officials argued that it was " a genocide comparable to Katyn " . A similar claim was raised in 1994 ; such attempts are seen by some , particularly in Poland , as a highly provocative Russian attempt to create an " anti @-@ Katyn " and " balance the historical equation " . On 4 February 2010 , the Prime Minister of Russia , Vladimir Putin , invited his Polish counterpart , Donald Tusk , to attend a Katyn memorial service in April . The visit took place on 7 April 2010 , when Tusk and Putin together commemorated the 70th anniversary of the massacre . Before the visit , the 2007 film Katyń was shown on Russian state television for the first time . The Moscow Times commented that the film 's premiere in Russia was likely a result of Putin 's intervention . On 10 April 2010 , an aircraft carrying Polish President Lech Kaczyński with his wife and 87 other politicians and high @-@ ranking army officers crashed in Smolensk , killing all 96 aboard the aircraft . The passengers were to attend a ceremony marking the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre . The Polish nation was stunned ; Prime Minister Donald Tusk , who was not on the plane , referred to the crash as " the most tragic Polish event since the war . " In the aftermath , a number of conspiracy theories began to circulate . The catastrophe has also had major echoes in the international and particularly the Russian press , prompting a rebroadcast of Katyń on Russian television . The Polish President was to deliver a speech at the formal commemorations . The speech was to honour the victims , highlight the significance of the massacres in the context of post @-@ war communist political history , as well as stress the need for Polish – Russian relations to focus on reconciliation . Although the speech was never delivered , it has been published with a narration in the original Polish and a translation has also been made available in English . In November 2010 , the State Duma ( lower house of the Russian parliament ) passed a resolution declaring that long @-@ classified documents " showed that the Katyn crime was carried out on direct orders of Stalin and other Soviet officials " . The declaration also called for the massacre to be investigated further in order to confirm the list of victims . Members of the Duma from the Communist Party denied that the Soviet Union had been to blame for the Katyn massacre and voted against the declaration . On 6 December 2010 , Russian President Dmitry Medvedev expressed commitment to uncovering the whole truth about the massacre , stating " Russia has recently taken a number of unprecedented steps towards clearing up the legacy of the past . We will continue in this direction " . Still , the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , as well as a number of other pro @-@ Soviet Russian politicians and commentators , continue to deny all Soviet guilt , call the released documents fakes , insist that the original Soviet version — Polish prisoners were shot by Germans in August 1941 — is the correct one , and call on the Russian government to start a new investigation that would revise the findings of the one concluded in 2004 . = = Memorials = = Many monuments and memorials that commemorate the massacre have been erected worldwide . There are several Katyn memorials in the UK , the best known of which was unveiled on 18 September 1976 at Gunnersbury Cemetery in London , amid considerable controversy . During the period of the Cold War , successive British governments objected to plans by the UK 's Polish community to build a major monument to commemorate the massacre . The Soviet Union did not want Katyn to be remembered , and put pressure on Britain to prevent the creation of the monument . As a result , the construction of the monument was delayed for many years . After the local community had finally secured the right to build the monument , no official government representative was present at the opening ceremony ( although some politicians did attend the event unofficially ) . Another memorial in the UK was erected three years later , in 1979 , in Cannock Chase , Staffordshire . A memorial tablet by Ronald Sims has also been installed in the Airmen ’ s Chapel within Southwell Minster in Nottinghamshire ( there is a large Polish community in the county and each year a service is held to remember the massacre ) . There is also a Katyn memorial in Manchester 's Southern Cemetery . In 2000 , the memorial at the Katyn war cemetery was opened in Russia . Previously , the site featured a monument with a false dedication to the " victims of the Hitlerites " . In Ukraine , a memorial complex was erected to honor the over 4300 officer victims of the Katyń massacre murdered in Pyatykhatky , 14 kilometres / 8 @.@ 7 miles north of Kharkiv in Ukraine ; the complex lies in a corner of a former resort home for NKVD officers . Children had discovered hundreds of Polish officer buttons whilst playing on the site . In Canada , a large metal sculpture has been erected in the Polish community of Roncesvalles in Toronto , to commemorate the killings . In South Africa , a memorial in Johannesburg commemorates the victims of Katyn , as well as South African and Polish airmen who flew missions from southern Italy to Poland in order to drop supplies over Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising . In the United States , a golden statue known as the National Katyn Massacre Memorial is located in Baltimore , Maryland , on Aliceanna Street at Inner Harbor East . Polish @-@ Americans in Detroit erected a small white @-@ stone memorial in the form of a cross with a plaque at the St. Albertus Roman Catholic Church . A statue , the Katyń Memorial , commemorating the massacre has also been erected at Exchange Place on the Hudson River in Jersey City , New Jersey . Other memorial statues are located in Doylestown , Pennsylvania and Niles , Illinois . Many cities in Poland now have memorials to the massacre in public spaces as well as within churches and cemeteries . For example , in Wrocław , a composition by Polish sculptor Tadeusz Tchórzewski is dedicated to the Katyn victims . Unveiled in 2000 , it is located in a park east of the city 's centre , near the Racławice Panorama building . It shows the ' Matron of the Homeland ' despairing over a dead soldier , while on a higher plinth the angel of death looms over , leaning forward on a sword . = = In art , entertainment , and media = = The Katyn massacre is a major element in many works of film , the fine arts , literature , and music . The 1999 Academy Honorary Award recipient , Polish film director Andrzej Wajda , whose father , Captain Jakub Wajda , was murdered in the NKVD prison of Kharkiv , made a film depicting the event , Katyn ( 1999 ) . It focuses on the fate of some of the mothers , wives and daughters of the Polish officers killed by the Soviets . Some of the Katyn Forest executions were re @-@ enacted . The screenplay is based on Andrzej Mularczyk 's book Post mortem — the Katyn story . The film was produced by Akson Studio , and released in Poland on 21 September 2007 . It was nominated for an Academy Award in 2008 for the Best Foreign Language Film . U.S. filmmaker Steven Fischer produced a public service announcement titled Silence of Falling Leaves ( 2000 ) honoring the fallen soldiers , consisting of images of falling autumn leaves with a sound track cutting to a narration in Polish by the Warsaw @-@ born artist Bożena Jędrzejczak . It was honored with an Emmy nomination . The Polish composer Andrzej Panufnik wrote an orchestral score , called Katyn Epitaph ( 1967 ) , in memory of the massacre . The work received its premiere on 17 November 1968 . Nancy Van de Vate 's Katyń ( 1989 ) is a piece composed for chorus and large orchestra in 1989 . Polish poet Jacek Kaczmarski has dedicated one of his sung poems to this event . British historian Laurence Rees produced a six @-@ hour BBC / PBS television documentary series entitled World War II Behind Closed Doors : Stalin , the Nazis and the West ( 2008 ) . The Katyn massacre was a central theme of the series .
= The Chumscrubber = The Chumscrubber is a 2005 American @-@ German comedy @-@ drama film , directed by Arie Posin , starring an ensemble cast led by Jamie Bell . The plot , written by Posin and Zac Stanford , focuses on the chain of events that follow the suicide of a teenage drug dealer in an idealistic but superficial town . Some of the themes addressed in the film are the lack of communication between teenagers and their parents and the inauthenticity of suburbia . The titular Chumscrubber is a character in a fictional video game that represents the town and its inhabitants . Posin and Stanford had originally planned to shoot the film using their own funds , but they sent the script to producers Lawrence Bender and Bonnie Curtis who agreed to produce the film and help to raise the budget . Bell was cast in the lead role after an extensive auditioning process , and the film was shot in various California locations over 30 days in April 2004 . The Chumscrubber premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25 , 2005 and was released theatrically on August 26 , 2005 . An accompanying soundtrack , composed mostly by James Horner , was released on October 18 , 2005 . The film was both a critical and commercial failure , receiving mostly negative reviews and earning back only US $ 350 @,@ 000 of its $ 10 million budget . = = Plot = = Troy Johnson ( Josh Janowicz ) , the supplier of prescription drugs to fellow high school students in the fictional southern California town of Hillside , commits suicide . Troy 's best friend Dean Stiffle ( Jamie Bell ) , is prescribed more antidepressants by his psychiatrist father Bill ( William Fichtner ) after discovering the body . When Dean returns to school , he is antagonized by drug dealers Billy ( Justin Chatwin ) and Lee ( Lou Taylor Pucci ) , who were supplied by Troy . Their friend , Crystal Falls ( Camilla Belle ) , flirts with Dean , but he soon realizes that her true intentions are for Dean to retrieve the remaining drugs in Troy 's home and refuses to cooperate . To force Dean to procure the drugs , Billy and Lee plan to kidnap Dean 's brother , Charlie ( Rory Culkin ) , as a ransom , but they end up kidnapping another boy named Charlie Bratley ( Thomas Curtis ) instead . The kidnappers hold Charlie Bratley – whose parents are unaware that he is missing – overnight at Crystal 's home . Dean eventually agrees to go to Troy 's house to find the drugs . Upon delivery , Billy discovers that the bag doesn 't contain the prescription drugs and starts a fight with Dean , leading to Dean 's arrest . While trying to explain everything to Officer Lou Bratley ( John Heard ) , Charlie 's father , Dean reveals that his brother Charlie replaced the drugs with a bag of the vitamins that their mother Allie ( Allison Janney ) sells . Neither Officer Bratley nor Dean 's father believes his story , but he is released , whereupon his father increases his dosage of antidepressants . Meanwhile , Charlie Stiffle crushes the real drugs and puts them into a casserole that his mother made for Troy 's memorial . The next day is Troy 's memorial service and the wedding of Mayor Michael Ebbs ( Ralph Fiennes ) to Charlie Bratley 's mother Terri ( Rita Wilson ) . Lou finally realizes that his son actually has been kidnapped and heads out to look for him . Now at Lee 's house , Crystal asks Lee to help stop the kidnapping scheme , but he does not comply . Crystal goes to Dean 's house for help , where she finds him hallucinating about Troy 's death and finally expressing his grief . Meanwhile , a paranoid Lou , encouraged by Billy , tries to kill Charlie Bratley to avoid being caught , but Charlie fights back and slices the knife through Billy 's eye . Billy runs out into the street , screaming in pain , and is hit by Lou 's police car . Dean attends Troy 's memorial , where all of the visitors are intoxicated by the drugs that are in his mother 's casserole . Troy 's mother , Carrie ( Glenn Close ) , discloses to Dean that she never knew her son . Dean tells her about Troy and acknowledges that they were best friends , and she thanks him . Billy is later sent to prison . Lee , who successfully changes the narrative of his involvement during the trial , is acquitted . A closing voice over explains that Dean and Crystal " escape together " , and they are shown kissing . = = Cast = = Jamie Bell as Dean Stiffle , a teenage outsider and the film 's protagonist . He refuses to face his grief over his best friend 's suicide , instead choosing to numb his feelings with drugs . Camilla Belle as Crystal Falls , Dean 's rebellious classmate . Unlike her friends , she feels sympathy for Dean and is reluctant to partake in the plans to kidnap his brother . Justin Chatwin as Billy , a drug dealer at Dean 's high school who was formerly supplied by Troy . He dreams to join the air force after graduation , but his fight with Charlie Bratley leaves him with impaired vision . Glenn Close as Carrie Johnson , Troy 's devastated mother . She tries to mask her grief with a cheerful persona , and continually guilts her neighbors by telling them bluntly that she does not blame them for Troy 's death . Rory Culkin as Charlie Stiffle , Dean 's younger brother . He spends most of his time on the family couch playing video games . Thomas Curtis as Charlie Bratley , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old son of Officer Lou Bratley and his ex @-@ wife Terri . Having been largely ignored by his negligent mother , at the end of the film he is sent to live with Lou . William Fichtner as Bill Stiffle , Dean 's psychiatrist father who uses Dean as the subject of his books . Though he spends his life always looking for potential new material , his book sales turn out to be disappointing . Ralph Fiennes as Michael Ebbs , the mayor of Hillside and Terri Bratley 's fiancé . After suffering a head injury and spilling paint in the shape of a dolphin , he becomes infatuated with dolphins and paints them all over his house ; at the end of the film , he resigns from politics and becomes an artist . John Heard as Lou Bratley , a police officer and Charlie Bratley 's father . He cannot let go of his previous marriage with Terri , and finds satisfaction in giving her copious parking tickets . Allison Janney as Allie Stiffle , Dean 's overworked mother . She initially struggles to sell her VeggiForce vitamins , but by the end of the film , she has found success and VeggiForce has become something of a cult . Josh Janowicz as Troy Johnson , Dean 's best friend and the supplier of prescription drugs to the student body at his high school . After his suicide , he appears frequently in Dean 's hallucinations . Carrie @-@ Anne Moss as Jerri Falls , Crystal 's laidback mother . She is obsessed with Terri Bratley 's interior design work , but cannot catch her attention until she tells Terri that her son was at Jerri 's house . Lou Taylor Pucci as Lee Parker , Billy 's smart but timid friend who often succumbs to peer pressure . His parents pressure him about his schoolwork , hoping for him to get into a good college . Rita Wilson as Terri Bratley , a successful interior designer and Charlie 's mother . She grows increasingly frustrated and demanding as her wedding to Michael approaches , and by the end of the film her design efforts have become less fruitful . = = Themes = = The title of the film refers to a video game character , " The Chumscrubber " , who helps his friends to survive in a superficial world by keeping things authentic , and is portrayed as a post @-@ apocalyptic hero , carrying his severed head in his hand as he fights the forces of evil . The Chumscrubber 's world was intended to be a reflection of the Hillside community , shown by the repetition of characters ' lines in the video game ; a voice in the game yells " Kill him ! Stab him ! Get him again ! " , the exact line said by Billy to Lee at the end of the film , urging him to stab Charlie Bratley . Producer Bonnie Curtis described the character as " this sub @-@ human monster the kids feel they are becoming " . Posin commented that " the Chumscrubber is everything that that community has suppressed or denied or tried to ignore , and [ ... ] the idea that the collective denial of the community as a whole finally gives birth to a character that will not be ignored " . Posin stated that one theme of the film is that " the adults in this world tend to be immature or childish and the kids tend to be very mature and adult and sophisticated for their age " . He shot the teenage characters slightly below eye level to create the impression of looking up at an adult , and shot the adults slightly above eye level as if the viewer were looking down at a child . He said that hypocrisy was " at the top of the list " of the themes he wanted to explore in the story . While all of the adults in the film are attempting to live perfect lives , they cannot see that their children are driven to suicide , antidepressant addiction and kidnapping – for instance , Terri is so obsessed with her upcoming wedding that she does not realize her son is missing . The film features dolphins as a recurring motif . Michael forms an obsession with dolphins and paints them all over his house , the street plan of Hillside is shown to form the shape of a dolphin at the end of the film . Nathan Baran of Hybrid Magazine was frustrated by the lack of explanation of the motif , saying : " Never are dolphins discussed by anyone else to have any meaning whatsoever . [ ... ] What is the significance of the dolphin as an image ? [ ... ] it is a completely arbitrary image awkwardly stuffed with forced meaning " . Posin saw Hillside 's formation of a dolphin shape as " beauty and order to the chaos " , illustrating Michael 's belief in deep beauty where everybody else finds chaos . = = Production = = While working at a Hollywood talent agency Arie Posin had been writing scripts for 10 years , " trying to break in [ to ] " the film industry , when he decided that he would rather be a director than a screenwriter . Posin asked writer Zac Stanford to write the screenplay for The Chumscrubber based on his idea . Because they collaborated on the story , Posin later described the film as " rooted somewhere between " his own memories of growing up in suburban Irvine , CA and Stanford 's upbringing in a small town in the Pacific Northwest . Posin and Stanford had originally planned to shoot the film with their own money . Posin 's girlfriend suggested that he send the script to five producers ; one , Lawrence Bender , responded and passed the script on to his partner Bonnie Curtis . Posin and the producers brought the project to around sixty uninterested production companies before sufficient funds for the US $ 10 million budget were raised and production began . Posin considered numerous other actors for the lead role of Dean before he decided to cast Jamie Bell . Auditions for the role spanned over a year , and Posin said that he met " probably every young actor in Hollywood between a certain age " . For the role of Crystal , Posin sought a beautiful but fragile actress . He chose Camilla Belle after she auditioned , and according to him , " She just was the character " . Posin wanted an actor similar to Ralph Fiennes to play Michael , but was surprised when Fiennes himself agreed to be in the film . Justin Chatwin , a Billy Wilder fan , was drawn to the script after hearing that Posin had trained with Wilder . Ben Kingsley and Robin Williams were set to star in the film at different points in pre @-@ production . Principal photography of The Chumscrubber began in April 2004 and lasted for 30 days . Filming locations included Los Angeles and Santa Clarita in California , as well as two soundstages . = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = The Chumscrubber premiered on January 25 , 2005 at the Sundance Film Festival . It went on to be shown at the 27th Moscow International Film Festival in June 2005 , where it won the Audience Award . The film was released theatrically in the United States on August 5 , 2005 , playing in 28 theaters . It earned US $ 28 @,@ 548 on its opening weekend , ranking 59th at the box office . It closed after two weeks in release with a total domestic gross of $ 52 @,@ 597 . The film 's highest @-@ grossing overseas releases were in Australia with $ 96 @,@ 696 , Germany with $ 81 @,@ 323 , and Greece with $ 71 @,@ 100 . It earned only £ 36 from its single @-@ weekend release in the United Kingdom , meaning that only six people paid for a ticket to see the film . With a total foreign gross of $ 298 @,@ 804 , the film 's total worldwide gross was $ 351 @,@ 401 and was a box office bomb . = = = Critical response = = = The Chumscrubber received mostly negative reviews from critics and has a " rotten " score of 35 % on Rotten tomatoes based on 60 reviews with an average rating of 4 @.@ 9 out of 10 . The critical consensus states " This derivative poke at suburbia falls short of delivering a scathing indictment of upper middle @-@ class disconnect . " The film also has a score of 41 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 12 critics indicating " mixed or average reviews " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 1 star out of 5 , describing it as " an appallingly clumsy and stupid take on drugs , kidnapping and suicide in suburbia " . A. O. Scott expressed similar sentiments in The New York Times , calling the film " dreadful " and criticizing its unoriginality . Variety 's Scott Foundas also wrote that the film " doesn 't have an original bone in its body or a compelling thought in its head " and called it " insufferable " , " self @-@ conscious " and " smug " . Olly Richards of Empire gave the film 2 stars out of 5 and described it as " a tragic waste of acting talent , with nothing new to say . " The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps praised Posin 's technical direction and the cast 's acting skills , but found that the film still fell " flat on its face " . The film was more warmly received by David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor , who described it as " dreamily surreal , acutely intelligent , and strikingly tough @-@ minded " and called it a " stunning directorial debut " . = = = Home media = = = The film was released on DVD in Region 1 on January 10 , 2006 . The special features included on the disc are an audio commentary from Arie Posin , a 12 @-@ minute " making @-@ of " featurette , and 10 deleted and extended scenes . = = Soundtrack = = The film 's original score was composed by James Horner . Though Horner 's previous work comprised mostly high @-@ budget studio films – including Titanic ( 1997 ) , Braveheart ( 1995 ) , The Mask of Zorro ( 1998 ) , and Apollo 13 ( 1995 ) – producer Bonnie Curtis approached him to score The Chumscrubber because " You never know until you ask . " Horner agreed after seeing an early cut of the film . He and Posin spent five days on a soundstage , experimenting with different musical arrangements . Posin described the final product as " dramatic with a wink and a smile to it " . " Our House " – Phantom Planet " Bridge to Nowhere " – The Like " Run " – Snow Patrol " Pure Morning " – Placebo " Oblivion " – Annetenna " Spreading Happiness All Around " – James Horner " Kidnapping the Wrong Charlie " – James Horner " Dolphins " – James Horner " Pot Casserole " – James Horner " Digging Montage " – James Horner " Parental Rift / The Chumscrubber " – James Horner " Not Fun Anymore ... " – James Horner " A Confluence of Families " – James Horner " The End " – James Horner
= Conte di Cavour @-@ class battleship = The Conte di Cavour – class battleships were a group of three dreadnoughts built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1910s . The ships were completed during World War I , but none saw action before the end of hostilities . Leonardo da Vinci was sunk by a magazine explosion in 1916 and sold for scrap in 1923 . The two surviving ships , Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare , supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 . They were extensively reconstructed between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns , additional armor and considerably more speed than before . Both ships participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , when Giulio Cesare was lightly damaged . They were both present when British torpedo bombers attacked the fleet at Taranto in November 1940 , and Conte di Cavour was torpedoed . She was grounded with most of her hull underwater and her repairs were not completed before the Italian surrender in September 1943 . Conte di Cavour was scrapped in 1946 . Giulio Cesare escorted several convoys , and participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in late 1940 and the First Battle of Sirte in late 1941 . She was designated as a training ship in early 1942 , and escaped to Malta after Italy surrendered . The ship was transferred to the Soviet Union in 1949 and renamed Novorossiysk . The Soviets also used her for training until she was sunk when a mine exploded in 1955 . She was scrapped in 1957 . = = Design and description = = The Conte di Cavour – class ships were designed by Rear Admiral Engineer Edoardo Masdea , Chief Constructor of the Regia Marina , and were ordered in response to French plans to build the Courbet @-@ class battleships . They were intended to be superior to the Courbets and to remedy Dante Alighieri 's perceived flaws of weak protection and armament . As upgrading a warship 's protection and armament on a similar displacement typically requires a loss in speed , the ships were not designed to reach the 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) of their predecessor . They were still given a 1 @.@ 5 to 2 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 3 mph ) advantage over the 20 @-@ to @-@ 21 @-@ knot ( 37 to 39 km / h ; 23 to 24 mph ) standard of most foreign dreadnoughts . Foreign dreadnoughts were being designed with 340 @-@ millimeter ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) guns , but the Regia Marina was forced to use 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 in ) guns in the Conte di Cavours because Italy lacked the ability to build larger guns . An additional gun , making a total of 13 , was added to offset this deficiency . Taking advantage of the lengthy building times of these ships , other countries were able to build dreadnoughts that were superior in protection and armament , with the exception of the French . Construction was delayed by late deliveries of the 305 @-@ millimeter guns and armor plates as well as shortages of labor . The Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 diverted workers at the shipyards for repairs and maintenance of the ships participating in the war . The Italians imported the raw nickel steel for their armor from America and Britain and processed it into their equivalent of Krupp cemented armor , called Terni cemented , but there were problems with this process and suitable plates took longer to produce than planned . = = = Basic characteristics = = = The ships of the Conte di Cavour class were 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) overall . They had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . They displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . The Conte di Cavour class was provided with a complete double bottom and their hulls were subdivided by 23 longitudinal and transverse bulkheads . The ships had two rudders , both on the centerline . They had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men . = = = Propulsion = = = The original machinery for all three ships consisted of three Parsons steam turbine sets , arranged in three engine rooms . The center engine room housed one set of turbines that drove the two inner propeller shafts . It was flanked by compartments on either side , each housing one turbine set which powered the outer shafts . Steam for the turbines was provided by 20 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers in Conte di Cavour and Leonardo da Vinci , eight of which burned oil and twelve of which burned both oil and coal . Giulio Cesare used a dozen each oil @-@ fired and mixed @-@ firing Babcock & Wilcox boilers . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , none of the ships reached this goal on their sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of their turbines . They only achieved speeds ranging from 21 @.@ 56 to 22 @.@ 2 knots ( 39 @.@ 93 to 41 @.@ 11 km / h ; 24 @.@ 81 to 25 @.@ 55 mph ) using 30 @,@ 700 to 32 @,@ 800 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 900 to 24 @,@ 500 kW ) . The ships could store a maximum of 1 @,@ 450 long tons ( 1 @,@ 470 t ) of coal and 850 long tons ( 860 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . Each ship was equipped with three turbo generators that provided a total of 150 kilowatts at 110 volts . = = = Armament = = = As built , the ships ' main armament comprised thirteen 46 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter guns , designed by Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers , in five gun turrets . The turrets were all on the centerline , with a twin @-@ gun turret superfiring over a triple @-@ gun turret in fore and aft pairs , and a third triple turret amidships , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from bow to stern . This was only one fewer gun than the Brazilian Rio de Janeiro , then the most heavily armed battleship in the world ; Rio de Janeiro 's guns were mounted in seven twin @-@ gun turrets . The turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 ° to + 20 degrees and the ships could carry 100 rounds for each gun , although 70 was the normal load . Sources disagree regarding these guns ' performance , but naval historian Giorgio Giorgerini claims that they fired 452 @-@ kilogram ( 996 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at the rate of one round per minute and that they had a muzzle velocity of 840 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) which gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . The turrets had hydraulic training and elevation , with an auxiliary electric system . The secondary armament on the first two ships consisted of eighteen 50 @-@ caliber 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , also designed by Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull . These guns could depress to − 10 degrees and had a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees ; they had a rate of fire of six shots per minute . They could fire a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 49 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile with a muzzle velocity of 850 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 11 @,@ 000 meters ( 12 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships carried a total of 3 @,@ 600 rounds for them . For defense against torpedo boats , the ships carried fourteen 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns ; thirteen of these could be mounted on the turret tops , but they could be mounted in 30 different positions , including some on the forecastle and upper decks . These guns had the same range of elevation as the secondary guns , and their rate of fire was higher at 10 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 @-@ kilogram ( 13 lb ) AP projectile with a muzzle velocity of 815 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 9 @,@ 100 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships were also fitted with three submerged 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern . = = = Armor = = = The Conte di Cavour @-@ class ships had a complete waterline armor belt that was 2 @.@ 8 meters ( 9 ft 2 in ) high ; 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) of this was below the waterline and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 ft 11 in ) above . It had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) amidships , reducing to 130 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) towards the stern and 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow . The lower edge of this belt was a uniform 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . Above the main belt was a strake of armor 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick that extended 2 @.@ 3 meters ( 7 ft 7 in ) up to the lower edge of the main deck . Above this strake was a thinner one , 130 millimeters thick , that extended 138 meters ( 452 ft 9 in ) from the bow to ' X ' turret . The upper strake of armor protected the casemates and was 110 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The ships had two armored decks : the main deck was 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) thick in two layers on the flat that increased to 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) on the slopes that connected it to the main belt . The second deck was 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , also in two layers . Fore and aft transverse bulkheads connected the armored belt to the decks . The frontal armor of the gun turrets was 280 millimeters ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness with 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides , and an 85 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) roof and rear . Their barbettes also had 230 @-@ millimeter armor above the forecastle deck that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) between the forecastle and upper decks and 130 millimeters below the upper deck . The forward conning tower had walls 280 millimeters thick ; those of the aft conning tower were 180 millimeters thick . The total weight of the protective armor was 5 @,@ 150 long tons ( 5 @,@ 230 t ) , just over 25 per cent of the ships ' designed displacement . The total weight of the entire protective system was 6 @,@ 122 long tons ( 6 @,@ 220 t ) , 30 @.@ 2 per cent of their intended displacement . = = Modifications and reconstruction = = Shortly after the end of World War I , the number of 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm guns was reduced to 13 , all mounted on the turret tops , and six new 40 @-@ caliber 76 @-@ millimeter anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were installed abreast the aft funnel . In addition two license @-@ built 2 @-@ pounder AA guns were mounted on the forecastle deck abreast ' B ' turret . In 1925 – 26 the foremast was replaced by a tetrapodal mast , which was moved forward of the funnels , the rangefinders were upgraded , and the ships were equipped to handle a Macchi M.18 seaplane mounted on the center turret . Around that same time , one or both of the ships was equipped with a fixed aircraft catapult on the port side of the forecastle . The sisters began an extensive reconstruction program directed by Vice Admiral ( Generale del Genio navale ) Francesco Rotundi in October 1933 . This lasted until June 1937 for Conte di Cavour and October 1937 for Giulio Cesare , and resulted in several changes . A new bow section was grafted over the existing bow which increased their length by 10 @.@ 31 meters ( 33 ft 10 in ) to 186 @.@ 4 meters ( 611 ft 7 in ) and their beam increased to 28 @.@ 6 meters ( 93 ft 10 in ) . Their draft at deep load increased to 10 @.@ 02 meters ( 32 ft 10 in ) for Conte di Cavour and 10 @.@ 42 meters ( 34 ft 2 in ) for Giulio Cesare . All of the changes made during their reconstruction increased their displacement to 26 @,@ 140 long tons ( 26 @,@ 560 t ) at standard load and 29 @,@ 100 long tons ( 29 @,@ 600 t ) at deep load . The ships ' crews increased to 1 @,@ 260 officers and enlisted men . Only 40 % of the original ship 's structure remained after the reconstruction was completed . Two of the propeller shafts were removed and the existing turbines were replaced by two Belluzzo geared steam turbines rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . The boilers were replaced by eight superheated Yarrow boilers with a working pressure of 22 atm ( 2 @,@ 229 kPa ; 323 psi ) . On her sea trials in December 1936 , before her reconstruction was fully completed , Giulio Cesare reached a speed of 28 @.@ 24 knots ( 52 @.@ 30 km / h ; 32 @.@ 50 mph ) from 93 @,@ 430 shp ( 69 @,@ 670 kW ) . In service their maximum speed was about 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . The ships now carried 2 @,@ 550 – 2 @,@ 605 long tons ( 2 @,@ 591 – 2 @,@ 647 t ) of fuel oil which provided them with a range of 6 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 900 km ; 7 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . The center turret and the torpedo tubes were removed and all of the existing secondary armament and AA guns were replaced by a dozen 120 @-@ millimeter guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets and eight 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) AA guns in twin turrets . In addition the ships were fitted with a dozen 54 @-@ caliber Breda 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) light AA guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts and twelve 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda M31 anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , also in twin mounts . The 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns were bored out to 320 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) and their turrets were modified to use electric power , a fixed loading angle of + 12 degrees , and the guns could now elevate to + 27 degrees . The 320 mm AP shells weighed 525 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 157 lb ) and had a maximum range of 28 @,@ 600 meters ( 31 @,@ 300 yd ) with a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . In 1940 the 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns were replaced by 65 @-@ caliber 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns in twin mounts . Giulio Cesare received two more twin mounts as well as four additional 37 mm guns in twin mounts on the forecastle between the two turrets in 1941 . The tetrapodal mast was replaced with a new forward conning tower , protected with 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) thick armor . Atop the conning tower there was a director fitted with two rangefinders , with a base length of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) . The deck armor was increased during reconstruction to a total of 135 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) over the engine and boiler rooms and 166 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) over the magazines , although its distribution over three decks , each with multiple layers , meant that it was considerably less effective than a single plate of the same thickness . The armor protecting the barbettes was reinforced with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) plates . All this armor weighed a total of 3 @,@ 227 long tons ( 3 @,@ 279 t ) . The existing underwater protection was replaced by the Pugliese system that consisted of a large cylinder surrounded by fuel oil or water that was intended to absorb the blast of a torpedo warhead . It lacked enough depth to be fully effective against contemporary torpedoes . A major problem of the reconstruction was that the ships ' increased draft meant that their waterline armor belt was almost completely submerged with any significant load . = = Ships = = = = Service = = Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare served as flagships in the southern Adriatic Sea during World War I , but saw no action and spent little time at sea . Leonardo da Vinci was also little used and was sunk by an internal magazine explosion at Taranto harbor on the night of 2 / 3 August 1916 while loading ammunition . Casualties included 21 officers and 227 enlisted men killed . The Italians blamed Austro @-@ Hungarian saboteurs , but unstable propellant may well have been responsible . The ship was refloated , upside down , on 17 September 1919 and righted on 24 January 1921 . The Regia Marina planned to modernize her by replacing her center turret with six 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) AA guns , but lacked the funds to do so and sold her for scrap on 22 March 1923 . In 1919 , Conte di Cavour sailed to North America and visited ports in the United States as well as Halifax , Canada . Giulio Cesare made port visits in the Levant in 1919 and 1920 . Conte di Cavour was mostly inactive in 1921 because of personnel shortages and was refitted at La Spezia from November to March 1922 . Both battleships supported Italian operations on Corfu in 1923 after an Italian general and his staff were murdered on the Greco @-@ Albanian border ; Benito Mussolini was not satisfied with the Greek Government 's response so he ordered Italian troops to occupy the island . Conte di Cavour bombarded the town with her 76 mm guns , killing 20 and wounding 32 civilians . Conte di Cavour escorted King Victor Emmanuel III and his wife aboard Dante Alighieri , on a state visit to Spain in 1924 and was placed in reserve upon her return until 1926 , when she conveyed Mussolini on a voyage to Libya . The ship was again placed in reserve from 1927 until 1933 . Her sister became a gunnery training ship in 1928 , after having been in reserve since 1926 . Conte di Cavour was reconstructed at the CRDA Trieste Yard while Giulio Cesare was rebuilt at Cantieri del Tirreno , Genoa between 1933 and 1937 . Both ships participated in a naval review by Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples in May 1938 and covered the invasion of Albania in May 1939 . Early in World War II , the sisters took part in the Battle of Calabria ( also known as the Battle of Punta Stilo ) on 9 July 1940 , as part of the 1st Battle Squadron , commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni , during which they engaged major elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet . The British were escorting a convoy from Malta to Alexandria , while the Italians had finished escorting another from Naples to Benghazi , Libya . Admiral Andrew Cunningham , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , attempted to interpose his ships between the Italians and their base at Taranto . Crew on the fleets spotted each other in the middle of the afternoon and the Italian battleships opened fire at 15 : 53 at a range of nearly 27 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 000 yd ) . The two leading British battleships , HMS Warspite and Malaya , replied a minute later . Three minutes after she opened fire , shells from Giulio Cesare began to straddle Warspite which made a small turn and increased speed , to throw off the Italian ship 's aim , at 16 : 00 . At that same time , a shell from Warspite struck Giulio Cesare at a distance of about 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . The shell pierced the rear funnel and detonated inside it , blowing out a hole nearly 6 @.@ 1 meters ( 20 ft ) across . Fragments started several fires and their smoke was drawn into the boiler rooms , forcing four boilers off @-@ line as their operators could not breathe . This reduced the ship 's speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Uncertain how severe the damage was , Campioni ordered his battleships to turn away in the face of superior British numbers and they successfully disengaged . Repairs to Giulio Cesare were completed by the end of August and both ships unsuccessfully attempted to intercept British convoys to Malta in August and September . On the night of 11 November 1940 , Conte di Cavour and Giulio Cesare were at anchor in Taranto harbor when they were attacked by 21 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , along with several other warships . One torpedo exploded underneath ' B ' turret at 23 : 15 , and her captain requested tugboats to help ground the ship on a nearby 12 @-@ meter ( 39 ft ) sandbank . His admiral vetoed the request until it was too late and Conte di Cavour had to use a deeper , 17 @-@ meter ( 56 ft ) , sandbank at 04 : 30 on 12 November . In an effort to lighten the ship , her guns and parts of her superstructure were removed and Conte di Cavour was refloated on 9 June 1941 . Temporary repairs to enable the ship to reach Trieste for permanent repairs took until 22 December . Her guns were operable by September 1942 , but replacing her entire electrical system took longer and she was still under repair when Italy surrendered a year later . The Regia Marina made plans to replace her secondary and anti @-@ aircraft weapons with a dozen 135 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) dual @-@ purpose guns in twin mounts , twelve 64 @-@ caliber 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) , and twenty @-@ three 65 @-@ caliber 20 mm AA guns . Her hulk was damaged in an air raid and capsized on 23 February 1945 . Refloated shortly after the end of the war , Conte di Cavour was scrapped in 1946 . Giulio Cesare participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November 1940 , but never got close enough to any British ships to fire at them . The ship was damaged in January 1941 by a near miss during an air raid on Naples ; repairs were completed in early February . She participated in the First Battle of Sirte on 17 December 1941 , providing distant cover for a convoy bound for Libya , again never firing her main armament . In early 1942 , Giulio Cesare was reduced to a training ship at Taranto and later Pola . She steamed to Malta in early September 1943 after the Italian surrender . The German submarine U @-@ 596 unsuccessfully attacked the ship in the Gulf of Taranto in early March 1944 . After the war , Giulio Cesare was allocated to the Soviet Union as war reparations in 1949 , and renamed Novorossiysk , after the Soviet city on the Black Sea . The Soviets used her as a training ship when she was not undergoing one of her eight refits in their hands . In 1953 , all remaining Italian light AA guns were replaced by eighteen 37 mm 70 @-@ K AA guns in six twin mounts and six singles . They also replaced her fire @-@ control systems and added radars , although the exact changes are unknown . The Soviets intended to rearm her with their own 305 mm guns , but this was forestalled by her loss . While at anchor in Sevastopol on the night of 28 / 29 October 1955 , she detonated a large German mine left over from World War II . The explosion blew a hole completely through the ship , making a 4 @-@ by @-@ 14 @-@ meter ( 13 by 46 ft ) hole in the forecastle forward of ' A ' turret . The flooding could not be controlled and she later capsized with the loss of 608 men . Novorossiysk was stricken from the Navy List on 24 February 1956 , salvaged on 4 May 1957 , and subsequently scrapped . = = See Also = = List of ships of the Second World War List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Gudovac massacre = The Gudovac massacre ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Pokolj u Gudovcu ; Serbian Cyrillic : Пoкoљ у Гудовцу ) was the mass killing of around 190 Bjelovar Serbs by the Croatian nationalist Ustaše movement on 28 April 1941 , during World War II . The massacre occurred shortly after the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and the establishment of the Ustaše @-@ led Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) . It was the first act of mass murder committed by the Ustaše upon coming to power and presaged a wider Ustaše @-@ perpetrated campaign of genocide against Serbs in the NDH that lasted until the end of the war . The Ustaše used the mysterious deaths of two of their local followers as a pretext for the killings . The victims were drawn from Gudovac and its surroundings on 28 April . Most were arrested under the guise that they were Serb rebels loyal to the ousted Yugoslav government . They were taken to a nearby field and collectively shot by a firing squad of up to 70 Ustaše guards . Five of the prisoners managed to survive the initial volley and crawled away to safety . The Ustaše forced Gudovac 's surviving inhabitants to dig a mass grave for the victims and pour quicklime on the bodies to speed up decomposition . The following day , relatives of one of the victims informed the Germans of what had transpired . The Germans ordered a partial exhumation of the mass grave and had forty suspected perpetrators arrested . Mladen Lorković , a senior Ustaše official , used his influence to have the detained men released and promised German ambassador Siegfried Kasche that the Croatian authorities would carry out a thorough investigation . No such investigation ever took place . An ossuary and mausoleum were erected on the site of the massacre in 1955 , as was a monument by the sculptor Vojin Bakić . In 1991 , amid inter @-@ ethnic violence during the Croatian War of Independence , the monument and mausoleum were destroyed by Croatian nationalists , as was another one of Bakić 's works , Bjelovarac ( The Man From Bjelovar ) . The ruins of the ossuary were removed by the local authorities in 2002 . That same year , residents signed a petition to have the Bjelovarac monument erected once again . The restored monument was unveiled in December 2010 . = = Background = = = = = Inter @-@ war period = = = Gudovac is a village near Bjelovar , about 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) east of Zagreb . It was first settled during the Middle Ages , and had an ethnically mixed population through much of its history . In 1931 , Gudovac had 1 @,@ 073 inhabitants living in 330 households . Croats formed two @-@ thirds of the population , while the remaining inhabitants were ethnic Serbs . The Gudovac municipality had a population of 8 @,@ 000 , including 3 @,@ 000 Serbs . Gudovac had been part of a common South Slav state since November 1918 , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed . At its creation , the Kingdom included six million Serbs , 3 @.@ 5 million Croats and one million Slovenes , among others . Being the largest ethnic group , the Serbs favoured a centralized state . Croats , Slovenes and Bosnian Muslims did not . The Vidovdan Constitution , approved on 28 June 1921 and based on the Serbian constitution of 1903 , established the Kingdom as a parliamentary monarchy under the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty . Belgrade was chosen as the capital of the new state , assuring Serb and Orthodox Christian political dominance . In 1928 , Croatian Peasant Party ( Hrvatska seljačka stranka , HSS ) leader Stjepan Radić was shot and mortally wounded on the floor of the country 's parliament by a Serb deputy . The following year , King Alexander proclaimed the 6 January Dictatorship and renamed his country the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to deemphasize its ethnic makeup . Yugoslavia was divided into nine administrative units called banovinas , six of which had ethnic Serb majorities . In 1931 , the king issued a decree which allowed the Yugoslav Parliament to reconvene on the condition that only pro @-@ Yugoslav parties were allowed to be represented in it . Marginalized , far @-@ right and far @-@ left parties thrived . The Ustaše , a Croatian fascist movement , emerged as the most extreme of these . The movement was driven by a deep hatred of Serbs . In 1932 , the Ustaše launched the so @-@ called Velebit uprising , attacking a police station in the village of Brušane in Lika . The police responded harshly to the attack and harassed the local population , leading to further animosity between Croats and Serbs . In 1934 , an Ustaše @-@ trained assassin killed Alexander while he was on a state visit to France . Alexander 's cousin , Prince Paul , became regent and took up the king 's responsibilities until Alexander 's son Peter turned eighteen . Following the 1938 Anschluss ( union ) between Germany and Austria , Yugoslavia came to share a border with the Third Reich and fell under increasing pressure as her neighbours became aligned with the Axis powers . In April 1939 , Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania . At the outbreak of World War II , the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality . Between September and November 1940 , Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact and Italy invaded Greece . From that time , Yugoslavia was almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites , and her neutral stance toward the war came under tremendous pressure . In late February 1941 , Bulgaria joined the Pact . The next day , German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania , closing the ring around Yugoslavia . Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union , Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis . On 25 March 1941 , after some delay , the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact . Two days later , a group of pro @-@ Western , Serbian nationalist air force officers deposed Prince Paul in a bloodless coup d 'état . The conspirators declared the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Prince Peter of age and brought to power a " government of national unity " led by General Dušan Simović . The coup enraged Hitler . " Even if Yugoslavia at first should give declarations of loyalty , " he stated , " she must be considered ... a foe and ... destroyed as quickly as possible . " He then ordered the invasion of Yugoslavia , which commenced on 6 April 1941 . = = = Fall of Bjelovar = = = The Royal Yugoslav Army ( Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) was quickly overwhelmed by the combined German , Italian and Hungarian assault . Much of its equipment was obsolete , its military strategy was outdated and its soldiers were ill @-@ disciplined and poorly trained . To make matters worse , many of the VKJ 's Croat personnel refused to fight against the Germans , whom they considered liberators from Serb oppression . This attitude was shared by many soldiers of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska 's largely Croat 108th Regiment , which was stationed in the village of Veliki Grđevac . The regiment had been mobilised in Bjelovar , and on 7 April was marching towards Virovitica to take up positions , when its Croat members revolted and arrested the Serb officers and soldiers . Led by Captain Ivan Mrak , the regiment disarmed a Yugoslav gendarmerie post in Garešnica and began marching back to Bjelovar alongside a band of Ustaše rebels under Mijo Hans . The following morning , elements of the 108th Regiment entered Bjelovar and clashed with the local gendarmerie , sustaining losses of two killed and three wounded . At about noon , the regiment joined up with elements of the 42nd Infantry Regiment and other units of the 40th Infantry Division . At around the same time , Julije Makanec , the Croat mayor of Bjelovar , joined Ustaše official Ivan Šestak and HSS representative Franjo Hegeduš in demanding that the VKJ surrender the town to the rebels . When the 4th Army 's commander , General Petar Nedeljković , learned of the rebel approach , he ordered the local gendarmerie commander to maintain order , but was advised that this would not be possible as local Croat conscripts would not report for duty . Fourth Army headquarters reported the rebels ' presence to the headquarters of the 1st Army Group , which requested that HSS leader Vladko Maček intervene with the rebels . Maček agreed to send an emissary to the 108th Infantry Regiment urging them to obey their officers , to no avail . Later in the day , two trucks of rebels arrived at 4th Army headquarters in Bjelovar with the intention of killing the staff . The headquarters guard force prevented this , but the operations staff immediately withdrew from Bjelovar to Popovača . After issuing several unanswered ultimatums , around 8 @,@ 000 rebels attacked Bjelovar , assisted by Croat fifth @-@ columnists within the town . Bjelovar surrendered , and many Yugoslav officers and soldiers were captured by the Germans and Ustaše rebels . Local Croats welcomed the revolt with great enthusiasm . When Nedeljković heard of Bjelovar 's capture , he called Makanec and threatened to bomb the city if VKJ prisoners were not immediately released . Detained officers from 4th Army headquarters and the 108th Infantry Regiment were then sent to Zagreb . At about 16 : 00 , Nedeljković informed the Ban of Croatia , Ivan Šubašić , of the revolt , but Šubašić was powerless to influence events . At about 18 : 00 , Makanec proclaimed that Bjelovar was part of an independent Croatian state . This was the only significant pro @-@ Ustaše revolt in Croatia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina prior to 10 April . Ustaše propaganda celebrated it as " an uprising of the Croatian people against the April War " and claimed that it proved Croats wholeheartedly supported the destruction of Yugoslavia . = = = Creation of the NDH = = = On 10 April , senior Ustaše commander Slavko Kvaternik proclaimed the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia ( Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) . The declaration came exactly one week before the VKJ 's unconditional surrender to the Axis powers . The leader of the Ustaše , Ante Pavelić , was in Rome at the time and made arrangements to travel to Karlovac , just west of Zagreb . He arrived in Karlovac on 13 April , accompanied by 250 – 400 of his followers . Pavelić reached Zagreb on 15 April , having granted territorial cessions to Italy at Croatia 's expense and promised the Germans he had no intention of pursuing a foreign policy independent of Berlin . That same day , Germany and Italy extended diplomatic recognition to the NDH . Pavelić was declared Poglavnik ( " leader " ) of the Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state , which combined the territory of much of present @-@ day Croatia , all of present @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of present @-@ day Serbia . Pavelić and his followers intended to create an " ethnically pure " Croatia through the mass murder and deportation of Serbs , Jews and other non @-@ Croats . However , only about fifty percent of the NDH 's 6 @.@ 2 million inhabitants were Croat . Nearly two million Serbs , about one @-@ third of the NDH 's total population , now found themselves within the borders of the newly formed state . In addition , Serb @-@ majority areas covered between 60 and 70 percent of the NDH 's total landmass . " The Croatian state cannot exist if 1 @.@ 8 million Serbs are living in it and if we have a powerful Serbian state at our backs , " Croatia 's future Foreign Minister Mladen Lorković explained . " Therefore , we are trying to make the Serbs disappear from our regions . " In his memoirs , Slavko Kvaternik wrote : " Living abroad as émigrés for twelve years , during which time they lived only in the yearning for revenge , had turned [ the Ustaše ] into psychopaths , mentally deranged people with a desire to kill . " His son Dido Kvaternik , a senior Ustaše official , was entrusted with " cleansing " Bjelovar and its surroundings . The younger Kvaternik recalled : " When we triumphantly returned home from abroad and when Pavelić decided that I should take over the implementation of the measures against Serbs and Jews , I obeyed immediately and without hesitation because I knew that this question had to be resolved for the future of the Croatian people and state , and that someone had to make the sacrifice so that these odious but necessary measures could be carried out . " Pavelić 's orders for the extermination of non @-@ Croats in and around Bjelovar were likely delivered orally to ensure that no written evidence remained . = = Prelude = = Immediately after seizing Bjelovar , the Ustaše set about strengthening their hold of the city . Josip Verhas , an ethnic German , was appointed the acting head of Bjelovar district , Đuro Vojnović was appointed Ustaše representative to the Bjelovar district , and Hans was named the Ustaše commissioner for Bjelovar county . Alojz Čukman was appointed chief of police . He immediately decreed that all of Bjelovar 's Serbs had to wear a red armband with the word " Serb " written in both Croatian and German . Ivan Garščić , a public notary , was appointed acting commander of the Bjelovar armoury and set about reorganizing local Ustaše formations . Mrak , who had distinguished himself as one of the leaders of the 108th Regiment 's revolt , was tasked with overseeing the city centre . Between 9 and 14 April , groups of soldiers from the disbanded 108th Regiment roamed the Bjelovar countryside looking for a way home . Serb officers that had refused to surrender raided Croat homes , hoping to find food , money and civilian clothing that would make it easier for them to pass through German and Ustaše checkpoints . In some villages , Croat peasants disarmed defeated VKJ units and plundered their warehouses . Some of these peasants , especially those in Gudovac , entered local units known as " readiness battalions " . On 10 April , the Germans reached Bjelovar and set up a series of command posts but left the Ustaše in de facto control of the city . The Ustaše were wary of the possible danger that the Serb peasantry posed . Many male peasants had been in the VKJ at the time of the invasion and had simply discarded their military fatigues and taken their rifles home . Mišo Sabolek , a local Ustaše commander , reported : " Bjelovar and its surroundings are besieged by Serbs , who are ... killing and looting homes in the villages of Nart , Gudovac and the Česma forest . " In mid @-@ April , Sabolek reported that he had sent 35 gunmen to " quell violence " around Bjelovar . His superiors in Zagreb ordered him to " take any measures necessary to restore order " in the district . Local Ustaše searched dozens of Serb homes , hoping to find illegal weapons . This was followed by the arresting of " undesired elements " , mostly members of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) . " The disarming of Serbs ... is vital to securing the future of the young Croatian state , " wrote Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau , the German Plenipotentiary General in the NDH . Julius Eker , the local KPJ chairman , was arrested on 12 April . On 16 April , Slavko Kvaternik announced that Serb peasants in the NDH had eight days to hand their weapons over to the Ustaše . Another influential communist , Milan Bakić , was arrested in Bjelovar on 20 April . On 22 April , the Ustaše arrested most of the town 's remaining KPJ members . Communist organisers such as Stevo Šabić , Franko Winter and Sándor Király were arrested on 24 April . By 25 April , several hundred known or suspected anti @-@ fascists were arrested by the local Ustaše . Some were spared death and given prison sentences , but most were executed without trial . That same day , an Ustaše patrol discovered 80 rifles and several machine guns in the home of a local KPJ member . Forty rifles and two machine guns were found in the home of another local communist . Alarmed by the prospect of an armed rebellion in Bjelovar and the surrounding countryside , Kvaternik selected a broad area in and around the town where Serbs were to be " cleansed " . " For every Croat killed , " he said , " we must execute 100 Serbs . " The disarming and arresting of VKJ personnel by the Ustaše was accompanied by numerous incidents , in which about twenty armed VKJ troops and Serb civilians were killed . Kvaternik feared that these deaths would only increase the likelihood of an armed revolt , and became even more wary when he heard rumours that Bjelovar 's Serbs were planning an uprising to coincide with the feast day of St. George ( Đurđevdan ) , on 6 May . Interior Minister Andrija Artuković arrived in Bjelovar after hearing such rumours . At a meeting with Verhas and his lieutenants , he stated that " serious action " would have to be undertaken to " send a message to the enemies of the Ustaše and the NDH " . On 26 April , Kvaternik and his closest assistant , Ivica Šarić , organised the mass arrest of 530 Serb villagers from Grubišno Polje . Thirty Ustaše took part in the arrests . The detainees were transported to the Danica camp , near Koprivnica , and from there taken to Ustaše camps at Gospić , Pag Island , Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška , where most were killed . = = Timeline = = = = = Arrests = = = On 25 April , the Ustaše had arrested a Serb named Milan Radovanović when he stopped by the Bjelovar police station to hand over his rifle . He had fought with the VKJ at the time of the invasion and spent two weeks hiding in the forests before returning to his home in the village of Prgomelje . His relatively late return home had prevented him from handing over his rifle before the Ustaše deadline on 24 April . On the morning of 26 April , as Radovanović and another Serb peasant were being escorted from the county jail by two Ustaše guards , two unidentified gunmen opened fire on the detainees and guards . A skirmish ensued , and Radovanović and one of the guards were killed . The second guard was wounded . That afternoon , a Home Guard ( or domobran ) was killed by a stray bullet in his yard while on leave . Kvaternik immediately blamed Serb " agitators " for the deaths . In their internal documents , the Ustaše blamed the deaths on " local Chetniks " , a claim that has never been proven . Some historians have proposed that the attack on the county jail and the death of the Home Guard were false flag attacks intended to rally Croats against local Serbs . This allegation has also never been proven . Upon hearing news of the attack at the county jail , Kvaternik ordered the arrest of 200 Serb peasants from Gudovac and the neighbouring villages of Veliko and Malo Korenovo , Prgomelje , Bolč , Klokočevac , Tuk , Stančići and Breza . The arrests occurred in the early morning hours of 28 April . The action was personally supervised by Kvaternik and carried out by members of the local Croatian Peasant Guard , which had been turned into a " quasi @-@ military unit " under the command of Martin Čikoš , whom the journalist Slavko Goldstein describes as a " sworn pre @-@ war Ustaša " . Most of the more prominent or wealthy inhabitants of Gudovac were arrested , including teachers , businessmen and Serbian Orthodox priests . " Their sole crime , " Goldstein asserts , " was that they were of the Orthodox faith and perhaps a little more prosperous than their neighbours . " Shortly before the killings , Verhas , Čikoš and local Ustaše officials Rudolf Srnak , Nikola Pokopac and Mirko Pavlešić held a meeting where it was decided that the prisoners would be executed en masse . = = = Killings = = = The prisoners were taken to the Gudovac municipal building and held there for a time . They were told that they would be taken to Bjelovar for interrogation . Instead , they were ordered to march in the opposite direction , towards a field beside the river Plavnica where an open @-@ air market was held each week . The prisoners left Gudovac just before sunset , supervised by as many as 70 armed guards . Many of the prisoners sensed the fate that awaited them but were unable to escape . According to one post @-@ war testimony , Čikoš was " upset , uneasy ... and in no mood to talk " . As the arrested Serbs were being marched out of Gudovac , he pulled one of his Serb neighbours from the group and told him to " get lost " before ordering the remaining 200 detainees to line up against a wall . Kvaternik appeared before the group and asked if it contained any Croats . Four stepped forward and offered their identification papers . Three were permitted to return to their homes once their identities had been confirmed but the fourth was sent back among the Serbs because he was a communist . Kvaternik , Čikoš and several newly appointed Ustaše officers supervised the march . According to survivors , the guards hurtled insults at the prisoners , and forced them to sing Ustaše songs and chant " Long live Pavelić ! Long live Kvaternik ! " The prisoners reached the field just after sunset and were ordered to line up in ranks and make a left face ; the guards then raised their rifles and opened fire . Some of the executioners hesitated before firing , and many of the victims were struck in the legs . Some of the wounded cursed the Ustaše and others cried in agony . Kvaternik observed the massacre from a distance of about 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , accompanied by Hans , Verhas and Pavlešić . Pavlešić was dissatisfied with the speed of the killings and shouted at Čikoš , telling him to " finish the job " . Čikoš 's men then went about looking for survivors and bayonetting anyone that moved . Five prisoners escaped before Čikoš 's men could kill them and fled to a nearby forest . The killings were the first act of mass murder committed by the Ustaše upon coming to power . Estimates of the number of people killed vary . Marko Attila Hoare , a historian specializing in the Balkans , puts the figure at 184 killed . The journalist Tim Judah writes that there were 187 fatalities . Historian Ivo Goldstein asserts that the Ustaše killed 196 people . = = Aftermath = = = = = Reaction = = = Kvaternik and the Ustaše never attempted to conceal the killings , which were deliberately carried out in a relatively public space so as to cause terror among the Serb population . Local Croats had full knowledge of the events . Following the massacre , the Ustaše forced Gudovac 's remaining inhabitants to dig a 150 m2 ( 1 @,@ 614 @.@ 59 sq ft ) mass grave and cover the remains of the victims with quicklime to speed up decomposition . Once the dead had been buried , the villagers were permitted to return to their homes . News of the massacre spread through Bjelovar , and the following day the wife and daughter of a Serb named Nikola Gvozdenčević heard that their husband and father was among those killed . Deeply upset , Mrs. Gvozdenčević and her daughter hurried to a German command post , reported the massacre , then led two German officers to the mass grave . The officers informed their superiors that a massacre had taken place and complained that the " disorder " in their area of responsibility was beyond their control . Their superiors ordered a partial exhumation of the mass grave and requested that the exhumed corpses be photographed . They also requested an investigation , as well as the arrest and punishment of those responsible . On the orders of a local German commander , forty of those involved in the massacre were arrested on the evening of 29 April . Their weapons were seized and they were temporarily detained in the Bjelovar high school . That same evening , Lorković requested an urgent meeting with German ambassador Siegfried Kasche . According to Kasche , Lorković told him that eleven Croats had been killed by the Serbs and that a massacre of 192 men from Gudovac and its surroundings was carried out in retaliation for these deaths . According to Goldstein , the figure of eleven dead Croats was made up by Lorković in order to justify the massacre . The Croatian historian Željko Karaula contradicts Goldstein 's assertion , claiming the VKJ marched into several hamlets on 11 April and summarily executed eleven Croat villagers that had refused to report for mobilisation several days earlier . Goldstein posits that 25 of the 27 Croats whose deaths the Ustaše attributed to " Serb agitators " prior to the massacre had perished in combat operations during the rebellion of the 108th Regiment . Historian Michele F. Levy agrees that there was no mass killing of Croats . Lorković maintained that the Gudovac massacre was an " internal political issue under the jurisdiction of the Croatian government " , and requested that the detained Ustaše members be handed over to Croatian authorities . He promised Kasche that Zagreb would carry out a full investigation . Kasche accepted Lorković 's proposal , likely at the urging of his superiors . The Ustaše detained at the Bjelovar high school were released and had their weapons returned to them . The promised investigation never took place . = = = Legacy = = = The National Archive in Bjelovar contains extensive documentation of the massacre , including a list of victims compiled by Ustaše officials in May 1941 which describes many prisoners as being " shot as Chetniks " . A statement describes the " fright " of the Serb population and the " distress " of local Croats . The HSS party leadership distanced itself from the massacre and condemned the actions of the Ustaše , as did the majority of local HSS activists , many who ended up joing the Partisans . According to some sources , even Makanec tried to distance himself from the killings , and allegedly protested to the " appropriate authorities " in Zagreb . He went on to become the Croatian Minister of Education in 1943 , and served in this capacity until May 1945 . Lorković was implicated in a conspiracy to overthrow the NDH government in mid @-@ 1944 , arrested , and executed in the last weeks of the war by Pavelić 's henchmen . Kvaternik survived the war and the destruction of the NDH , fled to Argentina with his family and was killed in a car accident in 1962 . Pavelić also fled to Argentina , survived an assassination attempt by Yugoslav government agents in Buenos Aires in 1957 , and died of his wounds in Madrid two years later , aged 70 . Ustaše killings of Serbs continued throughout the war , and concentration camps were established to detain Serbs , Jews , Gypsies , anti @-@ fascist Croats and others opposed to Pavelić 's regime . Contemporary German accounts place the number of Serbs killed by the Ustaše at about 350 @,@ 000 . According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , between 320 @,@ 000 and 340 @,@ 000 Serbs were killed by the Ustaše over the course of the war . Most modern historians agree that the Ustaše killed over 300 @,@ 000 Serbs ( about 17 percent of all Serbs living in the NDH ) . At the Nuremberg trials , these killings were judged to have constituted genocide . An ossuary and mausoleum were built on the site of the massacre in 1955 . A monument called Gudovac — Before the Firing Squad , by sculptor Vojin Bakić , was erected on the same spot . In 1991 , amid inter @-@ ethnic violence during the Croatian War of Independence , the monument and mausoleum were destroyed by Croatian nationalists . At the same time , one of Bakić 's most famous monuments , Bjelovarac , was destroyed because Bakić was a Serb and the monument had been dedicated to his brothers , who were killed by the Ustaše . What remained of the ossuary was removed by the local authorities in 2002 . That same year , several residents signed a petition to have a replica of Bjelovarac erected at the same spot . The local government promised to supply only half the amount needed to restore the monument . In 2005 , the Croatian Ministry of Culture told the petitioners to apply for the other half of the amount through a tender . The restored monument was unveiled in December 2010 . = = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Maritime fur trade = The maritime fur trade was a ship @-@ based fur trade system that focused on acquiring furs of sea otters and other animals from the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and natives of Alaska . The furs were mostly sold in China in exchange for tea , silks , porcelain , and other Chinese goods , which were then sold in Europe and the United States . The maritime fur trade was pioneered by Russians , working east from Kamchatka along the Aleutian Islands to the southern coast of Alaska . British and Americans entered during the 1780s , focusing on what is now the coast of British Columbia . The trade boomed around the beginning of the 19th century . A long period of decline began in the 1810s . As the sea otter population was depleted , the maritime fur trade diversified and transformed , tapping new markets and commodities , while continuing to focus on the Northwest Coast and China . It lasted until the middle to late 19th century . Russians controlled most of the coast of what is now Alaska during the entire era . The coast south of Alaska endured fierce competition between , and among , British and American trading vessels . The British were the first to operate in the southern sector , but were unable to compete against the Americans , who dominated from the 1790s to the 1830s . The British Hudson 's Bay Company entered the coast trade in the 1820s with the intention of driving the Americans away . This was accomplished by about 1840 . In its late period , the maritime fur trade was largely conducted by the British Hudson 's Bay Company and the Russian @-@ American Company . The term " maritime fur trade " was coined by historians to distinguish the coastal , ship @-@ based fur trade from the continental , land @-@ based fur trade of , for example , the North West Company and American Fur Company . Historically , the maritime fur trade was not known by that name , rather it was usually called the " North West Coast trade " or " North West Trade " . The term " North West " was rarely spelled as the single word " Northwest " , as is common today . The maritime fur trade brought the Pacific Northwest coast into a vast , new international trade network , centered on the north Pacific Ocean , global in scope , and based on capitalism , but not , for the most part , on colonialism . A triangular trade network emerged linking the Pacific Northwest coast , China , the Hawaiian Islands ( only recently discovered by the Western world ) , Britain , and the United States ( especially New England ) . The trade had a major effect on the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest coast , especially the Aleut , Sugpiaq , Tlingit , Haida , Nuu @-@ chah @-@ nulth , and Chinook peoples . A rapid increase of wealth occurred among the Northwest Coast natives , along with increased warfare , potlatching , slaving , and depopulation due to epidemic disease . However , the indigenous culture was not overwhelmed by rapid change , but actually flourished . For instance , the importance of totems and traditional nobility crests increased , and the Chinook Jargon , which remains a distinctive aspect of Pacific Northwest culture , was developed during this era . Native Hawaiian society was similarly affected by the sudden influx of Western wealth and technology , as well as epidemic diseases . The trade 's effect on China and Europe was minimal , but for New England , the maritime fur trade and the significant profits it made helped revitalize the region , contributing to its transformation from an agrarian to an industrial society . The wealth generated by the maritime fur trade was invested in industrial development , especially textile manufacturing . The New England textile industry in turn had a large effect on slavery in the United States , increasing the demand for cotton and helping make possible the rapid expansion of the cotton plantation system across the Deep South . The most profitable furs were those of sea otters , especially the northern sea otter , Enhydra lutris kenyoni , which inhabited the coastal waters between the Columbia River in the south to the Aleutian Islands in the north . The sea otter was the most hunted during the Maritime Fur Trade during the 17th and 18th centuries . Sea otters possess a thicker fur than any other mammal , and the sea otter 's habit of grooming their coat prevents molting . The reason for their exploitation was due to this ' dark [ thick ] and silver tipped fur ' . The popluarity and demand in fashion of sea otter pelts in China was one of the reasons why it was hunted to the point of disappearance . These mammals of the Pacific are currently ' listed as Threatened under the Canadian Species at Risk Act ' . Sea otter distribution extends from the north of Japan all the way to the vicinity of Cedros Island , Mexico . The species stayed approximately within the arc of the Northern Pacific until the pressure of the maritime trade forced them to move north . The start of their decline with the first Russian expeditions in this region . Aleut hunters were the providers of the skins to the Russians ; the former became ' the main purveyor of prime otter skins to Russian traders and American adventurers ' . Before the exploitation of these mammals , their population ranged from 150 @,@ 000 to 300 @,@ 000 . Sea otters are ' slow breeders , only one sometimes two pups [ are ] being born at a time ' which does not help the population when being pursued . The Chinese sought this mammal 's fur due to its great commercial value and its ' prime coat ' all year long . The pelt was used by the wealthy Chinese as clothing decoration ( robe trimming ) and the Russians used it as an ornamental piece . The other furs that were sent to Europe and America were changed to ' coat collars or hats ' . Due to this great demand and worth of the sea otters pelt , the Russian @-@ America Company ( RAC ) annual expenses was around 1000 @,@ 000 rubles each year and profited over 500 @,@ 000 rubles per year . The fur of the Californian southern sea otter , E. l. nereis , was less highly prized and thus less profitable . After the northern sea otter was hunted to local extinction , maritime fur traders shifted to California until the southern sea otter was likewise nearly extinct . The British and American maritime fur traders took their furs to the Chinese port of Guangzhou ( Canton ) , where they worked within the established Canton system . Furs from Russian America were mostly sold to China via the Mongolian trading town of Kyakhta , which had been opened to Russian trade by the 1727 Treaty of Kyakhta . = = Origins = = The Pacific Northwest was one of the last significant nonpolar regions in the world to be explored by the Europeans . Centuries of reconnaissance and conquest had brought the rest of North America within the claims of imperial powers . During the late 18th and early 19th centuries , a number of empires and commercial systems converged upon the Northwest Coast , by sea as well as by land across the continent . The Russian and Spanish empires were extended into the region simultaneously , from opposite directions . Russian fur companies expanded into North America along the Aleutian Islands , reaching the Fox Islands and the Alaska Peninsula in the early 1760s . Kodiak Island was discovered in 1763 by Stepan Gavrilovich Glotov . In 1768 , an expedition was carried out by the Russian Navy , under Pyotr Krenitsyn and Mikhail Levashev . Two ships sailed from Kamchatka to the Alaska Peninsula for the purpose of assessing the existing Russian activity and the possibilities of future development . Reports about the voyage , meant to be kept secret , spread through Europe and caused alarm in Spain . The Spanish government , already concerned about Russian activity in Alaska , decided to colonize Alta California and sent exploratory voyages to Alaska to assess the threat and strengthen Spanish claims of sovereignty on coast north of Mexico . The province of Alta California was established by José de Gálvez in 1769 , just as the Krenitsyn @-@ Levashev expedition was concluding . Five separate expeditions were dispatched to Alta California in 1769 . By 1782 , presidios had been established at San Diego , Monterey , San Francisco and Santa Barbara , linked by a series of mission stations along the coast . Spanish exploration voyages to the far north were launched in 1774 , 1775 , and 1779 . In 1784 , the center of Russian activity shifted east to Kodiak Island and hunting operations were extended into Cook Inlet . The two empires seemed destined to clash , but before direct Russian @-@ Spanish contact was made new powers appeared on the Northwest Coast — Britain and the United States . When the clash came , at Nootka Sound in 1789 , it was not between Spain and Russia but between Spain and Britain . The British first reached the region by sea in 1778 , during James Cook 's third voyage , and by land in 1793 , when Alexander Mackenzie 's transcontinental explorations reached the Pacific . The first British maritime fur trader , James Hanna , arrived on the Northwest Coast in 1785 . The first American traders , Robert Gray and John Kendrick , arrived by sea in 1788 . The Lewis and Clark Expedition arrived overland in 1805 . The early maritime fur traders were explorers , as well as traders . The Northwest Coast is very complex — a " labyrinth of waters " , according to George Simpson — with thousands of islands , numerous straits and fjords , and a mountainous , rocky , and often very steep shoreline . Navigational hazards included persistent rain , high winds , thick fogs , strong currents , and tides , and hidden rocks . Wind patterns were often contrary , variable , and baffling , especially within the coastal straits and archipelagoes , which makes sailing dangerous . Early explorations before the maritime fur trade era — by Juan Pérez , Bruno de Heceta , Bogeda y Quadra , and James Cook — produced only rough surveys of the coast 's general features . Detailed surveys were undertaken in only a few relatively small areas , such as Nootka Sound , Bucareli Bay , and Cook Inlet . Russian exploration before 1785 had produced mainly rough surveys , largely restricted to the Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska west of Cape Saint Elias . British and American maritime fur traders began visiting the Northwest Coast in 1785 , at which time it was mostly unexplored . Although noncommercial exploration voyages continued , especially by the Spanish Navy , the maritime fur traders made a number of significant discoveries . Notable examples include the Strait of Juan de Fuca , Clayoquot Sound , and Barkley Sound , all found by Charles William Barkley , Queen Charlotte Strait by James Strange , Fitz Hugh Sound by James Hanna , Grays Harbor and the Columbia River by Robert Gray . George Dixon explored the Dixon Entrance and was the first to realize that the Queen Charlotte Islands were not part of the mainland . = = = Russia = = = Russian maritime fur trading in the northern Pacific began after the exploration voyages of Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov in 1741 and 1742 . Their voyages demonstrated that Asia and North America were not connected but that sea voyages were feasible , and that the region was rich in furs . Private fur traders , mostly promyshlenniki , launched fur trading expeditions from Kamchatka , at first focusing on nearby islands such as the Commander Islands . Unlike fur trading ventures in Siberia , these maritime expeditions required more capital than most promyshlenniki could obtain . Merchants from cities such as Irkutsk , Tobolsk , and others in European Russia , became the principal investors . An early trader , Emilian Basov , traded at Bering Island in 1743 , collecting a large number of sea otter , fur seal , and blue Arctic fox furs . Basov made four trips to Bering Island and nearby Medny Island and made a fortune , inspiring many other traders . From 1743 to the founding of the Russian @-@ American Company in 1799 , over 100 private fur @-@ trading and hunting voyages sailed from Kamchatka to North America . In total , these voyages garnered over eight million silver rubles . During the early part of this era , the ships would typically stop at the Commander Islands to slaughter and preserve the meat of Steller 's sea cows , a defenseless sea mammal whose range was limited to those islands . They were hunted not only for food , but also for their skins , used to make boats , and their subcutaneous fat , used for oil lamps . By 1768 , Steller 's sea cow was extinct . As furs were depleted on nearby islands , Russian traders sailed farther east along the Aleutian chain . By the 1760s , they were regularly sailing to Kodiak Island . Notable Russian traders in the early years of the trade include Nikifor Trapeznikov ( who financed and participated in 10 voyages between 1743 and 1768 ) , Maksimovich Solov 'ev , Stepan Glotov , and Grigory Shelikhov . As traders sailed farther east , the voyages became longer and more expensivea Smaller enterprises were merged into larger ones . During the 1780s , Grigory Shelikhov began to stand out as one of the most important traders through the Shelikhov @-@ Golikov Company . In 1784 , Shelikhov founded the first permanent Russian settlement in North America , at Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island . Shelikhov envisioned a continual extension of the Russian maritime fur trade , with trading posts being set up farther and farther along the coast all the way to California . He sought exclusive control of the trade , and in 1788 Empress Catherine II decided to grant his company a monopoly only over the area it already occupied . Other traders were free to compete elsewhere . Catherine 's decision was issued as the imperial ukase ( proclamation ) of September 28 , 1788 . By the time of Catherine 's ukase of 1788 , just as other nations were entering the maritime fur trade , the Russians had spent over 40 years establishing and expanding their maritime operations in North America . A number of colonies were being established over a large region stretching from the Aleutian Islands to Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound . Many ships sailed from Kamchatka to Alaska each year . The Russians not only had an early start , but they also controlled the habitats of the most valuable sea otters . The Kurilian , Kamchatkan , and Aleutian sea otters ' fur was thicker , glossier , and blacker than those on the Northwest Coast and California . The four grades of fur were based on color , texture , and thickness . The most prized furs were those of Kurilian and Kamchatkan sea otters , Aleutian furs were second grade , those of the Northwest Coast third , and the poorest grade was those of Californian sea otters . Russia also controlled the sources of sable furs , the most valuable fur @-@ bearing land mammal . The Russian system differed from the British and American systems in its relationship with indigenous peoples . Using the same method they had used in Siberia , the Russians employed or enserfed Aleut and Alutiiq people , the latter being a subgroup of the Yupik Eskimo people . The Aleut and Alutiiq people were expert sea otter hunters , noted for their use of kayaks and baidarkas . Russian ships were mainly used for transporting and assisting native hunting parties . This differed from the British and American system , where the natives hunted sea otters and prepared the furs on their own , and were essentially independent agents of the fur trade . The Russians did not trade freely with the native Alaskans ; rather , they imposed a fur tribute known as yasak . The yasak system , which was widely used in Siberia , essentially enslaved the natives . In 1788 , it was banned in Russian America , only to be replaced by compulsory labor . = = = Britain = = = The British entry into the maritime fur trade dates to 1778 and the third voyage of Captain James Cook . While sailing north to search for the fabled Northwest Passage , Cook discovered the Hawaiian Islands . On the Northwest Coast , he spent a month in Nootka Sound , during which he and his crew traded with the Nuu @-@ chah @-@ nulth from the village of Yuquot . They ended up with over 300 furs , mostly sea otter , but thought them of no great value . Later , after Cook had been killed in Hawaii , the expedition visited Canton and were surprised by how much money the Chinese were willing to pay for the furs . A profit of 1 @,@ 800 % was made . James King , one of the commanders after Cook 's death , wrote , " the advantages that might be derived from a voyage to that part of the American coast , undertaken with commercial views , appear to me of a degree of importance sufficient to call for the attention of the public . " The crews of the two ships were so eager to return to Nootka Sound and acquire more furs , they were " not far short of mutiny " . Nevertheless , they sailed for England , arriving there in October 1780 . Accounts of Cook 's voyage and the sea otter trade were published in the 1780s , triggering a rush of entrepreneurial voyages to the Northwest Coast . British interest in the maritime fur trade peaked between 1785 and 1794 , then declined as the French Revolutionary Wars diminished Britain 's available manpower and investment capital . The country also concentrated its foreign trade activities in India . British maritime fur traders were hindered by the East India Company ( EIC ) and South Sea Company ( SSC ) . Although the SSC was moribund by the late 18th century , it had been granted the exclusive right to British trade on the entire western coast of the Americas from Cape Horn to Bering Strait and for 300 leagues ( around 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) ) out into the Pacific Ocean . This , coupled with the EIC monopoly on British trade in China , meant sea otter skins were procurable only in the preserve of one monopoly and disposable only in that of the other . To operate legally , British maritime fur traders had to obtain licenses from both companies , which was difficult and expensive . Some traders obtained a license from the EIC only , figuring the SSC was unable to enforce its monopoly . Others obtained only the SSC license and took their furs to England , where they were trans @-@ shipped to China . Some traders tried to evade the licenses by sailing their ships under foreign flags . The EIC 's primary focus in China was the tea trade , with never much interest within the company for the maritime fur trade . The EIC usually allowed British vessels to import furs into Canton , but required the furs to be sold via EIC agents , and the company took a percentage of the returns . Worse , the EIC did not allow the British fur traders to export Chinese goods to Great Britain . Thus , the last and most profitable leg of the maritime fur trade system — carrying Chinese goods to Europe and America — was denied to British traders . The first trading vessel dispatched solely for the purpose of the fur trade was the British Sea Otter commanded by James Hanna in 1785 . In his brief visit to the coast , he obtained 560 pelts , which fetched a profit of $ 20 @,@ 000 in Canton . The promise of such profits encouraged other traders . George Dixon and Nathaniel Portlock , former members of Cook 's crew , became partners in the King George 's Sound Company , formed in 1785 for the purpose of developing the maritime fur trade . They sailed from England on the King George and Queen Charlotte and spent 1786 and 1787 exploring and trading on the North West Coast . They spent the winters in Hawaii , where they were among the first visitors after Cook . Charles William Barkley , another early British trader , sailed the Imperial Eagle from England to the North West Coast via Hawaii , 1786 – 1788 . He was accompanied by his wife , Frances Barkley , who became the first European woman to visit the Hawaiian Islands and the first woman to sail around the world without deception . Only two women are known to have sailed around the world before Frances : Jeanne Baré , disguised as a man , and Rose de Freycinet , wife of Louis de Freycinet , as a stowaway . Barkley chose to sail under the flag of Austria to evade paying for EIC and SSC licences . During their stop in Hawaii , the Barkleys hired a native Hawaiian named Winée as a maidservant . Winée was the first native Hawaiian to visit the Pacific Northwest — the first of many Kanakas . Barkley explored the coast south of Nootka Sound , discovering the Strait of Juan de Fuca in the process . He was the first trader to visit Neah Bay , a Makah settlement that later became an important port of call for maritime fur traders . John Meares , who had also served under Cook , sailed to the North West Coast in 1786 . He spent the winter in Prince William Sound , his ship trapped by ice and his men dying of scurvy . He was rescued by the timely arrival of Dixon and Portlock . Meares organized a second expedition of two ships , the Felice Adventurero and Iphigenia Nubiana . Meares was captain of the Felice and William Douglas was captain of the Iphigenia . Meares decided not to license his ships with the EIC , instead trying to conceal the illegal activity by using the flag of Portugal . They arrived at Nootka Sound in May 1788 . Meares later claimed that Chief Maquinna sold him some land and on it Meares had a building erected . These claims later became a point of dispute during the Nootka Crisis . Spain , which sought control of Nootka Sound , rejected both claims ; the true facts of the matter have never been fully established . There is no doubt , however , that Meares had the sloop North West America built in Nootka Sound , the first nonindigenous vessel built in the Pacific Northwest . Meares and others organized another expedition the following year . A number of vessels sailed to Nootka Sound , including the Argonaut under James Colnett , the Princess Royal , under Thomas Hudson , and the Iphigenia Nubiana and North West America . Colnett intended to establish a permanent fur @-@ trading post at Nootka Sound . However , Spain had also decided to permanently occupy Nootka Sound and assert sovereignty on the North West Coast . The decision was mostly due to Russian activity in Alaska and Russia 's threat to occupy Nootka Sound themselves . Spanish naval officer Esteban José Martínez arrived at Nootka in May 1789 and built Fort San Miguel . When the Argonaut arrived , a dispute arose between Colnett and Martínez , leading to the seizure of several British ships and the arrest of their crews . This incident led to the Nootka Crisis , an international crisis between Britain and Spain . War was averted with the first Nootka Convention of 1790 . = = = United States = = = American traders were largely influenced by an unauthorized report published by John Ledyard in Hartford , Connecticut , in 1783 . By the 1790s American traders were outcompeting the British and soon came to dominate the maritime fur trade south of Russian America . The opening of the trade came at a good time for New England 's merchants . It provided a way to escape the depression that had followed the American Revolutionary War . It presented new trading opportunities that more than made up for the closure of British home and colonial ports to US imports . First Nations along the coast referred to American traders in the Chinook jargon as Boston or Boston @-@ men - after their main port in New England . One of the first and most notable American maritime fur traders was Robert Gray . Gray made two trading voyages , the first from 1787 to 1790 and the second from 1790 to 1793 . The first voyage was conducted with John Kendrick and the vessels Columbia Rediviva and Lady Washington . After the 1789 fur trading season was over , Gray sailed the Columbia to China via Hawaii , then to Boston via the Cape of Good Hope . The arrival of the Columbia at Boston was celebrated for being the first American circumnavigation of the world . However , the venture was not a commercial success . The ship 's owners financed a second attempt and Gray sailed the Columbia from Boston only six weeks after arriving . Gray 's second voyage was notable in several ways . After spending the summer trading on the Northwest Coast , Gray wintered on the coast . In Clayoquot Sound , Gray 's crew built a house , dubbed Fort Defiance , and had the sloop Adventure built , the first American vessel built on the Northwest Coast . It was launched in March 1792 under the command of Robert Haswell . During the 1792 trading season , Gray concentrated on the southern part of the North West Coast , including the Columbia River . Although the mouth of the river had been spotted by the Spanish explorer Bruno de Heceta in 1775 , no other explorer or fur trader had been able to find it . Gray was the first to do so . He named the river after his ship . The event was later used by the United States in support of their claims to the Pacific Northwest . Other notable American maritime fur traders include William F. Sturgis , Joseph Ingraham , Simon Metcalfe , and Daniel Cross , among others . One of the most successful American firms involved in the Northwest Trade was Perkins and Company . = = Boom years = = = = = American ascendancy = = = The maritime fur trade was dominated by American traders from the 1790s to the 1820s . Between 1788 and 1826 , American merchant ships made at least 127 voyages between the United States and China , via the Northwest Coast . The returns were lucrative . During the late 1810s , the return on investment ranged from about 300 % to 500 % . Even higher profits were common in the first decade of the 19th century . Returns of 2 @,@ 200 % or higher were common , although when taking into account the cost of buying and outfitting vessels , the 2 @,@ 200 % return would be closer to 525 % . The trade 's boom years ended around 1810 , after which a long decline was marked by increasing economic diversification . By 1810 , the supply of sea otter pelts had fallen due to overhunting . American trade declined during the War of 1812 , but after 1815 , Americans were able to resume and expand the maritime fur trade , and continued to dominate . = = = Russian expansion = = = The Russian entry to the Northwest Coast , beyond Prince William Sound , was slow because of a shortage of ships and sailors . Yakutat Bay was reached in 1794 and the settlement of Slavorossiya , originally intended to be the colonial capital , was built there in 1795 . Reconnaissance of the coast as far as the Queen Charlotte Islands was carried out by James Shields , a British employee of the Golikov @-@ Shelikhov Company . In 1795 , Alexandr Baranov sailed into Sitka Sound , claiming it for Russia . Hunting parties arrived in the following years . By 1800 , three @-@ quarters of the Russian @-@ American Company 's sea otter skins came from the Sitka Sound area , amounting to several thousand per year . Sitka Sound was also where serious competition between the Russians , British , and Americans first arose . In July 1799 , Baranov returned to Sitka Sound on the brig Oryol and established the settlement of Arkhangelsk , also known as Fort Archangel Gabriel . In June 1802 , Tlingit warriors attacked the settlement and killed or captured most of the 150 Russians and Aleuts living there . Baranov led an armed expedition to retake Sitka by force in June 1804 . The Russian warship Neva joined Baranov at Sitka . A new Russian fort was established while the Tlingit prepared to defend themselves with a well @-@ armed fort of their own . Tension rapidly escalated into skirmishes and negotiations broke down . In early October , the Russians attacked the Tlingit fort with cannon from the Neva and from a land party . The Tlingit responded with powerful gun and cannon fire of their own . The Battle of Sitka continued for several days until the Tlingit abandoned their fort and left the area . Tlingit accounts of the battle refuse to admit defeat or give the Russians credit for taking the Tlingit fort . The Russians destroyed the abandoned Tlingit fort and named the new Russian fort Novo @-@ Arkhangelsk ( New Archangel ) , also known as Fort Archangel Michael and Fort Saint Michael . The confrontations at Sitka in 1802 and 1804 played a significant role in subsequent Tlingit @-@ Russian relations for generations . Novo @-@ Arkhangelsk soon became the primary settlement and colonial capital of Russian America . After the Alaska Purchase , it was renamed Sitka , and became the first capital of Alaska Territory . The Russian @-@ American Company ( RAC ) was incorporated in 1799 , putting an end to the promyshlenniki period and beginning an era of centralized monopoly . Its charter was laid out in a 1799 ukase by the new Tsar Paul , which granted the company monopolistic control over trade in the Aleutian Islands and the North America mainland , south to 55 ° north latitude ( approximating the present border on coast between British Columbia and Alaska ) . The RAC was modeled on Britain 's East India Company ( EIC ) and Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) . Russian officials intended the company to operate both as a business enterprise and a state organization for extending imperial influence , similar to the EIC and HBC . It was also hoped that the company would be able to conduct maritime trade with China and Japan , although this goal was not realized . In 1818 the Russian government took control of the RAC from the merchants who held the charter . The explorer and naval officer Ferdinand Petrovich von Wrangel was the first president of the company during the government period . In 1867 , the Alaska Purchase transferred control of Alaska to the United States and the commercial interests of the Russian American Company were sold to Hutchinson , Kohl & Company of San Francisco , who then merged with several other groups to form the Alaska Commercial Company . The Russian population in America never surpassed 1 @,@ 000 — the peak was 823 in 1839 . However , the RAC employed and fed thousands of natives . According to official census counts by the Russians , the population of Russian America peaked at 10 @,@ 313 in 1838 . An additional 12 @,@ 500 people were known local residents not included in the colonial register . An estimated 17 @,@ 000 more local residents were present but unknown to the Russians . Thus , the total population of Russian America was approximately 40 @,@ 000 . = = Diversification and transformation = = = = = Russian @-@ American Company = = = Colony Ross , known as Fort Ross today , was built in California just north of San Francisco Bay . It was the RAC 's southernmost outpost and operated from 1812 to 1841 , and was established as an agricultural base for supplying the northern settlements with food as well as for conducting trade with Alta California . The Ross Colony included a number of settlements spread out over an area stretching from Point Arena to Tomales Bay . The administrative center was Port Rumianstev at Bodega Harbor , off Bodega Bay . An artel hunting camp was located on the Farallon Islands . Three ranches were established : the Kostromitinov Ranch on the Russian River near the mouth of Willow Creek , the Khlebnikov Ranch in the Salmon Creek valley about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the present day Bodega , and the Chernykh Ranch near present @-@ day Graton . Fort Ross employed native Alaskans to hunt seals and sea otters on the California coast . By 1840 California 's sea otter population had been severely depleted . The Russian Emperor Alexander I issued the Ukase of 1821 which announced Russian hegemony over the Northwest Coast from 45 ° 50 ′ north latitude onwards in a northern direction . The only Russian attempt to enforce the ukase of 1821 was the seizure of the US brig Pearl by the Russian sloop Apollon , in 1822 . The Pearl , a maritime fur trading vessel , was sailing from Boston to Sitka . On a protest from the US government , the vessel was released and compensation paid . Britain and the United States protested and negotiations ultimately resulted in the Russo @-@ American Treaty of 1824 and the Anglo @-@ Russian Convention of 1825 . These treaties established 54 ° 40 ′ as the southern boundary of exclusively Russian territory . The Anglo @-@ Russian treaty delineated the boundary of Russian America fully . The border began on the coast at 54 ° 40 ′ , then ran north along the mountains near the coast until it reached 141 ° west longitude , after which the boundary ran north along that line of longitude to the Arctic Ocean . Aside from boundary adjustments to the Alaska Panhandle , stemming from the Alaska boundary dispute of the late 19th century , this is the current boundary of the state of Alaska . In 1839 the RAC @-@ HBC Agreement was signed , giving the Hudson 's Bay Company a lease of the southeastern sector of what is now the Alaska Panhandle , as far north as 56 ° 30 ' north latitude . = = = American methods and strategies = = = American traders developed the " Golden Round " trade route around the world . Ships sailed from Boston to the Pacific via Cape Horn , then to the North West Coast , arriving in the spring or early summer . They would spend the summer and early autumn fur trading on the coast , mainly between Sitka and the Columbia River . In late autumn they sailed to the Hawaiian Islands , where they typically spent the winter , then from Hawaii to Macau on the Pearl River Delta , arriving in autumn . Trading in Canton did not begin until November , when tea shipments were ready . The Americans had to hire pilots to take their ships up the Pearl River to Canton 's " outport " of Whampoa . Foreign ships were not allowed in Canton itself . Trading took weeks or months , after which the ships were loaded with Chinese goods such as teas , silks , porcelains , sugar , cassia , and curios . They left in the winter and used the northeasterly monsoon winds of the South China Sea to reach the Sunda Strait , then used the southeasterly trade winds to cross the Indian Ocean to the Cape of Good Hope . From there the ships sailed to Boston , where they traditionally docked at the India Wharf . Frederic William Howay described this as the " golden round " , writing : The Americans had a perfect golden round of profits : first , the profit on the original cargo of trading goods when exchanged for furs ; second , the profit when the furs were transmuted into Chinese goods ; and , third , the profit on those goods when they reached America . In the later years of the North West Trade the pattern became more complex as additional markets and side voyages were incorporated . As the North West trade developed it became riskier to depend solely upon acquiring sea otter furs through trade with the indigenous people of the coast . Diversification began in the first decade of the 19th century if not earlier , and increased over time . Maritime fur trading voyages were no longer solely about taking sea otter furs from the North West Coast to Canton . Other commodities and markets throughout the Pacific were added to the system . Sandalwood , mainly from Hawaii , became an important item of the China trade . Just as the sea otter trade was waning the sandalwood trade boomed , peaking in 1821 , then declined . Hawaiian sandalwood was depleted by 1830 . Fiji and the Marquesas Islands were the other principal sources of sandalwood . Most had been cut by 1820 . Fiji was also a source of bêche @-@ de @-@ mer , a gourmet delicacy in China . American traders began acquiring Fijian bêche @-@ de @-@ mer in 1804 and trepanging boomed there . Bêche @-@ de @-@ mer became Fiji 's leading export by 1830 . Depletion led to a decline and the end of the trade by 1850 . Trepanging was also done from 1812 in Hawaii and from 1814 in the Marquesas . Other side trades included Chilean copper from Valparaíso , scrimshaw ( whale teeth ) , tortoise shells and meat from the Galápagos Islands , sugar from Manila , and , from Java , areca nuts ( so @-@ called betel nuts ) and coffee beans . Sealing boomed in the Juan Fernández Islands and the Juan Fernández fur seal was rapidly exploited to near @-@ extinction . The northern fur seal rookeries were controlled by Russia , so Americans acquired northern fur seal skins through trade rather than sealing . Another side trade was smuggling along the Pacific coast of the Spanish Empire , where foreign trade was prohibited by Spanish law . This trade peaked in the 1810s , then faded in the 1820s . Traders concentrated on Alta California , which produced a surplus of grain , beef , tallow , and hides , but was chronically short of manufactured goods . American ships brought goods to the missions of Alta California in exchange for grain , beef , and Californian sea otter skins . The grain , beef , and other provisions were taken to Sitka , which was perennially short of foods supplies . After Mexico gained independence in 1821 the American trade with Alta California continued in a slightly modified form . American traders brought mostly clothing , cottons , silks , lace , cutlery , alcohol , and sugar , which were traded for hides and tallow at a profit generally between 200 % and 300 % . The California Hide Trade became a major industry in its own right . By the 1830s , however , the missions of Alta California had been secularized by Mexican authorities and deserted by Indian labourers . The trade slid into unprofitability . The decline of the American trade with Alta California left just one significant alternative to the ever @-@ dwindling sea otter trade — the provisioning of the settlements of Russian America , which lasted until the Americans abandoned the North West Coast altogether in the early 1840s . From the first decade of the 19th century until 1841 American ships visited Sitka regularly , trading provisions , textiles , and liquor for fur seal skins , timber , and fish . This trade was usually highly profitable for the Americans and the Russian settlements depended on it . Thus when Tsar Nicholas I issued the ukase of 1821 , banning foreign trade north of the 51st parallel , the Russian colonies in America were forced to ignore the ban and engage in smuggling . On the Northwest Coast itself the fur trade was supplemented with slave trading . The pre @-@ existing indigenous slave trade was enlarged and expanded upon by fur traders , especially the American traders . While working the coast for furs , traders would purchase slaves around the mouth of the Columbia River and in the Strait of Juan de Fuca , then sell or trade them on the northern coast . Few traders admitted to slaving , although some wrote about it in detail . Further information comes from sources such as reports by HBC officers . Aemelius Simpson of the Hudson 's Bay Company wrote in 1828 that American traders on coast trafficked in slaves , " purchasing them at a cheap rate from one tribe and disposing of them to others at a very high profit . " He concluded that the American traders made more money from selling slaves , rum , and gunpowder than they did from fur trading . = = = Decline = = = Large @-@ scale economic issues played a role in the decline of the maritime fur trade and the China trade in general . Before the 19th century , Chinese demand for Western raw materials or manufactured goods was small , but bullion ( also known as specie ) was accepted , resulting in a general drain of precious metals from the West to China . The situation reversed in the early 19th century for a variety of reasons . Western demand for Chinese goods declined relative to new options ( for example , coffee from the West Indies began to replace tea in the United States ) , while Chinese demand for Western items increased , such as for English manufactures , American cotton goods , and opium which was outlawed but smuggled into China on a large and increasing scale . Before long , China was being drained of specie and saturated with Western goods . At the same time , intense speculation in the China trade by American and British merchant companies began . By the 1820s , too many firms were competing for an overstocked market , resulting in bankruptcies and consolidation . The inevitable commercial crisis struck in 1826 – 27 , after the Panic of 1825 . Tea prices plummeted and the China trade 's volume collapsed by about a third . By this time , the old maritime fur trade on the Northwest Coast and the Old China Trade itself were dying . The final blow came with the depression of 1841 – 43 , following the Panic of 1837 . Over time , the maritime fur traders concentrated on different parts of the North West Coast . In the 1790s , the west coast of Vancouver Island , especially Nootka Sound , was frequently visited . By the 1810s , the locus had shifted to the Queen Charlotte Islands and Alexander Archipelago , and in the 1820s , farther north to areas near Sitka Sound . After about 1830 , it shifted south to the area from Dixon Entrance to Queen Charlotte Sound . During the early years , ships tended to cruise the coast , seeking trading opportunities whenever they arose . Later , ships spent more time in specific harbors . As fur resources dwindled and prices rose , ship captains increasingly concentrated on a few key ports of call and stayed longer . Eventually , acquiring enough furs for the China trade in a single year was no longer possible . Some traders wintered in Hawaii , returning to the coast in the spring , but many wintered on the North West Coast , usually in one of the key trading harbors . These harbors included " Clemencitty " on Tongass Island , today called Port Tongass ; the several " Kaigani " harbors on south Dall Island north of Cape Muzon ; " Newhitty " on northern Vancouver Island ; and " Tongass " in Clarence Strait , today called Tamgas Harbor , which was said to be the most popular wintering place for American ships in the 1830s . Many significant trading sites were on the Queen Charlotte Islands , including Cloak Bay , Masset , Skidegate , Cumshewa , Skedans , and Houston Stewart Channel , known as " Coyah 's Harbor " , after Chief Koyah . As marine furs became depleted in the early 19th century , American ship captains began to accept increasing numbers of land furs such as beaver , which were brought from the interior to the coast via indigenous trade networks from New Caledonia — today the Omineca and Nechako districts of the Central Interior of British Columbia . During the 1820s , the British Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , which considered the interior fur trade to be its domain , began to experience significant losses as a result of this diversion of furs to the coast . To protect its interests , the HBC entered the coast trade to drive away the American traders . This goal was achieved during the 1830s . By 1841 , the American traders had abandoned the North West Coast . For a time , the North West Coast trade was controlled by the HBC and the RAC . Following the 1846 resolution of the Oregon Territory controversy between the United States and England , and the American purchase of Alaska in 1867 , American hunters returned to hunting sea otters in the region , both from land and sea . Hunting throughout the Aleutian and Kuril Islands by American commercial outfits also contributed to the near @-@ extinction of the species by the late 1800s . = = = Hudson 's Bay Company = = = From 1779 to 1821 two British fur trading companies , the Montreal @-@ based North West Company ( NWC ) and the London @-@ based Hudson 's Bay Company , competed for control of the fur trade of what later became Western Canada . The struggle , which eventually reached the point of armed battles such as the 1816 Battle of Seven Oaks , was mostly over control of Rupert 's Land , east of the Continental Divide . Around the turn of the 19th century the NWC expanded its operations westward , across the Rocky Mountains into the mostly unexplored Pacific Northwest . By the 1810s the NWC had established new fur trading operations west of the Rockies , in New Caledonia and the Columbia District . Starting in 1811 the American Pacific Fur Company ( PFC ) challenged the NWC in the Pacific Northwest , but during the War of 1812 the PFC , at risk of being captured by the British Navy , sold its entire operation to the NWC . The PFC had build Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia River . Under the NWC it was renamed Fort George , and became the Columbia District 's Pacific seaport . The NWC sought to establish a profitable beaver fur trade with China . Due to the East India Company 's ( EIC ) control over British trading in Canton the NWC turned to American shipping companies . Starting in 1792 the NWC had beaver furs shipped to China by American firms . After the acquisition of Fort George ( Astoria ) in 1815 the NWC began to supply the Columbia District by sea through the Boston @-@ based firm of Perkins and Company . After arriving at Fort George the American ship took a cargo of NWC beaver furs to Canton , exchanged them for China goods and conveyed them to Boston for sale . Even though Perkins and Company took 25 % of the proceeds the arrangement was still about 50 % more profitable than using British ships and selling furs in Canton through the EIC for bills payable on London and returning from China with no cargo . In 1821 , after tensions between the NWC and HBC had erupted into violence the NWC was forced to merge into the HBC . As a result , the HBC acquired the Columbia District and its trade with China . At first the system of shipping furs via the American Perkins and Company was continued , but in 1822 the United States Customs Service imposed a heavy ad valorem duty on the proceeds . The HBC stopped using American middlemen and instead tried selling furs through the EIC . In 1824 and 1825 the HBC sold 20 @,@ 000 beaver and 7 @,@ 000 land @-@ otter skins in China through the EIC , but the arrangement did not prove advantageous for either firm . In the wake of the NWC 's forced merger into the HBC , George Simpson reorganized operations in New Caledonia and the Columbia Department . His efforts and keen fiscal sense , combined with a resurgence of American traders on the coast after the Russo @-@ American Treaty of 1824 , resulted in the HBC 's decision to enter the coast maritime fur trade and drive out the Americans . By the early 1820s American traders were taking 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 beaver skins , mostly from New Caledonia , to Canton every year . By the early 1830s the number had reached 10 @,@ 000 annually , which was as many as the HBC itself was acquiring from New Caledonia and half of the total output of the entire Columbia Department . In addition , the Americans were paying higher prices for the furs , which forced the HBC to do the same . The HBC effort to gain control of the coastal fur trade began in the late 1820s . It took some time for the HBC to acquire the necessary ships , skilled seamen , trade goods , and intelligence about the coast trade . Simpson decided that the " London ships " , which brought goods to Fort Vancouver and returned to England with furs , should arrive early enough to make a coasting voyage before departing . The first London ship to do this was the schooner Cadboro , in 1827 . However , its voyage did not get beyond the Strait of Georgia and only 2 sea otter and 28 land otter and beaver skins were acquired . In 1828 the HBC decided to deploy three ships for the coast trade , but setbacks caused delays . The William and Ann was lost in 1829 , and the Isabella in 1830 , both at the Columbia Bar . The HBC 's shipping was inadequate for the coast trade until the middle 1830s . In 1835 two ships were added to the HBC 's coast fleet . One of them , the Beaver , was a steamship , and it proved extremely useful in the variable winds , strong currents , and long narrow inlets . To strengthen its coast trade the Hudson 's Bay Company built a series of fortified trading posts , the first of which was Fort Langley , established in 1827 on the Fraser River about 50 km ( 31 mi ) from the river 's mouth . The next was Fort Simpson , founded in 1831 at the mouth of the Nass River , and moved in 1834 several miles to the present Port Simpson . In 1833 Fort McLoughlin was established on an island in Milbanke Sound and Fort Nisqually was built at the southern end of Puget Sound . An overland trail linked Fort Nisqually and Fort Vancouver , so HBC vessels trading along the northern coast could unload furs and take on trade goods without having to navigate the Columbia River and its hazardous bar . Later coastal posts included Fort Stikine ( 1840 ) , Fort Durham ( 1840 ) , and Fort Victoria ( 1843 ) . = = = American disadvantage = = = It was not easy for the HBC to drive the Americans away from the North West Coast . The Americans had decades of experience and knew the coast 's complex physical and human geography . It took until 1835 for the HBC to gain this level of experience , but the Americans still had several advantages . For a number of reasons they were willing and able to pay high prices for furs — much higher than the HBC could match without taking large financial losses . The American ventures were global in scope . They tapped multiple markets of which the North West Coast was but one . By the 1820s American ships routinely spent years in the Pacific , making several voyages between various places such as California , Hawaii , the Philippines , and Canton . American ships were usually stocked with a surplus of trade goods intended for trade on the North West Coast . It was always best to get rid of any extra trade goods on the North West Coast , " dumping " them at any price , before leaving . They would use up stowage space that could be used more profitably elsewhere . The HBC therefore faced a major challenge even after they became experienced with the coast 's geography and indigenous peoples . The American system not only raised the price of furs but also lowered the value of trade goods . Furthermore , the indigenous people knew that increased competition served their interests and gave them bargaining power . They had no desire to see the Americans abandon the coast trade . Therefore , the HBC had to not just match but exceed the prices paid by Americans if they hoped to drive the Americans away . Beaver fur prices on the coast could be many times what the HBC was paying in the interior . There was no hope of making a profit . In order to compete on the coast the HBC had to take large , long @-@ term financial losses . The main advantage the HBC had over the Americans was that it could take such losses . As a vast corporation with a large amount of capital , the company was able to undersell the Americans , taking a loss , for years on end . By the middle to late 1830s the HBC policy on the coast was to pay whatever price necessary to ensure that furs fell into their hands and not the Americans . American traders soon found the coast fur trade unprofitable — the HBC had captured the trade . But Americans still traded with the Russians at Sitka and , once on the coast were wont to seek a few furs . As long as this continued , the HBC continued to have to pay high prices for furs and take losses . Eventually the Sitka trade became financially risky . The American @-@ Russian agreement of 1824 , which allowed Americans to trade in the Alaska Panhandle , expired in 1834 and was not renewed . In 1839 the HBC made an agreement with the Russian American Company ( RAC ) , under which the HBC would supply the RAC with provisions and manufactures in exchange for a ten @-@ year lease for portions of the Alaska Panhandle . This proved to be the final blow for the American traders , who were finally driven out of the North West Coast maritime fur trade altogether . The HBC drastically reduced the price paid for furs , by 50 % in many cases . By this time , however , the fur trade was in decline , both on the coast and the continent , due to a general depletion of fur @-@ bearing animals , along with a reduction in the demand for beaver pelts . A financial panic in 1837 resulted in a general slump in the fur and China trade , bringing an end to a half @-@ century boom . During the 1840s , the HBC closed most of their coastal trading posts , leaving the coast trade to just Fort Simpson and the Beaver , with the new depot at Fort Victoria anchoring the southern coast . = = Significance = = The half century or so of the maritime fur trade and the North West Coast trade enriched Boston shipowners , creating capital that helped New England 's transformation from an agrarian to an industrial society . The trade stimulated the culture of North West Coast natives , made Hawaii famous and nearly overwhelmed the native Hawaiians with foreign influences . It played a role in increased commercial pressure on China at Canton . Fur bearing animals were devastated , especially sea otters . By 1850 , sea otters were virtually extinct throughout the North West Coast and found only in the Aleutian Islands and California . = = = Northwest Coast = = = The maritime fur trade brought the natives of the Northwest Coast material prosperity , wealth , and technology . It enlarged and transformed intertribal relations , trade , and war , including the " coastalization " of inland natives . Many inland natives adopted potlatching and coastal descent systems . At first the trade caused a rise in the power of a few key chiefs such as Maquinna , Wickaninish , Tatoosh , Concomly ( Madsaw ) , Kotlean ( Sitka Tlingit ) , Kow ( Kaigani Haidas ) , Cunneah ( Coyac ; Kuista Haida ) , Legaic ( Tsimshian ) , Woyala ( Heiltsuk ) , and Cumshewa ( Haida ) . This was followed by a proliferation of chiefs and a general debasement of chieftainship , in part due to widespread wealth , giving individual hunters the means to challenge the traditional chiefs . There was an increase in the frequency of potlatching , which was used by the nouveau riche in challenging the traditional chiefs . In response the hereditary clan chiefs defended their traditional powers through an increased use of noble ancestry names , totems , and crests , all validated by potlatches . The increase in trade , and new items had a significant impact on First Nations material cultures , seeing the rise of such traditions as fabric appliqué ( Button Blankets ) , metalwork ( Northwest Coast engraved silver jewelry originated around this time as native craftsmen learned to make jewelry from coins ) , and contributed to a cultural fluorescence with the advent of improved ( iron ) tools that saw the creative of more and larger carvings ( aka ' totem poles ' ) . New pigments available included vermilion , from China , that rapidly replaced earlier red pigments and can be seen on many artifacts from this era . Negative effects of the coast trade on the native peoples of the Northwest included waves of epidemic disease , smallpox worst of all . Other health problems included the spread of alcoholism , tuberculosis , venereal diseases including syphilis , and sterility . The coast trade also promoted and enhanced the pre @-@ existing system of native slavery and native slave trading . The overall number of slaves increased , as did their distribution and exploitation . Despite these negative effects , the North West Coast natives were largely spared the additional effects that would have come had there been more permanent posts , political administration , missionizing , and colonization . The early traders were mostly seasonal visitors and the later HBC posts were few and small . Missionization and direct colonial rule over the coastal natives did not begin in earnest until the late 19th century . During the early 19th century , native culture not only survived but flourished . The maritime trade also brought changes to the natives ' traditional seasonal migration patterns and settlement locations . The coastal people were " cosmopolitanized " , that is , they were incorporated into a global market economy . At first their main export was furs , later supplemented and replaced by salmon , lumber , and artwork . By the late 19th century the North West Coast was famous for its arts and crafts , especially large works like totem poles , causing a flourishing of indigenous art . The natives imported many western goods and soon became dependent on many , such as firearms and metal tools . Textiles became a vital trade item during the early maritime fur trade era . The value of furs caused a shift in native dress from furs to textiles , which was reinforced by the general depletion of fur animals . Firearms had both positive and negative effects . They made hunting much more efficient but also made warfare much more deadly . = = = Russian America = = = The Russians , unlike the British and Americans , endeavoured to convert the natives to Christianity . Many Aleuts joined the Russian Orthodox Church . Russian missionaries founded a number of churches for the natives , such as the Church of the Holy Ascension in Unalaska . A notable Russian missionary was Saint Innocent of Alaska . For his work as a missionary , bishop , and later archbishop in Alaska and the Russian Far East he was canonized . One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was Saint Peter the Aleut . Other important Russian missionaries include Herman of Alaska and Joasaph Bolotov . = = = Hawaii = = = The effect of the maritime fur trade on native Hawaiians was similar to that of the North West Coast natives , but more powerfully transformative . The Hawaiians were generally receptive to Western incursion and settlement . The rise of King Kamehameha I and the unification of the islands under his rule were made possible in part by the effects of the maritime fur trade and its larger Pacific scope . The influx of wealth and technology helped make the new Kingdom of Hawaii relatively strong , in political and economic terms . Many non @-@ native foodstuffs were introduced to the Hawaiian Islands during the early trading era , including plants such as beans , cabbage , onions , squash , pumpkins , melons , and oranges , as well as cash crops like tobacco , cotton , and sugar . Animals introduced included cattle , horses , sheep , and goats . Due to its high fertility Oahu became the most important of the islands . By the 1820s the population of Honolulu was over 10 @,@ 000 . The native Hawaiian population suffered waves of epidemic disease , including cholera . The availability of alcohol , especially grog and gin , led to widespread boozing and an increased use of traditional kava intoxication . These health issues , plus warfare related to the unification of the islands , droughts , and sandalwooding taking precedence over farming all contributed to an increase in famines and a general population decline . By 1850 the native population had dropped by perhaps 50 % . = = = South China = = = The effect of the maritime fur trade in Southern China by itself was probably not great . The Canton trade as a whole had limited effect on China , mostly limited to the tea growers of Fujian , the silk producers of Nanjing , the craftsmen of Canton , and various middlemen , and merchants . The ruling Manchus kept foreign trade by ship at bay . It was restricted to Canton , and even there was allowed only outside the city walls . China was generally self @-@ sufficient . The main effect of the Old China Trade was an increased import of opium and related outflow of specie , which resulted in China being incorporated into the capitalist world system after 1830 . However , the maritime fur trade played a minor role in this process . = = = New England = = = The maritime fur trade was , for the United States , a branch of the " East India " ( Asian ) trade based in Salem , Boston , Providence , New York City ( Fanning & Coles ) , Philadelphia , and Baltimore . The trade focused on Asian ports such as Canton , Kolkata ( Calcutta ) , Chennai ( Madras ) , Manila , Jakarta ( Batavia ) , and the islands of Mauritius and Sumatra . Goods exported included furs , rum , ammunition , ginseng , lumber , ice , salt , Spanish silver dollars , iron , tobacco , opium , and tar . Goods brought back from Asia included muslins , silks , nankeens , spices , cassia , chinaware ( porcelain ) , tea , sugar , and drugs . The maritime fur trade was just one part of the overall system . As a whole the Asian trade had a significant effect on the early United States , especially New England . The accumulation of large amounts of capital in short time contributed to American industrial and manufacturing development , which was compounded by rapid population growth and technological advancements . In New England the textile industry rose to dominance in early to middle 19th century . In light of the decline of the fur trade and a post @-@ Napoleonic depression in commerce , capital shifted " from wharf to waterfall " , that is , from shipping ventures to textile mills ( which were originally located where water power was available ) . The textile industry in turn had large effect on slavery in the United States , increasing the demand for cotton and helping make possible the rapid expansion of the cotton plantation system across the Deep South . = = Books cited = = Bancroft , Hubert Howe ; Alfred Bates ; Ivan Petroff ; William Nemos ( 1886 ) . History of Alaska : 1730 – 1885 . A. L. Bancroft & Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 665 @-@ 14184 @-@ X. OCLC 2750274 . Bockstoce , John R. ( 2009 ) . Furs and Frontiers in the Far North : The Contest Among Native and Foreign Nations for the Bering Strait Fur Trade . Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 14921 @-@ 0 . Bockstoce , John R. ( 2005 ) . The Opening of the Maritime Fur Trade at Bering Strait : Americans and Russians meet the Kan ̳ hiġmiut in Kotzebue Sound . Transactions of the American Philosophical Society , v. 95 , pt . 1 . American Philosophical Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87169 @-@ 951 @-@ 0 . Borneman , Walter R. ( 2004 ) . Alaska : Saga of a Bold Land . HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 050307 @-@ 9 . Dmytryshyn , Basil ; E. A. P. Crownhart @-@ Vaughan ; Thomas Vaughan ( 1989 ) . The Russian American Colonies , 1798 – 1867 : A Documentary Record . Oregon Historical Society Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87595 @-@ 150 @-@ 8 . Dodge , Ernest Stanley ( 1976 ) . Islands and Empires : Western Impact on the Pacific and East Asia . University of Minnesota Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8166 @-@ 0788 @-@ 4 . Farrow , Anne ; Joel Lang ; Jennifer Frank ( 2006 ) . Complicity : How the North Promoted , Prolonged , and Profited from Slavery . Random House . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 46783 @-@ 6 . Frost , Alan ( 1999 ) . The Voyage of the Endeavour : Captain Cook and the Discovery of the Pacific . Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 200 @-@ 7 . Fryer , Mary Beacock ( 1986 ) . Battlefields of Canada . Dundurn Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 55002 @-@ 007 @-@ 2 . Gibson , James R. ( 1976 ) . Imperial Russia in Frontier America : The Changing Geography of Supply of Russian America , 1784 – 1867 . Oxford University Press . OCLC 2085278 . Gibson , James R. ( 1992 ) . Otter Skins , Boston Ships , and China Goods : The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast , 1785 – 1841 . McGill @-@ Queen 's University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7735 @-@ 2028 @-@ 7 . Haycox , Stephen W. ( 2002 ) . Alaska : An American Colony . University of Washington Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 295 @-@ 98249 @-@ 6 . Hayes , Derek ( 2007 ) . Historical Atlas of California . University of California Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 25258 @-@ 5 . Hayes , Derek ( 1999 ) . Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest : Maps of exploration and Discovery . Sasquatch Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 57061 @-@ 215 @-@ 3 . Howay , Frederic William ; Robert Haswell ; John Box Hoskins ; John Boit ( 1990 ) [ first published 1941 ] . Voyages of the " Columbia " to the Northwest coast , 1787 – 1790 and 1790 – 1793 . Oregon Historical Society Press in cooperation with the Massachusetts Historical Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87595 @-@ 250 @-@ 5 . Kan , Sergei ( 1999 ) . Memory Eternal : Tlingit Culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity through Two Centuries . University of Washington Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 295 @-@ 97806 @-@ 2 . Lal , Brij V. ; Kate Fortune ( 2000 ) . The Pacific Islands : An Encyclopedia . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8248 @-@ 2265 @-@ 1 . Laut , Agnes Christina ( 1915 ) . Pioneers of the Pacific Coast : a Chronicle of Sea Rovers and Fur Hunters , Volume 22 . Glasgow , Brook & Company . OCLC 2534494 . Mackie , Richard Somerset ( 1997 ) . Trading Beyond the Mountains : The British Fur Trade on the Pacific 1793 – 1843 . Vancouver : University of British Columbia ( UBC ) Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7748 @-@ 0613 @-@ 3 . Malloy , Mary ( 1998 ) . Boston Men on the Northwest Coast : The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788 @-@ 1844 . The Limestone Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 895901 @-@ 18 @-@ 4 . McDowell , Jim ( 1998 ) . José Narváez : The Forgotten Explorer . Spokane , Washington : The Arthur H. Clark Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 87062 @-@ 265 @-@ X. McDougall , Walter A. ( 2004 ) . Let the Sea Make a Noise : A History of the North Pacific from Magellan to MacArthur . Harper Collins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 057820 @-@ 6 . Meinig , D.W. ( 1986 ) . The Shaping of America : A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History , Volume 1 : Atlantic America , 1492 – 1800 . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 03548 @-@ 9 . Oleksa , Michael ( 1992 ) . Orthodox Alaska : A Theology of Mission . St Vladimir 's Seminary Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88141 @-@ 092 @-@ 1 . Pethick , Derek ( 1976 ) . First Approaches to the Northwest Coast . Vancouver : J.J. Douglas . ISBN 0 @-@ 88894 @-@ 056 @-@ 4 . Pethick , Derek ( 1980 ) . The Nootka Connection : Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790 – 1795 . Vancouver : Douglas & McIntyre . ISBN 0 @-@ 88894 @-@ 279 @-@ 6 . Reynoldson , Fiona ( 2000 ) . Native Americans : The Indigenous Peoples of North America . Heinemann . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 435 @-@ 31015 @-@ 8 . Tovell , Freeman M. ( 2008 ) . At the Far Reaches of Empire : The Life of Juan Francisco De La Bodega Y Quadra . University of British Columbia Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7748 @-@ 1367 @-@ 9 . Weber , David J. ( 1994 ) . The Spanish Frontier in North America . Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 05917 @-@ 5 .
= Ion Agârbiceanu = Ion Agârbiceanu ( September 12 , 1882 – May 28 , 1963 ) was an Austro @-@ Hungarian @-@ born Romanian writer , journalist , politician , theologian and Greek @-@ Catholic priest . A native of Transylvania , he graduated from Budapest University , after which he was ordained . He was initially assigned to a parish in the Apuseni Mountains , which form the backdrop to much of his fiction . Before 1910 , Agârbiceanu had achieved literary fame in both Transylvania and the Kingdom of Romania ; his work was disputed between the rival schools of Sămănătorul and Poporanism . Committed to social and cultural activism in Transylvania , Agârbiceanu spent the 1910s officiating near Sibiu , with a break during World War I that eventually took him deep into Ukraine . In 1919 , he moved to Cluj , where he lived for most of the remainder of his life . After the war , he involved himself in both the political and cultural life of Greater Romania . He was voted into the Romanian Academy and assumed the office of Senate vice president under the National Renaissance Front dictatorship . Agârbiceanu spent his last decade and a half under a communist regime that outlawed his church , an act in which he refused to cooperate . Much of his work , with its transparent Christian moralizing , proved incompatible with the new ideology , and was banned by communist censors ; however , the regime found him useful for its image , and bestowed honors upon him . Agârbiceanu 's full contribution has been made available since the 1990s , but he endures as a largely forgotten author , with the possible exception of his Apuseni @-@ based novella , Fefeleaga . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Born in Cenade village in Transylvania 's Alba County ( at the time in Alsó @-@ Fehér County ) , Agârbiceanu was the second of eight children ; his parents were Nicolae and Ana ( née Olariu ) . His father and grandfather were both woodcutters , while he believed his great @-@ grandparents were cowherds , as indicated by the surname of his grandfather , Vasile Bouaru , who originated in the Sibiu area . The name Agârbiceanu came from the family 's ancestral village , Agârbiciu . According to the novelist 's own notes , his father was literate and subscribed to a number of Romanian @-@ language publications that appeared in Transylvania . His mother , although a great lover of stories and storytelling , was illiterate . Agârbiceanu recalled an idyllic childhood , with summers spent tending to his father 's sheep and sleeping in a stick hut . An avid reader of stories by Petre Ispirescu , he attended school in his native village and in Blaj , graduating from the Superior Gymnasium in 1900 . Literary historians describe this as the period of his literary debut , which was a collaboration with Unirea newspaper . There , Agârbiceanu published a feuilleton ( signed as Alfius ) , poetry , and , in 1900 , the short story În postul Paștelui ( " At Lent " ) . Agârbiceanu also served as secretary of the Blaj Literary Society , at the time the city 's only Romanian @-@ speaking literary body still tolerated by the Hungarian authorities . He soon became a correspondent of Răvașul , a Cluj @-@ based newspaper , signing his first pieces there with the pen name Alfius , then as Agarbi or Potcoavă ( " Horseshoe " ) . The Blaj @-@ based Făgăraș and Alba Iulia Archdiocese arranged for Agârbiceanu to study at the theology faculty of Budapest University between 1900 and 1904 . Publishing more works in Tribuna and Familia , he soon became a regular contributor to Luceafărul . Returning to Blaj after graduation , he supervised the local boys ' boarding school , working there during the 1904 – 1905 academic year . Urged by friends and receiving a church scholarship , he returned to Budapest to study literature . He spent just one semester there , during which he also taught primary school catechism . In March 1906 , he married Maria Reli Radu , the daughter of an archpriest from Ocna Mureș . = = = Priesthood and World War I = = = Also in 1906 , following an ordination ceremony held on Easter Sunday , Agârbiceanu was appointed parish priest in Bucium , in the Apuseni Mountains . For four years , he observed the difficult lives of the mountain dwellers and the problems encountered in the nearby gold mines . During this time , he wrote several notices in the magazine Ramuri , later published as În întuneric ( " Into the Darkness " , 1910 ) , the novella Fefeleaga , and the novel Arhangelii ( " The Archangels " ) , all of them based on the mining experience . He also started writing frequently for literary magazines that included Luceafărul , Unirea and Lupta . His other literary works of the period include De la țară ( " From the Countryside " , 1906 ) , În clasa cultă ( " In the Cultured Class " , 1909 ) , Două iubiri ( " Two Loves " , 1910 ) , Prăpastia ( " The Abyss " , 1912 ) , and a collection of Schițe și povestiri ( " Sketches and Short Stories " , 1912 ) . Agârbiceanu visited Bucharest , the Old Kingdom capital , in 1906 , and sent enthusiastic travel notes for Unirea . He became a regular contributor to the Bucharest nationalist review Sămănătorul , which gave De la țară a sonorous welcome , and later to Sămănătorul 's leftist rival , Viața Românească . From 1909 , he was also one of the regulars at Neamul Românesc . For his literary activity , he was elected a corresponding member of Astra in 1912 , and was promoted to full membership in 1925 . From 1910 to 1919 , he was parish priest at Orlat in Sibiu County . Agârbiceanu was also a member of Austria @-@ Hungary 's Romanian National Party ( PNR ) , and supported PNR youth leader Octavian Goga , his colleague at Luceafărul and Tribuna . In 1910 , he followed Goga as he parted from the PNR and launched his own independent faction . By the time World War I broke out , Agârbiceanu had three sons and a daughter , including Ion , the future physicist . During 1914 , the first year of war , he finally published Arhanghelii , as well as the stories in De la sate ( " From the Villages " ) . These were followed , in 1916 , by a work of Christian theology , Din viața preoțească ( " From Priestly Life " ) . In September 1916 , when the Romanian Army withdrew from the Orlat area during the Battle of Transylvania , he fled Austria @-@ Hungary with his family . Their first destination was Râmnicu Vâlcea in the Old Kingdom ; they then headed for Roman in Western Moldavia . Evacuated to Russia in August 1917 , they reached the vicinity of Yelisavetgrad in Ukraine . While there and alongside other refugee Transylvanians , he took part in a choir organized by Nicolae Colan , a future bishop in the Romanian Orthodox Church . In November of that year , Agârbiceanu and his family found shelter with a Transylvanian family in Borogani village , near Leova in Bessarabia . The October Revolution soon broke out , and they made their way back to Moldavia , where he became a military chaplain for the Hârlău @-@ based Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia . He returned to Orlat in December 1918 . In March 1919 , following the union of Transylvania with Romania , he was named director of Patria newspaper , which was edited by the province 's Directing Council . In October 1919 , the newspaper 's headquarters moved to Cluj , and Agârbiceanu followed . Thanks to his literary activity , he was part of the leadership of the Romanian Writers ' Society , and was elected corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1919 . He also began contributing to the reviews Gândirea of Cluj , and Flacăra and Cuget Românesc of Bucharest . In 1922 , he accompanied other Writers ' Society members on a celebratory tour of Transylvania . Like several of his colleagues , Agârbiceanu preserved a bitter memory of the war , and his articles of the time make a point of referring to the Hungarians as a " barbarian horde " . = = = 1920s = = = While working on the Sibiu @-@ based Astra magazine Transilvania ( where he sometimes used the signature AG ) , Agârbiceanu remained the editor of Patria until 1927 , and also resumed his collaboration with Viața Românească . However , he was disappointed by the cultural and economic decline which came as a consequence of Transylvania 's incorporation : the local press , he noted , had largely lost its purpose and could not hope to survive competition . As noted by reviewers from Ilie Rad to Răzvan Voncu , some of Agârbiceanu 's more valuable work saw print in minor provincial reviews . Despite such setbacks , Agârbiceanu published new works in quick succession : O lacrimă fierbinte ( " A Burning Tear " , 1918 ) , Popa Man ( " Father Man " , 1920 ) , Zilele din urmă ale căpitanului Pârvu ( " Captain Pârvu 's Latter Days " , 1921 ) , Luncușoara din Păresemi ( " The Little Meadow of Păresemi " , 1921 ) , Păcatele noastre ( " Our Sins " , 1921 ) , Trăsurica verde ( " Green Gharry " , 1921 ) , Chipuri de ceară ( " Wax Figures " , 1922 ) . These were followed by Stana ( 1924 ) , Visările ( " Reveries " , 1925 ) , Dezamăgire ( " Disappointment " , 1925 ) , Singurătate ( " Loneliness " , 1926 ) , Legea trupului ( " The Law of the Flesh " , 1926 ) , Legea minții ( " The Law of the Mind " , 1927 ) , Ceasuri de seară ( " Evening Hours " , 1927 ) , Primăvara ( " Spring " , 1928 ) , Robirea sufletului ( " A Soul 's Bondage " , 1928 ) , and Biruința ( " Victory " , 1931 ) . His other works of the period include various tracts on biblical topics , including homilies and discussions of theodicy : Ieșit @-@ a semănătorul ( " A Sower Went Out to Sow His Seed " , 1930 ) , Rugăciunea Domnului ( " Lord 's Prayer " , 1930 ) , Răul în lume ( " Evil in the World " , 1931 ) , Preacurata ( " The Immaculate " , 1931 ) , Căile fericirii ( " Paths toward Happiness " , 1931 ) . A member of the PNR Executive Committee in 1919 , he was elected to the Assembly of Deputies that year , in the first election following the creation of Greater Romania . Elected again in 1922 , he served until 1926 . Initially joining the National Peasants ' Party into which the PNR merged in 1926 , the following year he defected to Alexandru Averescu 's People 's Party , of which Goga was also a member . From 1927 to 1928 , Agârbiceanu , a recipient of the National Prize for Literature , headed the Cluj chapter of Astra and edited Transilvania . It was in this magazine that he wrote a number of articles in support of eugenics , calling on priests to promote the movement in their parishes . Given the secular values of the movement 's leaders in Romania , his participation was somewhat incongruous , but Agârbiceanu did not see a conflict between his religious creed and a current centered around supposedly objective natural laws . From 1930 , he participated in Astra 's literary section and headed its cultural congress , in which capacity he lectured on the organization 's role in Romanian cultural life . Additionally , he played a prominent role during its annual congresses and committed himself to social activism . He was involved in Astra 's literacy campaigns , inspecting and fundraising for village libraries in places such as Aleșd . = = = Maturity = = = Also in 1930 , Agârbiceanu was elevated to the rank of archpriest for the Cluj district , and in 1931 , he became canon for the Cluj @-@ Gherla Diocese . In 1932 , following schisms in the People 's Party , he followed Goga into the new National Agrarian Party . In so doing , he lost control over Patria to Astra 's Ion Clopoțel . After 1934 , he was one of the noted contributors to the official literary magazine , Revista Fundațiilor Regale , put out in Bucharest by Paul Zarifopol . In late 1938 , following the establishment of the National Renaissance Front ( FRN ) , King Carol II appointed him to the Senate , of which he also served as vice president . From 1938 to 1940 , he edited a new edition of Tribuna in Cluj , as both the FRN 's official paper and Transylvania 's only daily . Toward the end of the 1930s , he wrote in opposition to the revisionist policy of the Kingdom of Hungary , and in August 1940 , after the Second Vienna Award granted Northern Transylvania to Hungary , he fled Cluj for Sibiu . The new authorities called for his expulsion , but he received the order after he had departed Cluj . With the downfall of the National Renaissance Front , Agârbiceanu withdrew from politics . However , in 1941 , he supported Romania 's war on the Eastern Front , including the occupation of Transnistria . In an official magazine that was itself named Transnistria , Agârbiceanu suggested that God had " even greater plans with us " . Agârbiceanu continued to write and publish literature throughout the Carol regime and much of World War II : Sectarii ( " The Schismatics " , 1938 ) , Licean ... odinioară ( " Once upon a Time ... a Pupil " , 1939 ) , Amintirile ( " The Recollections " , 1940 ) , Domnișoara Ana ( " Miss Ana " , 1942 ) , alongside more theological and moralizing essays such as Din pildele Domnului ( " The Lord 's Parables " , 1939 ) , Meditații . Fața de lumină a creștinismului ( " Meditions . On the Luminous Visage of Christianity " , 1941 ) , Preotul și familia preoțească . Rostul lor etnic în satul românesc ( " The Priest and the Priestly Family . Their Ethnic Role within the Romanian Village " , 1942 ) . The novel Vâltoarea ( " The Whirlpool " ) was serialized by Convorbiri Literare and came out as a volume in 1944 ; another novel , Vremuri și oameni ( " Times and People " ) , being critical of Nazism , was not given imprimatur by the Ion Antonescu regime . Many more works , including Sfântul ( " The Saint " ) , were completed but also remained unpublished . = = = Under communism = = = Following the fall of Antonescu 's regime and the campaign to recover Northern Transylvania , Agârbiceanu became a contributor to a new political weekly , Ardealul . He remained in Sibiu until 1945 and then returned to Cluj . He also contributed , in 1947 , a religious tract on Familia creștină ( " The Christian Family " ) . In 1948 , when the new communist regime outlawed the Greek @-@ Catholic Church and forcibly merged it into the Orthodox Church , Agârbiceanu refused to join the latter denomination , thus setting himself up against the authorities . However , these found his reputation as a writer valuable for their own interests , and preferred to try and co @-@ opt him . In 1953 , after a five @-@ year marginalization for his refusal to turn Orthodox , Agârbiceanu joined the editorial board of Anatol E. Baconsky 's semi @-@ official literary magazine , Steaua . He was granted the Order of Labor the following year , and promoted to titular member of the Academy in 1955 . On the occasion of his 80th birthday in 1962 , he was also awarded the Order of the Star of the Romanian People 's Republic , first class . Agârbiceanu 's old and new writings came out in several editions : Pagini alese ( " Selected Works " , 1956 ) , Din munți și din câmpii ( " From Mountains and Plains " , 1957 ) , Din copilărie ( " Childhood Memories " , 1957 ) , File din cartea naturii ( " Pages from the Book of Nature " , 1959 ) , Povestind copiilor ( " Stories for Children " , 1961 ) and Faraonii ( " The Pharaohs " , 1961 ) . Although formally congratulated by the regime , Agârbiceanu fell out with its censorship apparatus . According to various accounts , he allowed the censors to operate multiple changes , as long as the substance of his writing was not itself altered . Portions of his work were cut out during reediting , and a novel , Prăbușirea ( " The Downfall " ) , serialized in Gazeta Literară , was so crudely handled that seven of its pages were lost forever . Expecting to die soon , Agârbiceanu worked on a definitive corpus of his writings , which began printing at the state @-@ run Editura pentru Literatură under the care of G. Pienescu and Mihai Șora . When he was led to believe that many of his works would not be allowed for publishing , he retook possession of all the manuscripts he had sent in , including some previously unpublished writings . The volumes were already available by that time . The writer died in Cluj in 1963 , and was buried in the city 's Hajongard Cemetery in a grave topped by a white marble cross . = = Literary contribution = = = = = Ideology and style = = = Agârbiceanu entered literary life as a poet — according to his Sămănătorul patron , Nicolae Iorga , he was great as the author of ballades . Later in his career , he focused on vignettes ( often prose poems ) , short stories and novels , intended to represent daily life in the Apuseni Mountains . His favorite theme was the life of a Transylvanian country priest at the turn of the 20th century , but his " gallery " of protagonists also included shepherds , foresters , rafters , thieves , teachers , village doctors , Romani metalworkers , and the rich industrialists ( " Transylvanian nawabs " ) . A prolific writer , possibly the most productive one in Romania before 1930 , he completed some 65 volumes , by his own account , both long and short . Ideologically , Agârbiceanu was most closely aligned with Sămănătorul 's ethnic traditionalism , and was always a marginal among the Viața Românească Poporanists , who were rather more inspired by Marxism . However , Voncu believes , the similarities were only superficial : unlike the Sămănătorul school , Agârbiceanu was a professional of literary realism , who favored individual psychology over class identity , and would not condemn the city as a decomposed and decomposing environment . His stories , Voncu notes , had an " ethical , even philosophical , vision " , and " the dignity of grand literature . " His naturalness was even highlighted by Iorga , who praised Agârbiceanu as " the liveliest storyteller " of the early 20th century : " he doesn 't go looking for the folkish ingredient ; he just cannot separate himself from it , because he lives therein , heart and soul . " According to Eugen Lovinescu , the modernist literary critic and cultural theorist , Agârbiceanu is the " essential exponent " of Transylvanian Sămănătorists . His literature is one that " by the people and for the people " . As Lovinescu puts it , his work blends an " aggressive affirmation of nationhood " and " healthy ethics pushed to the limit of tendentiousness and didacticism " with a cultivation of dialectal speech patterns . In this immediate context , Agârbiceanu seems to have been inspired by Ion Pop Reteganul and Ioan Slavici , the founders of Transylvanian realism . He himself inspired Liviu Rebreanu . Traditionally , reviewers have been put off by Agârbiceanu 's plot devices and epic mannerisms , and in particular by his explanatory comments and notes , which they deem superfluous and distracting . As Lovinescu notes , Agârbiceanu and other Transylvanian realists will " accumulate in details " , but will remain " incapable of narrating on more than one level " : " for all their dynamism , his sketches are not exciting in the dramatic sense . " The moralizing aspect of Agârbiceanu 's fiction makes it hard to separate between it and his purely theological productions : as Lovinescu notes , whenever Agârbiceanu depicts village drunks , it is as if " for an anti @-@ saloon exhibition . " Dragomirescu argues that Agârbiceanu 's work amounts to a set of humanitarian " directives " , although , he concludes , its depiction of " the bleak and mystical recess of life " is a fine literary contribution , " rising above " his generation 's . He states : " Agârbiceanu is a socializing Poporanist or Sămănătorist only when he is at his weakest " . According to exegetes such as Iorga , Constantin Șăineanu and Voncu , the moral lesson of Agârbiceanu 's lay works is only hinted at , with much subtlety . Voncu sees in Luncușoara din Păresemi the " refinement and objectivity " of novels by Georges Bernanos . On the other hand , Voncu observes that the writer uses his artistic talents in theological works such as Despre minuni ( " About Miracles " ) and Din pildele Domnului , ably narrating simple texts that can appeal either to their intended audience of rural believers or to a more cultivated set of readers . As Z. Ornea notes , Agârbiceanu 's least known works are particularly moralizing . This category includes two stories of moral redemption , the novel Sfântul and the short novella Pustnicul Pafnutie și ucenicul său Ilarion ( " Pafnutie the Hermit and Ilarion His Apprentice " ) , which are " entirely tactless " . = = = Major works = = = In Arhanghelii , the implicit Christian lesson is about the love of money and its devastation of an Apuseni get @-@ rich mining community . At the heart of the novel is a former notary , Rodean , whose gold claim appears to be endlessly productive and corrupting . As Șăineanu writes : " with emotion and mounting interest , we witness here the ephemeral joys and disasters that this modern @-@ day Moloch pours over this once @-@ peaceful village . " The novel , Lovinescu argues , is overall " awkward " , but still interesting as a social fresco , called a " frightening human torment " by Iorga . Șăineanu deplores its " prolixity " and arcane mining terminology . As argued by Dragomirescu , the climax , where Rodean runs from the card table to see his mine collapsing , " has remarkable qualities of literary vividness and vigor . " Nicolae Manolescu offers praise to the work , a " solidly realistic novel " that , although widely seen as a pastiche from Slavici , should still be taken into account for its " originality and newness " . He sees Agârbiceanu as an " unlucky " novelist , whose work was eclipsed by that of Rebreanu , Mihail Sadoveanu , and Gala Galaction , which it only resembles coincidentally . In Legea trupului , a psychological novel about a young man torn between the love for a mature woman and her daughter , Agârbiceanu turned his attention to the sins of the flesh . The erotic dilemma is one of several narrative threads : Legea trupului is also a story of inter @-@ ethnic conflict ( Romanians versus Hungarians ) , and a probe into the regional politics in Transylvania ( a theme that also preoccupied him when writing În clasa cultă ) . Lovinescu sees Legea trupului as a " solid social and psychological study , for all its tendentiousness " , but still harmed by Agârbiceanu 's " lack of stylistic expressiveness and verbal insufficiency . " The narrative structure is alluded to in Legea minții , which is about discovering one 's true calling . The plot follows its protagonist , a scholarly priest by the name of Andrei Pascu , as he finds himself in his work as a missionary of religion and cultural nationalism , despite being set back by poverty and revisited by his worldly past . Similar themes are developed elsewhere . In Popa Man , a lapsed priest and smuggler is suddenly confronted with the consequences of his actions , and destroys himself with drink . In Stana , named after its female protagonist , a war invalid is a passive witness to his wife 's moral decay . When he dies , his wooden leg serves as a haunting reminder of his virtues , driving Stana to despair . According to Manolescu , these stories were largely outdated by the time of their publishing , when more experimental work was being put out by Hortensia Papadat @-@ Bengescu and Camil Petrescu ; Agârbiceanu " could only strike the figure of a naive moralist , reeking of a parson 's mindset , in all ways incompatible with the emancipated Romanian society of the interwar . " The novella Fefeleaga , however , is largely seen as Agârbiceanu 's true masterpiece — either his best story or one of two , alongside the short story Luminița . At the center of the story is a woman who makes a meager living quarrying stones for gold panning , with her many children killed off by a respiratory disease . She was based on a real @-@ life Moț , Sofia Danciu , with only some details changed . In the defining moment of the narrative , seen by Dragomirescu as symbolic for the plight of Romanian Transylvanians , Fefeleaga sells off her emaciated draft horse and only friend , to prepare for her daughter 's funeral . However , as Iorga notes , this is not a pessimistic outcome : " kindness is present , but hidden , in this world , but will reveal itself in the hours of pity and those of justice " . Luminița shows the final moments in a woman 's life , and her inability to grant herself one last wish , and , according to Dragomirescu , is a " universal " work , worthy of a Count Tolstoy . = = Legacy = = Under communism , Agârbiceanu 's lay work began to be fully recovered in the late 1960s . An important effort in this process was undertaken by literary historian Mircea Zaciu , who had begun a critical re @-@ evaluation as early as 1955 , with a short monograph that took up George Călinescu 's observation whereby Agârbiceanu was not a moralizer but an artistic narrator of moral situations . Zaciu went further , seeking to detach the Sămănătorist label and place him within the framework of ethical Transylvanian prose . His work , re @-@ edited and amplified in 1964 and 1972 , revived interest in the writer by precisely cataloguing his corpus and opening new directions for its critical analysis . The recovery was limited : according to Voncu , the arrival of national communism left critics unsure about whether to reintroduce Agârbiceanu 's " uncompromising vision of rural life " into the literary canon . Not long thereafter , the film @-@ directing team of Dan Pița and Mircea Veroiu found that Agârbiceanu 's short stories supplied ideal material for their interest in formal experimentation , leading to two films , each based on a pair of his stories : Nunta de piatră ( 1972 ) and Duhul aurului ( 1974 ) . In 1988 , Nicolae Mărgineanu and Ion Brad also filmed their version of Arhanghelii , as Flames over Treasures . It was not until 2004 , fifteen years after the fall of the regime , that the theological writings started being reprinted . These events also signified that the full corpus of his literature could see print : work on his complete writings was taken up by Mariana and Victor Iova . Prăbușirea and other manuscripts only saw print in and after 1997 . The project ended in 2002 and , Voncu notes , Agârbiceanu returned to a " discouraging anonymity " until 2014 , when Ilie Rad began work on a revised critical edition . This also included material never published in the Pienescu edition — adding as much as 75 % new content . As suggested by Manolescu in 2013 , Agârbiceanu once seemed " the most promising Transylvanian writer of the dawn of a new century , after Coșbuc and before Rebreanu . " However , and despite Fefeleaga being a constant feature of literature textbooks , Agârbiceanu became " two @-@ thirds forgotten " . According to Ornea , and to various others , Agârbiceanu mostly endures in cultural memory as a " second @-@ shelf writer " . Ion I. Agârbiceanu ( 1907 – 1971 ) was the author of pioneering work in spectroscopy , famed for his invention of a gas laser . Another one of the writers ' sons was a surveyor . He and his family remained in possession of Agârbiceanu 's large villa in Cluj , which was later declared a historic monument . The writer 's grave was awarded the same status by Romania 's Culture Ministry in 2012 . Among the localities associated with Agârbiceanu 's work , Bucium is home to a Fefeleaga Memorial House , a modern reconstruction which used Romanian folk houses as a blueprint ; Sofia Danciu 's actual home burned down in summer 2014 .
= M @-@ 134 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 134 is a state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . It connects Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) north of St. Ignace with the communities of Hessel , Cedarville and De Tour Village along Lake Huron . East of De Tour , the highway crosses the De Tour Passage on a ferry to run south of the community of Drummond on Drummond Island . It is one of only three state trunklines in Michigan on islands ; the others are M @-@ 154 on Harsens Island and M @-@ 185 on Mackinac Island . M @-@ 134 is also one of only two highways to utilize a ferry in Michigan ; the other is US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) which crosses Lake Michigan from Manitowoc , Wisconsin , to Ludington . Most of the mainland portion of M @-@ 134 is also part of the Lake Huron Circle Tour , and since 2015 , it has been a Pure Michigan Byway under the name M @-@ 134 North Huron Byway . A separate highway bore the M @-@ 134 designation in the Lower Peninsula from the late 1920s to the late 1930s . The current highway 's immediate predecessors were included in the original M @-@ 4 in the state . That designation was renumbered to the current M @-@ 134 moniker in 1939 . Since the trunkline number was finalized , it was extended eastward to end south of Goetzville in the 1950s , with a further extension to De Tour in the 1950s . The western section was moved closer to the lakeshore in the 1960s . The last change came when M @-@ 134 was extended to Drummond Island in 1989 . = = Route description = = M @-@ 134 starts at the interchange for exit 359 along I @-@ 75 north of St. Ignace in rural Mackinac County near the St. Martin Bay of Lake Huron . As the highway runs eastward , it carries the Lake Huron Circle Tour over the Pine River on Huron Shore Drive . The trunkline turns to the southeast and follows the shoreline along the bay and runs inland at the bases of the peninsulas that form the Search Bay . Returning to a shoreline routing at Mismer Bay , M @-@ 134 runs through the wooded rural areas into Hessel . There Huron Shore Drive continues eastward to Cedarville where the highway meets the south end of M @-@ 129 north of Marquette Island . Farther east , M @-@ 134 runs along the north side of the many small bays and channels that separate the Les Cheneaux Islands from the mainland . About 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west of Cedarville , M @-@ 134 crosses into Chippewa County for about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 5 km ) ; the highway passes back into a sliver of Mackinac County that extends along the Lake Huron shoreline for another 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) before finally crossing back into Chippewa County . Near Albany Harbor , M @-@ 134 follows Scenic Road to an intersection with M @-@ 48 . The main route of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour turns north on M @-@ 48 while a locally designed loop route continues east on M @-@ 134 along Lake Huron . The highway continues past De Tour State Park and St. Vital Point before heading northeasterly to De Tour Village . In the middle of the village , M @-@ 134 runs north on Ontario Street and turns east along Elizabeth Street to connect to the ferry docks ; the loop tour continues north out of town on county roads . The highway uses the ferry , run by the regional public transportation agency , to cross the De Tour Passage . Once on Drummond Island , M @-@ 134 follows Channel Road northward along the passage before turning eastward . The trunkline cuts across to run along Sturgeon Bay on the north shore of the island . On the east side of the bay , M @-@ 134 turns inland and runs east to the Four Corners , south of the unincorporated community of Drummond . The trunkline terminates at that intersection south of the Drummond Island Airport where Channel , Townline , Johnswood , and Shore roads ( west , north , east and south respectively ) come together . M @-@ 134 is one of three state highways in Michigan located on an island ; the two other state highways located on islands are M @-@ 185 on Mackinac Island and M @-@ 154 on Harsens Island . No part of M @-@ 134 is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) conducted a survey to determine the traffic volume along the highway , reported using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . The department determined that the highest count was the 3 @,@ 595 vehicles a day that used the highway west of the M @-@ 129 junction in Cedarville ; the lowest counts were 608 vehicles daily between the M @-@ 48 junction and the De Tour village limits . On the island , 667 vehicles use M @-@ 134 daily . According to tourism officials in the area , over 100 @,@ 000 vehicles per year are transported round trip on the ferry with almost twice as many additional passengers . = = Ferry = = The Eastern Upper Peninsula Transportation Authority ( EUPTA ) operates the Drummond Island Ferry across the De Tour Passage in addition to two other ferries and the regional rural bus system for Luce and Chippewa counties . As part of the service between De Tour and Drummond Island , EUPTA operates up to three different vessels : the SS Drummond Islander , SS Drummond Islander III and the SS Drummond Islander IV . As of 2011 , fares start at $ 12 per car and increase based on the size of the vehicle transported , including a fuel surcharge . Passenger fares are $ 2 for adults and $ 1 for seniors or students ; the vehicle driver 's fare is included in the vehicle charge . Ferries leave Drummond Island at 10 minutes after the hour , from De Tour at 20 minutes to the hour , and run most of the day ; some crossing times are only operated seasonally . M @-@ 134 is one of two highways in Michigan to use a ferry connection ; the other is US 10 between Ludington , Michigan , and Manitowoc , Wisconsin . = = History = = Starting in late 1928 or early 1929 , the first route designated as M @-@ 134 was a road in Missaukee County from M @-@ 66 three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of McBain east to Falmouth in the northern Lower Peninsula . In 1938 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) returned the road to local control . When the rest of the state highway system was first designated , by July 1 , 1919 , the first state highway in the area of today 's M @-@ 134 was a section of M @-@ 12 . That highway segment was used for US 2 in 1926 . A rerouting of US 2 was completed in 1933 between Rogers Park and Sault Ste . Marie . The new routing followed Mackinac Trail instead of turning east to Cedarville and north to Sault Ste . Marie . The former routing was given the M @-@ 121 designation , and later M @-@ 4 . The current designation appeared in the Upper Peninsula in 1939 , soon after being removed from Missaukee County . It replaced the former M @-@ 4 route designation . At the time , M @-@ 134 was routed farther inland between US 2 and a point north of Hessel . The highway ended at the Mackinac – Chippewa county line , but an extension farther east was shown on maps of the time as under construction . This segment of roadway was completed in the latter half of 1940 , extending M @-@ 134 to terminate at M @-@ 48 about 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of DeTour . In 1950 , a new roadway section was added to the state highway system , bypassing the former routing of M @-@ 48 west of DeTour ; in the process the MSHD extended M @-@ 134 on this new highway and truncated M @-@ 48 to the junction south of Goetzville . In 1958 , the highway west of Hessel was shifted to follow an alignment closer to Lake Huron ; the MSHD transferred the former routing of M @-@ 134 to local control at that time . In October 1963 , the final section of I @-@ 75 / US 2 freeway opened in the UP ; M @-@ 134 's western terminus was truncated slightly to end at the new freeway instead of the former routing of US 2 along Mackinac Trail . In 1989 , MDOT extended the trunkline to add a segment on Drummond Island ; in the process , the Drummond Island Ferry across the DeTour Passage was added to the route . The entire length of the highway was dedicated as a Pure Michigan Byway on October 16 , 2015 . = = Major intersections = =
= Tropical Storm Fern ( 1996 ) = Severe Tropical Storm Fern was a damaging storm that struck Yap in the 1996 Pacific typhoon season . A tropical depression formed on December 21 , when a low @-@ level circulation center began to produce deep convection . The depression strengthened into a tropical storm the next day , and was given the name Fern by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . The storm slowly intensified into a Category 1 typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , according to JTWC . Fern peaked north of Yap on December 26 , with JTWC assessing winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed peak winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , just below typhoon strength . The storm soon became sheared and weakened slowly . Fern continued to weaken to a tropical depression on December 30 . Both agencies stopped advisories later on the same day . Fern made a direct hit at Yap on Christmas Day . A cargo ship was abandoned after it was damaged by high winds offshore . On the island , Fern caused $ 3 million ( 1996 USD ) of damage . Roads and bridges were significantly damaged , and other public facilities were destroyed . Crops and private properties also received damage . A state of emergency was declared in Yap State two weeks later , and became a disaster area two months later . = = Meteorological history = = In the middle of December , twin monsoon troughs were established in the extreme western Pacific Ocean , which will later spawn storms Greg , and Fern itself in the northern hemisphere . The trough in the southern hemisphere spawned cyclones Ophelia , Phil , and Fergus . Around that time , convection began to increase near the equator , and was associated with a westerly wind burst . A low level circulation center was noted by JTWC on December 19 at 0600 UTC . Two days later , convection consolidated near the circulation center , and JMA began tracking it at 0000 UTC as a tropical depression . JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 1500 UTC , as sea level pressure began to deepen , and signs of upper level divergence were found in the system . The first advisory for Tropical Depression 42W followed three hours later , on December 17 at 1200 UTC . JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm on December 22 at 0000 UTC as it traveled westerly , and was given the name Fern . According to JTWC , the wind speeds meandered at minimal tropical storm strength . JMA proceeded to upgrade the depression into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC , with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , and a pressure reading of 996 hectopascals ( 996 mbar ) . On Christmas Eve , Fern slowly traveled toward Yap . The storm passed over Yap the next day , strengthening to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) at 0000 UTC , according to JTWC . JMA assessed Fern had winds of 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) at the same time . Fern also began its recurvature that day , beginning its turn north . Eighteen hours later on Christmas Day , JTWC upgraded Fern to a typhoon , with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . JMA continued to keep it as a severe tropical storm at that time . On December 26 at 1200 UTC , Fern reached its peak at 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) north of Yap after its recurvature , according to JTWC . JMA assessed that Fern reached its peak of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , with a pressure reading of 975 hPa ( 975 mb ) twelve hours later . On December 28 , Fern began to weaken when it encountered a shear line . On the next day , JTWC downgraded Fern back to tropical storm strength , with winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . At the same time according to JMA , the storm had weakened to 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , with a pressure reading of 985 hPa ( 985 mbar ) . Both warning centers downgraded Fern into a tropical depression by December 30 , as it continued to travel along a shear line . JTWC issued the final warning at 0600 UTC , while JMA stopped tracking the depression at 1200 UTC . JTWC continued to track the low until December 31 , where it stalled north of Guam . = = Impact and aftermath = = At sea , a cargo ship en route from Guam to Yap was abandoned after it was damaged by high winds . The passengers entered a life raft , and were later found by a Navy search and rescue airplane . They were soon rescued by a Maltese tanker . No one was injured when the accident occurred . Yap was directly hit by Fern on Christmas Day , causing about $ 3 million ( 1996 USD ) of damage . The Weather Service Office received a peak wind gust of 116 km / h ( 72 mph ) , and a pressure reading of 983 hPa ( 983 mbar ) . The island received gusts around 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) for several hours . One person was injured on the island , and no deaths were attributed to the storm . Roads and bridges were severely damaged , accounting for half of the damage . Homes and other private properties were also significantly damaged . Most crops on the island , such as coconuts , bananas , papayas , and breadfruit , were destroyed by the storm . Public facilities , like schools and hospitals , suffered widespread destruction . On January 3 , 1997 , a state of emergency was declared for Yap by Acting President Jacob Nena , stating that Fern caused " an imminent threat to health , safety and welfare of the people of the affected areas . " Two months later , on March 20 , United States President Bill Clinton declared Yap State a disaster area , allowing the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) to start the damage assessment of the area . The FEMA funding was only for public facilities , and did not include private properties . The request for individual assistance was not approved by FEMA , as damage to private properties were not much , and assistance from the national government and Yap State were sufficient .
= Paul Robinson ( Neighbours ) = Paul Stewart Robinson is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours , a long @-@ running serial drama about social life in the fictional Melbourne suburb of Erinsborough . He is played by Stefan Dennis . Paul was created by producer Reg Watson as one of Neighbours ' original characters . He debuted in the first episode of the show broadcast on 18 March 1985 and is currently the sole remaining original cast member . Paul appeared on a regular basis until 1992 when Dennis quit Neighbours to pursue work elsewhere . He agreed to reprise the role for a guest appearance in 1993 . Dennis returned to the show full @-@ time in 2004 and has since remained in the role . Dennis views his decision to leave Neighbours as a mistake . Early character development during 1980s episodes changed Paul into a powerful , arrogant and sometimes villainous business man . Paul has an evil persona which has long been admired by Dennis for the entertainment value it creates . But in 2007 Paul 's evil ways were mellowed through a brain tumour story which brought the character inline with producer 's vision of reinventing the show . The character has been used to play various stories ranging from money laundering , a leg amputation to being held hostage and incarceration for crimes . He is often portrayed concocting scams against fellow characters . As a prominent character Neighbours writers designed their 6000th episode around Paul . The story was dubbed " Who Pushed P.R. ? " and Paul was pushed from a mezzanine by an unseen assailant . The character 's attack created a long @-@ running whodunit mystery . Paul has had five marriages and countless affairs , which has gained him notoriety as a womaniser . Paul 's evil character and womanising have been well received by critics of the genre who were entertained . The actor has garnered various award nominations for his portrayal of Paul . = = Casting = = In 1984 , Stefan Dennis received a phone call from his agent who told him about an audition for a new soap called Neighbours . Dennis said " I wasn 't that keen because I was more interested in a feature film I had auditioned for and felt sure I was going to get " . Dennis originally auditioned for the roles of Shane Ramsay and Des Clarke ( the roles were later given to Peter O 'Brien and Paul Keane respectively ) , but was cast as Paul Robinson instead . Neighbours was cancelled by Seven Network seven months after its debut . However , it was revived by Network Ten and Dennis reprised his role as Paul from January 1986 onwards . He is the only current cast member who appeared in the first episode on 18 March 1985 . In 1992 , Dennis quit the role because he no longer felt challenged as an actor , he stated : " I was literally walking through it , I thought ' this is not good for acting , this doesn 't keep me fresh at all , time to move on ' . " Dennis has said that one of his favourite moments was being asked to come back and celebrate Neighbours ' 2000th episode . = = Character development = = = = = Characterisation = = = Paul was originally the quiet member of his family and had worked as an air steward . Paul 's failed marriage to Terry Inglis ( Maxine Klibingaitis ) altered his personality and he became self @-@ centred . Network Ten publicity assessed that it turned him " bitter and cynical " . He worked to become a powerful businessman managing the Lassisters complex and developed many overpowering traits which left him viewed by others as a money @-@ grabbing control freak . But the character was not left without kindness and shared his more generous moments with his grandmother Helen Daniels ( Anne Haddy ) . He has been described as having the ability to notice talent in others , employing those who shared his ambition and nous . Portrayed for most of his tenure as a deceiving villain , Paul can often be viewed participating in unpredictable stories . This arbitrary nature lead Dennis to proclaim " he 's a character you never get bored with . Even during times when storylines aren 't centred on my character , the writers still come up with little twists for him all the time . " Network Ten branded Paul a high flying business man who enjoyed womanising until he met Gail Lewis ( Fiona Corke ) . Other labels the character has are " lothario " and " serial cheat " because of his ill @-@ treatment of the opposite sex . Upon his 2004 return he was portrayed stuck in his old ways . The writer added Paul was committing dodgy deals and deceiving his neighbours in a bid for revenge . The character despises pity , has a damaged personality and can never be faithful to a romantic partner . Dennis branded Paul as " Mr. Evil " because of Paul 's harsh treatment of women , observing that his character treated them like toys , throwing them away when he was bored . When producers realised that Paul 's behaviour had gone too far , they considered killing him off . Dennis commented " As an actor , I had the best time because this character just got more evil and more sneaky , more of a cad and a womaniser and it just escalated where it got to the point where it just got silly . It was ridiculous for the supposed reality of the show . " The actor also said that he accepted the producers decision to kill his character off when they explained that they did not know where to take him . However , the show 's then executive producer Ric Pellizzeri decided to save the character and redeem him by giving him a brain tumour . Following the removal of the brain tumour , Paul mellowed in his evil ways . Of Paul 's dramatic change to his personality , post brain tumour , Dennis compared the differences stating : " He 's changed back to where he was 18 odd years ago . What he has become is the same Paul he was back then when he was a very ambitious young entrepreneur with Lassiters and Robinson Corporation . But the difference now is that he is older and wiser and therefore a lot more shrewd and a lot more careful . Post brain tumor , he is no longer evil , more ruthless than evil . Ruthless with a conscience and emotion . " Although Paul changed his ways to an extent , he still shows signs of being evil . Dennis has stated that he and fellow cast member , Alan Fletcher ( Karl Kennedy ) purposely portray hints of his former self . Of this Dennis stated : " I like to keep that boiling under the surface so that the audience will always think ' what is he up to next ? ' . You never quite know if he will burst out into Mr. Evil or stay as the character he is at the moment . Alan Fletcher keeps it alive as well , by always looking out the corner of his eye and thinking ' I just don 't trust you ! ' " Dennis later defended his character to the Birmingham Post after he was branded an evil character , describing him in his early years : " Paul started out as a university student , which people have forgotten , he was studying engineering then , much to his father 's disgust , left to join an airline and became a trolley dolly . He later became a bit of a cad but I wouldn 't call him a villain . I 'd describe him as a bad boy with a conscience " . Dennis has also stated that he loves playing Paul as a " baddie " , because in his opinion he is so colourful , not just an average bad guy , adding : " He 's not just a black and white bad guy , he 's a sneaky bastard . He 's the smiling baddie " . = = = Relationships = = = Paul enjoyed a relationship with Terri , he believed he really loved her . She tried to defraud him and later kill him . These events have a knock on effect which plagues his relationship with Gail raising many trust issues . He has been described as " unlucky in love " during his early years in the serial . During an interview with entertainment website Digital Spy Dennis discussed Paul 's later relationships in depth . Paul 's relationship with Lyn Scully ( Janet Andrewartha ) was short lived , he mistreated her but ultimately in a twist for the character , he did the right thing . Dennis describes this as : " The Lyn story was quite sincere , but he had the good sense on the day of the wedding to tell her that he was no good . So he obviously cared about Lyn , but then she came back and haunted him . " His relationship with Rebecca Napier ( Jane Hall ) at times can be fiery , of this Dennis said : " I want to see Paul and Rebecca be like Angie and Dirty Den . I think Rebecca is capable of that . She plays a fiery character and is a very strong . Paul needs somebody who is absolutely there for him and adores him , but will take no shit from him and stand up and fight as hard as she does . " Paul 's relationship with his children is often non @-@ conventional , however he has a close bond with his daughter Elle Robinson ( Pippa Black ) , Dennis describes this , adding : " ( She 's ' a chip off the old block ' ) and even though Elle annoys Paul sometimes , they are always there for each other . Paul adores his daughter and I think it works both ways . " = = = Return = = = Following an eleven year hiatus producers asked Dennis to return to Neighbours for the 20th anniversary episodes . But their talks resulted in Dennis agreeing to return full @-@ time . Alan Dale who played his on @-@ screen father , Jim Robinson helped Dennis to make the decision to return . Dennis has since admitted that he made a mistake quitting Neighbours in 1992 . He explained " I was stupid . I thought I was going to go to Hollywood and conquer the world , and I didn 't . " Dennis ' return made Paul the only original character still appearing on Neighbours . The actor continued to publicise his commitment to staying on the show long @-@ term . The character was reintroduced during the 2004 series finale . The episode focused on a fire at the Lassiter 's complex which destroys the local pub , hotel , doctor 's surgery and coffee shop . Paul 's arrival coincidences with the fire which makes him a suspect . His return forms the end of season cliff @-@ hanger and Australian viewers had to wait months before Paul 's return continued on @-@ screen . Dennis told Jason Herbison from Inside Soap that " judging from his first appearance he certainly does look guilty . " He teased that Paul is " very enigmatic " and his motives for committing the crime remain unclear . Dennis professed his love for his character 's mysterious agenda but noted that Paul had " grown and matured " during his absence . Producer Peter Dodds believed that Paul 's return gave his writers numerous stories . He detailed that it allowed the return of other past characters and " kick @-@ started a whole new web of deceit and lies " within the show . He concluded that it made Neighbours more dramatic ever since . = = = Izzy Hoyland = = = The character was paired with fellow resident Izzy Hoyland ( Natalie Bassingthwaighte ) who shared a deceptive personality with him . This created many stories for both characters as they plotted against their neighbours . Dennis stated " the Paul and Izzy relationship was fantastic , it was very popular . Izzy was an interesting character because she was very emotional and insecure . That 's what drove her evil ways . She had a bit of a soulmate in Paul . " Dennis believed that the pair could not have worked long @-@ term because they would have destroyed each other . Izzy was in a relationship with Karl when writers began working on material for the new duo . Karl had been played as the arch @-@ enemy of Paul , as they previously feuded . Izzy faces a problems in her relationship and turns to Paul for romance . Karl spends time away from Izzy leaving her free to conduct her affair . He returns to fight for his partner but nearly catches Izzy in bed with Paul . He leaves an expensive watch behind which Karl finds . Izzy pretends that she has purchased it for Karl and he lauds the accessory over Paul . Fletcher told Herbison ( Inside Soap ) that Karl is jealous of Paul and relishes the opportunity to show off his gift and boast about Izzy . He was keen for his character to discover Izzy 's infidelity so Karl and Paul could have a confrontation . Izzy goes into business with Paul and Karl tries to warn her that Paul is untrustworthy . He is unsuspecting and does not believe Izzy would be attracted to Paul . The story provides insight to Izzy who needs stability from Karl and excitement which Paul provides her . = = = Leg amputation = = = One of Paul 's main storylines culminated in him having his leg amputated after an accident . The storyline has received some criticism as Paul was shown on different occasions not limping with his false leg . Dennis explained during an interview how the production team helped ensure to make his limp appear more effectively , stating " They made me a splint which actually makes me sort of limp , but keeps my foot rigid so it looks like I actually do have a non @-@ moving piece . One time I did change my leg , as in I swapped it over and limped on the other one to see if anyone noticed . " Dennis revealed in May 2011 , that he wears a brace on his leg as remembering which leg to limp on was becoming a " little distracting . " = = = Robert 's revenge campaign = = = Paul had been uninvolved in the upbringing of all his children . This provided producers with scope to introduce estranged family members . In 2006 , writers devised a long @-@ running storyline in @-@ which Paul 's son Robert ( Adam Hunter ) plans a revenge campaign against his father . Robert 's motives for his vendetta stem from Paul not being around while he grew up . Paul was happy that he had triplet children Elle , Robert and Cameron Robinson ( also played by Hunter ) back in his life . He tries to make amends with Robert and attempts to bond with him unaware that he is being plotted against . Writers decided to mark the show 's 5000th episode with the story and Robert takes Paul hostage down a mineshaft . Dennis filmed the scenes in a filthy studio set surrounded by cameras , lighting and crew . He told Herbison ( Inside Soap ) that he found it difficult to pretend he was trapped underground . Dennis explained that his character is oblivious to Robert 's intentions and believes Robert is taking him on a family camping holiday . When Robert has Paul alone he drugs him and take him to the mineshaft . Robert admits to causing the plane crash which killed the Bishop family , intending Paul , Elle and Izzy to die . Dennis explained that Robert " really goes to town telling Paul what a terrible father he 's been and how he 's going to pay for it now . " Robert gloats about his successful scheming and seals the entrance to the mine leaving Paul for dead . But Katya Kinski ( Dichen Lachman ) begins to suspect that Robert is mentally ill and it is up to her to convince other residents and save Paul from death . Paul escapes but Katya is next to be kidnapped by Robert because he is infatuated with her . She decides to humour Robert in the hope he will return her to Erinsborough . But Robert discovers that Paul plans to marry his mother Gail . He is unaware that it is a ruse set @-@ up by authorities to arrest him . Katya convinces Robert that they should not leave together because he has a final chance to kill Paul at the wedding . The sham wedding was originally suggested by Izzy in jest and she is shocked that Paul and Gail organise the nuptials . Dennis explained that Robert 's " ultimate goal is to destroy Paul " . By giving him a time and place to target Paul they plan to trap him . The pair exchange wedding vows which are not binding . But Robert does not surface which angers Paul . He begins to shout and orders Robert to show up and confront him . Robert is entised by Paul 's goading and he approaches his father . Dennis said that the pair have a " massive showdown " and the psychotic character pulls a gun and shoots Paul . Following his latest crimes Robert surrenders and is arrested . The fake wedding provided Paul writers with the chance to explore Paul and Gail 's relationship which had served their characters during 1980s episodes of Neighbours . Dennis said that the chemistry that existed in 1987 was still present between the pair . On @-@ screen his relationship with Izzy begins to suffer but the wedding makes Paul remember his past shared with Gail . The actor recalled filming the wedding made him question whether Paul and Gail were still in love . In the episode various character 's notice their feelings which angers Izzy . The story ends in tragedy and loss for Paul . Katya accepts a lift from Cameron and their neighbour Max Hoyland ( Stephen Lovatt ) spots Katya in the car . Max mistakes Cameron for Robert and believes Katya is in danger . In an attempt to rescue her Max knocks Cameron over and kills him . Lachman warned that it was the start of a new story in which Paul wants revenge on Max and issues him with a " chilling threat " . = = = Who Pushed P.R. ? = = = In July 2010 , it was revealed that Paul would be central to the serial 's 6000th episode . Executive producer Susan Bower had hinted previously that the milestone would involve Paul and Alan Fletcher teased audiences with the revelation that something horrible would happen to an iconic character . Of Paul 's involvement and the reasoning behind it Bower explained : " As Stefan Dennis – Paul Robinson – was in the first episode 25 years ago , it was decided that his character play a most important role in this very special event [ ... ] Paul Robinson , or P.R as we like to call him , has been up to his usual tricks over the past few weeks and everyone on Ramsay Street is becoming really sick of him . What will they do about it ? " It was then announced the plot would be a whodunnit style arc , in which Paul is left fighting for his life after being pushed from the mezzanine level of Lassiter 's Hotel . The episodes were structured with a five episode build up prior to the 6000th episode , a new suspect being revealed in each . UK broadcaster Channel 5 posted an official statement : " With so many enemies , it will be hard to narrow down who had the motive to harm him . Who pushed P.R ? " . Jane Badler who plays Diana Marshall in the serial compared the storyline to that of the Who shot J.R. ? storyline from American soap opera Dallas . On @-@ screen the storyline progresses as new character Mark Brennan ( Scott McGregor ) , tries to solve the mystery . = = Storylines = = = = = 1985 – 93 = = = Paul is the oldest child of Jim Robinson ( Alan Dale ) and his wife Anne . His half sister Julie ( Vikki Blanche ; Julie Mullins ) was born the year afterward followed by brother Scott ( Darius Perkins ; Jason Donovan ) , half brother Glen ( Richard Huggett ) and finally his youngest sister Lucy ( Kylie Flinker ; Sasha Close ; Melissa Bell ) . Anne died giving birth to Lucy , when Paul was only twelve and Paul 's grandmother , Helen moved into the Robinson house to help Jim with the children . Paul was her self @-@ confessed favourite . Paul marries Terry Inglis after a whirlwind relationship . However , Terry shoots Paul when he finds out she killed her ex @-@ boyfriend and she goes on the run . Terry is eventually arrested and later commits suicide in prison . Paul meets Gail Lewis for the second time , having worked with her previously , when she applies for a job at the Daniels Corporation . They both agree to enter into a marriage of convenience in order to secure a business agreement , but soon develop genuine feelings for each other and they renew their vows . That same year Paul learns that he has fathered a child , Amy ( Nicolette Minster ; Sheridan Compagnino ) , with Nina Williams ( Leigh Morgan ) . Gail becomes convinced that Paul will lose interest in IVF treatment or adoption , but Paul becomes more committed to having children with her . After IVF treatment , Gail becomes pregnant with triplets , however , Paul starts working hard and becomes detached from Gail . After the death of her father Rob Lewis ( Ernie Bourne ) , Gail decides to leave him and immigrate to Tasmania where she gives birth to Elle ( Pippa Black ) , Robert and Cameron . The couple later divorce . Paul faces financial troubles when Hilary Robinson ( Anne Scott @-@ Pendlebury ) withdraws her funding of the Daniels Corporation . Paul leases his house to twin sisters Christina ( Gayle Blakeney ) and Caroline Alessi ( Gillian Blakeney ) . Christina falls in love with Paul and after a short romance and a quick engagement , the couple marry . Shortly after , Christina becomes pregnant and gives birth to a son , Andrew ( Shannon Holmes ) . Paul suffers a nervous breakdown and cheats on Christina with Caroline . The couple eventually reunite and they leave to manage a branch of Lassiter 's in Hawaii . Paul later returns to the street where he gets his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Philip Martin ( Ian Rawlings ) , involved in a fraud scandal . Paul then flees to Brazil and asks Christina to join him . He returns for Helen 's birthday , but the celebration is ruined when he is forced to flee the country on fraud charges . Paul returns to Australia after the death of Helen and is sentenced to seven years ' imprisonment , of which he serves three . = = = 2004 – = = = Paul returns to Erinsborough and sets fire to the Lassiter 's complex . He also kills Gus Cleary ( Ben Barrack ) , when Gus catches him . Paul helps rebuild the complex and reclaims Lassiter 's for himself . Paul has affairs with both Izzy Hoyland ( Natalie Bassingthwaighte ) and Liljana Bishop ( Marcella Russo ) . He later frames Liljana 's husband , David ( Kevin Harrington ) for fraud . Paul strikes a deal with Affirmacon to build on Ramsay Street and he gets his protégé Dylan Timmins ( Damien Bodie ) to pollute the local wetlands . When Paul wants to pull out of the deal , he is taken to the bush and beaten up . Paul escapes and falls down a cliff , badly breaking his leg . While Paul recovers in hospital , his leg becomes infected and is amputated . Paul 's sister , Lucy , encourages him to make a proper home for himself in Erinsborough and he moves into Number 22 . Paul begins a relationship with Izzy and his estranged daughter Elle moves in . To celebrate the Lassiter 's Hotel 20th anniversary , Paul and several of his neighbours go on a joy flight to Tasmania . During the flight , a bomb explodes causing the plane to crash into the sea . Paul , Izzy and Elle survive . Paul 's son , Robert , arrives in the guise of his twin , Cameron . Robert alienates Paul from everyone , before drugging and trapping him in an old mineshaft . Robert confesses to planting the bomb on the plane and sending a poisoned letter to Paul . Robert collapses the entrance to the mine and leaves Paul to die . Paul is eventually rescued and he is grows closer to Gail when she returns to town . Paul and Gail hold a fake wedding to lure Robert out of hiding and he shoots Paul , who survives due to a bullet proof vest . Paul goes on a downward spiral and flirts with several women , attempts to blackmail Carmella Cammeniti ( Natalie Blair ) and betrays Lyn Scully ( Janet Andrewartha ) . When Max accidentally kills Cameron , Paul decides to shoot Max in revenge , but he is talked out of it . Paul begins a relationship with Lyn and they become engaged . However , after kissing Rosetta Cammeniti ( Natalie Saleeba ) in the lead up to the wedding , Paul admits to Lyn that he cannot be faithful to her just minutes after they marry . Having sold half of Lassiter 's , keeping a 49 % share for himself , Paul decides to regain full control . Knowing Oliver Barnes ( David Hoflin ) owns shares in Lassiter 's , Paul tries to break up with relationship with Carmella and get him to date Elle . Elle manages to convince Paul to sign over his share of Lassiter 's to her and she leaves him with nothing . Paul has a brain tumour removed and he loses his memory . He later apologises to his neighbours for all the bad things he did . Paul begins a relationship with Oliver 's mother , Rebecca Napier , and she and her youngest son , Declan ( James Sorensen ) , move in with him . Remembering that he murdered Gus , Paul confesses all to the police and Gus 's sister Laura ( Jodi Flockhart ) . The police inform Paul that they will not be pursuing the case , while Laura and her boyfriend Nick Thompson ( Marty Grimwood ) try to blackmail Paul by kidnapping Declan . Paul has an affair with Kirsten Gannon ( Nikola Dubois ) and Rebecca ends their relationship . Paul regains his assets from Elle and he buys the Erinsborough News . Paul briefly dates Cassandra Freedman ( Tottie Goldsmith ) , but he and Rebecca soon reconcile . Paul is initially blamed for his half @-@ sister Jill Ramsay 's ( Perri Cummings ) death . He goes on the run , but his name is cleared by Jill 's daughter Sophie ( Kaiya Jones ) . When Paul and Rebecca get engaged , Lyn interrupts their wedding to announce she and Paul are still married . After divorcing Lyn , Paul marries Rebecca . Paul 's youngest son , Andrew ( now played by Jordan Smith ) , comes to stay with his father . Paul suffers financial difficulties and embezzles money from Lassiter 's . He also frames Declan for an accident at a building site , that he himself caused . Diana Marshall ( Jane Badler ) comes to Erinsborough to find evidence of Paul 's embezzlement . Paul asks her to take over Lassiter 's with him and they have sex . Rebecca gives Paul an ultimatum ; leave Lassiter 's or leave the family . He then hands over management of the hotel to Declan for six months . Paul discovers Diana is working with Declan to remove him from the company and he contacts Rosemary Daniels ( Joy Chambers ) , who fires Diana . Meanwhile , Paul threatens Declan . When Rebecca finds out about Paul 's affair and threats towards Declan , she pushes him from the Lassiter 's mezzanine . Paul survives and blackmails Rebecca into staying with him , causing their marriage to deteriorate . Rebecca later convinces Paul to sign an affidavit , which states that his fall was an accident , and she leaves him and the country . Paul falls out with local councillor Ajay Kapoor ( Sachin Joab ) and plots to ruin Ajay 's career , after the local police station is closed down and merged with another . Paul makes sure a house party in Ramsay Street is gatecrashed and then writes an article about how the police were late to the scene because of the merger . Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) learns Paul sent the gatecrashers to the party and tells the press . Paul is forced to step down as editor . He then hires public relations consultant Zoe Alexander ( Simmone Jade Mackinnon ) to improve his image . Paul and Zoe briefly date and Paul unsuccessfully tries to get the editor 's job back from Susan . Paul 's nieces Sophie and Kate ( Ashleigh Brewer ) move in with him . Paul and Andrew purchase Charlie 's bar together and Paul beings an affair with Ajay 's wife , Priya ( Menik Gooneratne ) . After Andrew collapses , he tells Paul that he has epilepsy . Paul tries to take Charlie 's away from him , but soon relents . Priya ends the affair and Ajay finds out about it . Paul sells the Erinsborough News to fund his plan of turning the top two floors of Lassiter 's into apartments . Paul grieves for Priya when she dies after an explosion at a wedding reception on Lassiter 's grounds . Ajay files a civil action against Paul and a preliminary police report indicates negligence on Paul 's part , but a gas bottle is found to have come from faulty stock . Paul uses Rhiannon Bates ( Teressa Liane ) to help him bribe councillor Allan Hewitt ( Mick Preston ) and Rhiannon reports them to the police . Lucy tells Paul that she has been promoted to head of Lassiter 's Worldwide and gets his apartment plans approved . She also hires Terese Willis ( Rebekah Elmaloglou ) as the new manager of Lassiter 's Hotel . Paul is accused of sexual harassment by Caroline Perkins ( Alinta Chidzey ) , but Terese manages to get Caroline to drop the lawsuit by giving her a settlement . Mason Turner ( Taylor Glockner ) asks for Paul 's help when Robbo Slade ( Aaron Jakubenko ) starts blackmailing him . Paul hires Marty Kranic ( Darius Perkins ) to take care of Robbo , who is later hit by a car . Paul pays Marty off for services rendered . Jack Lassiter ( Alan Hopgood ) returns to Erinsborough and warns Paul about putting business before family . Jack confesses to Paul that he is giving his fortune away because he is dying . Paul and Mason believe Marty killed Robbo , but he denies it and then threatens to implicate Paul . Paul offers to manage Georgia Brooks ' ( Saskia Hampele ) singing career and gets her to sign over the rights to her song . Paul then gives the song to Amali Ward , but she decides against recording it . Paul attempts to sue Georgia , but drops the case when he learns Jack has died . He then asks for his fraud conviction to be removed from his criminal record , so he can run for mayor . Karl unsuccessfully runs against him . Paul seeks to separate the hotel from the Lassiter 's chain to enable him to sack Terese . However , Terese quits her job and Paul threatens to sue her . Lucy persuades Paul to re @-@ hire Terese and he keeps the hotel within the Lassiter 's chain . Paul learns Rebecca works for a civic project called Twin Cities and forges Karl 's signature on a cover letter to get Rebecca to return . Paul tells Rebecca that he became mayor for her because he still loves her . Paul asks Rebecca to move back to Erinsborough , but she refuses . Paul disapproves when Kate gets back together with Mark Brennan . They reconcile just before she is fatally shot . Paul blames Mark for Kate 's death . Paul 's nephew , Daniel ( Tim Phillipps ) , arrives in town and agrees to stay with him . Paul re @-@ opens Charlie 's and announces that it has been renamed The Waterhole , a name chosen by Kate before she died . After purchasing a painting from Naomi Canning ( Morgana O 'Reilly ) , Paul learns from the police that its ownership is disputed . He asks Naomi for his money back , but she tells him she has spent it . Paul then asks Naomi to have sex with him , in exchange for him not pressing charges against her . Naomi blackmails Paul into dropping the charges . Paul and Mark join forces to find Kate 's killer . Matt Turner ( Josef Brown ) informs Paul that Victor Cleary ( Richard Sutherland ) , Gus 's younger brother , has become a suspect in Kate 's murder . Paul realises that he may be responsible for Kate 's death . He buys a gun and meets with Victor who taunts Paul about killing Kate , before Matt and Mark arrive . Mark tackles Paul and Matt arrests Victor . Paul develops depression , knowing that his actions were responsible for Kate 's death , and Terese tries to help him . After a public meltdown , Paul is suspended as mayor . He begins volunteering at Sonya 's ( Eve Morey ) garden nursery , while Lucy also helps him overcome his grief . Sheila Canning ( Colette Mann ) encourages Paul to start dating again , and he has a number of casual relationships using a dating app . He falls out with Daniel when he puts his romance with Amber Turner ( Jenna Rosenow ) before work . After they argue , Daniel and Amber go out into a tornado that hits Erinsborough . Paul goes after them and his car is hit by a dislodged skip . Daniel and Amber rescue him . He suffers broken ribs and a cracked prosthetic . Paul decides he is ready to be mayor again and organises a media gathering at Sonya 's Nursery , but it has to be postponed when the nursery is vandalised . Paul discovers Jayden Warley ( Khan Oxenham ) was behind the vandalism , and he blackmails Jayden 's mother Sue Parker ( Kate Gorman ) into stepping down as interim mayor . Dakota Davies ( Sheree Murphy ) , a fling from Paul 's time in Brazil , arrives in Erinsborough and tells Paul that he abandoned her without explanation to return to Australia in 2004 . Paul 's memories of this are unclear due to his brain tumour , but he agrees to help her set up a bar . Paul falls in love with Dakota , but he soon learn that she is involved in diamond smuggling . She leaves after asking him for money . When Terese goes through a rough patch in her marriage to Brad ( Kip Gamblin ) , Paul arranges her former boss , Ezra Hanley ( Steve Nation ) , to come to Erinsborough , with the intention of breaking up the Willis ' marriage . However , Ezra tries to force himself on Terese and is fired from Lassiter 's . When he tries to sue Paul and Terese , Paul pays Gary Canning ( Damien Richardson ) to attack Ezra . When Gary confesses to the police , Paul gives him more money to keep quiet about their arrangement . Paul hires Naomi to organise the Erinsborough Festival , two weeks of events celebrating the suburb . Hilary Robinson returns and convinces Paul to reinstate some of the community services . Paul tries to stop Daniel and Amber 's wedding by sending Amber away on a photography trip and planning for her flight to be cancelled , so she will not make the wedding . He also asks Des Clarke ( Paul Keane ) to talk to Daniel about the dangers of marrying the wrong person . Imogen Willis ( Ariel Kaplan ) forces Paul to bring Amber back , but he realises Imogen loves Daniel and tells Amber . Daniel fails to appear for the wedding after he goes looking for Imogen . Paul realises Nina Tucker ( Delta Goodrem ) is in town and with help from Lou and Karl , he convinces her to sing at the festival 's closing concert . Nick Petrides ( Damien Fotiou ) informs Paul that he has leukaemia and he starts him on a course of chemotherapy . Paul hires Naomi as his assistant and she helps to keep his diagnosis a secret . When Paul collapses , he calls Karl for help and tells him about his diagnosis . Nick tells Paul that his body has stopped responding to the chemotherapy . Paul wants Karl to succeed him as mayor and he asks Naomi to find his daughter Amy . While Naomi is encouraging Paul to be more positive , she kisses him . She apologises , but they both develop feelings for each other . Paul asks Naomi to shave his head when his hair starts falling out , and he sells Lassiter 's to the Quill Group . Paul collapses from pneumonia and is hospitalised . Nick tells Paul that his cancer is in remission , but Georgia claims that Paul never had cancer and Nick is found to have doctored Paul 's patient files . He is arrested soon after . Paul tries to forget about his feelings for Naomi , by pushing her and Brennan back together . However , Naomi discovers their plan and breaks up with Brennan . The Quill Group sell Lassiter 's back to Paul and he and Naomi kiss . Amy ( Zoe Cramond ) turns up at the penthouse and is angered when Paul does not immediately recognise her , she later leaves town . Daniel persuades Amy to return and she introduces Paul to her son Jimmy ( Darcy Tadich ) . Paul and Jimmy bond , but when he buys Jimmy expensive presents , Amy returns them . Paul fires Kyle from the council 's beautification project after he fails to reprimand a handyman for sexually harassing Amy . She convinces him to give Kyle his job back . Paul learns that Sheila had a crush on him , after Jimmy blackmails her . They later clear the air . Paul gives Amy a job as his executive assistant , but she quits after making a mistake which costs Lassiter 's money . Paul proposes to Naomi and she accepts , but she soon has doubts . After an argument , she has a one @-@ night stand with Josh Willis ( Harley Bonner ) . Paul forgives Naomi and they agree to call off their engagement . He then decides to get revenge on Josh by getting his good behaviour bond revoked by paying someone to plant illegal peptides in his bag . Naomi breaks up with Paul and leaves for a job overseas . Paul pays Jimmy 's father to leave town , resulting in Jimmy not wanting to spend time with him . Paul plans to close Erinsborough High and sell the land to Eden Hills Grammar , so he can push through a luxury housing development . Paul is blackmailed and his personal emails are sent to the media , resulting in him receiving death threats . He hires Aaron Brennan ( Matt Wilson ) to be his bodyguard . Amy finds a petition to save the school in Paul 's penthouse and he confesses to stealing it from Susan 's office on the day of the fire . He is later fired as mayor and the bank calls in his loans , leaving him in financial difficulty . Paul receives a dead rat sent in a box , which he later learns was intended for Aaron . Paul asks Aaron to help him with his scheme to gaslight Stephanie Scully ( Carla Bonner ) . He explains that he wants her to leave Erinsborough as he does not want her near Jimmy . Paul swaps Steph 's medication for psychotropic drugs , which triggers a relapse . He offers to drive her to her doctor in Bendigo , but he swerves to avoid another car and crashes into a tree . When Paul regains consciousness , he sees that Steph has found the drugs in his pocket and forces him to tell her his plan . She later blackmails him into giving her a job and money in exchange for not reporting him to the police . Paul is forced to liquidate his assets to pay off his debts . The bank sells Lassiter 's to the Quill Group and Paul is escorted from the penthouse by the police . Paul lives in the Men 's Shed until Terese invites him to live at her house . Paul plans to start a new business , making gazebos , in partnership with Amy . He needs to borrow money to get started and Dimato offers to lend to him , but after learning about Paul 's scheme to gaslight Steph , Amy refuses to go ahead with the gazebo project with Paul . Dimato tells Paul he is considering buying a rundown motel and renovating it , and offers to make Paul the manager . However Paul later discovers Dimato is attempting to frame Paige Smith ( Olympia Valance ) for burglary , and blackmails Dimato into leaving town . Terese kisses Paul and invites him to her bedroom , but does not take things further and tells Paul that she just wants to be friends . Paul remains interested in the rundown motel and tries to convince Steph and Doug Willis ( Terence Donovan ) to become investors , so he can buy the business . He organises a Citizen of the Year event at the motel , but it is stolen by Lassiter 's after Steph accidentally costs the motel their liquor licence . Paul asks Cecilia Saint ( Candice Alley ) to sabotage the event , but is horrified when the hotel boiler explodes , injuring Daniel and killing Josh and Doug . While supporting a grieving Terese , admitting to her that he loves her , Paul secretly worries that Cecilia caused the explosion . Paul persuades Nene to lie to the police to support his false alibi . Paul is arrested after he is found to have deleted CCTV footage of him in the boiler room . Steph visits Paul in prison , where he maintains his innocence . They put up the motel for Paul 's bail and he is released . Terese is angry when he comes to Josh 's funeral and later says she hates him . Paul investigates alternative suspects , but Mark tells him to stop . After Julie Quill ( Gail Easdale ) accuses Paul of harassment , his bail conditions are reviewed and he is required to wear an ankle monitor . Aaron becomes Paul 's PR adviser . Paul does an interview with Piper which is put online . Paul 's position becomes worse when Cecilia tells the police that Paul confessed . Aaron then advises Paul to take part in a voluntary clean @-@ up , which is criticised by Nate . Paul is hit by a car and taken to hospital . After being discharged , Paul decides to run away and he steals $ 3000 from the motel . Paul meets Jacka in the bush and seeks his help in getting a passport . He then calls Steph asking her to bring him money , but she refuses . After hearing a conversation between Steph and Amy , Jimmy finds Paul in the bush . Jimmy has an allergic reaction to a bee sting and Paul takes him to hospital , resulting in him being arrested and remanded in custody . Toadie agrees to represent Paul , but only if he pleads guilty . Paul pleads not guilty and Steph persuades Toadie to defend him . At the end of the trial Terese admits to having bribed Cecilia to commit perjury . Despite this , Paul is found guilty and sentenced to eighteen years jail with a non @-@ parole period of fourteen years . Paul decides not to appeal and urges Steph , Amy and Jimmy not to visit him in jail . Another prisoner warns Paul that he is in danger of being assaulted in jail . Paul asks Gary Canning to protect him , however Gary is then granted parole . Paul is assaulted and taken to hospital . He is later released from prison after Julie Quill confesses to blowing up the hotel . = = Reception = = Dennis has earned various award nominations for his role as Paul . At the 2007 Inside Soap Awards , Dennis was nominated for Best Actor and Best Bad Boy . The following year , Dennis was again nominated for Best Actor and Best Bad Boy . 2009 saw Dennis nominated for Best Actor and Best Bad Boy once again . In 2010 , Dennis was nominated for the very first Best Daytime Star award . He received a nomination in the same category in 2015 . At the first Digital Spy Soap Awards ceremony , Dennis was nominated for Villain of the Year . A reporter from Virgin Media branded the character a " retro soap hunk . " They branded him a " bad boy " who is " motivated by greed and lust , Paul manipulated his way into business and into the ladies ' beds ( even with a dodgy earring ) . Watch out ladies ... " Virgin Media also ran a feature profiling their twenty @-@ five most memorable television comebacks , amongst them was Paul 's 2004 return and they said " ruthless ' workaholic ' businessman Paul Robinson fled Australia in 1993 to escape fraud charges only to return more sinister than ever in 2005 to burn down the Lassiter 's hotel complex . " Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture commented on Paul stating : " He 's always been a bit of a ladies ' man and has had an eye for a business deal and has always struggled with whether to be good Paul or bad Paul . Ramsay Street 's most prolific marry @-@ er and father @-@ er . " She also criticises the fact Paul 's false leg is never shown on @-@ screen adding : " Paul has a wooden leg , which sometimes causes him to limp , when he remembers about it . " Holy Soap have said that Paul starting the Lassiter 's fire and killing Gus during his 2004 return , was one of soap opera 's greatest comebacks . They also branded him a " legendary figure " of Neighbours . Josephine Monroe in her book Neighbours : The first 10 years , names Paul one of soap opera 's most enduring characters . An Inside Soap writer opined that " slimy seducer " Paul remained the same " eighties smooth operator " , observing " he 's certainly not short of a slick chat @-@ up line or two . He 's as skilled a lothario now as he always was . " In 2010 , to celebrate Neighbours ' 25th anniversary , British satellite broadcasting company , Sky , profiled twenty @-@ five characters of which they believed were the most memorable in the series history . Paul is in the list and joke about his many wives stating : " How many of Paul 's five wives can you name ? No points for current wife Rebecca , ten for naming Lynn , Gail , or Christina Alessi , and 1 @,@ 400 points for remembering first wife , plumber Terry [ ... ] Yes , Paul 's been around the block . " They also branded him as the reason Neighbours , in their opinion was good viewing in the 2000s adding : " It 's his cackling soap villain role that we love to hate him for : his return in 2004 , torching Lassiter 's and befriending Dylan , marked the start of Neighbours getting awesome in the mid @-@ noughties . Although it 's probably safe to say that period was over by the time he suffered amnesia of everything after 1989 . " He has also been branded as a " legend character " . Entertainment reporting website Last Broadcast praised Paul 's development , stating : " As the kind of shady character who 'd do anything to make a fast buck , he even planned to bulldoze Ramsay Street to make way for a new supermarket development . And that 's not all : fraud , blackmail , murder ; there is no level to which Paul wouldn 't have sunk . Yet , the infamous bad boy of Erinsborough , has , thankfully , turned over a new leaf . " In her 2007 book , It 's Not My Fault They Print Them , Catherine Deveny slates Paul and Dennis ' acting ability stating : " Stefan Dennis as the mustache @-@ twirling panto villain Paul Robinson , is a genius . I just wanted to yell out ' He 's behind you , he 's behind you ! ' It takes sheer brilliance to be able to act that badly " . Andrew Mercado , author of Super Aussie Soaps , describes Paul as being very similar to fictional character J. R. Ewing . Paul is referred to in Emily Barr 's fictitious novel " Out of My Depth " , in which character Amanda is watching Neighbours , with scenes featuring Paul and Gail receiving disapproval from Harold , Amanda opines that she believes the couple are in love . Jaci Stephen writing for the Daily Mail commented on Paul 's obsession with Rebecca stating : " You can 't help feeling that nothing short of a stake through the heart is going to keep Paul out of Rebecca 's life . " Stephen later said " Taking advice from Paul is like asking Charlie Sheen to be your spirit guide . " Paul Kalina of The Age said Dennis as Paul lightens things up and he prances about like " a pantomime villain minus the moustache and cape . " Kalina added " Erinsborough just would not be the same without him . " A TVTimes columnist stated " He 's no Brad Pitt and he 's a devious beggar at the best of times , but Paul Robinson doesn 't half get the ladies . "
= Climax ( Usher song ) = " Climax " is a song by American recording artist Usher , released on February 22 , 2012 , by RCA Records . It was released as the lead single for his 2012 studio album Looking 4 Myself . It was written by Usher , Ariel Rechtshaid , Redd Stylez , and Diplo , who also produced the song . Usher and Diplo worked on the song for two months as part of their collaboration for the former 's album . The song is a quiet storm slow jam with electronic influences , and lyrics about the turning point of a relationship . According to Usher , the song is primarily about the complications of a relationship , despite the lyrics ' sexual overtones . As a single , " Climax " debuted at number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 , with 31 @,@ 000 digital units sold in its first week . It peaked at number 17 and charted for 20 weeks , and also reached number one on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , becoming Usher 's 12th number @-@ one single on the chart . " Climax " was well received by music critics , who commended its musical direction , Usher 's singing , and Diplo 's production . Rolling Stone and Entertainment Weekly named it one of the best singles of 2012 . In 2013 , " Climax " won Usher a Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance . = = Writing and recording = = " Climax " was written by Usher , Redd Stylez , Ariel Rechtshaid , and Diplo , who also produced the song . Diplo introduced the song 's concept to Usher , who was working with him on a new album . Usher wanted to expand his music 's style and depth by working with Diplo . Diplo recounted the experience in an interview for The Guardian , saying that " I had explained to him about a moment I had with a girl where I felt like I could die with her and be content , but I didn 't and life moved on , and that point in my life was over . It was a sad feeling but it was beautiful . He was relating with me about the idea and how many times you think things are perfect and feel that way but they can pass . " They discussed the concept throughout the song 's development and how it relates to Usher 's life , as Diplo " tried to help realise these lyrics and feelings . " After conceiving some melody lines , they wrote the song in about an hour . Usher and Diplo worked on the song 's production for two months , recording in studios in Los Angeles , New York , and Atlanta . Diplo originally pursued a house music sound based on a chord progression he wrote , but changed his direction after working in the recording studio alone on what he called a " wildfire " beat . He later said of his direction for the song , " the idea of pushing cut @-@ off on a synth used so much in progressive house music but pulling back . I was making something like a minimal techno record with Atlanta strip clubs in mind . " According to Diplo , Usher proposed the idea of " tak [ ing ] the strip club to the stadium " with the song 's production . Classical music composer Nico Muhly contributed with the song 's string arrangement . = = Music and lyrics = = " Climax " is set in common time . Diplo called the style " Radiohead quietstorm " , and both Spin and Rolling Stone agreed that the song was a mix of quiet storm style and electronic music . It is written in the key of C minor , and Usher 's voice ranges from B ♭ 3 to G5 . The music is built around a haunting riff , complemented by sparse drum machine and some musical accompaniment . Its varying soundscape incorporates electronic effects such as clicks , hisses , whooshes , and low @-@ frequency synths , as well as subtle strings and scattered piano notes . Music writers have noted Diplo 's production as uncharacteristically reserved and understated . The song 's musical structure is characterized by intervals in which the music builds to a potential break , but softly decrescendos instead . As each verse concludes , the song 's snapping , electronic rhythm track gradually softens and rippling synth chords repeat throughout the song . Marc Hogan of Spin writes that Diplo " teases us with the sort of wubba @-@ wubba subwoofer noises that have become inescapable in the past year or so of pop radio . But he never actually gives in with the full dubstep drop ... the song keeps swelling to one big wave after another , without ever really reaching a single , song @-@ stopping crescendo . " Hogan cites the bridge at around the three @-@ minute mark as " the closest thing to a climax " on the song , " when the track gets as quiet as it ever has before becoming as lush as it ever gets . " Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan calls the song " an exercise in the power of restraint " , commenting that " Diplo shows uncharacteristic subtlety behind Usher 's sentiment , with a beat that seems to hang suspended in midair . " The song is a breakup lament dealing with the theme of commitment . Its title refers to the turning point of a relationship . The lyrics address a relationship in a state of tension and uncertainty : " We 've reached the climax / We 're together / Now we 're undone / Won 't commit so we choose to run away / Do we separate ? " Usher sings in a pleading falsetto and a plaintive tone on the song , alternating restrained vocals and anguished howls . In an interview for V @-@ 103 , Usher stressed that " Climax " focuses more on the complication of relationships rather than sex , saying that " it 's really about the ultimate experience or lack thereof . Or the finale of an experience of love and life . When you 're in a relationship and it has kinda reached the climax of where it can go , you gotta let it go if you are not going to commit . " He viewed that his falsetto vocals and the song 's tone give the song a sexual feel with music that works as a " double entendre " . = = Release and reception = = The song was first released onto the internet on Valentine 's Day 2012 through SoundCloud . Upon its release , Diplo commented on Twitter : " Seriously the best record I 've been part of ... I 'm pretty sure in 9 months there are gonna be a lot of new babies that this song is responsible for " . It was released as the lead single for Usher 's 2012 album Looking for Myself . " Climax " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 81 , with 31 @,@ 000 digital units sold in the week of March 10 , 2012 . It peaked at number 17 and spent 20 weeks on the chart . The song also reached number one on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , on which it charted for 33 weeks , and became Usher 's 12th number @-@ one single on the chart . It peaked at number three on the Dance / Club Play Songs , on which it charted for 13 weeks . In the United Kingdom , " Climax " debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart , selling 41 @,@ 617 units . It charted for seven weeks and peaked at number 29 in Australia . = = = Critical response = = = Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave the song four out of five stars and stated , " Quiet storm gets a freaky sci @-@ fi makeover " . Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan commended Usher 's collaboration with Diplo as " a doubly satisfying departure from their respective strains of club @-@ ready fare . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard called the song " an ode to the bewildering thoughts and feelings of relationship purgatory " and wrote that it is " a sound that Usher should explore more often . " Marc Hogan of Spin felt that the song is " as vividly communicative as it is decoratively beautiful " and praised its articulation , calling it " a tour de force of pacing and dynamics , giving listeners more and more , but then always easing up just enough to keep us begging for one more verse . " Priya Elan of NME cited " Climax " as Usher 's " best song in absolutely years " and stated , " Goodbye cringe factor , hello Diplo , subtle electronic nuances and an expectation @-@ defying vocal performance which is more Prince falsetto than depth @-@ free showman . The results are jaw dropping . " He also compared it to the work of The Weeknd and commended its " lack of smut " in the lyrics , stating " it 's just Usher playing it fast and loose in falsetto . The result is as subtle as it is unbelievable . " Eric Arredondo of Beats Per Minute viewed the song as an improvement over Usher 's 2010 album Raymond v. Raymond and addressed the comparisons to The Weeknd , writing that , " though it still doesn 't hold much of the innovations and risks of something like The Weeknd 's House of Balloons , ' Climax ' can do something that most songs on that album can 't do without losing most of their fun : be played on the radio . " Rolling Stone ranked " Climax " number 15 on their year @-@ end best songs list for 2012 . Entertainment Weekly ranked it number 14 on their year @-@ end list of best singles . It was voted as the third best single of 2012 by The Village Voice 's 40th annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll and the official best single of 2012 by Time magazine . At the 2013 Grammy Awards , " Climax " won Usher a Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance . = = = Accolades = = = = = Music video = = The music video for " Climax " was directed by Sam Pilling , filmed in Atlanta , and released on March 9 , 2012 . Director of photography was Adam Frisch . After filming , the video was given to the studio Surround for post @-@ production , including editing its structure , title animation , and effects . The video shows Usher sitting in a car contemplating on whether to go inside his ex @-@ girlfriend 's home and rekindle their once @-@ passionate love affair or leave and never return again . It shows different scenarios played out in Usher 's mind , including him confronting his ex @-@ girlfriend 's new boyfriend with a gun . In the video , Usher sits in a car outside a house where his ex @-@ girlfriend is being intimate with another man . He pulls a gun out of his glove compartment and agonizes over whether or not to enter the house . After ruminating over the different scenarios , Usher drives off at the end of the video . Jason Lipshut of Billboard found the " narrative arc " for the video to be " a bit perplexing " . Jeff Lapointe of MTV News viewed that it " depicts the darker side of human nature as Usher drives up to his girlfriend / ex @-@ girlfriends house to discover another vehicle , another man , another side of his love . In the realization of fury and anger , images distort Usher 's reality with thoughts of taking his gun and shooting the intruder . Thoughts of running away with the girl . Thoughts of driving off to never be seen . " = = Live performances = = Usher first performed the song on the show " Off @-@ Broadway 's ' Fuerza Bruta ' " . In the show , he entered from the dark in a white suit and black tie , and walked across a conveyor belt in beat to " Climax " . As the song 's tempo increased , he clutched his stomach as a gunshot fired and blood spread across his torso . Usher appeared on Saturday Night Live on May 12 , 2012 , to perform " Scream " and " Climax " . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from liner notes for Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . Manny Marroquin – mixing engineer Chris Galland – assistant mixing engineer Delbert Bowers – assistant engineer Nico Muhly – piano , strings , string arrangements Diplo – vocal production Natural – arrangements Mark " Exit " Goodchild – engineer Jacob Dennis – assistant engineer Jorge Velasco – assistant engineer Kory Aaron – assistant engineer Ramon Rivas – assistant engineer Ariel Rechtshaid – keyboards , synthesizer Usher – vocals = = Charts = = = = Release history = =
= International Association of Business Communicators = The International Association of Business Communicators ( IABC ) is a global network of communications professionals . Each summer , IABC hosts World Conference , a three @-@ day event with professional development seminars and activities , as well as talks by industry leaders . Decisions within the organization are made by a two @-@ thirds vote of the executive board , which is elected by members . IABC members agree to follow a professional code of ethics , which encourages members to do what is legal , ethical and in good taste . = = History = = IABC 's predecessor was the American Association of Industrial Editors ( AAIE ) , which was founded in 1938 . AAIE became a member of the International Council of Industrial Editors ( ICIE ) in 1941 . It withdrew from ICIE in 1946 over policy differences , but formed IABC when it merged again in 1970 . In IABC 's first year of operation , the association had 2 @,@ 280 members and was focused on internal communications . IABC 's research showed its members were moving into positions with broader public relations responsibilities and the association expanded its scope . In 1974 it merged with Corporate Communicators Canada . In 1982 the association formed the IABC Research Foundation , which funded a study of 323 organizations in the 1980s to determine what made some public relations teams more effective than others . The study found that executive involvement in communications was the best predictor of effectiveness . The Research Foundation also looked into the status and pay of women in the public relations field , in a pioneering study called The Velvet Ghetto . IABC had financial troubles in 2000 after losing $ 1 million in an e @-@ business initiative called TalkingBusinessNow . In 2001 a grass @-@ roots initiative was started within IABC 's membership that eventually developed into the Gift of Communication program , whereby members donated their professional services to local charities . Membership grew 7 – 9 percent each year in the 2000s due to an increasing number of practitioners in the field of internal communications . IABC hosted its first annual world conference in 2005 and grew to more than 16 @,@ 000 members by 2008 . That same year , IABC accredited Chinese citizens for the first time in the Accredited Business Communicator ( ABC ) program . In 2009 the IABC Research Foundation conducted a survey that found 79 percent of respondents frequently use social media to communicate with employees . It also co @-@ authored a study the following year that found email and intranet were the most common internal communications tools among respondents . For 40 years , the association offered an accreditation program called Accreditation for Business Communications ( ABC ) . By the time the program ended in 2013 , a total of 1 @,@ 003 people had earned ABC status . Though the program stopped accepting new applicants in September 2012 , ABCs will be recognized as long as they maintain their membership in IABC . A new professional certification program to replace accreditation with a more affordable , computer @-@ based process was proposed in January 2013 . The goal is to set an international standard for all communications professionals that will be recognized by an organization such as ISO17024 . The autonomous international group to oversee the creation of the new certification program — the Global Communication Certification Council — was appointed in February 2014 . = = Organization = = IABC offers professional , corporate , student and retired memberships . Representatives from different chapters and regions , as well as professional members , vote at the Annual General Meeting to elect members to the international executive board . The board can change dues , establish new chapters , create workgroups and remove members with a two @-@ thirds vote . IABC also has various committees focused on ethics , research , finance , auditing and others . All positions within IABC are filled by volunteers . IABC has more than 100 chapters worldwide in North America , Africa , Asia Pacific , and Europe . = = Services = = IABC hosts networking events and mentoring programs to help recent graduates connect with working public relations , marketing and corporate communications professionals . Most professional members join IABC to further their career advancement , professional development and to grow their professional network . IABC is no longer accepting new applicants for its Accredited Business Communicator ( ABC ) program , but a new certification program has been initiated that would involve computerized testing and renewals every three years . The new certification program will have two levels ; the first level being developed is for Communications Generalists . IABC publishes a code of ethics , which has three principles : that professional communications be legal , ethical and in good taste . It says members should be sensitive to cultural values , as well as be truthful , accurate and respectful . Before 1995 , the code said " Communicators should encourage frequent communication and messages that are honest in their content , candid , accurate and appropriate to the needs of the organization and its audiences . " IABC hosts the Gold Quill Awards , which are bestowed at three levels : Gold , Silver and Bronze . The Gold Quill is an international awards program that 's open to both members and non- members . The Silver and Bronze Quills are conducted at a local chapter level and open to both members and non @-@ members . The awards are bestowed for " creatively and effectively communicating " in measurable ways that contribute to the local community . In 2014 the Gold Quill has four divisions and more than 40 categories . Both the Gold Quill and some of the regional chapters offer special awards for college students . = = Publishing = = Brent D. Ruben and Stacy M. Smulowitz ( August 15 , 2007 ) . Core Communication : A Guide to Organizational Assessment , Planning and Improvement . International Association of Business Communicators . ISBN 1888015543 . International Association of Business Communicators ( January 1982 ) . Without bias : a guidebook for nondiscriminatory communication . Wiley . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 08561 @-@ 4 . Tamara Gillis ; IABC ( 21 March 2011 ) . The IABC Handbook of Organizational Communication : A Guide to Internal Communication , Public Relations , Marketing , and Leadership . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 118 @-@ 01635 @-@ 0 . IABC also publishes a monthly digital magazine Communication World . Recent issues have shared researched and first @-@ person , expert articles on connecting with Millennials , social intranets and crisis communications .
= 1979 Coyote Lake earthquake = The 1979 Coyote Lake earthquake occurred at 10 : 05 : 24 local time on August 6 with a moment magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of VII ( Very strong ) . The shock occurred on the Calaveras Fault near Coyote Lake in Santa Clara County , California and resulted in a number of injuries , including some that required hospitalization . Most of the $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage that was caused was non @-@ structural , but several businesses were closed for repairs . Data from numerous strong motion instruments was used to determine the type , depth , and extent of slip . A mild aftershock sequence lasted throughout the remainder of the month that was of interest to seismologists , especially with regard to fault creep , and following the event , local governments evaluated their response to the incident . = = Tectonic setting = = Several strands of the San Andreas Fault System in the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area are the Hayward – Rodgers Creek and Calaveras Faults . The Hayward Fault exhibits fault creep , but it also has potential for large earthquakes , like the 1868 M7 Hayward earthquake that occurred on its southern segment . The northern Calaveras Fault meets the Hayward Fault near the Calaveras Reservoir and can also produce large earthquakes . Except for a ~ M6.5 shock that occurred in 1911 , the central and southern segments might only produce smaller events and fault creep . = = Earthquake = = The earthquake originated ( without foreshocks ) on the Calaveras Fault near Coyote Lake in Santa Clara County . It was felt up to 120 mi ( 200 km ) away ( from Santa Rosa in the north to San Luis Obispo in the south ) and made some high @-@ rise buildings sway in Reno , Nevada , but damage was mainly limited to the nearby towns of Gilroy and Hollister . The earlier M7 Hayward earthquake occurred about 31 mi ( 50 km ) to the north and the 1911 shock was located near Mount Hamilton . About fifty strong motion stations recorded the event , including an array of units along the rupture zone , and instruments at the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory ( about 62 mi ( 100 km ) away ) . The records revealed that strike @-@ slip motion occurred over 8 @.@ 7 mi ( 14 km ) on a vertical fault , and that the total amount of slip varied with depth , with more slip occurring in the shallower regions . The two closest stations at Coyote Creek and Gilroy , as well as the Berkeley stations , were used to refine the overall fault length , slip , and depth of faulting . = = = Strong motion = = = The event was captured on seismographs at distances of up to 71 miles ( 114 km ) , including Richmond , with the unit 56 ft ( 17 m ) " down hole " in bay mud . Other underground instruments on the BART Transbay Tube , as well as the Richmond site , showed accelerations that were very low . In San Juan Bautista , the U.S. Route 101 / State Route 156 overpass saw peak acceleration of .12g on the ground ( with .29g on the structure ) . Instruments on the gymnasium roof diaphragm at the campus of West Valley College in Saratoga provided records of interest . Of a number of dams that had instruments installed , the San Luis Dam at San Luis Reservoir had the strongest response . The highest acceleration of .42g was seen at the Gilroy Array within the fault zone . = = = Damage = = = In Gilroy and Hollister , sixteen people were injured , and damage totaled $ 500 @,@ 000 . Chimneys fell ( especially on older homes in the downtown area of Gilroy ) and glass was broken , but in Gilroy structural damage afflicted five buildings . A wall was cracked at city hall , and a court room ceiling collapsed . Damaged structural components at a Ford 's Department Store forced its closure . In Hollister , a J. C. Penney had a hole and cracks in its ceiling and a parapet collapsed at a law office . At Casa de Fruta , a service station sustained structural damage , as did a fire station at Pacheco Pass . An early estimate by the Small Business Administration put total damage in Gilroy at twice the amount of what was seen in Hollister . Ten victims were brought to Hazel Hawkins Memorial Hospital in Hollister for treatment of lacerations , a cardiac problem , and anxiety . In Gilroy , the Wheeler Hospital saw six similar cases and a patient with a fractured hip . Most of those that sought care ( including four that were transported by ambulance ) were treated and released , but six were admitted . = = = Aftershocks = = = The United States Geological Survey operated a network of seismograph stations in the region where the shock occurred since 1969 . A survey of the aftershock activity used data from these stations , along with a custom crustal velocity model , to narrow epicenter locations to within several tens of meters . The study indicated that the mainshock and the aftershocks were aligned with the strike and dip of the Calaveras Fault in that area and were classified into three distinct groups . The east @-@ dipping northeastern group , a diffuse middle group , and a shallow and nearly vertical southwestern group showed variations of slip , especially in the 18 months after the mainshock , when fault creep was significantly higher in the northeastern and middle groups . = = Response = = While none of the affected counties or cities declared a state of emergency following the event , the Small Business Administration did approve a request by the Office of Emergency Services for a disaster declaration in late September . This formality paved the way for low interest loans for commercial or residential properties that suffered damage , but only about 50 claims were expected . Local authorities had trained for disasters on a regular basis , and the response to the light damage was considered smooth , though some officials sought room for improvement . Discussions followed the event , with local governments focusing on telecommunication problems , emergency power systems , and seismic safety .
= Italian cruiser Varese = Varese was a Giuseppe Garibaldi @-@ class armored cruiser built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . The ship made several deployments to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant before the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . She supported ground forces in the occupations of Tripoli and Homs in Libya . Varese may have bombarded Beirut and did bombard the defenses of the Dardanelles during the war . She also provided naval gunfire support for the Italian Army in Libya . During World War I , the ship 's activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and Varese became a training ship in 1920 . She was struck from the naval register in 1923 and subsequently scrapped . = = Design and description = = Varese had an overall length of 111 @.@ 8 meters ( 366 ft 10 in ) , a beam of 18 @.@ 2 meters ( 59 ft 9 in ) and a deep draft ( ship ) of 7 @.@ 3 meters ( 23 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 7 @,@ 350 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 230 long tons ) at normal load . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , using steam from 24 coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The engines were rated 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) and designed to give a speed of approximately 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . During her sea trials on 27 November 1900 , Varese barely exceeded her designed speed , reaching 20 @.@ 02 knots from 14 @,@ 200 ihp ( 10 @,@ 600 kW ) . She had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her complement ordinarily consisted of 555 officers and enlisted men and 578 when acting as a flagship . Her main armament consisted of one 254 @-@ millimeter ( 10 in ) gun in a turret forward of the superstructure and two 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 in ) guns in a twin turret aft . Ten of the 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) guns that comprised her secondary armament were arranged in casemates amidships ; the remaining four 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the upper deck . Varese also had ten 76 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) and six 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns to defend herself against torpedo boats . She was fitted with four single 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's waterline armor belt had a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) amidships and tapered to 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the ends of the ship . The conning tower , casemates , and gun turrets were also protected by 150 @-@ millimeter armor . Her protective deck armor was 37 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick and the 152 @-@ millimeter guns on the upper deck were protected by gun shields 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . = = Construction and service = = Varese , named after the Battle of Varese during the Second Italian War of Independence , was laid down by Orlando at their shipyard in Livorno on 24 January 1898 , launched on 6 August 1899 and completed on 5 April 1901 . The ship made port visits to Algiers on 14 September 1903 and Barcelona on 4 April 1904 . During the 1905 fleet maneuvers , she was assigned to the " hostile " force blockading La Maddalena , Sardinia . Varese was present in Athens during the Intercalated Olympic Games in April 1906 . Together with her sister ships Francesco Ferruccio and Giuseppe Garibaldi , the ship was in Marseilles , France on 15 – 16 September 1906 to participate in a fleet review for Armand Fallières , President of France , on the latter date . Under the command of Prince Luigi Amedeo , Duke of the Abruzzi , Varese was present at the Jamestown Exposition in May 1907 . The ship was assigned to the Levant from 1 October 1909 to 20 February 1910 and then based at Suda Bay , Crete from 23 August to 20 September 1911 . When the Italo @-@ Turkish War began on 29 September 1911 , Varese assigned to the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet , together with her sisters Giuseppe Garibaldi and Francesco Ferruccio . While her sisters bombarded Tripoli on 3 – 4 October , Varese appears to have been deployed seaward to provide security for the Italians . On 13 October , the three sisters sailed to Augusta , Sicily to recoal . The ship escorted two troop transports and a hospital ship on her return voyage several days later . On 16 October , she escorted a troop convoy to Homs and bombarded the town after the Ottoman commander refused to surrender . Bad weather prevented any landings until 21 October and the ship continued to provide fire support for the Italian troops . Varese and Giuseppe Garibaldi were in Tobruk in January 1912 while the bulk of the fleet was refitting in Italy . Varese is sometimes credited with participating in the bombardment of Beirut on 24 February 1912 , but it seems most probable that this was done by her sisters Francesco Ferruccio and Giuseppe Garibaldi . On 18 April Varese and Giuseppe Garibaldi bombarded the fortifications at the entrance to the Dardanelles , heavily damaging them . After returning to Italy later that month , Varese began a refit that included replacing her worn @-@ out guns and lasted through mid @-@ June . When Italy declared war on the Central Powers in May 1915 , the ship was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Division , based at Brindisi . On 5 June the division bombarded rail lines near Ragusa and departed Brindisi on the evening of 17 July to do the same near Ragusa Vecchia the following morning . Shortly after beginning the bombardment at 04 : 00 , Giuseppe Garibaldi was torpedoed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine U @-@ 4 ; one torpedo passed between Varese and Giuseppe Garibaldi . Struck by a single torpedo , the cruiser sank within minutes , although only 53 crewmen were killed . The division immediately retreated to avoid further attacks , leaving three destroyers behind to rescue survivors . The loss of Giuseppe Garibaldi and the sinking of the armored cruiser Amalfi by another submarine on 7 July severely restricted the activities of the other ships based at Venice . On 15 May 1917 , as the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet was preparing to attack the Otranto Barrage that blocked the exit from the Adriatic Sea , Varese was at the port of Butrino on the north coast of Corfu . She did not , however , sortie in response to the Austro @-@ Hungarian movements . She became a cadet training ship from 1920 to 1922 . She was stricken on 4 January 1923 and scrapped .
= Eastern green mamba = The eastern green mamba ( Dendroaspis angusticeps ) , also known as the common mamba , East African green mamba , green mamba , or white @-@ mouthed mamba , is a large and highly venomous tree @-@ dwelling snake species of the mamba genus Dendroaspis . This species of mamba was first described by a Scottish surgeon and zoologist in 1849 . This snake mostly inhabits the coastal regions of southern East Africa . It is a relatively large species of venomous snake , with adult females averaging approximately 2 @.@ 0 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in total length , while males are slightly smaller on average . Eastern green mambas prey on adult birds , eggs , bats , and terrestrial rodents such as mice , rats , and gerbils . They are shy and elusive snakes which are rarely seen , making them somewhat unusual among mambas , and elapids in general . This elusiveness is usually attributed to the species ' green colouration which blends with its environment , and its arboreal lifestyle . However , eastern green mambas have also been observed to use " sit @-@ and @-@ wait " or ambush predation like many vipers , unlike the active foraging style typical of other elapids , which may be a factor in the rarity of sightings . Like other species of mamba , the eastern green mamba is a highly venomous species ; a single bite can contain enough venom to kill several humans . The venom acts on the nerves , heart , and muscles , and spreads quickly through tissue . Bites rapidly progress to life @-@ threatening symptoms characteristic of mamba bites , which include swelling of the bite area , dizziness , nausea , difficulty breathing and swallowing , irregular heartbeat , convulsions , and eventual respiratory paralysis . A neurotoxin common to all species within the genus Dendroaspis is the most rapid @-@ acting snake venom toxin known , so although this species is not aggressive and is not a major cause of snakebite incidents in Africa , the mortality rate associated with eastern green mamba bites is rather high . Bites that produce severe envenomation can be rapidly fatal . Case reports of death in as little as 30 minutes have been recorded for this species . = = Taxonomy = = The eastern green mamba is classified under the genus Dendroaspis of the family Elapidae . Dendroaspis angusticeps was first described by a Scottish surgeon and zoologist , Dr. Andrew Smith in 1849 . The generic name , Dendroaspis , is derived from Ancient Greek – Dendro , which means " tree " , and aspis ( ασπίς ) or " asp " , which is understood to mean " shield " , but it also denotes " cobra " or simply " snake " . In old texts , aspis or asp was used to refer to Naja haje ( in reference to the hood , like a shield ) . Thus , " Dendroaspis " literally means tree snake , which refers to the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus . The specific name angusticeps is derived from the Latin word angustus , which means " narrow " and -ceps is also Latin and is derived from the word " cephalicus " which means " head " or " of or relating to the head " , calling attention to the long narrow head of this species . In addition to being called the eastern green mamba , this species is also commonly known as the common green mamba , East African green mamba , white @-@ mouthed mamba , or just simply the green mamba . The genus was first described by the German ornithologist and herpetologist Hermann Schlegel in 1848 . Slowinski et al . ( 1997 ) pointed out that the relationships of the African genus Dendroaspis are problematical . However , evidence suggests that Dendroaspis , Ophiophagus , Bungarus , and Hemibungarus form a solid non @-@ coral snake Afro @-@ Asiatic clade . = = Description = = The eastern green mamba is a large , with a slightly compressed , and very slender bodied snake with a medium to moderately long tapering tail . Adult males average around 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in total length , while females average 2 @.@ 0 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in total length . This species rarely exceeds lengths of 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . In general , the total length is 4 @-@ 4 @.@ 3 times the length of the tail . The head is narrow , elongate , and coffin @-@ shaped with a distinct canthus and slightly distinct from the neck . When threatened or otherwise aroused in someway , this species is capable of flattening its neck area , though no real hood formed . The eastern green mamba has relatively long front fangs located at proscenium end of the maxillary bone at the very front of the maxilla , which can rotate at its axis with the prefrontal bone , giving this species more control of the movements of their fangs , unlike other elapids . The maxillary bone has no other solid teeth . However , a pair of long , recurved , fang @-@ like solid teeth , followed behind by a distinct interspace and numerous small teeth are on the front of the lower jaw . Their eyes are medium in size with round pupils . = = = Scalation = = = Dorsal scales are oblique , smooth and narrow . Coloration in this species is bright green dorsally and yellow @-@ green ventrally , with a few bright yellow scales scattered on the flanks in some specimens . Juveniles are blue @-@ green , and develop the brighter green adult coloration anteriorly to posteriorly in successive sheddings of the skin . Most individuals over 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) in total length have the full adult coloration , but even some adults may return to a darker bluish green just before shedding . The border of the pupil may have a narrow bright ochre to golden yellow edge , and the posterior border of the iris may become bright green . The inside of the mouth may be white or bluish white . The males of this species usually have fewer ventral scales than the females . The head , body , and tail scalation of the eastern green mamba : = = Reproduction = = The eastern green mamba is solitary , except during breeding season , when they are most active and males engage in combat and males and females mate . Gravid females tend to be sedentary , but males will actively search out and court females during the long rainy season , which is between the months of April and June . Males have been observed engaging in agonistic behaviour and may fight each other over potential mating opportunities , or possibly to establish a dominance hierarchy . Typically , a male initiates a fight by moving on top of the other ’ s body and tongue @-@ flicking , after which the two snakes “ intertwine their necks and bodies , and push against each other ” in an attempt to pin each other 's head repeatedly to the ground . Male @-@ male combat can last for several hours , but combat between males of this species don 't ever include biting and the nature of the combat is never as aggressive and / or vicious as commonly seen among the eastern green mamba 's much larger cousin , the black mamba . Males locate females by following a scent trail . The male courts the female by aligning his body along the female ’ s while rapidly tongue @-@ flicking . Depending on whether the female is receptive to mating , she will lift her tail and cloacal juxtaposition will follow shortly . Courtship and mating take place in the trees , after which the female lays anywhere between 4 @-@ 17 eggs ( average of 10 to 15 eggs are laid ) , which occurs in the summer months of October and November . The eggs are white and elongated , usually measuring 65x35 millimetres . The eggs are usually laid in a hollow tree , among decaying vegetation , or leaf litter . The incubation period is 10 to 12 weeks . When the young emerge from the eggs , they are approximately 30 to 40 centimetres ( 12 to 16 in ) or around an average of 44 centimetres ( 17 in ) in length , and they 're highly venomous right at birth . Individuals of this species usually reach adult coloration at a length of 60 to 75 centimetres ( 24 to 30 in ) Hatchlings tend to grow 50 to 80 centimetres ( 20 to 31 in ) in length in the first year of life . As the hatchlings age , their growth rates decrease but they never stop completely growing . = = = Lifespan = = = The longest living eastern green mamba was a captive specimen which lived for 18 @.@ 8 years . Another captive specimen lived for 14 years . However , while it may be possible for wild specimens to live that long , they are thought to have shorter lifespans in general due to the threats of predation , habitat loss , disease , and other biological and environmental factors . = = Distribution and habitat = = This species is indigenous to more coastal regions of southern Africa and east Africa . The eastern green mamba 's range extends from Kenya south through Tanzania , Mozambique , Malawi , eastern Zimbabwe , eastern Zambia into South Africa as far as southern Natal and northern Pondoland . It can also be found in Zanzibar . The distribution of this species is assumed to be continuous , but reports seem to be scarce in regions within the species ' range . The eastern green mamba is primarily arboreal ( living in trees ) , only rarely descending to the ground . An elusive snake due to its coloration , it is usually well camouflaged in trees or bushes . It is believed by some herpetologists that this species is limited to tropical rainforests in coastal lowlands , however , according to other experts , this species can also be found in coastal bush , and dune and montane forest . Unlike its close relative the black mamba ( D. polylepis ) , this species is rarely found in open terrain and prefers relatively dense , well @-@ shaded vegetation . In addition to wild forest habitats , this species is also commonly found in thickets and farm trees ( such as citrus , mango , coconut , and cashew ) . In coastal east Africa they are known to enter houses and may even shelter in thatched roof dwellings . Specimens of this species have been found at elevations up to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level . = = = Conservation status = = = As of June 26 , 2011 , the conservation status of Dendroaspis angusticeps has not been assessed by the IUCN . The eastern green mamba is , however , a fairly common species of snake throughout its geographical range , and populations are believed to be stable . Large concentrations of two to three individuals per hectare have been documented in coastal Kenya and southern Tanzania , and in one instance a group of five eastern green mambas were seen in a single tree . Although populations of this species are stable , habitat destruction and deforestation may pose a possible threat to this species . = = Behaviour and ecology = = The eastern green mamba is a diurnal , arboreal , and secretive species of snake , and it tends to spend most of its time above the ground in relatively dense brush , where it is well camouflaged . This species is not commonly found on land unless motivated by thirst , prey , or the need to bask in the sun ( thermoregulation ) . It is an alert , nervous , excellent climber and extremely agile snake . It sleeps at night in a tree coiled up in leafy clumps rather than seeking a tree hollow ( although sometimes found in them ) . In a study of the movement patterns of two adult specimens of this species over a 27 @-@ day period , the researcher found that their activity range areas to be very low , comparable to other predators who ambush prey rather than actively hunt them . This is in contrast to most elapid species , including other mambas , who tend to actively hunt or forage for prey . The study 's preliminary evidence sheds some light on this species ' method of hunting prey and suggests that it may be an ambush predator due to the sit @-@ and @-@ wait behavior displayed . However , this evidence does not preclude active foraging by this species . A specimen systematically hunting a sleeping bat was observed by William York . There is no evidence that the eastern green mamba migrates ; in fact , this species is thought to be relatively sedentary . It can remain in the same location for days at a time , apparently moving most commonly to find food or mates . On average , individuals of this species move only about 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 18 ft ) per day . Unlike its much larger cousin the black mamba , this mamba is more shy and not as aggressive or fearsome . It will avoid confrontation with humans or any other potential predators when possible , and will rather rely on its camouflage , or flee , than alert a potential threat of its presence . They are fast snakes , capable of moving 7 mph . They don 't always strike , but under continuous harassment and provocation and especially if cornered , they may suddenly strike repeatedly in quick succession , often leading to severe envenomation . = = = Diet = = = This mamba preys primarily on adult birds , eggs and rodents . This species has also been documented to prey on bats . It is also believed that this species eats arboreal lizards as well , but this has not been documented . The preliminary evidence suggests that this species displays a sit @-@ and @-@ wait strategy of foraging . However , this evidence does not preclude active foraging by this species . One witness observed a specimen systematically hunt sleeping bats ( J. Ashe , pers. comm . 1991 ) . They have also been known to raid the nests of young birds . Sit @-@ and @-@ wait tactics may be successful with highly mobile prey , such as adult birds or rodents . Documented prey include the sombre greenbul , which occur in dense portions of natural and cultivated vegetation along Kenya 's coastline . Ionides and Pitman ( 1965 ) reported a large Bushveld gerbil in the stomach of a green mamba in Tanzania . Although the Bushveld gerbil does not occur in Kenya , green mambas will prey on any of the seven species of gerbil that inhabit various portions of its range . = = = Predators = = = The eastern green mamba has a few natural predators . Humans , mongooses , snake eagles , and genets commonly prey on this species of mamba . Hornbills and other snakes tend to prey on juvenile green mambas . = = Venom = = The eastern green mamba is an especially venomous snake . The venom consists of both pre @-@ synaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins ( dendrotoxins ) , cardiotoxins , calcicludine , and fasciculins . The average venom yield per bite is 80 mg according to Engelmann and Obst ( 1981 ) , while Minton ( 1974 ) gives it a range of 60 – 95 mg ( dry weight ) . The subcutaneous LD50 is 1 @.@ 3 mg / kg . The LD50 in mice through the IV route is 0 @.@ 45 mg / kg . Like all other mamba species , the toxicity of individual specimens within the same species can vary greatly based on several factors including geographical region , age , seasonal variation , diet , and so on . Local swelling is variable and sometimes absent after mamba bites . However , patients bitten by the eastern green mamba develop swelling of the entire bitten limb and also show mild haemostatic disturbances ( Warrell DA ; MacKay et al . 1966 ) . The rare cases of local tissue damage usually resulted from bites on the fingers or the use of a tight tourniquet . This species has caused bites to humans and many of the bites attributed to this species have often resulted in fatalities . The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be quite high . Symptoms of envenomation by this species include swelling of the bite site , dizziness , and nausea , accompanied by difficulty breathing and swallowing , irregular heartbeat , convulsions , rapid progression to respiratory paralysis . Bites that produce severe envenomation can be rapidly fatal . Case reports of rapidly fatal outcomes , in as little as 30 minutes , have been recorded for this species .
= Shrine of Remembrance = The Shrine of Remembrance , located in Kings Domain on St Kilda Road , Melbourne , Australia was built as a memorial to the men and women of Victoria who served in World War I and is now a memorial to all Australians who have served in war . It is a site of annual observances of ANZAC Day ( 25 April ) and Remembrance Day ( 11 November ) and is one of the largest war memorials in Australia . Designed by architects Phillip Hudson and James Wardrop who were both World War I veterans , the Shrine is in a classical style , being based on the Tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus and the Parthenon in Athens . The crowning element at the top of the memorial 's ziggurat roof references the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates . Built from Tynong granite , the Shrine originally consisted only of the central sanctuary surrounded by the ambulatory . The sanctuary contains the marble Stone of Remembrance , upon which is engraved the words " Greater love hath no man " . Once a year , on 11 November at 11 a.m. ( Remembrance Day ) , a ray of sunlight shines through an aperture in the roof to light up the word " Love " in the inscription . Beneath the sanctuary lies the crypt , which contains a bronze statue of a soldier father and son , and panels listing every unit of the Australian Imperial Force . The Shrine went through a prolonged process of development which began in 1918 with the initial proposal to build a Victorian memorial . Two committees were formed , the second of which ran a competition for the memorial 's design . The winner was announced in 1922 . However , opposition to the proposal ( led by Keith Murdoch and The Herald ) forced the governments of the day to rethink the design , and a number of alternatives were proposed , the most significant of which was the ANZAC Square and cenotaph proposal of 1926 . In response , General Sir John Monash used the 1927 ANZAC Day march to garner support for the Shrine , and finally won the support of the Victorian government later that year . The foundation stone was laid on 11 November 1927 , and the Shrine was officially dedicated on 11 November 1934 . = = History = = = = = Conception : 1918 – 1922 = = = A war memorial in Melbourne was proposed as soon as the war ended in November 1918 . In the early 1920s the Victorian state government appointed the War Memorials Advisory Committee , chaired by Sir Baldwin Spencer , which recommended an " arch of victory " over St Kilda Road , the major boulevard leading out of the city of Melbourne to the south . In August 1921 an executive committee was formed , with the former commander of the Australian forces in the war , General Sir John Monash , as its driving force . The committee soon abandoned the idea of an arch and proposed a large monumental memorial to the east of St Kilda Road , a position which would make it clearly visible from the centre of the city . A competition was launched in March 1922 to find a design for the new memorial , open both to British subjects residing in Australia and any Australian citizens who were residing overseas . A total of 83 entries were submitted , and in December 1923 the design offered by two Melbourne architects ( and war veterans ) , Phillip Hudson and James Wardrop , was announced as the winner . = = = Opposition and response : 1922 – 1927 = = = The winning design had a number of supporters , including publications such as The Age and George Taylor 's Sydney @-@ based trade journal , Building , prominent citizens including artist Norman Lindsay and University of Sydney Dean of Architecture , Leslie Wilkinson , and the Royal Australian Institute of Architects ( who had been heavily involved in the competition ) . Nevertheless , the design was also fiercely criticised in some quarters — especially by Keith Murdoch 's Herald , Murdoch reportedly describing the Shrine as " too severe , stiff and heavy , that there is no grace or beauty about it and that it is a tomb of gloom " — on the grounds of its grandiosity , its severity of design and its expense . As part of the campaign against the Shrine proposal , the Herald searched for alternative concepts , arguing that the funds could be better spent on more practical projects such as a hospital or a war widow 's home . Furthermore , some Christian churches also attacked the design as pagan for having no cross or other Christian element . The new Victorian Labor government of 1924 , under George Prendergast , supported the Herald 's view , and pushed for a memorial hospital instead of the Shrine . When the Labor government was replaced with John Allan 's Country / National coalition , the plan changed once again , leaning towards the earlier suggestion of an arch of victory to be built over St. Kilda Road . As a result of the debate , significant delays postponed the construction of the new memorial , so a temporary wood @-@ and @-@ plaster cenotaph was raised for the 1926 ANZAC day march . The success of the temporary cenotaph led the Victorian government to abandon the earlier project in 1926 , and propose instead to build a permanent cenotaph in a large " ANZAC Square " at the top of Bourke St in front of Parliament House . While this would have involved demolishing the Windsor Hotel , one of Melbourne 's favourite hotels , the new plan won the support of the Herald , the Returned Soldiers League ( RSL ) and the Melbourne City Council . Nevertheless , both Monash and Legacy still supported the Shrine . After a vote in favour of the Shrine by their executive council , Legacy started a public relations campaign , gaining the support of much of the media — although the council , state government and the Herald continued to oppose . In 1927 , with the then Duke of York , Prince Albert , visiting the country , Monash spoke on the eve of ANZAC day at the RSL dinner , arguing for the Shrine . The audience had been seeded with supporters , who provided a standing ovation at the conclusion of his speech , which helped to produce a groundswell of support . When a vote was called for , the majority voted in favour of the Shrine proposal . The next day , with Monash leading 30 @,@ 000 veterans in the 1927 ANZAC Day march , and with the new support of the RSL , The Age , and the Argus , the Shrine proposal had gained " new momentum " . Faced with such support , and with Monash 's arguments that the ANZAC Square would be prohibitively expensive , Edmond Hogan 's new Labor government decided in favour of the Shrine . Another early point of contention ( although not explicitly related to the nature of the memorial ) concerned the possibility of incorporating a " Tomb of the Unknown Soldier " into the memorial — an approach that was championed by the St. Kilda RSL , who revealed plans to bury a soldier from either Gallipoli or France on ANZAC day , 25 April 1922 . This proposal received considerable debate , and was countered by the argument that the Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey represented all of the dead of the British Empire . Monash was on the side of those against such a burial , as while he could see a place for an Unknown Soldier in a national memorial , he did not feel that it would be suitable at the Victorian Shrine . The Stone of Remembrance was later placed in the position where an Unknown Soldier might have been laid . An Australian Unknown Soldier was eventually interred at the Australian War Memorial by Prime Minister Paul Keating on 11 November 1993 . = = = Construction and dedication : 1927 – 1934 = = = The foundation stone was laid on 11 November 1927 , by the Governor of Victoria , Lord Somers . Although both the Victorian and Commonwealth governments made contributions , most of the cost of the Shrine ( £ 160 @,@ 000 out of a total of £ 250 @,@ 000 ; equating to about £ 8 @.@ 6 million out of £ 13 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) was raised in less than six months by public contributions , with Monash as chief fundraiser . Monash , who was also an engineer , took personal charge of the construction , which began in 1928 and was handled by the contractors Vaughan & Lodge . Monash died in 1931 , before the Shrine was finished , but the Shrine was the cause " closest to his heart " in his later years . Work was finally completed in September 1934 , and the Shrine was formally dedicated on 11 November 1934 by the Duke of Gloucester , witnessed by a crowd of over 300 @,@ 000 people — a " massive turnout " given that Melbourne 's population at the time was approximately 1 million , and , according to Carl Bridge , the " largest crowd ever to assemble in Australia to that date " . = = = Post World War II : 1945 – 1985 = = = After World War II it was felt necessary to add to the Shrine an element commemorating the Australian war dead of the second great conflict . Once again a competition was run , with A. S. Fall and E. E. Milston as the joint winners . Milston 's design was eventually chosen as the one to go ahead , and the result was the World War II Forecourt , a wide expanse of stone in front of the Shrine 's north face ; the Eternal Flame , a permanent gas flame set just to the west of the north face ; and the World War II Memorial , a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 41 ft ) cenotaph a little further west . The Forecourt replaced a reflecting pool that had previously stood in front of the Shrine . These enlargements were dedicated by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 February 1954 . Australia 's involvements in later wars , such as the Korean War , the Borneo campaign ( 1945 ) , the Malayan Emergency , the Indonesian Confrontation in North Borneo and Sarawak , the Vietnam War and the Gulf War , are commemorated by inscriptions . In 1951 the body of Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey , Australia 's military commander during World War II , was held at the Shrine for three days for public viewing followed by a State funeral on site . 20 @,@ 000 people visited the Shrine as he lay in state . During the Vietnam War the Shrine became a centre of conflict when anti @-@ war demonstrators protested during ANZAC Day services against Australia 's involvement in the war . In 1971 the Shrine was defaced when the word PEACE ! was painted in large white letters on the pillars of the north portico . In 1985 the Remembrance Garden was added beneath the western face of the Shrine to honour those who served during post @-@ World War II conflicts . = = = Redevelopment : 2002 – present day = = = Restoration work on the terraces surrounding the Shrine during the 1990s raised once again the possibility of taking advantage of the space under the Shrine : as the Shrine had been built on a hollow artificial hill , the undercroft ( although at the time filled with rubble from the construction ) provided a large space for development . At a planned cost of $ 5 @.@ 5 million , the new development was intended to provide a visitor 's centre , administration facilities and an improved access to the Shrine 's crypt , as many of the remaining veterans and their families found the stairs at the traditional ceremonial entrance difficult to climb . In redeveloping the site , special consideration was given to the positioning of the new entrance . The original plan was to use a tunnel from the east , but this was discarded as it had " no sense of ceremony " . Instead it was decided to develop two new courtyards , and place the new gallery under the northern steps . Construction commenced in 2002 , with the design by Melbourne architects Ashton Raggatt McDougall , and the new areas were opened in August 2003 . The completed project was awarded the Victorian Architecture Medal by the Royal Australian Institute of Architects in 2004 . After this construction was complete , there were still more calls to further develop the site , and especially to provide facilities for education about the wars . A $ 62 million proposal was presented in 2006 , incorporating a museum and an underground carpark . Designed once again by Ashton Raggatt McDougall , the proposal was opposed by local residents and some council members , and ran into significant funding problems when the Federal Government decided not to provide funding . In 2012 the Victorian Government announced that $ 22 @.@ 5 million would be allocated to redevelop the Shrine ’ s undercroft and extend it to the south . The new exhibition space , known as the " Galleries of Remembrance " , was opened on Remembrance Day in 2014 . A lifeboat from the ship SS Devanha , deployed during the landing at Anzac Cove at the start of the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , is a centrepiece of the new development . = = Architecture and features = = Materials for building the Shrine were sourced from within Australia : the chosen building stone was granodiorite quarried from Tynong ; the internal walls use sandstone from Redesdale ; and the black marble columns used stone from Buchan . This raised some concerns when redeveloping the Shrine , as the Tynong quarry was no longer in use , and it proved to be prohibitively expensive to reopen the site . Fortunately another quarry in the area was available and was able to provide the necessary stone . = = = Exterior = = = The design of the Shrine is based on the ancient Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus , one of the Seven Wonders of the World , and the Parthenon in Athens . It is a structure of square plan roofed by a stepped pyramid and entered on the north and south through classical porticos , each of eight fluted Doric columns supporting a pediment containing sculpture in high relief . The porticos are approached by wide flights of steps which rise in stages to the podium on which the Shrine sits . The east and west facing fronts are marked at the corners by four groups of statuary by Paul Raphael Montford , representing Peace , Justice , Patriotism and Sacrifice . The Art Deco style and motifs draw on Greek and Assyrian sculpture . The symbolism is Neo @-@ Classical . Around the outer stone balustrade that marks the Shrine 's external boundary are the 16 stone " battle honours " discs . These represent the battle honours granted by King George V and commemorate Australia 's contributions to the following battles : Landing at Anzac ( Gallipoli ) , Sari Bair , Rumani , Gaza @-@ Beersheba , the North Sea , the Cocos Islands , Megiddo , Damascus , Villers Bretonneux , Amiens , Mont St Quentin , the Hindenburg Line , Ypres , Messines , Pozieres and Bullecourt . = = = Interior = = = Inside the Shrine is the Sanctuary , a high vaulted space entered by four tall portals of Classical design . A simple entabulature is carried on sixteen tall fluted Ionic columns and supports a frieze with twelve relief panels sculptured by Lyndon Dadswell , depicting the armed services at work and in action during World War I. At the centre of the Sanctuary is the Stone of Remembrance . This is a marble stone sunk below the pavement , so that visitors must bow their heads to read the inscription on it : GREATER LOVE HATH NO MAN The inscription is part of a verse from the Bible ( John 15 : 13 ) " Greater love hath no man than this , that a man lay down his life for his friends " . The Stone is aligned with an aperture in the roof of the Sanctuary so that a ray of sunlight falls on the word LOVE on the Stone of Remembrance at exactly 11 a.m. on 11 November , marking the hour and day of the Armistice which ended World War I. Since the introduction of daylight saving in Victoria , the ray of sunlight is no longer in the right place at 11 a.m. A mirror has been installed to direct sunlight onto the Stone at 11 a.m. During the rest of the year , a light is used to simulate the effect . Monash , with the advice of Professor T. G. Tucker and the assistance of Bernard O 'Dowd and Felix Meyer , reworded Phillip Hudson 's inscription which appears on the western wall of the Shrine : LET ALL MEN KNOW THAT THIS IS HOLY GROUND . THIS SHRINE , ESTABLISHED IN THE HEARTS OF MEN AS ON THE SOLID EARTH , COMMEMORATES A PEOPLE 'S FORTITUDE AND SACRIFICE . YE THEREFORE THAT COME AFTER , GIVE REMEMBRANCE . This inscription again aroused criticism , according to Taylor , " for having no Christian , ( or , indeed , religious ) , element " , but was considered to fit the Australian tradition of " stoic patriotism " . The inscription on the eastern wall , not written by Monash , reads : THIS MONUMENT WAS ERECTED BY A GRATEFUL PEOPLE TO THE HONOURED MEMORY OF THE MEN AND WOMEN WHO SERVED THE EMPIRE IN THE GREAT WAR OF 1914 – 1918 . The Sanctuary is surrounded by an ambulatory , or passage , along which are forty @-@ two bronze caskets containing hand @-@ written , illuminated Books of Remembrance with the names of every Victorian who enlisted for active service with the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) or Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force in World War I or died in camp prior to embarkation . = = = Crypt = = = Beneath the Sanctuary is the Crypt containing a bronze statue of a father and son , representing the two generations who served in the two world wars . Around the walls are panels listing every unit of the AIF , down to battalion and regiment , along with the colours of their shoulder patch . The Crypt is hung with the standards of various battalions and regiments , listing their battle honours . = = = Visitor Centre = = = Visitors approach the shrine through the Entrance Courtyard , with " Lest We Forget " inscribed on one wall and a quote from former Governor @-@ General Sir William Deane on the other . The Garden Courtyard , on the same alignment , features the Legacy Olive Tree and a seating area . Both courtyards are finished in Tynong Granite . The gallery of Medals has a 40 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 130 ft ) wall displaying around 4000 medals , each symbolically representing 100 Victorians who have served in war and peacekeeping operations , and six who have died . A feature of the gallery is the Victoria Cross awarded to Captain Robert Grieve during the Battle of Messines in 1917 . The Cross was lent to the Shrine by Wesley College , Melbourne . = = = World War II Forecourt = = = The cenotaph is a tall pillar constructed of Harcourt Granite . Inscribed on its surface are the names of the defence forces , together with the theatres of war they served in . Atop the cenotaph is a basalt sculpture of six servicemen carrying a bier with a corpse , draped by the Australian flag . The sculpture symbolises " the debt of the living to the dead " . The Eternal Flame is placed nearby , representing eternal life . The flame has burned continuously with few interruptions since it was first lit . At the other side of the forecourt are three flagpoles . The usual arrangement comprises the Australian flag on the left , the Victorian flag in the middle and one of the flags of the three defence forces on the right . Other flags may be flown on special occasions , arranged according to strict protocols . = = = Remembrance Garden = = = The Remembrance Garden features a pool , waterfall and Harcourt granite wall bearing the names of the conflicts and peacekeeping operations in which Australia participated following World War II , such as Kuwait ( Gulf War ) and East Timor . = = = Shrine Reserve and environs = = = Although the original architects had proposed including four statues of war leaders , Monash rejected this plan . Instead there were to be no statues representing individual members of the Australian Defence Force at the shrine itself , although a number of statues were to be added in the surrounding parklands . The first of these was " The Man With The Donkey " , representing John Simpson Kirkpatrick , although he was not named on the statue . Officially the work is said to represent the " valour and compassion of the Australian soldier " . The statue , by Wallace Anderson , was installed in 1936 on the initiative of women who had funded a " Mother 's Tribute " . A statue of Monash was also commissioned and was designed by Leslie Bowles . Casting was due to begin in 1938 , but the onset of World War II delayed work , and thus it was not installed until 1950 , and , as with Simpson and his donkey , was located away from the shrine . The Shrine is set in a large expanse of parkland officially called Kings Domain . Over the years many other war memorials have been built in this area , including the Australian @-@ Hellenic Memorial to Australian and Greek dead in the Battles of Greece and Crete in 1941 , and statues of Monash and Blamey . Most of the trees which line the approaches to the Shrine bear plaques commemorating individual Army units , naval vessels or Air Force squadrons , placed there by veterans ' groups . An older memorial to Victorians killed in the Second Boer War of 1899 – 1902 is also located nearby on the corner of St Kilda and Domain Roads . The Driver and Wipers Memorial , also in the Shrine reserve , commemorates the thousands of Australian lives lost during the fighting at Ypres ; " Wipers " is the way servicemen pronounced " Ypres " during World War I. The bronze soldiers are the work of the British sculptor Charles Sargeant Jagger and originally stood outside the Museum and State Library of Victoria in Melbourne . They were transferred to the Shrine in 1998 . The Driver is a soldier holding a horse whip and bridles , wearing breeches , a protective legging , spurs , and a steel helmet . The figure is a recasting of one of the figures from the Royal Artillery Memorial in Hyde Park , London , UK . The other bronze , the " Wipers " figure , is a British infantry soldier standing guard with standard issue .303 rifle , bayonet fixed , a German helmet at his feet . This too is a recasting , taken from the Hoylake and West Kirby War Memorial in Merseyside , UK . On 19 July 2008 , being the 92nd anniversary of the Battle of Fromelles , a replica of the 1998 sculpture by Peter Corlett in the Australian Memorial Park , Fromelles was unveiled . This depicts Sergeant Simon Fraser , 57th Battalion , ( a farmer from Byaduk , Victoria ) , rescuing a wounded compatriot from no man 's land after the battle . Near to the Shrine entrance is the Legacy Garden of Appreciation , which was established in 1978 . This cross @-@ shaped garden is outlined by hedges . Red Flanders Poppies , planted from seed originating from Villers @-@ Bretonneux in France , flower in late spring . A sculpture by Louis Laumen , Widow and Children , was commissioned to mark the 75th anniversary of Legacy Australia in 1998 . The Women 's Garden , to the north of the shrine , incorporates concrete memorial violets within a grove of jacarandas . The focus of the garden is The Ex @-@ Servicewomen ’ s Memorial Cairn ( 1985 ) which was relocated from the King 's Domain in 2010 . A Lone Pine ( Pinus brutia ) was planted in 1933 near the north @-@ east corner of the Shrine by Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Stanley Savige , founder of Melbourne Legacy at a formal ceremony . It was one of four seedlings planted in Victoria from seeds of a cone brought back from Gallipoli by Sgt. Keith McDowell . The tree was removed in August 2012 having succumbed to disease caused by the fungus Diplodia pinea . A " grandchild tree " was planted nearby in 2006 . = = Commemorative services = = For the past 70 years the Shrine has been the centre of war commemoration in Melbourne . Although Remembrance Day ( 11 November ) is the official day for commemorating the war dead , it has gradually been eclipsed in the public estimation by ANZAC Day ( 25 April ) , which unlike Remembrance Day is a specifically Australian ( and New Zealand ) day of commemoration . ANZAC day at the Shrine is observed through a number of ceremonies . The first of these is the Dawn Service , an event that attracted a record crowd of more than 35 @,@ 000 in 2007 . This is followed by an official wreath @-@ laying service where officials march to the Shrine and lay wreaths in the Sanctuary . Later , the ANZAC Day March approaches the Shrine via St Kilda Road and the forecourt , before being dismissed at the steps and is followed by a commemoration service held between 1 : 00 and 1 : 30 p.m. On Remembrance Day , Victorian leaders and community members gather to commemorate " the sacrifices made by Australians in all wars and conflicts " . A minutes silence is observed at 11 a.m. as the Ray of Light illuminates the word LOVE on the Stone of Remembrance . Throughout the rest of the year , ceremonies and wreath laying services are held by Victorian unit associations and battalions in the Sanctuary , around memorials in the Shrine Reserve and near remembrance trees specific to various associations . = = Management = = The Shrine is managed by the Shrine of Remembrance Trustees , ten individuals appointed by the Governor in Council , on the advice of the Minister for Veterans ' Affairs in the Victorian Government . The Trustees are responsible for the care , management , maintenance and preservation of the Shrine and Shrine Reserve . Traditionally , security for the Shrine has been provided by the Shrine Guard , whose members were men with a military background . All of the original twelve members of the Shrine Guard had won bravery medals during World War I. When the Shrine Guard merged with the Victoria Police Protective Service , some civilians began to serve . During the hours the Shrine is open to the public or in use for any ceremony , they wear a uniform representing an Australian Light Horseman of World War I , with Victoria Police Force insignia .
= Andrew Crofts ( footballer ) = Andrew Lawrence Crofts ( born 29 May 1984 ) is a Wales international footballer . He started his career with Gillingham , for whom he made his Football League debut at the age of 16 , and made over 190 appearances for the Kent @-@ based club . He had loans at Peterborough United and Wrexham during the 2008 – 09 season and joined Brighton & Hove Albion in 2009 . After a successful season at Brighton he transferred to Norwich City in 2010 , before moving back to the South Coast club in 2012 . A tough @-@ tackling midfielder , Crofts represented Wales , where one of his grandparents was born , at under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 level and won his first senior cap in 2005 . In 2008 he won his 12th cap , breaking the record for the most international caps received by a Gillingham player . = = Early life = = Crofts was born in Chatham , Kent , and began playing competitive football at the age of six for a club in nearby Rainham . Between the ages of 10 and 15 he attended weekly training sessions organised by Premier League club Chelsea . He also tried out on two occasions for the English Schools Football Association 's national schoolboy team , but was unsuccessful . = = Club career = = = = = Gillingham = = = In September 2000 , Crofts joined Gillingham as a trainee and was a regular in the club 's youth and reserve teams during the 2000 – 01 season . At the end of the season , shortly before his 17th birthday , he was a surprise inclusion in the first team squad for a match at home to Watford , and made his Football League debut as a late substitute , replacing Marlon King . The following season he suffered a broken leg during a reserve team match and missed several months of the season . Although he returned to action in early 2002 , his next appearance for the first team did not come until October , when he came on as a substitute in a League Cup match against Stockport County . This was to be his only senior appearance of the 2002 – 03 season . He finally secured a regular first team place towards the end of the following season , featuring regularly during March and April 2004 . Crofts was a first team regular in the 2004 – 05 season , making 27 Football League appearances , and scoring his first senior goal for the club in a defeat to Brighton & Hove Albion on 26 December . In January 2005 , he signed a new contract designed to keep him at the club until 2009 . He was omitted from the team for most of March and April , but was recalled for the last match of the season , in which a draw with Nottingham Forest led to the " Gills " being relegated from the Football League Championship , the second tier of English football , to Football League One , the third tier . In the 2005 – 06 season , he made the most appearances of any player in the Gillingham squad , missing only one of the team 's 46 matches in League One . Although the team struggled in the league , finishing in the lower half of the table , they defeated Premier League team Portsmouth in the League Cup , with Crofts scoring the winning goal . The following season , he again made over 40 appearances and also scored eight goals , his best total for an individual season , but Gillingham again finished the season in the bottom half of the table . He made his 100th start for the club on 18 December 2006 in a match against Bournemouth , and marked the occasion with a goal . At the end of the season , he won four awards at the club 's Player of the Year event and was dubbed Mr Gillingham by then @-@ manager Ronnie Jepson . He took over as team captain in the 2007 – 08 season , but it was an unsuccessful season for the team , who were relegated from League One . The following October he was stripped of the captaincy , which was instead given to Barry Fuller . Manager Mark Stimson stated that he felt that the captaincy might have been too much of a burden for Crofts , and had a negative effect on his form . Soon afterwards , the club made Crofts available for transfer . = = = = Peterborough United and Wrexham ( loans ) = = = = In November 2008 , he joined Peterborough United on loan . Shortly after returning to Gillingham the following January , he went on a second loan period , this time to Wrexham until the end of the season . He made his debut on the same day in a 2 – 1 defeat to Burton Albion . Upon his return to Gillingham from his loan spell , he was released from his contract . = = = Brighton & Hove Albion = = = On 29 June 2009 , Crofts agreed to join League One club Brighton & Hove Albion on a two @-@ year contract . He made his debut for Brighton during the 1 – 0 home defeat to Walsall on 8 August 2009 and scored his first goal for Brighton during the 2 – 2 draw at Yeovil Town on 10 October 2009 . Crofts was given the role of captain by new manager Gus Poyet before the 3 – 1 away victory at Southampton . Crofts was later confirmed as permanent captain at the beginning of January 2010 . = = = Norwich City = = = On 21 May 2010 , Norwich City announced the acquisition of Crofts from Brighton , for an undisclosed fee , believed to be in the region of £ 300 @,@ 000 . He became the club 's first signing of the summer transfer window , signing a three @-@ year deal at Carrow Road . On 6 August 2010 , he scored a goal on his debut against Watford . He subsequently gained promotion to the Premier League with the " Canaries " in his first season at the club . He initially kept his place as a regular starter for Norwich in the top tier , but in the second half of the 2011 – 12 season he gradually fell out of favour at the club . = = = Brighton & Hove Albion = = = Crofts was transferred back to Brighton in August 2012 . = = = Gillingham = = = On 19 March 2016 , Crofts re @-@ joined Gillingham on loan until the end of the season . = = = Charlton Athletic = = = On 22 July 2016 , Crofts signed a one @-@ year contract with Charlton Athletic . = = International career = = As one of his grandparents was born in Wales he was eligible to play for the Welsh national team , and after representing the country at under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 level he won his first senior cap , an award given to a player representing his national team , in 2005 . In 2008 he won his twelfth cap , breaking the record for the most international caps received by a Gillingham player . Crofts was selected for the Welsh national under @-@ 19 team in 2002 , qualifying due to having a Welsh grandparent . He made his first appearance for the team in the Milk Cup tournament in Northern Ireland , but was forced to return home after suffering an ankle injury in the Welsh team 's first match . In total he made eight appearances at under @-@ 19 level , including appearing in a second Milk Cup in 2003 . After moving up to the under @-@ 21 level Crofts was selected for the national under @-@ 21 team for the first time for a match against Germany in February 2005 . He went on to gain 12 caps at this level , scoring one goal . He made his debut for the Welsh national team against Azerbaijan on 12 October 2005 , coming on as a substitute for Carl Fletcher . At the end of the 2005 – 06 season , as part of manager John Toshack 's policy of introducing young players to the team , Crofts gained two further caps , both as a substitute , against Paraguay and Trinidad & Tobago , and also played in an unofficial international match against a Basque Country XI . He was included in the starting line @-@ up for an international for the first time in August 2007 when he played the full 90 minutes of a match against Bulgaria , but was back on the substitutes ' bench for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Germany the following month . He became established as a regular member of the Welsh squad during the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying tournament . = = Career statistics = = Statistics correct as of 11 January 2014 . = = = International goals = = = Under – 21 Score and results list Wales U21 's goal tally first . = = Personal life = = Crofts is a fan of Chelsea and at one time shared a flat with the club 's future captain John Terry . During his time as captain of Gillingham , he was involved with a number of charity events , including acting as a celebrity waiter at a Gillingham pub and presenting a signed shirt to a brain damaged teenage fan . In January 2005 , he dedicated a match @-@ winning goal to his grandmother Lily , who had died several months earlier .
= Drymoreomys = Drymoreomys is a rodent genus in the tribe Oryzomyini that lives in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil . The single species , D. albimaculatus , is known only from the states of São Paulo and Santa Catarina and was not named until 2011 . It lives in the humid forest on the eastern slopes of the Serra do Mar and perhaps reproduces year @-@ round . Although its range is relatively large and includes some protected areas , it is patchy and threatened , and the discoverers recommend that the animal be considered " Near Threatened " on the IUCN Red List . Within Oryzomyini , Drymoreomys appears to be most closely related to Eremoryzomys from the Andes of Peru , a biogeographically unusual relationship , in that the two populations are widely separated and each is adapted to an arid or a moist environment . With a body mass of 44 – 64 g ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 3 oz ) , Drymoreomys is a medium @-@ sized rodent with long fur that is orange to reddish @-@ buff above and grayish with several white patches below . The pads on the hindfeet are very well developed and there is brown fur on the upper sides of the feet . The tail is brown above and below . The front part of the skull is relatively long and the ridges on the braincase are weak . The palate is short , with its back margin between the third molars . Several traits of the genitals are not seen in any other oryzomyine rodent . = = Taxonomy = = Drymoreomys was first recorded in 1992 by Meika Mustrangi in the state of São Paulo . The animal was not , however , formally described until 2011 , when Alexandre Percequillo and colleagues named it as a new genus and species within the tribe Oryzomyini : Drymoreomys albimaculatus . The generic name , Drymoreomys , combines the Greek δρυμός ( drymos ) , meaning " forest " , ὄρειος ( oreios ) , meaning " mountain @-@ dwelling " , and μῦς ( mys ) , meaning " mouse " . The name refers to the animal 's occurrence in mountain forest . The specific name , albimaculatus , derives from the Latin albus , meaning " white " , and maculatus , meaning " spotted " , a reference to the spots of white in the animal 's fur . Percequillo and colleagues found little geographic variation among samples of Drymoreomys , although a few traits differ in frequency between populations from the states of São Paulo and Santa Catarina . According to a phylogenetic analysis of evidence from morphology , the nuclear gene IRBP , and the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b , Drymoreomys albimaculatus is most closely related to Eremoryzomys polius , an oryzomyine from northern Peru and the only species in the genus Eremoryzomys . Together , Drymoreomys and Eremoryzomys are part of Marcelo Weksler 's clade D , one of four main clades within Oryzomyini . Some subsequent studies did not support a relationship between the Drymoreomys – Eremoryzomys clade and the rest of clade D , but this is probably due to saturation of the phylogenetic signal in mitochondrial data . Oryzomyini includes well over a hundred species distributed mainly in South America , including nearby islands such as the Galápagos Islands and some of the Antilles . It is one of several tribes recognized within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which encompasses hundreds of species found across South America and into southern North America . Sigmodontinae is the largest subfamily of the family Cricetidae , other members of which include voles , lemmings , hamsters , and deermice , all mainly from Eurasia and North America . = = Description = = = = = External morphology = = = Drymoreomys albimaculatus is a medium @-@ sized , long @-@ tailed , short @-@ eared , short @-@ footed rodent . It is quite distinct from other oryzomyines and has a number of unique traits . In 11 adults from Parque Natural Municipal Nascentes do Garcia in Santa Catarina , head and body length was 122 to 139 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 5 in ) , tail length was 140 to 175 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 9 in ) , hindfoot length was 25 @.@ 8 to 30 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 02 to 1 @.@ 20 in ) , ear length was 16 to 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 87 in ) , and body mass was 44 to 64 g ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 3 oz ) . The fur is long and dense and consists of thin , short , woolly underfur and long , thick overfur . Overall , the fur of the upperparts is orange to reddish @-@ buff . In the closely related Eremoryzomys , the upperparts are grayish . The hairs of the underfur , which are 12 to 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , are grayish for most of their length and orange or brown at the tip . In the overfur , the cover hairs ( which form the main body of the fur ) , are 14 to 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 67 in ) long and brown at the tip , with an orange band below the tip , and the longer , sparse guard hairs are red to dark brown in the half closest to the tip and are 17 to 21 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 0 @.@ 83 in ) long . The sides are reddish brown . On the underparts , the hairs are grayish at the base and white at the tip , except on the throat , chest , and ( in some specimens ) groin , where the hairs are entirely white — a trait unique among the oryzomyines . In overall appearance , the underparts are grayish , with white spots where the hairs are completely white . The small , rounded ears are covered with dense golden hairs on the outer and with reddish brown hairs on the inner surface . The mystacial vibrissae ( whiskers on the upper lip ) are long , usually extending a little beyond the ears when laid back against the head , but the superciliary vibrissae ( whiskers above the eyes ) are short and do not extend beyond the ears . The upper surface on the forefeet is covered with brown fur , and there is white or silvery fur on the digits . Ungual tufts ( fur around the bases of the claws ) are present on the second through fourth digits . On the short , fairly broad hindfeet , the upper side is covered densely with silvery to white hairs near the tips of the feet and toes , and with brown fur otherwise . No other oryzomyine has such brown fur on its hindfeet . The second through fourth digits have long silvery @-@ white ungual tufts , but those on the first digit are short . On the sole , the pads are very large . Among oryzomyines , only Oecomys and the extinct Megalomys have similarly large pads between their digits . There is a dense cover of short brown hairs on both the upper and lower sides of the tail . Unlike in Eremoryzomys , the tail is the same color above and below . The tail ends in a tuft , an unusual feature among oryzomyines . = = = Skull = = = In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is relatively long . The nasal and premaxillary bones extend in front of the incisors , forming a rostral tube , which is shared among oryzomyines only with Handleyomys . The zygomatic notch ( a notch formed by a projection at the front of the zygomatic plate , a bony plate at the side of the skull ) is shallow . The interorbital region ( between the eyes ) is narrow and long , with the narrowest part towards the front . The crests on the braincase and interorbital region are weakly developed . Eremoryzomys has larger crests on its interorbital region . The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are long , sometimes extending to between the first molars ( M1 ) . The bony palate is broad and short , with the posterior margin between the third molars ( M3 ) . Nephelomys levipes is the only other oryzomyine with such a short palate , although that of Eremoryzomys polius is only slightly longer . The posterolateral palatal pits ( openings in the back part of the palate near the M3 ) vary from small to fairly large and are located in slight fossas ( depressions ) . In Eremoryzomys , these fossas are deeper . The roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , the opening behind the palate , is completely closed or contains small sphenopalatine vacuities . The vacuities are much larger in Eremoryzomys . The alisphenoid strut , a piece of bone that separates two foramina ( openings ) , is present in all Drymoreomys specimens examined , except in one juvenile specimen . The mandible ( lower jaw ) is long and low . The coronoid process , the frontmost of the three main processes ( projections ) at the back of the jawbone , is large and about as high as the condyloid process behind it . The angular process , below the condyloid , is fairly short and does not extend further backwards than the condyloid . There is no noticeable capsular process ( a raising at the back of the jaw that houses the root of the lower incisor ) . = = = Dentition = = = The upper incisors are opisthodont ( with the cutting surface oriented backwards ) and have orange to yellow enamel . The upper molar rows are either almost parallel or slightly convergent with each other toward the front . Holochilus and Lundomys are the only other oryzomyines with non @-@ parallel molar rows . The valleys between the cusps of the upper molars extending from the inner and outer sides overlap slightly across the midlines of the teeth . The molars are high @-@ cusped , almost hypsodont . On M1 , the anterocone ( the front cusp ) is divided into two cuspules on the lingual ( inner , towards the tongue ) and labial ( outer , towards the lips ) sides of the teeth . The mesoloph , a crest near the middle of the labial side of the tooth , is long and well developed on each of the three upper molars . On the lower molars ( m1 to m3 ) , the cusps on the labial side are located slightly in front of their lingual counterparts . The anteroconid , the front cusp on the m1 , is divided in two . The m1 , m2 , and usually m3 have a mesolophid , a crest corresponding to the mesoloph but located on the lingual side . Each of the lower molars has two roots . = = = Other anatomy = = = There are 12 ribs and 19 thoracolumbar ( chest and abdomen ) , four sacral , and 36 to 38 caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . There are three digits at the tip of the penis , of which the central one is the largest . The two lateral digits are not supported by mounds of the baculum ( penis bone ) . There is only one spine on the papilla ( nipple @-@ like projection ) on the upper side of the penis . On the urethral process , located in the crater at the end of the penis , a fleshy process at the side , the lateral lobule , is present . The preputial glands ( glands in front of the genitals ) are large . The lack of lateral bacular mounds , presence of a lateral lobule , and size of the preputial glands are all unique traits among the oryzomyines . = = = Karyotype = = = The karyotype of Drymoreomys albimaculatus is 2n = 62 , FN = 62 : the animal has 62 chromosomes , and 29 pairs of autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) are acrocentric ( with one arm so short as to be almost invisible ) and one small pair is metacentric ( with two equally long arms ) . Both sex chromosomes are submetacentric ( with one arm noticeably longer than the other ) , and X is larger than Y. Blocks of heterochromatin are present on all autosomes and the long arm of Y. Telomeric sequences are found near the centromeres of the sex chromosomes . Aspects of this karyotype — with a high number of mostly acrocentric chromosomes and the presence of heterochromatin on the Y chromosome — are consistent with the pattern seen in other oryzomyines . However , no other oryzomyine has exactly the same karyotype as D. albimaculatus . Other species in clade D have fewer chromosomes , down to 16 in Nectomys palmipes , although the karyotype of Eremoryzomys polius is unknown . This suggests an evolutionary trend of decreasing chromosome number within the clade . = = Distribution and ecology = = Drymoreomys albimaculatus occurs in the Atlantic Forest on the eastern slopes of the Serra do Mar in the Brazilian states of São Paulo and Santa Catarina , at 650 to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 2 @,@ 130 to 3 @,@ 940 ft ) above sea level . It has not been found in the intervening state of Paraná , but is likely to occur there . The biogeographical pattern indicated by the relationship between Drymoreomys and the Andean Eremoryzomys is unusual . While there are some similar cases of relationships between Andean and Atlantic Forest animals , these involve inhabitants of humid forests in the Andes ; Eremoryzomys , by contrast , lives in an arid area . Drymoreomys albimaculatus appears to be a specialist of dense , moist , montane and premontane forest . It has been found in disturbed and secondary forests as well as in pristine forest , but probably needs contiguous forest to survive . Reproductive activity has been observed in females in June , November , and December and in males in December , suggesting that the species breeds year @-@ round . Although some of its morphological traits , such as the very large pads , are suggestive of arboreal ( tree @-@ dwelling ) habits , most specimens were collected in pitfall traps on the ground . = = Conservation status = = The range of Drymoreomys albimaculatus is relatively large and the species occurs in several protected areas , but it has only been found in seven localities and its habitat is threatened by deforestation and fragmentation . Therefore , Percequillo and colleagues suggest that the species be assessed as " Near Threatened " under the IUCN Red List criteria .
= Homer 's Barbershop Quartet = " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 30 , 1993 . The episode was written by Jeff Martin and directed by Mark Kirkland . It features The Be Sharps , a barbershop quartet founded by Homer Simpson . The band 's story roughly parallels that of The Beatles . George Harrison and David Crosby guest star as themselves , and The Dapper Dans provide the singing voices of The Be Sharps . The episode begins with the Simpson family as they attend a swap meet . There , Bart Simpson and his sister Lisa notice a picture of their father , Homer , on the cover of an old LP album . Homer explains to his family that he , Principal Skinner , Barney Gumble , and Apu Nahasapeemapetilon recorded a barbershop quartet album in 1985 , which catapulted them to national fame . He narrates to his family the story of how the band formed , reached the pinnacle of success , and eventually folded . At the end of the episode , the group reunites to perform a concert on the roof of Moe 's Tavern , singing their number @-@ one hit " Baby on Board " . Throughout the episode , several references are made to The Beatles and other popular culture icons . In its original American broadcast , " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " finished 30th in ratings , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . It was praised for its The Beatles cameo , despite being a leftover episode from the previous season . Reviews that criticized the episode 's inconsistent humor blamed it on the change of writers before the episode 's creation . = = Plot = = At the Springfield Swap Meet , Bart and Lisa Simpson notice Homer on the cover of an LP album . Homer explains that he , Principal Skinner , Barney , and Apu recorded a barbershop quartet album in 1985 , which catapulted them to national fame . He then tells his family the story of how the album came to be . While performing at Moe 's Tavern , an agent offered to represent the group as a band , but only on the condition that they expel Chief Wiggum , who was the band 's fourth member at the time . After Homer abandons Wiggum in the woods , an audition is held during which the band rejected candidates to fill Wiggum 's position , among others Jasper Beardly , Groundskeeper Willie and Wiggum disguised as Doctor Dolittle , the trio returned downheartedly to Moe 's Tavern , where they recruited Barney after hearing him sing in a beautiful Irish tenor voice . The four members then brainstormed on a name for the group , eventually settling on The Be Sharps . In the present , Homer brags that he sold his car 's spare tire at the swap meet . On the way home , one of their tires blows out . While Marge walks to a gas station to get a new tire , Homer continues his story . He tells Bart and Lisa that after Marge bought a Baby on board sign , Homer wrote a song inspired by the fad . The song " Baby on Board " appeared on the group 's first album , Meet The Be Sharps , and the song became a hit . The Be Sharps performed the song at the Statue of Liberty 's centennial in 1986 , and they later won a Grammy Award for Outstanding Soul , Spoken Word , or Barbershop Album of the Year for Meet The Be Sharps . Back in the present , the Simpsons are at home , where Homer explains that The Be Sharps became so popular that they were featured on merchandise , including lunch boxes , mugs , and posters . The band later released their second album , Bigger than Jesus . While The Be Sharps grew in fame , creative disputes arose when Barney dated a Japanese conceptual artist ( a parody of Yoko Ono ) , which eventually led to his leaving the group . Barney and his girlfriend recorded a song in which his girlfriend repeatedly says " Number 8 " over tape loops of Barney 's belches ( a parody of The Beatles ' " Revolution 9 " ) . Ultimately , the group realized they were no longer popular . The latest issue of Us Weekly 's What 's Hot and What 's Not confirmed this , noting that the band was no longer " hot " . The band then split up ; Principal Skinner returned to the Springfield Elementary School , Apu to the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , Barney back to Moe 's Tavern , and Homer to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , where his position has temporarily been filled by a chicken . Returning to the present day , the group reunites to perform a concert on the roof of Moe 's Tavern , singing their number one hit " Baby on Board " . Pedestrians stop and listen to them singing their comeback concert , including George Harrison of The Beatles , who dismissively remarks , " It 's been done . " = = Production = = One of the writers for The Simpsons suggested that they should create an episode that focuses on Homer in a barbershop quartet and " a big parody of The Beatles " . The episode was written by Jeff Martin , who was an " obsessive " Beatles fan , making him " a natural to write [ the episode ] " . Mark Kirkland , a " huge " Beatles fan , directed the episode , and ensured that The Beatles references were accurate . Kirkland enjoyed directing the episode because unlike other episodes he directed , he did not experience any trouble animating " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " . The animators liked creating The Beatles gags and enjoyed the barbershop music . After the animators synchronized the audio track , music , and animation , they " just fell in love " with it . They also enjoyed working on the choreography of The Be Sharps and trying to match the characters ' movements with the music . They were inspired by The Beatles film Let It Be , including the shots of the band in the recording studio where they decide to break up . Kirkland did not think there was anything " spectacular " in the episode 's animation , but he and his animation team " just loved " working on it . In a scene in the episode , Lisa sees a man selling an original Malibu Stacy doll from 1958 that has big , pointed breasts . The man , nicknamed " Wiseguy " by the show 's staff , tells Lisa that " they took [ the doll ] off the market after some kid put both his eyes out . " The joke received a censor note from the Fox network 's censors because they did not want such jokes on the show , but the producers ignored the note and the joke appeared in the episode when it aired . The Be Sharps 's singing voices were provided by the four members of The Dapper Dans , a barbershop quartet that performs at Disneyland in Anaheim , California . Before working on the episode , Martin had seen one of the quartet 's performances and enjoyed it . When the episode 's production began , he contacted the quartet , and they agreed to make a guest appearance in the episode . The Dapper Dans 's singing was intermixed with the normal voice actors ' voices , often with a regular voice actor singing the melody and The Dapper Dans providing backup . George Harrison guest stars in the episode as himself . He was the second Beatles member after Ringo Starr ( in " Brush with Greatness " ) to appear on The Simpsons . When Harrison arrived at the recording studio in West Los Angeles to record his lines , the casting director told the episode 's show runners , Al Jean and Mike Reiss , that Harrison was coming and that they were not allowed to tell anybody about it because it was intended to be a secret to the staff . Jean , Reiss , and the show 's creator Matt Groening went to see Harrison in the studio , and when they returned to the writer 's room , Groening said , " Guess who I just met ? George Harrison ! " , not knowing that it was supposed to be a secret . Harrison arrived at the studio by himself without any entourage or bodyguards . Groening recalls that Harrison was " pretty glum " , and he was unenthusiastic when the staff asked him questions about The Beatles . However , when Groening asked Harrison about the Wonderwall Music album , he suddenly " perked up " because it was one of his solo albums that he was rarely questioned on . Harrison 's guest appearance was one of Groening 's favorites because he was " super nice " and " very sweet " to the staff . Jean said it was a " huge thrill " to have him appear . David Crosby also makes a guest appearance in the episode as himself , and appears in the scene in which he presents a Grammy award to The Be Sharps . " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " was a hold @-@ over episode from the season four production line . It was chosen to air as the fifth season 's premiere episode because it guest starred Harrison . The Fox network executives wanted to premiere with Conan O 'Brien 's episode " Homer Goes to College " because of its parody of the 1978 comedy film National Lampoon 's Animal House , but the writers felt " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " would be a better choice because of Harrison 's involvement . The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 30 , 1993 . It was included in a 2002 video collection of selected musical @-@ themed episodes titled The Simpsons : Backstage Pass . The episode was also included in The Simpsons season five DVD set , which was released on December 21 , 2004 . = = Cultural references = = The episode makes several references to The Beatles . Their first album , Meet the Be Sharps , is a parody of the Meet the Beatles album . Moe 's Tavern changes its name to Moe 's Cavern , a reference to the Cavern Club in Liverpool where The Beatles frequently performed in the early 1960s . Chief Wiggum , thrown out of the band because he was " too Village People " , mirrors Pete Best . Best was an early member of The Beatles but was replaced by Ringo Starr . The cover of Bigger Than Jesus , The Be Sharps ' second album , features the group walking on water , which is a direct parody of the art on The Beatles ' album Abbey Road . The name is a reference to a controversial quote made by John Lennon in 1966 . Bart references this by asking , " What did you do [ to lose your popularity ] ? Screw up like The Beatles and say you were bigger than Jesus ? " , to which Homer replies " All the time . That was the title of our second album . " At the end of the episode , the album 's back cover is revealed , on which Homer is seen turned away from the camera , as opposed to the rest of the band . This is a parody of the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band LP reverse , in which Paul McCartney is in the same position . Barney 's Japanese conceptual artist girlfriend is a parody of Yoko Ono . Their song repeats the phrase " Number 8 " and a burp by Barney , a reference to The Beatles ' " Revolution 9 " . The group performing atop Moe 's Tavern at the end of the episode is a parody of The Beatles ' impromptu concert on the Apple Corps rooftop during their Get Back recording sessions in 1969 , hence George Harrison 's line , " It 's been done . " In addition , The Be Sharps are wearing the same outfits as The Beatles during the rooftop concert scene : Barney in a brown fur coat ( John ) , Homer in a bright red coat ( Ringo ) , Skinner in a black suit ( Paul ) , and Apu in a black Mongolian lamb coat with green trousers ( George ) . After the performance , Homer says , " I 'd like to thank you on behalf of the group and I hope we passed the audition " , paraphrasing a quote by John Lennon at the end of The Beatles rooftop performance . At the swap meet , Mayor Quimby says " Ich bin ein Springfield Swap Meet Patron " , a parody of John F. Kennedy 's famous Cold War quote . Homer browses through a box with items that cost five cents each . These include the United States Declaration of Independence , a copy of Action Comics # 1 , a complete block of Inverted Jenny misprint postal stamps , and a Stradivarius violin . Principal Skinner tries on a prison mask with the number 24601 , notable as Jean Valjean 's prison number in Les Misérables . Homer buys Grampa a pink Cadillac , just as Elvis Presley did for his mother . One of the late night television shows Chief Wiggum watches is Johnny Carson doing his Carnac the Magnificent routine . Homer mentions that 1985 was the year that Joe Piscopo left the NBC sketch show Saturday Night Live . Moe sells oyster shells at the swap meet that resemble Lucille Ball . Homer begins telling the story of The Be Sharps by saying , " Rock and roll had become stagnant . ' Achy Breaky Heart ' was seven years away ; something had to fill the void . That something was barbershop . " At the Grammy ceremony , Spinal Tap , Michael Jackson ( Leon Kompowsky ) and George Harrison are all at the post awards reception and MC Hammer in the audience . While Bart and Lisa browse through LP albums at the swap meet , they find a recording of " Yankee Doodle " by Melvin and the Squirrels , a band that spoofs Alvin and the Chipmunks as well as a Spinal Tap album . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast , " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " finished 30th in the ratings for the week of September 27 to October 3 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 , translating to 11 @,@ 963 @,@ 400 households . Since airing , the episode received generally positive reviews . DVD Verdict gave the episode a Grade A score . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson felt that the episode " kicks off [ the season ] with a terrific bang " . He appreciated the episode 's parodies of a mix of subjects , and its ability to bring them together into a coherent story . Noting that the episode focused on spoofing Beatlemania , Jacobson praised George Harrison 's cameo as " probably the best " Beatles cameo in the series . Giving the episode a score of 5 out of 5 , DVD Talk praised the " four @-@ part harmony of hilarity [ that ] gets a flawless mop top modeling " , complimenting the references to pop culture icons as being " right on the money " . TV DVD Reviews commented on how the episode " hit all the right notes " , and was pleased with Harrison 's cameo . Despite the episode being a " leftover from last season " , The Washington Post still applauded the episode 's humor , saying , " Who cares ? It 's funny . " The Courier @-@ Mail found " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " an entertaining episode . Asserting that the series hit its peak with season five episodes such as " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , the Sunday Tasmanian called the episode a " first @-@ class offering " . Although it appreciated the story and use of the main characters , Current Film was not enthused about the episode , claiming that it was not consistently funny . The Age called " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " an awful episode , with a " weak , unfunny parody of The Beatles " , blaming the series change of writers before the episode was written . IGN ranked The Beatles ' appearances on The Simpsons series — in episodes such as " Lisa the Vegetarian " , " Brush with Greatness " , and " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " — 10th on their list of the Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances , and the Toronto Star ranked the band fifth on a list of the 11 best cameos on The Simpsons . Andrew Martin of Prefix Mag named George Harrison his fourth @-@ favorite musical guest on The Simpsons out of a list of ten .
= Gilwell Park = Gilwell Park is a camp site and activity centre for Scouting groups and all Youth Organisations , as well as a training and conference centre for Scout Leaders with many business and local groups using the facilities , including the hosting of social events such as weddings and birthday parties . The 44 hectare ( 109 acre ) site is in Sewardstonebury , Epping Forest , close to Chingford , London . In the late Middle Ages the area was a farm , growing to a wealthy estate that fell into disrepair towards 1900 . It was bought in 1919 by Scout Commissioner William de Bois Maclaren and given to the Scout Association of the United Kingdom to provide camping to London Scouts , and training for Scouters . As Scout Leaders from all countries of the world have come to Gilwell Park for their Wood Badge training , it is one of the landmarks of the world Scouting movement . The site contains camp fields for small patrols and can camp up to 3 @,@ 000 people , indoor accommodation , historical sites , monuments of Scouting , and activities suitable for all sections of the Scouting Movement . It can accommodate events up to 10 @,@ 000 people . Accommodation at Gilwell Park can be hired for non @-@ Scout activities such as school group camping , wedding receptions and conferences . Gilwell Park is one of ten national Scout Activity Centres of the Scout Association , with Baden @-@ Powell House , Downe , Great Tower , Youlbury , Hawkhirst , Ferny Crofts , Crawfordsburn and Yr Hafod . = = History = = = = = Original farm in late Middle Ages = = = The history of Gilwell Park can be traced to 1407 , when John Crow owned Gyldiefords , the land that would eventually become Gilwell Park . Between 1407 and 1422 , Crow sold the land to Richard Rolfe , and the area became known as Gillrolfes , " Gill " being Old English for glen . Following Rolfe 's death in 1422 , different sections of the property came to be called " Great Gilwell " and " Little Gilwell " . The two areas were named after the Old English " wella " , or spring . A farmhouse has stood at Gilwell Farm ever since . Around this time , an adjoining 5 @.@ 6 hectares ( 14 acres ) property was purchased by Richard Osborne . In 1442 , he built a large dwelling called Osborne Hall , which stood for 300 years . Legend has it that in the early 16th century , King Henry VIII owned the land and built a hunting lodge for his son Edward . Around 1736 the highwayman Dick Turpin began using Gilwell 's forests to conceal himself and for ambushing travellers and freight along roads leading into London . In 1754 , William Skrimshire purchased Great Gilwell , Little Gilwell , and half of Osborne 's estate , including Osborne Hall . Skrimshire demolished Osborne Hall and built a new residence , which he also called Osborne Hall . That building is now called the White House . Timbers in the White House can be dated to this time , but not to any previous era . Leonard Tresilian ( ? – 1792 ) bought the estate in 1771 and expanded the land holdings and size of the residence . Tresilian 's first wife , Margaret Holland , died young after bearing three daughters . He then married Elizabeth Fawson . Desiring that Gilwell pass on to his eldest daughter , also named Margaret ( 1750 – c.1844 ) , Tresilian drew up a detailed prenuptial agreement with Fawson 's father . By the time of Tresilian 's death in 1792 , the younger Margaret had married William Bassett Chinnery ( 1766 – 1834 ) , the elder brother of the painter George Chinnery . = = = Rich estate in 18th century = = = The Chinnerys were wealthy and influential . William Chinnery 's father , also named William , owned trading ships and named one Gilwell in 1800 . William and Margaret Chinnery initially resided in London , and after three years of marriage and inheriting Gilwell in 1792 , they moved to Gilwell in 1793 . They soon shocked the populace by renaming Osborne Hall to " Gilwell Hall " . William Chinnery expanded Gilwell 's land holdings through significant purchases over 15 years and , with his wife , transformed it into a country estate with gardens , paths , and statues . Parts of the garden , paths , and dwelling modifications exist into the 21st century . William Chinnery was exposed as the embezzler of a small fortune from the British Treasury where he worked and was dismissed from all his posts on 12 March 1812 . Margaret Chinnery was forced to sign over Gilwell Estate to the Exchequer on 2 July 1812 . The Chinnery family was prominent enough that members of the English nobility visited often during the 1790s and early 19th century . King George III visited on occasion , and the Prince Regent , who later became George IV , was a regular visitor . George III 's seventh son , Prince Adolphus , became a family friend , lived at Gilwell for a while , and tutored their eldest son George . Gilpin Gorst bought the estate in 1815 at public auction , and his son sold it to Thomas Usborne in 1824 . When London Bridge was replaced in 1826 , Usborne bought pieces of the stone balustrades , which date to 1209 , and erected them behind the White House around the Buffalo Lawn . The estate changed ownership more times , but these families did not maintain the property and it fell into disrepair by 1900 . Reverend Cranshaw , a local resident , bought the estate in 1911 and was the last owner prior to the Boy Scout Association , as it was then known . = = = Scouting connection = = = The estate 's condition declined more during the 1910s . William de Bois Maclaren was a publisher and Scout Commissioner from Rosneath , Dumbartonshire , Scotland . During a business trip to London , Maclaren was saddened to see that Scouts in the East End had no suitable outdoor area to conduct their activities . He contacted Lord Robert Baden @-@ Powell , who appointed P.B. Nevill to handle the matter . Nevill was Scout Commissioner of the East End . On 20 November 1918 over dinner at Roland House , the Scout Hostel in Stepney , Maclaren agreed to donate £ 7 @,@ 000 to the project . Part of the agreement included narrowing the areas to look for suitable land to Hainault Forest and Epping Forest . Rover Scouts searched both without success , but then John Gayfer , a young assistant Scoutmaster , suggested Gilwell Hall , a place he went bird @-@ watching . Nevill visited the estate and was impressed , though the buildings were in poor condition . The estate was for sale for £ 7 @,@ 000 , the price Maclaren had donated . The estate totaled 21 hectares ( 52 acres ) at the time . The estate was purchased in early 1919 by Maclaren for the Boy Scout Association . Nevill first took his Rover Scouts to begin repairing the estate on Maundy Thursday , 17 April 1919 . On this visit , the Rovers slept in the gardener 's shed in the orchard because the ground was so wet they could not pitch tents . They called this shed " The Pigsty " and though dilapidated , it still stands , as it is the site of the first Scout campsite at Gilwell Park . Maclaren was a frequent visitor to Gilwell Park and helped repair the buildings . His dedication was so great that he donated another £ 3 @,@ 000 . Maclaren 's interest had been in providing a campground , but Baden @-@ Powell envisioned a training centre for Scouters . An official opening was planned for 19 July 1919 but it was delayed until Saturday , 26 July 1919 so that Scouts could participate in the Official Peace Festival commemorating the end of World War I. Invitations were changed by hand to save money . Significant remodeling and construction was done in the 1920s . Because of limited finances , few improvements were made during the Great Depression of the 1930s . Baden @-@ Powell never lived at Gilwell Park but he often camped , lectured , taught courses , and attended meetings . He emphasized the importance of Scouters ' training at Gilwell Park for Scouting by taking it as the territorial designation in his peerage title of 1st Baron Baden @-@ Powell of Gilwell in 1929 when the barony was conferred upon him by the king . = = = Origin of the axe and log totem = = = The axe and log logo was conceived by the first Camp Chief , Francis Gidney , in the early 1920s to distinguish Gilwell Park from the Scout Headquarters . Gidney wanted to associate Gilwell Park with the outdoors and Scoutcraft rather than the business or administrative Headquarters offices . Scouters present at the original Wood Badge courses regularly saw axe blades masked for safety by being buried in a log . Seeing this , Gidney chose the axe and log as the totem of Gilwell Park . This logo came to be strongly associated with Wood Badge leader training and is still used on certificates , flags , and other program @-@ related items . The symbol of the axe in the log is associated with feudalism after the invasion and conquest of England by William the Conqueror . In that era , property , including forests , were owned by the landed barons and knights . Serfs , bound to the land in a form of modified slavery , were forbidden to cut wood from trees in the forest , and only permitted to gather downed wood . A freeman who carried an axe in a nobleman 's forest demonstrated that he had earned the right by service . Symbolically , the grain of an axe handle must be " set square in the eye of the head . " The steel head must have the proper temper and be kept sharp . To be useful in the hands of a skilled freeman , an axe also needed to be well @-@ balanced , otherwise the handle might break , endangering its user . The axe represented skilled laborers who had proven themselves through service . Lastly , the axe in the wood reminds those who have completed Wood Badge that they have committed themselves to be an example of service and fealty . = = = Wartime and later development = = = The estate was requisitioned by the War Ministry from 1940 – 1945 as a local command , training , and ordnance centre . Little remains at the estate from World War II , except the hole created by a bomb dropped by the Luftwaffe . It was enlarged and is now used for swimming and canoeing . After the war , the Boy Scout Association bought adjoining land to increase the estate and protect it from rapidly approaching new developments . These areas are called The Quick , New Field , and Hilly Field . An additional purchase and a donation from South Africa in the early 1950s brought the estate to its present size . This began an era of expanding camping facilities for Scouts which lasted until the early 1960s . Training and sleeping facilities were added through the early 1970s . The Boy Scout Association was renamed The Scout Association in 1967 . During the 1970s , two key and popular facilities were built : the Dorothy Hughes Pack Holiday Centre for Cub Scouts and the Colquhoun International Centre for training Scouters , originally called The International Hall of Friendship . In the 1980s extensive remodelling of the White House was done . In April 2001 , The Scout Association moved its program staff from London to Gilwell Park , where its training staff were already located . Extensive renovations were done to the White House and other buildings . With a budget of £ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and individual contributions as high as £ 500 @,@ 000 , improvements to programs and facilities have been ongoing since then in preparation for the 21st World Scout Jamboree in 2007 , which was the 100th anniversary of Scouting , hosted at nearby Hylands Park , Chelmsford , Essex with related activities also being held at Gilwell Park . Gilwell Park provides The Scout Association with over £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a year through conference fees , accommodation fees , and sales of materials . = = = Camp Chiefs , and other staff = = = Captain Francis " Skipper " Gidney became the first Camp Chief in May 1919 and served until 1923 . He organized the first Wood Badge training , and contributed to setting up Gilwell Park as the Scouters ' training centre . The Gidney Cabin was built and named in his honour in 1929 to serve as a training centre . The second Camp Chief was John Skinner Wilson , who served from 1923 until 1939 . Wilson was Colonel with the British Indian Police when he became a Scout Leader in 1917 . In 1921 he traveled to Gilwell Park to take leader training , which led to his retirement from the Indian Police in 1922 to become a full @-@ time Scout Leader . He was honoured with the Bronze Wolf Award in 1937 , the only distinction of the World Organization of the Scout Movement . R.F. " John " Thurman was a British Scout Leader who served as Camp Chief from 1943 until 1969 and was awarded the Bronze Wolf Award in 1959 . He was a strong promoter of Scout training and wrote books on the subject that were translated into other languages . The Thurman Memorial stands near The Pigsty . Thurman was succeeded by John Huskin as Director of leader training . Don Potter ( 1902 – 2004 ) was an English sculptor and wood carver who was a lifelong staff member at Gilwell Park , serving as a Gilwell Master Craftsman . Potter created wood carvings at Gilwell Park , including the Jim Green Gate , Gidney Cabin , the Leopard Gates , and totems he carved for the 1929 World Jamboree . = = Activities = = Gilwell Park can host indoor and outdoor conferences , training , a variety of outdoor Scoutcraft activities , and special events for both Scouting and non @-@ Scouting organizations . These include conferences , leader training , team building , receptions , weddings , and funerals . Conferences are generally held in either the White House or Colquhoun International Centre ( CIC ) , both of which are equipped with modern information systems and audio @-@ visual aids . The CIC has a main hall , six training suites , and five seminar rooms . = = = Outdoor activities = = = The Scout Activity Centres of The Scout Association provide camping , hostelling or conferencing for Scouts and Scout Leaders from around the world . Activities at Gilwell Park include : camping , leader training , a rope swing , high rope course , archery , pedal go @-@ karts , grass sledging , canoeing , rifle shooting , crate stacking , wall climbing , revolving wall climb , jump mats , rafting , team building , horse riding , orienteering , pioneering , tours , hiking , photography , obstacle courses , and aeroball . = = = Leader training = = = While different leader training courses are conducted at Gilwell Park , the most prominent is Wood Badge . Francis Gidney , the first Camp Chief , conducted the first Wood Badge course at Gilwell Park 8 – 19 September 1919 . Gilwell Park became the home of leadership training in the Scout movement . Leaders from all over the world receive automatic membership in 1st Gilwell Park Scout Group ( Gilwell Troop 1 ) on completion of the Wood Badge course . These leaders are henceforth called Wood Badgers or Gilwellians . Any location in which Wood Badgers meet is called Gilwell Field . The 1st Gilwell Park Scout Group meets every first weekend of September in Gilwell Park for the Gilwell Reunion . The Training Ground , near the White House , is the hallowed ground of Gilwell Park as this is the world home of Wood Badge , the premier Scout leader training course . A large oak tree , the Gilwell Oak , separates the Training Ground from the Orchard . = = = Special events = = = Each year Gilwell Park runs a number of regular special events . These have been established for more than 20 years with the addition of Gilwell 24 in 2004 and Scarefest in 2014 and are some of the largest annual Scout events in the UK . Wintercamp – taking place in early January and open to Scouts and Explorer Scouts ( 11 – 18 ) . Fundays – open to the Beaver and Cub age ranges in June . Gilwell 24 – open to the Explorer Scout ( 14 – 18 ) age range in July . Reunion – open to all adult members in Scouting in early September . Scarefest - Open to Scouts , Explorers , Guides & Rangers . Held at the end of October = = Accommodation = = Gilwell Park provides accommodation for visitors , comprising camping fields , hostel rooms , lodges and cabins . = = = Camp fields = = = Gilwell Park provides camping opportunities for small groups and groups in excess of 2 @,@ 500 people . This includes everything from unit @-@ level camping up to hosting international events . Essex Chase is close to the swimming pool and stores and is the most popular campsite . Woodlands Field is a large field that will hold up to 200 campers , with space for activities , at the north end of the park . Branchet Field is the largest campsite and will hold 1 @,@ 200 campers . Mallinson Field is a small , wooded , secluded area suited to small groups . Ferryman Field is a split @-@ level field suitable for a large troop . It is at the north end of camp , past Woodlands . = = = White House = = = The White House and its predecessors represent over 500 years of Gilwell history . It became the headquarters of The Scout Association on 27 April 2001 , although Baden @-@ Powell House ( the former headquarters ) still facilitates some departments of The Scout Association . The White House also serves as a restaurant , training and conference centre . It was totally torn down once and has been renovated , remodelled , and expanded continuously over the years . The central portion has no foundations and the chimneys are made of Coade stone . It also displays original Scouting paintings by Ernest Stafford Carlos ( 1883 – 1917 ) ; the highlight of which is The Pathfinder . In this historic setting as a conference centre , the White House has offered over 40 rooms ( single , double , twin ) with all modern facilities since 2004 – 2005 . = = = Dorothy Hughes Pack Holiday Centre = = = The Dorothy Hughes Pack Holiday Centre ( PHC ) is for young people , sleeps 40 , is centrally heated , and has a large kitchen . It is named after a Cub Scout leader from East London . The PHC is constructed with interlocking logs and , originally , without nails in the frame . It is often booked two years in advance . The PHC was built in 1970 by fitting interlocking logs together from a Norwegian design . = = = Branchet Lodge and other cabins = = = Branchet Lodge , or simply The Lodge , opened on 23 May 2003 on Branchet Field to replace old portable cabins . It should not be confused with another building also called The Lodge which was built in 1934 near the White House . Branchet Lodge is a single storey building that has central heating and sleeps up to 56 people in two separate wings with a single common kitchen and dining / meeting area . Each wing has its own bathing facilities . There are four single rooms for leaders , two rooms for disabled people that sleep two people each , and six rooms that sleep eight people each . The design incorporates skylights , natural lights , energy efficiency , and disabled access . It is constructed of stone , timber , copper , and a grass roof . At present , a second lodge is being constructed next door to the Branchet Lodge . This was to be called the Jack Petchey Lodge and was scheduled to open in September 2008 . Construction of a third lodge will begin in January 2009 . Log cabins on the edge of Woodland Field sleep 8 and have bunk beds . Cooking is provided in a separate shelter or an open fire can be utilized . All of these can be rented by groups . The Storm Hut was a large hall @-@ type building for activities and games . It was moved to Gilwell Park from Wales by trucks . The Storm Hut was demolished in 2008 to make way for the upgrading of ' The Lid ' which now includes 2 classrooms , indoor climbing wall and high ropes elements . The Lid is a barn @-@ sized building that can not be rented , but is used for dances , exhibitions , and religious services . It is so named because the original building only had a roof , with no walls . = = = Staff accommodation : Gilwellbury and Gilwell Farm = = = After the purchase of the original site in 1919 , the purchase of Gilwellbury and adjoining land in 1945 is probably the next most important in Gilwell Park 's Scouting history because it allowed The Scout Association to close the original road and fully utilize Branchet Field . It was originally used for small retreats and conferences but is now used as staff accommodation . The Ministry of Education assisted in the purchase . The Gilwell Farmhouse is believed to date from the early 18th century , making it the oldest original building at Gilwell Park . It is composed of two buildings that were joined together . There is a brick well head on the farm that is known as the Gil Well . A field adjoining the boundaries of Gilwell Park , known as Bill Oddie Field , affords dramatic views of the London skyline over Pole Hill , Chingford . The field was so @-@ named after employees of The Scout Association spotted TV ornithologist Bill Oddie recording a programme about circling birds of prey on the field in 2006 . = = Attractions = = The attractions to see at Gilwell Park include the Gilwell Museum and souvenir shop , a fully operational all @-@ volunteer hospital , gardens , gates , statues , smaller buildings , and four houses of worship : Buddhist , Catholic , Jewish , interdenominational , with the construction of an Islamic mosque due to begin towards the end of 2008 . The bronze bust of Baden @-@ Powell was presented by the Scouts of Mexico in 1968 after the Olympics . The Lime Walk formerly surrounded the main lawn area , but few of the lime trees survive . As originally planted by Margaret Chinnery , it would have formed a shady overhead cover to the path . The Buffalo Lawn is so called because of the replica of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) Silver Buffalo Award that was presented to the Boy Scout Association by the BSA in 1926 . This was to honour the Unknown Scout that helped William D. Boyce bring Scouting to the United States . The Buffalo Lawn is behind the White House . Located there is a signpost with the directions and distances to all the World Scout Jamborees from Gilwell Park . The Buffalo Statue was originally mounted on a large tree stump . The stump has been replaced by a brick pedestal . The inscription reads : " To an Unknown Scout Whose Faithfulness in the Performance of the Daily Good Turn Brought the Scout Movement to the United States of America . " A copy of a statue by R. Tait McKenzie called The Ideal Scout stands near The Lid . This is also known as The Boy Scout . The BSA donated the statue in 1966 . The original stands outside the headquarters of the Cradle of Liberty Council in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and another copy outside the BSA headquarters in Irving , Texas . The Buddhist Sala was donated to Gilwell Park in 1967 by the Boy Scouts of Thailand . The Buddha found inside was a gift from the Thai government and is over 1000 years old . Thai ambassadors to the United Kingdom often visit the sala , as it is their responsibility to care for it . Scouts from other countries , including Chile , Japan , Mexico , and New Zealand , have also donated gifts to Gilwell Park . The caravan trailer , presented to Chief Scout Sir Robert Baden @-@ Powell , along with a new Rolls @-@ Royce car , during the 3rd World Scout Jamboree in 1929 is now on display . The caravan was nicknamed Eccles . The car , nicknamed Jam Roll , was sold after his death by Olave Baden @-@ Powell in 1945 . Jam Roll and Eccles were reunited at Gilwell for the 21st World Scout Jamboree in 2007 . Four Scouters , including Michael Baden @-@ Powell , a grandson of Robert Baden @-@ Powell , formed the charitable company " B @-@ P Jam Roll Ltd . " with the aim of purchasing and conserving Jam Roll on behalf of Scouting . Funds are being raised to repay the loan that was used to purchase the car .
= Ottawa Senators = The Ottawa Senators ( French : Sénateurs d 'Ottawa ) are a professional ice hockey team based in Ottawa , Ontario , Canada . They are members of the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Senators play their home games at the 18 @,@ 694 seat ( 20 @,@ 041 capacity ) Canadian Tire Centre which opened in 1996 . Founded and established by Ottawa real estate developer Bruce Firestone , the team is the second NHL franchise to use the Ottawa Senators name . The original Ottawa Senators , founded in 1883 , had a famed history , winning 11 Stanley Cups and playing in the NHL from 1917 until 1934 . On December 6 , 1990 , after a two @-@ year public campaign by Firestone , the NHL awarded a new franchise , which began play in the 1992 – 93 season . The current team owner is Eugene Melnyk , and in 2014 , the club was valued by Forbes magazine at $ 400 million . The team has had success , qualifying for the Stanley Cup playoffs in 15 of the past 19 seasons , winning four division titles , the Presidents ' Trophy in 2003 and appearing in the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals . The success has been reflected in attendance as the club has been regularly represented in the top half in attendance in the NHL . = = History = = Ottawa had been home to the original Senators , a founding NHL franchise and 11 @-@ time Stanley Cup champions . After the NHL expanded to the United States in the late 1920s , the original Senators ' eventual financial losses forced the franchise to move to St. Louis in 1934 operating as the Eagles while a Senators senior amateur team took over the Senators ' place in Ottawa . The NHL team was unsuccessful in St. Louis , and planned to return to Ottawa , but the NHL decided instead to suspend the franchise and transfer the players to other NHL teams . Fifty @-@ four years later , after the NHL announced plans to expand , Ottawa real estate developer Bruce Firestone decided along with colleagues Cyril Leeder and Randy Sexton that Ottawa was now able to support an NHL franchise , and the group proceeded to put a bid together . His firm , Terrace Investments , did not have the liquid assets to finance the expansion fee and the team , but the group conceived a strategy to leverage a land development . In 1989 , after finding a suitable site on farmland just west of Ottawa in Kanata on which to construct a new arena , Terrace announced its intention to win a franchise and launched a successful " Bring Back the Senators " campaign to both woo the public and persuade the NHL that the city could support an NHL franchise . Public support was high and the group would secure over 11 @,@ 000 season ticket pledges . On December 12 , 1990 , the NHL approved a new franchise for Firestone 's group , to start play in the 1992 – 93 season . = = = 1992 – 96 : First seasons = = = The new team hired former NHL player Mel Bridgman , who had no previous NHL management experience , as its first general manager in 1992 . The team was initially interested in hiring former Jack Adams Award winner Brian Sutter as its first head coach , but Sutter came with a high price tag and was reluctant to be a part of an expansion team . When Sutter was eventually signed to coach the Boston Bruins , Ottawa signed Rick Bowness , the man Sutter replaced in Boston . The new Senators played their first game on October 8 , 1992 , in the Ottawa Civic Centre against the Montreal Canadiens with lots of pre @-@ game spectacle . The Senators defeated the Canadiens 5 – 3 in one of the few highlights that season . Following the initial excitement of the opening night victory , the club floundered badly and eventually tied the San Jose Sharks for the worst record in the league , winning only 10 games with 70 losses and four ties for 24 points , three points better than the NHL record for futility . The Senators had aimed low and considered the 1992 – 93 season a small success , as Firestone had set a goal for the season of not setting a new NHL record for fewest points in a season . The long term plan was to finish low in the standings for its first few years in order to secure high draft picks and eventually contend for the Stanley Cup . Bridgman was fired after one season and Team President Randy Sexton took over the general manager duties . Firestone himself soon left the team and Rod Bryden emerged as the new owner . The strategy of aiming low and securing a high draft position did not change . The Senators finished last overall for the next three seasons . Although 1993 first overall draft choice Alexandre Daigle wound up being one of the greatest draft busts in NHL history , they chose Radek Bonk in 1994 , Bryan Berard ( traded for Wade Redden ) in 1995 , Chris Phillips in 1996 and Marian Hossa in 1997 , all of whom would become solid NHL players and formed a strong core of players in years to come . Alexei Yashin , the team 's first @-@ ever draft selection from 1992 , emerged as one of the NHL 's brightest young stars . The team traded many of their better veteran players of the era , including 1992 – 93 leading scorer Norm Maciver and fan favourites Mike Peluso and Bob Kudelski in an effort to stockpile prospects and draft picks . As the 1995 – 96 season began , star centre Alexei Yashin refused to honour his contract and did not play . In December , after three straight last @-@ place finishes and a team which was ridiculed throughout the league , fans began to grow restless waiting for the team 's long term plan to yield results , and arena attendance began to decline . Rick Bowness was fired in late 1995 and was replaced by the Prince Edward Island Senators ' head coach Dave Allison . Allison would fare no better than his predecessor , and the team would stumble to a 2 – 22 – 3 record under him . Sexton himself was fired and replaced by Pierre Gauthier , the former assistant GM of Anaheim . Before the end of January 1996 , Gauthier had resolved the team 's most pressing issues by settling star player Alexei Yashin 's contract dispute , and hiring the highly regarded Jacques Martin as head coach . While Ottawa finished last overall once again , the 1995 – 96 season ended with renewed optimism , due in part to the upgraded management and coaching , and also to the emergence of an unheralded rookie from Sweden named Daniel Alfredsson , who would win the Calder Memorial Trophy as NHL Rookie of the Year in 1996 . = = = 1996 – 2004 : Jacques Martin era = = = Martin would impose a " strong defence first " philosophy that led to the team qualifying for the playoffs every season that he coached , but he was criticized for the team 's lack of success in the playoffs , notably losing four straight series against the provincial rival Toronto Maple Leafs . Martin outlasted several general managers and a change in ownership . In 1996 – 97 , his first season , the club qualified for the playoffs in the last game of the season , and nearly defeated the Buffalo Sabres in the first round . In 1997 – 98 , the club finished with their first winning record and upset the heavily favoured New Jersey Devils to win their first playoff series . In 1998 – 99 , the Senators jumped from fourteenth overall in the previous season to third , with 103 points — the first 100 @-@ point season in club history , only to be swept in the first round . In 1999 – 2000 despite the holdout of team captain Alexei Yashin , Martin guided the team to the playoffs , only to lose to the Maple Leafs in the first Battle of Ontario series . Yashin returned for 2000 – 01 and the team improved to win their division and place second in the Eastern Conference . Yashin played poorly in another first round playoff loss and on the day of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft , he was traded to the New York Islanders in exchange for Zdeno Chara , Bill Muckalt and the second overall selection in the draft , which Ottawa used to select centre Jason Spezza . The 2001 – 02 Senators regular season points total dropped , but in the playoffs , they upset the Philadelphia Flyers for the franchise 's second playoff series win . Yet the Sens would lose in game seven of the second round of the playoffs . Despite speculation that Martin would be fired , it was GM Marshall Johnston who left , retiring from the team , replaced by John Muckler , the Senators ' first with previous GM experience . In 2002 – 03 off @-@ ice problems dominated the headlines , as the Senators filed for bankruptcy in mid @-@ season , but continued play after getting emergency financing . Despite the off @-@ ice problems , Ottawa had an outstanding season , placing first overall in the NHL to win the Presidents ' Trophy . In the playoffs , they came within one game of making it into the finals . Prior to the 2003 – 04 season , pharmaceutical billionaire Eugene Melnyk would purchase the club to bring financial stability . Martin would guide the team to another good regular season but again would lose in the first round of the playoffs , leading to Martin 's dismissal as management felt that a new coach was required for playoff success . = = = 2004 – 16 : Bryan Murray era = = = After the playoff loss , owner Melnyk promised that changes were coming and they came quickly . In June 2004 , Anaheim Ducks GM Bryan Murray of nearby Shawville , became head coach . That summer , the team also made substantial personnel changes , trading long @-@ time players Patrick Lalime and Radek Bonk , and signing free agent goaltender Dominik Hasek . The team would not be able to show its new lineup for a year , as the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout intervened and most players played in Europe or in the minors . In a final change , just before the 2005 – 06 season , the team traded long @-@ time player Marian Hossa for Dany Heatley . The media predicted the Senators to be Stanley Cup contenders in 2005 – 06 , as they had a strong core of players returning , played in an up @-@ tempo style fitting the new rule changes and Hasek was expected to provide top @-@ notch goaltending . The team rushed out of the gate , winning 19 of the first 22 games , in the end winning 52 games and 113 points , placing first in the conference , and second overall . The newly formed ' CASH ' line of Alfredsson , Spezza and newly acquired Dany Heatley established itself as one of the league 's top offensive lines . Hasek played well until he was injured during the 2006 Winter Olympics , forcing the team to enter the playoffs with rookie netminder Ray Emery as their starter . Without Hasek , the club bowed out in a second round loss to the Buffalo Sabres . = = = = 2006 – 07 : Trip to the Stanley Cup finals = = = = In 2006 – 07 , the Senators reached the Stanley Cup Finals after qualifying for the playoffs in nine consecutive seasons . The Senators had a high turn @-@ over of personnel and the disappointment of 2006 to overcome and started the season poorly . Trade rumours swirled around Daniel Alfredsson for most of the last months of 2006 . The team lifted itself out of last place in the division to nearly catch the Buffalo Sabres by season 's end , placing fourth in the Eastern Conference . The team finished with 105 points , their fourth straight 100 @-@ point season and sixth in the last eight . In the playoffs , Ottawa continued its good play . Led by the ' CASH ' line , goaltender Ray Emery , and the strong defence of Chris Phillips and Anton Volchenkov , the club defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins , the second @-@ ranked New Jersey Devils and the top @-@ ranked Buffalo Sabres to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals . First Stanley Cup finals in the capital in 80 years The 2006 – 07 Senators thus became the first Ottawa team to be in the Stanley Cup final since 1927 and the city was swept up in the excitement . Businesses along all of the main streets posted large hand @-@ drawn " Go Sens Go " signs , residents put up large displays in front of their homes or decorated their cars . A large Ottawa Senators flag was draped on the City Hall , along with a large video screen showing the games . A six @-@ storey likeness of Daniel Alfredsson was hung on the Corel building . Rallies were held outside of City Hall , car rallies of decorated cars paraded through town and a section of downtown , dubbed the " Sens Mile , " was closed off to traffic during and after games for fans to congregate . In the Final , the Senators now faced the Anaheim Ducks , considered a favourite since the start of the season , a team the Senators had last played in 2006 , and a team known for its strong defence . The Ducks won the first two games in Anaheim 3 – 2 and 1 – 0 . Returning home , the Senators won game three 5 – 3 , but lost game four 3 – 2 . The Ducks won game five 6 – 2 in Anaheim to clinch the series . The Ducks had played outstanding defence , shutting down the ' CASH ' line , forcing Murray to split up the line . The Ducks scored timely goals and Ducks ' goaltender Jean @-@ Sebastien Giguere out @-@ played Emery . = = = = 2007 – 11 : A team in decline = = = = In the off @-@ season after the Stanley Cup Final , Bryan Murray 's contract was expiring , while GM John Muckler had one season remaining , at which he was expected to retire . Murray , who had previously been at GM for other NHL clubs , was expected to take over the GM position , although no public timetable was given . Owner Melnyk decided to offer Muckler another position in the organization and give the GM position to Murray . Muckler declined the offer and was relieved from his position . Melnyk publicly justified the move , saying that he expected to lose Murray if his contract ran out . Murray then elevated John Paddock , the assistant coach , to head coach of the Senators . Under Paddock , the team came out to a record start to the 2007 – 08 season . However , team play declined to a .500 level and the team looked to be falling out of the playoffs . Paddock was fired by Murray , who took over coaching on an interim basis . The club managed to qualify for the playoffs by a tie @-@ breaker , but was swept in the first round of the playoffs to the Pittsburgh Penguins . In June , the club bought @-@ out goaltender Ray Emery , who had become notorious for off @-@ ice events in Ottawa and lateness to several team practices . For 2008 – 09 , Murray hired Craig Hartsburg to coach the Senators . Under Hartsburg 's style , the Senators struggled and played under .500 . Uneven goaltending with Martin Gerber and Alex Auld meant the team played cautiously to protect the goaltender . Murray 's patience ran out in February 2009 with the team well out of playoff contention and Hartsburg was fired , although he had two years left on his contract , and the team also had Paddock under contract . Cory Clouston was elevated from the Binghamton coaching position . The team played above .500 under Clouston and rookie goaltender Brian Elliott , who had been promoted from Binghamton . Gerber was waived from the team at the trading deadline and the team traded for goaltender Pascal Leclaire , although he would not play due to injury . The team failed to make the playoffs for the first time in 12 seasons . Auld would be traded in the off @-@ season to make room . Clouston 's coaching had caused a rift with top player Dany Heatley ( although unspecified " personal issues " were also noted by Heatley ) and after Clouston was given a contract to continue coaching , Heatley made a trade demand and was traded just before the start of the 2009 – 10 season . In 2009 – 10 , the Senators were a .500 team until January , when the team went on a team @-@ record 11 @-@ game winning streak . The streak propelled the team to the top of the Northeast Division standings and a top @-@ three placing for the playoffs . The team was unable to hold off the Sabres for the division lead , but qualified for the playoffs in the fifth position . For the third season in four , the Senators played off against the Pittsburgh Penguins in the first round . A highlight for the Senators was winning a triple @-@ overtime fifth game in Pittsburgh , but the team was unable to win a playoff game on home ice , losing the series in six games . = = = = 2011 – present : Rebuilding = = = = The Senators had a much poorer than expected 2010 – 2011 campaign , resulting in constant rumours of a shakeup right through until December . The rumours were heightened in January after the team went on a lengthy losing streak . January was a dismal month for the Senators , winning only one game all month . Media speculated on the imminent firing of Clouston , Murray or both . Owner Melynk cleared the air in an article in the January 22 , 2011 edition of the Ottawa Sun . Melnyk stated that he would not fire either Clouston or Murray , but that he had given up on this season and was in the process of developing a plan for the future . On Monday , January 24 , the Globe and Mail reported that the plan included hiring a new general manager before the June entry draft and that Murray would be retained as an advisor to the team . A decision on whether to retain Clouston would be made by the new general manager . The article by Roy MacGregor , a long @-@ time reporter of the Ottawa Senators , stated that former assistant coach Pierre McGuire had already been interviewed . Murray , in a press conference that day , stated that he wished to stay on as the team 's general manager . He also stated that Melnyk was allowing him to continue as general manager without restraint . Murray said that the players were now to be judged by their play until the February 28 trade deadline . Murray would attempt to move " a couple , at least " of the players for draft picks or prospects at that time if the Senators remained out of playoff contention . At the time of Murray 's comments the team was eight games under .500 and 14 points out of a playoff position after 49 games . Murray started with the trading of Mike Fisher to the Nashville Predators in exchange for a first round pick in the 2011 draft . Fisher already had a home in Nashville with new wife Carrie Underwood . The trading of Fisher , a fan favourite in Ottawa , lead to a small anti @-@ Underwood backlash in the city with the banning of her songs from the play lists of some local radio stations . Murray next traded Chris Kelly , another veteran , to the Boston Bruins for a second round pick in the 2011 draft . A few days later , pending unrestricted free agent Jarkko Ruutu was sent to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for a sixth round pick in 2011 . A swap of goaltenders was made with the Colorado Avalanche which brought Craig Anderson to Ottawa in exchange for Brian Elliott . Both goalies were having sub @-@ par seasons prior to the trade . Under @-@ achieving forward Alex Kovalev was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins for a seventh round draft pick . On trade deadline day , Ottawa picked up goaltender Curtis McElhinney on waivers and traded Chris Campoli with a seventh round pick to the Chicago Blackhawks for a second round pick and Ryan Potulny . Goaltender Anderson played very well down the stretch for Ottawa , and the team quickly signed the soon @-@ to @-@ be unrestricted free agent to a four @-@ year contract . After media speculation on the future of Murray within the organization , Murray was re @-@ signed as general manager on April 8 to a three @-@ year extension . On April 9 , Head Coach Cory Clouston and assistants Greg Carvel and Brad Lauer were dismissed from their positions . Murray said that the decision was made based on the fact that the team entered the season believing it was a contender , but finished with a 32 – 40 – 10 record . Former Detroit Red Wings ' assistant coach Paul MacLean was hired as Clouston 's replacement on June 14 , 2011 . As the 2011 – 12 season began , many hockey writers and commentators were convinced that the Senators would finish at or near the bottom of the NHL standings . In the midst of rebuilding , the Ottawa lineup contained many rookies and inexperienced players . The team struggled out of the gate , losing five of their first six games before a reversal of fortunes saw them win six games in a row . In December 2011 , the team acquired forward Kyle Turris from the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for David Rundblad and a draft pick . The team improved its play afterwards and moved into a playoff position before the All @-@ Star Game . For the first time in Senators ' history , the All @-@ Star Game was held in Ottawa , and it was considered a great success . Five Senators were voted in or named to the event , including Daniel Alfredsson , who was named captain of one team . The team continued its playoff push after the break . After starting goalie Craig Anderson injured his hand in a kitchen accident at home , the Senators called up Robin Lehner from Binghamton and acquired highly regarded goaltender Ben Bishop from the St. Louis Blues . While Anderson recovered , the team continued its solid play . On April 1 , 2012 , the Senators defeated the New York Islanders 5 – 1 , officially ensuring a playoff position . The team finished as the eighth seed in the Eastern Conference , drawing a first round playoff matchup against the Conference champion New York Rangers . Ultimately , Ottawa lost the series in seven games . The next season , Ottawa would be challenged to repeat the success they had in 2011 – 12 , due to long @-@ term injuries to key players such as Erik Karlsson , Jason Spezza , Milan Michalek and Craig Anderson . Despite these injuries , the Senators would finish seventh in the Eastern Conference and head coach Paul MacLean would go on to win the Jack Adams Award as the NHL 's coach of the year . Ottawa would play the second @-@ seeded Montreal Canadiens in the first round of the playoffs , eventually winning in five games , blowing out Montreal 6 – 1 in games three and five . The Senators would advance to play the top @-@ seeded Pittsburgh Penguins in the second round , this time losing in five games . During the off @-@ season , the Senators traded veteran defenceman Sergei Gonchar to the Dallas Stars for a sixth round pick in the 2013 draft . July 5 , 2013 , would be a day of mixed emotions for the city and fans , as long @-@ time captain Daniel Alfredsson signed a one @-@ year contract with the Detroit Red Wings , leaving Ottawa after 17 seasons with the Senators and 14 as captain . The signing shocked numerous fans across the city and many within the Senators organization . The day finished optimistically however , as Murray acquired star forward Bobby Ryan from the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for forwards Jakob Silfverberg , Stefan Noesen and a first round pick in the 2014 draft . The hope was that Ryan would be the guy to play on the top line with Jason Spezza after Alfredsson 's departure . Murray would also sign free agent forward Clarke MacArthur to a two @-@ year contract that same day and would sign free agent defenceman Joe Corvo to a one @-@ year contract three days later on July 8 , 2013 . For the 2013 – 14 NHL season , the league realigned and Ottawa was assigned to the new Atlantic Division along with the rest of the old Northeast Division , with the additions of the Columbus Blue Jackets and Detroit Red Wings , formerly of the Western Conference . The re @-@ alignment brought increased competition to qualify for the playoffs , as there were now 16 teams in the Eastern Conference fighting for eight playoff spots . The season began with a changing of leadership , as on September 14 , 2013 , the Ottawa Senators named Jason Spezza their eighth captain in franchise history . While new addition Clarke MacArthur had a career year , Ryan and Spezza struggled to find chemistry , and Ryan was moved to a line with MacArthur and Kyle Turris , where he fared much better . Bobby Ryan also ran into injury problems during the season , and while there were times where Joe Corvo played solidly , he eventually lost his place in the lineup . The club struggled on defence , as shots and goals against numbers increased from the previous season . The club was a sub .500 team much of the season , or only a few games above and never was in a playoff position all season . At the trade deadline , Murray traded for flashy right winger Ales Hemsky from the Edmonton Oilers , quickly finding success on a line with Spezza and Michalek . The club , however , was eliminated from playoff contention in the last week of the season . At the end of the season , the club failed to come to terms on a new contract with Hemsky and captain Jason Spezza requested a trade out of Ottawa . At the 2014 NHL Entry Draft , a potential trade to the Nashville Predators was negotiated by Murray but rejected by Spezza , as the Predators were one of the teams on his limited no @-@ trade list . A deal with the Dallas Stars was eventually reached , and Spezza was sent , along with Ludwig Karlsson , in exchange for Alex Chiasson , Nick Paul , Alex Guptill and a 2015 second @-@ round pick . During the off @-@ season , the club signed free agent forward David Legwand to a two @-@ year , $ 6 million contract . At the beginning of the 2014 – 15 season , defenceman Erik Karlsson was named the franchise 's ninth captain , with the club also re @-@ signing Bobby Ryan to a seven @-@ year extension . After firing head coach Paul MacLean after 27 games with an 11 @-@ 11 @-@ 5 record and replacing him with Dave Cameron , the Senators would win 32 of their last 55 games . Goaltender Andrew Hammond would compile a record of 20 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 , a goals against average of 1 @.@ 79 , and a save percentage of .941 to get the team back into playoff position . The Senators later became the first team in modern NHL history to overcome a 14 @-@ point deficit at any juncture of the season to qualify for the playoffs . However , the Senators lost to the Canadiens in six games in the first round of the playoffs . During the 2014 – 15 season , it was announced that Murray had cancer . Taking regular treatment , Murray chose to stay on as GM through the 2015 – 16 season . Despite posting the best record of any Canadian team in the league , the Senators failed to make the playoffs in what was considered a disappointing season ( all seven Canadian teams missed the playoffs ) . Murray made one ' blockbuster ' 11 @-@ player trade that brought Toronto Maple Leafs ' captain Dion Phaneuf to the Senators before the trade deadline with the Senators outside of a playoff position , but the team could not put together another run and finished with 85 points for fifth in the division . = = = 2016 – present = = = On April 10 , 2016 , the day after the final game of the 2015 – 16 season , Murray announced his resignation as manager and that he would continue in an advisory role with the club . Assistant general manager Pierre Dorion was elevated to the general manager position . On April 12 , 2016 , the Senators fired head coach Dave Cameron . On May 8 , 2016 , the Senators hired former Tampa Bay Lightning head coach Guy Boucher as their new head coach . On the following day , Marc Crawford was announced as associate coach . In June , 2016 , the Senators hired Rob Cookson as an assistant coach , who had worked with both Boucher and Crawford in Switzerland , and Pierre Groulx as a goaltending coach . = = Home rinks = = = = = Ottawa Civic Centre = = = The new Senators ' first home arena was the Ottawa Civic Centre , located on Bank Street , where they played from the 1992 @-@ 93 season to January of the 1995 @-@ 96 season . They played their first home game on October 8 , 1992 against the Montreal Canadiens with lots of pre @-@ game spectacle . The Senators would defeat the Canadiens 5 – 3 in one of few highlights that season . Montreal would eventually finish the season as Stanley Cup champions . Following the initial excitement of the opening night victory , the club floundered badly and would eventually tie with the San Jose Sharks for the worst record in the league , finishing with only 10 wins , 70 losses and 4 ties for 24 points , three points better than the NHL record for futility . = = = Canadian Tire Centre = = = As part of its bid to land a NHL franchise for Ottawa , Terrace Corporation unveiled the original proposal for the arena development at a press conference in September 1989 . The proposal included a hotel and 20 @,@ 500 seat arena , named The Palladium on 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) , surrounded by a 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) mini @-@ city , named " West Terrace . " The site itself , 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) of farmland , on the western border of Kanata , had been acquired in May 1989 by Terrace . Rezoning approval was granted by the Board on August 28 , 1991 , with conditions . The conditions imposed by the board included a scaling down of the arena to 18 @,@ 500 seats , a moratorium on development outside the initial 100 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) arena site , and that the cost of the highway interchange with highway 417 be paid by Terrace . A two @-@ year period was used seeking financing for the site and interchange by Terrace Corporation . The corporation received a $ 6 million grant from the federal government , but needed to borrow to pay for the rest of the costs of construction . A ground @-@ breaking ceremony was held in June 1992 but actual construction did not start until July 7 , 1994 . Actual construction took 18 months , finishing in January 1996 . The newly built Palladium opened on January 15 , 1996 with a concert by Canadian rocker Bryan Adams . The Senators played their first game in their new arena two days later , falling 3 @-@ 0 to the Montreal Canadiens . On February 17 , 1996 , the name ' Palladium ' was changed to the ' Corel Centre ' when Corel Corporation , an Ottawa software company , signed a 10 @-@ year deal for the naming rights . When mortgage holder Covanta Energy ( the former Ogden Entertainment ) went into receivership in 2001 , Terrace was expected to pay off the entire debt . The ownership was not able to refinance the arena , eventually leading Terrace itself to declare bankruptcy in 2003 . However , on August 26 , 2003 , billionaire businessman Eugene Melnyk finalized the purchase of the Senators and the arena . The arena and club became solely owned by Melnyk through a new company , Capital Sports Properties . In 2004 , the ownership applied to expand its seating . In December 2004 , the City of Ottawa amended its by @-@ laws and in 2005 , the venue was allowed to increase its seating capacity to 19 @,@ 153 and total attendance capacity to 20 @,@ 500 when including standing room . On January 19 , 2006 , the arena became known as ' Scotiabank Place ' after reaching a new 15 @-@ year naming agreement with Canadian bank Scotiabank on January 11 , 2006 . Scotiabank had been an advertising partner with the club for several years and took over the naming after Corel declined to renew its naming agreement with the Senators , but continued as an advertising sponsor . On June 18 , 2013 , the Ottawa Senators announced a new marketing agreement with Canadian Tire , and as a result , the arena was renamed the Canadian Tire Centre on July 1 , 2013 . = = Team identity = = = = = Logo and jersey design = = = The team colours are red , black and white , with added trim of gold . The team 's away jersey is mostly white with red and black trim , while the home jersey is red , with white and black trim . The club logo is officially the head of a Roman general , a member of the Senate of the Roman Republic , projecting from a gold circle . The original , unveiled on May 23 , 1991 , described the general as a " centurion figure , strong and prominent " according to its designer , Tony Milchard . The current jersey design was unveiled on August 22 , 2007 , in conjunction with the league @-@ wide adoption of the Rbk EDGE jerseys by Reebok for the 2007 – 08 season . The jersey incorporates the original Senators ' ' O ' logo as a shoulder patch . At the same time , the team updated its logos , and switched their usage . The primary logo , which according to team owner Eugene Melnyk , " represents strength and determination " is an update of the old secondary logo . The old primary logo has become the team 's secondary logo and only appears on Senators ' merchandise . In 2011 , the Senators introduced their current third jersey design . Mostly black , the jersey incorporated horizontal striping intended to be reminiscent of the original Senators ' ' barber @-@ pole ' designs . Shield @-@ type patches were added to the shoulders . The design of the shield @-@ type patches was intended to be similar to the shield patches that the original Senators added to their jerseys after each Stanley Cup championship win . The patches spell the team name , one in English , and one in French . The design was a collaborative effort between the Senators and a fan in Gatineau , Quebec who had been circulating a version of it on the internet since 2009 . = = = Attendance and revenues = = = On April 18 , 2008 , the club announced its final attendance figures for 2007 – 08 . The club had 40 sell @-@ outs out of 41 home dates , a total attendance of 812 @,@ 665 during the regular season , placing the club third in attendance in the NHL . The number of sell @-@ outs and the total attendance were both club records . The previous attendance records were set during the 2005 – 06 with a season total of 798 @,@ 453 and 33 sell @-@ outs . In 2006 – 07 regular season attendance was 794 @,@ 271 , with 31 sell @-@ outs out of 41 home dates or an average attendance of 19 @,@ 372 . In the 2007 playoffs , the Senators played 9 games with 9 sell @-@ outs and an attendance of 181 @,@ 272 for an average of 20 @,@ 141 , the highest in team history . On November 29 , 2011 , a Forbes magazine report valued the Ottawa Senators Hockey Club at $ 201 million , ( 17th highest in NHL ) . The valuation was based on $ 27 million for the sport , $ 70 million for the arena , $ 80 million for the market and $ 25 million for the brand . For 2010 – 11 , the club had an operating income of $ 2 @.@ 8 million on revenues of $ 100 million . The gate receipts for the 2010 – 11 season were $ 46 million and player expenses were $ 57 million . The operating income followed two years where the team posted a loss . Forbes estimates that the organization has a debt / value ratio of 65 % , including arena debt . Eugene Melnyk bought the team for $ 92 million in 2003 . A November 2014 report by Forbes valued the Senators at $ 400 million , 16th highest in the NHL . = = = Arena entertainment = = = At many home games the fans are entertained both outside and inside Canadian Tire Centre with a myriad of talent – live music , rock bands , giveaways and promotions . The live music includes the traditional Scottish music of the ' Sons of Scotland Pipe Band ' of Ottawa along with highland dancers . Before and during games , entertainment is provided by Spartacat , the official mascot of the Senators , an anthropomorphic lion . He made his debut on the Senators ' opening night : October 8 , 1992 . Anthems are usually sung by former Ontario Provincial Police Constable Lyndon Slewidge . Slewidge sings the bilingual version of O Canada containing both English and French words . The Senators have their own theme song Ottawa Senators Theme Song which is played as the team comes on the ice and is also used in Sens TV web videos . It was composed locally in Ottawa . = = = Sens Army = = = The fans of the Senators are known as the Sens Army . Like most hockey fanatics , they are known to dress up for games ; some in Roman legionary clothing . For the 2006 – 2007 playoff run , more fans than ever before would wear red , and fan activities included ' Red Rallies ' of decorated cars , fan rallies at Ottawa City Hall Plaza and the ' Sens Mile ' along Elgin Street where fans would congregate . = = = = Sens Mile = = = = Much like the Red Mile in Calgary during the Flames ' 2004 cup run and the Copper Kilometer in Edmonton during the Oilers ' 2006 cup run , Ottawa Senators fans took to the streets to celebrate their team 's success during the 2006 – 07 playoffs . The idea to have a ' Sens Mile ' on the downtown Elgin Street , a street with numerous restaurants and pubs , began as a grassroots campaign on Facebook by Ottawa residents before Game 4 of the Ottawa @-@ Buffalo Eastern Conference Final series . After the Game 5 win , Ottawa residents closed the street to traffic for a spontaneous celebration . The City of Ottawa then closed Elgin Street for each game of the Final . = = Broadcasting = = Ottawa Senators games are broadcast locally in both the French and English languages . As of the 2014 @-@ 15 season , regional television rights to the Senators ' regular season games not broadcast nationally by Sportsnet , TVA Sports , or Hockey Night in Canada are owned by Bell Media under a 12 @-@ year contract , with games airing in English on TSN5 , and in French on RDS . Regional broadcasts are available within the team 's designated region ( shared with the Montreal Canadiens ) , which includes the Ottawa River valley , Eastern Ontario ( portions are shared with the Toronto Maple Leafs , along with Quebec , the Maritime provinces and Newfoundland and Labrador . On radio , all home and away games are broadcast on a five @-@ station network stretching across Eastern Ontario , and including one American station , WQTK in Ogdensburg , New York . The flagship radio station is CFGO " TSN Radio 1200 " in Ottawa . Radio broadcasts on CFGO began in 1997 – 98 ; the contract has since been extended through the 2025 @-@ 2026 as part of Bell Media 's rights deal with the team . The Senators are broadcast on radio in French through Intersport Production and CJFO Unique FM in Ottawa . Nicolas St. Pierre provides play @-@ by @-@ play , with Alain Sanscartier as colour commentator . Sportsnet East held English regional rights to the Sens prior to the 2014 @-@ 15 season . In April 2014 , Dean Brown , who had called play @-@ by @-@ play for Senators games the team 's inception , stated that it was " extremely unlikely " that he would move to TSN and continue his role . He noted that the network already had four commentators among its personalities — including Gord Miller , Chris Cuthbert , Rod Black , and Paul Romanuk ( who was , however , picked up by Rogers for its national NHL coverage in June 2014 ) , who were likely candidates to serve as the new voices of the Senators . Brown ultimately moved to the Senators ' radio broadcasts alongside Gord Wilson . During the 2006 – 07 and 2007 – 08 seasons , several games were only available in video on pay @-@ per @-@ view or at local movie theatres in the Ottawa area . The " Sens TV " service was suspended indefinitely as of September 24 , 2008 . In 2010 , Sportsnet launched a secondary channel for selected Senators games as part of its Sportsnet One servuce . Selected broadcasts of Senators games in the French language were broadcast by RDS and TVA Sports . On the RDS network , Félix Séguin and former Senators goaltender Patrick Lalime were the announcers from the 2011 – 12 season to the 2013 @-@ 14 season , and Michel Y. Lacroix and Norman Flynn starting in the 2014 @-@ 15 season . The TVA Sports broadcast team consisted of Michel Langevin , Yvon Pedneault and Enrico Ciccone . = = Players and personnel = = = = = Current roster = = = Updated July 18 , 2016 . Sources : Ottawa Senators , TSN , CBS Sports = = = General managers = = = Source : Ottawa Senators 2009 – 10 Media Guide , p . 206 . = = = Honoured members = = = = = = = Hall of Famers = = = = Roger Neilson – Senators assistant coach & head coach ( 2001 – 03 ) , was inducted ( as a Builder ) on November 4 , 2002 , for his career in coaching . Dominik Hasek – Senators goaltender ( 2005 – 06 ) , was inducted in 2014 , for his career as a goalie . = = = = Retired numbers = = = = 1 Finnigan was honoured for his play from 1923 through 1934 for the original Ottawa Senators ( as a right wing , 1923 – 31 & 1932 – 34 ) . He was the last surviving Senator from the Stanley Cup winners of 1927 and participated in the ' Bring Back The Senators ' campaign . 99 ( Wayne Gretzky ) was retired by the NHL in February 2000 . = = = All @-@ time players = = = = = Team record = = Statistics and records are current after the 2015 – 16 season , except where noted . = = = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = = = For the full season @-@ by @-@ season history , see List of Ottawa Senators seasons Note : GP
= Games Played , W = Wins , L
= Losses , T = Ties , OTL
= Overtime Losses , Pts = Points , GF
= Goals for , GA = Goals against , PIM = Penalties in minutes Last five seasons = = = Team scoring leaders = = = These are the top @-@ ten regular season point @-@ scorers in franchise history , post @-@ 1992 , after the 2015 – 16 season : Note : Pos
= Position ; GP = Games Played ; G
= Goals ; A = Assists ; Pts
= Points ; P / G = Points per game average ; * = current Senators player ° = current NHL player Totals contain only games played for Ottawa . Source : Ottawa Senators Media Guide = = = NHL awards and trophies = = = = = = Team records = = = Source : Ottawa Senators .
= John R. Tunis = John Roberts Tunis ( December 7 , 1889 – February 4 , 1975 ) , " the ' inventor ' of the modern sports story " , was an American writer and broadcaster . Known for his juvenile sports novels , Tunis also wrote short stories and non @-@ fiction , including a weekly sports column for the The New Yorker magazine . As a commentator Tunis was part of the first trans @-@ Atlantic sports cast and the first broadcast of the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament to the United States . After graduating from Harvard and serving in the Army during World War I , Tunis began his writing career freelancing for American sports magazines while playing tennis in the Rivera . For the next two decades he wrote short stories and articles about sports and education for magazines including Reader 's Digest , The Saturday Evening Post and Esquire . Tunis ' work often protested the increasing professionalization of sports in America . He believed that amateur participation in sports taught values important for good citizenship like perseverance , fair play and equality , and that the emphasis on professional sports was turning America into a country of spectators . His sports books also tackled current social issues such as antisemitism and racial equality . Though Tunis never considered himself a children 's writer , all but one of his twenty @-@ four books were published for juveniles ; their success helped create the juvenile fiction book market in the 1940s . Books like Iron Duke ( 1938 ) , All American ( 1942 ) and Keystone Kids ( 1943 ) were well received by readers and critics . Iron Duke received the New York Herald Tribune Spring Book Festival Award for best juvenile novel and was named a The Horn Book Magazine Best Book . The Child Study Association of America gave its Golden Scroll Award to Keystone Kids . Tunis ' eight @-@ book baseball series about the Brooklyn Dodgers began with The Kid from Tomkinsville , a book often cited by sports writers and commentators as inspiring childhood reading . Phillip Roth used The Kid from Tomkinsville and its main character Roy Tucker in his book American Pastoral . It is also considered an influence for Bernard Malamud 's The Natural and Mark Harris ' Bang the Drum Slowly . = = Early years = = John Roberts Tunis was born December 7 , 1889 to John Arthur and Caroline Greene Roberts Tunis , a teacher , in Boston , Massachusetts . John Arthur came from a well @-@ to @-@ do family , which he upset by leaving the Episcopalian church to become a Unitarian minister . His family disowned him when he married Caroline , the daughter of a waiter . When Tunis was seven and his brother Robert five their father died of Bright 's disease ; no one from the Tunis side of the family attended the funeral . After his death their mother taught at Brearley School for girls in Manhattan , later moving the family to Cambridge , Massachusetts , where she ran a boarding house . Tunis ' maternal grandfather encouraged the brothers to take an interest in baseball . Two of young Tunis ' heroes were Boston Nationals ' baseball players Billy Hamilton and Fred Tenney . At age fourteen Tunis and his brother , too poor to pay the admission price , managed to watch a Davis Cup tennis match by climbing on top of a brewery wagon outside the courts . Tunis played tennis at Cambridge Latin School , then followed in his father 's footsteps to Harvard where he competed in tennis and ran track . He graduated from Harvard with a B. A. in 1911 , then got a job in a Newburyport , Massachusetts , cotton mill . Tunis became an officer in the U.S. Army , serving in France during World War I. On February 19 , 1918 , Tunis married Lucy Rogers in Cambridge , Massachusetts . They did not have any children . = = Early career = = = = = Freelance writing and sportscasting = = = In 1921 the couple went to Europe where Tunis freelanced as a sports writer for American publications and played in some tennis tournaments on the Riviera , including a match against King Gustaf V of Sweden , who was 70 at the time . Tunis also played a doubles match against the French women 's champion Suzanne Lenglen . Returning to the U.S. at the end of the summer , he dropped in on former Harvard classmate Lawrence Winship , the Sunday editor of The Boston Globe . When Winship learned that Tunis actually knew the flamboyant Lenglen , he insisted he write an article about her for the Globe before leaving the building . The pressure of that deadline caused him such anxiety that after half an hour of struggle he went to the building 's fire escape , " leaned over the railing , and threw up . I 'll never forget it . I wiped my face with copy paper . But I did the story . " Between 1920 and 1940 Tunis freelanced for a number of major magazines , including Reader 's Digest , Harper 's , Atlantic Monthly , Collier 's , The Saturday Evening Post and Esquire , writing primarily on two topics : sports and education . He also covered sports for the New York Evening Post from 1925 to 1932 and had a weekly column in The New Yorker . According to Norman Cousins in Writing for Love or Money , Tunis was known for producing " fact @-@ packed articles based upon research " . Working six days a week and taking the seventh to play tennis , Tunis published over 2 @,@ 000 articles and short stories , becoming one ofAmerica 's premier sportswriters . At the same time , Tunis worked as a sport announcer , including commentating for tennis events for NBC . By 1927 The Harvard Crimson felt comfortable calling him " a world 's authority on tennis " . He was part of the first trans @-@ Atlantic sports broadcast , a Davis Cup match from France in 1932 . In 1934 Tunis announced the first broadcast of the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament to a U.S. audience . According to Anita Silvey in Children 's Books and Their Creators , between broadcasting and journalism Tunis became a " household name " . = = = Novels and sports criticism = = = Tunis ' first novel , American Girl , appeared in 1930 . An unflattering and thinly veiled fictionalization of tennis star Helen Wills Moody , it became the basis for the 1951 movie Hard , Fast and Beautiful . It turned out to be the only one of Tunis ' novels to be published for adults . In 1936 , on the 25th anniversary of his graduation from Harvard , Tunis wrote Was College Worthwhile ? , a condemnation of the Ivy League school and of his classmates that became a best seller . Jerome Holtzman , in No Cheering in the Press Box , calls it " a searing assault on Harvard traditions " . Throughout his career he continued to write about education , including the chapter " New Leaven on the Campus " for Democracy 's Challenge to Education , and " Education and Ethics " for the Journal of Higher Education . The 1920 @-@ 1930s have been called the Golden Age of Sports , and Tunis was right in the middle of much of it as a commentator , writer , and athlete , but he often criticized what he saw . He disliked the way the media was covering sports and its players . In the 1920s some sports promoters bribed newspapers for favorable coverage , and he felt the media was glorifying the business and ignoring its problems . Tunis also believed that high salaries would destroy the pleasure and benefits sports brought the everyday player . His essay " The Great God Football " appeared in Harper 's Magazine in 1928 , attacking what he saw as the increasing commercialization of college football . The article became the center of a continuing controversy . A 2010 The Texas Observer cover story , titled The Golden Football : The University of Texas ’ Bad Example , opens with a two @-@ paragraph reference to Tunis ' article , and concludes by referring the reader back to Tunis ' 1928 description of college football as a " first @-@ class octopus strangling the legitimate pursuits of educational institutions . " " Who Owns Football ? " appeared in Sports Story Magazine in 1931 , in 2012 John Dinan 's Sports in the Pulp Magazines called it " timeless " . According to Ryan K. Anderson in Upon Further Review : Sports in American Literature , " By the 1940s , Tunis enjoyed a career based on the practice of criticizing those aspects of American culture that others took lightly " . " He felt that the more organized sports became , the more they led to the glorification of athletes , turning the United States into a country of spectators . As much as he loved sports , his writings often tried to show the need for balance in personal and national life . At one point he declared " Sports is the great opium of the people . It has become an addiction . It has made them forget more important things . " = = Later career = = = = = 1940s = = = As the Depression took its toll on magazine finances , Tunis began working on another novel , Iron Duke , the story of a small @-@ town Iowa football star who struggles to fit in with his elite classmates at Harvard , and eventually finds strength through success as a runner . He wrote the book for adults , but Alfred Harcourt wanted to publish and market it for juveniles . This initially dismayed Tunis , partly because at that time the separate field of young @-@ adult fiction did not exist , and Tunis did not consider himself a children 's writer . He eventually agreed and in 1938 Harcourt , Brace published Iron Duke as a children 's book . The novel won the New York Herald Tribune Spring Book Festival Award for best juvenile novel and opened a new arena for Tunis . Tunis ' success with these books made him one of a handful of writers who helped establish the young @-@ adult market as a separate field . Kirkus Reviews gave Iron Duke a starred review among " books of remarkable merit " , its reviewer calling it " One of the best modern college stories I have read " . It was also named a The Horn Book Magazine Fanfare Best Book for 1938 . The following year Harcourt released the sequel , The Duke Decides , which covers Duke 's senior year at Harvard . Duke 's participation as part of the U.S. Olympic team in Germany allowed Tunis to highlight the growing totalitarianism in Europe . Iron Duke was Tunis ' best selling novel and remains his most well known work . In 1940 Tunis received $ 200 from his publisher to visit the Dodgers ' spring training camp in Clearwater , Florida . He then began work on his first baseball novel . The Kid from Tomkinsville became the first in a series of eight books about the Brooklyn Dodgers . In it , Tunis introduced rookie pitcher Roy Tucker and his teammates : " Bones " Hathaway , " Razzle " Nugent and " Fat Stuff " Foster . Tunis says in a note at the beginning of the book that " all the characters in this book were drawn from real life . " Though his papers only list Tucker as " Number 36 " , they do say that , among others , " Gabby " Gus was based on Leo Durocher and Tucker 's Rabbi was inspired by Luke Sewell . Kirkus gave it another starred review , saying it " struck a new note " . Tucker 's story continues in 1941 's World Series . The next year Tunis took a break from baseball stories to release two novels that again received starred reviews from Kirkus . Million Miler , based on the life of TWA and U.S. Air Corps pilot Jack Zimmerman , was overshadowed by his other 1942 release , All American , called by Simon Certner in The English Journal " the most superb novel produced in its genre " . All American centers on football star Ronald Perry , who in protest over anti @-@ Semitic activity and guilt for his part in it , leaves his prep school to play football for the local public high school , which does not exactly welcome him . Perry ultimately adjusts and becomes accepted , leading his new team to a postseason playoff . However , the team is invited only if they agree not to bring their one African @-@ American player . Initially Perry is the only one who objects to this , but his refusal eventually stirs other students and parents to protest as well . Kirkus Reviews said of Tunis ' only football novel , " This is one of the BIG books of the Fall , and should not be pigeonholed for junior reading . " It further praised the book for illustrating " the whole rounded picture of race and color problems facing young and old today " . Sixty @-@ eight years later D.G. Myers , in " About the Manliest Sport " , his 2010 article for Commentary magazine , decries the lack of good novels about football , calling All American " the best of a bad harvest ... No one is better at describing the action on the field " , though Myers warns that " readers will find Tunis dated " . In a chapter titled " John R. Tunis : The Best of the Best " , Michelle Nolan 's 2010 book Ball Tales praises All American as " a perceptive novel of character , of morals , and it 's far ahead of its time " . Just how ahead of its time may be seen when Nolan points out that Hans Walleen 's illustrations " may be the first of an African American football player in action in an American sports novel . " With 1943 's Keystone Kids , Tunis returned to his beloved Dodgers , again addressing anti @-@ Semitism , this time as manager and shortstop Spike Russell struggles to get his brother , and the rest of the team , to accept star catcher Jocko Klein . Keystone Kids received the Child Study Association of America Golden Scroll Award as the " most challenging children 's book of the year " . The next Dodgers novel , Rookie of the Year , appeared in 1944 . Manager Russell struggles with an arrogant new pitcher . The same year Yea ! Wildcats ! took Tunis , and the reader , to Indiana for high school basketball tournament season . Tunis actually visited Indiana for his research , living with a key player and his family during tournament season . Called by Ball Tales " Hoosiers four decades before Hoosiers " , the entire Varsity team is cut over a discipline infraction , and coach Don Henderson must resist the pressures of parents and community to win at all costs . Kirkus says Yea ! Wildcats ! was " a plea for clean sport – sport for sports sake , not for gamblers – and for taking money and politics out of school sport . " Coach Henderson returned the next year in A City for Lincoln , working with juvenile delinquents and eventually running for mayor . In both these books Tunis returns to a favorite theme noted by Ryan K. Anderson in his survey of Tunis ' World War II era writings ; that parents , administrators , gamblers and other adult fans " injected improper values " into amateur sports . In one speech Coach Henderson says " I don 't really believe there are any bad kids , leastways not many . One or two , one or two perhaps ... but there 's plenty of bad parents . " World War II was on Tunis ' mind while he wrote . In 1946 's The Kid Comes Back he takes Roy Tucker into occupied France , where a plane crash injures Tucker 's back . Returning to the Dodgers , Tucker struggles to overcome his injury and cope with being the old man on the team . He becomes the voice of Tunis , emphasizing team spirit over individual glory , when he aids the rookie trying to replace him , saying " What helps you helps all " . Tunis ' sixth Dodgers novel , Highpockets , came out in 1948 . The title is the nickname for Cecil McDade , the talented rookie outfielder whose arrogance causes problems on and off the field . The novel won the Boy Scouts of America 's junior book award for 1949 . Son of the Valley , which also came out that year , is one of Tunis ' few non @-@ sports related novels , dramatizing the struggle for acceptance of the Tennessee Valley Authority among rural families displaced by a new dam . A portion of it was excerpted as " Johnny 's Experiment " in Told Under Spacious Skies . 1949 saw the publication of his next @-@ to @-@ last book about the Dodgers . Young Razzle is the story of veteran pitcher Razzle Nugent and his estranged rookie son , who reconcile during Razzle 's final season of baseball . Ball Tales calls it " Tunis ' most entertaining , if not profound , story . " = = = 1950s = = = Tunis ' next novel , Go Team Go , set in 1954 , returns to Indiana basketball . Again a coach risks the support of fans by cutting players , including the team star . The hero , Tom Williams , comes to see that his coach was right , and gets his father 's respect – and the girl – by helping the new team move forward . Buddy and the Old Pro is a 1955 novel about Pop Warner football . Tunis disliked organized sports for young children , saying " I 've always believed Little League is harmful to the extreme . It 's for the parents , and that 's what I object to ... I don 't like the idea of having little boys playing in front of their parents and friends . Little boys should be playing their sports by themselves . " In what Michelle Nolan in Ball Tales calls a " remarkable book " , Tunis uses his only non @-@ Dodgers baseball novel to emphasize a favorite theme when the young protagonist admits to his father " it 's better to lose , much as it hurts , than to play dirty " . Schoolboy Johnson closed out the decade in 1959 . Roy Tucker and teammate Speedy Mason are cut from the Dodgers and end up together on a Triple @-@ AAA team . When both men get called back , the older and wiser players teach young Schoolboy the meaning of the game . " Baseball is a test of character , how you react under pressure " . Schoolboy Johnson ended Tunis ' Dodgers series , and it was his last true sports novel until 1973 's Grand National . = = = 1960s = = = Tunis wrote only two novels in the 1960s , both set during World War II . Silence over Dunkerque appeared in 1962 . It tells the story of the evacuation of Dunkerque during World War II . The book received a starred review from Kirkus . Gail Murray in Boyhood in America called it " moving " and Children Experience Literature said it was a " grimly realistic picture of warfare and its effect on both soldiers and civilians " . According to the International Reading Association , while reading it " children may be helped to understand that history is always someone 's interpretation ... For in this story the author had the courage to admit that our men were sometimes less than brave in their desperate struggle to survive " . Tunis ' autobiography , A Measure of Independence , appeared in 1964 . Ball Tales makes it " Highly recommended for anyone who aspires to be , or remain , a freelance writer " . It barely mentions any of Tunis ' sports books , concentrating instead on his magazine career . According to The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography , some critics consider A Measure of Independence " a powerful dramatic novel written under the guise of an autobiography " . His Enemy , His Friend appeared in 1967 . Tunis considered this second World War II book to be his best work . Horn Book agreed , calling it " his finest novel ... With its irony and eloquence the story not only shows the futility of war but carries the central character to the heights of the protagonist in a Greek tragedy " . Opening with an Author 's Note stating " This is a book about the conscience of a man " , the story tells of a German sergeant , a convicted war criminal remembered by the French as the Butcher of Nogent @-@ Plage , who returns to the area twenty years after the war 's end , to play soccer . Literature IS ... Collected Essays says the novel " lays bare man 's age @-@ old confusion between his inner conscience and the demands of his culture " . = = = 1970s and death = = = In 1973 Tunis ' final sports novel appeared . Boys ' Life published an excerpt from Grand National and gave the book a positive review , calling it " exciting " . Kirkus , however , found it " sentimental " and " tepid " . The publication of Grand National brought Tunis ' total number of juvenile novels to twenty @-@ three . John R. Tunis , according to D. G. Myers " perhaps the greatest sports novelist of all time " , died on February 4 , 1975 , in Boston , Massachusetts , survived by his wife , Lucy Rogers . His papers are held at Boston University . = = Themes = = Leonard Marcus in Minders of Make @-@ Believe : Idealists , Entrepreneurs , and the Shaping of American Children 's Literature , says " Tunis 's books were never only about sports " , noting " the author 's determination to offer his readers basic lessons about good citizenship and fair play , and a chance to reflect on such rarely discussed social issues as racial equality and anti @-@ Semitism " . A doctoral study at Oklahoma State University in 1996 analyzed all of Tunis ' juvenile sports books . The predominant value found both in the books and their main characters was Courtesy / Fairness / Respect . The second most identified value was Compassion / Kindness . The study found that " the values are not portrayed didactically , as part of lessons , but rather as a natural part of the stories " . In his book What Would Frank Merriwell Do ? , Ryan Anderson also pointed out the recurring theme of fairness and sportsmanship over winning in both Tunis ' fiction and non @-@ fiction , saying " The common thread winding through all his writing became his dismay over the nation 's tendency to value winning above common decency . " In turning from primarily writing non @-@ fiction for adults to juvenile fiction Tunis did not abandon his emphasis on values over victory , but it did give him an audience that seemed more willing to listen . Rather than emphasize winning , Tunis believed that values like hard work and perseverance could be taught through sports . The 1951 football brochure for the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology Athletic Scholarship committee cites Tunis , saying " The athletic department would like to feel that the existing program can do for the engineer what John Tunis had in mind when he said , ' The deep objective of games really is to train one ’ s reflex of purpose to develop a habit of keeping steadily at something you want until it is done . ' " Many of Tunis ' biggest heroes find themselves eventually brought low , like Roy Tucker in The Kid Comes Back , whose wartime service injury may have destroyed his career , or Iron Duke Jim Wellington at Harvard , ostracized and lonely , who perseveres by running track . The real victory is in the character 's refusal to give up against long odds . " My heroes are the losers " he once said . " All my books have been in that vein . Every book I 've ever written . " In the Introduction to The Kid from Tomkinsville , Bruce Brooks writes " for Tunis a win was what happened at the ballpark some of the time , usually just before a loss . It didn 't make you a good person , anymore than a loss made you a jerk . " Tunis did not exclude the social issues of the times from his writing . In 1936 Foreign Affairs published " The Dictators Discover Sport " , about Hitler , Mussolini and their use of sports to influence , exploit and control their youth . Tunis also took on issues closer to home . He believed in the concept of " Democratic Sport " , that games open to any person " regardless of ethnicity , class , or skill " promoted the values America needed , and he used his stories to demonstrate those values , taking racism head on . According to the Child Study Association of America , in Keystone Kids " the issue of anti @-@ Semitism in American democracy is squarely faced and courageously met " . The 1942 Northwestern University radio program " Of Men and Books " featured All American in its episode titled " Children 's Books and American Unity " . In 1945 writer and reviewer Howard Pease wrote : " Only at infrequent intervals do you find a story intimately related to this modern world , a story that takes up a modern problem and thinks it through without evasion ... of our hundreds of authors , I can name only three who are doing anything to fill this void in children 's reading . These three authors — may someone present each of them with a laurel wreath — are Doris Gates , John R. Tunis , and Florence Crannell Means . " = = Legacy = = By the 1970s Tunis felt his message had been ignored or misunderstood by most Americans , saying " Nobody has paid attention ... There was a time when I expected to do some good . But that was a long while ago . " This may seem surprising considering that his New York Times obituary referred to him as a man who " helped educate a whole generation of Americans " . Perhaps seen in light of Tunis ' distrust of professional athletics , it can be understood . Though he may have felt his message against the commercialization of sports was ignored , there are those who cite Tunis as having made a lasting impact in publishing and to them personally and professionally . In literature Tunis ' contributions have sometimes been direct . His baseball books , especially The Kid from Tomkinsville , have been cited as one source of inspiration for Bernard Malamud 's book The Natural , about baseball star Roy Hobbs . Among other similarities , both Hobbs and Tucker started as pitchers but , thanks to accidents , ended up as outfielders and power @-@ hitters . It has been suggested by Michele Schiavone in her study of Tunis ' influence on Malamud and Roth that , as an early fan of the Dodgers , Malamud was familiar with Tunis ' books and borrowed from them , " consciously or not " . Bruce Brooks ' introduction to the 1987 edition of The Kid from Tomkinsville says that Tunis " obviously " inspired Mark Harris , author of Bang the Drum Slowly . And in what D. G. Myers in Best Baseball Books Ever called " one of the best pieces of ( literary ) criticism ever written " , The Kid from Tomkinsville is referenced by Nathan Zuckerman , the main character in Philip Roth 's novel American Pastoral . For Zuckerman , Tunis ' book and pitcher Roy Tucker become what Schiavone called " a template for Zuckerman 's view of the Swede " , and his realization of the " tragic underside to the American Dream " . A number of sportscasters , writers and journalists point to Tunis ' books as inspiration for their careers . Tunis is mentioned by author Daniel Okrent in the dedication for The Ultimate Baseball Book as one of " those responsible for the earliest roots of this project " . Writer and editor Tad Richards says , " I remember telling my mother ... ' When I grow up to be a writer , and people ask me about the greatest influence on my writing career , I 'm going to say John R. Tunis . ' " Among Tunis ' many childhood fans are sports writer and children 's author Thomas J. Dygard , Pulitzer Prize finalist Lee Martin , journalist Charles Kuralt and football legend Johnny Unitas . New York Post columnist and editor Pete Hamill picked The Kid From Tomkinsville as one of his five favorite sports novels , writing that " virtually every sportswriter I know remembers reading it as a boy . " In Partial Payment : Essays on Writers and Their Lives , literary critic Joseph Epstein devotes one chapter , " A Boy 's Own Author " , to Tunis . Epstein admits that re @-@ reading many childhood favorites can be disappointing , but found upon revisiting Tunis that his books are " pretty serious , and I was utterly absorbed in them " . In The Continuum Encyclopedia of Children 's Literature Nancy Horton called Tunis " the forefather of the genre of young adult sports fiction " . His novels changed the way sports fiction was written , adding depth by addressing social themes and adolescent issues . Up until his time sports stories focused solely on the games , and treated the athletes as Horatio Alger stereotypes . His stories gave the games context and addressed the pressures and problems of growing up in the spotlight , moving sports from the realm of pulp magazines to serious fiction . In his tribute to the writer , Bernard Hayes said " Tunis has probably made good readers of millions of young people . " His success with the juvenile audience helped change the publishing industry . Along with writers like Howard Pease , his books demonstrated to publishers that there was money to be made in targeting books for teenagers . His influence went beyond simply creating a market for young adult books . " In his attempt to link sports with the communities in which they are played , he broached some highly significant issues in the literature written for and about America 's youth " , according to John S. Simmons in John R. Tunis and the Sports Novels for Adolescents : A Little Ahead of His Time . Tunis never considered himself a writer of boys ' books , insisting his stories could be read and enjoyed by adults . He felt that the word " juvenile " was an " odious ... product of a merchandising age " . Despite his dislike of the term , Tunis ' novels helped create and shape the juvenile fiction book market . = = Fiction = = The Kid from Tomkinsville Brooklyn Dodgers series The Kid from Tomkinsville , Harcourt , Brace , 1940 ; Keystone Kids , Harcourt , Brace , 1943 ; World Series , Harcourt , Brace , 1944 ; Rookie of the Year , Harcourt , Brace , 1944 ; The Kid Comes Back , William Morrow , 1946 ; Highpockets , William Morrow , 1948 ; Young Razzle , William Morrow , 1949 ; Schoolboy Johnson , William Morrow , 1958 ; Basketball Yea ! Wildcats ! Harcourt , Brace , 1944 ; A City for Lincoln , Harcourt , Brace , 1945 ; Go Team Go , Morrow , 1954 ; Track and Field Iron Duke , Harcourt , Brace , 1938 ; The Duke Decides , Harcourt , Brace , 1939 ; Women 's tennis American Girl , Brewer and Warren , 1930 ; Champion 's Choice , Harcourt , Brace , 1940 ; World War II Silence over Dunkerque , William Morrow , 1962 , ( WWII ) ; His Enemy , His Friend , William Morrow , 1967 , ( WWII ) ; Other titles All American , Harcourt , Brace , 1942 , ( football ) ; Million Miler , The Story of an Air Pilot , Messner , 1942 , ( biography ) ; Son of the Valley , William Morrow , 1949 , ( Tennessee Valley Authority ) ; Buddy and the Old Pro , William Morrow , 1955 , ( Pop Warner football ) ; Grand National , William Morrow , 1973 , ( horse racing ) . = = Selected non @-@ fiction = = Was College Worthwhile ? , Harcourt , Brace , 1936 ; This Writing Game , A S Barnes , 1941 , ( collected essays ) ; Sport for the Fun of It , A. S. Barnes , 1950 , ( sports handbook ) ; The American Way in Sport , Duell , Sloan and Pearce , 1958 ; A Measure of Independence , Athenaeum , 1964 , ( autobiography ) .
= M @-@ 51 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 51 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the southwestern portion of the US state of Michigan . The southern terminus is at a connection with State Road 933 across the Michigan – Indiana state line near South Bend , Indiana . From there the trunkline runs north through an interchange with US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) into Niles along a route that was once part of Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . North of Niles , the highway runs parallel to a river and a rail line through rural areas . The northern terminus is on Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) west of Paw Paw . There were two other highways that bore the M @-@ 51 designation . The first connected Holland and Grand Rapids with the birth of the highway system in 1919 . After the creation of the United States Numbered Highway System in 1926 , the number was moved to a different highway in The Thumb area . That second highway was scaled back and later decommissioned in the 1960s . The current highway dates back to 1971 when the southern end of M @-@ 40 was rerouted , and the previous alignment was given the M @-@ 51 moniker . It was extended to the state line in 1998 to complete the current highway . = = Route description = = M @-@ 51 starts at the Indiana state line as a continuation of SR 933 into Michigan . The trunkline runs north through residential areas along 11th Street into Niles . On the south side of town , it meets US 12 at an interchange before continuing northward through commercial areas . Between the intersections with Maple and Main streets , M @-@ 51 splits into a one @-@ way pair of streets to follow 12th Street northbound and 11th Street southbound . Oak Street marks the western end of Bus . M @-@ 60 , and M @-@ 51 turns westward on Main Street into downtown Niles . At 5th Street , the highway turns north again to exit downtown . The highway crosses a rail line owned by Amtrak before curving northeasterly near the Plym Park Golf Course . M @-@ 51 angles parallel to the Dowagiac River and the Amtrak line as the highway crosses from Berrien County into Cass County . The landscape transitions to farmland along the river , and the highway turns to the east between Sumnerville and Pokagon . Past Pokagon , M @-@ 51 turns back northeasterly toward Dowagiac . Once the highway reaches that city , it merges with M @-@ 62 . The two highways run concurrently eastward along Spruce , Main and Division streets through downtown . M @-@ 51 turns to the north along Front Street , separating from the concurrency and leaving downtown . North of town in rural Cass County , M @-@ 51 intersects M @-@ 152 near location where the highway crosses the Dowagiac River . North of that intersection , the trunkline crosses into Van Buren County and turns to the east again . M @-@ 51 passes south of Knickerbocker Lake before turn northeasterly parallel to the rail line along Delaware Street in Decatur. after which is heads due north to I @-@ 94 . M @-@ 51 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 51 were the 20 @,@ 298 vehicles daily south of US 12 ; the lowest counts were the 2 @,@ 658 vehicles per day west of Decatur . M @-@ 51 between US 12 and the state line has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = = = = Previous designations = = = When the state highway system was originally signed in 1919 , M @-@ 51 was initially designated from Holland to Grand Rapids . The highway ran from Zeeland along a route that used Byron Road and 32nd Avenue to connect with Port Sheldon Street in Jenison before connecting with Chicago Drive . The highway 's course was simplified by 1924 to use Chicago Drive between Zeeland and Jenison . When the US Highway System debuted in 1926 , this original M @-@ 51 was renumbered as an extension of M @-@ 21 , and the M @-@ 51 number was reused for the original M @-@ 27 in The Thumb . The highway ran from Port Huron to M @-@ 83 ( now M @-@ 142 ) west of Harbor Beach . The designation of M @-@ 51 from Port Huron to M @-@ 46 was removed in late 1961 , and the remainder to M @-@ 142 was removed in 1965 . = = = Current designation = = = In 1971 , all of M @-@ 40 south of I @-@ 94 to Niles was reassigned the designation M @-@ 51 while M @-@ 40 was shifted to the east to take over the routing of the contemporary M @-@ 119 between Paw Paw and its intersection with US 12 in Porter Township near Mottville . The routing of M @-@ 51 was extended down to the state line in April 1998 when US 33 was decommissioned out of the state of Michigan ; the extension formed a concurrency with Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) through Niles in the process . In early 2010 , the central section of Bus . US 12 was transferred to the City of Niles . In doing so , the Bus . US 12 designation was decommissioned in the city , removing that designation from the M @-@ 51 concurrency . = = Major intersections = =

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