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= SS Mauna Loa =
SS Mauna Loa was a steam @-@ powered cargo ship of Matson Navigation Company that was sunk in the bombing of Darwin in February 1942 . She was christened SS West Conob in 1919 and renamed SS Golden Eagle in 1928 . At the time of her completion in 1919 , the ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Conob ( ID @-@ 4033 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned .
West Conob was built in 1919 for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , part of the West series of ships — steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort — and was the 14th ship built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in San Pedro , California . She initially sailed for the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and circumnavigated the globe twice by 1921 . She began sailing to South America for Swayne & Hoyt Lines in 1925 , and then , to Australia and New Zealand . When Swayne & Hoyt 's operation was taken over by the Oceanic and Oriental Navigation Company a few years later , she sailed under the name Golden Eagle until 1934 , when she was taken over by the Matson Navigation Company for service between Hawaii and the U.S. mainland and renamed Mauna Loa , after the large shield volcano on the Island of Hawaii .
Shortly before the United States ' entry into World War II , Mauna Loa was chartered by the United States Department of War to carry supplies to the Philippines . The ship was part of an aborted attempt to reinforce Allied forces under attack by the Japanese on Timor in mid @-@ February 1942 . After the return of her convoy to Darwin , Northern Territory , Mauna Loa was one of eight ships sunk in Darwin Harbour in the first Japanese bombing attack on the Australian mainland on 19 February . The remains of her wreck and her cargo are a dive site in the harbor .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. Some 40 West ships were built by Los Angeles Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Los Angeles , all given names that began with the word West . West Conob ( Los Angeles Shipbuilding yard number 14 ) was completed in May 1919 .
West Conob was 5 @,@ 899 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 1 inch ( 124 @.@ 99 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull and a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 600 DWT . Sources do not give West Conob 's other hull characteristics , but West Grama , a sister ship also built at Los Angeles Shipbuilding had a displacement of 12 @,@ 225 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) , and a hold 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep .
West Conob 's power plant consisted of a single triple @-@ expansion reciprocating steam engine with cylinders of 28 ½ , 47 , and 78 inches ( 72 , 120 , and 200 cm ) with a 48 @-@ inch ( 120 cm ) stroke . She was outfitted with three Foster water @-@ tube boilers , each with a heating area of 4 @,@ 150 square feet ( 386 m2 ) and containing 52 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) and 827 2 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) tubes . Her boilers were heated by mechanical oil burners fed by two pumps , each 6 by 4 by 6 inches ( 15 × 10 × 15 cm ) with a capacity of 30 U.S. gallons ( 110 L ) per minute . Fully loaded , the ship could hold 6 @,@ 359 barrels ( 1 @,@ 011 @.@ 0 m3 ) of fuel oil . West Conob 's single screw propeller was 17 feet 1 inch ( 5 @.@ 21 m ) in diameter with a 15 @-@ foot @-@ 3 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 65 m ) pitch and a developed area of 102 square feet ( 9 @.@ 5 m2 ) . The ship was designed to travel at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ) , and averaged 11 @.@ 1 knots ( 20 @.@ 6 km / h ) during her first voyage in June 1919 .
= = Career = =
After completion , West Conob was inspected by the 12th Naval District of the United States Navy for possible naval service and was assigned the identification number of 4033 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Conob ( ID @-@ 4033 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
Little information on the first years of West Conob 's career is found in sources . But it is known that she was operated by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company on Pacific routes . The ship departed Los Angeles on her maiden voyage to Hong Kong , making her way to San Francisco . West Conob departed from there on 13 June 1919 for Honolulu , where she arrived eight days later . After refueling at Honolulu , she headed to Hong Kong , and from there , retraced her route to return to San Francisco . Details of later voyages are not available , but by mid @-@ April 1921 , West Conob had completed two circumnavigations without needing to stop for repairs . At that time , the USSB allocated West Conob for service to Genoa .
In December 1925 , West Conob was allocated to Swayne & Hoyt Lines for service to the east coast of South America . By mid @-@ 1926 , West Conob was sailing for Swayne & Hoyt 's American @-@ Australian @-@ Orient Line when she was reported in the Los Angeles Times as sailing to New Zealand with 350 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 000 m2 ) of wallboard .
In October 1927 , the Los Angeles Times reported on the impending sale of West Conob and 18 other Swayne & Holt ships to a San Francisco financier . The ship later became a part of the fleet of the Oceanic and Oriental Navigation Company , a joint venture between Oceanic @-@ Matson , a subsidiary of Matson Navigation Company , and the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , established to take over operation of transpacific routes that had been managed for the USSB by Swayne & Holt Lines . Some time after March 1928 , the ship was renamed Golden Eagle , the name under which she operated for the next six years . Golden Eagle was sailing for Oceanic and Oriental from Los Angeles to Australia in March 1930 , when the Los Angeles Times reported that she had sailed with 6 @,@ 700 long tons ( 6 @,@ 800 t ) of case oil and 200 long tons ( 200 t ) of general merchandise .
In March 1934 , Matson began a new " sugar , molasses and pineapple service " from Hawaii to San Francisco , Los Angeles , and either Philadelphia or New York , featuring Golden Eagle and three other cargo ships . In May , after returning from New York on her first voyage in the new service , Golden Eagle entered drydock at Los Angeles for general repairs and repainting . She emerged in Matson livery and with the new name of Mauna Loa . She sailed on her maiden voyage under her new name to Honolulu with 4 @,@ 500 long tons ( 4 @,@ 600 t ) of general cargo in late May . Mauna Loa continued on the Hawaii – California – Philadelphia / New York service , occasionally making extra voyages from Los Angeles to Honolulu when dictated by cargo bookings . One such extra voyage occurred in February 1936 when she carried almost a full load of building materials for family dwellings in Hawaii .
In August 1936 , Mauna Loa diverted to respond to a distress call issued by the windjammer Pacific Queen some 700 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) southwest of Los Angeles . Pacific Queen had sailed from San Diego in July with a crew of 32 — most of whom were Sea Scouts — and had been missing for two weeks . Mauna Loa 's crew provided required supplies for the sailing vessel and her radioed messages prompted the United States Coast Guard to recall all of its vessels actively searching for Pacific Queen .
On 18 November 1941 , the War Department chartered Mauna Loa and seven other ships to carry supplies to the Philippines . Even though details of the charters were deemed confidential , the names of all eight ships were published in the Los Angeles Times two days later .
= = World War II = =
Less than three weeks after Mauna Loa 's charter , the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor propelled the United States into World War II . Mauna Loa 's movements over the next three months are unknown , but by mid @-@ February 1942 , she had made her way to Darwin , Northern Territory , Australia .
Japanese forces — advancing down the Malay Barrier , the notional Allied line of defense that ran down the Malayan Peninsula through Singapore and the southernmost islands of the Dutch East Indies — had reached the island of Timor by mid February . In order to prevent the fall of that island to the Japanese , which would give them a base within 400 miles ( 640 km ) of Darwin , the Allies assembled a joint American @-@ Australian force to reinforce the Australian Sparrow Force and Royal Dutch East Indies Army forces defending Timor .
The American cruiser Houston and destroyer Peary , and the Australian sloops Swan and Warrego , led Mauna Loa and three other civilian ships out of Darwin Harbour at about 03 : 00 on 15 February heading for Koepang with relief intended for Timor . Mauna Loa , loaded with 500 men , and United States Army transport ship Meigs carried an Australian infantry battalion and an antitank unit between them . The British refrigerated cargo ship Tulagi and the American cargo ship Portmar carried the 148th Field Artillery Regiment of the Idaho National Guard between them .
The ships were spotted by a Japanese Kawanishi H6K " Mavis " four @-@ engined flying boat that tailed the convoy at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . When Captain Albert H. Rooks of Houston requested air cover for the convoy , a lone Curtiss P @-@ 40 responded and engaged the Mavis , with each plane managing to shoot down the other . At around 09 : 00 the next day , another Mavis began trailing the convoy and at 11 : 00 , 36 land @-@ based Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 21 " Sally " twin @-@ engine bombers and ten seaplanes attacked in two waves . Houston , the primary target of the bombers , unleashed all of her available antiaircraft fire with neither bombs nor Houston 's fire being effective . In the second wave , from the southwest and after the ships had scattered , Houston shot down seven of forty @-@ four planes and repelled the attacking aircraft . Houston 's 900 rounds fired in the 45 @-@ minute attack resembled a " sheet of flame " , according to witnesses . The only casualties during the attack were from one near miss on Mauna Loa ; 1 crewman and 1 passenger were killed and 18 men were wounded in the attack . The convoy was ordered back to Darwin when word that Koepang had fallen to the Japanese was received ; she arrived back in Darwin on 18 February .
= = = Sinking = = =
On 19 February 1942 , the Japanese carrier striking force , consisting of aircraft carriers Akagi , Kaga , Hiryu , and Soryu under the command of Admiral Chuichi Nagumo , launched 189 planes to attack Darwin . The carrier planes rendezvoused with 54 land @-@ based bombers from Kendari and Ambon .
At the time of the raid the Mauna Loa and Meigs had unloaded troops and moved to anchorages with the force 's equipment and ammunition aboard with Neptuna and Zealandia unloading ammunition at the docks that were the first target of high altitude bombers . Both ships at the dock were hit with Neptuna exploding . After a second wave of bombers , concentrating on the airport , came waves of dive bombers that for two hours concentrated on ships in the harbor .
During the attack , Mauna Loa quickly sank after she was hit by two bombs that landed in an open hatch . None of her 37 @-@ man crew or 7 passengers was injured . Along with Mauna Loa , two other American ships , destroyer Peary and Army transport Meigs , were sunk . In addition to the many other ships that were damaged , five Commonwealth ships were sunk , including two Australian passenger ships in use as troopships , Neptuna and Zealandia . The total death toll for the attack was around 250 ; of the total , 157 died on ships .
What remains of Mauna Loa lies in Darwin Harbour at position 12 ° 29 @.@ 86 ′ S 130 ° 49 @.@ 16 ′ E at a depth of 60 feet ( 18 m ) , and is a dive site . Military trucks , Bren Gun Carriers , a Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycle , and many rounds of .303- and .50 @-@ caliber ammunition are among the pieces of Mauna Loa 's cargo that still lie strewn about the wreck .
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= Captive Pursuit =
" Captive Pursuit " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . The episode was written by executive producer Michael Piller and Jill Sherman Donner , and was directed by Corey Allen . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Tosk ( Scott MacDonald ) arrives on the station and befriends Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) , but is soon pursued by the Hunter ( Gerrit Graham ) , who follows him through the wormhole .
Scott MacDonald would later appear in several further roles in the franchise as well as a recurring character during season three of Star Trek : Enterprise . Graham , who appears in a guest role as the Hunter , had previously been considered for the main cast role of Odo . Michael Westmore designed the make @-@ up for Tosk to resemble an alligator ; his initial design for the Hunters was changed for budgetary reasons . The episode was praised by the cast and crew , and received a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 , placing it as one of the four most watched episodes of the first season . Critical reception was mostly positive , with critics approving of Meaney and MacDonald 's performances , but disliking the formulaic nature of the plot . The episode won an Emmy Award for best make @-@ up for a series .
= = Plot = =
A damaged , unidentified vessel from the Gamma Quadrant docks at Deep Space Nine for repairs . Its reptilian pilot , identified only as Tosk ( Scott MacDonald ) , is the first known life @-@ form from the Gamma Quadrant to visit the station . Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) suspects Tosk is running from something , due to evidence of weapons fire on his vessel . O 'Brien befriends Tosk and tries to help him repair his ship . However , Tosk attempts to steal from a weapons locker and is put in a holding cell by Security Chief Odo ( René Auberjonois ) .
Uniformed aliens arrive in the Alpha Quadrant through the wormhole , beam onto the DS9 promenade , and start a phaser battle with a team led by Commander Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) . The aliens fight their way into the brig where Tosk is being held . Sisko , O 'Brien and Odo enter the room as one of the aliens , the Hunter ( Gerrit Graham ) removes his helmet and expresses his disappointment to Tosk for capturing him alive . He commands Sisko to lower the forcefield and release Tosk , but Sisko refuses . They discuss the issue and the Hunter agrees to place the Bajoran Wormhole out of bounds for future hunts . As much as he detests this practice , Sisko believes that under the Prime Directive he must release Tosk to the aliens .
After talking to Quark ( Armin Shimerman ) in his bar , O 'Brien realises that he can change the rules of the hunt before Tosk is taken away by the Hunters . He lies to Odo and convinces him to release Tosk into his care , claiming it is a Starfleet , not a Bajoran matter . O 'Brien escorts the Hunter and Tosk to an airlock , but the Chief has it rigged to overload , knocking out the Hunter , allowing O 'Brien to help Tosk escape . In Ops , Sisko is informed about the situation and tells Odo to pursue the duo at a leisurely pace , giving O 'Brien time to help Tosk escape the station with the Hunters in pursuit . Later , an angry Sisko reprimands O 'Brien for his actions ; the Chief expresses his surprise at not being apprehended immediately by Odo . Sisko claims that he must have slipped up and gives O 'Brien a wry smile .
= = Production = =
Originally titled " A Matter of Breeding " , director Corey Allen said the episode intended to move away from the " squeaky clean " plots of Star Trek : The Next Generation . After the franchise 's creator Gene Roddenberry banned disagreements between characters in The Next Generation , this became one of the main elements that the producers wanted to include in the new series . In the episode , this was shown by O 'Brien releasing Tosk , but originally , during the teaser segment at the beginning , it was intended to show dabo girl Miss Sarda propositioning Commander Sisko . " We had long conversations on that and ultimately came down on the conservative side , but we 'd never even had that kind of conference on TNG " , Allen explained . Executive producer Michael Piller wrote the episode with writer Jill Sherman Donner , who had previous credits on television shows such as Magnum P.I.
Michael Westmore designed the make @-@ up in the episode , drawing inspiration from an alligator he saw in National Geographic magazine to create Tosk 's appearance . The Hunters were initially intended to appear more alien @-@ like , with steam rising out of their masks as they opened to reveal a demonic face with huge eyes and scaly skin . However , due to budgetary restraints , the original costume and make @-@ up plans were scrapped and the description was revised to become " a rather mundane humanoid face , not far off human . " The transporter effect used by the Hunters was inspired by the science fiction film Metropolis ( 1927 ) , specifically by the scene in which the robot Maria undergoes a transformation .
" Captive Pursuit " marked the first appearance in the Star Trek franchise for both Scott MacDonald and Gerrit Graham . MacDonald appeared a week later in The Next Generation episode " Face of the Enemy " as Subcommander N 'Vek . He would also appear in the DS9 episode " Hippocratic Oath " and the Star Trek : Voyager pilot " Caretaker " . In Star Trek : Enterprise , he was cast in the recurring role of the Xindi @-@ Reptilian antagonist Guruk Dolim through the third season . Graham was once considered , along with René Auberjonois and Andrew Robinson , for the role of Odo , which went to Auberjonois . Robinson was later cast as Elim Garak . Graham later gained the role of Quinn , the second Q in Voyager , in the episode " Death Wish " .
The episode was positively received by the cast and crew . Meaney called " Captive Pursuit " a " classic Star Trek story " and praised MacDonald 's performance , naming the episode his favourite of the first season . Michael Piller said it was one of his favourite episodes of the season , while Rick Berman said it was his favourite out of the first six episodes of the series and noted that the connection between Tosk and O 'Brien was " charming " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Captive Pursuit " was first released in broadcast syndication on January 31 , 1993 . It received a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 9 percent , placing third in its timeslot . This was the fourth highest rated episode of the season , behind " Emissary " , " Past Prologue " and " A Man Alone " . It won the Emmy Award for outstanding individual achievement in make @-@ up for a series .
Writing for Tor.com , Keith DeCandido praised " Captive Pursuit " despite , in his opinion , the weakness of the first season of DS9 prior to the episode " Duet " . DeCandido noted that " Captive Pursuit " was a good Prime Directive themed episode with interesting alien cultures . He described Colm Meaney as " magnificent " , and said that Scott MacDonald gave a " superb performance " . DeCandido gave the episode a rating of 7 out of 10 , calling it a " good , solid , well @-@ put @-@ together episode anchored by two excellent performances . "
Zack Handlen , in his review for The A.V. Club , said that the episode was formulaic , lacked substance , and was simply designed to give Meaney something to do . He praised the dynamic between Meaney and MacDonald , but said that " while not a classic , [ the episode was ] entertaining enough " and it helped to set up O 'Brien 's character as one to balance the complexity of some of the newer characters introduced on the show .
The first home media release of the episode was on VHS cassette in the United States on September 10 , 1996 . It was part of the initial launch of cassettes by Paramount Home Video which saw the first six episodes released and was on a single episode cassette . It was released on DVD as part of the season one box set on June 3 , 2003 .
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= Blown Away ( song ) =
" Blown Away " is a song by American recording artist Carrie Underwood , taken from her fourth studio album of the same name ( 2012 ) . The song served as the album 's second single on July 9 , 2012 through Arista Nashville . Written by Chris Tompkins and Josh Kear , who previously wrote Underwood 's single " Before He Cheats " ( 2007 ) , " Blown Away " is a country pop song with lyrics addressing the story of a daughter locking herself in a storm cellar while her alcoholic father is passed out on the couch in the path of a tornado . Producer Mark Bright drew inspiration from 1980s music .
Upon its release , " Blown Away " was met with positive reviews from music critics , who considered it to be the musical highlight of the album . The song 's content and production received particular praise , as critics felt it confirmed the album 's darker mood which Underwood had mentioned prior to its release . Commercially , " Blown Away " was successful . In the United States , it became her 13th number one hit on the Billboard Country Airplay chart , and also reached number 20 on the Hot 100 . It also charted in Canada and the United Kingdom . It won several awards , including two Grammy Awards , for Best Country Song and Best Country Solo Performance .
The accompanying music video was directed by Randee St Nicholas . Underwood said that when she heard first the song , she already had ideas of a possible video for it . She wanted it to be a dark Wizard of Oz in 2012 . It earned her an award for Video of the Year at the 2013 CMT Music Awards . The video was nominated for Music Video of the Year at the 2013 Country Music Association Awards . Underwood has performed " Blown Away " in a number of live appearances , including at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards , the 55th Annual Grammy Awards , and two years in a row at the Country Music Association Awards . It was also performed as the encore of the Blown Away Tour ( 2012 – 13 ) .
= = Writing and composition = =
After Underwood 's Play On Tour wrapped in December 2010 , she started to work on her fourth studio album , which was then untitled . Sony Music Nashville chairman / CEO Gary Overton said that the singer " took nearly a year to compile and record the songs . " Songwriters Chris Tompkins and Josh Kear , who previously wrote " Before He Cheats " for Underwood 's debut album , Some Hearts ( 2005 ) , worked on " Blown Away " initially without a specific artist in mind . At first , they built the drums and the string parts that of the introduction and verses . Tompkins started playing his keyboard to find sound effects for the introduction , and ended up using one that was a thunderstorm . " I think that 's what kind of threw us into it . We just started writing it , " he said . The songwriters then came up with the first verse of the song : " Dry lighting cracks across the skies / Those storm clouds gather in her eyes / Her daddy was a mean old mister / Momma was an angel in the ground / The weatherman called for a twister / She prayed blow it down . " Kear commented that it was not the duo 's intent or goal to make it a dark , revenge @-@ themed song . As they wrote the pre @-@ chorus line " not enough rain in Oklahoma " , both knew that it was a Carrie Underwood song , as the singer is from that state . " We knew if we stuck with that lyric [ " Oklahoma " — which is Carrie 's home state ] it was Carrie 's song or maybe no one would ever record it , " Kear commented . After the theme of the song had been established , the songwriters wanted to " dig up as much drama as [ they ] could . " Lyrically , " Blown Away " tells the story of a daughter locking herself in a storm cellar while her alcoholic father is passed out on the couch in the path of a tornado . Underwood revealed that " Blown Away " was the song that defined the direction of the album , and recalled the first time she heard the demo :
" I listened to it on my crappy computer speakers and then I had to go find my headphones because as soon as I listened to a few bars , I had to listen more closely and I got chills . I remember where I was when I heard it and called my manager , Ann , and I was like , ' Do not let anyone else have this song ! It ’ s my song . ' In talking to Chris and Josh about it , they [ told me ] , ' We said we 're either writing a song for Carrie Underwood or this song is never going to see the light of day . ' It made me feel so good that they were thinking of me when they wrote it . "
As noted by interviewer Kurt Wolff , " the melody and overall sound of the song also stand out as something fresh and very different . " Tompkins explained to Wolff that " Blown Away " was an " attempt at ' melodic pop ' that was ' unique ' yet still ' country . ' " Tompkins also commented that " Blown Away " is " not even mine and Josh ’ s song anymore ; it 's [ Carrie 's ] song now . She 's completely claimed it . The song is Carrie . It 's not even a song that had a chance of being pitched to anybody else . It 's a completely different type of song for Carrie . She 's got a lot of pop elements , and I listen to a lot of pop , but I listen to everything from Randy Newman to Mozart to Rihanna to Steely Dan . I think all that stuff shows up in my music , and I think it showed up in ' Blown Away . ' " The final version of the song was produced by Mark Bright , who drew inspiration from 1980s music . Underwood recalled Bright adding an effect to her vocals similar to the ones used in Def Leppard songs : " That was a big thing with [ the band ] , all of that hollow vocal sound . And I liked it . " Bright used a similar effect on " See You Again " , another song from Blown Away . Melodically , " Blown Away " is written in the key of A minor , and is set in the common time with a tempo of 134 beats per minute . The song follows the sequence of Am - C - G as its chord progression , and Underwood 's voice spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of E5 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Blown Away " received generally positive reviews from music critics . A reviewer for Billboard thought that Mark Bright 's " brooding , atmospheric " production and Underwood 's vocal performance " elevate this cinematic tune to an instant classic . " They further commented , " When the girl shuts herself in the storm cellar , leaving her alcoholic father passed out on the couch in the path of a twister , you can almost feel the wind . " Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Mikael Wood thought that the song confirmed the description of the album as " a turn toward darkness from a singer who first topped the country chart with ' Jesus , Take the Wheel ' . " USA Today columnist Brian Mansfield thought the song 's " synthesizers , strings sounds , vocal overdubs and echoing guitars " combined dramatically , creating a " neo @-@ 80s feel - think an Oklahoma version of the Eurythmics . " " Blown Away " received a five @-@ star rating from Billy Dukes of Taste of Country , who called it " dangerous , but irresistible . " He also praised Underwood for recording darker material than her previous singles . Also giving it five stars , Bobby Peacock of Roughstock called it " more grandiose " than Underwood 's previous efforts , also saying that it " makes itself known by sounding like absolutely nothing else on radio . " Chris Richards of The Washington Post gave the song a mixed review , deeming the lyrics as " gripping " , but negatively comparing the instrumentation to the work of Taylor Swift .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Following the release of the album , " Blown Away " debuted at number 22 on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs chart , with 66 @,@ 000 units sold . It eventually peaked at number 15 , staying at the chart for a total of 35 weeks . On the main Hot 100 chart , " Blown Away " peaked at number 20 and spent 22 weeks on the chart ; it was ranked the 70th biggest song of 2012 there overall . On the week of September 6 , 2012 , the song became Underwood 's 16th top ten single on the Country Airplay component chart , a record among women in the tally 's 68 @-@ year history according to Billboard . The following month , on the week of October 15 , it reached the top spot , becoming the singer 's 13th number one . It stayed there for a second week , making Underwood the only female vocalist of 2012 to achieve three weeks at number one on the chart , as previous single " Good Girl " had peaked at the same position . The song was certified three @-@ times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on August 10 , 2015 . As of February 2016 , " Blown Away " has sold 2 @,@ 819 @,@ 000 digital units in the United States .
" Blown Away " also peaked at number one in Canada Country chart , number 27 in Canadian Hot 100 , and is Underwood 's first song to chart in the United Kingdom , reaching number 155 , despite not having a proper release in the country .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Blown Away " was directed by Randee St. Nicholas and produced by Brandon Bonfiglo for Randee St. Nicholas Photography . Underwood said that when she heard first the song , she already had ideas of a possible video for it , and wanted it to be a dark Wizard of Oz in 2012 . The singer deemed it " a visual song . You listen to it and you can see everything that is happening . It 's so dramatic . I 'm not a drama person , but when you can make a movie in song form in three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , it 's surreal . " A sneak peek of the video was released on June 11 , 2012 . The music video premiered worldwide on July 30 , during a 24 @-@ hour exclusive window domestically and internationally on E ! News at 7 and 11 : 30 p.m. ET / PT and on the homepage of E ! Online . Prior to the E ! premiere , Underwood held a private screening of the video with country radio station KJ97 for over 200 of their listeners in San Antonio , Texas .
The video begins with a girl ( a young Underwood ) studying at home . Her abusive father arrives and asks her if she needs help . She declines his offer and starts gathering her things to leave the room , however ; as she stands up , he grabs her arm . She manages to pull away and leave . Underwood stated that this scene had no script . She and the actor acted it out the way they thought it might have happened . Underwood revealed that she left the filming location with bruises on her arm- " I had finger marks on my arm when I left at the end of the day , so I was like , ' Wow . ' ... It was intense . I wasn 't just imagining it , it was really intense . " As the video continues , the girl is seen standing in the middle of a cemetery , walking around and staring at the clouds as a thunderstorm forms in the sky . She runs back to her house through an old , destroyed yellow @-@ brick road , similar to the one of Wizard of Oz . She enters the house to see her father sleeping on the couch , holding a bottle of alcohol . She sits next to him , recalling the times he let his drunkenness and anger get out of hand . She tries to wake him up but fails . She realizes that he has passed out . She looks through the window and notices the thunderstorm getting worse , so she leaves her father and runs to the cellar alone to protect herself . She 's seen lying in an old bed and crying , as she hears the tornado coming closer , with her father still passed out . The next day , there are no traces of the house , and she calmly walks away .
Regarding the Wizard of Oz references , Underwood commented that " it was all about having subtle references , " such as the plaid shirt and red shoes she wore on the video . When asked if her aim was to generate controversy with the storyline , the singer said that it was not what she were aiming for at all , adding : " I try to stay away from controversy in any form or fashion . It was just such a great story and such a mini @-@ movie , listening to the song , and we really wanted to do it justice in the video . "
= = Live performances = =
Underwood performed " Blown Away " on American Idol on May 3 , 2012 , the week of the album 's release . Amy Sciarretto of Taste of Country summarized the performance , writing , " Underwood was elevated on steps as she performed , with storm clouds roaring on the screens behind her . She was bathed in light as smoke billowed at feet . " The same month , she performed the song at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards , dressed in a long , red gown . The singer also performed it at the 2012 Country Music Association Awards . Throughout the performance , wind machines were used while confetti flew through the air . In 2013 , Underwood performed " Blown Away " again at the same award show , this time in a medley with " Good Girl " , " See You Again " and " Two Black Cadillacs " , representing the ending of the Blown Away era . The same year , she performed an acoustic version of the song during the 55th Annual Grammy Awards . " Blown Away " was performed as the encore of Underwood 's Blown Away Tour ( 2012 – 13 ) , along with " I Know You Won 't " .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Ender 's Game =
Ender 's Game is a 1985 military science fiction novel by American author Orson Scott Card . Set in Earth 's future , the novel presents an imperiled mankind after two conflicts with the " buggers " , an insectoid alien species . In preparation for an anticipated third invasion , children , including the novel 's protagonist , Ender Wiggin , are trained from a very young age through increasingly difficult games including some in zero gravity , where Ender 's tactical genius is revealed .
The book originated as the short story " Ender 's Game " , published in the August 1977 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact . Elaborating on characters and plot lines depicted in the novel , Card later wrote additional books to form the Ender 's Game series . Card released an updated version of Ender 's Game in 1991 , changing some political facts to reflect the times more accurately ; e.g. , to include the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War .
Reception of the book has generally been positive . It has also become suggested reading for many military organizations , including the United States Marine Corps . Ender 's Game won the 1985 Nebula Award for best novel and the 1986 Hugo Award for best novel . Its sequels , Speaker for the Dead , Xenocide , Children of the Mind and Ender in Exile , follow Ender 's subsequent travels to many different worlds in the galaxy . In addition , the later novella A War of Gifts and novel Ender 's Shadow take place during the same time period as the original .
A film adaptation of the same name written for the screen and directed by Gavin Hood and starring Asa Butterfield as Ender was released in October 2013 . Card co @-@ produced the film . It has also been adapted into two comic series .
= = Synopsis = =
Humanity , having begun to explore the Universe and master interplanetary spaceflight , encounters an alien race dubbed the " buggers " . The discovery of a bugger forward base in the asteroid Eros leads to war between the species and the destruction of a bugger colonizing force . The battle to recapture Eros results in the discovery of advanced alien technology , including gravity manipulation . Political conflicts on Earth between three ruling parties , the Hegemon , Polemarch , and Strategos , are put aside in the face of the threat from the buggers . Ostensibly in preparation for the expected third invasion , an International Fleet ( I.F. ) is established , with headquarters on Eros . Increasingly advanced starships are built and secretly launched to attack the buggers ' home worlds . To develop commanders capable of defeating the much larger bugger forces , the I.F. creates a crash training program for children with the best strategic minds , the Battle School .
Protagonist Andrew " Ender " Wiggin is one of the school 's trainees . He has a close bond with his sister Valentine ; but fears his brother Peter , a highly intelligent sociopath . The I.F. remove Ender 's monitoring device , seemingly ending his chances of Battle School , and he gets teased by a fellow student , Stilson . Ender beats up Stilson before the fight is broken up ; unknown to Ender , the fight was fatal to Stilson . When explaining his actions to I.F. Colonel Hyrum Graff , Ender states his belief that , by showing superiority now , he has prevented future struggle . Graff , on hearing of this , offers Ender a place in the Battle School , situated in Earth 's orbit , where Graff quickly isolates Ender from the other cadets .
The cadets participate in competitive war simulations in zero gravity , where Ender 's innovations overwhelm his opponents . Graff promotes Ender to a new army composed of raw recruits , but Ender 's success continues . He forms bonds of friendship , loyalty and trust with several of his current and former squad members . A jealous commander of another army , Bonzo Madrid , compels him to fight outside the simulation , and Ender unknowingly kills him .
On Earth , Peter Wiggin uses a global communication system to post political essays under the pseudonym " Locke " , hoping to establish himself as a respected orator and thence as a powerful politician . Valentine , despite not trusting Peter , publishes alongside him as " Demosthenes " . Their essays are soon taken seriously by the government . Though Graff is told their true identities , he recommends that it be kept a secret , because their writings are politically useful .
Ender , now ten years old , is promoted to Command School on Eros , skipping several years of training . After some preliminary battles in the simulator , he is introduced to a former war hero , Mazer Rackham . From now on , while believing them to be simulations controlled by Mazer , Ender directs real human spacecraft against bugger fleets via an instantaneous communicator . As the skirmishes become harder , he is joined by some of his friends from the Battle School as sub @-@ commanders . Despite this , Ender becomes depressed by the battles , his isolation , and by the way Mazer treats him .
When told that he is facing his final test , Ender finds his fleet far outnumbered by the buggers surrounding their queens ' homeworld . Hoping to earn himself expulsion from the school for his ruthlessness , he sacrifices his entire fleet to launch a Molecular Detachment Device . The Device destroys the planet and the surrounding bugger fleet . Mazer informs Ender that he has been fighting real battles and not simulations , and that Ender has won the war . Ender becomes more depressed on learning this and of the deaths of Stilson and Bonzo .
When he recovers , he learns that , at the end of the bugger war , Earth 's powers fought among themselves . He stays on Eros as his friends return home and colonists venture to other worlds , using Eros as a way station . Among the first colonists is Valentine , who apologizes that Ender can never return to Earth , where he would become dangerous as used by Peter and other politicians . Instead , Ender joins the colony program to populate one of the buggers ' former worlds . There , he discovers the dormant egg of a bugger queen , who reveals that the buggers had initially assumed humans were a non @-@ sentient race , for want of collective consciousness , but realized their mistake too late , and requests that Ender take the egg to a new planet to colonize .
Ender takes the egg and , with information from the Queen , writes The Hive Queen under the alias " Speaker for the Dead " . Peter , now the leader of Earth and seventy @-@ seven with a failing heart , requests Ender to write a book about him , which Ender titles Hegemon . The combined works create a new type of funeral , in which the Speaker for the Dead tells the whole and unapologetic story of the deceased , adopted by many on Earth and its colonies . In the end , Ender and Valentine board a series of starships and visit many worlds , looking for a safe place to establish the unborn Hive Queen .
= = Creation and inspiration = =
The original novelette " Ender 's Game " provides a small snapshot of Ender 's experiences in Battle School and Command School ; the full @-@ length novel encompasses more of Ender 's life before , during , and after the war , and also contains some chapters describing the political exploits of his older siblings back on Earth . In a commentary track for the 20th Anniversary audiobook edition of the novel , as well as in the 1991 Author 's Definitive Edition , Card stated that Ender 's Game was written specifically to establish the character of Ender for his role of the Speaker in Speaker for the Dead , the outline for which he had written before novelizing Ender 's Game . In his 1991 introduction to the novel , Card discussed the influence of Isaac Asimov 's Foundation series on the novelette and novel . Historian Bruce Catton 's work on the American Civil War also influenced Card heavily .
Ender 's Game was the first science @-@ fiction novel published entirely online , when it appeared on Delphi a year before print publication .
= = Critical response = =
Critics received Ender 's Game well . The novel won the Nebula Award for best novel in 1985 , and the Hugo Award for best novel in 1986 , considered the two most prestigious awards in science fiction . Ender 's Game was also nominated for a Locus Award in 1986 . In 1999 , it placed No. 59 on the reader 's list of Modern Library 100 Best Novels . It was also honored with a spot on American Library Association 's " 100 Best Books for Teens . " In 2008 , the novel , along with Ender 's Shadow , won the Margaret A. Edwards Award , which honors an author and specific works by that author for lifetime contribution to young adult literature . Ender 's Game was included in Damien Broderick 's book Science Fiction : The 101 Best Novels 1985 – 2010.New York Times writer Gerald Jonas asserts that the novel 's plot summary resembles a " grade Z , made @-@ for @-@ television , science @-@ fiction rip @-@ off movie " , but says that Card develops the elements well despite this " unpromising material " . Jonas further praises the development of the character Ender Wiggin : " Alternately likable and insufferable , he is a convincing little Napoleon in short pants . "
The novel has received negative criticism for violence and its justification . Elaine Radford 's review , " Ender and Hitler : Sympathy for the Superman " , posits that Ender Wiggin is an intentional reference by Card to Adolf Hitler and criticizes the violence in the novel , particularly at the hands of the protagonist . Card responded to Radford 's criticisms in Fantasy Review , the same publication . Radford 's criticisms are echoed in John Kessel 's essay " Creating the Innocent Killer : Ender 's Game , Intention , and Morality " , wherein Kessel states : " Ender gets to strike out at his enemies and still remain morally clean . Nothing is his fault . " Noah Berlatsky makes similar claims in his analysis of the relationship between colonization and science fiction , where he describes how Ender 's Game is in part a justification of " Western expansion and genocide . "
The U.S. Marine Corps Professional Reading List makes the novel recommended reading at several lower ranks , and again at Officer Candidate / Midshipman . The book was placed on the reading list by Captain John F. Schmitt , author of FMFM @-@ 1 ( Fleet Marine Fighting Manual , on maneuver doctrine ) for " provid [ ing ] useful allegories to explain why militaries do what they do in a particularly effective shorthand way . " In introducing the novel for use in leadership training , Marine Corps University 's Lejeune program opines that it offers " lessons in training methodology , leadership , and ethics as well [ .... ] Ender 's Game has been a stalwart item on the Marine Corps Reading List since its inception . "
= = Accolades = =
The weeks ending June 9 , August 18 , September 8 , September 15 , November 3 , November 10 , November 17 , and November 24 , 2013 , the novel was No. 1 on the New York Times ' Best Sellers List of Paperback Mass @-@ Market Fiction .
= = Revisions = =
In 1991 , Card made several minor changes to reflect the political climates of the time , including the decline of the Soviet Union . In the afterword of Ender in Exile , Card stated that many of the details in chapter 15 of Ender 's Game were modified for use in the subsequent novels and short stories . In order to more closely match the other material , Card has rewritten chapter 15 , and plans to offer a revised edition of the book .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
In 2011 , Summit Entertainment financed and coordinated the film 's development and served as its distributor . Gavin Hood directed the film , which lasts 1 hour and 54 minutes . Filming began in New Orleans , Louisiana , on February 27 , 2012 , and was released on November 1 , 2013 ( USA ) . A movie preview trailer was released in May 2013 and a second trailer was released later that year .
Card has called Ender 's Game " unfilmable " , " because everything takes place in Ender 's head " , and refused to sign a film deal unless he could ensure that the film was " true to the story " . Of the film that he eventually agreed to , Card said it was " the best that good people could do with a story they really cared about and believed in " , and while warning fans not to expect a completely faithful adaptation , called the film " damn good " .
= = = Video game = = =
Ender 's Game : Battle Room was a planned digitally distributed video game for all viable downloadable platforms . It was under development by Chair Entertainment , which also developed the Xbox Live Arcade games Undertow and Shadow Complex . Chair had sold the licensing of Empire to Card , which became a best @-@ selling novel . Little was revealed about the game , save its setting in the Ender universe and that it would have focused on the Battle Room .
In December , 2010 , it was announced that the video game development had stopped and the project put on indefinite hold .
= = = Comics = = =
Marvel Comics and Orson Scott Card announced on April 19 , 2008 , that they would be publishing a limited series adaptation of Ender 's Game as the first in a comic series that would adapt all of Card 's Ender 's Game novels . Card was quoted as saying that it is the first step in moving the story to a visual medium . The first five @-@ issue series , titled Ender 's Game : Battle School , was written by Christopher Yost , while the second five @-@ issue series , Ender 's Shadow : Battle School , was written by Mike Carey .
= = = Audioplay = = =
Ender 's Game Alive : The Full Cast Audioplay , is an audio drama written by Orson Scott Card , based on the Ender 's Game novel . At over seven hours in length , this retelling of Ender 's Game hints at story lines from " Teacher 's Pest " , " The Polish Boy " , " The Gold Bug " , Ender 's Shadow , Shadow of the Hegemon , Shadow of the Giant , Shadows in Flight , Earth Unaware , and Speaker for the Dead , and gives new insight into the beginnings of Ender 's philotic connection with the Hive Queen .
Ender 's Game Alive is directed by Gabrielle de Cuir , produced by Stefan Rudnicki at Skyboat Media , published by Audible.com , and performed by a cast of over 30 voice actors playing over 100 roles .
= = Translations = =
Ender 's Game has been translated into 34 languages :
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= HMS Imogen ( D44 ) =
HMS Imogen was a I @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . After the start of the Second World War the ship was transferred to Home Fleet and participated in the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940 . Imogen sank two German submarines before her own sinking following an accidental collision in July 1940 .
= = Description = =
The I @-@ class ships were improved versions of the preceding H @-@ class . They displaced 1 @,@ 370 long tons ( 1 @,@ 390 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 888 long tons ( 1 @,@ 918 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . The turbines developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . Imogen carried a maximum of 455 long tons ( 462 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ships ' complement was 145 officers and ratings .
The ships mounted four 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . The I class was fitted with two above @-@ water quintuple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted ; 16 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered on 30 October 1935 from Hawthorn Leslie at Hebburn under the 1935 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 18 January 1936 , launched on 30 December 1936 , as the seventh Royal Navy ship to carry this name , and completed on 2 June 1937 , at a contract price of £ 256 @,@ 917 , excluding items supplied by Admiralty such as armaments and communications equipment . Imogen was assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning and was initially based in Malta . Transferred to Gibraltar , she patrolled Spanish waters enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee during 1938 . The ship was given a brief refit in Malta from 17 October – 28 November 1938 and another at Sheerness Dockyard in August 1939 .
Imogen returned to the Mediterranean on 3 September , but was transferred to the Western Approaches Command for convoy escort duties two days later when Italy did not enter the war . Together with the entire 3rd Destroyer Flotilla , the ship was transferred to the Home Fleet in October . Together with her sister Ilex , she sank the German submarine U @-@ 42 on 13 October after the submarine attempted to sink the freighter SS Stonepool . Whilst escorting the merchant ship to Barry , Imogen rescued survivors from the ships Louisiane and Bretagne . She was refitted at Liverpool between 20 October and 7 November and then rejoined Home Fleet . The following month , the ship came to the aid of the torpedoed battleship Barham off the Butt of Lewis on 28 December .
With her sister Inglefield and the destroyer Escort , Imogen sank U @-@ 63 after it had been spotted by the British submarine Rorqual on 25 February 1940 . During the Norwegian Campaign , the ship searched unsuccessfully for German ships , escorted ships of Home Fleet and troopships carrying Norwegian Army units from Kirkenes and Alta to Sjøvegan in mid @-@ April . In mid @-@ June , she escorted the aircraft carrier Illustrious to Bermuda to work up . Off Duncansby Head during the night of 16 July , Imogen collided with the light cruiser Glasgow in thick fog whilst bound for Scapa Flow . She was badly damaged , caught fire , and sank at position 58 ° 34 ′ N 02 ° 54 ′ W. Glasgow rescued 10 officers and 125 enlisted men , but 19 men were killed in the collision .
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= Gun Court =
The Gun Court is the branch of the Jamaican judicial system that tries criminal cases involving firearms . The Court was established by Parliament in 1974 to combat rising gun violence , and empowered to try suspects in camera , without a jury . The Supreme Court , Circuit Courts , and Resident Magistrate 's Courts function as Gun Courts whenever they hear firearms cases . There is also a Western Regional Gun Court in Montego Bay . Those convicted by the Gun Court are imprisoned in a dedicated prison compound at South Camp in Kingston . Until 1999 , the Gun Court sessions were also held in the same facility .
The long sentences of the Gun Court and its restrictions on the rights of the accused have given rise to constitutional challenges , some of which have been appealed to the Privy Council in London . These cases have resulted in some modifications to the court , but have upheld it on the whole . The Gun Court system has also been the target of criticism because of its lengthy delay in hearing cases , and the continuing rise in gun violence since its adoption .
= = Background = =
In the early 1970s , Jamaica experienced a rise in violence associated with criminal gangs and political polarization between supporters of the People 's National Party and the Jamaica Labour Party . After a rash of killings of lawyers and businessmen in 1974 , the government of Michael Manley attempted to restore order by granting broad new law enforcement powers in the Suppression of Crime Act and the Gun Court Act . The Suppression of Crime Act allowed the police and the military to work together in a novel way to disarm the people : soldiers sealed off entire neighbourhoods , and policemen systematically searched the houses inside for weapons without requiring a warrant . The goal was to expedite and improve enforcement of the 1967 Firearms Act , which imposed licensing requirements on ownership and possession of guns and ammunition , and prohibited automatic weapons entirely . Firearm licences in Jamaica require a background check , inspection and payment of a yearly fee , and can make legal gun ownership difficult for ordinary citizens . The new judicial procedures of the Gun Court Act were designed to ensure that firearms violations would be tried quickly and harshly punished .
Prime Minister Michael Manley expressed his determination to take stronger action against firearms , predicting that " It will be a long war . No country can win a war against crime overnight , but we shall win . By the time we have finished with them , Jamaican gunmen will be sorry they ever heard of a thing called a gun . " In order to win this war , Manley believed it necessary to fully disarm the public : " There is no place in this society for the gun , now or ever . "
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The Gun Court Act and the Suppression of Crime Act were passed in special simultaneous sessions of the Senate and House of Representatives , and immediately signed into law by Governor @-@ General Florizel Glasspole on 1 April 1974 . The new court had several extraordinary features . Most trials were to be conducted in camera , without a jury and closed to the public and the press , in order to avoid problems of intimidation of witnesses and jurors . There was no provision for bail , either pre @-@ trial or during appeal , since all defendants were considered dangerous . Most offences carried a single , mandatory sentence : indefinite imprisonment with hard labour . A convicted offender could be released only upon special decision of the Governor @-@ General , advised by an appointed review board .
= = = Legal challenges and amendments = = =
The unusual features of the Gun Court have faced legal challenges , some of which have forced amendment of the Gun Court Act . The case Hinds et al. v. the Queen was an early test case for the new court . Four men , Moses Hinds , Henry Martin , Elkanah Hutchinson , and Samuel Thomas , had been arrested and convicted by the Gun Court in 1974 for possession of firearms and ammunition without a licence . They appealed their sentences to Jamaica 's highest appellate court , the Court of Appeals , which initially declined to hear the case . However , they were allowed to apply to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London , which agreed to review the legality of the Gun Court system .
The Constitution of Jamaica reserves certain serious crimes to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and its divisions . The Gun Court Act had established the Full Court division , with resident magistrates presiding , to try major firearms offences . The Privy Council held that this provision of the Act improperly encroached on the jurisdiction reserved for the Supreme Court , and that the Full Court division was therefore unconstitutional . This fault was remedied in 1976 by replacing the Full Court division with a new High Court division , presided over by a single Supreme Court justice . The Privy Council also found that the institution of an appointed review board to determine the length of sentences was contrary to the doctrine of separation of powers fundamental to the Westminster system of government . According to this principle , sentencing in each particular case is a function of the judiciary , and cannot be assigned to any other body . The 1976 amendment eliminated the review board entirely , leaving life imprisonment without review as the only possible sentence .
Another case , Trevor Stone v. the Queen , challenged the denial of jury trial for most gun offences . It was argued that trial by jury is a fundamental and constitutional right guaranteed by tradition in English common law . The Jamaican Court of Appeals rejected this argument in a decision written by Court President Ira DeCordova Rowe in 1980 . The court noted that the written Constitution adopted by Jamaica upon independence guaranteed certain rights to criminal defendants , but omitted trial by jury . This case confirmed the Gun Court 's power to try all non @-@ capital cases before judges alone .
The case of Herbert Bell v. Director of Public Prosecutions , concerning the right to a speedy trial , reached the Privy Council in 1983 . The defendant had been held awaiting trial for several years , but the state ultimately failed to present any evidence or witnesses . When he was again arrested on the same firearms charges , he filed suit arguing that the Gun Court had violated his constitutional rights through unreasonable delay . The Privy Council agreed , ruling that even when prevailing local standards were taken into account , Bell 's trial had been excessively delayed through no fault of his own .
The Gun Court Amendment Act of 1983 allowed Resident Magistrates to grant pre @-@ trial bail , and to decide whether to keep firearms cases in the Resident Magistrate 's Court or to send them to the High Court division of the Gun Court . Judges were given the power to set sentences other than life imprisonment . Cases involving defendants under 14 years old were directed to juvenile courts , instead of being heard by the ordinary Gun Court , and many young convicts serving indefinite sentences were released .
= = Structure = =
= = = Divisions = = =
The Gun Court has three divisions : the Resident Magistrate 's Division , the High Court Division , and the Circuit Court Division . The three divisions differ in their jurisdictions and procedures . When someone is charged with a firearm violation , whether by unlicensed possession alone or by use of a gun in commission of a crime , the case is ordinarily sent to the High Court Division . These cases are tried in camera by a justice of the Supreme Court of Jamaica , without a jury . The exceptions are charges of murder and treason . As capital offences , these require a jury trial . Charges of murder or treason using firearms are given preliminary investigation by a single resident magistrate in the Resident Magistrate 's Division of the Gun Court , in camera . They are then sent to the Gun Court 's Circuit Court Division . A Supreme Court justice presides over a jury trial , " exercising the jurisdiction of a Circuit Court . " The Circuit Court Division therefore differs from the other divisions of the Gun Court in practicing jury trial .
The Gun Court Act originally instituted a Full Court Division , in which cases were to be heard by a panel of three Resident Magistrates . This was replaced by the High Court Division after the Privy Council struck down the Full Court Division in the Hinds case , as judges of the lower levels of the judiciary were not empowered by the Constitution to try serious offences .
= = = Western Regional Gun Court = = =
In 1999 , Parliament established a Western Regional Gun Court with its own Resident Magistrate 's , High Court , and Circuit Court divisions , in parallel with the jurisdictions and powers of the central Gun Court divisions . Cases arising in four western parishes , Hanover , Trelawny , Saint James , and Westmoreland , are heard in the Regional Court . The Regional Gun Court sits in Montego Bay , in the court facilities of the St. James Resident Magistrate 's Court . The regional court has been a success , avoiding the chronic backlogs that affect the central Gun Court .
= = = South Camp compound = = =
At the establishment of the new court in 1974 , the Manley administration quickly build a new Gun Court compound ( 17 ° 59 ′ 5 ″ N 76 ° 46 ′ 43 ″ W ) at South Camp Road , Kingston , with both court and prison facilities . The Gun Court Prison was defended by guard towers and barbed wire , earning it the nickname of " Jamaica 's Stalag 17 , " and the walls were painted bright red " to show that it [ is ] dread . " It held 320 inmates in 1986 . The courtrooms housed the High Court and Resident Magistrate 's divisions of the Gun Court until 1999 , when they were converted to a " Peace Centre " dedicated to pursuing community mediation of disputes . The High Court division now sits in the Supreme Court building , and the Resident Magistrate 's division sits in the Half Way Tree Courthouse . The prison itself remains in operation as the South Camp Adult Correctional Centre , housing inmates convicted by the Gun Court .
= = Criticism = =
The Gun Court has faced criticism on several fronts , most notably for its departure from traditional practices , for its large backlog of cases , and for the continuing escalation in gun violence since its institution .
At the time of the 1976 amendments to the Act , the Jamaican Bar Association protested against the lack of jury trials and the harsh mandatory sentences . According to a report in the Virgin Islands Daily News , the Association 's Bar Council objected to the possibility that children as young as 12 could be imprisoned for life , without release or appeal , for small offences such as being found with used ammunition . The abrogation of jury trial has also been criticized by attorney and law professor David Rowe , the son of the Appeals Court justice who wrote the decision in the Stone case upholding the practice . Rowe argues that the common @-@ law right to a jury trial is implied in the Constitutional provision for " a fair hearing within a reasonable time , by an independent and impartial court established by law , " concluding that the Constitution had been " shorn of its most potent and ancient safeguard , trial by jury . "
The 1993 County Report on Human Rights Practices in Jamaica from the United States Department of State noted the denial of a " fair public trial " and alleged that Gun Court trials observe " less rigorous rules of evidence than in regular court proceedings . " The Canadian Bar Association 's Jamaican Justice System Reform Task Force , in its preliminary recommendations , noted that the Gun Court is overloaded , that defendants are not well represented , and Crown attorneys are often inexperienced . The report recommended that trials no longer be held in camera , and that cases be moved to the ordinary Circuit Court to relieve the overburdened Gun Court . It did not take issue with non @-@ jury trials , suggesting that the same practice might be used in more types of cases for greater efficiency .
Although the Gun Court was intended to expedite cases , bringing defendants to trial within seven days , defendants now often wait several years . The backlog was nearing 1000 cases in 1998 , and in the 2003 @-@ 2004 court year , the High Court division carried forward 3 @,@ 367 cases already on the docket , added 613 new cases , and concluded 462 . Senior Resident Magistrate Glenn Brown expressed dissatisfaction with the public prosecutors for taking too long to prepare cases , often because of difficulty in finding and bringing witnesses . Brown noted that " Seventy per cent of the persons who are before the courts have been here for an inordinately long period of time - three to four years . "
The Gun Court system has been put forth by gun ownership advocates as an example of a failed regime of gun control . In an essay in the National Review in 2001 , Dave Kopel argued that " [ t ] he Gun Court took guns only out of the hands of Jamaica 's law @-@ abiding , leaving them at the mercy of the criminals and the state . " John R. Lott has argued that " gun @-@ control laws have failed to deliver as promised , " noting that the murder rate in Jamaica was lower before the introduction of stricter gun control : it rose from 11 @.@ 5 to 19 @.@ 5 per 100 @,@ 000 between 1973 and 1977 , and reached 41 @.@ 7 per 100 @,@ 000 in 1980 . By 2007 the rate had risen to 1 @,@ 574 murders in the calendar year , or 59 per 100 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = Gun Court in music = =
Several Jamaican musicians have sung about the Gun Court , including Junior Reed ( Gun Court , 1993 ) and the dance hall artist Ranking Joe , whose first single release was " Gun Court Law " in 1974 . The reggae musician Jah Cure released his first album , Free Jah 's Cure , from Tower Street Prison in 2000 after having been convicted before the Gun Court in 1998 . Jah Cure continued to deny the charges of illegal firearms , rape , and robbery , and he attracted widespread support for his release , including " Free Jah Cure " campaigns and petition drives , until his release in 2007 .
The French singer Bernard Lavilliers sings about Gun Court in the song Stand the Ghetto released in 1980 . He says , in French " pour le flingue dans ta poche , t 'es coincé à Gun Court " ( because of the gun in your pocket , you are stuck at Gun Court ) .
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= Chien @-@ Shiung Wu =
Chien @-@ Shiung Wu ( simplified Chinese : 吴健雄 ; traditional Chinese : 吳健雄 ; pinyin : Wú Jiànxióng , May 31 , 1912 – February 16 , 1997 ) was a Chinese American experimental physicist who made significant contributions in the field of nuclear physics . Wu worked on the Manhattan Project , where she helped develop the process for separating uranium metal into uranium @-@ 235 and uranium @-@ 238 isotopes by gaseous diffusion . She is best known for conducting the Wu experiment , which contradicted the hypothetical law of conservation of parity . This discovery resulted in her colleagues Tsung @-@ Dao Lee and Chen @-@ Ning Yang winning the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics , and also earned Wu the inaugural Wolf Prize in Physics in 1978 . Her expertise in experimental physics evoked comparisons to Marie Curie . Her nicknames include " the First Lady of Physics " , " the Chinese Madame Curie " , and the " Queen of Nuclear Research " .
= = Early life and education = =
Chien @-@ Shiung Wu was born in the town of Liuhe in Taicang , Jiangsu province , China , on May 31 , 1912 , the second of three children of Wu Zhong @-@ Yi ( 吳仲裔 ) and Fan Fu @-@ Hua . The family custom was that children of this generation had Chien as the first character of their forename , followed by the characters in the phrase Ying @-@ Shiung @-@ Hao @-@ Jie , which means " heroes and outstanding figures " . Accordingly , she had an older brother , Chien @-@ Ying , and a younger brother , Chien @-@ Hao . Wu and her father were extremely close and he encouraged her interests passionately , creating an environment where she was surrounded by books , magazines , and newspapers .
Wu received her elementary school education at Ming De School , a school for girls founded by her father . She left her hometown in 1923 at the age of 11 to go to the Suzhou Women 's Normal School No. 2 . This was a boarding school with classes for teacher training as well as for regular high school . Admission to teacher training was more competitive , as it did not charge for tuition or board , and guaranteed a job on graduation . Although her family could have afforded to pay , Wu chose the more competitive option , and was ranked ninth among around 10 @,@ 000 applicants .
In 1929 Wu graduated at the top of her class , and was admitted to the National Central University in Nanjing . According to the governmental regulations of the time , teacher @-@ training college students wanting to move on to the universities needed to serve as schoolteachers for one year . In Wu 's case , this was only nominally enforced . She went to teach at the Public School of China in Shanghai , the president of which at the time was the philosopher Hu Shih , whose class she took .
From 1930 to 1934 , Wu studied at the National Central University ( later renamed Nanjing University and reinstated in Taiwan ) , first in mathematics , but later transferring to physics . She became involved in student politics . Relations between China and Japan were tense at this time , and students were urging the government to take a stronger line with Japan . Wu was elected as one of the student leaders by her colleagues because they felt that since she was one of the top students at the university , her involvement would be forgiven , or at least overlooked , by the authorities . That being the case , she was careful not to neglect her studies . She led protests that included a sit @-@ in at the Presidential Palace in Nanjing , where the students were met by Chiang Kai @-@ shek .
For two years after graduation , she did graduate @-@ level study in physics and worked as an assistant at the Zhejiang University . She became a researcher at the Institute of Physics of the Academia Sinica . Her supervisor was Professor Gu Jing @-@ Wei , who had earned her PhD abroad at the University of Michigan , and encouraged Wu to do the same . Wu was accepted by the University of Michigan , and her uncle , Wu Zhou @-@ Zhi , provided the necessary funds . She embarked for the United States with a female friend , Dong Ruo @-@ Fen ( 董若芬 ) , a chemist from Taicang , on the SS President Hoover in August 1936 . Her parents and uncle saw her off . She would never see her parents again .
= = Berkeley = =
The two women arrived in San Francisco , where Wu 's plans for graduate study changed after visiting the University of California , Berkeley . She met physicist Luke Chia @-@ Liu Yuan , a grandson of Yuan Shikai , the first President of the Republic of China and self @-@ proclaimed Emperor of China . Yuan showed her the Radiation Laboratory , where the director was Ernest O. Lawrence , who would soon win the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron particle accelerator .
Wu heard that at Michigan women were not even allowed to use the front entrance , and decided that she would prefer to study at Berkeley . Yuan took her to see Raymond T. Birge , the head of the physics department , and he offered Wu a place in the graduate school despite the fact that the academic year had already commenced . Wu then abandoned her plans to study at Michigan and enrolled at Berkeley . Her Berkeley classmates included Robert R. Wilson and George Volkoff ; her friends included Ursula Schaefer , a history student who chose to remain in the United States rather than return to Nazi Germany , and Margaret Lewis , an American post @-@ doctoral student . Wu applied for a scholarship at the end of her first year , but there was prejudice against Asian students , and Wu and Yuan were instead offered a readership with a lower stipend . Yuan then applied for , and secured , a scholarship at Caltech .
Wu made rapid progress in her education and her research . Although Lawrence was officially her supervisor , she also worked closely with Emilio Segrè . Her thesis had two separate parts . The first was on bremsstrahlung , the electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a charged particle when deflected by another charged particle , typically an electron by an atomic nucleus . She investigated this using beta @-@ emitting phosphorus @-@ 32 , a radioactive isotope easily produced in the cyclotron that Lawrence and his brother John H. Lawrence were evaluating for use in cancer treatment and as a radioactive tracer . This marked Wu 's first work with beta decay , a subject on which she would become an authority . The second part of the thesis was about the production of radioactive isotopes of xenon produced by the nuclear fission of uranium with the 37 @-@ inch and 60 @-@ inch cyclotrons at the Radiation Laboratory . She completed her Ph.D. in June 1940 , but in spite of Lawrence and Segrè 's recommendations , she could not secure a position at a university , so she remained at the Radiation Laboratory as a post @-@ doctoral fellow .
= = World War II = =
Wu and Yuan were married at the home of Robert Millikan , Yuan 's academic supervisor and the President of Caltech , on May 30 , 1942 . Neither the bride 's nor the groom 's families were able to attend due to the outbreak of the Pacific War . Wu and Yuan moved to the East Coast of the United States , where Wu became a faculty member at Smith College , a prestigious private women 's college in Northampton , Massachusetts , while Yuan worked on radar for RCA . She found the job frustrating , as her duties involved teaching only , and there was no opportunity for research . She appealed to Lawrence , who wrote letters of recommendation to a number of universities . Smith responded by making Wu an associate professor , and increasing her salary . She accepted a job from Princeton University in New Jersey as an instructor for Naval officers .
In March 1944 , Wu joined the Manhattan Project 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University . She lived in dormitory there , returning to Princeton on the weekends . The role of the SAM Laboratories , headed by Harold Urey , was to support the Manhattan Project 's gaseous diffusion ( K @-@ 25 ) program for uranium enrichment . Wu worked alongside James Rainwater in a group led by William W. Havens , Jr . , whose task was to develop radiation detector instrumentation .
In September 1944 , Wu was contacted by the Manhattan District Engineer , Colonel Kenneth Nichols . The newly commissioned B Reactor at the Hanford Site had run into an unexpected problem , starting up and shutting down at regular intervals . John Archibald Wheeler suspected that a fission product , xenon @-@ 135 , with a half @-@ life of 9 @.@ 4 hours , was the culprit , and might be a neutron poison . Segrè then remembered the work that Wu had done at Berkeley on the radioactive isotopes of xenon . The paper on the subject was still unpublished , but Wu and Nichols went to her dorm room , and collected the typewritten draft prepared for the Physical Review . Xenon @-@ 135 was indeed the culprit ; it turned out to have an unexpectedly large neutron absorption cross @-@ section .
After the end of the war in August 1945 , Wu accepted an offer of a position as an associate research professor at Columbia . Communication with China was restored , and Wu received a letter from her family , but plans to visit China were disrupted by the Chinese Civil War , and the birth in 1947 of a son , Vincent Yuan ( 袁緯承 ) , who would grow up to become a physicist like his parents . In 1949 , Yuan joined the Brookhaven National Laboratory , and the family moved to Long Island . After the communists came to power in China that year , Wu 's father wrote urging her not to return . Since her passport had been issued by the Kuomintang government , she found it difficult to travel abroad . This eventually led to her decision to take out US citizenship in 1954 . She would remain at Columbia for the rest of her career . She became an associate professor in 1952 , a full professor in 1958 , and the Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1973 . Her students called her the Dragon Lady , after the character of that name in the comic strip Terry and the Pirates .
= = Beta decay and the conservation of parity = =
In her post @-@ war research , Wu continued to investigate beta decay . Enrico Fermi had published his theory of Beta decay in 1934 , but an experiment by Luis Walter Alvarez had produced results at variance with the theory . Wu set out to repeat the experiment and verify the result . She suspected that the problem was that a thick and uneven film of copper sulphate ( CuSO
4 ) was being used as a copper @-@ 64 beta ray source , which was causing the emitted electrons to lose energy . To get around this , she adapted an older form of spectrometer , a solenoidal spectrometer . She added detergent to the copper sulphate to produce a thin and even film . She was then able to demonstrate that the discrepancies observed were the result of experimental error ; her results were consistent with Fermi 's theory .
At Columbia Wu knew the Chinese @-@ born theoretical physicist Tsung @-@ Dao Lee personally . In the mid @-@ 1950s , Lee and another Chinese theoretical physicist , Chen Ning Yang , grew to question a hypothetical law of elementary particle physics , the " law of conservation of parity " . One example highlighting the problem was the puzzle of the theta and tau particles , two apparently different charged , strange mesons . They were so similar that they would ordinarily be considered to be the same particle ; but different decay modes resulting in two different parity states were observed , suggesting that Θ + and τ + were different particles , if parity is conserved :
Lee and Yang 's research into existing experimental results convinced them that parity was conserved for electromagnetic interactions and for the strong interaction . For this reason , scientists had expected that it would also be true for the weak interaction , but it had not been tested , and Lee and Yang 's theoretical studies showed that it might not hold true for the weak interaction . Lee and Yang worked out a pencil @-@ and @-@ paper design of an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory . Lee then turned to Wu for her expertise in choosing and then working out the hardware manufacture , set @-@ up , and laboratory procedures for carrying out this experiment .
Wu chose to do this by taking a sample of radioactive cobalt @-@ 60 and cooling it to cryogenic temperatures with liquid gases . Cobalt @-@ 60 is an isotope that decays by beta particle emission , and Wu was also an expert on beta decay . The extremely low temperatures were needed to reduce the amount of thermal vibration of the cobalt atoms to practically nil . Also , Wu needed to apply a constant and uniform magnetic field across the sample of cobalt @-@ 60 in order to cause the spin axes of the atomic nuclei to line up in the same direction . For this cryogenic work , she needed the facilities of the National Bureau of Standards and its expertise in working with liquid gases , and traveled to its headquarters in Maryland with her equipment to carry out the experiments .
Lee and Yang 's theoretical calculations predicted that the beta particles from the cobalt @-@ 60 atoms would be emitted asymmetrically and the hypothetical " law of conservation of parity " was invalid . Wu 's experiment showed that this is indeed the case : parity is not conserved under the weak nuclear interactions . Θ + and τ + are indeed the same particle , which is today known as a kaon , K + . This result was soon confirmed by her colleagues at Columbia University in different experiments , and as soon as all of these results were published — in two different research papers in the same issue of the same physics journal — the results were also confirmed at many other laboratories and in many different experiments .
The discovery of parity violation was a major contribution to particle physics and the development of the Standard Model . In recognition of their theoretical work , Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957 .
= = Later life = =
In 1963 , Wu investigated and confirmed the Conserved Vector Current hypothesis of Richard Feynman and Murray Gell @-@ Mann . Another milestone on the road to the Standard Model , it postulated a universal form of Fermi 's beta decay model . Her demonstration that parity was not conserved brought other assumptions that physicists had made about the weak interaction into question . If parity is not conserved in weak force interaction , what about charge conjugation ? This was an effect that held true for electromagnetism , gravity and the strong interaction , so it had been assumed that it would hold for the weak interaction too . Wu conducted a series of experiments on double beta decay in a salt mine under Lake Erie that proved that charge conjugation was not conserved either .
Another important experiment carried out by Wu was the confirmation of the E. M. L. Pryce and John Clive Ward 's calculations on the correlation of the quantum polarizations of two photons propagating in opposite directions . This was the first experimental confirmation of quantum results relevant to a pair of entangled photons as applicable to the Einstein @-@ Podolsky @-@ Rosen ( EPR ) paradox . Wu later conducted research into the molecular changes in the deformation of hemoglobins that cause sickle @-@ cell disease . She also did research on magnetism , and on the Mössbauer effect during the 1960s . She wrote a textbook with Steven Moszkowski , Beta Decay , which was published in 1966 , and became a standard reference on the subject .
Wu 's older brother died in 1958 , her father in 1959 and her mother in 1962 . At that time the United States government had severe restrictions on its citizens ' ability to travel abroad , so she was not permitted to visit China to attend their funerals . She saw her uncle Wu Zhou @-@ Zhi and younger brother Wu Chien @-@ Hao again on a trip to Hong Kong in 1965 . After the 1972 Nixon visit to China , relations between the two countries improved , and she was able to visit China again in 1973 . By this time her uncle and brother had perished in the Cultural Revolution , and the tombs of her parents had been destroyed . She was greeted by Chou En @-@ Lai , who personally apologized for the destruction of the tombs . After this , she returned to China a number of times .
In later life , Wu became more outspoken . She protested the imprisonment in Taiwan of relatives of physicist Kerson Huang in 1959 , and of the journalist Lei Chen in 1960 . In 1964 , she spoke out against gender discrimination at a symposium at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . " I wonder " , she asked her audience , " whether the tiny atoms and nuclei , or the mathematical symbols , or the DNA molecules have any preference for either masculine or feminine treatment . " When men referred to her as Professor Yuan , she immediately corrected them and told them that she was Professor Wu . In 1975 , Robert Serber , the new chairman of the Physics Department Columbia University , adjusted her pay to make it equal to that of her male counterparts . She protested the crackdown in China that followed the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989 .
Wu retired in 1981 , and became a professor emerita . She died on February 16 , 1997 , in New York City at the age of 84 after suffering a stroke . An ambulance rushed her to St. Luke 's – Roosevelt Hospital Center but she was pronounced dead on arrival . She was survived by her husband and son . In accordance with her wishes , her ashes were buried in the courtyard of the Ming De School that her father had founded , and that she had attended as a girl .
= = Honors , awards and distinctions = =
Elected a fellow of the American Physical Society ( 1948 )
Elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences ( 1958 )
First woman with an honorary doctorate from Princeton University ( 1958 )
Achievement Award , American Association of University Women ( 1959 )
Research Corporation Award ( 1959 )
John Price Wetherill Medal , The Franklin Institute ( 1962 )
American Association of University Women Woman of the Year Award ( 1962 )
Comstock Prize in Physics , National Academy of Sciences ( 1964 )
Chi @-@ Tsin Achievement Award , Chi @-@ Tsin Culture Foundation ( 1965 )
Honorary Fellow Royal Society of Edinburgh ( 1969 )
Scientist of the Year Award , Industrial Research Magazine ( 1974 )
Tom W. Bonner Prize , American Physical Society ( 1975 )
First female President of the American Physical Society ( 1975 )
National Medal of Science ( 1975 )
First person selected to receive the Wolf Prize in Physics ( 1978 )
Ellis Island Medal of Honor ( 1986 )
First living scientist to have an asteroid ( 2752 Wu Chien @-@ Shiung ) named after her ( 1990 )
Pupin Medal ( 1991 )
Elected one of the first foreign academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ( 1994 )
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= The Cockroaches =
The Cockroaches are an Australian pub rock group active throughout the 1980s . The band was founded in 1979 by the Field brothers − Paul ( lead vocals ) , John ( rhythm guitar , vocals ) , and Anthony Field ( lead guitar , vocals ) − and Tony Henry on drums and Joseph Hallion on saxophone . They were joined in 1981 by Jeff Fatt on keyboards . In 1986 they signed with an independent label , Regular Records , which issued their first three albums , including The Cockroaches ( March 1987 ) , which peaked at No. 9 on the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart ; it sold 70 @,@ 000 copies and was certified platinum by their label . The album spawned the single " She 's the One " , which became the band 's biggest hit when it peaked at No. 9 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart in April 1987 . In 1988 , The Daily Telegraph declared The Cockroaches , who played over 300 gigs a year , the " Hardest Working Rock 'n'Roll Band " in the country .
The Cockroaches released their third album , Positive , in June 1991 and left their label by the end of that year . In March 1994 they issued their fourth album , St. Patrick 's Day 10am , on their own Roach Records . Australian musicologist Glenn A. Baker described their sound as " rangy , loose @-@ limbed , good @-@ natured , energetic , self @-@ effacing , intuitive , harmonic , melodic , enduring , soused and fiercely frantic " .
In September 1988 , the band were promoting their second album , Fingertips , when Paul 's infant daughter died of SIDS . Although devastated , the group continued with a lower profile , and Anthony left to resume his university studies yet returned periodically to record their later studio albums . Early in 1991 Anthony and Fatt founded a children 's music group , The Wiggles . The Cockroaches alumni served as musical and performing support for the new group ; John wrote much of their music , Paul became their manager , and Henry performed with them . The Wiggles used many of The Cockroaches ' business practices and reworked some of their songs into the children 's music genre .
Members of The Cockroaches have pursued other music careers with John and Paul forming The Field Brothers , John forming his own band called the John Field Band and writing plays and musicals , and Henry being a session musician . A compilation album , Hey Let 's Go – The Best of the Cockroaches was released by Festival Records in 1999 , and they were due to stage two reunion shows in June 2014 , to mark the release of Hey Let 's Go , a greatest hits album .
= = Formation = =
The Cockroaches ( also called " The Cockies " ) were founded in 1979 by the Field brothers ( Paul on lead vocals , John on rhythm guitar and vocals , and Anthony ( or " Tony " ) on lead guitar and vocals ) , while they were students at St. Joseph 's College , a Sydney boarding school . According to Paul Field , the Field brothers grew @-@ up in a large family , with seven children . The brothers were each born one year apart , so they were very close . Paul said that he and all their siblings were taught music from a young age . Religion was an important part of their family as well ; their entire family were involved in their local Catholic parish , which included playing music for services .
Other founders of The Cockroaches were Tony Henry on drums and Joseph Hallion on saxophone ; they were joined by Bruce Hatfield on bass guitar by mid @-@ 1980 . After Paul introduced his brothers to The Rolling Stones , the band took their name from an obscure alias used by Keith Richards during the 1960s because , according to Anthony Field , " it sounded kind of punkish and that scene was blossoming in Sydney at the time " . Australian rock historian Ian McFarlane called the band 's name " a fitting choice , due mostly to the good @-@ time R & B material that The Cockroaches played during their formative years " . One of their first gigs was at their school ; Paul convinced the Marist Brothers , who ran St. Joseph 's , to allow a charge for the performance . Their proceeds were " donated to ' the missions ' " . Paul booked their initial performances at local pubs , which , despite some of the member 's under @-@ age status , allowed them to perform . Anthony later said , " It was insane , it was fantastic . It was frightening . We didn 't realise our playing was so rudimentary , but it didn 't matter ... Our inadequacies were made up by our spirit " . According to band member Daniel Fallon , The Cockroaches honed their craft as they performed on stage .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
By early 1980 , The Cockroaches began writing their own music as well as covering various 1960s rock ' n ' roll artists , especially The Rolling Stones . In July 1980 , they issued their debut single , " I Want a Leather Jacket " , on the Refugee Records label . The song was written by Paul , was produced by Greg Owens and the band , and was recorded at their school and at Studio B in Bondi . According to Australian musicologist , Glenn A. Baker , the track provided " the aura of a rockabilly band ... [ but ] they have always been much closer in style to the original cocky , bluesy , strident Stones " . When they recorded their second single , " Bingo Bango " in June 1981 , Hatfield had been replaced by Geoff O 'Reagan on bass guitar . This song was written by John and Anthony , was produced by Owens and was recorded at Wirra @-@ Willa Studios . By August of that year Jeff Fatt had joined on keyboards and Phil Robinson became their bass guitarist . According to Anthony , Fatt had been a member of " a seminal Sydney rockabilly band called the Roadmasters " , and had joined " to fight boredom " . They had hired Fatt and his brother to manage their sound system during gigs . Anthony declared this began " a beautiful three @-@ decade relationship that has made him a very wealthy man " . Their early road manager was Graham Kennedy , former guitarist @-@ vocalist for the hard rock band , Finch .
According to Anthony , Paul was " a picture of professional efficiency " , whereas John , one of the top Under @-@ 19 New South Wales cricketers , was the showman of the group . John 's performances on @-@ stage built The Cockroaches ' reputation for being a party @-@ band , even though alcohol and drug use was not part of their personal lifestyles . Paul , who returned to St Andrews as a teacher , noted about the band 's early days , " We had a good following around the unis , pubs and colleges . We had a reputation as a good live act " . Anthony credited Paul and John for the band 's reputation . He described Paul as " very serious , straight up and down and a really solid rock singer " who was known for his jumps and acrobatics on stage , and John as carefree , charismatic , a talented pop music writer , and a natural leader of both the band and their audience . Paul reported that the 1980s was an vibrant time for local music in Sydney , and that the group gained additional exposure by performing on TV shows like Simon Townsend and Hey , Hey it 's Saturday . Their success forced Paul to give up teaching to devote his energies on touring full @-@ time .
The group released five further singles on a range of labels : EMI , Phantom , Powderworks , and Possum Records . One of these , " See You in Spain " , with Powderworks , appeared on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart Top 100 in July 1984 . " See You in Spain " was written by Fatt , Robinson and John ; it was produced by Robert Moss at Emerald City Studios . In 1986 , The Cockroaches signed with an independent label , Regular Records , and were distributed by Festival Records . By that time , Phil Carson had replaced Robinson as their bass guitarist .
= = = Rise to success = = =
The group 's first single with Regular , " Wait Up " ( September 1986 ) , reached No. 28 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart and No. 13 in the Sydney charts .
The band 's debut album , The Cockroaches was released in March 1987 and featured Robinson on bass guitar . The album was produced by Charles Fisher , who had worked with other artists such as Radio Birdman , Hoodoo Gurus , Martin Plaza ; one track was produced by Roy Nicholson . Other singles included : " She 's the One " , which appeared on the charts in January ; " Some Kind of Girl " , in May ; and " Double Shot ( Of My Baby 's Love ) " , a cover version of the 1964 single by Dick Holler & the Holidays ) in August . The album sold 10 @,@ 000 in its first 10 days after its release , reached No. 9 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart , and in 1988 , was awarded a platinum certification by their record label for sales of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " She 's the One " became the band 's biggest hit when it peaked at No. 9 in April 1987 . " Some Kind of Girl " and " Double Shot ( Of My Baby 's Love ) " also made the Top 40 . Peter Mackie replaced Carson during 1987 . Phillip McIntyre of Texas and the Big Beat Radio website described Mackie 's time with The Cockroaches as " [ h ] is most successful period as a player " .
According to Anthony , in the late 1980s , the group averaged over 300 gigs a year throughout Australia . They performed at town halls , concert halls , Bachelor and Spinster ( B & S ) balls , parties , and pubs ; and were " one of the biggest crowd @-@ drawing groups in Australia " . They toured with Mental As Anything , the Hoodoo Gurus , and INXS . In 1988 , The Daily Telegraph surveyed booking agencies and determined that The Cockroaches were the " Hardest Working Rock 'n'Roll Band in the Country " . Australian musicologist Ian McFarlane described The Cockroaches as " an in @-@ demand pub band [ that built ] a sweaty , frenzied atmosphere with good old @-@ fashioned showmanship and unpretentious , energetic rock 'n'pop " . Paul said that the group " rode the last wave of the pub rock era " . Anthony claimed they were " shunned " by the major record companies in Australia . Even after their debut album was certified gold , they remained independent : they organised their own shows and paid expenses from their own accounts .
= = = Later years = = =
The Cockroaches recorded their second album , Fingertips , in 1988 . Fisher producing the album with Festival , at Alberts Digital Studios in Trafalgar . The album peaked at No. 32 on the ARIA Albums Chart . The line @-@ up consisted of the three Field Brothers , Fatt , Henry and Mackie . According to Anthony , they were disappointed with the album and regretted giving over much of its sound to the producers , but toured heavily to promote it . Fingertips produced their next four singles , including " Hey What Now ! " – written by John – which reached the Top 40 . The group appeared at the World Expo 88 in May 1988 , before a crowd of 92 @,@ 000 attendees . In September that year , while the band were touring for the album , Paul Field 's eight @-@ month @-@ old daughter , Bernadette , died of SIDS . Paul recalled , " Nothing was the same after [ my daughter 's death ] , it crushed me and left us all wounded " . Anthony left the group to return to Macquarie University and continue his studies early childhood education , but Paul returned to performing " in order to feed his family , sometimes with some of the original band members , other times not " . Early in 1989 , The Cockroaches toured in Australia with Mental As Anything , also produced by the Regular label .
The group recorded a third album , Positive , which came out in June 1991 . It was produced by Mark Moffatt , who had also worked with Mental As Anything and Jenny Morris . The album produced three singles , including the gospel @-@ flavoured track , " Hope " ( August 1990 ) , " I Must Have Been Blind " ( May 1991 ) , and a cover of the Brenda Lee song , " Here Comes That Feeling " ( August 1991 ) . Their version of the Brenda Lee song was featured in the 1990 film , The Crossing , starring Russell Crowe and Danielle Spencer . According to McFarlane , " By the end of the year ... The Cockroaches as a band concept had run its course " . However , journalist Glenn A. Baker , in the liner notes for the group 's March 1994 album , St. Patrick 's Day 10am , states , " The Cockroaches never went away , they just keep playing , very much in the mode of their earlier days " . He also declared , " The sound of the Cockies seems to embody all of the basic concepts of rock 'n'roll as we 've always known and loved it . Its rangy , loose @-@ limbed , good @-@ natured , energetic , self @-@ effacing , intuitive , harmonic , melodic , enduring , soused and fiercely frantic " . The performers for the album were : the three Field brothers ; Fatt on Hammond organ , keyboards and cow noises ; Henry on drums and cabasa ; Mackie on bass guitar and backing vocals ; with additional backing vocals by Jane Bezzina , Greg Truman and Steve Pomfrett . It was recorded at the Tracking Station and Noisegate Studios , was mixed by Pomfrett and John , was engineered by Pomfrett , and was produced by the band .
In November 1999 Festival Records issued a compilation album , Hey Let 's Go – The Best of the Cockroaches , which included a newly recorded track , " Something Good This Way Comes " .
= = Afterwards and The Wiggles = =
In early 1991 , Anthony Field founded The Wiggles , a children 's music group , with fellow university students Murray Cook and Greg Page , Phillip Wilcher ( from Macquarie University 's music department ) and The Cockroaches ' band mate , Jeff Fatt . In July , they issued their debut album , The Wiggles , which was dedicated to Paul Field 's daughter and sold 70 @,@ 000 copies . The Wiggles went on to become " a global powerhouse in children 's entertainment " . They used former The Cockroaches ' members for musical and performing support : Paul , John , and Henry ( The Wiggles ' character Henry the Octopus was named after him ) performed with them on their CDs , DVDs , and stage shows . John helped them write many of their songs . Many early The Wiggles ' songs were The Cockroaches ' tunes reworked to fit the genre of children 's music . According to Anthony , " The Wiggles music isn 't all that far removed from what we did in The Cockroaches , just a different subject matter ... The Cockroaches sing about girls and love and stuff like that ; The Wiggles sing about hot potatoes and cold spaghetti " . Paul worked for James Roland Wood , Chief Judge at Common Law , for three years after the band stopped regularly performing and during The Wiggles ' formation , which he said gave Anthony time to develop his new band alone , without much input from his brothers . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Paul became The Wiggles ' talent manager .
In addition to his work with The Wiggles , John founded The John Field Band , an eight @-@ piece covers band with John on lead vocals , Bernadette Cogin on lead vocals ( later replaced by Bronwyn Mulcahy ) , Dom Lindsay on trumpet , former Cockroaches member Dan Fallon on tenor saxophone , Roy Ferin on trombone , Mark Rohanna on piano , Matt Morrison on drums , and Chris Lupton on bass guitar . John wrote the musicals Evie and The Birdman ( July 2001 ) and Who Loves Me .
Since 2006 , Tony Henry has been a manager in the student services office at International College of Management , Sydney and has performed drums for The Wiggles ' recordings . As a session musician Henry has worked for Ross Wilson , Slim Dusty , Crowded House and Mental As Anything . As of 2008 , Peter Mackie has recorded three solo albums : What – Me Sing ? ! ( 2001 ) , Late Starter ( 2003 ) , and The Spinning Man ( 2006 ) .
On 29 January 2005 , The Cockroaches reunited for a one @-@ time performance at the Hills for Hope concert as a benefit for the Boxing Day Tsunami survivors . Also on the roster were The Greg Page Band , Mental As Anything and Hush . In 2011 , Paul and John Field founded The Field Brothers as a duo and recorded their debut album , 1964 . Some of The Cockroaches ' songs were re @-@ recorded as country songs , including " She 's Some Kind of Girl " , " Rely on Me " , and " Permanently Single " . The album included duets with other country music artists : Troy Cassar @-@ Daley , Shane Nicholson , Amber Lawrence , and Dianna Corcoran .
= = 2014 reunion = =
The band , with its original line @-@ up , reunited for two shows in June 2014 at RSL clubs in Sydney . Hey Let 's Go ! , a new greatest hits album covering their 1984 – 94 material , is set for release on 13 June through ABC / Universal . The album , along with the group 's entire catalogue , will be released digitally .
= = Personnel = =
Current Members
Paul Field – lead vocals ( 1979 – present )
John Field – rhythm guitar , vocals ( 1979 – present )
Anthony " Tony " Field – lead guitar , vocals ( 1979 – 1988 , 1991 , 1994 , 2014 @-@ present )
Tony Henry – drums ( 1979 – present )
Jeff Fatt – keyboards ( 1981 – 1988 , 1991 , 1994 , 2014 @-@ present )
Phil Robinson – bass guitar ( 1981 – present )
Peter Mackie – bass guitar ( 1988 – present )
Former Members
Paul Dunworth – bass guitar ( 1979 – 1981 )
Joseph Hallion – saxophone ( 1979 – 1985 )
Bruce Hatfield – bass guitar ( 1980 )
Geoff O 'Reagan – bass guitar ( 1981 )
Phil Carson – bass guitar ( 1986 – 1987 )
Phil Carson – bass guitar ( 1986 – 1987 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Stephen Jay Gould =
Stephen Jay Gould ( / ɡuːld / ; September 10 , 1941 – May 20 , 2002 ) was an American paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and historian of science . He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation . Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York . In 1996 Gould was also hired as the Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University , where he divided his time teaching there and at Harvard .
Gould 's most significant contribution to evolutionary biology was the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which he developed with Niles Eldredge in 1972 . The theory proposes that most evolution is characterized by long periods of evolutionary stability , which is infrequently punctuated by swift periods of branching evolution . The theory was contrasted against phyletic gradualism , the popular idea that evolutionary change is marked by a pattern of smooth and continuous change in the fossil record .
Most of Gould 's empirical research was based on the land snail genera Poecilozonites and Cerion . He also contributed to evolutionary developmental biology , and has received wide praise for his book Ontogeny and Phylogeny . In evolutionary theory he opposed strict selectionism , sociobiology as applied to humans , and evolutionary psychology . He campaigned against creationism and proposed that science and religion should be considered two distinct fields ( or " magisteria " ) whose authorities do not overlap .
Gould was known by the general public mainly from his 300 popular essays in the magazine Natural History , and his books written for both the specialist and non @-@ specialist . In April 2000 , the US Library of Congress named him a " Living Legend " .
= = Biography = =
Stephen Jay Gould was born and raised in the community of Bayside , a neighborhood of the northeastern section of Queens in New York City . His father Leonard was a court stenographer and a Navy veteran of World War II . His mother Eleanor was an artist whose parents were Jewish immigrants living and working in the city 's Garment District . When Gould was five years old his father took him to the Hall of Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History , where he first encountered Tyrannosaurus rex . " I had no idea there were such things — I was awestruck , " Gould once recalled . It was in that moment that he decided to become a paleontologist .
Raised in a secular Jewish home , Gould did not formally practice religion and preferred to be called an agnostic . When asked directly if he was an agnostic in Skeptic magazine , he responded :
" If you absolutely forced me to bet on the existence of a conventional anthropomorphic deity , of course I 'd bet no . But , basically , Huxley was right when he said that agnosticism is the only honorable position because we really cannot know . And that 's right . I 'd be real surprised if there turned out to be a conventional God . "
Though he " had been brought up by a Marxist father " he stated that his father 's politics were " very different " from his own . In describing his own political views , he has said they " tend to the left of center . " According to Gould the most influential political books he read were C. Wright Mills ' The Power Elite and the political writings of Noam Chomsky .
While attending Antioch College in the early 1960s , Gould was active in the civil rights movement and often campaigned for social justice . When he attended the University of Leeds as a visiting undergraduate , he organized weekly demonstrations outside a Bradford dance hall which refused to admit Blacks . Gould continued these demonstrations until the policy was revoked . Throughout his career and writings , he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms , especially what he saw as the pseudoscience used in the service of racism and sexism .
Interspersed throughout his scientific essays for Natural History magazine , Gould frequently referred to his nonscientific interests and pastimes . As a boy he collected baseball cards and remained a New York Yankees fan throughout his life . As an adult he was fond of science fiction movies , but often deplored their poor storytelling and presentation of science . His other interests included singing baritone in the Boston Cecilia , and he was a great aficionado of Gilbert and Sullivan operas . He collected rare antiquarian books , possessed an enthusiasm for architecture , and enjoyed city walks . He often traveled to Europe , and spoke French , German , Russian , and Italian . He sometimes alluded ruefully to his tendency to put on weight .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Gould married artist Deborah Lee on October 3 , 1965 . Gould met Lee while they were students together at Antioch College . They had two sons , Jesse and Ethan , and were married for 30 years . His second marriage in 1995 was to artist and sculptor Rhonda Roland Shearer .
= = = First bout of cancer = = =
In July 1982 , Gould was diagnosed with peritoneal mesothelioma , a deadly form of cancer affecting the abdominal lining and frequently found in people who have been exposed to asbestos or rock dust . After a difficult two @-@ year recovery , Gould published a column for Discover magazine entitled , " The Median Isn 't the Message " , which discusses his stunned reaction to discovering that , " mesothelioma is incurable , with a median mortality of only eight months after discovery . " He then describes the true significance behind this number , and his relief upon realizing that statistical averages are merely useful abstractions , and by themselves do not encompass the full range of variation .
The median is the halfway point , which means that 50 % of people will die before eight months , but the other half will live longer , potentially much longer . He then needed to determine where his personal characteristics placed him within this range . Given that the cancer was detected early , he was young , optimistic , and had the best treatments available , Gould reasoned that he should be in the favorable half of the upper statistical range . After an experimental treatment of radiation , chemotherapy , and surgery , Gould made a full recovery , and his column became a source of comfort for many cancer patients .
Gould was also an advocate of medical cannabis . When undergoing his cancer treatments he smoked marijuana to help alleviate the long periods of intense and uncontrollable nausea . According to Gould , the drug had a " most important effect " on his eventual recovery . He later complained that he could not understand how " any humane person would withhold such a beneficial substance from people in such great need simply because others use it for different purposes . " On August 5 , 1998 Gould 's testimony assisted in the successful lawsuit of HIV activist Jim Wakeford , who sued the Government of Canada for the right to cultivate , possess , and use marijuana for medical purposes .
= = = Final illness and death = = =
Gould survived for 20 years until another cancer ended his life . Gould died on May 20 , 2002 , from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung , a form of cancer which had spread to his brain , liver , and spleen . This cancer was unrelated to his abdominal cancer . He died in his home " in a bed set up in the library of his SoHo loft , surrounded by his wife Rhonda , his mother Eleanor , and the many books he loved . "
= = Scientific career = =
Gould began his higher education at Antioch College , graduating with a double major in geology and philosophy in 1963 . During this time , he also studied at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom . After completing graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell , he was immediately hired by Harvard University where he worked until the end of his life ( 1967 – 2002 ) . In 1973 , Harvard promoted him to professor of geology and curator of invertebrate paleontology at the institution 's Museum of Comparative Zoology .
In 1982 Harvard awarded him the title of Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology . The following year , 1983 , he was awarded a fellowship at the American Association for the Advancement of Science , where he later served as president ( 1999 – 2001 ) . The AAAS news release cited his " numerous contributions to both scientific progress and the public understanding of science . " He also served as president of the Paleontological Society ( 1985 – 1986 ) and of the Society for the Study of Evolution ( 1990 – 1991 ) .
In 1989 Gould was elected into the body of the National Academy of Sciences . Through 1996 – 2002 Gould was Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University . In 2001 , the American Humanist Association named him the Humanist of the Year for his lifetime of work . In 2008 , he was posthumously awarded the Darwin @-@ Wallace Medal , along with 12 other recipients . ( Until 2008 , this medal had been awarded every 50 years by the Linnean Society of London . )
= = = Punctuated equilibrium = = =
Early in his career , Gould and Niles Eldredge developed the theory of punctuated equilibrium , according to which evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly , alternating with longer periods of relative evolutionary stability . Although Gould coined the term " punctuated equilibria " , the idea was first presented in Eldredge 's doctoral dissertation on Devonian trilobites and in an article published the previous year on allopatric speciation . According to Gould , punctuated equilibrium revised a key pillar " in the central logic of Darwinian theory . "
Some evolutionary biologists have argued that while punctuated equilibrium was " of great interest to biology generally , " it merely modified neo @-@ Darwinism in a manner that was fully compatible with what had been known before . Comparisons were made to George Gaylord Simpson 's work in Tempo and Mode in Evolution ( 1941 ) , which describes the paleontological record as being characterized by mostly gradual change ( horotely ) , but also included slow ( bradytely ) or rapid ( tachytely ) rates of evolution . Other biologists emphasize the theoretical novelty of punctuated equilibrium , and argued that evolutionary stasis had been " unexpected by most evolutionary biologists " and " had a major impact on paleontology and evolutionary biology . " Some critics jokingly referred to the theory of punctuated equilibrium as " evolution by jerks " , which prompted Gould to describe phyletic gradualism as " evolution by creeps . "
= = = Evolutionary developmental biology = = =
Gould made significant contributions to evolutionary developmental biology , especially in his work Ontogeny and Phylogeny . In this book he emphasized the process of heterochrony , which encompasses two distinct processes : neoteny and terminal additions . Neoteny is the process where ontogeny is slowed down and the organism does not reach the end of its development . Terminal addition is the process by which an organism adds to its development by speeding and shortening earlier stages in the developmental process . Gould 's influence in the field of evolutionary developmental biology continues to be seen in such areas as the study of evolution of feathers .
= = = Selectionism and sociobiology = = =
Gould was a champion of biological constraints , internal limitations upon developmental pathways , as well as other non @-@ selectionist forces in evolution . Rather than direct adaptations , he considered many higher functions of the human brain to be the unintended side consequence of natural selection . To describe such co @-@ opted features , he coined the term exaptation with paleontologist Elisabeth Vrba . Gould believed this feature of human mentality undermines an essential premise of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology .
= = = = Against " Sociobiology " = = = =
In 1975 , Gould 's Harvard colleague E. O. Wilson introduced his analysis of animal behavior ( including human behavior ) based on a sociobiological framework that suggested that many social behaviors have a strong evolutionary basis . In response , Gould , Richard Lewontin , and others from the Boston area wrote the subsequently well @-@ referenced letter to The New York Review of Books entitled , " Against ' Sociobiology ' " . This open letter criticized Wilson 's notion of a " deterministic view of human society and human action . "
But Gould did not rule out sociobiological explanations for many aspects of animal behavior , and later wrote : " Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve ( successfully I think ) the vexatious problem of altruism — previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior ... Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success . And here I wish it well . For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply . "
= = = = Spandrels and the Panglossian Paradigm = = = =
With Richard Lewontin , Gould wrote an influential 1979 paper entitled , " The Spandrels of San Marco and the panglossian paradigm " , which introduced the architectural term " spandrel " into evolutionary biology . In architecture , a spandrel is a curved area of masonry which exists between arches supporting a dome . Spandrels , also called pendentives in this context , are found particularly in Gothic churches .
When visiting Venice in 1978 , Gould noted that the spandrels of the San Marco cathedral , while quite beautiful , were not spaces planned by the architect . Rather the spaces arise as " necessary architectural byproducts of mounting a dome on rounded arches . " Gould and Lewontin thus defined " spandrels " in the evolutionary biology context , to mean any biological feature of an organism that arises as a necessary side consequence of other features , which is not directly selected for by natural selection . Proposed examples include the " masculinized genitalia in female hyenas , exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails , the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer , and several key features of human mentality . "
In Voltaire 's Candide , Dr. Pangloss is portrayed as a clueless scholar who , despite the evidence , insists that " all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds " . Gould and Lewontin asserted that it is Panglossian for evolutionary biologists to view all traits as atomized things that had been naturally selected for , and criticised biologists for not granting theoretical space to other causes , such as phyletic and developmental constraints . The relative frequency of spandrels , so defined , versus adaptive features in nature , remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology . An illustrative example of Gould 's approach can be found in Elisabeth Lloyd 's case study suggesting that the female orgasm is a by @-@ product of shared developmental pathways . Gould also wrote on this topic in his essay " Male Nipples and Clitoral Ripples " , prompted by Lloyd 's earlier work .
= = = Evolutionary progress = = =
Gould favored the argument that evolution has no inherent drive towards long @-@ term " progress " . Uncritical commentaries often portray evolution as a ladder of progress , leading towards bigger , faster , and smarter organisms , the assumption being that evolution is somehow driving organisms to get more complex and ultimately more like humankind . Gould argued that evolution 's drive was not towards complexity , but towards diversification . Because life is constrained to begin with a simple starting point ( like bacteria ) , any diversity resulting from this start , by random walk , will have a skewed distribution and therefore be perceived to move in the direction of higher complexity . But life , Gould argued , can also easily adapt towards simplification , as is often the case with parasites .
In a review of Full House , Richard Dawkins approved of Gould 's general argument , but suggested that he saw evidence of a " tendency for lineages to improve cumulatively their adaptive fit to their particular way of life , by increasing the numbers of features which combine together in adaptive complexes . ... By this definition , adaptive evolution is not just incidentally progressive , it is deeply , dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool , indispensably progressive . "
= = = Cladistics = = =
Gould never embraced cladistics as a method of investigating evolutionary lineages and process , possibly because he was concerned that such investigations would lead to neglect of the details in historical biology , which he considered all @-@ important . In the early 1990s this led him into a debate with Derek Briggs , who had begun to apply quantitative cladistic techniques to the Burgess Shale fossils , about the methods to be used in interpreting these fossils . Around this time cladistics rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology . Inexpensive but increasingly powerful personal computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics . Around the same time the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and genetic features as well .
= = = Technical work on land snails = = =
Most of Gould 's empirical research pertained to land snails . He focused his early work on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites , while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion . According to Gould " Cerion is the land snail of maximal diversity in form throughout the entire world . There are 600 described species of this single genus . In fact , they 're not really species , they all interbreed , but the names exist to express a real phenomenon which is this incredible morphological diversity . Some are shaped like golf balls , some are shaped like pencils . ... Now my main subject is the evolution of form , and the problem of how it is that you can get this diversity amid so little genetic difference , so far as we can tell , is a very interesting one . And if we could solve this we 'd learn something general about the evolution of form . "
Given Cerion 's extensive geographic diversity , Gould later lamented that if Christopher Columbus had only cataloged a single Cerion it would have ended the scholarly debate about which island Columbus had first set foot on in America .
= = = Influence = = =
Gould is one of the most frequently cited scientists in the field of evolutionary theory . His 1979 " spandrels " paper has been cited more than 5 @,@ 000 times . In Paleobiology — the flagship journal of his own speciality — only Charles Darwin and George Gaylord Simpson have been cited more often . Gould was also a considerably respected historian of science . Historian Ronald Numbers has been quoted as saying : " I can 't say much about Gould 's strengths as a scientist , but for a long time I 've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science ( next to Thomas Kuhn ) . "
= = = The Structure of Evolutionary Theory = = =
Shortly before his death , Gould published The Structure of Evolutionary Theory ( 2002 ) , a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory . In the film Beauty and Consolation Gould remarked , " In a couple of years I will be able to gather in one volume my view of how evolution works . It is to me a great consolation because it represents the putting together of a lifetime of thinking into one source . That book will never be particularly widely read . It 's going to be far too long , and it 's only for a few thousand professionals — very different from my popular science writings — but it is of greater consolation to me because it is a chance to put into one place a whole way of thinking about evolution that I 've struggled with all my life . "
= = = As a public figure = = =
Gould became widely known through his popular essays on evolution in the Natural History magazine . His essays were published in a series titled This View of Life ( a phrase from the concluding paragraph of Charles Darwin 's Origin of Species ) starting from January 1974 and ended in January 2001 , amounting to a continuous publication of 300 essays . Many of his essays were reprinted in collected volumes that became bestselling books such as Ever Since Darwin and The Panda 's Thumb , Hen 's Teeth and Horse 's Toes , and The Flamingo 's Smile .
A passionate advocate of evolutionary theory , Gould wrote prolifically on the subject , trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary biology to a wide audience . A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of pre @-@ evolutionary and evolutionary thought . He was also an enthusiastic baseball fan and sabermetrician ( analyst of baseball statistics ) , and made frequent reference to the sport in his essays . Many of his baseball essays were anthologized in his posthumously published book Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville ( 2003 ) .
Although a proud Darwinist , Gould 's emphasis was less gradualist and reductionist than most neo @-@ Darwinists . He fiercely opposed many aspects of sociobiology and its intellectual descendant evolutionary psychology . He devoted considerable time to fighting against creationism , creation science , and intelligent design . Most notably , Gould provided expert testimony against the equal @-@ time creationism law in McLean v. Arkansas . Gould later developed the term " non @-@ overlapping magisteria " ( NOMA ) to describe how , in his view , science and religion could not comment on each other 's realm . Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail , particularly in the books Rocks of Ages ( 1999 ) and The Hedgehog , the Fox , and the Magister 's Pox ( 2003 ) . In a 1982 essay for Natural History Gould wrote :
Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity , but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms . Morality is a subject for philosophers , theologians , students of the humanities , indeed for all thinking people . The answers will not be read passively from nature ; they do not , and cannot , arise from the data of science . The factual state of the world does not teach us how we , with our powers for good and evil , should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner .
The anti @-@ evolution petition A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism spawned the National Center for Science Education 's pro @-@ evolution counterpart Project Steve , which is named in Gould 's honor .
Gould also became a noted public face of science , often appearing on television . In 1984 Gould received his own NOVA special on PBS . Other appearances included interviews on CNN 's Crossfire , NBC 's The Today Show , and regular appearances on the Charlie Rose show . Gould was also a guest in all seven episodes of the Dutch talk series A Glorious Accident , in which he appeared with his close friend Oliver Sacks .
Gould was featured prominently as a guest in Ken Burns 's PBS documentary Baseball , as well as PBS 's Evolution series . Gould was also on the Board of Advisers to the influential Children 's Television Workshop television show 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 Contact , where he made frequent guest appearances .
In 1997 he voiced a cartoon version of himself on the television series The Simpsons . In the episode " Lisa the Skeptic " , Lisa finds a skeleton that many people believe is an apocalyptic angel . Lisa contacts Gould and asks him to test the skeleton 's DNA . The fossil is discovered to be a marketing gimmick for a new mall . During production the only phrase Gould objected to was a line in the script that introduced him as the " world 's most brilliant paleontologist " . In 2002 the show paid tribute to Gould after his death , dedicating the season 13 finale to his memory . Gould had died two days before the episode aired .
= = Controversy = =
Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work and popular expositions of natural history , but a number of biologists felt his public presentations were out of step with mainstream evolutionary thinking . The public debates between Gould 's supporters and detractors have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed " The Darwin Wars " by several commentators .
John Maynard Smith , an eminent British evolutionary biologist , was among Gould 's strongest critics . Maynard Smith thought that Gould misjudged the vital role of adaptation in biology , and was critical of Gould 's acceptance of species selection as a major component of biological evolution . In a review of Daniel Dennett 's book Darwin 's Dangerous Idea , Maynard Smith wrote that Gould " is giving non @-@ biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory . " But Maynard Smith has not been consistently negative , writing in a review of The Panda 's Thumb that " Stephen Gould is the best writer of popular science now active ... Often he infuriates me , but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these . " Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould 's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology .
One reason for criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution , and argued for the importance of mechanisms other than natural selection , mechanisms which he believed had been ignored by many professional evolutionists . As a result , many non @-@ specialists sometimes inferred from his early writings that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific ( which Gould never tried to imply ) . Along with many other researchers in the field , Gould 's works were sometimes deliberately taken out of context by creationists as " proof " that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved . Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works .
As documented by Kim Sterelny in his book Dawkins vs. Gould , Gould disagreed with Richard Dawkins about the importance of gene selection in evolution . Dawkins argued that evolution is best understood as competition among genes ( or replicators ) , while Gould advocated the importance of multi @-@ level selection , including selection amongst genes , cell lineages , organisms , demes , species , and clades .
Dawkins also said that Gould deliberately played down the difference between rapid gradualism and macromutation in his theory of punctuated equilibrium . Criticism of Gould and his theory of punctuated equilibrium can be found in Dawkins 's The Blind Watchmaker and Unweaving the Rainbow , as well as a chapter in Dennett 's Darwin 's Dangerous Idea .
= = = Cambrian fauna = = =
Gould 's interpretation of the Cambrian Burgess Shale fossils in his book Wonderful Life emphasized the striking morphological disparity ( or " weirdness " ) of the Burgess Shale fauna , and the role of chance in determining which members of this fauna survived and flourished . He used the Cambrian fauna as an example of the role of contingency in the broader pattern of evolution .
His view was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible of Creation . Conway Morris stressed those members of the Cambrian fauna that resemble modern taxa . He also promoted convergent evolution as a mechanism producing similar forms in similar environmental circumstances , and argued in a subsequent book that the appearance of human @-@ like animals is likely . Paleontologist Richard Fortey noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life , Conway Morris shared many of Gould 's sentiments and views . It was only after publication of Wonderful Life that Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more progressive stance towards the history of life .
Paleontologists Derek Briggs and Richard Fortey have also argued that much of the Cambrian fauna may be regarded as stem groups of living taxa , though this is still a subject of intense research and debate , and the relationship of many Cambrian taxa to modern phyla has not been established in the eyes of many palaeontologists .
Richard Dawkins also disagreed with Gould 's view that new phyla suddenly appeared in the Cambrian fauna , arguing :
The extreme Gouldian view — certainly the view inspired by his rhetoric , though it is hard to tell from his own words whether he literally holds it himself — is radically different from and utterly incompatible with the standard neo @-@ Darwinian model . ... For a new body plan — a new phylum — to spring into existence , what actually has to happen on the ground is that a child is born which suddenly , out of the blue , is as different from its parents as a snail is from an earthworm . No zoologist who thinks through the implications , not even the most ardent saltationist , has ever supported any such notion .
= = = Opposition to sociobiology and evolutionary psychology = = =
Gould also had a long @-@ running public feud with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists concerning the disciplines of human sociobiology and evolutionary psychology , both of which Gould and Lewontin opposed , but which Richard Dawkins , Daniel Dennett , and Steven Pinker advocated . These debates reached their climax in the 1970s , and included strong opposition from groups like the Sociobiology Study Group and Science for the People . Pinker accuses Gould , Lewontin , and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being " radical scientists " , whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science . Gould stated that he made " no attribution of motive in Wilson 's or anyone else 's case " but cautioned that all human beings are influenced , especially unconsciously , by our personal expectations and biases . He wrote :
I grew up in a family with a tradition of participation in campaigns for social justice , and I was active , as a student , in the civil rights movement at a time of great excitement and success in the early 1960s . Scholars are often wary of citing such commitments . … [ but ] it is dangerous for a scholar even to imagine that he might attain complete neutrality , for then one stops being vigilant about personal preferences and their influences — and then one truly falls victim to the dictates of prejudice . Objectivity must be operationally defined as fair treatment of data , not absence of preference .
Gould 's primary criticism held that human sociobiological explanations lacked evidential support , and argued that adaptive behaviors are frequently assumed to be genetic for no other reason than their supposed universality , or their adaptive nature . Gould emphasized that adaptive behaviors can be passed on through culture as well , and either hypothesis is equally plausible . Gould did not deny the relevance of biology to human nature , but reframed the debate as " biological potentiality vs. biological determinism . " Gould stated that the human brain allows for a wide range of behaviors . Its flexibility " permits us to be aggressive or peaceful , dominant or submissive , spiteful or generous … Violence , sexism , and general nastiness are biological since they represent one subset of a possible range of behaviors . But peacefulness , equality , and kindness are just as biological — and we may see their influence increase if we can create social structures that permit them to flourish . "
= = = The Mismeasure of Man = = =
Gould was the author of The Mismeasure of Man ( 1981 ) , a history and inquiry of psychometrics and intelligence testing , generating perhaps the greatest controversy of all his books and receiving both widespread praise and extensive criticism , including claims of misrepresentation . Gould investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry , as well as the history of psychological testing . Gould claimed that both theories developed from an unfounded belief in biological determinism , the view that " social and economic differences between human groups — primarily races , classes , and sexes — arise from inherited , inborn distinctions and that society , in this sense , is an accurate reflection of biology . " The book was reprinted in 1996 with the addition of a new foreword and a critical review of The Bell Curve .
In 2011 , a study conducted by six anthropologists reanalyzed Gould 's claim that Samuel Morton unconsciously manipulated his skull measurements , and concluded that Gould 's analysis was poorly supported and incorrect . They praised Gould for his " staunch opposition to racism " but concluded , " we find that Morton 's initial reputation as the objectivist of his era was well @-@ deserved . " Ralph Holloway , one of the co @-@ authors of the study , commented , " I just didn 't trust Gould . ... I had the feeling that his ideological stance was supreme . When the 1996 version of ' The Mismeasure of Man ' came and he never even bothered to mention Michael 's study , I just felt he was a charlatan . "
The group 's paper was reviewed in the journal Nature , which recommended a degree of caution , and notes that " because they couldn 't measure all the skulls , they do not know whether the average cranial capacities that Morton reported represent his sample accurately . " The journal stated that Gould 's opposition to racism may have biased his interpretation of Morton 's data , but also noted that " Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations . Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania , and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias . "
The group 's paper was critically reviewed in the journal Evolution & Development by philosopher of science Michael Weisberg , also of the University of Pennsylvania . Weisberg argues that " most of Gould 's arguments against Morton are sound . Although Gould made some errors and overstated his case in a number of places , he provided prima facia evidence , as yet unrefuted , that Morton did indeed mismeasure his skulls in ways that conformed to 19th century racial biases . " Biologists and philosophers Jonathan Kaplan , Massimo Pigliucci , and Joshua Banta also published a critique of the groups 's paper , arguing that many of its claims were misleading and the re @-@ measurements were " completely irrelevant to an evaluation of Gould 's published analysis . " They also argue that both Morton and Gould 's statistical methods on which skulls to include and which to exclude , and how they computed averages , " were both inappropriate . "
= = Non @-@ overlapping magisteria = =
In his book Rocks of Ages ( 1999 ) , Gould put forward what he described as " a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to ... the supposed conflict between science and religion . " He defines the term magisterium as " a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution . " The non @-@ overlapping magisteria ( NOMA ) principle therefore divides the magisterium of science to cover " the empirical realm : what the Universe is made of ( fact ) and why does it work in this way ( theory ) . The magisterium of religion extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral value . These two magisteria do not overlap , nor do they encompass all inquiry . " He suggests that " NOMA enjoys strong and fully explicit support , even from the primary cultural stereotypes of hard @-@ line traditionalism " and that NOMA is " a sound position of general consensus , established by long struggle among people of goodwill in both magisteria . "
However , this view has not been without criticism . For example , in his book The God Delusion , Richard Dawkins argues that the division between religion and science is not as simple as Gould claims , as few religions exist without claiming the existence of miracles , which " by definition , violate the principles of science . " Dawkins also opposes the idea that religion has anything meaningful to say about ethics and values , and therefore has no authority to claim a magisterium of its own . He goes on to say that he believes Gould is disingenuous in much of what he says in Rocks of Ages . Similarly , humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that Gould was wrong to posit that science has nothing to say about questions of ethics . In fact , Kurtz claims that science is a much better method than religion for determining moral principles .
= = Publications = =
= = = Articles = = =
Gould 's publications were numerous . One review of his publications between 1965 and 2000 noted 479 peer @-@ reviewed papers , 22 books , 300 essays , and 101 " major " book reviews . A select number of his papers are listed online .
= = = Books = = =
The following is a list of books either written or edited by Stephen Jay Gould , including those published posthumously , after his death in 2002 . While some books have been republished at later dates , by multiple publishers , the list below comprises the original publisher and publishing date .
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= 1978 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1978 Atlantic hurricane season was the last Atlantic hurricane season to use an all @-@ female naming list . The hurricane season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . It was an above average season due to a subsiding El Niño . The first storm , a subtropical storm , developed unusually early – on January 18 – and dissipated five days later without causing any damage . At the end of July and early August , short @-@ lived Tropical Storm Amelia caused extensive flooding in Texas after dropping as much as 48 in ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain . There were 33 deaths and $ 110 million ( 1978 USD ) in damage . Tropical Storm Bess and Hurricane Cora resulted in only minor land impacts , while the latter was attributed to one fatality .
Later in August , Tropical Storm Debra produced widespread effects , though damage was also relatively minor . Hurricane Ella became the northernmost Category 4 hurricane while located at 38 ° N , and lashed the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada with gusty winds and rip currents . Hurricanes Flossie and Kendra as well as Tropical Storms Hope , Irma , and Juliet caused minimal land impacts as a tropical cyclone . However , the precursor to Hurricane Kendra caused flooding in Puerto Rico . Hurricane Greta brought strong winds , high tides , and flooding to Central America , particularly Belize and Honduras . Greta resulted in about $ 25 million in damage and at least five fatalities . Overall , the storms of this season collectively caused $ 191 million in damage and 42 fatalities . Hurricane Greta crossed into the eastern pacific and was renamed Olivia .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1978 . Although 24 tropical cyclones developed , only twelve of them reached tropical storm intensity , which is slightly above the 1966 @-@ 2009 average of 11 @.@ 3 named storms per season . Of the twelve tropical storms , five of them strengthened into a hurricane , which is slightly below the 1966 @-@ 2009 average of 6 @.@ 2 . Two of the five hurricane became major hurricanes , which is Category 3 or greater on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Three tropical storms and two hurricanes made landfall during the season and caused at least 41 fatalities and $ 135 million . Additionally , the precursor to Hurricane Kendra brought flooding to Puerto Rico , with $ 6 million in damage and one death . The season officially ended on November 30 , 1978 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began very early , with the development of a subtropical storm on January 18 . It dissipated about five days later . However , the next tropical cyclone , an unnumbered depression , did not develop until June 21 . In July , there were two systems , including an unnumbered tropical depression and Tropical Storm Amelia . Seven tropical cyclones formed in August , including Tropical Depression Four and tropical storms Bess and Debra and hurricanes Cora and Ella . There were also seven system in September – tropical depressions Eight , Nine , and Twelve , Tropical Storm Hope , and hurricanes Flossie and Greta . During the month of October , there were five tropical cyclones , with two unnumbered tropical depressions , tropical storms Irma and Juliet , and Hurricane Kendra . There was another unnumbered tropical depression in November , which dissipated on November 5 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 63 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
In the middle of January , an upper @-@ level trough in the westerlies spawned a surface low pressure area to the east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles to the south of the subtropical ridge . Isolated from the detrimental effects of the westerlies , it was initially non @-@ tropical in nature and intensified through a baroclinic energy source , or one that derives energy from the interaction of cold and warm air . Convection increased slightly despite cool sea surface temperatures of around 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) . At 1200 UTC on January 18 , it organized into a subtropical depression about 1 @,@ 725 mi ( 2 @,@ 776 km ) east @-@ northeast of Puerto Rico while moving in a general westward track , which it would maintain for much of its duration . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initiated Dvorak classifications on the cyclone at 0000 UTC on January 19 , assessing a Dvorak number of T2.5 , suggesting both tropical and subtropical characteristics . On the same day , the pressure gradient between the storm and the ridge produced gale force winds . By early on January 20 , the storm maintained minimal convection near its center , with its primary rainband revolved cyclonically around its well @-@ defined center . Later that day , the storm strengthened into a subtropical storm and attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , supported by both ship and Hurricane Hunters reports .
Late on January 21 , the outer rainbands to the south and east of the center began diminishing , which began a weakening trend after the storm maintained peak winds for about 36 hours . At around that time , the cyclone was moving west @-@ southwestward , and within 72 hours was forecast by one hurricane forecast model to be located over Hispaniola . By midday on January 22 , the winds decreased to below gale force after the convection dissipated near the center . Subsequently it turned more to the west away from land , and by January 23 the circulation degenerated into a remnant trough about 185 mi ( 298 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles . The storm was one of six tropical or subtropical cyclones on record in the month of January , and one of four to have formed in the month .
= = = Tropical Storm Amelia = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on July 19 . The wave did not develop significantly while crossing the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . The disturbance then entered an area of the Gulf of Mexico that was conducive to tropical cyclogenesis and became a tropical depression while located about 30 mi ( 48 km ) south of Brownsville , Texas on July 30 . Despite its proximity to land , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Amelia on July 31 and peaked with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Around that time , Amelia made landfall near Port Isabel , Texas . Later on July 31 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated early the following day .
Amelia affected the Texas coast for two days , causing several shipping incidents and minor damage in Corpus Christi and South Padre Island . While active , there were no deaths linked to the storm . However , the biggest impact from the storm followed its dissipation , when its remnants contributed to record rainfall totals over the state . The state , already suffering from a previous drought , believed that the rain would help alleviate the conditions . However , the dry ground aided the flooding from the storm . The rainfall caused several rivers and creeks to flood , especially around the Texas Hill Country and northern Texas , leading to severe damage . Overall , Amelia caused 33 fatalities with an estimated $ 110 million in damages .
= = = Tropical Storm Bess = = =
A low pressure area developed in Georgia along a dissipating cold front on August 1 . The system detached from the cold front and drifted southwestward , reaching northeastern Gulf of Mexico on August 3 . Satellite imagery , buoys , and reconnaissance aircraft flights indicated that by August 5 , the system likely acquired a closed circulation . Thus , the National Hurricane Center estimated that a tropical depression developed in the central Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC that day . On August 6 , a reconnaissance flight into the depression resulted in an upgrade to Tropical Storm Bess , while located about 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas . The storm had initially headed west @-@ southwestward at 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) , before moving southwestward at nearly the same speed .
At 1200 UTC on August 7 , Bess attained its minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Thereafter , Bess began to turn nearly due southward under the influence of a high pressure area over southern Texas . Later on August 7 , the storm reached its maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Early on August 8 , Bess made landfall near Nautla , Veracruz , at the same intensity and then rapidly dissipated inland . In Tuxpan , Veracruz and Tampico , Tamaulipas , sustained winds reached only 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) . The storm also produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 12 @.@ 04 in ( 306 mm ) in La Estrella . However , no flooding occurred and no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Hurricane Cora = = =
A disturbance exited the west coast of Africa on August 4 and developed into a tropical depression about three days later , while located well east of the Lesser Antilles . On August 8 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cora . The storm moved at an unusually high forward speed for a cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean in August , and intensified into a hurricane later that day . The hurricane was upgraded into a hurricane based solely on satellite photography , the second time this occurred . Early on August 9 , it peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Around 0000 UTC the next day , Cora weakened to a tropical storm while west @-@ southwestward . The storm made landfall on Grenada on August 11 , while weakening to a tropical depression . Cora weakened further to a tropical depression , before losing its circulation and degenerating into a tropical wave on August 12 . The remnant crossed over Central America into the Pacific Ocean , where it regenerated into Hurricane Kristy .
Cora was an unusual cyclone , maintaining an unusually low latitude in the Atlantic in August at high speeds . While passing through the Lesser Antilles , gusty winds and light rainfall in Barbados and Saint Lucia . In the latter , a person died after stepping on a high tension power line that was downed in Castries . Approximately two to four percent of trees on the island were toppled . Cora was also responsible for altering weather conditions in Presque Isle , Maine , allowing for a takeoff of the historical flight of the Double Eagle II hot air balloon .
= = = Tropical Storm Debra = = =
A low @-@ pressure area that developed over southeast Florida and an area of convection near the Yucatán Peninsula merged and resulted in the formation of a tropical depression over the southern Gulf of Mexico on August 26 . Tacking west @-@ northwestward around a high pressure ridge , the depression gradually intensified began and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Debra on August 28 . Debra turned to the north and reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) on August 29 , shortly before making landfall in southwestern Louisiana . It was a disorganized storm , with most of the convection located to the east of the center . The system weakened rapidly and dissipated over Arkansas on August 29 , though its remnants continued into the Ohio Valley .
One person died while attempting to evacuate an oil rig to the south of Cameron , Louisiana . Damage caused by Debra was considered minimal . In Louisiana , rainfall peaked at 10 @.@ 81 in ( 275 mm ) in Freshwater Bayou . However , no flooding was reported . Wind impacts were light and mainly limited to down trees and damage to roofs in Lake Charles and New Orleans . The storm spawned several tornadoes in Arkansas , Mississippi , Louisiana , Tennessee , and Texas . In Mississippi , a tornado in Crystal Springs destroyed three mobile homes and a house , killing one person and seriously injuring another .
= = = Hurricane Ella = = =
A cold front spawned a tropical disturbance near Bermuda , which became a tropical depression on August 30 . The depression strengthened , and by early on August 31 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ella . Ship reports indicated that Ella became a hurricane later that day . Further significant intensification occurred , and the storm reached a preliminary peak intensity of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . A short @-@ wave trough over the Eastern United States caused Ella to decelerate and turn north . Simultaneously , dry air diminished convection on September 2 , which in turn resulted in weakening . Eventually , another trough forced Ella to re @-@ curve northeastward , thereby remaining well offshore the East Coast of the United States .
The storm then re @-@ intensified and by 1200 UTC on September 4 , Ella peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Thereafter , Ella rapidly weakened as it passed offshore Atlantic Canada , before being absorbed by an extratropical storm while located more than 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) northeast of St. John 's on September 5 . Ella threatened to pass within 50 mi ( 80 km ) of North Carolina . Because of this , a hurricane watch being issued for the Outer Banks of North Carolina during Labor Day Weekend , resulting in a significant drop in tourism occurred . However , because the storm veered northeastward , little effects other than 5 to 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 7 m ) waves , minor beach erosion , and light winds in coastal portions of North Carolina . In Newfoundland , Ella produced rainfall amounts reaching 2 @.@ 39 in ( 61 mm ) and wind gusts up to 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Flossie = = =
A tropical wave passed westward across Dakar , Senegal on August 31 and entered the Atlantic Ocean later that day . Convection markedly increased over the next few days and by 0000 UTC on September 4 , the wave developed into a tropical depression while located about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . Later that day , the Hong Kong Merchant reported tropical storm force winds , thus the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Flossie . It initially tracked northwestward at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) and minimal strengthening occurred , possibly due to rapid forward speeds . On September 5 , the storm curved westward , until turning north on September 7 . A high pressure area transitioned into a trough , causing Flossie to re @-@ curve northeastward and generating strong upper @-@ level winds .
On September 8 , Flossie was downgraded to a tropical depression . After the trough began weakening , favorable conditions returned , allowing Flossie to re @-@ strengthen into a tropical storm on September 10 . Flossie then decelerated and became nearly stationary on September 12 . Around that time , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . Further intensification continued , and Flossie peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) early on September 13 . The storm began turned nearly due northward and began weakening . Flossie accelerated to the northeast and eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) north of the Azores on September 15 . The strong extratropical cyclone brought winds as high as 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) to Fair Isle , Great Britain .
= = = Hurricane Greta = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near Trinidad on September 13 . By the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Greta . It headed westward to west @-@ northwestward across the Caribbean Sea and slowly intensified , becoming a hurricane on September 16 . The rate of intensification increased as Greta was approaching the northwestern Caribbean Sea . Greta briefly peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) , while brushing northeastern Honduras . Although the storm remained offshore , land interaction caused significant weakening . On September 19 , Greta made landfall in Stann Creek District , Belize with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The storm rapidly weakened inland over Central America , but survived its passage and eventually became Hurricane Olivia in the Eastern Pacific Ocean .
Early in its duration , Greta produced heavy rainfall in the Netherlands Antilles . With a similar path to Hurricane Fifi four years prior , Greta threatened to reproduce the devastating effects of the catastrophic storm ; however , damage and loss of life was significantly less than feared . In Honduras , about 1 @,@ 200 homes were damaged , about half of which in towns along the coastline . The storm damaged about 75 % of the houses on Roatán along the offshore Bay Islands , and there was one death in the country . In the Belize Barrier Reef , Greta downed trees and produced high waves , while on the mainland , there was minimal flooding despite a high storm surge . In Dangriga where it made landfall , the hurricane damaged or destroyed 125 houses and the primary hospital . In Belize City , a tornado flipped over a truck and damaged four houses . Damage in Belize was estimated at $ 25 million , and there were four deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Hope = = =
A mid @-@ tropospheric low pressure area developed over the Southeastern United States on September 10 . The system developed into a subtropical depression early on September 12 , while located about 75 mi ( 121 km ) east of St. Augustine , Florida . Over the next few days , the depression tracked east @-@ northeastward to eastward . While strengthening into a subtropical storm on September 15 , it passed just north of Bermuda , but produced only 1 @.@ 07 in ( 27 mm ) of rain on the island . The storm then made a brief dip to the east @-@ southeast , before resuming its east @-@ northeastward course on September 16 . Beginning on the following day , satellite imagery indicated that the system was acquiring tropical characteristics . As a result , it was reclassified as Tropical Storm Hope at 0600 UTC on September 17 .
Because Hope remained out of range of reconnaissance aircraft flights , the National Hurricane Center relied on ships and satellite estimates . After becoming a tropical cyclone , Hope began to accelerate while slowly intensifying . Satellite estimates at 1200 UTC on September 19 indicated that the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , recorded by the S.S. Banglar Mann . While located hundreds of miles north of the Azores on September 20 , the storm turned northward and began crossing into sea surface temperatures of 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) . By 1200 UTC on September 21 , Hope transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and was absorbed by another extratropical storm while situated about 220 mi ( 350 km ) south of Reykjavík , Iceland .
= = = Tropical Storm Irma = = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Irma were from a subtropical depression that formed about 500 mi ( 800 km ) south of the Azores on October 2 . During the next two days , thunderstorm activity gradually increased around the circulation center as the storm drifted northward . On October 2 , the storm had taken the appearance of a tropical storm on satellite photographs , and upper @-@ level anticyclonic flow over the center of the storm was evident on satellite time @-@ lapse movies . By the afternoon of October 4 , the system had acquired the characteristics of a tropical storm and was named Irma ; gale @-@ force winds extended 150 mi ( 240 km ) from the center of circulation .
Six hours after being named , Irma reached its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . On October 5 , Irma turned towards the north @-@ northeast and passed about midway between the central and western Azores . Shortly thereafter , Irma became less organized , and that evening was absorbed into an approaching cold front , about 450 mi ( 720 km ) northeast of the Azores . Although Irma passed near parts of the western and central Azores with gale @-@ force winds in some areas , no reports of damage or casualties caused by Irma were received . Several nearby ships reported winds around 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . It was noted that heavy rains may have occurred on some of the mountainous islands as Irma passed .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliet = = =
A weak tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 30 . The wave moved west @-@ northwestward and was centered well east of the Leeward Islands on October 6 , when satellite imagery indicated that deep convection became much more concentrated . The following day , ship reports noted that a closed circulation was developing . The system was classified as a tropical depression beginning at 1800 UTC on October 7 , while located about 600 mi ( 970 km ) east of Puerto Rico . Around midday on October 8 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Juliet .
After peaking with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) early on October 9 , Juliet passed north of Puerto Rico . The storm brought light rainfall to the island , peaking at 4 @.@ 51 in ( 115 mm ) at Toro Negro Plant . The storm then accelerated and curved northwestward , northward , and then northeastward . On October 11 , Juliet merged with a frontal zone , while located west @-@ southwest of Bermuda . Later that day , the remnants moved across the island and produced up to 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rainfall .
= = = Hurricane Kendra = = =
In late October , a tropical wave and an area of disturbed weather combined in the northwestern Caribbean , before crossing Puerto Rico . The system moved northwest and by late on October 28 , it became a tropical depression while located about 80 miles ( 130 km ) north of Mayaguana in The Bahamas . Early on the following day , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Kendra . The storm quickly intensified while moving either north or north @-@ northwestward and became a hurricane late on October 29 . After peaking with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on October 30 , Kendra weakened significantly to a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tropical storm in only 12 hours . Kendra continued north @-@ northeastward or northeastward , before being absorbed by an extratropical cyclone while located west @-@ northwest of Bermuda early on November 1 .
The precursor system dropped rainfall across much of southern Puerto Rico was at least 7 in ( 180 mm ) , with a peak at 20 @.@ 43 in ( 519 mm ) in Pico del Este . Mudslides and flooding from the heavy precipitation left many roads impassable , washed out or collapsed several bridges , and caused considerable damage to agriculture , especially livestock . Additionally , one fatality occurred and 1 @,@ 710 families fled their homes for shelters . Damage in Puerto Rico reached $ 6 million . A high @-@ pressure area and Kendra combined produced strong winds and abnormally high tides along the East Coast of the United States , though no damage was reported .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the 12 other tropical cyclones , there were several tropical depressions that developed during the season . The first of which formed over the central Gulf of Mexico on June 21 . The depression moved northeastward toward Florida and strengthened slightly . It dissipated by late on June 22 . Another tropical depression developed about 175 mi ( 282 km ) southwest of Porto Novo , Cape Verde on July 10 . The system moved generally westward and intensified into a strong tropical depression , before dissipating two days later . Tropical Depression Four formed about 465 mi ( 748 km ) east of Barbados on August 7 . It tracked westward without significantly intensifying , and passed through the Windward Islands over Bequia on the following day . The depression continued westward and passed near Aruba on August 9 . It eventually traversed the Caribbean Sea , and made landfall to the south of Bluefields , Nicaragua on August 11 . The depression dissipated shortly thereafter .
A tropical depression formed in the central Gulf of Mexico on August 9 . The storm moved northward and struck southeastern Plaquemines Parish , Louisiana before dissipating the next day . By August 30 , another depression developed in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico . The system tracked generally eastward and avoided landfall . It dissipated around midday on September 1 . Tropical Depression Eight developed over western Senegal around 1200 UTC on September 3 . The depression initially headed west @-@ southwestward and soon entered the Atlantic Ocean . Between late on September 4 and early on September 5 , the system passed south of Cape Verde . Later that day , the storm began curving west @-@ northwestward . By early on September 7 , it was heading northwestward and then turned to the north @-@ northwest the next day . The depression moved northward between September 9 and September 10 , before re @-@ curving to the northeast . It dissipated about 440 mi ( 710 km ) of Flores Island in the Azores around midday on September 11 .
At 1200 UTC on September 8 , Tropical Depression Nine developed over the west @-@ central Gulf of Mexico . Moving generally westward , the depression made landfall south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas , around midday on September 10 . The system rapidly weakened inland and dissipated later that day . Another tropical depression formed over western Senegal on September 18 . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean before curving west @-@ northwestward about three days later . On September 25 , the depression moved northwestward and then northward by September 28 . It dissipated about 550 mi ( 890 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda at 1200 UTC the following day . The next tropical depression developed in the Gulf of Mexico just offshore Campeche on September 21 . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the depression made landfall near Tampico on September 23 , shortly before dissipating .
A tropical depression formed at 1200 UTC on October 13 , while located about 55 mi ( 89 km ) north of Corvo Island in the Azores . The depression initially moved south @-@ southwestward , before curving southwestward by the following day . It then turned west @-@ northwestward on October 15 . Late the next day , the depression turned abruptly northward . The system dissipated about 500 mi ( 800 km ) west @-@ northwest of Flores Island . The next tropical depression developed at 1200 UTC on October 26 , while located about 490 mi ( 790 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde . It moved generally westward and dissipated about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and the west coast of Africa on October 29 . The final tropical depression of the season formed about 265 mi ( 426 km ) northeast of North Abaco in the Bahamas on November 3 . Moving north @-@ northeastward , the depression turned northeastward by the next day . It dissipated about 275 mi ( 443 km ) east of Virginia Beach , Virginia on November 5 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic basin in 1978 . Storms were named Amelia , Bess , Cora , Flossie , Hope , Irma and Juliet for the first time in 1978 . This was the last year that only female names were used for Atlantic hurricanes . The name Greta was retired after the 1978 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1978 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .
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= New York State Route 118 =
New York State Route 118 ( NY 118 ) is a north – south state highway that extends for 10 @.@ 71 miles ( 17 @.@ 24 km ) in Downstate New York in the United States . Much of the highway is located within Westchester County ; however , a small portion of the route near the northern terminus is situated in Putnam County . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 100 in the town of Yorktown . Its northern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) in the town of Carmel . NY 118 passes through the hamlets of Yorktown Heights and Amawalk , where it overlaps with US 202 and NY 35 . The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it was initially routed on the portion of modern NY 100 and US 202 between the New Croton Reservoir and Croton Falls . It was moved onto its current alignment to Croton Lake in the late 1930s , but the easternmost piece was designated as an extension of NY 129 to a traffic circle in the hamlet of Pines Bridge . This section became a piece of NY 118 by 1969 .
= = Route description = =
NY 118 begins at an intersection with NY 100 north of Croton Lake in the town of Yorktown . It heads westward as Saw Mill River Road , following the northern edge of the reservoir for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to an intersection with NY 129 . Here , the northern lake perimeter road becomes Croton Dam Road and continues west as NY 129 while Saw Mill River Road and NY 118 turn northward , passes through mostly residential areas as it heads toward the hamlet of Yorktown Heights . In the center of the hamlet , NY 118 enters a large commercial district based around NY 118 's junction with NY 35 and US 202 .
NY 118 joins US 202 and NY 35 here , forming a three @-@ way overlap that extends northeasterly into the town of Somers . At the hamlet of Amawalk , NY 35 splits off to the east on Amawalk Road while US 202 and NY 118 continue northeastward along the western edge of the Amawalk Reservoir on Tomahawk Street . The overlap between US 202 and NY 118 ends at the northern edge of the reservoir , at which point US 202 leaves to the east on Lincolndale Road . NY 118 , meanwhile , continues northward through residential neighborhoods into Putnam County . Just past the county line , NY 118 makes a 90 @-@ degree turn to the west onto Baldwin Place Road , then crossing the Putnam County Rail @-@ Trail . The route ends 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) later at an intersection with US 6 in the Carmel hamlet of Baldwin Place .
= = History = =
The roadways that makeup NY 118 through Westchester and Putnam counties was taken over and constructed between 1903 and 1907 . The first two segments , unsigned State Highway 148 ( SH 148 ) , which was NY 118 between a point north of NY 129 to Allan Avenue in Yorktown Heights along with a segment along the New Croton Reservoir and SH 149 , which went from Allan Avenue all the way to US 6 in Baldwin Place , were both contracted for improvement on June 16 , 1903 . The contract on SH 148 , 3 @.@ 48 miles ( 5 @.@ 60 km ) long , was completed August 5 , 1905 at the cost of $ 34 @,@ 272 @.@ 91 ( equivalent to $ 870 thousand in 2016 ) , half paid by the state . The contract on SH 149 , 6 @.@ 62 miles ( 10 @.@ 65 km ) long , cost $ 51 @,@ 232 @.@ 71 ( 1905 USD ) and was completed on October 28 , 1904 . The other portion of NY 118 , SH 405 , made up part of NY 100 , was contracted on September 20 , 1907 at the cost of $ 17 @,@ 605 ( equivalent to $ 447 thousand in 2016 ) . This portion of NY 118 and NY 100 was completed and accepted into the state highway system on November 21 , 1908 .
NY 118 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it did not initially follow any of its modern alignment . Instead , NY 118 headed northeastward from its current southern terminus on modern NY 100 and US 202 to a terminus at NY 22 in Croton Falls while all of what is now NY 118 was part of NY 100 . At the time , NY 100 continued north along Baldwin Place Road and Myrtle Avenue to meet then @-@ US 6 near Mahopac Falls . In June 1934 , the portion of NY 118 between Somers and Croton Falls became concurrent to US 202 , a new interstate route extending from Delaware to Maine . The alignments of NY 100 and NY 118 north of New Croton Reservoir were flipped c . 1939 , placing NY 118 on its modern alignment . NY 118 initially continued north to NY 6N over NY 100 's original alignment ; however , this extension was eliminated in the mid @-@ 1940s . With the flip , NY 118 terminated at a junction with NY 129 in Croton Lake , while the latter extended to a traffic circle with NY 100 in the hamlet of Pines Bridge . This alignment remained until 1969 , when the route was extended over the easternmost piece of NY 129 to end at the traffic circle with NY 100 . The traffic circle in Pines Bridge was removed between 1988 and 1991 and replaced with a three @-@ way intersection between the two routes .
= = Major intersections = =
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= 2010 ACC Championship Game =
The 2010 ACC Championship Game was a college football game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Florida State Seminoles . The game , sponsored by Dr. Pepper , was the final regular @-@ season contest of the 2010 college football season for the Atlantic Coast Conference . Virginia Tech defeated Florida State , winning the Atlantic Coast Conference football championship , 44 – 33 .
The Virginia Tech Hokies were selected to represent the Coastal Division by virtue of an undefeated ( 8 – 0 ) record in conference play and a 10 – 2 record overall . Representing the Atlantic Division was Florida State , which had a 9 – 3 record ( 6 – 2 ACC ) . The game was a rematch of the inaugural ACC Championship Game , won 27 – 22 by Florida State in 2005 .
The game was held at Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte , North Carolina on December 4 , 2010 . Charlotte was chosen after poor attendance at the game 's previous locations ( Tampa , Florida and Jacksonville , Florida ) led conference officials to seek a location closer to the conference 's geographic center . The 2010 championship was the first to be played in Charlotte , and the game will return to the city in 2011 .
The 2010 game began slowly , as Florida State scored only a field goal on its opening possession and Virginia Tech was held scoreless on its first try . On the second play of Florida State 's second possession , Virginia Tech defender Jeron Gouveia @-@ Winslow intercepted a pass by Florida state quarterback E. J. Manuel and returned it for a touchdown , giving the Hokies a 7 – 3 lead . They did not relinquish the advantage the rest of the game . The teams traded field goals and touchdowns through the remainder of the first and second quarters and entered halftime with Tech leading 21 – 17 . In the third quarter , Tech scored 14 points to Florida State 's seven , establishing the winning margin . In the final quarter , each team scored nine points , and the Hokies won with the most points ever scored by one team in an ACC championship game . In recognition of his winning performance , Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor was named the game 's most valuable player .
By winning , Virginia Tech earned a spot in the 2011 Orange Bowl football game , and Florida State was selected for the 2010 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Several players that participated in the 2010 ACC Championship Game were picked in the 2011 NFL Draft .
= = Selection process = =
The ACC Championship Game matches the winners of the Coastal and Atlantic divisions of the Atlantic Coast Conference . In the early 2000s , the league underwent an expansion to add three former Big East members : Miami and Virginia Tech in 2004 , and Boston College in 2005 . With the addition of a twelfth team , the ACC was allowed to hold a conference championship game under National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) rules .
The inaugural 2005 game featured a Florida State win over Virginia Tech , 27 – 22 . In 2006 , two different teams made their first appearances in the game , which was held in Jacksonville , Florida . Wake Forest defeated Georgia Tech , 9 – 6 . In 2007 , one team new to the championship game and championship @-@ game veteran featured in the contest as Virginia Tech faced off against Boston College . The game resulted in a 30 – 16 Virginia Tech victory . The 2008 game saw a rematch of the previous year , as Virginia Tech again defeated Boston College , 30 – 12 . In 2009 , Georgia Tech defeated Clemson , 39 – 34 , in a matchup of two newcomers to the championship game .
= = = Site selection = = =
Before the 2007 game , cities other than Jacksonville ( site of the 2007 ACC Championship Game ) presented their plans to be the site of the 2008 ACC Championship Game . After poor attendance in the ACC Championship Game at Jacksonville for the second straight year , ACC officials and representatives of the conference 's member schools elected not to extend the Gator Bowl Association 's contract to manage and host the game for another year . On December 12 , less than two weeks after Jacksonville had hosted the 2007 ACC Championship Game , the ACC announced that Tampa , Florida would host the game in 2008 and 2009 and Charlotte , North Carolina would host the game in 2010 and 2011 .
The cities were chosen based on bids presented to the ACC and its member schools . Each city requested and was granted a two @-@ year contract . Tampa was chosen as the site of the 2008 game because Charlotte was scheduled to hold the annual convention of the Association for Career and Technical Education at the same time as the game , and adequate hotel space would not be ready in time for the two events . Because of this , Charlotte 's two @-@ year span of hosting the game was pushed back to 2010 .
= = = Team selection = = =
Before the beginning of the 2010 college football season , the annual poll by media members who cover ACC football predicted Florida State would win the Atlantic Division and Virginia Tech would win the Coastal Division . Florida State received 78 of a possible 98 first @-@ place votes in its division , while Virginia Tech received 62 . In a vote to predict the ACC champion , Virginia Tech received 50 votes from 98 possible . Florida State received 26 votes , and all other teams received a combined 20 .
Immediately after the preseason poll , however , speculation began as to whether regular @-@ season parity would render the prediction irrelevant . Before the 2010 season , the poll had predicted the ACC winner correctly only once in the championship game era . In the Coastal Division , this speculation was groundless , as Virginia Tech 's undefeated season rendered any other winner impossible . In the Atlantic Division , the situation was much different . As late as the second week of November , four of the six division teams were in contention for the division title . These candidates were whittled to three with two weeks remaining in the regular season , then to two in the final week . During that week , NC State traveled to Maryland . If NC State had won , it would have been the Atlantic Division winner by virtue of a tie @-@ breaking win against Florida State . Instead , NC State lost 38 – 31 , and Florida State earned a bid to the championship game .
= = = = Virginia Tech = = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies entered the 2010 season after a 2009 campaign that saw the team finish 10 – 3 , including a season @-@ ending win in the 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl against the Tennessee Volunteers . Because of that season @-@ ending victory and the Hokies ' general good performance during the 2009 season , Virginia Tech was ranked No. 10 in preseason national polling . The Hokies ' first game of the season was a nationally televised contest against then @-@ No. 3 Boise State at FedEx Field near Washington , D.C .. Because the game was the first of the season to feature two top @-@ 10 teams , it received large amounts of media coverage . During the game , Virginia Tech fell behind 17 – 0 in the first quarter , but rallied to take a 21 – 20 lead early in the third quarter . The two teams traded the lead , alternating scoring drives until Boise State scored a touchdown with 1 : 06 remaining . Virginia Tech was unable to reply one final time , and Boise State earned a 33 – 30 victory .
The close loss discouraged the Virginia Tech players , who then had only five days to prepare for their next opponent , lightly regarded James Madison University . At Lane Stadium , Virginia Tech 's home field , James Madison upset the heavily favored Hokies , 21 – 16 . The loss was only the second time in college football history that a team ranked nationally was defeated by a team from the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision . In the wake of the loss , Virginia Tech fell from No. 13 to out of the polls entirely .
Following the loss , seniors on the football team held a players @-@ only meeting in an effort to rally the team . Players later recalled that meeting as the turning point in the team 's season . The next week , Virginia Tech earned its first win of the season , a 49 – 27 victory over East Carolina in Lane Stadium . The Hokies followed that by traveling to Boston College for a 19 – 0 win , their first shutout since 2006 .
The two victories were the start of a winning streak that saw the Hokies complete the regular season without another loss . Following Boston College , they defeated No. 23 NC State in its home stadium , 41 – 30 . They defeated nonconference opponent Central Michigan , then beat conference opponent Wake Forest and re @-@ entered the polls at No. 25 . Their position in the polls climbed with each opponent they defeated . They beat Duke as the No. 25 team , Georgia Tech as the No. 23 team , North Carolina as the No. 20 team and No. 23 Miami as the No. 16 team . The Miami victory clinched Tech the division championship and a slot in the ACC championship game , but the Hokies still won their final previously scheduled game , the annual Commonwealth Cup rivalry against Virginia .
= = = = Florida State = = = =
Florida State began 2010 after a 7 – 6 record in 2009 that ended with a 33 – 21 win against West Virginia in the 2010 Gator Bowl . Florida State also began the year under a new head coach . Bobby Bowden , who retired after 57 years as a head coach , 34 at Florida State and 33 consecutive winning seasons , was replaced by Jimbo Fisher . Immediately before the 2010 season began , Bowden claimed he had been pushed out as head coach , causing a stir before Florida State 's first game .
For its opening game , Florida State faced the lightly regarded Samford Bulldogs and defeated them 59 – 6 . In its second game , No. 17 Florida State faced a tougher challenge as it traveled to Norman , Oklahoma to play the No. 10 @-@ ranked Oklahoma Sooners . The Seminoles were defeated 47 – 17 , in their third @-@ worst loss since 1991 . Florida State rebounded from the loss to defeat Brigham Young University , 34 – 10 , then opened the ACC season by defeating Wake Forest , Virginia , in @-@ state rival Miami and Boston College in succession .
On October 28 , Florida State traveled to Raleigh , North Carolina to play NC State . Despite leading 21 – 7 at halftime , Florida State allowed NC State to rally and win the game , 28 – 24 . NC State 's win gave it a one @-@ game lead and a tiebreaker against the Seminoles in the Atlantic Division . The following week , Florida State again lost , this time to North Carolina , a Coastal Division opponent . The same week , NC State lost to Clemson , bringing Florida State even with NC State in the divisional standings . NC State still held the tiebreaker , however .
With three weeks remaining in the regular season and two other Atlantic Division teams also with one loss , there were 120 possible scenarios for the four tied teams . On Nov. 13 , Florida State defeated Clemson 16 – 13 , eliminating one of the four tied teams from contention for the divisional championship . The following week , Florida State defeated Maryland , 30 – 16 , eliminating another contender . The divisional championship came down to the final week . Because Florida State was playing nonconference rival Florida , the division was decided by the matchup between NC State and Maryland . Hours after Florida State defeated Florida 31 – 7 , NC State lost to Maryland , giving Florida State the Atlantic Division championship and a bid to the ACC Championship Game .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Following the last week of regularly scheduled conference games , both teams moved up in the national college football polls . Florida State , which had been ranked No. 22 in the BCS Poll , No. 22 in the AP Poll , and No. 21 in the Coaches ' Poll , rose to No. 21 in the BCS , No. 20 in the AP Poll , and No. 20 in the Coaches ' Poll . Virginia Tech , which had been ranked 16th in the BCS , 13th in the AP Poll and 14th in the Coaches ' Poll before the final week of the regular season , climbed to 15th in the BCS , 11th in the AP Poll and 11th in the Coaches ' Poll . Spread bettors predicted Virginia Tech would win the game . Various betting organizations favored the Hokies by four or 4 @.@ 5 points . The matchup was a repeat of the inaugural ACC Championship game , and according to observers , the Seminoles ' presence appeared to mark a resurgence for Florida State , which performed below expectations in the final years of Bowden 's tenure . For Virginia Tech , there were hopes of breaking a trend of losing to Florida State . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer was 1 – 8 against Florida State , and the Hokies overall were 11 – 22 – 1 against the Seminoles .
= = = Attendance concerns = = =
After two years of poor attendance at ACC championship games in Tampa , Florida , organizers hoped moving the game to Charlotte , closer to the geographic center of the conference , would result in improved ticket sales . That hypothesis was borne out as early public sales approached 28 @,@ 000 tickets before the participating teams were officially announced . After the announcement , each school sold its allotment of 10 @,@ 000 tickets , and the more than 50 @,@ 000 publicly available tickets were purchased at a rapid pace . ACC officials and Charlotte boosters each said they were satisfied with the pace and quantity of ticket sales .
= = = Florida State offense = = =
During the 2010 season , Florida State senior quarterback Christian Ponder completed 62 @.@ 2 percent of his passes for a total of 2 @,@ 038 yards , and Florida State head coach Jimbo Fisher called him " one of the great Florida State quarterbacks of all time . " Despite this endorsement , Ponder 's participation in the ACC Championship was in doubt because of injured elbow fascia sustained in the Seminoles ' game against Boston College . The issue remained in doubt until the day of the ACC Championship , when coach Fisher announced that sophomore quarterback E. J. Manuel , who had led the Seminoles against Clemson was given the start .
Protecting both quarterbacks was a strong offensive line anchored by All @-@ American guard Rodney Hudson , a two @-@ time winner of the Jacobs Blocking Trophy , a four @-@ time recipient of all @-@ conference honors and a finalist for the Outland Trophy . Hudson and the offensive line also protected Florida State 's running backs . Foremost among these was sophomore Chris Thompson , who led the team with 687 rushing yards . Thompson was predicted to start the ACC Championship game because of his performance in the regular season and because fellow running backs Ty Jones and Jermaine Thomas were injured . Taken together , Florida State 's offense was 52nd in total offense , accumulating 391 yards per game .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offense was centered on quarterback Tyrod Taylor , who was named ACC Player of the Year on December 1 . Taylor threw 20 touchdown passes , had only four interceptions and completed 60 @.@ 2 percent of his passes . He also rushed for 613 yards , a figure that included several " game @-@ changing " runs . Alongside Taylor , the Hokies boasted three strong running backs : David Wilson , Ryan Williams and Darren Evans . Wilson had 573 rushing yards , 509 return yards , 165 receiving yards and nine touchdowns despite being an underclassman . The Hokies led the ACC in scoring , averaging 34 @.@ 8 points per game , and were 38th in the nation in total offense ( 409 yards per game ) .
= = = Florida State defense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offensive line was particularly concerned with containing Florida State sophomore defensive end Brandon Jenkins , who was tied for third in the nation in sacks ( 12 ) and 15th in tackles for loss ( 18 @.@ 5 ) . On the other half of the defensive line , defensive end Markus White recorded seven sacks during the regular season . In total , Florida State 's defense was No. 1 in college football in terms of sacks ( 43 ) and 15th in tackles for loss ( 7 @.@ 2 per game ) . Florida State placed a priority on containing Tyrod Taylor and preventing him from scrambling for extra yardage . The Seminoles were 39th nationally in total defense , allowing an average of 341 yards per game .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
Virginia Tech 's defense was less statistically successful in 2010 than it had been in previous years , but the Hokies still led the nation in turnover margin , forcing 16 more turnovers than they gave away . Sophomore cornerback Jayron Hosley , a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection , led the nation in interceptions with eight , while Davon Morgan and Rashad Carmichael each had four . Tech 's defense ranked 10th in the red zone , seven spots ahead of the Seminoles ' defense in that respect . In total defense , the Hokies were 42nd , permitting an average of 349 yards per game . In scoring defense , Tech was third in the ACC , permitting 17 @.@ 9 points per game .
= = Game summary = =
The 2010 ACC Championship Game kicked off on December 4 , 2010 at 7 : 52 pm EST at Bank of America Stadium in Charlotte , North Carolina . At kickoff , the weather was overcast with light rain and a temperature of 36 ° F ( 2 ° C ) , " dreary and chilly " , according to The Associated Press . The wind was from the east at 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) . The number of tickets sold was 72 @,@ 379 , slightly less than capacity , and despite the chilly temperatures , early turnstile figures reported more than 60 @,@ 000 people in attendance . The game was televised in the United States by ESPN , and Sean McDonough , Matt Millen and Heather Cox were the announcers . The game also appeared on ESPN 3D , and was broadcast on that channel by Joe Tessitore , Tim Brown and Ray Bentley . Approximately 3 @.@ 047 million people watched the game , earning the broadcast a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 8 . That figure was the second @-@ lowest ever for an ACC Championship Game , but 13 % more than the previous year 's rating of 1 @.@ 6 , the record low . The game 's referee was Brad Allen , the umpire was Jim Hyson and the lineman was Art Hardin .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech won the ceremonial pregame coin toss to determine first possession and decided to kick off to Florida State . Kickoff returner Lonnie Pryor mishandled the football , but quickly recovered the loose ball and carried it to the Florida State 33 @-@ yard line , where the Seminoles began their first offensive drive . On the first play of the game , quarterback E. J. Manuel completed a 29 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Taiwan Easterling , driving the Seminoles into Virginia Tech 's defensive half . A short rush and a subsequent 12 @-@ yard pass gave Florida State a first down near the Virginia Tech 20 @-@ yard line . Short rushes pushed Florida State 's offense inside the Virginia Tech red zone , but the Seminoles were unable to gain another first down . Placekicker Dustin Hopkins came on the field and kicked a 32 @-@ yard field goal , giving Florida State a 3 – 0 lead with 11 : 43 remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech 's first possession began at its 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback . The Hokies advanced the ball into Florida State with a series of rushing plays , then lost yardage and punted from their 47 @-@ yard line . Florida State recovered the kick at its 15 @-@ yard line and began its second possession . On the second play of the drive , Seminoles quarterback attempted a pass , but the ball was intercepted by Virginia Tech defender Jeron Gouveia @-@ Winslow , who ran it 24 yards into the end zone for Virginia Tech 's first touchdown . The score gave Tech a 7 – 3 lead with 8 : 54 remaining in the quarter .
Florida State received the post @-@ score kickoff , then went three @-@ and @-@ out . Virginia Tech recovered the kick at its 35 @-@ yard line , and began a drive that needed only three plays to score a touchdown . The key effort was a 51 @-@ yard sprint by running back Darren Evans , which advanced the ball to the Florida State 9 @-@ yard line . The score and extra point pushed Tech 's lead to 14 – 3 with 4 : 37 remaining . Florida State responded with a quick touchdown drive of its own . From its 32 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles needed only six plays , three of them passes from E. J. Manuel , to reach the end zone . The score with 1 : 52 remaining trimmed Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 at the 1 : 52 mark . As the quarter came to an end , Virginia Tech received the post @-@ score kickoff and advanced the ball to its 22 @-@ yard line before the final seconds ticked off the clock and the first quarter ended with Tech leading 14 – 10 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a third and nine at its 22 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor completed a 28 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Danny Coale for a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . Tech continued to advance down the field , and eight plays later , Taylor completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Jarret Boykin for the Hokies ' third touchdown of the game . The drive consumed 13 plays and covered 91 yards in 6 : 25 , and Tech gained a 21 – 10 lead with 10 : 28 remaining before halftime .
Following the touchdown , Virginia Tech kicked the ball off to Florida State , and after a short return , the Seminoles ' offense took the field at their 22 @-@ yard line . Florida State then embarked upon a 10 @-@ play , 78 @-@ yard drive that resulted in a touchdown with 5 : 40 remaining in the quarter . During the drive , Florida State converted two third downs and Manuel completed passes of 12 yards , 14 yards and 25 yards .
Tech 's Jayron Hosley returned Florida State 's subsequent kickoff to the Tech 35 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense returned to the field . Tech advanced the ball with short rushes , gaining two first downs via quarterback sneaks from Taylor . The Hokies advanced as far as the Florida State 44 @-@ yard line , but Florida State sacked Taylor twice , denying the Hokies another first down . Tech ran down the clock , then punted with 42 seconds remaining in the first half . Rather than attempt to score in the final seconds , Florida State kneeled on the ball and let the first half end with Tech leading , 21 – 17 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Florida State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Running back David Wilson returned the opening kickoff to the Tech 21 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ' offense began the first drive of the second half . The first play of the quarter was a 14 @-@ yard pass from Taylor to Coale , beginning a seven @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive resulting in a touchdown . The culminating play of the drive was a 45 @-@ yard pass from Taylor to Coale for the touchdown , which extended Tech 's lead to 11 points , 28 – 17 , at the 11 : 24 mark of the quarter .
After the kickoff , Florida State went three @-@ and @-@ out and punted back to Virginia Tech . The Hokies began their second possession of the quarter at their 39 @-@ yard line and started the drive with five consecutive running plays , advancing 28 yards in the process . Tech then switched to its passing offense , throwing four consecutive passes . Three were complete , and the final one , a 21 @-@ yard toss from Taylor to Wilson , ended with the running back carrying the ball into the end zone . The score capped a nine @-@ play , 61 @-@ yard drive that grew the Hokies ' advantage to 18 points , 35 – 17 .
Florida State 's offense returned to the field with 4 : 35 remaining and needing to score rapidly in order to make up the 18 @-@ point deficit , the game 's largest . The Seminoles began their drive with their passing offense , trying three passes in four plays . Quarterback Manuel completed two of those three pass attempts , gaining 37 yards and advancing deep into Virginia Tech territory . A pass interference penalty against Virginia Tech advanced the Seminoles to the Tech 11 @-@ yard line , and three rushing plays later , running back Ty Jones crossed the goal line for a touchdown . The score came with 1 : 40 remaining in the quarter and brought the score to 35 – 24 .
Florida State kicked off following the score , and Tech 's offense began work from its 18 @-@ yard line . Though quarterback Taylor was sacked on the first play of the drive , the Hokies recovered the lost yardage and gained a first down with the final play of the quarter . With one quarter remaining in the game , Tech held a 35 – 24 lead .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Virginia Tech began the quarter with a first down at its 29 @-@ yard line . After Williams carried the ball for a four @-@ yard gain , Taylor completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Andre Smith for a first down at the Tech 47 @-@ yard line . Two plays gained only one yard , then Taylor completed a 46 @-@ yard throw to Coale for a first down at the Florida State 6 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Taylor ran five yards into the end zone , finishing an 11 @-@ play , 82 @-@ yard drive that spanned two quarters . Tech increased its margin to 41 – 24 , but as Virginia Tech attempted the extra point , Florida State 's Nigel Bradham disrupted and blocked the kick . Bradham scooped up the loose ball and returned it the length of the field to the opposite end zone for an unusual defensive two @-@ point conversion .
The conversion brought the score to 41 – 26 with 11 : 29 remaining in the game . Florida State received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff , then benefited from a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty against Virginia Tech . Three subsequent plays failed to gain another first down , however , and on fourth down , a pass by Manuel was intercepted by Virginia Tech 's Davon Morgan and returned to the Florida State 34 @-@ yard line . With 9 : 29 remaining , Virginia Tech 's offense entered the game . The Hokies went three @-@ and @-@ out , but capitalized on the good starting field position by kicking a 43 @-@ yard field goal that increased their lead to 44 – 26 .
Florida State 's offense began work from its 36 @-@ yard line , but ran four plays without gaining a first down and turned the ball over on downs . Virginia Tech , whose offense began at the Florida State 45 @-@ yard line , proceeded to run down the clock . In eight plays , Tech advanced 21 yards and drained 3 : 22 , then turned the ball over on downs at the Seminole 26 @-@ yard line . Florida State 's offense entered the game one final time and conducted a 12 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that ended with a 20 @-@ yard pass from Manuel to running back Chris Thompson for a touchdown . The score and subsequent extra point made the score 44 – 33 , but only seven seconds remained in the game . The Seminoles attempted an onside kick in an attempt to have another opportunity for offense , but the Hokies recovered the kick and proceeded to run out the final seconds , earning a 44 – 33 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of his performance as the game 's winning quarterback , Tyrod Taylor was named the game 's most valuable player . He completed 18 of his 28 pass attempts for 263 yards and three touchdowns . The three touchdowns gave him 23 for the season , setting a Virginia Tech single @-@ season mark . The three touchdowns also tied the record for the most in an ACC Championship Game . Taylor also carried the ball 11 times for 24 yards and one touchdown . Taylor 's MVP award was his second , and he became the first player to win the honor multiple times . On the opposite side of the ball , Florida State quarterback E. J. Manuel had a better completion percentage , completing 23 of his 31 passes for 288 yards and one touchdown . He also ran the ball 11 times for nine yards .
Virginia Tech wide receiver Danny Coale 's 143 receiving yards were a career high and set a championship @-@ game record . Many of those receiving yards came on third down and were a reason why Tech converted 13 of its 17 third @-@ down opportunities , setting another championship @-@ game record . Florida State 's leading receiver was wide receiver Taiwan Easterling , who had six catches for 79 yards . Close behind was wide receiver Willie Haulstead , who had three receptions for 73 yards . All of Haulstead 's receptions came in the first half , setting a record for receiving yards in an ACC Championship Game half .
On the ground , Virginia Tech running back Darren Evans led all rushers with 69 yards on six carries . In total , Virginia Tech had 179 rushing yards ; three players had more rushing yards than the leading rusher on Florida State , running back Ty Jones , who had 24 yards . Jones also had three rushing touchdowns , becoming the first Florida State player to rush for three touchdowns since Oct. 4 , 2008 . He also was the second player ever to rush for three touchdowns in an ACC Championship Game .
Among defensive players , Florida State safety Nick Moody had 12 tackles , the most in the game . Virginia Tech 's leading defensive player was safety Eddie Whitley , who had nine tackles and two pass breakups . Tech 's Davon Morgan and Jeron Gouveia @-@ Winslow were responsible for the only turnovers in the game ; each had one interception . Gouveia @-@ Winslow ’ s 24 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown was the second such score in an ACC Championship Game . On the opposite side of the ball , Nigel Bradham 's defensive two @-@ point conversion was only the fifth in all of college football during the 2010 season . Florida State received no penalties during the game , and Virginia Tech received only four . The four penalties were the fewest in an ACC Championship Game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's win in the ACC Championship Game , its first against Florida State in postseason play , brought it to an 11 – 2 record , while Florida State 's loss dropped it to a 9 – 4 record . Virginia Tech became the first team in college football history to win 11 consecutive games after losing its first two of the season , and it was the first team in conference history to defeat nine different ACC teams in one season . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer became only the second coach in ACC history to win four conference titles in seven years . The first to do so was Florida State 's Bobby Bowden . Both teams ' standings in the national polls were affected by the game . In the BCS poll , the Seminoles fell from 21st to out of the poll , while Virginia Tech rose from 15th to 13th . In the AP Poll , Tech rose to 12th , while Florida State fell to 23rd .
As a reward for winning the ACC Championship , the Hokies received a position in the 2011 Orange Bowl , a Bowl Championship Series game . Virginia Tech 's opponent in that game was the Stanford Cardinal , from the Pac @-@ 12 Conference . In that game , a blowout in favor of the Cardinal , Stanford defeated Virginia Tech 40 – 12 . Florida State , meanwhile , was selected to participate in the 2010 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl against South Carolina . In that game , held New Year 's Eve , the Seminoles defeated South Carolina , 26 – 17 .
Several players from each team participated in all @-@ star games following their teams ' respective bowl games . Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor and center Beau Warren played in the East @-@ West Shrine Game , Florida State quarterback Christian Ponder and offensive lineman Rodney Hudson played in the 2011 Senior Bowl . In that game , Ponder , who had been held out of the ACC Championship Game and underwent elbow surgery , guided the South team to victory by throwing two touchdown passes . The two games were a final chance to impress National Football League scouts before the 2011 NFL Draft , which began April 28 .
Florida State had three players selected in the draft , including Ponder , who was taken with the 12th overall selection , making him the first participant from the 2010 ACC Championship Game to be picked . Florida State 's two other selections were offensive lineman Rodney Hudson ( 55th overall ) and defensive end Markus White ( 224th ) . Virginia Tech likewise had three players selected : Ryan Williams ( 38th ) , Rashad Carmichael ( 127th ) , and Tyrod Taylor ( 180th ) .
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= Elegy ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Elegy " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by John Shiban and directed by James Charleston . The episode aired in the United States on May 4 , 1997 on the Fox network . It is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Elegy " earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 and was seen by 17 @.@ 1 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from televisions critics ; the performance of lead actress Gillian Anderson was especially praised .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully track a series of murders that lead to a home for the mentally ill and a clue that makes no sense : each victim has appeared as an apparition in the area where their body was found along with the words " She is me " . Furthermore , the episode continues the storyline that concerns Scully 's battle with cancer .
Shiban was inspired to write the episode based on an incident that involved his wife 's father potentially seeing other beings in a room when he was dying . Shiban was also inspired by the 1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . The series sought out a bowling alley for the opening scenes , but many establishments in Vancouver , Canada were reluctant to yield over two @-@ thirds of their space as well as close down for three days . Eventually , the Thunderbird Bowling Centre was chosen .
= = Plot = =
Angie Pintero ( Alex Bruhanski ) , the owner of a bowling alley , tells one of his employees , an autistic man named Harold Spuller ( Steven M. Porter ) , to go home for the evening . Shortly thereafter , Angie discovers a badly @-@ injured blond girl wedged inside of the automated pinsetter . The girl attempts to speak , but no words come out of her mouth . Angie notices police in a nearby parking lot and rushes outside to get help . He realizes a crowd has gathered around the dead body of the same girl he saw only moments earlier in the bowling alley . Angie relates his bizarre tale to Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . Mulder suspects that Angie encountered the dead girl 's ghost ; three similar encounters , and three similar murders , were reported in the area in as many weeks . The agents discover the words , " She is me " written on the bowling lane where Angie saw the spirit , but its meaning remains a mystery .
Detective Hudak ( Daniel Kamin ) tells Mulder and Scully that an anonymous caller phoned 911 with a message regarding Penny Timmons , one of the killer 's victims . The caller claimed that Timmons ' last words were " She is me . " Hudak notes , however , that the victim 's larynx was severed , making it impossible for her to utter dying words . The agents trace the source of the 911 call to a payphone at the New Horizon Psychiatric Center . Mulder notices one of the patients , Harold Spuller , avoiding his gaze . After viewing photographs of the murder victims , Scully comes to the conclusion that Spuller fits the killer 's profile : a compulsive person consumed with the desire to organize , clean and reorder . Scully uses a rest room to attend to a nose bleed . There she encounters the spirit of another blond girl . Moments later , Mulder tells her that the body of yet another victim was found nearby .
Later , Mulder discovers Harold in a room accessible from the bowling alley . The walls of the room are covered with score sheets , including those of the victims . Mulder realizes that Harold met each of the murdered women at the bowling alley . Suddenly , Harold lapses into a strange seizure . From his point of view , he sees Angie 's ghost standing behind Mulder . He rushes out of the room and makes his way to the bowling alley , where Angie lies dead , the victim of a heart attack . Mulder tells Scully that every person who saw the apparitions was about to die , implying that Harold may be next . Scully , who also saw a victim 's ghost , is struck by the implication .
Harold is transported back to the psychiatric center where he is tormented by Nurse Innes ( Nancy Fish ) . Later , Mulder finds Innes lying on the floor , half @-@ conscious . Innes claims Harold went berserk and attacked her . One of the other patients , Chuck Forsch , tells Scully that Nurse Innes was trying to poison Harold . Scully slowly realizes that Innes , not Harold , was responsible for the murders . When Innes attacks Scully with a scalpel , Scully draws her weapon and fires , striking her in the shoulder . While summarizing the case with Mulder , Scully explains that Innes had been ingesting Harold 's medication , triggering violent and unpredictable behavior . Scully hypothesizes that Innes committed the murders in order to destroy the love Harold felt towards the young women . Later , Harold 's body is discovered in a nearby alley , the apparent victim of respiratory failure . Scully , however , suspects that Harold died from what Innes took away from him . Scully admits to Mulder that she saw the ghost of the fourth victim shortly after she was murdered . Later , Scully sees Harold 's spirit sitting in the back seat of her car .
= = Production = =
" Elegy " was written by John Shiban and directed by James Charleston . The episode was inspired by an event that happened when Shiban and his future wife were visiting her father in the hospital . According to Shiban , he was very near death and kept looking around the room , even though there were only two visitors with him . Eventually , he asked his daughter how many people were in the room . When his daughter revealed that there were only two people with him , he kept looking around the room . Shiban was inspired by the idea that " a dying person might be able to look through the cracks [ … ] into the next world " . He developed a premise revolving around a " haunted bowling alley " because " it just seemed right " .
The character of Harold Spuller was inspired by Shiban 's enjoyment of the 1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . In fact , Spuller 's friend Chuck Forsch is played by Sydney Lassick , who appeared in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest as one of Jack Nicholson 's fellow patients . Steven M. Porter , who portrayed Spuller , was invited to audition for the show by writer Frank Spotnitz . According to Porter , after the audition he felt that he had " either made a great impression or a complete fool of myself " . Many of the gestures that Porter used in the episode were inspired by his appearance in a play called Asylum .
The series sought out a bowling alley for the opening scenes , but many were reluctant to yield over two @-@ thirds of their space as well as close down for three days . Eventually , the Thunderbird Bowling Centre was chosen . The series was allowed to film at the location under the condition that the bowling surfaces were preserved . Due to this , the production staff was forced to either wear bowling shoes or wear makeshift " paper booties " on their feet . In between camera set ups , Duchovny and director Charleston bowled several games . Duchovny later joked that after the episode , he " realized how old " he was because he felt sore from all the bowling . He joked , " when you get sore from bowling , it 's time to start thinking about your life and where it 's going . "
= = Reception = =
" Elegy " premiered on the Fox network on May 4 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " Elegy " was seen by 17 @.@ 1 million viewers on first broadcast .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five and called it " terrific " . They applauded Shiban 's script , noting that it focused on " greater attention to the relationship between Mulder and Scully " , rather than the X @-@ File itself . The two called the shot where Scully sees the apparition in the bathroom " one of the most chilling things the series has offered this year " , and noted that the part with Scully conferring with her counselor " is the highlight of the season " . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Elegy " three stars out of four , writing that the X @-@ File part of the episode " falls apart by the end " but that the installment is saved by " the emotional impact of Scully " . Vitaris praised the acting of the cast , and especially lauded Anderson 's performance , noting that she conveyed " the shock and confusion at witnessing the frightening sight of the ghostly girl with a cut throat " .
Not all reviews were as positive . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " and called it " alternately deeply moving and really , really stupid " . His main criticism of the episode was the it portrayed mental illness in a manner that was " offensive at worst and just plain idiotic at best " . Furthermore , he derided the " magical mentally handicapped person " trope as " cringe @-@ worthy " and cliche . VanDerWerff , however , wrote that the episode was saved largely due to the " beautiful little scenes that let you see the weight of everything Scully 's been carrying around her " .
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= Nicole Esdaile =
Nicole Esdaile ( born 1 June 1987 ) is an Australian goalball player and is classified as a B2 competitor . She took up the sport in 1999 , and made her national team debut in 2010 . Subsequently , she has competed at the 2010 Goalball World Championships , 2011 IBSA Africa Oceania Goalball Regional Champions and 2011 IBSA Goalball World Cup . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball .
= = Personal life = =
Esdaile was born on 1 June 1987 , and has a visual disability called oculocutaneous albinism .
= = Goalball = =
Esdaile is a goalball player , and is classified as a B2 competitor . Her introduction to the sport was in primary school in 1999 . She has continuously played it since then .
Esdaile made her national team debut in 2010 at the Goalball World Championships . In a game against Greece , she scored a goal immediately following a penalty . As a member of the 2011 team , she finished sixth at the IBSA Goalball World Cup . Her team made it the quarter finals before losing to Russia 3 @-@ 6 . Her team then met the Spain women 's national goalball team to try to earn a spot in the fifth / sixth place match . Australia walked away 8 @-@ 7 victors , but lost the fifth / sixth place match to the Israel women 's national goalball team 6 @-@ 8 . She was with the team during the 2011 IBSA Africa Oceania Goalball Regional Champions , which served as the Paralympic qualifying tournament . In her first game against New Zealand , her team won 11 @-@ 4 after leading 7 @-@ 1 at the half . She scored three goals in the team 's victory . She also played in a match against Germany , and in the final match against New Zealand women 's national goalball team , which Australia won , with Esdaile scoring a pair of goals .
Esdaile was a named a member of the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics . That the team qualified for the Games came as a surprise , as the Australian Paralympic Committee head been working on player development with the idea of qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , when they earned an automatic selection as hosts , and the team finished last in the competition . The country has not medalled in the event since 1976 . Going into the Paralympics , the team was ranked eighth in the world . In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament , the Belles played games against Japan , Canada , the United States and Sweden . They lost every game , and did not advance to the finals . Esdaile was the team 's lead scorer , with four goals .
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= Freedom for the Thought That We Hate =
Freedom for the Thought That We Hate : A Biography of the First Amendment is a 2007 non @-@ fiction book by journalist Anthony Lewis about freedom of speech , freedom of the press , freedom of thought , and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . The book starts by quoting the First Amendment , which prohibits the U.S. Congress from creating legislation which limits free speech or freedom of the press . Lewis traces the evolution of civil liberties in the U.S. through key historical events . He provides an overview of important free speech case law , including U.S. Supreme Court opinions in Schenck v. United States ( 1919 ) , Whitney v. California ( 1927 ) , United States v. Schwimmer ( 1929 ) , New York Times Co. v. Sullivan ( 1964 ) , and New York Times Co. v. United States ( 1971 ) .
The title of the book is drawn from the dissenting opinion by Supreme Court Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. in United States v. Schwimmer . Holmes wrote that " if there is any principle of the Constitution that more imperatively calls for attachment than any other , it is the principle of free thought — not free thought for those who agree with us but freedom for the thought that we hate . " Lewis warns the reader against the potential for government to take advantage of periods of fear and upheaval in a post @-@ 9 / 11 society to suppress freedom of speech and criticism by citizens .
The book was positively received by reviewers , including Jeffrey Rosen in The New York Times , Richard H. Fallon in Harvard Magazine , Nat Hentoff , two National Book Critics Circle members , and Kirkus Reviews . Jeremy Waldron commented on the work for The New York Review of Books and criticized Lewis ' stance towards freedom of speech with respect to hate speech . Waldron elaborated on this criticism in his book The Harm in Hate Speech ( 2012 ) , in which he devoted a chapter to Lewis ' book . This prompted a critical analysis of both works in The New York Review of Books in June 2012 by former Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens .
= = Contents = =
Freedom for the Thought That We Hate analyzes the value of freedom of speech and presents an overview of the historical development of rights afforded by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . Its title derives from Justice Holmes ' admonition , in his dissenting opinion in United States v. Schwimmer ( 1929 ) , that the First Amendment 's guarantees are most worthy of protection in times of fear and upheaval , when calls for suppression of dissent are most strident and superficially appealing . Holmes wrote that " if there is any principle of the Constitution that more imperatively calls for attachment than any other , it is the principle of free thought — not free thought for those who agree with us but freedom for the thought that we hate . "
The book starts by quoting the First Amendment , which prohibits the U.S. Congress from creating legislation that limits free speech or freedom of the press . The author analyzes the impact of this clause and refers to the writer of the United States Constitution , James Madison , who believed that freedom of the press would serve as a form of separation of powers to the government . Lewis writes that an expansive respect for freedom of speech informs the reader as to why citizens should object to governmental attempts to block the media from reporting about the causes of a controversial war . Lewis warns that , in a state in which controversial views are not allowed to be spoken , citizens and reporters merely serve as advocates for the state itself . He recounts key historic events in which fear led to overreaching acts by the government , particularly from the executive branch . The author gives background on the century @-@ long process by which the U.S. judicial system began defending publishers and writers from attempts at suppression of speech by the government .
In 1798 , the federal government , under President John Adams , passed the Alien and Sedition Acts , which deemed " any false , scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States " a criminal act . The Alien and Sedition Acts were used for political impact against members of the Republican Party in order to punish them for criticizing the government . Thomas Jefferson was elected the next president in 1800 ; Lewis cites this as an example of the American public 's dissatisfaction with Adams ' actions against freedom of speech . After taking office in 1801 , Jefferson issued pardons to those convicted under the Alien and Sedition Acts . Lewis interprets later historical events as affronts to freedom of speech , including the Sedition Act of 1918 which effectively outlawed criticism of the government 's conduct of WW I ; and the McCarran Internal Security Act and Smith Act , which were used to imprison American communists who where critical of the government during the McCarthy era .
During World War I , with increased fear among the American public and attempts at suppression of criticism by the government , the First Amendment was given wider examination in the U.S. Supreme Court . Lewis writes that Associate Justices Louis Brandeis and Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr . , began to interpret broader support for freedom of speech imparted by the First Amendment . Holmes wrote in the case of Schenck v. United States that freedom of speech must be defended except for situations in which " substantive evils " are caused through a " clear and present danger " arising from such speech . The author reflects on his view of speech in the face of imminent danger in an age of terrorism . He writes that the U.S. Constitution permits suppression of speech in situations of impending violence , and cautions use of the law to suppress expressive acts including burning a flag or using offensive slang terms . Lewis asserts that punitive measures can be taken against speech which incites terrorism to a group of people willing to commit such acts .
The book recounts an opinion written by Brandeis and joined by Holmes in the 1927 case of Whitney v. California which further developed the notion of the power of the people to speak out . Brandeis and Holmes emphasized the value of liberty , and identified the most dangerous factor to freedom as an apathetic society averse to voicing their opinions in public .
In the 1964 Supreme Court case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan , the court ruled that speech about issues of public impact should be unrestricted , vigorous and public , even if such discussion communicates extreme negative criticism of public servants and members of government . Lewis praises this decision , and writes that it laid the groundwork for a press more able to perform investigative journalism concerning controversies , including the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War . He cites the New York Times Co. v. Sullivan decision as an example of " Madisonian " philosophy towards freedom of speech espoused by James Madison . The author examines the 1971 U.S. Supreme Court case of New York Times Co. v. United States , and endorses the court 's decision , which allowed the press to publish classified material relating to the Vietnam War .
The author questions the actions of the media with respect to privacy . He observes that public expectations regarding morality and what constitutes an impermissible violation of the right to privacy has changed over time . Lewis cites the dissenting opinion by Brandeis in Olmstead v. United States , which supported a right to privacy .
Lewis warns that , during periods of heightened anxiety , the free speech rights of Americans are at greater risk : " there will always be authorities who try to make their own lives more comfortable by suppressing critical comment . " He concludes that the evolution of interpretation of the rights afforded by the First Amendment has created stronger support for freedom of speech .
= = Themes = =
The book 's central theme is a warning that , in times of strife and increased fear , there is a danger of repression and suppression of dissent by those in government who seek to limit freedom of speech . In an interview with the author , Deborah Solomon of The New York Times Magazine wrote that American politics has frequently used fear to justify repression . Lewis pointed out to Solomon that , under the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 , individuals who protested against President Woodrow Wilson 's sending of soldiers to Russia were tried and given a twenty @-@ year jail sentence . The author explained that his motivation for writing the book was to recognize the unparalleled civil liberties in the U.S. , including freedom of speech and freedom of the press . He identified reductions in freedoms of citizens as a result of governmental action taken after the September 11 attacks .
Freedom for the Thought That We Hate discusses the capability and liberty of citizens to criticize their government . Lewis asserts that the U.S. has the most unreserved speech of any nation . Law professor Jeremy Waldron gave the example of his ability to criticize the president or call the vice president and Secretary of Defense war criminals , without fear of retribution from law enforcement for such statements . The book contrasts present @-@ day free speech liberties afforded to Americans and those possessed by citizens in earlier centuries . The author argues that the scope of civil liberties in the U.S. has increased over time owing to a desire for freedom among its people being held as an integral value . Lewis observes in contemporary application of the law , presidents are the subject of satire and denunciation . He notes that it is unlikely a vociferous critic would face a jail sentence simply for voicing such criticism .
= = Release and reception = =
Freedom for the Thought That We Hate was first published by Basic Books , a member of the Perseus Books Group , in New York in 2007 , with the subtitle , A Biography of the First Amendment . For just the second printing , in both New York and London in 2008 , the book 's subtitle was simplified to Tales of the First Amendment . That change was reverted for the remaining printings , including the paperback edition in 2009 and a large print edition in 2010 . E @-@ book versions were released for the first , third and fourth printings ; an audiobook was released with the second printing , and re @-@ released with the fourth . The book has also been translated into Chinese , and was published in Beijing in 2010 .
The book was positively received by critics . Jeffrey Rosen , who reviewed the book for The New York Times , was surprised by the author 's departure from traditional civil libertarian views . Rosen pointed out that Lewis did not support absolute protection for journalists from breaking confidentiality with their anonymous sources , even in situations involving criminal acts . Nat Hentoff called the book an engrossing and accessible survey of the First Amendment . Kirkus Reviews considered the book an excellent chronological account of the First Amendment , subsequent legislation , and case law .
Richard H. Fallon reviewed the book for Harvard Magazine , and characterized Freedom for the Thought That We Hate as a clear and captivating background education to U.S. freedom of speech legislation . Fallon praised the author 's ability to weave descriptions of historical events into an entertaining account . Robyn Blumner of the St. Petersburg Times wrote that Lewis aptly summarized the development of the U.S. Constitution 's protections of freedom of speech and of the press . She observed that the book forcefully presented the author 's admiration of brave judges who had helped to develop interpretation of the U.S. Constitution 's protections of the rights of freedom of expression as a defense against censorship .
Writing for the Hartford Courant , Bill Williams stated that the book should be mandatory reading for high school and college students . Anne Phillips wrote in her review for The News @-@ Gazette that the book is a concise and well @-@ written description of the conflicts the country faces when grappling with the notions of freedom of expression , free speech , and freedom of the press . Writing for The Christian Science Monitor , Chuck Leddy noted that the author helps readers understand the importance of freedom of speech in a democracy , especially during a period of military conflict when there is increased controversy over the appropriateness of dissent and open dialogue .
Jeremy Waldron reviewed the book for The New York Review of Books , and was critical of Lewis ' broad stance towards freedom of speech with respect to hate speech . Waldron later elaborated this position in his 2012 book The Harm in Hate Speech , in which he devoted an entire chapter to Lewis ' book . Waldron emphasized that the problem with an expansive view of free speech is not the harm of hateful thoughts , but rather the negative impact resulting from widespread publication of the thoughts . He questioned whether children of racial groups criticized by widely published hate speech would be able to succeed in such an environment . Former U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens analyzed The Harm in Hate Speech and discussed Freedom for the Thought That We Hate , in a review for The New York Review of Books . Justice Stevens recounted Lewis ' argument that an acceptance of hate speech is necessary , because attempts to regulate it would cause encroachment upon expression of controversial viewpoints . He pointed out that Lewis and Waldron agreed that Americans have more freedom of speech than citizens of any other country . In his review , Stevens cited the 2011 decision in Snyder v. Phelps as evidence that the majority of the U.S. Supreme Court supported the right of the people to express hateful views on matters of public importance . Stevens concluded that , although Waldron was unsuccessful in convincing him that legislators should ban all hate speech , The Harm in Hate Speech did persuade him that government leaders should refrain from using such language themselves .
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= Edinburgh town walls =
There have been several town walls around Edinburgh , Scotland , since the 12th century . Some form of wall probably existed from the foundation of the royal burgh in around 1125 , though the first building is recorded in the mid @-@ 15th century , when the King 's Wall was constructed . In the 16th century the more extensive Flodden Wall was erected , following the Scots ' defeat at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 . This was extended by the Telfer Wall in the early 17th century . The walls had a number of gates , known as ports , the most important being the Netherbow Port , which stood halfway down the Royal Mile . This gave access from the Canongate which was , at that time , a separate burgh .
The walls never proved very successful as defensive structures , and were easily breached on more than one occasion . They served more as a means of controlling trade and taxing goods , and as a deterrent to smugglers . Throughout their history , the town walls of Edinburgh have served better in their role as a trade barrier than as a defensive one . By the mid 18th century , the walls had outlived both their defensive and trade purposes , and demolition of sections of the wall began . The Netherbow Port was pulled down in 1764 , and demolition continued into the 19th century . Today , a number of sections of the three successive walls survive , although none of the ports remain .
= = Background = =
Edinburgh was formally established as a royal burgh by King David I of Scotland around 1125 . This gave the town the privilege of holding a market , and the ability to raise money by taxing goods coming into the burgh for sale . It is probable , therefore , that some form of boundary was constructed around this time , although it may have been a timber palisade or ditch , rather than a stone wall .
To the north of Edinburgh lay the marshy Nor Loch , formed in the early 15th century in the depression where Princes Street Gardens are now laid out . This natural defence was augmented by the steep slope up to the northern edge of the Old Town . Edinburgh Castle , on its rocky outcrop , defended the western approach . Walls were therefore needed primarily on the south and east sides of the burgh .
Early records mention a west gate in 1180 , a south gate in 1214 , and the Netherbow Port in 1369 . In 1362 the Wellhouse Tower was built beneath the north wall of the castle , protecting the castle 's water supply , and defending the approach along the south shore of the Nor Loch .
= = King 's Wall = =
The King 's Wall is first recorded in 1427 , in a title deed which refers to the wall as the property boundary . In 1450 , King James II issued a charter permitting the burgesses of Edinburgh to defend their town , as follows :
In a further royal charter of 28 April 1472 , King James III ordered the demolition of houses built on or outside the King 's Wall , which were hampering efforts to strengthen the defences . Edinburgh was thus one of only three Scottish towns to have medieval stone walls , the others being Stirling and Perth , though other towns had earth walls or palisades .
The wall ran along the south side of the Royal Mile , above the Cowgate , from the slope of the Castle Hill in the west , almost as far as the modern St Mary 's Street in the east , where it turned to cross the Royal Mile . In all , the King 's Wall enclosed a space no larger than 0 @.@ 8 by 0 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 by 0 @.@ 25 mi ) . The alignment of the wall was irregular , as existing property boundaries or walls were reinforced to form a defence . The early wall had two ports : the Upper Bow or Over @-@ Bow , in the vicinity of what is now Victoria Street , and the Nether Bow , on the Royal Mile near Fountain Close , which was located near around 46 metres ( 151 ft ) further west than the later structure . In addition , posterns ( side gates ) were provided , for example at Gray 's Close .
= = Flodden Wall = =
In 1513 , King James IV led an invasion of northern England in support of the French and the Auld Alliance . On 9 September , the Scots met the English at the Battle of Flodden , and were heavily defeated , with King James killed on the field . An English invasion was widely expected , and in Edinburgh it was resolved to build a new town wall . However , the new wall was also an opportunity to control smuggling into the burgh , and the town council accordingly decided to extend the wall south to take in the Grassmarket and Cowgate areas of the burgh . Construction began the following year , but was not completed until 1560 . Work started at the western end , and the final section was the stretch from Leith Wynd to the Nor Loch , incorporating the New Port . The cost of this last work was £ 4 / 10s Scots per rood ( one rood = six ells or 5 @.@ 6 metres ) for the wall , plus 40s per rood for the battlements .
The Flodden Wall , as it became known , was generally around 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 ft 11 in ) thick and up to 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) high . The Flodden Wall began at the south side of the castle , running south across the west end of the Grassmarket , where the West Port was located , and continued uphill along the Vennel . A watch @-@ tower or bastion survives at this , the south @-@ west extent of the wall . It then ran east , wrapping around Greyfriars Kirkyard , to the Bristo Port and the Potterow Port , both located in the vicinity of the National Museum of Scotland . Continuing east , the wall passed the Kirk o ' Field , where the Old College now stands , and ran along Drummond Street , turning north at the Pleasance to enclose the former Blackfriars Monastery . The Cowgate Port was located at the foot of the Pleasance , and the wall then ran up the line of St Mary 's Street , where it was formed by strengthening existing walls rather than new walling , to the Netherbow Port , which stood across the Royal Mile . The wall continued north to the Nor Loch , since replaced by Waverley railway station , terminating at the New Port . The Flodden Wall enclosed an area of just under 57 hectares ( 140 acres ) , and remained the limit of the burgh until the 18th century . Contained within this area , in 1560 , was a population of around 10 @,@ 000 .
There were six ports in the Flodden Wall . Anti @-@ clockwise from the castle they were :
West Port , built 1514 at the west end of the Grassmarket , where the modern street of West Port is today , and giving access to Wester Portsburgh ;
Bristo Port ( Greyfriars Port , Society Port ) , built around 1515 on Bristo Street , close to Greyfriars Kirk and the Society of Brewers ;
Potterrow Port ( Kirk o ' Field Port ) , at the head of Horse Wynd near the Kirk o ' Field , giving access to Easter Portsburgh ;
Cowgate Port ( Soo @-@ gate , Blackfriars Port ) , on the Cowgate near the Blackfriars Monastery , the access to the Grassmarket from the east ;
Netherbow Port , on the Royal Mile ;
New Port ( St Andrew 's Port ) , at the foot of Halkerston 's Wynd beneath the modern North Bridge , giving access north to Leith .
Besides , there were a number of small posterns . The heads and limbs of executed criminals were regularly displayed above the ports . Of the six ports , the Netherbow was the only one which took the form of a large fortified gateway . Repairs to the Netherbow are recorded in 1538 , and a drawing of 1544 shows the Netherbow as a wide arched gate flanked by two round towers . In 1571 , the gateway between the towers was rebuilt , and a central clock tower was added above the gateway , topped by an octagonal stone spire . This structure was repaired in the early 17th century .
= = = Military action = = =
Although the expected English invasion never materialised after Flodden , the 16th century was a turbulent period in Scotland . In 1544 the Earl of Hertford led an English force into Scotland during the War of the Rough Wooing . On 6 May , having captured Leith , Hertford 's men , under the command of Sir Christopher Morris , blew open the Netherbow Port with their artillery . The town was burned over the following three days , " so that neither within the walls nor in the suburbs was left any one house unburnt " .
Further disturbances took place during the troubled reign of Mary , Queen of Scots ( 1542 – 1567 ) , and its aftermath . In 1558 the Protestant Lords of the Congregation marched on Edinburgh against the Catholic French Regent , Mary of Guise , and were able to take control of the town without difficulty , despite the guards posted at the city gate . Following the forced abdication of Queen Mary , Scotland 's nobility was divided between her supporters , and those of the infant King James VI , represented by a series of regents . Edinburgh was held for the Queen by William Kirkcaldy of Grange , and in May 1571 the town was besieged by the Regent 's forces under James Douglas , 4th Earl of Morton . Repairs were made to the walls , and the Netherbow was barricaded . Nearby houses were pulled down to improve defences , and the siege gun Mons Meg was employed to batter houses outside the wall which were being used by snipers . Unable to make any headway , the besiegers withdrew on 20 May .
Again the defences were strengthened in September , in advance of a second siege which began on 16 October . By this stage only ten per cent of Edinburgh 's inhabitants remained in the city . The besiegers under Regent Mar had only seven guns , and while they did manage to breach the Flodden Wall , the inner defences were too strong for an assault . By 21 October the siege was once again lifted . A blockade of the town was continued until July 1572 when a truce was agreed . Grange retreated into the castle and handed over the town to the Regent 's party . The siege of Edinburgh Castle continued until May 1573 , when it was finally reduced by a battery of guns shipped from England .
= = Telfer Wall = =
In 1618 the town council bought 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of land to the west of Greyfriars Kirk , which was enclosed between 1628 and 1636 by the Telfer Wall . Most of this land was subsequently sold to the charitable George Heriot 's Trust , and is now occupied by George Heriot 's School . The rubble @-@ built wall ran south from the Flodden Tower in the Vennel to Lauriston Place ; it then turned east , running as far as Bristo Street , where it returned north to the Bristo Port in the Flodden Wall . The Telfer Wall was named after its master mason , John Taillefer .
= = Later history and demolition = =
By the 17th century the King 's Wall had been almost completely absorbed within later buildings , although it is briefly mentioned in the " Extent Roll " , a town survey of 1635 , and limited sections appear on James Gordon of Rothiemay 's map of 1647 . The mason John Mylne and the wright ( carpenter ) John Scott strengthened the Flodden and Telfer walls and constructed artillery emplacements in 1650 . Further emplacements were built by Captain Theodore Dury in 1715 , in response to the Jacobite rising of that year . In 1736 , the lynching of Captain John Porteous by an Edinburgh mob led the British Government in London to impose sanctions on the town . Porteous , Captain of the Town Guard , had been convicted of murder following the shooting of spectators at a public hanging , but following a reprieve , a mob broke into the Tolbooth Jail and executed him . The initial demand by the House of Lords was for the demolition of the Netherbow Port , although this was resisted by the town , and commuted to a fine by the House of Commons . When the town was threatened by the Jacobite rising of 1745 , a company of volunteer citizens was raised for the defence of the city , and the mathematics professor Colin Maclaurin advised on improvements to the walls . However , as Bonnie Prince Charlie 's troops approached , the town was undermanned and the walls undefended . On the morning of 17 September , a group of Highlanders under Donald Cameron of Lochiel rushed the Netherbow Port as the gates were opened , and Edinburgh was captured without a fight .
Demolitions began soon after the withdrawal of the Jacobite threat in 1746 . The bastions of the Telfer Wall along Lauriston Place were demolished in 1762 , as they were obstructing traffic . The Netherbow survived until 1764 , when it too was removed as an obstruction . The West Port and the Potterow Port were removed in the 1780s . By now , the New Town was under construction , and although smuggling of goods through the city walls was still being punished , complaints about the zealousness of the guards were widely circulated . The Old College of the University of Edinburgh ( constructed from 1789 ) , and then the Royal Museum of Scotland ( constructed from 1861 ) , were built over sections of the wall around the Potterow Port . Forrest Road was laid out in the 1840s , resulting in the loss of another section of the Telfer Wall . During construction works around the Advocates ' Library and Parliament House in 1832 and 1845 , fragments of walling were uncovered , which were attributed to the King 's Wall . Two sections of the increasingly neglected town wall collapsed in the mid @-@ 1850s . In 1854 , a large portion of wall ( 20 feet high and 3 – 4 feet thick ) , and the embankment against which it was built fell into Leith Wynd between the High Street and Calton Road . A week later the Dean of Guild ordered the removal of a 150 feet stretch of the wall from that location . In 1856 , a lightning strike appears to have been the cause of the collapse of a 40 to 50 feet stretch of the wall enclosing Greyfriars Kirkyard .
= = Surviving fragments = =
Nothing remains of Edinburgh 's earliest enclosures , and very little of the King 's Wall survives , although parts are probably incorporated in later buildings . A section of walling in Tweeddale Court , on the south side of the Royal Mile , may represent part of the eastern wall .
This was exposed , identified and recognised as a fortified wall , initially by two labourers working on the renovation and restoration of the old Oliver & Boyd publishers in 1983 . Subsequently this was confirmed by archaeologists and planners and it was not demolished as consented . The height ( 6 metres ( 20 ft ) ) , and lack of openings suggest a defensive purpose . Walling in Castle Wynd , north of the Grassmarket , has also been identified with the King 's Wall . In 1973 , archaeological excavations on the site now occupied by the Radisson Hotel , south of the Royal Mile , uncovered a fragment of wall , which was thought likely to be the King 's Wall . There was also evidence of a house adjacent , which had been demolished sometime in the 15th century , presumably in response to James III 's order of 1472 .
Four sections of the Flodden Wall survive : to the north and south of the Grassmarket ; in Greyfriars Kirkyard ; and along Drummond Street and the Pleasance . North of the Grassmarket the wall runs alongside Granny 's Green Steps and has been incorporated into later buildings , including the former Greyfriars Mission Kirk . A line of granite paving across the Grassmarket marks the line of the wall where it was uncovered during construction work in 2008 . In the Vennel the last remaining bastion of the town walls survives . The Flodden Tower , as it is sometimes known , comprises two remaining walls with a total length of 17 @.@ 2 metres ( 56 ft ) , pierced by crosslet gunloops and a 19th @-@ century window . Sections of the Flodden Wall can be seen within Greyfriars Kirkyard , adorned with 16th and 17th century tombstones . At the junction of Forrest Road and Bristo Street a line of cobbles and a narrow gap in the later buildings mark the line of the wall . The longest section is in Drummond Street and the Pleasance , where it originally enclosed the Blackfriars Monastery . At the corner of the wall a blocked archway is probably the entrance to a demolished bastion . The site of the Netherbow is marked with an outline of brass blocks at the junction of the Royal Mile and St Mary 's Street .
There are two remaining sections of the Telfer Wall . The first runs along Heriot Place from the Flodden Tower , and forms the west boundary of George Heriot 's School . The wall along Lauriston Place was demolished in 1762 , as the bastions were obstructing traffic . The only remaining section is that forming the south wall of Greyfriars Kirkyard . An inscription on the building at the corner of Teviot Place and Bristo Street reads " 1513 Site of Town Wall " , although it was the 17th @-@ century Telfer Wall , not the earlier Flodden Wall , which stood on this spot .
The majority of the surviving sections are listed buildings , while three sections are further protected as scheduled ancient monuments : the Flodden Wall at Granny 's Green ; the Flodden and Telfer Walls at the Vennel and Heriot Place ; and the Flodden Wall at Drummond Place and Pleasance . The walls also form part of the Edinburgh Old Town World Heritage Site .
= = Location = =
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= Bill Cosby in advertising =
American comedian Bill Cosby was a popular spokesperson for advertising from the 1960s – before his first starring television role – until the early 2000s . He started with White Owl cigars , and later endorsed Jell @-@ O pudding and gelatin , Coca @-@ Cola ( including New Coke ) , Texas Instruments , E. F. Hutton & Co . , Kodak , and the 1990 United States Census . As of 2002 , Cosby held the record for being the longest @-@ serving celebrity spokesperson for a product , through his work with Jell @-@ O. In 2011 , he won the President 's Award for Contributions to Advertising from the Advertising Hall of Fame .
Cosby was one of the first black people to appear in the United States as an advertising spokesperson . He was known for his appeal to white consumers in the second half of the 20th century , in an industry seen as slow to accept diversity . In spite of making contradictory soft drink pitches and endorsing a disgraced financial company , he continued to be considered effective and believable . In the 1980s , studies found Cosby the " most familiar " and " most persuasive " spokesperson , to the point where Cosby attributed his wealth to these contracts , as opposed to his television series . However , in 2014 , allegations of sexual assault significantly damaged Cosby 's public image ; public opinion polling following the news placed him near the bottom of a list of 3 @,@ 000 personalities , when rated on trust and effectiveness .
= = Personality = =
Anthony Tortorici , director of public relations at Coca @-@ Cola , told Black Enterprise magazine in 1981 that the " three most believable personalities are God , Walter Cronkite , and Bill Cosby . " At the peak of his advertising career in the mid @-@ 1980s , Cosby had a Q Score of 70 , meaning that 70 percent of those responding to a survey of 1 @,@ 000 United States residents thought highly of him , thus deeming him the most familiar and persuasive endorser . In 2003 , industry publication Advertising Age said that " during [ Cosby 's ] 14 @-@ year reign over the ad industry 's public approval index [ he had only been surpassed by ] the Pope . In 2012 , the separate Celebrity DBI index listed Cosby as second most @-@ trusted celebrity on a list of celebrities people pay attention to on television , behind Morgan Freeman .
Professionally , Coca @-@ Cola advertising director John Bergin considered Cosby the company 's " greatest weapon " ; he said , " magic happens when the camera starts . " His enthusiasm was tempered on a personal level , finding him " inconceivably arrogant " and mentioned " blow @-@ ups " on the set .
One biographer of Cosby , Linda Etkin , said , " Cosby comes across as a father figure , a teacher , and a friend " in his advertisements . William Turner , in 1982 the marketing manager for Texas Instruments ' consumer products group , said Cosby " represents comfort , and people trust him " . In 2014 , one educator asked for comment said he remembered Cosby as a " black male authority figure , one of those people who folks that don 't live on the edges of the country think of as a good black guy ; they trust that guy " . In 1988 , a representative for Kodak said Cosby had become " synonymous with quality products and quality services " . Ebony agreed , saying Cosby has the advantage of being able to be selective . Cosby said his belief in their product is an attribute , stating , " if I presented a Bill Cosby who didn 't care , their sales would stop right there on the screen . Obviously , I could never do that . Once I believe in the product I aim to sell it , and that 's what I think I do better than anybody " .
An article in Black Enterprise said part of Cosby 's mystique is " that he can endorse a number of products and still retain credibility in each individual sell " . Shortly after being signed by Coca @-@ Cola , Cosby appeared at a bottlers ' convention . He refused to drink the bottle of Coke he carried on stage , saying , " I 'm waiting for all the Jell @-@ O pudding I ate to settle " . Cosby said that in childhood , he experienced " periods of addiction " to Coca Cola , consuming fifteen bottles by 2 pm .
= = Career in advertising = =
= = = 1960s = = =
The American advertising industry was initially reluctant to use black spokespeople for fear of angering white customers . The Nat King Cole Show ( 1956 @-@ 1957 ) , the first nationally @-@ syndicated U.S. television series to be hosted by an African American , never found a national sponsor ; after its cancellation Cole said , " Madison Avenue is afraid of the dark " .
Cosby 's first advertisement was for White Owl cigars . He liked their slogan , " We 're going to get you " , so he had his agent Norman Brokaw of William Morris Agency inquire about Cosby becoming their spokesperson . Cosby had appeared several times on the late @-@ night talk program The Tonight Show , a signifier of success in American comedy , although his television series I Spy had yet to debut . Cosby later said there were no commercials " with a black person holding something , buying a product , so the absence of pictures , in retrospect , said a lot " . Despite the stigma among advertisers around using a black spokesperson , sales of the product rose . According to an entry in Ad Age Encyclopedia , the public acceptance of Cosby and Robert Culp appearing as equals on I Spy made it possible for advertisers to show black people and white people together in their commercials .
The Bill Cosby Radio Program , which debuted in 1968 , was sponsored by The Coca @-@ Cola Company . The series was syndicated to over 200 radio stations by McCann Erickson , Coca @-@ Cola 's advertising agency .
= = = 1970s = = =
In 1974 , Cosby began promoting Jell @-@ O pudding for General Foods . Cosby said comedian Jack Benny , whose program the brand sponsored , was the only previous spokesman for Jell @-@ O , but Kate Smith , Lucille Ball , and Andy Griffith have also pitched the brand . In previous campaigns since the brand 's launch in 1902 , it was targeted towards parents rather than to children , a practice from which the company departed in 2001 . Cosby 's early commercials were unscripted , but later were written by comedy writers . Cosby disagreed with the writers , who wanted to say the food was for when you were " hungry " ; Cosby thought there was not enough substance to satisfy hunger and wanted to use the word " appetite " . In 1979 , General Foods introduced Pudding Pops , the company 's first frozen dessert product . With Cosby as spokesperson , it sold US $ 100 million its first year . After introducing Gelatin Pops and frozen Fruit Bars , the company 's frozen desserts sales reached $ 300 million . Cosby was engaged to promote the flagging Jell @-@ O gelatin product line in the mid @-@ 1980s , when General Foods introduced a holdable Jell @-@ O product called " Jigglers " . Sales increased seven percent during the first year of the promotion .
Cosby appeared in commercials for Coca @-@ Cola 's 1979 campaign , " Coke and a Smile , " and made a guest appearance at the Great Get @-@ Together , a major bottlers ' convention held that year . This campaign continued into 1981 .
His work in this decade was well received . Advertising Age named Cosby the top advertising personality of 1978 . In 1999 , Advertising Age magazine named Cosby 's 1975 Jell @-@ O commercials , which they called " Bill Cosby with kids " , the 92nd best advertising campaign of all time .
= = = 1980s = = =
Black Enterprise magazine found that Cosby was one of only a very few African Americans who could command among the highest fees paid for advertising spokespeople . The 1981 feature also highlighted how rare it was for African Americans to be hired for a complete campaign , as opposed to a single advertisement , despite an overall increase in opportunities . Cosby 's agents told the magazine he had earned at least $ 3 million in current advertising contracts – about one @-@ fifth of his income – the rest of which he earned from live performances .
Cosby returned as Coca @-@ Cola 's spokesperson in its 1982 " Coke Is It " campaign , a series of commercials mocking the Pepsi Challenge . One advertisement in this series showed a Pepsi vending machine to mock the brand , which author Mark Pendergrast called " unthinkable " . Another said Pepsi Challenge commercials were misleading because they never showed anyone choosing Coke . John Bergin , who directed the series of commercials , personally disliked Cosby but said his presence in Coca @-@ Cola advertising ended the first Pepsi Challenge campaign in 1983 .
In mid @-@ 1982 , Cosby was hired by Texas Instruments to appear in television advertisements for the company 's TI @-@ 99 / 4A home computer . He was to be paid $ 1 million a year for the campaign . The company touted Cosby 's education and rapport with adults and children . The campaign was aimed at parents , rather than children , as was the campaign for the Commodore 64 . Cosby was the face of a mystery rebate program , offering reimbursements of between $ 3 and $ 1 @,@ 000 . J. Fred Bucy , who was head of Texas Instruments ' home computer operation in 1983 , scrapped Cosby 's advertisements to focus on the product 's educational value . Radio Shack vice @-@ president of marketing David Beckerman said , " A celebrity draws attention to the product . Even if we had President Reagan on our ads , we wouldn 't sell any more computers . A product sells itself . A celebrity causes indirect sales . " Cosby , along with entrepreneur James Bruce Llewellyn , bought stock in a Philadelphia Coca @-@ Cola bottler in 1983 as part of the company 's push to increase African American participation in the company . This was , in part , a response to pressure by Jesse Jackson 's PUSH campaign .
At the height of the Cola Wars , marketer Sergio Zyman persuaded Coca @-@ Cola executives to create and air commercials with Cosby praising Coke for being less sweet than Pepsi , which was aired only in areas where sales of Pepsi were dominant . One commercial from the series features Cosby " rubberfacing an icky frown " and describing Pepsi as " gooey " . These advertisements were broadcast from October 1984 ; Coca @-@ Cola 's independently owned bottlers demanded the commercials were run in their markets as well . Zyman said despite the upcoming contradiction , the ads were the first boost to Coke 's image in years . Coca @-@ Cola was simultaneously testing possible new variations of its soft drink and decided it would sell more product if it used a sweeter formula . Once New Coke was launched , Pepsi prepared its public response to the change ; among its talking points for journalists writing about New Coke was to " Ask them about those Bill Cosby ads " . One of a new series of Coke advertisements showed Cosby dressed in a toga ; this campaign was described as unconvincing . Coca @-@ Cola faced a widespread public backlash , internal dissent , and ultimately the original drink recipe returned as " Coca @-@ Cola Classic " . In the days following the reversal , an editorial cartoon featured Cosby pouring a can of Pepsi into a can of Coke . Marcio Moreira , a McCann Erickson creative executive behind the New Coke introduction , said in 2011 that the decision to hire Cosby was not made until other commercials were being edited .
The Cosby Show debuted in 1984 , becoming " TV 's biggest hit in the 1980s " and reviving both the sitcom genre and NBC . Before the series premiere , Cosby told reporters his income from commercials for Coke , Ford , and , his Las Vegas shows , had made him financially secure . At some point before 1985 , Cosby featured in advertisements for Bird 's Eye frozen foods .
In 1986 , Cosby 's only contract was with Jell @-@ O , but by the end of the year he had added two more endorsements . By August , Cosby began promoting E. F. Hutton & Co. with a series of print and television advertisements , and comedy concerts . The company had been accused of fraud and needed a spokesperson who was well @-@ liked . Soon after Cosby 's commercials aired , the company merged with Morgan Stanley Smith Barney . In late December , he added J. Walter Thompson agency account Kodak Colorwatch System photographic processing system to his list . The estimated $ 10 million contract included commercials featuring Cosby to run in print , on television , as point of sale , and in promotional programs .
Coca @-@ Cola purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982 . In 1987 , Columbia decided revenues from its spy comedy Leonard Part 6 ( 1987 ) would offset its losses on ' Ishtar ( 1987 ) . Leading up to release , Columbia announced it would spend $ 12 million on " synergies " with the film , taking into account the success of Cosby 's television series and record sales for his parenting book , Fatherhood . Promotions included posters , spy cameras , point of sale standees of Cosby , and a contest to win Porsche cars . Cosby , who acted in and produced the film , was initially supportive of it , but close to the release date he publicly distanced himself from it . The film failed , with a net loss of $ 33 million .
In the 1980s , Cosby also appeared in public service announcements . To increase black participation in the 1990 United States Census , the bureau recruited Cosby , Magic Johnson , Alfre Woodard , and Miss America Debbye Turner as spokespeople .
= = = 1990s to 2010s = = =
Cosby continued to be a Jell @-@ O spokesman through the 1990s . He was present for the lighting of the brand 's first billboard in New York 's Times Square in 1998 . In 1999 , Cosby 's 25th year as spokesman for Jell @-@ O , was also the final year he appeared in its advertising . The company distributed 120 @,@ 000 copies of his picture book series , Little Bill , into American public libraries . Despite the transitions of advertising agencies and the 1989 merger of General Foods into Kraft , Cosby remained with Jell @-@ O. He appeared at the Utah State Senate in 2001 to designate Jell @-@ O the official state snack , and made a promotional visit to the Jell @-@ O Gallery in 2004 . In 2010 , Cosby returned to Jell @-@ O as executive producer for the company 's " Hello Jell @-@ O " campaign . In return , the brand sponsored his weekly web show OBKB , a children 's interview series similar to Kids Say the Darndest Things . As of 2002 , Cosby 's time with Jell @-@ O was considered the longest @-@ standing celebrity endorsement in American advertising history .
At the Advertising Hall of Fame induction ceremonies on March 30 , 2011 , Cosby was the first winner of the American Advertising Federation 's President 's Award for Contributions to Advertising , for special achievements in the field .
= = Criticism = =
In 1973 , The Village Voice writer Terry Guerin said Cosby was past his prime . Among the reasons , " making spokesman commercials for such established heels as White Owl cigars and Pan American airlines . He has evolved into a kind of self @-@ parodying sap , the kind of flagrant , perpetual parader Sammy Davis has always been " . " The Noble Cos , " a 1986 satirical editorial by Edward Sorel for The Nation , was written in Cosby 's imagined voice . It echoed the comments of other authors that Cosby had become out @-@ of @-@ touch with lower @-@ class African Americans . In response to this sentiment , Cosby said in 1997 , " So this buddy says , ' I didn 't mind your commercials for Jello , Del Monte , Ford cars ... Ideal Toys , or Coca @-@ Cola , although Coke does do business in South Africa ... But , Bill , why do commercials for those crooks at E. F. Hutton ? ' My buddy didn 't understand my commercials improve race relations . Y 'see , by showing that a black man can be just as money @-@ hungry as a white man ... I 'm proving that all men are brothers . "
In 1981 , Cosby told Black Enterprise magazine :
In this business , many of us are well paid but we are not all that wealthy . You may read ' X @-@ number of dollar goes to so and so , ' but remember , everybody takes a cut – the lawyer , the agent , the publicist . If a company comes along and says ' We 'd like you to talk about how much you enjoy wearing this warm @-@ up suit , ' and the money is right , I 'm going to do it . Jell @-@ O was a dessert in my house when I was a kid . My mom served Del Monte fruit cocktail when I was growing up . They want to pay me to say I eat these products , well , I eat them . I came out of a lower economic area , and this is money . This is a business ... show business . A great deal of our careers depends on keeping ourselves in the public eye . I think performers should take advantage of commercial offers if they 're satisfied with the product .
= = = Sexual assault and rape allegations = = =
In October 2014 , a stand @-@ up comedy routine by Hannibal Buress , addressing allegations of rape against Cosby , went viral on YouTube . On November 10 , Cosby posted a message requesting meme images , using a hashtag of # CosbyMeme , on his Twitter feed . Many of the images posted in response related to the allegations , which were fresh in the respondents ' minds . After numerous women came forward as victims of Cosby 's alleged actions , a television special and a series in development were cancelled . Cosby refused to address the situation ; his lawyer said such actions would dignify " decade @-@ old , discredited " allegations . Many media outlets commented on the way such actions clashed with his image as " America 's Dad " . One of the accusers felt nobody would believe her claims at the time of the alleged incident , given Cosby 's status in advertising . Joan Tarshis told the media that Cosby was " Mr America ; Mr Jello , as I called him " .
The publicity surrounding the allegations had a drastic effect on Cosby 's reputation , as seen in the following drop in his ratings . In March 2013 , Cosby had a 76 @.@ 3 rating on the Davie @-@ Brown Index , a rating of the public perceptions of roughly 3500 personalities published by Omnicom Group company The Marketing Arm , placing him as the third most @-@ trusted celebrity , behind Morgan Freeman and Dr. Mehmet Oz . By November 19 , this had fallen to 57 @.@ 1 , placing him at either the 2,626th spot or 2615th , depending on the source . The same company 's separate rating on who consumers view as an " effective product spokesperson " saw Cosby drop to 2,746th spot ; at one point , he had been 5th . Awareness of Cosby increased from 63rd to 51st . The Marketing Arm warns about misinterpreting the ratings fall ; it said 900 celebrities were within the margin of error for Cosby 's rating . At the time of the accusations , E @-@ Poll Market Research had not updated its scores ; a Q Score for Cosby was not expected until 2015 . The executive vice @-@ president of Q Scores Co. said polling in the midst of a scandal would likely overstate the score 's longterm effects . All three companies ' scores are updated at different intervals , meaning they are not directly comparable . Jell @-@ O was relatively unaffected on social media by allegations against Cosby . The brand was mentioned in one percent of posts about Cosby , which was considered low . Still , negative connections continued , including by rapper Eminem in a freestyle rap , and an article by Food Drink and Franchise magazine pointed out moments in commercials that were awkward in retrospect .
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= No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 3 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 3 EFTS was established in January 1940 at Essendon , Victoria , and initially included a significant proportion of civilian staff and private aircraft ; by mid @-@ year these had been largely integrated into the military . The school was disbanded in May 1942 , its aircraft and instructional staff having been transferred to No. 11 Elementary Flying School at Benalla .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) , which were used to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including 65 hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 3 EFTS ) was formed at Essendon , Victoria , on 2 January 1940 , and came under the control of Southern Area Command . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader Roy King , a fighter ace credited with 26 victories in the Australian Flying Corps during World War I. Essendon aerodrome had been established in 1921 , and was home to several private aviation clubs and schools including the Royal Victorian Aero Club , ANA Flying School , and Victoria & Interstate Airways Ltd . It was the airfield 's position as the hub of civilian flight instruction in Victoria that led to it becoming the base for the third flying school the RAAF raised during World War II . The same principle was followed in establishing No. 1 EFTS at Parafield , South Australia , No. 2 EFTS at Archerfield , Queensland , and No. 4 EFTS at Mascot , New South Wales .
The first training courses at No. 3 EFTS were not conducted by RAAF instructors under the auspices of EATS but by Essendon 's civil organisations under government contract . The training aircraft were privately owned de Havilland Tiger Moths and Gipsy Moths . All air cadets were subject to RAAF discipline , and the school 's training program was directed by Squadron Leader King . The initial intake of sixteen students arrived on 8 January 1940 , and received eight weeks of instruction that finished on 4 March ; all but one of the trainees had prior flying experience , and the course was accident @-@ free . The next student intake at No. 3 EFTS arrived on 5 February 1940 . The school 's inaugural EATS course commenced in May . Overall student numbers at this time were reported as being 48 , while staff totalled 50 . The second EATS course began in July . By this time , Essendon 's civilian presence had effectively been absorbed by the military organisation ; privately owned aircraft were taken over by the RAAF , which had also begun employing its own aircraft , the first being a Gipsy Moth that arrived in March . Training accidents were frequent , particularly during landings , but did not result in any fatalities .
Clyde Fenton , known for his exploits as a flying doctor in the Northern Territory before being commissioned as a pilot in the RAAF , served as an instructor at No. 3 EFTS from mid @-@ 1940 to early 1942 . King was posted to command No. 5 EFTS at Narromine , New South Wales , in December 1940 . By this time No. 3 EFTS was reported as having graduated 200 pilots in the eight flying training courses it had run since its formation . One of its graduates was Nicky Barr , who become a fighter ace in the North African Campaign with twelve victories to his credit . No. 3 EFTS began operating a ground @-@ based Link Trainer on 17 February 1941 . The school started flying the recently introduced CAC Wackett Trainer in August 1941 , but the type proved troublesome , delaying the training program . From September to November 1941 , a detachment of personnel from No. 11 EFTS also utilised training facilities at Essendon , after their home aerodrome at Benalla had been inundated by heavy rain . No. 3 EFTS 's instructors , students and Wackett Trainers were transferred to No. 11 EFTS during April 1942 , and the Essendon school was disbanded on 1 May .
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= Superman in film =
The fictional character Superman , an American comic book superhero in DC Comics publications , has appeared in movies almost since his inception . He debuted in cinemas in a series of animated shorts beginning in 1941 , and then starred in two movie serials in 1948 and 1950 . An independent studio , Lippert Pictures , released the first Superman feature film , Superman and the Mole Men , starring George Reeves , in 1951 .
Ilya and Alexander Salkind and Pierre Spengler purchased the Superman film rights in 1974 . After numerous scripts , Richard Donner was hired to direct the film , filming Superman ( 1978 ) and Superman II ( 1980 ) simultaneously . Donner had already shot eighty percent of Superman II with Christopher Reeve before it was decided to finish shooting the first film . The Salkinds fired Donner after Superman 's release , and commissioned Richard Lester as the director to finish Superman II . Lester also returned for Superman III ( 1983 ) , and the Salkinds further produced the 1984 spin @-@ off Supergirl before selling the rights to Cannon Films , resulting in the critically panned Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1987 ) . Ilya Salkind commissioned a fifth Superman script before Warner Bros. acquired the rights entirely in 1993 .
Over the course of eleven years Warner Bros. would develop and then cancel Tim Burton 's Superman Lives , which would have starred Nicolas Cage , Wolfgang Petersen 's Batman vs. Superman , and the J. J. Abrams scripted Superman : Flyby , which went between directors Joseph " McG " Nichols and Brett Ratner . The studio hired Bryan Singer to take over the franchise in 2004 , releasing Superman Returns in 2006 , which starred newcomer Brandon Routh . Donner 's director 's cut for Superman II was also released that year . Despite positive reviews , Warner Bros. was disappointed with the financial performance of Superman Returns , and canceled Singer 's proposed sequel . The studio nearly went in production of a Justice League film with George Miller directing and D. J. Cotrona as Superman , but it was shelved in 2008 and the film series was rebooted in 2013 with Man of Steel , directed by Zack Snyder and produced by Christopher Nolan . Henry Cavill reprised the role of Superman in 2016 with Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice .
= = Films = =
= = Early films and serials = =
= = = Paramount cartoon shorts = = =
Superman first appeared in cinemas in a series of 17 theatrical animated shorts from between 1941 and 1943 . They were released by Paramount Pictures . Of those seventeen , nine were produced by Fleischer Studios and further eight by its successor , Famous Studios .
= = = Film serials = = =
The first appearances of Superman in live @-@ action film were in two serials for Columbia Pictures : Superman in 1948 and Atom Man vs. Superman in 1950 , both starring Kirk Alyn and Noel Neill .
= = = Superman and the Mole Men ( 1951 ) = = =
Superman and the Mole Men is a 1951 superhero film starring George Reeves as Superman and Phyllis Coates as Lois Lane . The film was produced by Barney Sarecky and directed by Lee Sholem with the original screenplay by Richard Fielding ( a pseudonym for Robert Maxwell and Whitney Ellsworth ) . Shot on a low budget , it served as a trial run for the syndicated TV series Adventures of Superman , for which it became a pilot two @-@ part episode titled " The Unknown People " .
= = Christopher Reeve series ( 1978 – 1987 ) = =
= = = Superman ( 1978 ) = = =
In 1973 , producer Ilya Salkind convinced his father Alexander to buy the rights to Superman . They hired Mario Puzo to pen a two @-@ film script , and negotiated with Steven Spielberg to direct , though Alexander Salkind rejected him as Jaws went over budget . Marlon Brando and Gene Hackman signed on to play Jor @-@ El and Lex Luthor respectively , and Guy Hamilton was hired to direct . However , Brando was faced with an obscenity lawsuit in Italy over Last Tango in Paris , and Hamilton was unable to shoot in England as he had violated his tax payments . The Salkinds hired Richard Donner to direct the film . Donner hired Tom Mankiewicz to polish the script , giving it a serious feel with Christ @-@ like overtones . Christopher Reeve was cast as Superman , having initially failed to impress the Salkinds before bulking up . Brando meanwhile , despite spending less than two weeks on the shoot , and not even reading the script until then , earned $ 3 @.@ 7 million up front , plus 11 @.@ 75 % of the gross profits from the film . The film was a success both critically and commercially , being released during the Christmas season of 1978 ; it did not have much competition , leading the producers to believe that this was one factor in the film 's success .
= = = Superman II ( 1980 ) = = =
Shooting of the two films was marred by Donner 's bad relationship with the Salkinds , with Richard Lester acting as mediator . With the film going over @-@ budget , the filmmakers decided to temporarily cease production of II and move that film 's climax into the first film . Despite Superman 's success , Donner did not return to finish Superman II , and it was completed with Lester , who gave the film a more tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek tone . The Salkinds also cut Brando for financial reasons , while John Williams quit as composer due to turning his attention to other projects . Superman II was another financial and critical success , despite stiff competition with Raiders of the Lost Ark in the same year . In 2006 , after receiving many requests for his own version of Superman II , Richard Donner and producer Michael Thau produced their own cut of the film and released it on November 28 , 2006 . The new version of the film received positive response from critics and the stars of the original film .
= = = Superman III ( 1983 ) = = =
For the third installment , Ilya Salkind wrote a treatment that expanded the film 's scope to a cosmic scale , introducing the villains Brainiac and Mr. Mxyzptlk , as well as Supergirl . The original outline featured a father @-@ daughter relationship between Brainiac and Supergirl , and a romance between Superman and Supergirl , even though the two are cousins in the comics . Warner Bros. rejected it and created their own Superman III film that co @-@ starred Richard Pryor as computer wizard Gus Gorman , who under the manipulation of a millionaire magnate , creates a form of Kryptonite that turns the Man of Steel into an evil self . The retooled script pared Brainiac down into the film 's evil " ultimate computer " . Despite the film 's success , fans were disappointed with the film , in particular with Pryor 's performance diluting the serious tone of the previous films , as well as controversy over the depiction of the evil Superman . Salkind 's rejected proposal was later released online in 2007 .
= = = Supergirl ( 1984 ) = = =
Upon gaining the rights for the film Superman , Alexander Salkind and his son , Ilya Salkind , also purchased the rights to the character of Superman 's cousin Supergirl . Supergirl was released in 1984 as a spin @-@ off of the Reeve films ; Reeve was slated to have a cameo but he ultimately backed out of the production . It stars Helen Slater in her first motion picture in the title role , while Faye Dunaway ( who received top billing ) played the primary villain , Selena ; the film also featured Marc McClure reprising his role as Jimmy Olsen . Even though the film performed poorly at the box office , Helen Slater was nominated for a Saturn Award .
= = = Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1987 ) = = =
Cannon Films picked up an option for a fourth Superman / Reeve film , with Reeve reprising the role due to his interest in the film 's topic regarding nuclear weapons . However , Cannon decided to cut the budget of Superman IV : The Quest for Peace from $ 35 million to $ 15 million , with poor special effects and heavy re @-@ editing leading to the film 's poor reception . Warner Bros. decided to give the franchise a break following the negative reception of the last two Superman films .
= = Abandoned and cancelled projects = =
= = = Superman V = = =
Before the failure of Superman IV : The Quest for Peace , Cannon Films considered producing a fifth film with Albert Pyun as director . Cannon 's bankruptcy resulted in the film rights reverting to Ilya and Alexander Salkind . Ilya Salkind wrote the story for Superman V ( also known as Superman : The New Movie ) with Superboy writers Cary Bates and Mark Jones in the early @-@ 1990s . The story had Superman dying and resurrecting in the shrunken , bottled Krypton city of Kandor . The premise of Superman 's death and rebirth coincidentally predated " The Death of Superman " . Salkind , Bates and Jones developed two drafts of the script , with Christopher Reeve set to reprise the title role .
= = = Superman Reborn = = =
With the success of " The Death of Superman " comic book storyline , Warner Bros. purchased the film rights of Superman from the Salkinds in early 1993 , handing the project to producer Jon Peters . The studio did not want to use Superman : The New Movie , and Peters hired Jonathan Lemkin to write a new script . Warner Bros. instructed Lemkin to write the new Superman film for mainstream audiences , a style for the MTV Generation of the 1990s . The additional family film approach would add to Superman 's toyetic appeal , similar to Batman Forever . Major toy companies insisted on seeing Lemkin 's screenplay before the deadline of the 1993 American International Toy Fair .
Lemkin 's script , titled Superman Reborn , featured Lois Lane and Clark Kent with relationship troubles , and Superman 's battle with Doomsday . When Superman professes his love to Lois , his life force jumps between them , just as he dies , giving Lois a virgin birth . Their child , who grows 21 @-@ years @-@ old in three weeks , becomes the resurrected Superman and saves the world . Warner Bros. did not like the script because of the similar underlying themes with Bruce Wayne 's obligations of heroism found in Batman Forever .
Peters hired Gregory Poirier to rewrite the script . Poirer 's December 1995 script had Brainiac creating Doomsday , infused with " Kryptonite blood " . Superman has romance problems with Lois Lane and visits a psychiatrist before he is killed by Doomsday . An alien named Cadmus , a victim of Brainiac , steals his corpse . Superman is resurrected and teams with Cadmus to defeat Brainiac . Powerless , Superman wears a robotic suit that mimics his old powers until he can learn to use his powers again on his own , which , according to the script , are a mental discipline called " Phin @-@ yar " , a concept similar to The Force . Other villains included Parasite and Silver Banshee . Poirier 's script impressed Warner Bros. , but Kevin Smith was hired to rewrite . Smith thought Poirier 's script did not respect the Superman mythos properly , and referred to it in An Evening with Kevin Smith as being " like the Batman TV show version of a Superman movie ; very campy . "
= = = Superman Lives = = =
Kevin Smith pitched Peters his story outline in August 1996 , and was allowed to write the screenplay under certain conditions : Peters wanted Superman to wear an all @-@ black suit , and also did not want Superman to fly , arguing that Superman would " look like an overgrown Boy Scout . " Smith wrote Superman flying as " a red @-@ and @-@ blue blur in flight , creating a sonic boom every time he flew . " Peters also wanted Superman to fight a giant spider for the climactic showdown . Smith accepted the terms , realizing that he was being hired to execute a preordained idea . Smith was also forced to write a scene involving Brainiac fighting a polar bear at the Fortress of Solitude , as Peters felt there were not enough action scenes in the first draft . The Star Wars 20th anniversary re @-@ release in theaters also prompted Peters to commission a " space dog " that Brainiac could present to Luthor purely for merchandising appeal and toy sales . Peters also insisted that Brainiac 's robot assistant L @-@ Ron was to be voiced by Dwight Ewell , calling the character , " a gay R2 @-@ D2 with attitude . "
Smith 's draft , now titled Superman Lives , had Brainiac sending Doomsday to kill Superman , as well as blocking out the sun to make Superman powerless , as Superman is fueled by sunlight . Brainiac teams up with Lex Luthor , but Superman is resurrected by a Kryptonian robot , the Eradicator . Brainiac wishes to possess the Eradicator and its technology . Powerless , the resurrected Superman is sheathed in a robotic suit formed from the Eradicator itself until his powers return , courtesy of sunbeams , and defeats Brainiac . Smith 's casting choices included Ben Affleck as Clark Kent / Superman , Linda Fiorentino as Lois Lane , Jack Nicholson as Lex Luthor , Famke Janssen as Mercy , John Mahoney as Perry White , David Hyde Pierce as the Eradicator , Jason Lee as Brainiac and Jason Mewes as Jimmy Olsen .
Robert Rodriguez was offered the chance to direct , but turned down the offer due to his commitment on The Faculty , despite liking Smith 's script . Smith originally suggested Tim Burton to direct his script , and Burton signed on with a pay @-@ or @-@ play contract of $ 5 million . Warner Bros. originally planned on a theatrical release date for summer 1998 , the 60th anniversary of the character 's debut in Action Comics . Nicolas Cage , a comic book fan , signed on as Superman with a $ 20 million pay @-@ or @-@ play contract , believing he could " re @-@ conceive the character . " Peters felt Cage could " convince audiences he [ Superman ] came from outer space . " Burton explained Cage 's casting would be " the first time you would believe that nobody could recognize Clark Kent as Superman , he [ Cage ] could physically change his persona . " Kevin Spacey was approached for the role of Lex Luthor , while Christopher Walken was Burton 's choice for Brainiac , a role also considered for Jim Carrey and Gary Oldman . Sandra Bullock , Courteney Cox and Julianne Moore had been approached for Lois Lane , while Chris Rock was cast as Jimmy Olsen . Michael Keaton confirmed his involvement , but when asked if he would be reprising his role as Batman from Burton 's Batman films , he would only reply , " Not exactly . " Industrial Light & Magic was set for work on special effects .
Filming was originally set to begin in early 1998 . In June 1997 , Superman Lives entered pre @-@ production , with an art department employed under production designer Rick Heinrichs . Burton hired Wesley Strick to rewrite Smith 's script . Smith was disappointed , stating , " The studio was happy with what I was doing . Then Tim Burton got involved , and when he signed his pay @-@ or @-@ play deal , he turned around and said he wanted to do his version of Superman . So who is Warner Bros. going back to ? The guy who made Clerks , or the guy who made them half a billion dollars on Batman ? " When Strick read Smith 's script , he was annoyed with the fact that " Superman was accompanied / shadowed by someone / something called the Eradicator . " He also felt that " Brainiac 's evil plot of launching a disk in space to block out the sun and make Superman powerless was reminiscent of an episode of The Simpsons , with Mr. Burns doing the Brainiac role . " However , after reading The Death and Return of Superman , Strick was able to understand some of the elements of Smith 's script . Strick 's rewrite featured Superman as an existentialist , thinking of himself to be an outsider on Earth . Superman is threatened by Brainiac and Lex Luthor , who later amalgamate into " Lexiac , " described by Strick as " a schizo / scary mega @-@ villain . " Superman is later resurrected by the power of ' K , ' a natural force representing the spirit of Krypton , as he defeats Lexiac .
Art designer Sylvain Despretz claimed the art department was assigned to create something that had little or nothing to do with the Superman comic book , and also explained that Peters " would bring kids in , who would rate the drawings on the wall as if they were evaluating the toy possibilities . It was basically a toy show ! " Peters saw a cover of National Geographic , containing a picture of a skull , going to art department workers , telling them he wanted the design for Brainiac 's space ship to have the same image . Burton gave Despretz a concept drawing for Brainiac , which Despretz claims was " a cone with a round ball on top , and something that looked like an emaciated skull inside . Imagine you take Merlin 's hat , and you stick a fish bowl on top , with a skull in it . " Concept artist Rolf Mohr said in an interview he designed a suit for the Eradicator for a planned scene in which it transforms into a flying vehicle .
Burton chose Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania as his primary filming location for Metropolis , while sound stages were reserved but start dates for filming were pushed back . A minor piece of the Krypton set was constructed but then destroyed , and Cage had even attended a costume fitting . The studio was also considering changing the title Superman Lives back to Superman Reborn . Deeming Wesley Strick 's script too expensive , Warner Bros. enlisted the help of Dan Gilroy to rewrite it into something more economically feasible . Gilroy lowered the $ 190 million budget set by Strick 's draft to $ 100 million . However , the studio was still less willing to fast track production , due to financial reasons with other film properties , having Gilroy turn in two drafts . Ultimately , Warner Bros. chose to put the film on hold in April 1998 , and Burton left to direct Sleepy Hollow . At this point in production , $ 30 million was spent , with nothing to show for it . Burton , citing various differences with Peters and the studio , said , " I basically wasted a year . A year is a long time to be working with somebody that you don 't really want to be working with . "
Disappointed by the lack of progress on the film 's production , aspiring screenwriter / comic book fan Alex Ford was able to have a script of his ( titled Superman : The Man of Steel ) accepted at the studio 's offices in September 1998 . Ford pitched his idea for a film series consisting of seven installments , and his approach impressed Warner Bros. and Peters , though he was later given a farewell due to creative differences . Ford said , " I can tell you they don 't know much about comics . Their audience isn 't you and me who pay $ 7 @.@ 00 . It 's for the parents who spend $ 60 on toys and lunchboxes . It is a business , and what 's more important , the $ 150 million at the box office or the $ 600 million in merchandising ? "
With Gilroy 's script , Peters offered the director 's position to Ralph Zondag , Michael Bay , Shekhar Kapur and Martin Campbell though they all turned down the offer . Brett Ratner turned down the option in favor of The Family Man . Simon West and Stephen Norrington were reportedly top contenders as well . In June 1999 , William Wisher , Jr. was hired to write a new script , and Cage assisted on story elements . Cage dropped out of the project in June 2000 , while Wisher turned in a new script in August 2000 , reported to have contained similar elements with The Matrix . In October 2000 , veteran comic book creator Keith Giffen pitched a 17 @-@ page story treatment with Lobo as the antagonist , but the studio did not proceed . Oliver Stone was then approached to direct Wisher 's script , but declined , while in April 2001 , Paul Attanasio was hired to start on a new script , earning a salary of $ 1 @.@ 7 million . Peters offered Will Smith the role of Superman , but the actor turned it down over ethnicity concerns . The film 's backstory was covered in the 2015 documentary film The Death of " Superman Lives " : What Happened ? .
= = = Batman vs. Superman ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Although it was widely reported that McG had become attached to Attanasio 's script , in February 2002 , J. J. Abrams was hired to write a new screenplay . It would ignore " The Death of Superman " storyline , and instead , it would reboot the film series with an origin story , going under the title of Superman : Flyby . The project had gone as far as being greenlit , but McG dropped out in favor of Charlie 's Angels : Full Throttle . The studio approached Wolfgang Petersen to direct Abrams ' script ; however , in August 2001 , Andrew Kevin Walker pitched Warner Bros. an idea titled Batman vs. Superman , attaching Petersen as director . Abrams ' script was put on hold , while Akiva Goldsman was hired to rewrite Walker 's draft which was codenamed Asylum .
Goldsman 's draft , dated June 21 , 2002 , introduced Bruce Wayne attempting to shake all of the demons in his life after his five @-@ year retirement from crimefighting . Dick Grayson , Alfred Pennyworth , and Commissioner Gordon are all dead . Meanwhile , Clark Kent is down on his luck and in despair after his divorce from Lois Lane . Clark serves as Bruce 's best man at his wedding to the beautiful and lovely Elizabeth Miller . After Elizabeth is killed by the Joker at the honeymoon , Bruce is forced to don the Batsuit once more , tangling a plot which involves Lex Luthor , while Clark begins a romance with Lana Lang in Smallville and tries to pull Bruce back . In return , Bruce blames Clark for her death , and the two go against one another . Part of the script took place in Smallville , where Clark goes into exile with Lana Lang . However , Lex Luthor is held to be responsible for the entire plot of Batman and Superman destroying each other . The two decide to team up and stop Luthor . Christian Bale , who was being considered for the lead in Darren Aronofsky 's Batman : Year one adaptation at the time , was simultaneously approached by Peterson for the Superman role . Peterson confirmed in a 2010 interview the only other actor he approached for Superman was Josh Hartnett . Warner Bros. canceled development to focus on individual Superman and Batman projects after Abrams submitted another draft for Superman : Flyby . Christopher Nolan would later cast Bale as Batman the following year in Batman Begins . In the opening scene of I Am Legend , a large banner displays the Superman symbol within the Batman symbol in Times Square . It is meant as an in @-@ joke by writer Akiva Goldsman , who wrote scripts for Batman vs. Superman and I Am Legend .
= = = Superman : Flyby = = =
Turning in his script in July 2002 , J. J. Abrams ' Superman : Flyby was an origin story that included Krypton besieged by a civil war between Jor @-@ El and his corrupt brother , Kata @-@ Zor . Before Kata @-@ Zor sentences Jor @-@ El to prison , Kal @-@ El is launched to Earth to fulfill a prophecy . Adopted by Jonathan and Martha Kent , he forms a romance with Lois Lane in the Daily Planet . However , Lois is more concerned with exposing Lex Luthor , written as a government agent obsessed with UFO phenomena . Clark reveals himself to the world as Superman , bringing Kata @-@ Zor 's son , Ty @-@ Zor , and three other Kryptonians to Earth . Superman is defeated and killed , and visits Jor @-@ El ( who committed suicide on Krypton while in prison ) in Kryptonian heaven . Resurrected , he returns to Earth and defeats the four Kryptonians . The script ends with Superman flying off to Krypton in a spaceship .
Brett Ratner was hired to direct in September 2002 , originally expressing an interest in casting an unknown for the lead role , while filming was to start sometime in late 2003 . Christopher Reeve joined as project consultant , citing Tom Welling , who portrayed the teenage Clark Kent in Smallville , as an ideal candidate . Reeve added " the character is more important than the actor who plays him , because it is an enduring mythology . It definitely should be an unknown . " Ratner approached Josh Hartnett , Jude Law , Paul Walker and Brendan Fraser for Superman , but conceded that finding a famous actor for the title role had proven difficult because of contractual obligations to appear in sequels . " No star wants to sign that , but as much as I 've told Jude and Josh my vision for the movie , I 've warned them of the consequences of being Superman . They 'll live this character for 10 years because I 'm telling one story over three movies and plan to direct all three if the first is as successful as everyone suspects . " Hartnett in particular was offered $ 100 million for a three @-@ picture deal . Walker explained that " I could have made a gazillion dollars on that franchise . I could probably have bought my own fleet of jets or my own island . You know what ? I don 't need it . " Fraser turned it down out of fear of typecasting . David Boreanaz , Victor Webster and Ashton Kutcher auditioned , along with Keri Russell as Lois Lane , but Kutcher decided not to pursue the role , citing scheduling conflicts with That ' 70s Show , the Superman curse and fear of typecasting , while Boreanaz had to back out due to obligations with Angel . James Marsden stated in a 2006 interview that at one point he was approached by Ratner . Although it was never formally announced , Matt Bomer confirmed he was in the running for the lead role , being Ratner 's preferred choice at the time . Bomer would later voice the character in the 2013 animated film Superman : Unbound . Amy Adams had also auditioned for Lois Lane , and would eventually win the role eight years later when she was cast in Man of Steel .
Superman : Flyby was being met with a budget exceeding $ 200 million , not including money spent on Superman Reborn , Superman Lives , and Batman vs. Superman , but Warner Bros. was still adamant for a summer 2004 release date . Christopher Walken was in negotiations for Perry White , while Ratner wanted to cast Anthony Hopkins as Jor @-@ El , and Ralph Fiennes as Lex Luthor , two of his cast members in Red Dragon . Joel Edgerton turned down a chance to audition as Superman in favor of the villain Ty @-@ Zor , before Ratner dropped out of the project in March 2003 , blaming casting delays , and aggressive feuds with producer Jon Peters .
McG returned as director in 2003 , while Fraser continued to express interest , but had fears of typecasting . ESC Entertainment was hired for visual effects work , with Kim Libreri as visual effects supervisor and Stan Winston designing a certain " prototype suit " . McG approached Shia LaBeouf for Jimmy Olsen , with an interest to cast an unknown for Superman , Scarlett Johansson as Lois Lane and Johnny Depp for Lex Luthor . The director confirmed in a 2012 interview that Robert Downey , Jr. had been cast as Lex Luthor . Neal H. Moritz and Gilbert Adler were set to produce the film . McG also commissioned Josh Schwartz to rewrite the Abrams script . He wanted to shoot in Canada , which would have cost $ 25 million more than WB 's preferred Australian locale . McG also shot test footage with several candidates , including Jason Behr , Henry Cavill , Jared Padalecki , and Michael Cassidy before leaving , blaming budgetary concerns and filming locations . He opted to shoot in New York City and Canada , but Warner Bros. wanted Sydney , Australia . McG felt " it was inappropriate to try to capture the heart of America on another continent . " He later admitted it was his fear of flying . Abrams lobbied for the chance to direct his script , but Warner Bros. replaced McG with Bryan Singer in July 2004 , resulting in Superman Returns .
= = Superman Returns ( 2006 ) = =
Following the departure of Ratner and McG , Bryan Singer , who was said to be a childhood fan of Richard Donner 's film , was approached by Warner Bros. He accepted , abandoning two films already in pre @-@ production , X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( which , coincidentally , would come to be directed by Ratner ) and a remake of Logan 's Run . The film uses the events of Superman and , to less of a degree , Superman II as backstory , while completely ignoring the events of Superman III and Superman IV : The Quest for Peace . Singer 's story tells of Superman 's return to Earth following a five @-@ year search for survivors of Krypton . He discovers that in his absence Lois Lane has given birth to a son and become engaged . Singer chose to follow Donner 's lead by casting relatively unknown Brandon Routh as Superman , who resembled Christopher Reeve somewhat , and more high profile actors in supporting roles , such as Kevin Spacey as Lex Luthor . Singer brought his entire crew from X2 to work on the film . Via digitally @-@ enhanced archive footage , the late Marlon Brando appeared in the film as Jor @-@ El . Superman Returns received positive reviews and grossed approximately $ 391 million worldwide .
In February 2006 , four months before the release of Superman Returns , Warner Bros. announced a summer 2009 theatrical release date for a sequel , with Bryan Singer returning as director . Brandon Routh , Kate Bosworth , Kevin Spacey , Sam Huntington , Frank Langella , and Tristan Lake Leabu were expected to reprise their roles , however , with the release of Superman Returns in July 2006 , Warner Bros. was hesitant on moving forward with development . Warner Bros. President Alan F. Horn explained that Superman Returns was a very successful film , but that it " should have done $ 500 million worldwide . We should have had perhaps a little more action to satisfy the young male crowd . " Singer reacted incredulously to the studio complaints , saying , " That movie made $ 400 million ! I don 't know what constitutes under @-@ performing these days ... " Filming was supposed to start in March 2008 ; no screenplay was ever written , but Singer would have titled it Man of Steel , with an interest in Darkseid as the main villain . Singer stressed that it would have been more action @-@ packed than Superman Returns. while writer Michael Dougherty was interested in using Brainiac . " In my mind , if the Kryptonians really were a space @-@ faring race ... it would only make sense that there would 've been colonies and off @-@ planet missions ... other Kryptonians making their way to Earth seemed like a pretty big one . It wouldn 't necessarily be evil right off the bat . That 's too easy and cliché ... I think it 'd be interesting to see how these other Kryptonians show up , land and have all these powers and [ have to learn ] how to adapt to them . "
Warner Bros. commissioned husband and wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film in February 2007 , halting development for the Superman Returns sequel . The Justice League script was submitted to Warner Bros. the following June , which prompted the studio to immediately fast track production . Singer went on to film Valkyrie the following month , and George Miller signed to direct Justice League : Mortal in September 2007 . The script would have featured a different Superman in a separate continuity from Singer 's film ; Routh was not approached to reprise his role for Justice League : Mortal , which ended up going to D. J. Cotrona . The film nearly went into production in March 2008 , but the Australian Film Commission denied Warner Bros. their 40 percent tax rebate and Catrona 's options eventually expired . With Justice League : Mortal canceled , Singer renewed his interest in the Superman sequel that same month , stating that it was in early development . Paul Levitz , president of DC Comics , still expected Routh to reprise the title role , but Routh 's contract for a sequel expired in 2009 . " Superman Returns didn 't quite work as a film in the way that we wanted it to , " Warner Bros. President of Production Jeff Robinov admitted in August 2008 . " It didn 't position the character the way he needed to be positioned . Had Superman worked in 2006 , we would have had a movie for Christmas of this year or 2009 . Now the plan is just to reintroduce Superman without regard to a Batman and Superman movie at all . "
= = DC Extended Universe = =
= = = Man of Steel ( 2013 ) = = =
In June 2008 , Warner Bros. took pitches from comic book writers , screenwriters and directors on how to restart the Superman film series . During story discussions for The Dark Knight Rises in 2008 , David S. Goyer , aware that Warner Bros. was planning a Superman reboot , told Christopher Nolan his idea on how to present Superman in a modern context . Impressed with Goyer 's concept , Nolan pitched the idea to the studio in February 2010 , who hired Nolan to produce and Goyer to write based on the financial and critical success of The Dark Knight . Nolan admired Singer 's work on Superman Returns for its connection to Richard Donner 's version , and previously used the 1978 film as casting inspiration for Batman Begins . Zack Snyder was hired as the film 's director in October 2010 . Principal photography started in August 2011 in West Chicago , Illinois , before moving to Vancouver and Plano , Illinois . The film stars Henry Cavill as Clark Kent / Kal @-@ El / Superman , Amy Adams as Lois Lane , Michael Shannon as General Zod , Diane Lane as Martha Kent , Kevin Costner as Jonathan Kent , Laurence Fishburne as Perry White , and Russell Crowe as Jor @-@ El .
= = = Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice ( 2016 ) = = =
David S. Goyer and Zack Snyder are set to write and direct a sequel to Man of Steel , respectively . Christopher Nolan is also expected to return as producer , albeit in a lesser role than he had in the first film . On June 16 , 2013 , The Wall Street Journal reported that the studio is possibly planning to release the sequel in 2014 . Warner Bros. announced that Superman and Batman will unite in a new film which will be the follow @-@ up to Man of Steel , set for release in 2015 . Goyer stated at the Superman 75th Anniversary Panel at 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , that Batman and Superman would face off , and titles under consideration are Superman Vs Batman and Batman Vs Superman . On August 22 , 2013 , it was announced that Ben Affleck was cast as Batman . On December 4 , 2013 , it was reported that Gal Gadot was cast as Wonder Woman .
On January 17 , 2014 , it was announced that the film had been delayed from its original July 17 , 2015 release date to March 25 , 2016 , in order to give the filmmakers " time to realize fully their vision , given the complex visual nature of the story " . On January 31 , 2014 , Jesse Eisenberg and Jeremy Irons were cast as Lex Luthor and Alfred Pennyworth , respectively . In an official press release , Snyder described the casting of Eisenberg as Luthor by stating , " Having Jesse in the role allows us to explore that interesting dynamic , and also take the character in some new and unexpected directions . "
= = = Justice League ( 2017 ) = = =
Shortly after filming had finished for Man of Steel , Warner Bros hired Will Beall to script a new Justice League film in June 2012 . With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013 , Goyer was hired to write a new Justice League script , with the Beall draft being scrapped . In April 2014 , it was announced that Zack Snyder would also be directing Goyer 's Justice League script . Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July , after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman . In October 2014 , Warner Bros. announced the film would be released in two parts as the fifth and ninth installments of the shared universe , with Part One releasing in 2017 , and Part Two in 2019 . Snyder will direct both films with Henry Cavill set to reprise his role as Superman .
= = = Untitled Man of Steel sequel ( TBA ) = = =
In October 2014 , a Man of Steel sequel was announced with an intended release between 2016 and 2020 . In August 2015 , Jon Schnepp revealed to DC Movie News on the Popcorn Network that the studio are rumored to have George Miller as the director for the sequel . On June 2016 , Russel Crowe confimed that a Man of Steel trilogy was originally planned before it was scrapped due the announcement of Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice
= = Characters = =
= = = Recurring characters = = =
This table only includes characters which have appeared / appearing in multiple films .
A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film , or that the character 's presence in the film has not yet been announced .
A V indicates a voice @-@ only role .
A C indicates a cameo role .
A P indicates an appearance through photograph ( s ) .
A Y indicates a role as a younger version of the character .
A O indicates a role as an older version of the character .
A A indicates an appearance through archivial footage , stills or audio .
A Marc McClure reprised his role as Jimmy Olsen for Supergirl .
B The corpse of the now @-@ deceased General Zod also appears in the film in a crucial role , however , Michael Shannon did not film any scenes for the film and his corpse was created using the physique of fitness model Greg Plitt and a head @-@ shot of Shannon .
= = = Non @-@ recurring characters = = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
indicates that the film in the series is currently playing
= = = Critical and public response = = =
= = Franchise collections = =
The initial four Superman films were released previously on VHS , and throughout the film series ' history , three box sets of the films have been released by Warner Bros. The first occurred on May 1 , 2001 , when The Complete Superman Collection was released both on DVD and VHS , containing that year 's DVD / home video releases of Superman , Superman II , Superman III , and Superman IV . The set was valued at US $ 49 @.@ 99 for the DVD release and US $ 29 @.@ 99 for the VHS release , and received positive reviews .
The four Christopher Reeve films were again released on November 28 , 2006 , in new DVD releases to coincide with Superman Returns , also released in that year . Superman was released in a four @-@ disc ' special edition ' similar to Superman II , which was released in a two @-@ disc special edition . Both Superman III and IV were released in single disc ' deluxe editions ' , and all four releases were available together in The Christopher Reeve Superman Collection , an 8 @-@ disc set that was valued at US $ 79 @.@ 92 . Like the 2001 set before it , The Christopher Reeve Superman Collection received positive reviews .
Also on November 28 , 2006 , a 14 @-@ disc DVD box set titled Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition was released , containing Superman , Superman II , Superman II : The Richard Donner Cut , Superman III , Superman IV , Superman Returns , and Look , Up in the Sky : The Amazing Story of Superman , among other releases . All contents of the set were housed within a tin case . The set was valued at US $ 99 @.@ 92 , and received extremely positive reviews when first released . However , after only a day on the market , Warner Bros. announced that there were two errors discovered within the set . The first was that the 2 @.@ 0 audio track on Superman , was instead the 5 @.@ 1 audio track already on the disc . The second was that the Superman III disc was not the 2006 deluxe edition as advertised , but the 2001 release instead . The set was soon recalled , and Warner Bros. offered a toll @-@ free number to replace the faulty discs for people who had already purchased the set . Due to popular demand , a corrected set was released and Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition returned to store shelves on May 29 , 2007 .
On October 14 , 2008 , another Christopher Reeve Superman film collection was released , entitled Superman : 4 Film Favorites , containing all four films , but with far less bonus material than previous sets . The collection was a 2 @-@ disc DVD @-@ 18 set that included the first disc of both special editions from the 2006 release and both deluxe editions .
On April 1 , 2011 , it was announced that the entire Superman anthology would be making its way to Blu @-@ ray for the first time . The anthology box set was released on June 7 , 2011 .
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= Northwest Airlines Flight 421 =
Northwest Airlines Flight 421 was a domestic scheduled passenger flight from Chicago , Illinois to Minneapolis , Minnesota that crashed on 29 August 1948 . The Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft , operated by Northwest Airlines , suffered structural failure in its left wing and crashed approximately 4 @.@ 1 miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Winona , Minnesota , approximately 95 miles ( 153 km ) southeast of Minneapolis . A Civil Aeronautics Board investigation determined that the crash was caused by fatigue cracks in the wings of the aircraft , and recommended lower speeds and frequent inspections of all Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft . All 33 passengers and four crewmembers on board were killed . The crash was the first loss of a Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 , and remains the worst accident involving a Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 .
= = Flight = =
Flight 421 was served by a Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft was operated by Northwest Airlines . It was just under a year old , and had accumulated a total airtime of 1321 hours starting in 1947 . The flight was piloted by Captain Robert L. Johnson , 30 , who had 5 @,@ 502 hours of flying time . The copilot was David F. Brenner , 27 , with 2 @,@ 380 hours of flight time .
The aircraft departed Chicago at 3 : 50 PM , CST , carrying 33 passengers , four crewmembers , 800 US gallons ( 3 @,@ 000 l ; 670 imp gal ) of fuel , and 1 @,@ 038 pounds ( 471 kg ) of baggage . Weather reports received prior to departure indicated relatively clear conditions with a few scattered rain showers en route in the vicinity of La Crosse , Wisconsin and Rochester , Minnesota . The flight progressed normally as the aircraft reached its planned altitude of 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) and made its way across Wisconsin . At 4 : 55 PM , the aircraft reported its position over La Crosse , Wisconsin , approximately 125 miles ( 201 km ) southeast of Minneapolis . The aircraft received permission to begin its descent , and descended to 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) at 4 : 59 PM .
= = Crash = =
The last communication made with the flight was a 4 : 59 PM report from the pilot that the aircraft had passed the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) altitude level . The pilot sounded calm , and made no indication that the aircraft was experiencing any mechanical trouble .
Between 4 : 45 PM and 5 : 00 PM , a number of people in the area of Winona , Minnesota were observing a thunderstorm approaching from the northwest . These people told the Civil Aeronautics Board that the storm was increasing in intensity , and they observed increasing amounts of thunder and lightning . The aircraft continued on course in the direction of Winona , where it encountered the thunderstorm . The aircraft was seen flying below the clouds before entering the roll cloud , or leading edge of the thunderstorm . This was the last reported sighting of the aircraft ; seconds later , local observers saw pieces of the aircraft falling from the sky .
An off @-@ duty Northwest Airlines pilot who observed the crash told newspapers that he believed that the airliner had been struck by lightning . Some local farmers said that the plane seemed to barrel roll , but also observed that while there was significant rainfall , winds were relatively light .
In its Aug. 30 , 1948 edition , The New York Times reported :
The crash occurred on Sutters Ridge , between Winona and Fountain City , Wis . , on the Wisconsin side of the Mississippi .
Parts of the wreckage were found in swamplands along the river . A few bits also landed in a ballpark at Winona , seven miles south of the crash scene . A Mr. Haeussinger , Gordon Closway , executive editor of The Winona Republican @-@ Herald , and William White , a reporter for the paper , were among the first to reach the wreckage .
Mr. Closway said he counted ten dead in the plane . One was a woman still holding a baby in her arms . The body of the pilot , Capt. Robert Johnson of St. Paul , was still in the nose of the ship , Mr. Closway said .
= = Investigation and follow @-@ up = =
The aircraft crashed on a forested bluff on the Wisconsin side of the Mississippi River , between Winona and Fountain City , Wisconsin . The aircraft was torn into four large pieces , with numerous deposits of smaller wreckage . The large sections were located in a straight line with a bearing of 335 degrees , approximating the intended flight path . These large sections were the fuselage , tail assembly , outer left wing , and the inner left wing .
The mangled bodies of all 37 deceased were located within the wrecked fuselage that had rolled into a deep ravine . The sides of the ravine were so steep that rescuers formed a human chain to carry the passengers ' remains 150 feet ( 46 m ) up the rocky crevice . Horse @-@ drawn farm wagons loaded with human remains made their perilous way down the bluff . Contemporary news reports estimated that as many as 20 @,@ 000 people came to see the crash scene and render aid .
Civil Aeronautics Board investigators concluded that the outer portion of the wing had detached from the rest of the wing . The investigation revealed a fatigue crack 7 / 8 inch long and 3 / 32 inch deep at the point of detachment . Similar cracks were found on the wing root fittings of another Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft that flew the same flight path through the same storm shortly after Flight 421 . October inspections of three other Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft revealed identical fatigue cracks in similar locations .
The CAB report concluded :
[ D ] ue to the high local stress concentrations of this particular design of the attachment fitting , fatigue cracks had developed in the attachment fitting which so weakened the structure as to cause failure of the complete outer wing panel under the stress of the severe turbulence encountered in the thunderstorm .
The investigation determined that a spar on the front left of the wing separated , quickly followed by the lower rear spar and the connections which attached the outer wing to the center section . The loss of the left wing caused the aircraft to roll left , whereupon the fuselage and the right horizontal stabilizer collided with the separated wing . The initial separation was caused either by a wind gust in excess of operating velocity , or a similar lower velocity gust after the material had become fatigued .
The Board also recommended frequent inspections of wing root fittings for the development of fatigue cracks , increasing the thickness of the portion of the wing attached to the fuselage , and reduction of operating speeds by 10 % .
In April 1949 , Northwest Airlines sued the Glenn L. Martin Company , manufacturers of the Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 , for $ 725 @,@ 000 . The lawsuit claimed that the company had sold the airline five defective aircraft , including the aircraft lost in Flight 421 . Glenn Martin , president of the aircraft manufacturing corporation , dismissed the lawsuit as a mere formality , a bit of meaningless legal maneuvering to appease disagreeing insurance companies .
Flight 421 was the first hull loss of a Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 . It remains the deadliest accident involving the 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 . It was Northwest Airlines 's worst air disaster at the time , and the first accident in over a billion miles of flight .
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= The Holy Bible ( album ) =
The Holy Bible is the third studio album by Welsh alternative rock band Manic Street Preachers . It was released on 29 August 1994 by record label Epic . At the time the album was written and recorded , lyricist and rhythm guitarist Richey Edwards was struggling with severe depression , alcohol abuse , self @-@ harm and anorexia nervosa , and its contents are considered by many sources to reflect his mental state . The songs focus on themes relating to politics and human suffering . The Holy Bible was the band 's last album released before Edwards ' disappearance on 1 February 1995 .
Although it reached number 6 on the UK Albums Chart , initially , global sales were disappointing compared to previous albums and the record did not chart in mainland Europe or North America . It was promoted with tours and festival appearances in the UK , Ireland , Germany , Portugal , the Netherlands and Thailand – in part without Edwards . The Holy Bible has sold over half million copies worldwide as of 2014 and over the years it received significant critical acclaim . The album has been featured and listed highly on lists of the best albums of all time by British music publications such as Melody Maker , NME and Q.
= = Recording = =
According to drummer Sean Moore , the band felt they had been " going a bit astray " with their previous album , 1993 's Gold Against the Soul , and so the approach to the follow @-@ up was for the band to go back to their " grass roots " and rediscover " a little bit of Britishness that we lacked " . Singer and guitarist James Dean Bradfield recalls the band feeling they had become " a bit too rockist [ ... ] we had lost our direction " . The band stopped listening to American rock music and returned to influences that had inspired them when they first formed , including Magazine , Wire , Skids , PiL , Gang of Four and Joy Division .
Epic Records had proposed that the album be recorded in Barbados , but the band had wanted to avoid what Bradfield called " all that decadent rockstar rubbish " . It was bassist Nicky Wire 's idea , says Bradfield , that the band " should not use everything at its disposal " in recording the album . Instead , recording began with sound engineer Alex Silva at the low @-@ rent , " absolutely tiny " Sound Space Studios in Cardiff . The album was mixed by Mark Freegard , who had previously worked with The Breeders . " She Is Suffering " was produced by Steve Brown . The recording took four weeks .
Bradfield has described the recording of the album as preventing him from having a social life and Alex Silva attributes the break @-@ up of his relationship with his girlfriend at the time to the long hours involved in the recording . Guitarist Richey Edwards attended recording sessions but would , according to Wire , " collapse on the settee and have a snooze " while the other band members did all the recording . He was drinking heavily and frequently crying . " Inevitably " , says Bradfield , " the day would start with a ' schhht ! ' ; the sound of a can opening . "
The album was constructed with " academic discipline " , according to Bradfield , with the band working to headings and structures " so each song is like an essay " .
= = Content = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
Whereas lyric @-@ writing on the two previous albums was split fairly evenly between Richey Edwards and Nicky Wire , the lyrics on The Holy Bible were 70 @-@ 75 % written by Edwards , according to James Dean Bradfield . At the time of the album 's 10th anniversary reissue Wire claimed to be largely responsible for " This Is Yesterday " and " Ifwhiteamericatoldthetruthforonedayit 'sworldwouldfallapart " , contributing only titles to some of the other songs . However , on later reinspecting his notebooks , Wire was surprised to find he had contributed more lyrics than he had previously remembered , having also written significant portions of " Of Walking Abortion " and " Mausoleum " and a number of lines from " Faster " , now believing himself to be responsible for around 30 % of the words on the album .
The album 's lyrics deal with subjects including prostitution , American consumerism , British imperialism , freedom of speech , the Holocaust , self @-@ starvation , serial killers , the death penalty , political revolution , childhood , fascism and suicide . According to Q : " the tone of the album is by turns bleak , angry and resigned " . The same magazine commented in 1994 that " even a cursory glance at the titles will confirm that this is not the new Gloria Estefan album " .
Sean Moore has described the content of the lyrics as being " as far as Richey 's character could go " . According to Bradfield : " Some of the lyrics confused me . Some [ ... ] were voyeuristic and some were coming from personal experience [ ... ] I remember getting the lyrics to ' Yes ' and thinking ' You crazy fucker , how do I write music for this ? ' " . Critic Simon Price notes that the potential radio @-@ friendliness of the song is undermined by its focus on the subject of prostitution and the recurrence of sexual swearing in the lyric .
Interviewed at the time of the album 's release , Nicky Wire said that the track " Ifwhiteamericatoldthetruthforonedayit 'sworldwouldfallapart " [ sic ] was " not a completely anti @-@ American song " , but instead was about " how the most empty culture in the world can dominate in such a total sense " . " Of Walking Abortion " is about right @-@ wing totalitarianism , of which Wire commented : " there 's a worm in human nature that makes us want to be dominated " . " Archives of Pain " , dealing with the glorification of serial killers and seemingly advocating capital punishment , he said " was the song that me and Richey worried about most [ ... ] the song isn 't a right wing statement , it 's just against this fascination with people who kill " . Later in 1994 , Bradfield described the song as " one of the most important things we 've done " but said it was also " very right @-@ wing " and " miscalculated " .
Wire described " Revol " as being about Edwards ' idea that " relationships in politics , and relationships in general , are failures " . " P.C.P. " , he said , was about how " PC followers take up the idea of being liberal but end up being quite the opposite " . He said that he was " completely confused " by " Faster " ( most of which he had written ) , although Edwards had told him that it was about self @-@ abuse .
" Mausoleum " and " The Intense Humming of Evil " , Wire said , were both inspired by visits by the band to former concentration camps at Dachau and Belsen . A first draft of the latter song had been considered insufficiently judgemental by Bradfield , who had asked for a re @-@ write ( " you can 't be ambivalent about the Holocaust " ) .
According to Wire , " Die in the Summertime " and " 4st 7lb " were " pretty obviously about Richey 's state of mind " . However , Edwards attested that the former song is actually about a pensioner wanting to die with memories of childhood in his mind . 4 stone 7 pounds ( 29 kg ) is the weight below which death is reputed to become medically unavoidable for anorexics .
" This Is Yesterday " , according to Wire , is " about how people always look back to their youth and look on it as a glorious period " .
Wire and Bradfield have both expressed a disliking for the lyrics to the song " She Is Suffering " , Wire saying it suffers from " man @-@ coming @-@ to @-@ the @-@ rescue syndrome " . According to Edwards , the " she " in the song title is desire : " In other Bibles and Holy Books no truth is possible until you empty yourself of desire " .
= = = = Use of dialogue samples = = = =
Several tracks on the album are also complemented by samples of dialogue , in keeping with the themes of the songs themselves , as follows :
" Yes " contains dialogue from the 1993 documentary Hookers , Hustlers , Pimps and their Johns , by Beeban Kidron , about the prostitution trade .
" Ifwhiteamericatoldthetruthforonedayit 'sworldwouldfallapart " begins with a TV trailer for GOP TV 's Rising Tide show .
" Of Walking Abortion " begins with an extract from an interview with Hubert Selby , Jr .
" Archives of Pain " begins with the words of the mother of one of serial killer Peter Sutcliffe 's victims from a TV report on his trial .
" 4st 7lb " begins with dialogue from the 1994 documentary about anorexia , Caraline 's Story , by Jeremy Llewelyn @-@ Jones about Caraline Neville @-@ Lister .
" Mausoleum " features a quotation from an interview with J. G. Ballard explaining his motivation for writing the novel Crash .
" Faster " begins with dialogue from the 1984 film adaptation of George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , spoken by John Hurt .
" The Intense Humming of Evil " begins with an extract from a report on the Nuremberg Trials .
" P.C.P. " ends with dialogue spoken by Albert Finney from Peter Yates ' The Dresser .
= = = Musical style = = =
Musically , The Holy Bible marks a shift from the modern rock sound of their first two albums , Generation Terrorists and Gold Against the Soul . It was described as alternative rock , hard rock , punk rock , post @-@ punk , and gothic rock , with influences from British punk , new wave , industrial and art rock . During the recording of the album , the band was mainly influenced by post @-@ punk bands such as Wire , Public Image Ltd , and Joy Division , and their new sound drew comparisons to similar artists such as Magazine , Siouxsie and the Banshees , and Gang of Four . The record 's heavy style was also compared to that of popular industrial rock act Nine Inch Nails .
= = = Aesthetic = = =
James Dean Bradfield has described the album as representing " the most definitive period for us visually as well as the songs we were writing and the record [ ... ] we 've never been scared to admit that " .
While touring in early 1994 , the band visited army surplus stores and bought clothing to wear on stage , in a homage to The Clash . This military image was used consistently by the band during the promotion of The Holy Bible , including in their videos and television appearances . A performance of " Faster " on the BBC 's Top of the Pops in June 1994 resulted in a record number of complaints — over 25 @,@ 000 — due to Bradfield wearing a paramilitary @-@ style balaclava .
The album cover , designed by Richey Edwards while hospitalised , features a triptych by Jenny Saville depicting three perspectives on the body of an obese woman in her underwear , and is titled Strategy ( South Face / Front Face / North Face ) . Saville gave her permission for use of her work for free after a discussion with Edwards in which he described each song on the album . The back cover features a photo of the band in military uniforms and a quote taken from Octave Mirbeau 's book The Torture Garden . This album is also the first instance of the Manic Street Preachers using Gill Sans typeface with a reversed " R " in their album art . The typeface would later be re @-@ used on later albums and has become an easily recognised motif of the Manics ' artwork . The typeface is similar to one used on Empires and Dance by Simple Minds , one of James Dean Bradfield 's favourite records .
The lyrics booklet features various images including Christian iconography , photographs of the gate at Dachau concentration camp and a plan of the gas chambers at Belsen concentration camp , a photograph of Lenin 's corpse , an engraving depicting an execution by guillotine in Revolutionary France , a picture of an apple , a photograph of a woman with a parasitic twin , photographs of each of the Manic Street Preachers as children and a photograph of a group of British policemen in gas @-@ masks . The booklet also contains a Buddhist saying from the Tripitaka alongside a dedication to the band 's publicist , Philip Hall , who had died of cancer in 1993 .
The title " The Holy Bible " was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea , according to Bradfield , that " everything on there has to be perfection " . Interviewed at the end of 1994 , Edwards said : " The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them down [ ... ] I think that if a Holy Bible is true , it should be about the way the world is and that 's what I think my lyrics are about . [ The album ] doesn 't pretend things don 't exist " .
= = Health of Richey Edwards = =
Richey Edwards had had long @-@ term problems with alcohol abuse , depression and self @-@ harm . During 1994 , these problems had , according to Wire , " escalated to a point where everybody got a bit frightened " and Edwards had also begun to suffer from anorexia nervosa . During April and May , when the band played concerts in Thailand and Portugal , Edwards was habitually cutting himself and appeared onstage in Bangkok with self @-@ inflicted wounds across his chest .
He talked openly in the music press about his problems , telling the NME : " When I cut myself I feel so much better . All the little things that might have been annoying me seem so trivial because I 'm concentrating on the pain " , and " I 'm the sort of person who wakes up in the morning and needs to pour a bottle down my throat " .
His problems continued and , during the recording of the album , his mental state deteriorated after learning of the suicide of a close friend from university . In July , he was taken to hospital after severely lacerating himself at home , then transferred to Whitchurch Hospital , an NHS psychiatric facility in Cardiff . His weight had fallen to 6 stone ( 38 kg ) .
By the time of the album 's release in late August 1994 , Edwards was hospitalised at the private Priory Hospital in Roehampton . He rejoined the band to tour during the autumn of 1994 . Other band members felt that his drinking was under control at this point , but his eating continued to be a problem and he continued to self @-@ harm . On 1 February 1995 , he disappeared and is presumed to have committed suicide . His car was found close to the Severn Bridge .
The Holy Bible has been described by Q as a " graphic , violent torrent of self @-@ lacerating punk fury which infamously details the horrors in Richey Edwards ' head " .
= = Release = =
The album reached No. 6 on the UK Albums Chart , remaining in the chart for 11 weeks . Despite not charting outside the UK and Japan , by mid @-@ 2014 The Holy Bible had sold more than 600 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
On 6 December 2004 an expanded version of The Holy Bible was released , containing two CDs and a DVD . Disc one comprised a digitally re @-@ mastered version of the original album plus four live tracks . The DVD features an interview with the band , footage of TV and festival appearances and promo videos . The second disc includes a remix of the album by Tom Lord @-@ Alge . The remixed version had been intended for release in the US , but this never happened " for well @-@ documented reasons " , according to James Dean Bradfield . The band felt the second mix was superior to the version originally released . As Bradfield puts it : " For once we got something back from the American record company — who we despised — and it was brilliant " .
A new special edition was released in December 2014 , commemorating the 20th anniversary of the album . This edition includes the vinyl edition of the full album , plus a three @-@ CD set , the first CD with the full album remastered for the special release , the second with the US mix remastered and the third including a performance at the Astoria in 1994 and an acoustic session for Radio 4 Mastertapes in 2014 . The special edition also contains a 40 @-@ page book full of rare photos and handwritten lyrics and notes by Richey and by the band .
As part of Record Store Day 2014 a 12 " picture disc of the US Mix of the album was released . Side A featured a mix of the Revol cover overlaid with the Jesus image from the CD . Side B was a white label image . The album was housed in a clear plastic sleeve . 1500 copies were pressed .
= = Reception = =
Despite not charting in mainland Europe , and not selling very well initially , The Holy Bible received significant critical acclaim when it was released on August 1994 , and in the years following .
NME saw The Holy Bible as primarily the work of James Dean Bradfield , saying " The Holy Bible isn 't elegant , but it is bloody effective " . Melody Maker , seeing it as primarily the work of Richey Edwards , described it as " the sound of a group in extremis [ ... ] hurtling towards a private armageddon " . Upon its re @-@ release ten years later , the NME described it as " a work of genuine genius " .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic said that the album was " Richey James ' last will and testament " , finishing with " Every song has a passage frightening in its imagery . Although the music itself isn 't as scarily intense , its tight , terse hard rock and glam hooks accentuate the paranoia behind the songs , making the lyrics cut deeper . " Joe Tangari from Pitchfork wrote " In a way , the story of Edwards ' spiral into some unknown oblivion is tied to the experience of The Holy Bible , which in retrospect has become a sort of horror @-@ show eulogy for a man who couldn 't live with the world around him . "
Observed Roy Wilkinson in Select : " Amid all the references to coma , carcasses , ' walking abortions ' and dying in the summer sits the spectre of Richey , holed up in a private clinic , having drunk too much , eaten too little and cut himself for reasons varying between dramatic gesture , a surrogate for screaming out loud and something ' sexual ' [ ... ] Let 's hope that , with a record of such unsettling , morbid resonance as The Holy Bible , no further gestures are required . "
Mark Edwards of Stylus opined that " The Holy Bible is easily one of the best albums of the 90s — ignored by many , but loved intensely by the few who 've lived with it over the years [ ... ] It puts everything the Manics have done since to shame , not to mention nearly everything else [ in music ] " . David Fricke of Rolling Stone also reviewed the album positively : " even the pall of [ Edwards ' ] absence can 't cancel out the life @-@ affirming force that hits you with the very first song " .
Nick Butler of Sputnikmusic praised the album , calling it a " classic " and awarding it 5 out of 5 stars , concluding with : " Punk , hard rock , indie , and even metal fans owe it to themselves to hear this . Anyone else may be scared off , but may just find they never look at life the same way again . I certainly haven 't . "
= = Touring = =
In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs from The Holy Bible at concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for the Anti @-@ Nazi League at Brockwell Park , London . In June , they played the Glastonbury Festival .
In July and August , without Richey Edwards , they played T in the Park in Scotland , the Alte Wartesaal in Cologne , the Parkpop Festival in The Hague and the Reading Festival . During September , October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe with Suede and Therapy ? In December , three nights at the London Astoria ended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue 's lighting rig , causing £ 26 @,@ 000 worth of damage .
James Dean Bradfield and Richey Edwards were due to fly to the United States for media interviews on 1 February 1995 , the day of Edwards ' disappearance , and Bradfield ended up doing this alone . Concerts in US cities as well as in Prague and Vienna had been scheduled for March and April 1995 , but were cancelled .
In late 2014 the band performed the album in full for the first time , at concerts in Glasgow , Manchester , Dublin and London , marking the 20th anniversary of its release . After the tour in the UK , the Manics are going to take The Holy Bible tour to North America , in the spring of 2015 , in April the band played in Washington DC , Toronto , New York , Boston , San Francisco , Los Angeles and Chicago . They also played in the Cardiff Castle with 10 @,@ 000 fans attending the gig , it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales .
= = Legacy = =
The Holy Bible has continued to receive praise in the years following its release , with many British music magazines listing the album among the greatest ever made .
The writers of Melody Maker ranked it 15th on its list of the top 100 albums of all time in 2000 , and Kerrang ! placed it 10th in a similar list five years later . It has also remained popular with the British public – in 2005 it topped a BBC Newsnight poll of viewers ' favourite albums . Readers of Q voted it as the 10th best album released during the magazine 's lifetime in 2001 and as the 18th greatest album ever in 2003 .
In 2011 NME ranked it number 1 in their " 50 Darkest Albums Ever " list . The same magazine placed the album at number 5 in their end of the year list of the best albums of 1994 . In 2003 it was voted on number 37 on NME 's poll of best albums of all time and , more recently , number 44 in their list of the 500 greatest albums ever made . The album is also featured in The Guardian 's list " 1000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die " . At the NME awards 2015 , the album won " Reissue of the Year " for its 20th anniversary edition .
Ben Patashnik of Drowned in Sound later said that the album in the time of its release " didn 't sell very well , but its impact was felt keenly by anyone who 'd ever come into contact with the Manics " , and that it is now a " masterpiece [ ... ] the sound of one man in a close @-@ knit group of friends slowly disintegrating and using his own anguish to create some of the most brilliant art to be released on a large scale as music in years [ ... ] It 's not a suicide note ; it 's a warning . "
The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Richey Edwards ( credited as Richey James ) and Nicky Wire , all music composed by James Dean Bradfield and Sean Moore .
10th Anniversary Edition DVD
" Faster " ( performed on Top of the Pops )
" Faster " ( performed on Butt Naked )
" P.C.P. " ( performed on Butt Naked )
" She Is Suffering " ( performed on Butt Naked )
" 4st 7lb " ( performed on MTV Most Wanted )
" She Is Suffering " ( performed on MTV Most Wanted )
" Faster " ( performed at Glastonbury ' 94 )
" P.C.P. " ( performed at Glastonbury ' 94 )
" Yes " ( performed at Glastonbury ' 94 )
" Revol " ( performed at Reading ' 94 )
" Faster " ( US video )
" Judge Yr 'self " ( video )
Yes ( New Film Made by Patrick Jones )
Band interview
= = Personnel = =
Manic Street Preachers
James Dean Bradfield – lead vocals , lead and rhythm guitar , production
Richey Edwards ( credited as Richey James ) – rhythm guitar , sleeve design , production
Nicky Wire – bass guitar , production
Sean Moore – drums , production
Technical
Steve Brown – production ( " She Is Suffering " )
Alex Silva – engineering
Mark Freegard – mixing
Jenny Saville – front cover painting
Barry Kamen – back cover painting
Octave Mirbeau – author of back cover text ( from The Torture Garden )
Neil Cooper – sleeve photography
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Battle of Nazareth =
The Battle of Nazareth began on 20 September 1918 , during the Battle of Sharon , which together with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought during the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon the Desert Mounted Corps rode to the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon ) 40 and 50 miles ( 64 and 80 km ) behind the front line in the Judean Hills . At Nazareth on the plain , the 13th Cavalry Brigade of the 5th Cavalry Division attempted to capture the town and the headquarters of the Yildirim Army Group which was eventually captured the following day after the garrison had withdrawn .
The Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) attack on Nazareth was made possible by the British Empire infantry attack on 19 September which began the Battle of Sharon . The EEF infantry attacked along an almost continuous front from the Mediterranean Sea , across the Plain of Sharon and into the Judean Hills . The XXI Corps 's British Indian Army infantry captured Tulkarm and the headquarters of the Ottoman Eighth Army . During the course of this attack , the infantry created a gap in the Ottoman front line defences through which the Desert Mounted Corps rode northwards to begin the cavalry phase of the battle . Subsequently the infantry also captured Tabsor , Et Tire and Arara to outflank the Eighth Army . Meanwhile , the Desert Mounted Corps advanced to capture the communications hubs of Afulah , Beisan and Jenin on 20 September , cutting the main Ottoman withdrawal routes along their lines of supply and communications .
The 5th Cavalry Division had been assigned the task of capturing Nazareth , which was the site of the General Headquarters of the Central Powers ' Yildirim Army Group , on 20 September . However , due to the rough and narrow Shushu Pass over the Mount Carmel Range , they were forced to leave behind one brigade and the divisional artillery . Instead of both the 13th and 14th Cavalry Brigades advancing across the Esdrealon Plain to capture the Nazareth , the 14th Cavalry Brigade went directly to Afulah , the objective of the 4th Cavalry Division . By the time the 13th Cavalry Brigade attacked Nazareth , it had been reduced to two squadrons and was not strong enough to capture the Yilderim Army Group headquarters and secure the town . During the attack the German commander of the Yildirim Army Group , Generalleutnant ( Major General ) Otto Liman von Sanders and his senior staff officers escaped . The following day , after the Ottoman garrison retreated , Nazareth was occupied by the 13th Cavalry Brigade .
= = Background = =
Following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attacks by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) in March / April and April / May 1918 , the EEF commanded by General Edmund Allenby occupied the Jordan Valley and the front line , which extended across the Judean Hills to the Mediterranean . Most of the British infantry and yeomanry cavalry regiments were redeployed to the Western Front to counter Ludendorff 's Spring Offensive and were replaced by British India Army infantry and cavalry . As part of reorganisation and training , these newly arrived soldiers carried out a series of attacks on sections of the Ottoman front line during the summer months . These attacks were aimed at pushing the front line to more advantageous positions in preparation for a major attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived India Army infantry . It was not until the middle of September that the consolidated force was ready for large @-@ scale operations . During this time the Occupation of the Jordan Valley continued .
By the afternoon of 19 September , it was clear that the breakthrough attacks in the Battle of Sharon by the XXI Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin had been successful and the XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode was ordered to begin its attack , supported by an artillery barrage , against the well @-@ defended Ottoman front line . The attacks continued until midday on 21 September , when a successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps , combined with the XX Corps assault , forced the Seventh and Eighth Armies to disengage . The Ottoman Seventh Army retreated from the Nablus area towards the River Jordan crossing at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge before the rearguard at Nablus was captured . The Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel advanced through the gap provided by the infantry on 19 September to almost encircle the fighting in the Judean Hills , capturing Nazareth , Haifa , Afulah , Beisan , Jenin and Samakh , before advancing to Tiberias . During this time , Chaytor 's Force commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor captured part of the retreating Ottoman and German column at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge to cut this line of retreat across the Jordan River . To the east of this river , as the Fourth Army began its retreat , Chaytor 's Force advanced to capture Es Salt on 23 September . Amman was captured on 25 September during the Second Battle of Amman when a strong Fourth Army rearguard was defeated there on 25 September .
= = = Deployment = = =
The Desert Mounted Corps , commanded by Chauvel , consisted of the 4th and 5th Cavalry , the Australian Mounted Divisions , less the 5th Light Horse Brigade temporarily attached to the infantry 60th Division , and less the Anzac Mounted Division assigned to Chaytor 's Force . The three cavalry divisions concentrated near Ramleh , Ludd ( Lydda ) and Jaffa , where they dumped surplus equipment in preparation for their advance , before concentrating behind the XXI Corps ' infantry divisions between the Mediterranean coast and the railway line from Ludd to Tulkarm .
Each of the three divisions was made up of three brigades , each with three regiments . The 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions which had transferred from France , consisted of one British yeomanry regiment and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments , one of which was usually lancers . Except the 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade which had three regiments of Indian Imperial Service Troops lancers . Some of the cavalry regiments were armed , in addition to their Lee – Enfield rifles , bayonets and swords , with lances . The 5th Cavalry Division , consisted of three lancer regiments . The Australian Mounted Division consisting of three light horse brigades , each of three regiments consisting of a headquarters and three squadrons ; 522 men and horses in each regiment , was armed with swords , Lee – Enfield rifles and bayonets , while the Anzac Mounted Division detached to Chaytor 's Force , was , and remained throughout the war , only armed with rifles and bayonets . These divisions were supported by machine guns , three batteries from the Royal Horse Artillery or Honourable Artillery Company , and light armoured car units ; two Light Armoured Motor Batteries , and two Light Car Patrols .
By 17 September the Desert Mounted Corps 's leading division , the 5th Cavalry Division , was deployed north @-@ west of Sarona 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the front line . Ready to follow ; the 4th Cavalry Division was located in orange groves to the east of Sarona , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the front , and the Australian Mounted Division was in reserve near Ramleh and Ludd 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the front line . All movement had been restricted to night time culminating in a general move forwards on the night of 18 / 19 September when the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions moved to a position close behind the infantry , while the Australian Mounted Division moved forward to Sarona . The three cavalry divisions concentrated with their supplies carried in massed horse @-@ drawn transport and on long trains of camels . The divisions carried one iron ration and two days ' special emergency rations for each man , and 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) of grain for each horse , all of which were carried on the horses , with an additional day 's grain for the horses carried on the first line transport in limbered wagons .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps objectives = = =
The cavalry divisions were to ride northwards up the coastal Plain of Sharon , then eastwards over the Mount Carmel Range and onto the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon ) , to block the line of retreat of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies fighting the XX and XXI Corps in the Judean Hills . If the Esdraelon Plain could be quickly captured , while the two Ottoman armies continued fighting the British Empire infantry , the lines of retreat by railway and road could be cut . The success of this plan depended on a rapid advance to simultaneously almost encircle the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills and capture Liman von Sanders and the Yilderim Army Group general headquarters . Further , in order to consolidate their success , the cavalry would be required to hold these places for some time . Operating many miles from their base , they would be dependent on rations being quickly and efficiently transported forward from base .
= = = Esdraelon Plain = = =
The lines of supply for the two Ottoman armies fighting in the Judean Hills depended on the main road and railway networks which crossed the Esdraelon Plain . ( See Falls Map 21 Cavalry advances detail below ) The plain stretches from Lejjun in the west , 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the white houses of Nazareth in the foothills of the Galilean Hills in the north , to Afulah in the centre of the plain and on to Beisan on its eastern edge close to the Jordan River , and to Jenin on its south edge at the foot of the Judean Hills .
The main route from the Plain of Sharon to the Esdrealon Plain was across the Mount Carmel Range via the Musmus Pass which enters the plain near Lejjun . This area is dominated by the site of the ancient fortress of Megiddo on Tell al Mutesellim . A small force on this prominent ground could control the routes to the north and across the plain where Egyptians , Romans , Mongols , Arabs , Crusaders and the army of Napoleon had marched and fought . Yet no defensive works had been identified on the plain , or covering the approaches to it , during aerial reconnaissances , except German troops garrisoning Yildirim Army Group headquarters . Liman von Sanders took steps to correct this failure at 12 : 30 on 19 September , by ordering the 13th Depot Regiment at Nazareth and the military police , a total of six companies and twelve machine guns to occupy Lejjun and defend the Esdrealon Plains exit of the Musmus Pass .
= = Prelude = =
" Concentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " Success at the Battle of Megiddo depended on an intense British Empire artillery barrage covering a successful attack on the front line by infantry who were required to also drive a gap in the front line . The gap was required for the cavalry to advance quickly to the Esdraelon Plain , 50 miles ( 80 km ) behind the Ottoman front line , during the first day of battle . The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) were required to win control of the skies by destroying or dominating German aircraft activity and reconnaissances . These two flying arms carried out constant bombing raids on Afulah and the Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus respectively to cut communications with Liman von Sanders at Nazareth .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps advance = = =
During the initial cavalry advance up the coastal Plain of Sharon to Litera on the Nahr el Mefjir , the Desert Mounted Corps were to advance , " strictly disregarding any enemy forces that did not directly bar its path . " Then turning north @-@ east , the cavalry were to cross the Mount Carmel Range through two passes and ride onto the Plain of Esdraelon . The 5th Cavalry Division was to move through the more difficult northern pass from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh , 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ east of Haifa , and on to Nazareth . The 4th Cavalry Division was to follow northwards until they reached the southern pass known as the Musmus Pass which would take them to Lejjun on the plain ; their objective was to capture Afulah . In reserve , the Australian Mounted Division was to follow the 4th Cavalry Division to Lejjun .
= = = = 5th Cavalry Division = = = =
The 5th Cavalry Division consisted of the 13th , 14th and 15th Cavalry Brigades , Essex and Nottinghamshire Batteries , Royal Horse Artillery , 5th Field Squadron , Royal Engineers , 5th Cavalry Division Signal Squadron , the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery and the 7th Light Car Patrol . The division was to lead the advance north riding along the beach under the cover of some cliffs , past the Nahr el Falik on their way through Mukhalid and up the Plain of Sharon . Their advance guard , the 13th Cavalry Brigade and the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery , were on the beach just south of Arsuf when Major General H. J. Macandrew the divisional commander , was informed at 07 : 00 by the 60th Division that Ottoman shelling had ceased south of the Nahr el Faliq , clearing the way for the cavalry . An hour later the 9th Hodson 's Horse leading its brigade , reached Nahr el Faliq , but the horses were " somewhat blown " by their quick journey across the soft sand . Macandrew had seen the speed the 13th Cavalry Brigade set and galloped after them , hoping to slow them down , but could not catch them .
By 10 : 00 the rest of the division had passed the Nahr el Falik . Although the division had been ordered to avoid conflict until they reached the entrenched line near Liktera , leading squadrons attacked 200 Ottoman infantry in a large orchard east of Basse el Hindi . Here they captured about 60 prisoners , two guns and many wagons at the cost of one man killed and two wounded . Another isolated machine gun was captured further north . Near Mukhalid , the 9th Hodson 's Horse outflanked another Ottoman position , and another at Nahr Iskanderun at 10 : 15 . A total of 110 prisoners , 2 artillery pieces and 12 wagons were captured .
The entrenched Ottoman position at Liktera was garrisoned by the Eighth Army Depot Regiment . It stretched from about Jelameh , through El Mejdel and Liktera , to the sea near the mouth of the Nahr Mefjir . Seeing the mounted divisions approaching up the plain , the garrison withdrew to Qaqun where 126 prisoners were later captured by the 4th Cavalry Division . The 5th Cavalry Division crossed the Nahr Iskanderun to arrive at Liktera 10 miles ( 16 km ) north @-@ west of Tulkarm , on the Nahr el Mefjir at 11 : 00 , an hour ahead of schedule . Having ridden 25 miles ( 40 km ) , the horses were fatigued , some being unfit for further service ; the 18th Lancers ( 13th Cavalry Brigade ) destroyed five horses and were forced to leave ten behind . The 9th Hodson 's Horse did not record the number of horses they destroyed or left behind but it was probably more .
The divisions rested here when the men , horses and several hundred Ottoman prisoners were watered and fed . During this time a squadron led by armoured cars went ahead to reconnoitre the track across the Mount Carmel Range from Sindiane through the Abu Shusheh Pass . The reconnaissance group reported the track across the Abu Shusheh pass rough and in a bad repair . Macandrews informed Chauvel that his division would not be ready to move from Liktera before 18 : 15 when the 13th and 14th Cavalry Brigades would advance without wheels to negotiate the pass at night . As a consequence the 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade remained to guard the guns . The artillery and the Jodhpur and 1st Hyderabad Lancers , were to follow at daylight on 20 September , while the Mysore Lancers waited at Liktera for the division 's transport , which they were to guard . Chauvel arrived at Liktera after midnight on 19 / 20 September when he ordered the 15th ( Imperial Service ) Cavalry Brigade to take the 5th Cavalry Division 's guns via J 'ara and Abu Shushe . They arrived at Abu Shusheh at 03 : 00 and rejoin their division at Afulah during the night .
= = = Approach to Nazareth = = =
The 13th and 14th Cavalry Brigades , commanded by Brigadier Generals Kelly and Clarke respectively , successfully rode through the Abu Shusheh Pass during the night of 19 / 20 September without incident . The 18th Lancers , 13th Cavalry Brigade , had taken the vanguard from the 9th Hodson 's Horse , advancing north along Napoleon 's route to Ez Zerganiya 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) north @-@ west of Kerkur to the Wadi Qudrah , which they followed north of Subbarin village . They turned east to enter the Abu Shusheh Pass , moving in single file for most of the way along the rough , narrow track following the Wadi el Fuwar to J 'ara on the northern side of the watershed at 01 : 00 on 20 September . Two squadrons of the 9th Hodson 's Horse were deployed at J 'ara in a rearguard position to defend the pass from an attack from Haifa . The front of the long column reached Abu Shusheh at 02 : 15 where they remained until 03 : 00 while the brigades concentrated . Having entered the Esdrealon Plain they cut a 100 yards ( 91 m ) section of the Haifa to Afulah railway line which was blown up and destroyed .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps plans = = =
Once on the Esdraelon Plain , the objectives of the 5th Cavalry Division were to attack and capture Nazareth , Liman von Sanders and his headquarters 70 miles ( 110 km ) from the Asurf , before clearing the plain to Afulah . Meanwhile , the 4th Cavalry Division 's objective after arriving on the Esdraelon Plan through the Musmus Pass was to capture Afulah . Later the same day , this division was to advance eastwards across the plain , to capture Beisan and occupy the road and railway bridges to the north , over the Jordan River . In particular , they were to hold or destroy the Jisr Mejamieh bridge 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Beisan and 97 miles ( 156 km ) from the front line . In reserve , the Australian Mounted Division was to enter the Esdraelon Plain and occupy Lejjun while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to capture Jenin 68 miles ( 109 km ) from the front line .
= = Battle = =
At daylight a reconnaissance by No. 1 Squadron aircraft reported three British armoured cars halfway across the Esdraelon Plain on their way to Afulah , a cavalry brigade at Lejjun and two brigades just entering the plain advancing on a broad front . The 5th Cavalry Division had ordered the 14th Cavalry Brigade to Afulah . This brigade reached the Afulah to Nazareth road at about 05 : 30 , and at 07 : 15 after attacking a German or Ottoman force , the 20th Deccan Horse captured Afulah railway station and about 300 prisoners . The division 's artillery , which had moved through the Abu Shusheh pass during the morning , rejoin the 5th Cavalry Division at Afulah later in the day .
The 5th Cavalry Division 's remaining brigade ; the 13th Cavalry Brigade reached Nazareth at 05 : 30 , having been weakened by diversions and a number of detachments . One squadron of 9th Hodson 's Horse had lost touch during the night march . Two troops of lancers were clearing the village of Yafa . The 18th Lancers surrounded and captured 200 sleeping Ottoman soldiers in the village of El Mujeidil at 03 : 30 , which they had mistaken for Nazareth . While the rest of the brigade were collecting prisoners , the only unit available to attack Nazareth , the Gloucester Hussars , was ordered to take over the advanced guard and attack Nazareth , closely followed by one squadron and three troops of the 18th Lancers .
= = = Nazareth = = =
Nazareth had a population of 15 @,@ 000 living in homes built at the bottom and on the steep sides of a depression in the Galilean Hills . These homes were dominated by buildings on top of the hills to the north @-@ west , while the roads from Afulah and Haifa winding their way up the steep hillside towards the town , joined 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from Nazareth 's southern edge . On the left of the main road into the town , the Yildirim Army Group 's mess was located in the Hotel Germania , while 500 yards ( 460 m ) further on the General Headquarters and Liman von Sanders offices were in the Monastery of Casa Nuova .
My Cavalry are now in rear of the Turkish Army ... One of my Cavalry Divisions surrounded Liman von Sanders ' Headquarters , at Nazareth , at 03 : 00 today ; but Liman had made a bolt , at 19 : 00 yesterday .
Between 05 : 00 and 05 : 30 on 20 September , the leading troop of the Gloucester Hussars , after riding more than 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) , arrived at Nazareth with swords drawn . They captured many prisoners at the Hotel Germania and a mass of documents were found in houses nearby . Meanwhile , the bulk of Yilderim Army Group 's records were being burned at the Monastery of Casa Nuova . The commander of 13th Cavalry Brigade requested the assistance of the 14th Cavalry Brigade through 5th Cavalry Division 's headquarters at 06 : 50 . He reported the 13th Cavalry Brigade had captured many prisoners and material but that Liman von Sanders had left the evening before . The 14th Cavalry Brigade ( 5th Cavalry Division ) was unable to assist the attack on Nazareth . The brigade had captured 1 @,@ 200 prisoners during their advance southwards to capture Afulah where they joined the leading troops of the 10th Cavalry Brigade ( 4th Cavalry Division ) .
At Nazareth , the initial attack by the Gloucester Hussars was strongly opposed during street fighting . The Congestion created by prisoners was increased by numerous German lorries parked along the narrow streets . As they were continuing their attack , the Gloucester Hussars were fired on by machine guns from the buildings on the high ground to the north @-@ west and from balconies and windows . At 08 : 00 the Gloucester Hussars were reinforced by two squadrons and three troops of the 18th Lancers followed by a squadron of the 9th Hodson 's Horse . They were subsequently counter @-@ attack by German office workers who , despite being almost annihilated by the 13th Cavalry Brigade 's machine guns , held off the British cavalry attack .
At 10 : 55 divisional headquarters replied to the 13th Brigade 's request for assistance that the 14th Cavalry Brigade could not be sent to Nazareth because of " the state of the horses . " The 13th Cavalry Brigade was ordered to withdraw to the north of Afulah , taking with them 1 @,@ 250 prisoners , having ridden 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 22 hours . The Gloucester Hussars suffered 13 men killed and 28 horses and the 9th Hodgson 's Horse suffered 9 men killed . Kelly , the commander of 13th Cavalry Brigade , had failed to capture Nazareth ; failed to force a way through the town to cut the road from Nazareth to Tiberias and failed to capture Liman von Sanders . He was held responsible and lost his command as a result .
= = Aftermath = =
The 13th Cavalry Brigade moved to cut the Nazareth to Tiberias road to the north of the town , before being ordered to return and occupy the town the next morning . By then the German and Ottoman forces had retired towards Tiberias from Nazareth which was occupied without opposition .
The 4th Cavalry Division , which had advanced to capture Beisan in the afternoon of 20 September , now controlled the area north along the River Jordan , while the 5th Cavalry Division garrisoned Afulah and the Nazareth area . Here motor ambulances , which had been working in the Judean Hills , rejoined their division on 22 September . The Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd Light Horse Brigade occupied Jenin . In consequence , all direct routes northwards were now controlled by the Desert Mounted Corps , forcing the retreating Ottoman Seventh Army and what remained of the Eighth Army to withdraw along minor roads and tracks heading eastwards across the Jordan River , towards the Hedjaz railway .
During the first 36 hours of the Battle of Sharon ; between 04 : 30 on 19 September and 17 : 00 on 20 September , the German and Ottoman front line had been cut by infantry and the cavalry had passed through the gap to reach their objectives at Afulah , Nazareth and Beisan . The continuing infantry attack from the south forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth armies in the Judean Hills to withdraw northwards .
By the end of 20 September , the main achievements of the British infantry during the Battle of Tulkarm were the expulsion of the Eighth Army from the coastal Plain of Sharon and the capture the Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm . The 60th Division also captured Anebta in the Judean Hills , while their attached 5th Light Horse Brigade cut the Jenin railway south of Arrabe . During the Battle of Tabsor the 7th ( Meerut ) Division captured the village of Beit Lid and controlled the crossroads at Deir Sheraf .
By this time the Desert Mounted Corps blocked the Seventh Army and what remained of the Eighth Army 's main lines of retreat north from the Judean Hills . A large proportion of a retreating column seen withdrawing from Nablus in the direction of Beisan , would be captured at Jenin after the 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's Capture of Jenin . By dusk 4 @,@ 000 prisoners had been captured and brigade transport following the cavalry divisions was 20 miles ( 32 km ) inside Ottoman territory . After negotiating the heavy sand at Arsuf and at Nahr Iskanderun , the Desert Mounted Corps ' transport wagon train reached Liktera at 09 : 00 on 20 September . They were escorted through the Musmus Pass and arrived at Afulah at noon on 21 September .
Liman von Sanders and his headquarters ' staff escaped by motor vehicle along the road from Nazareth to Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee . From there they drove on to Samakh in the afternoon , where Liman von Sanders organised a strong rearguard which would be attacked by Australian light horse on 25 September during the Battle of Samakh . Liman von Sanders ordered the Samkh garrison , under German command and supported by German machine guns , to prepare for an attack ; they were to fight " to the last man " . During early stages of his journey , Liman von Sanders could not communicate with his armies , leaving the Fourth , Seventh and Eighth Armies without orders or direction .
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= Oklahoma =
Oklahoma / ˌoʊkləˈhoʊmə / ( Cherokee : Asgaya gigageyi / ᎠᏍᎦᏯ ᎩᎦᎨᏱ ; or transliterated from English as ᎣᎦᎳᎰᎹ ( òɡàlàhoma ) , Pawnee : Uukuhuúwa , Cayuga : Gahnawiyoˀgeh ) is a state located in the South Central United States . Oklahoma is the 20th most extensive and the 28th most populous of the 50 United States . The state 's name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma , meaning " red people " . It is also known informally by its nickname , The Sooner State , in reference to the non @-@ Native settlers who staked their claims on the choicest pieces of land before the official opening date , and the Indian Appropriations Act of 1889 , which opened the door for white settlement in America 's Indian Territory . The name was settled upon statehood , Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged and Indian was dropped from the name . On November 16 , 1907 , Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union . Its residents are known as Oklahomans , or informally " Okies " , and its capital and largest city is Oklahoma City .
A major producer of natural gas , oil , and agricultural products , Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation , energy , telecommunications , and biotechnology . In 2007 , it had one of the fastest @-@ growing economies in the United States , ranking among the top states in per capita income growth and gross domestic product growth . Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahoma 's primary economic anchors , with nearly two @-@ thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas .
With small mountain ranges , prairie , mesas , and eastern forests , most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains , Cross Timbers and the U.S. Interior Highlands — a region especially prone to severe weather . In addition to having a prevalence of English , German , Scottish , Scotch @-@ Irish , and Native American ancestry , more than 25 Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma , second only to California .
Oklahoma is located on a confluence of three major American cultural regions and historically served as a route for cattle drives , a destination for southern settlers , and a government @-@ sanctioned territory for Native Americans .
= = Etymology = =
The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma , literally meaning red people . Choctaw Chief Allen Wright suggested the name in 1866 during treaty negotiations with the federal government regarding the use of Indian Territory , in which he envisioned an all @-@ Indian state controlled by the United States Superintendent of Indian Affairs . Equivalent to the English word Indian , okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole . Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory , and it was officially approved in 1890 , two years after the area was opened to white settlers .
= = Geography = =
Oklahoma is the 20th largest state in the United States , covering an area of 69 @,@ 898 square miles ( 181 @,@ 035 km2 ) , with 68 @,@ 667 square miles ( 177847 km2 ) of land and 1 @,@ 281 square miles ( 3 @,@ 188 km2 ) of water . It is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states . It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri , on the north by Kansas , on the northwest by Colorado , on the far west by New Mexico , and on the south and near @-@ west by Texas .
The western edge of the Oklahoma panhandle is out of alignment with its Texas border . The Oklahoma / New Mexico border is actually 2 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 2 miles east of the Texas line . The border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819 . It was then set along the 103rd Meridian . In the 1890s , when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques , it was discovered that the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian . Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819 , and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2 @.@ 2 miles to the east . It was much easier to leave the mistake as it was than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the original surveying error . The placement of the Oklahoma / New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian .
Cimarron County in Oklahoma 's panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states : New Mexico , Texas , Colorado and Kansas .
= = = Topography = = =
Oklahoma is between the Great Plains and the Ozark Plateau in the Gulf of Mexico watershed , generally sloping from the high plains of its western boundary to the low wetlands of its southeastern boundary . Its highest and lowest points follow this trend , with its highest peak , Black Mesa , at 4 @,@ 973 feet ( 1 @,@ 516 m ) above sea level , situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle . The state 's lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel , OK , which dips to 289 feet ( 88 m ) above sea level .
Among the most geographically diverse states , Oklahoma is one of four to harbor more than 10 distinct ecological regions , with 11 in its borders – more per square mile than in any other state . Its western and eastern halves , however , are marked by extreme differences in geographical diversity : Eastern Oklahoma touches eight ecological regions and its western half contains three . Although having fewer ecological regions Western Oklahoma contains many rare , relic species .
Oklahoma has four primary mountain ranges : the Ouachita Mountains , the Arbuckle Mountains , the Wichita Mountains , and the Ozark Mountains . Contained within the U.S. Interior Highlands region , the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains mark the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians . A portion of the Flint Hills stretches into north @-@ central Oklahoma , and near the state 's eastern border , Cavanal Hill is regarded by the Oklahoma Tourism & Recreation Department as the world 's tallest hill ; at 1 @,@ 999 feet ( 609 m ) , it fails their definition of a mountain by one foot .
The semi @-@ arid high plains in the state 's northwestern corner harbor few natural forests ; the region has a rolling to flat landscape with intermittent canyons and mesa ranges like the Glass Mountains . Partial plains interrupted by small , sky island mountain ranges like the Antelope Hills and the Wichita Mountains dot southwestern Oklahoma ; transitional prairie and oak savannahs cover the central portion of the state . The Ozark and Ouachita Mountains rise from west to east over the state 's eastern third , gradually increasing in elevation in an eastward direction .
More than 500 named creeks and rivers make up Oklahoma 's waterways , and with 200 lakes created by dams , it holds the highest number of artificial reservoirs in the nation . Most of the state lies in two primary drainage basins belonging to the Red and Arkansas rivers , though the Lee and Little rivers also contain significant drainage basins .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Forests cover 24 percent of Oklahoma and prairie grasslands composed of shortgrass , mixed @-@ grass , and tallgrass prairie , harbor expansive ecosystems in the state 's central and western portions , although cropland has largely replaced native grasses . Where rainfall is sparse in the western regions of the state , shortgrass prairie and shrublands are the most prominent ecosystems , though pinyon pines , red cedar ( junipers ) , and ponderosa pines grow near rivers and creek beds in the far western reaches of the panhandle . Southwestern Oklahoma contains many rare , disjunct species including sugar maple , bigtooth maple , nolina and southern live oak .
Marshlands , sabal minor , cypress forests and mixtures of shortleaf pine , loblolly pine and deciduous forests dominate the state 's southeastern quarter , while mixtures of largely post oak , elm , red cedar ( Juniperus virginiana ) and pine forests cover northeastern Oklahoma .
The state holds populations of white @-@ tailed deer , mule deer , antelope , coyotes , mountain lions , bobcats , elk , and birds such as quail , doves , cardinals , bald eagles , red @-@ tailed hawks , and pheasants . In prairie ecosystems , American bison , greater prairie chickens , badgers , and armadillo are common , and some of the nation 's largest prairie dog towns inhabit shortgrass prairie in the state 's panhandle . The Cross Timbers , a region transitioning from prairie to woodlands in Central Oklahoma , harbors 351 vertebrate species . The Ouachita Mountains are home to black bear , red fox , grey fox , and river otter populations , which coexist with a total of 328 vertebrate species in southeastern Oklahoma . Also , in southeastern Oklahoma lives the American alligator .
= = = Protected lands = = =
Oklahoma has 50 state parks , six national parks or protected regions , two national protected forests or grasslands , and a network of wildlife preserves and conservation areas . Six percent of the state 's 10 million acres ( 40 @,@ 000 km2 ) of forest is public land , including the western portions of the Ouachita National Forest , the largest and oldest national forest in the Southern United States .
With 39 @,@ 000 acres ( 158 km2 ) , the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in north @-@ central Oklahoma is the largest protected area of tallgrass prairie in the world and is part of an ecosystem that encompasses only 10 percent of its former land area , once covering 14 states . In addition , the Black Kettle National Grassland covers 31 @,@ 300 acres ( 127 km2 ) of prairie in southwestern Oklahoma . The Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge is the oldest and largest of nine national wildlife refuges in the state and was founded in 1901 , encompassing 59 @,@ 020 acres ( 238 @.@ 8 km2 ) .
Of Oklahoma 's federally protected park or recreational sites ; the Chickasaw National Recreation Area is the largest , with 9 @,@ 898 @.@ 63 acres ( 18 km2 ) . Other sites include the Santa Fe and Trail of Tears national historic trails , the Fort Smith and Washita Battlefield national historic sites , and the Oklahoma City National Memorial .
= = = Climate = = =
Oklahoma is located in a humid subtropical region . Oklahoma lies in a transition zone between humid continental climate to the north , semi @-@ arid climate to the west , and humid subtropical climate in the central , south and eastern portions of the state . Most of the state lies in an area known as Tornado Alley characterized by frequent interaction between cold , dry air from Canada , warm to hot , dry air from Mexico and the Southwestern U.S. , and warm , moist air from the Gulf of Mexico . The interactions between these three contrasting air currents produces severe weather ( severe thunderstorms , damaging thunderstorm winds , large hail and tornadoes ) with a frequency virtually unseen anywhere else on planet Earth . An average 62 tornadoes strike the state per year — one of the highest rates in the world .
Because of Oklahoma 's position between zones of differing prevailing temperature and winds , weather patterns within the state can vary widely over relatively short distances and can change drastically in a short time . As an example , on November 11 , 1911 , the temperature at Oklahoma City reached 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) in the afternoon ( the record high for that date ) , then an Arctic cold front of unprecedented intensity slammed across the state , causing the temperature to crash 66 degrees , down to 17 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) at midnight ( the record low for that date ) ; thus , both the record high and record low for November 11 were set on the same date . This type of phenomenon is also responsible for many of the tornadoes in the area , such as the 1912 Oklahoma tornado outbreak , when a warm front traveled along a stalled cold front , resulting in an average of about one tornado per hour over the course of a day .
The humid subtropical climate ( Koppen Cfa ) of central , southern and eastern Oklahoma is influenced heavily by southerly winds bringing moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Traveling westward , the climate transitions progressively toward a semi @-@ arid zone ( Koppen BSk ) in the high plains of the Panhandle and other western areas from about Lawton westward , less frequently touched by southern moisture . Precipitation and temperatures decline from east to west accordingly , with areas in the southeast averaging an annual temperature of 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) and an annual rainfall of generally over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 020 mm ) and up to 56 inches ( 1 @,@ 420 mm ) , while areas of the ( higher @-@ elevation ) panhandle average 58 ° F ( 14 ° C ) , with an annual rainfall under 17 inches ( 430 mm ) .
Over almost all of Oklahoma , winter is the driest season . Average monthly precipitation increases dramatically in the spring to a peak in May , the wettest month over most of the state , with its frequent and not uncommonly severe thunderstorm activity . Early June can still be wet , but most years see a marked decrease in rainfall during June and early July . Mid @-@ summer ( July and August ) represents a secondary dry season over much of Oklahoma , with long stretches of hot weather with only sporadic thunderstorm activity not uncommon many years . Severe drought is common in the hottest summers , such as those of 1934 , 1954 , 1980 and 2011 , all of which featured weeks on end of virtual rainlessness and high temperatures well over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Average precipitation rises again from September to mid @-@ October , representing a secondary wetter season , then declines from late October through December .
All of the state frequently experiences temperatures above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) , though below @-@ zero temperatures are rare in south @-@ central and southeastern Oklahoma . Snowfall ranges from an average of less than 4 inches ( 10 cm ) in the south to just over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) on the border of Colorado in the panhandle . The state is home to the Storm Prediction Center , the National Severe Storms Laboratory , and the Warning Decision Training Branch , all part of the National Weather Service and located in Norman . Oklahoma 's highest recorded temperature of 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) was recorded at Tipton on June 27 , 1994 and the lowest recorded temperature of − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) was recorded at Nowata on February 10 , 2011 .
= = History = =
Evidence exists that native peoples traveled through Oklahoma as early as the last ice age . Ancestors of the Wichita and Caddo lived in what is now Oklahoma . The Panhandle culture peoples were precontact residents of the panhandle region . The westernmost center of the Mississippian culture was Spiro Mounds , in what is now Spiro , Oklahoma , which flourished between AD 850 and 1450 . Spaniard Francisco Vásquez de Coronado traveled through the state in 1541 , but French explorers claimed the area in the 1700s and it remained under French rule until 1803 , when all the French territory west of the Mississippi River was purchased by the United States in the Louisiana Purchase .
The territory now known as Oklahoma was first a part of the Arkansas Territory from 1819 until 1828 .
During the 19th century , thousands of Native Americans were expelled from their ancestral homelands from across North America and transported to the area including and surrounding present @-@ day Oklahoma . The Choctaw was the first of the Five Civilized Tribes to be removed from the southeastern United States . The phrase " Trail of Tears " originated from a description of the removal of the Choctaw Nation in 1831 , although the term is usually used for the Cherokee removal .
A total of 17 @,@ 000 Cherokees and 2 @,@ 000 of their black slaves were deported . The area , already occupied by Osage and Quapaw tribes , was called for the Choctaw Nation until revised Native American and then later American policy redefined the boundaries to include other Native Americans . By 1890 , more than 30 Native American nations and tribes had been concentrated on land within Indian Territory or " Indian Country " .
All Five Civilized Tribes supported and signed treaties with the Confederate military during the American Civil War . The Cherokee Nation had an internal civil war . Slavery in Indian Territory was not abolished until 1866 .
In the period between 1866 and 1899 , cattle ranches in Texas strove to meet the demands for food in eastern cities and railroads in Kansas promised to deliver in a timely manner . Cattle trails and cattle ranches developed as cowboys either drove their product north or settled illegally in Indian Territory . In 1881 , four of five major cattle trails on the western frontier traveled through Indian Territory .
Increased presence of white settlers in Indian Territory prompted the United States Government to establish the Dawes Act in 1887 , which divided the lands of individual tribes into allotments for individual families , encouraging farming and private land ownership among Native Americans but expropriating land to the federal government . In the process , railroad companies took nearly half of Indian @-@ held land within the territory for outside settlers and for purchase .
Major land runs , including the Land Run of 1889 , were held for settlers where certain territories were opened to settlement starting at a precise time . Usually land was open to settlers on a first come first served basis . Those who broke the rules by crossing the border into the territory before the official opening time were said to have been crossing the border sooner , leading to the term sooners , which eventually became the state 's official nickname .
Deliberations to make the territory into a state began near the end of the 19th century , when the Curtis Act continued the allotment of Indian tribal land .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
Attempts to create an all @-@ Indian state named Oklahoma and a later attempt to create an all @-@ Indian state named Sequoyah failed but the Sequoyah Statehood Convention of 1905 eventually laid the groundwork for the Oklahoma Statehood Convention , which took place two years later . On November 16 , 1907 , Oklahoma was established as the 46th state in the Union .
The new state became a focal point for the emerging oil industry , as discoveries of oil pools prompted towns to grow rapidly in population and wealth . Tulsa eventually became known as the " Oil Capital of the World " for most of the 20th century and oil investments fueled much of the state 's early economy . In 1927 , Oklahoman businessman Cyrus Avery , known as the " Father of Route 66 " , began the campaign to create U.S. Route 66 . Using a stretch of highway from Amarillo , Texas to Tulsa , Oklahoma to form the original portion of Highway 66 , Avery spearheaded the creation of the U.S. Highway 66 Association to oversee the planning of Route 66 , based in his hometown of Tulsa .
Oklahoma also has a rich African American history . There were many black towns that thrived in the early 20th century because of black settlers moving from neighboring states , especially Kansas . The politician Edward P. McCabe encouraged black settlers to come to what was then Indian Territory . He discussed with President Theodore Roosevelt the possibility of making Oklahoma a majority @-@ black state .
By the early 20th century , the Greenwood neighborhood of Tulsa was one of the most prosperous African @-@ American communities in the United States . Jim Crow laws had established racial segregation since before the start of the 20th century , but the blacks had created a thriving area .
Social tensions were exacerbated by the revival of the Ku Klux Klan after 1915 . The Tulsa Race Riot broke out in 1921 , with whites attacking blacks . In one of the costliest episodes of racial violence in American history , sixteen hours of rioting resulted in 35 city blocks destroyed , $ 1 @.@ 8 million in property damage , and a death toll estimated to be as high as 300 people . By the late 1920s , the Ku Klux Klan had declined to negligible influence within the state .
During the 1930s , parts of the state began suffering the consequences of poor farming practices , extended drought and high winds . Known as the Dust Bowl , areas of Kansas , Texas , New Mexico and northwestern Oklahoma were hampered by long periods of little rainfall and abnormally high temperatures , sending thousands of farmers into poverty and forcing them to relocate to more fertile areas of the western United States . Over a twenty @-@ year period ending in 1950 , the state saw its only historical decline in population , dropping 6 @.@ 9 percent as impoverished families migrated out of the state after the Dust Bowl .
Soil and water conservation projects markedly changed practices in the state and led to the construction of massive flood control systems and dams ; they built hundreds of reservoirs and man @-@ made lakes to supply water for domestic needs and agricultural irrigation . By the 1960s , Oklahoma had created more than 200 lakes , the most in the nation .
In 1995 , Oklahoma City was the site of one of the most destructive acts of domestic terrorism in American history . The Oklahoma City bombing of April 19 , 1995 , in which Timothy McVeigh detonated a large , crude explosive device outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building , killed 168 people , including 19 children . For his crime , McVeigh was executed by the federal government on June 11 , 2001 . His accomplice , Terry Nichols , is serving life in prison without parole for helping plan the attack and prepare the explosive .
On May 31 , 2016 , several cities experienced record setting flooding .
= = Demographics = =
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Oklahoma was 3 @,@ 911 @,@ 338 on July 1 , 2015 , a 4 @.@ 26 % increase since the 2010 United States Census .
At the 2010 Census , 68 @.@ 7 % of the population was non @-@ Hispanic White , down from 88 % in 1970 , 7 @.@ 3 % non @-@ Hispanic Black or African American , 8 @.@ 2 % non @-@ Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native , 1 @.@ 7 % non @-@ Hispanic Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % non @-@ Hispanic Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 1 % from some other race ( non @-@ Hispanic ) and 5 @.@ 1 % of two or more races ( non @-@ Hispanic ) . 8 @.@ 9 % of Oklahoma 's population was of Hispanic , Latino , or Spanish origin ( they may be of any race ) .
As of 2011 , 47 @.@ 3 % of Oklahoma 's population younger than age 1 were minorities , meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non @-@ Hispanic white .
As of 2008 Oklahoma had a population of 3 @,@ 642 @,@ 361 with an estimated 2005 ancestral makeup of 14 @.@ 5 % German , 13 @.@ 1 % American , 11 @.@ 8 % Irish , 9 @.@ 6 % English , 8 @.@ 1 % African American , and 11 @.@ 4 % Native American ( including 7 @.@ 9 % Cherokee ) though the percentage of people claiming American Indian as their only race was 8 @.@ 1 % . Most people from Oklahoma who self @-@ identify as having American ancestry are of overwhelmingly English ancestry with significant amounts of Scottish and Welsh inflection as well .
The state had the second @-@ highest number of Native Americans in 2002 , estimated at 395 @,@ 219 , as well as the second highest percentage among all states . As of 2006 , 4 @.@ 7 % of Oklahoma 's residents were foreign born , compared to 12 @.@ 4 % for the nation . The center of population of Oklahoma is located in Lincoln County near the town of Sparks .
The state 's 2006 per capita personal income ranked 37th at $ 32 @,@ 210 , though it has the third fastest @-@ growing per capita income in the nation and ranks consistently among the lowest states in cost of living index . The Oklahoma City suburb Nichols Hills is first on Oklahoma locations by per capita income at $ 73 @,@ 661 , though Tulsa County holds the highest average . In 2011 , 7 @.@ 0 % of Oklahomans were under the age of 5 , 24 @.@ 7 % under 18 , and 13 @.@ 7 % were 65 or older . Females made up 50 @.@ 5 % of the population .
= = = Language = = =
The English language has been official in the state of Oklahoma since 2010 . The variety of North American English spoken is called Oklahoma English , and this dialect is quite diverse with its uneven blending of features of North Midland , South Midland , and Southern dialects . In 2000 , 2 @,@ 977 @,@ 187 Oklahomans — 92 @.@ 6 % of the resident population five years or older — spoke only English at home , a decrease from 95 % in 1990 . 238 @,@ 732 Oklahoma residents reported speaking a language other than English in the 2000 census , about 7 @.@ 4 % of the total population of the state . Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language in the state , with 141 @,@ 060 speakers counted in 2000 . The most commonly spoken native North American language is Cherokee , with 10 @,@ 000 speakers living within the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area of eastern Oklahoma . Cherokee is an official language in the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area and in the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians .
German has 13 @,@ 444 speakers representing about 0 @.@ 4 % of the total state population , and Vietnamese is spoken by 11 @,@ 330 people , or about 0 @.@ 4 % of the population , many of whom live in the Asia District of Oklahoma City . Other languages include French with 8 @,@ 258 speakers ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) , Chinese with 6 @,@ 413 ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) , Korean with 3 @,@ 948 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) , Arabic with 3 @,@ 265 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) , other Asian languages with 3 @,@ 134 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) , Tagalog with 2 @,@ 888 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) , Japanese with 2 @,@ 546 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) , and African languages with 2 @,@ 546 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) . In addition to Cherokee , more than 25 Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma , second only to California ( though , it should be noted that only Cherokee exhibits language vitality at present ) .
= = = Religion = = =
Oklahoma is part of a geographical region characterized by conservative and Evangelical Christianity known as the " Bible Belt " . Spanning the southern and eastern parts of the United States , the area is known for politically and socially conservative views , even though Oklahoma has more voters registered with the Democratic Party than with any other party . Tulsa , the state 's second largest city , home to Oral Roberts University , is sometimes called the " buckle of the Bible Belt " . According to the Pew Research Center , the majority of Oklahoma 's religious adherents are Christian , accounting for about 80 percent of the population . The percentage of Oklahomans affiliated with Catholicism is half of the national average , while the percentage affiliated with Evangelical Protestantism is more than twice the national average – tied with Arkansas for the largest percentage of any state .
In 2010 , the state 's largest church memberships were in the Southern Baptist Convention ( 886 @,@ 394 members ) , the United Methodist Church ( 282 @,@ 347 ) , the Roman Catholic Church ( 178 @,@ 430 ) , and the Assemblies of God ( 85 @,@ 926 ) . Other religions represented in the state include Buddhism , Hinduism , and Islam .
In 2000 , there were about 5 @,@ 000 Jews and 6 @,@ 000 Muslims , with 10 congregations to each group .
Oklahoma religious makeup :
Evangelical Protestant – 53 %
Mainline Protestant – 16 %
Roman Catholic – 13 %
Other – 6 %
Unaffiliated – 12 %
= = Economy = =
Oklahoma is host to a diverse range of sectors including aviation , energy , transportation equipment , food processing , electronics , and telecommunications . Oklahoma is an important producer of natural gas , aircraft , and food . The state ranks third in the nation for production of natural gas , is the 27th @-@ most agriculturally productive state , and also ranks 5th in production of wheat . Four Fortune 500 companies and six Fortune 1000 companies are headquartered in Oklahoma , and it has been rated one of the most business @-@ friendly states in the nation , with the 7th @-@ lowest tax burden in 2007 .
In 2010 , Oklahoma City @-@ based Love 's Travel Stops & Country Stores ranked 18th on the Forbes list of largest private companies , Tulsa @-@ based QuikTrip ranked 37th , and Oklahoma City @-@ based Hobby Lobby ranked 198th in 2010 report . Oklahoma 's gross domestic product grew from $ 131 @.@ 9 billion in 2006 to $ 147 @.@ 5 billion in 2010 , a jump of 10 @.@ 6 percent . Oklahoma 's gross domestic product per capita was $ 35 @,@ 480 in 2010 , which was ranked 40th among the states .
Though oil has historically dominated the state 's economy , a collapse in the energy industry during the 1980s led to the loss of nearly 90 @,@ 000 energy @-@ related jobs between 1980 and 2000 , severely damaging the local economy . Oil accounted for 35 billion dollars in Oklahoma 's economy in 2007 , and employment in the state 's oil industry was outpaced by five other industries in 2007 . As of September 2015 , the state 's unemployment rate is 4 @.@ 4 % .
= = = Industry = = =
In mid @-@ 2011 , Oklahoma had a civilian labor force of 1 @.@ 7 million and total non @-@ farm employment fluctuated around 1 @.@ 5 million . The government sector provides the most jobs , with 339 @,@ 300 in 2011 , followed by the transportation and utilities sector , providing 279 @,@ 500 jobs , and the sectors of education , business , and manufacturing , providing 207 @,@ 800 , 177 @,@ 400 , and 132 @,@ 700 jobs , respectively . Among the state 's largest industries , the aerospace sector generates $ 11 billion annually .
Tulsa is home to the largest airline maintenance base in the world , which serves as the global maintenance and engineering headquarters for American Airlines . In total , aerospace accounts for more than 10 percent of Oklahoma 's industrial output , and it is one of the top 10 states in aerospace engine manufacturing . Because of its position in the center of the United States , Oklahoma is also among the top states for logistic centers , and a major contributor to weather @-@ related research .
The state is the top manufacturer of tires in North America and contains one of the fastest @-@ growing biotechnology industries in the nation . In 2005 , international exports from Oklahoma 's manufacturing industry totaled $ 4 @.@ 3 billion , accounting for 3 @.@ 6 percent of its economic impact . Tire manufacturing , meat processing , oil and gas equipment manufacturing , and air conditioner manufacturing are the state 's largest manufacturing industries .
= = = Energy = = =
Oklahoma is the nation 's third @-@ largest producer of natural gas , fifth @-@ largest producer of crude oil , and has the second @-@ greatest number of active drilling rigs , and ranks fifth in crude oil reserves . While the state ranked eighth for installed wind energy capacity in 2011 , it is at the bottom of states in usage of renewable energy , with 94 percent of its electricity being generated by non @-@ renewable sources in 2009 , including 25 percent from coal and 46 percent from natural gas . Oklahoma has no nuclear power . Ranking 13th for total energy consumption per capita in 2009 , Oklahoma 's energy costs were 8th lowest in the nation .
As a whole , the oil energy industry contributes $ 35 billion to Oklahoma 's gross domestic product , and employees of Oklahoma oil @-@ related companies earn an average of twice the state 's typical yearly income . In 2009 , the state had 83 @,@ 700 commercial oil wells churning 65 @.@ 374 million barrels ( 10 @,@ 393 @,@ 600 m3 ) of crude oil . Eight and a half percent of the nation 's natural gas supply is held in Oklahoma , with 1 @.@ 673 trillion cubic feet ( 47 @.@ 4 km3 ) being produced in 2009 .
According to Forbes magazine , Oklahoma City @-@ based Devon Energy Corporation , Chesapeake Energy Corporation , and SandRidge Energy Corporation are the largest private oil @-@ related companies in the nation , and all of Oklahoma 's Fortune 500 companies are energy @-@ related . Tulsa 's ONEOK and Williams Companies are the state 's largest and second @-@ largest companies respectively , also ranking as the nation 's second and third @-@ largest companies in the field of energy , according to Fortune magazine . The magazine also placed Devon Energy as the second @-@ largest company in the mining and crude oil @-@ producing industry in the nation , while Chesapeake Energy ranks seventh respectively in that sector and Oklahoma Gas & Electric ranks as the 25th @-@ largest gas and electric utility company .
Oklahoma Gas & Electric , commonly referred to as OG & E ( NYSE : OGE ) operates four base electric power plants in Oklahoma . Two of them are coal @-@ fired power plants : one in Muskogee , and the other in Redrock . Two are gas @-@ fired power plants : one in Harrah and the other in Konawa . OG & E was the first electric company in Oklahoma to generate electricity from wind farms in 2003 .
= = = = Wind generation = = = =
Source :
= = = Agriculture = = =
The 27th @-@ most agriculturally productive state , Oklahoma is fifth in cattle production and fifth in production of wheat . Approximately 5 @.@ 5 percent of American beef comes from Oklahoma , while the state produces 6 @.@ 1 percent of American wheat , 4 @.@ 2 percent of American pig products , and 2 @.@ 2 percent of dairy products .
The state had 85 @,@ 500 farms in 2012 , collectively producing $ 4 @.@ 3 billion in animal products and fewer than one billion dollars in crop output with more than $ 6 @.@ 1 billion added to the state 's gross domestic product . Poultry and swine are its second and third @-@ largest agricultural industries .
= = Culture = =
Oklahoma is placed in the South by the United States Census Bureau , but lies fully or partially in the Midwest , Southwest , and southern cultural regions by varying definitions , and partially in the Upland South and Great Plains by definitions of abstract geographical @-@ cultural regions . Oklahomans have a high rate of English , Scotch @-@ Irish , German , and Native American ancestry , with 25 different native languages spoken .
Because many Native Americans were forced to move to Oklahoma when White settlement in North America increased , Oklahoma has much linguistic diversity . Mary Linn , an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Oklahoma and the associate curator of Native American languages at the Sam Noble Museum , notes that Oklahoma also has high levels of language endangerment .
Six governments have claimed the area now known as Oklahoma at different times , and 67 Native American tribes are represented in Oklahoma , including 39 federally recognized tribes , who are headquartered and have tribal jurisdictional areas in the state . Western ranchers , Native American tribes , southern settlers , and eastern oil barons have shaped the state 's cultural predisposition , and its largest cities have been named among the most underrated cultural destinations in the United States .
Residents of Oklahoma are associated with traits of southern hospitality – the 2006 Catalogue for Philanthropy ( with data from 2004 ) ranks Oklahomans 7th in the nation for overall generosity . The state has also been associated with a negative cultural stereotype first popularized by John Steinbeck 's novel The Grapes of Wrath , which described the plight of uneducated , poverty @-@ stricken Dust Bowl @-@ era farmers deemed " Okies " . However , the term is often used in a positive manner by Oklahomans .
= = = Arts and theater = = =
In the state 's largest urban areas , pockets of jazz culture flourish , and Native American , Mexican American , and Asian American communities produce music and art of their respective cultures . The Oklahoma Mozart Festival in Bartlesville is one of the largest classical music festivals on the southern plains , and Oklahoma City 's Festival of the Arts has been named one of the top fine arts festivals in the nation .
The state has a rich history in ballet with five Native American ballerinas attaining worldwide fame . These were Yvonne Chouteau , sisters Marjorie and Maria Tallchief , Rosella Hightower and Moscelyne Larkin , known collectively as the Five Moons . The New York Times rates the Tulsa Ballet as one of the top ballet companies in the United States . The Oklahoma City Ballet and University of Oklahoma 's dance program were formed by ballerina Yvonne Chouteau and husband Miguel Terekhov . The University program was founded in 1962 and was the first fully accredited program of its kind in the United States .
In Sand Springs , an outdoor amphitheater called " Discoveryland ! " is the official performance headquarters for the musical Oklahoma ! Ridge Bond , native of McAlester , Oklahoma , starred in the Broadway and International touring productions of Oklahoma ! , playing the role of " Curly McClain " in more than 2 @,@ 600 performances . In 1953 he was featured along with the Oklahoma ! cast on a CBS Omnibus television broadcast . Bond was instrumental in the title song becoming the Oklahoma state song and is also featured on the U.S. postage stamp commemorating the musical 's 50th anniversary . Historically , the state has produced musical styles such as The Tulsa Sound and western swing , which was popularized at Cain 's Ballroom in Tulsa . The building , known as the " Carnegie Hall of Western Swing " , served as the performance headquarters of Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys during the 1930s . Stillwater is known as the epicenter of Red Dirt music , the best @-@ known proponent of which is the late Bob Childers .
Prominent theatre companies in Oklahoma include , in the capital city , Oklahoma City Theatre Company , Carpenter Square Theatre , Oklahoma Shakespeare in the Park , and CityRep . CityRep is a professional company affording equity points to those performers and technical theatre professionals . In Tulsa , Oklahoma 's oldest resident professional company is American Theatre Company , and Theatre Tulsa is the oldest community theatre company west of the Mississippi . Other companies in Tulsa include Heller Theatre and Tulsa Spotlight Theater . The cities of Norman , Lawton , and Stillwater , among others , also host well @-@ reviewed community theatre companies .
Oklahoma is in the nation 's middle percentile in per capita spending on the arts , ranking 17th , and contains more than 300 museums . The Philbrook Museum of Tulsa is considered one of the top 50 fine art museums in the United States , and the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History in Norman , one of the largest university @-@ based art and history museums in the country , documents the natural history of the region . The collections of Thomas Gilcrease are housed in the Gilcrease Museum of Tulsa , which also holds the world 's largest , most comprehensive collection of art and artifacts of the American West .
The Egyptian art collection at the Mabee @-@ Gerrer Museum of Art in Shawnee is considered to be the finest Egyptian collection between Chicago and Los Angeles . The Oklahoma City Museum of Art contains the most comprehensive collection of glass sculptures by artist Dale Chihuly in the world , and Oklahoma City 's National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum documents the heritage of the American Western frontier . With remnants of the Holocaust and artifacts relevant to Judaism , the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art of Tulsa preserves the largest collection of Jewish art in the Southwest United States .
= = = Festivals and events = = =
Oklahoma 's centennial celebration was named the top event in the United States for 2007 by the American Bus Association , and consisted of multiple celebrations saving with the 100th anniversary of statehood on November 16 , 2007 . Annual ethnic festivals and events take place throughout the state such as Native American powwows and ceremonial events , and include festivals ( as examples ) in Scottish , Irish , German , Italian , Vietnamese , Chinese , Czech , Jewish , Arab , Mexican and African @-@ American communities depicting cultural heritage or traditions .
During a 10 @-@ day run in Oklahoma City , the State Fair of Oklahoma attracts roughly one million people along with the annual Festival of the Arts . Large national pow @-@ wows , various Latin and Asian heritage festivals , and cultural festivals such as the Juneteenth celebrations are held in Oklahoma City each year . The Tulsa State Fair attracts over one million people during its 10 @-@ day run , and the city 's Mayfest festival entertained more than 375 @,@ 000 people in four days during 2007 . In 2006 , Tulsa 's Oktoberfest was named one of the top 10 in the world by USA Today and one of the top German food festivals in the nation by Bon Appetit magazine .
Norman plays host to the Norman Music Festival , a festival that highlights native Oklahoma bands and musicians . Norman is also host to the Medieval Fair of Norman , which has been held annually since 1976 and was Oklahoma 's first medieval fair . The Fair was held first on the south oval of the University of Oklahoma campus and in the third year moved to the Duck Pond in Norman until the Fair became too big and moved to Reaves Park in 2003 . The Medieval Fair of Norman is Oklahoma 's " largest weekend event and the third largest event in Oklahoma , and was selected by Events Media Network as one of the top 100 events in the nation " .
= = Education = =
With an educational system made up of public school districts and independent private institutions , Oklahoma had 638 @,@ 817 students enrolled in 1 @,@ 845 public primary , secondary , and vocational schools in 533 school districts as of 2008 . Oklahoma has the highest enrollment of Native American students in the nation with 126 @,@ 078 students in the 2009 @-@ 10 school year . Ranked near the bottom of states in expenditures per student , Oklahoma spent $ 7 @,@ 755 for each student in 2008 , 47th in the nation , though its growth of total education expenditures between 1992 and 2002 ranked 22nd .
The state is among the best in pre @-@ kindergarten education , and the National Institute for Early Education Research rated it first in the United States with regard to standards , quality , and access to pre @-@ kindergarten education in 2004 , calling it a model for early childhood schooling . High school dropout rate decreased from 3 @.@ 1 to 2 @.@ 5 percent between 2007 and 2008 with Oklahoma ranked among 18 other states with 3 percent or less dropout rate . In 2004 , the state ranked 36th in the nation for the relative number of adults with high school diplomas , though at 85 @.@ 2 percent , it had the highest rate among southern states .
Oklahoma State University , the University of Oklahoma , the University of Central Oklahoma , and Northeastern State University are the largest public institutions of higher education in Oklahoma , operating through one primary campus and satellite campuses throughout the state . The two state universities , along with Oklahoma City University and the University of Tulsa , rank among the country 's best in undergraduate business programs .
Oklahoma City University School of Law , University of Oklahoma College of Law , and University of Tulsa College of Law are the state 's only ABA accredited institutions . Both University of Oklahoma and University of Tulsa are Tier 1 institutions , with the University of Oklahoma ranked 68th and the University of Tulsa ranked 86th in the nation .
Oklahoma holds eleven public regional universities , including Northeastern State University , the second @-@ oldest institution of higher education west of the Mississippi River , also containing the only College of Optometry in Oklahoma and the largest enrollment of Native American students in the nation by percentage and amount . Langston University is Oklahoma 's only historically black college . Six of the state 's universities were placed in the Princeton Review 's list of best 122 regional colleges in 2007 , and three made the list of top colleges for best value . The state has 55 post @-@ secondary technical institutions operated by Oklahoma 's CareerTech program for training in specific fields of industry or trade .
In the 2007 – 2008 school year , there were 181 @,@ 973 undergraduate students , 20 @,@ 014 graduate students , and 4 @,@ 395 first @-@ professional degree students enrolled in Oklahoma colleges . Of these students , 18 @,@ 892 received a bachelor 's degree , 5 @,@ 386 received a master 's degree , and 462 received a first professional degree . This means the state of Oklahoma produces an average of 38 @,@ 278 degree @-@ holders per completions component ( i.e. July 1 , 2007 – June 30 , 2008 ) . National average is 68 @,@ 322 total degrees awarded per completions component .
= = = Non @-@ English Education = = =
The Cherokee Nation instigated a 10 @-@ year language preservation plan that involved growing new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home . This plan was part of an ambitious goal that in 50 years , 80 % or more of the Cherokee people will be fluent in the language . The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $ 3 million into opening schools , training teachers , and developing curricula for language education , as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used . There is a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah , Oklahoma that educates students from pre @-@ school through eighth grade . Graduates are fluent speakers of the language . Several universities offer Cherokee as a second language , including the University of Oklahoma and Northeastern State University .
= = Sports = =
Oklahoma has teams in basketball , football , arena football , baseball , soccer , hockey , and wrestling located in Oklahoma City , Tulsa , Enid , Norman , and Lawton . The Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) is the state 's only major league sports franchise . The state had a team in the Women 's National Basketball Association , the Tulsa Shock , from 2010 through 2015 , but the team relocated to Dallas – Fort Worth after that season and became the Dallas Wings . Oklahoma supports teams in several minor leagues , including Minor League Baseball at the AAA and AA levels ( Oklahoma City Dodgers and Tulsa Drillers , respectively ) , hockey 's ECHL with the Tulsa Oilers , and a number of indoor football leagues . In the last @-@ named sport , the state 's most notable team was the Tulsa Talons , which played in the Arena Football League until 2012 , when the team was moved to San Antonio . The Oklahoma Defenders replaced the Talons as Tulsa 's only professional arena football team , playing the CPIFL . The Oklahoma City Blue , of the NBA Development League , relocated to Oklahoma City from Tulsa in 2014 , where they were formerly known as the Tulsa 66ers . Tulsa is the base for the Tulsa Revolution , which plays in the American Indoor Soccer League . Enid and Lawton host professional basketball teams in the USBL and the CBA .
The NBA 's New Orleans Hornets became the first major league sports franchise based in Oklahoma when the team was forced to relocate to Oklahoma City 's Ford Center , now known as Chesapeake Energy Arena , for two seasons following Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . In July 2008 , the Seattle SuperSonics , a franchise owned by the Professional Basketball Club LLC , a group of Oklahoma City businessmen led by Clay Bennett , relocated to Oklahoma City and announced that play would begin at the Ford Center as the Oklahoma City Thunder for the 2008 – 09 season , becoming the state 's first permanent major league franchise .
Collegiate athletics are a popular draw in the state . The state has four schools that compete at the highest level of college sports , NCAA Division I. The most prominent are the state 's two members of the Big 12 Conference , one of the so @-@ called Power Five conferences of the top tier of college football , Division I FBS . The University of Oklahoma and Oklahoma State University average well over 50 @,@ 000 fans attending their football games , and Oklahoma 's football program ranked 12th in attendance among American colleges in 2010 , with an average of 84 @,@ 738 people attending its home games . The two universities meet several times each year in rivalry matches known as the Bedlam Series , which are some of the greatest sporting draws to the state . Sports Illustrated magazine rates Oklahoma and Oklahoma State among the top colleges for athletics in the nation . Two private institutions in Tulsa , the University of Tulsa and Oral Roberts University ; are also Division I members . Tulsa competes in FBS football and other sports in the American Athletic Conference , while Oral Roberts , which does not sponsor football , is a member of The Summit League . In addition , 12 of the state 's smaller colleges and universities compete in NCAA Division II as members of four different conferences , and eight other Oklahoma institutions participate in the NAIA , mostly within the Sooner Athletic Conference .
Regular LPGA tournaments are held at Cedar Ridge Country Club in Tulsa , and major championships for the PGA or LPGA have been played at Southern Hills Country Club in Tulsa , Oak Tree Country Club in Oklahoma City , and Cedar Ridge Country Club in Tulsa . Rated one of the top golf courses in the nation , Southern Hills has hosted four PGA Championships , including one in 2007 , and three U.S. Opens , the most recent in 2001 . Rodeos are popular throughout the state , and Guymon , in the state 's panhandle , hosts one of the largest in the nation .
= = = Current teams = = =
= = Health = =
Oklahoma was the 21st @-@ largest recipient of medical funding from the federal government in 2005 , with health @-@ related federal expenditures in the state totaling $ 75 @,@ 801 @,@ 364 ; immunizations , bioterrorism preparedness , and health education were the top three most funded medical items . Instances of major diseases are near the national average in Oklahoma , and the state ranks at or slightly above the rest of the country in percentage of people with asthma , diabetes , cancer , and hypertension .
In 2000 , Oklahoma ranked 45th in physicians per capita and slightly below the national average in nurses per capita , but was slightly over the national average in hospital beds per 100 @,@ 000 people and above the national average in net growth of health services over a 12 @-@ year period . One of the worst states for percentage of insured people , nearly 25 percent of Oklahomans between the age of 18 and 64 did not have health insurance in 2005 , the fifth @-@ highest rate in the nation .
Oklahomans are in the upper half of Americans in terms of obesity prevalence , and the state is the 5th most obese in the nation , with 30 @.@ 3 percent of its population at or near obesity . Oklahoma ranked last among the 50 states in a 2007 study by the Commonwealth Fund on health care performance .
The OU Medical Center , Oklahoma 's largest collection of hospitals , is the only hospital in the state designated a Level I trauma center by the American College of Surgeons . OU Medical Center is located on the grounds of the Oklahoma Health Center in Oklahoma City , the state 's largest concentration of medical research facilities .
The Cancer Treatment Centers of America at Southwestern Regional Medical Center in Tulsa is one of four such regional facilities nationwide , offering cancer treatment to the entire southwestern United States , and is one of the largest cancer treatment hospitals in the country . The largest osteopathic teaching facility in the nation , Oklahoma State University Medical Center at Tulsa , also rates as one of the largest facilities in the field of neuroscience .
= = Media = =
Oklahoma City and Tulsa are the 45th and 61st @-@ largest media markets in the United States as ranked by Nielsen Media Research . The state 's third @-@ largest media market , Lawton @-@ Wichita Falls , Texas , is ranked 149th nationally by the agency . Broadcast television in Oklahoma began in 1949 when KFOR @-@ TV ( then WKY @-@ TV ) in Oklahoma City and KOTV @-@ TV in Tulsa began broadcasting a few months apart . Currently , all major American broadcast networks have affiliated television stations in the state .
The state has two primary newspapers . The Oklahoman , based in Oklahoma City , is the largest newspaper in the state and 54th @-@ largest in the nation by circulation , with a weekday readership of 138 @,@ 493 and a Sunday readership of 202 @,@ 690 . The Tulsa World , the second most widely circulated newspaper in Oklahoma and 79th in the nation , holds a Sunday circulation of 132 @,@ 969 and a weekday readership of 93 @,@ 558 . Oklahoma 's first newspaper was established in 1844 , called the Cherokee Advocate , and was written in both Cherokee and English . In 2006 , there were more than 220 newspapers located in the state , including 177 with weekly publications and 48 with daily publications .
The state 's first radio station , WKY in Oklahoma City , signed on in 1920 , followed by KRFU in Bristow , which later on moved to Tulsa and became KVOO in 1927 . In 2006 , there were more than 500 radio stations in Oklahoma broadcasting with various local or nationally owned networks . Five universities in Oklahoma operate non @-@ commercial , public radio stations / networks .
Oklahoma has a few ethnic @-@ oriented TV stations broadcasting in Spanish , Asian languages and sometimes have Native American programming . TBN , a Christian religious television network has a studio in Tulsa , and built their first entirely TBN @-@ owned affiliate in Oklahoma City in 1980 .
= = Transportation = =
Transportation in Oklahoma is generated by an anchor system of Interstate Highways , intercity rail lines , airports , inland ports , and mass transit networks . Situated along an integral point in the United States Interstate network , Oklahoma contains three interstate highways and four auxiliary Interstate Highways . In Oklahoma City , Interstate 35 intersects with Interstate 44 and Interstate 40 , forming one of the most important intersections along the United States highway system .
More than 12 @,@ 000 miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ) of roads make up the state 's major highway skeleton , including state @-@ operated highways , ten turnpikes or major toll roads , and the longest drivable stretch of Route 66 in the nation . In 2008 , Interstate 44 in Oklahoma City was Oklahoma 's busiest highway , with a daily traffic volume of 123 @,@ 300 cars . In 2010 , the state had the nation 's third highest number of bridges classified as structurally deficient , with nearly 5 @,@ 212 bridges in disrepair , including 235 National Highway System Bridges .
Oklahoma 's largest commercial airport is Will Rogers World Airport in Oklahoma City , averaging a yearly passenger count of more than 3 @.@ 5 million ( 1 @.@ 7 million boardings ) in 2010 . Tulsa International Airport , the state 's second largest commercial airport , served more than 1 @.@ 3 million boardings in 2010 . Between the two , six airlines operate in Oklahoma . In terms of traffic , R. L. Jones Jr . ( Riverside ) Airport in Tulsa is the state 's busiest airport , with 335 @,@ 826 takeoffs and landings in 2008 . In total , Oklahoma has over 150 public @-@ use airports .
Oklahoma is connected to the nation 's rail network via Amtrak 's Heartland Flyer , its only regional passenger rail line . It currently stretches from Oklahoma City to Fort Worth , Texas , though lawmakers began seeking funding in early 2007 to connect the Heartland Flyer to Tulsa .
Two inland ports on rivers serve Oklahoma : the Port of Muskogee and the Tulsa Port of Catoosa . The only port handling international cargo in the state , the Tulsa Port of Catoosa is the most inland ocean @-@ going port in the nation and ships over two million tons of cargo each year . Both ports are located on the McClellan @-@ Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System , which connects barge traffic from Tulsa and Muskogee to the Mississippi River via the Verdigris and Arkansas rivers , contributing to one of the busiest waterways in the world .
= = Law and government = =
Oklahoma is a constitutional republic with a government modeled after the Federal Government of the United States , with executive , legislative , and judicial branches . The state has 77 counties with jurisdiction over most local government functions within each respective domain , five congressional districts , and a voting base with a plurality in the Democratic Party . State officials are elected by plurality voting in the state of Oklahoma .
Oklahoma is one of 32 states with capital punishment as a legal sentence , and the state has had ( between 1976 through mid @-@ 2011 ) the highest per capita execution rate in the US .
= = = State government = = =
The Legislature of Oklahoma consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives . As the lawmaking branch of the state government , it is responsible for raising and distributing the money necessary to run the government . The Senate has 48 members serving four @-@ year terms , while the House has 101 members with two @-@ year terms . The state has a term limit for its legislature that restricts any one person to a total of twelve cumulative years service between both legislative branches .
Oklahoma 's judicial branch consists of the Oklahoma Supreme Court , the Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals , and 77 District Courts that each serves one county . The Oklahoma judiciary also contains two independent courts : a Court of Impeachment and the Oklahoma Court on the Judiciary . Oklahoma has two courts of last resort : the state Supreme Court hears civil cases , and the state Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal cases ( this split system exists only in Oklahoma and neighboring Texas ) . Judges of those two courts , as well as the Court of Civil Appeals are appointed by the Governor upon the recommendation of the state Judicial Nominating Commission , and are subject to a non @-@ partisan retention vote on a six @-@ year rotating schedule .
The executive branch consists of the Governor , their staff , and other elected officials . The principal head of government , the Governor is the chief executive of the Oklahoma executive branch , serving as the ex officio Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Oklahoma National Guard when not called into Federal use and reserving the power to veto bills passed through the Legislature . The responsibilities of the Executive branch include submitting the budget , ensuring that state laws are enforced , and ensuring peace within the state is preserved .
= = = Local government = = =
The state is divided into 77 counties that govern locally , each headed by a three @-@ member council of elected commissioners , a tax assessor , clerk , court clerk , treasurer , and sheriff . While each municipality operates as a separate and independent local government with executive , legislative and judicial power , county governments maintain jurisdiction over both incorporated cities and non @-@ incorporated areas within their boundaries , but have executive power but no legislative or judicial power . Both county and municipal governments collect taxes , employ a separate police force , hold elections , and operate emergency response services within their jurisdiction . Other local government units include school districts , technology center districts , community college districts , rural fire departments , rural water districts , and other special use districts .
Thirty @-@ nine Native American tribal governments are based in Oklahoma , each holding limited powers within designated areas . While Indian reservations typical in most of the United States are not present in Oklahoma , tribal governments hold land granted during the Indian Territory era , but with limited jurisdiction and no control over state governing bodies such as municipalities and counties . Tribal governments are recognized by the United States as quasi @-@ sovereign entities with executive , judicial , and legislative powers over tribal members and functions , but are subject to the authority of the United States Congress to revoke or withhold certain powers . The tribal governments are required to submit a constitution and any subsequent amendments to the United States Congress for approval .
Oklahoma has 11 substate districts including the two large Councils of Governments , INCOG in Tulsa ( Indian Nations Council of Governments ) and ACOG ( Association of Central Oklahoma Governments ) . For a complete list visit the Oklahoma Association of Regional Councils .
= = = National politics = = =
Oklahoma has been politically conservative for much of its history , especially recently . During the first half century of statehood , it was considered a Democratic stronghold , being carried by the Republican Party in only two presidential elections ( 1920 and 1928 ) . During this time , it was also carried by every winning Democratic candidate up to Harry Truman . However , Oklahoma Democrats were generally considered to be more conservative than Democrats in other states .
After the 1948 election , the state turned firmly Republican . Although registered Republicans were a minority in the state until 2015 , starting in 1952 , Oklahoma has been carried by Republican presidential candidates in all but one election ( 1964 ) . This is not to say that every election has been a landslide for Republicans : Jimmy Carter lost the state by less than 1 @.@ 5 % in 1976 , while Michael Dukakis and Bill Clinton both won 40 % or more of the state 's popular vote in 1988 and 1996 respectively . Al Gore in 2000 , though , was the last Democrat to even win any counties in the state . Oklahoma was the only state where Barack Obama failed to carry any of its counties in both 2008 and 2012 .
Generally , Republicans are strongest in Oklahoma City and Tulsa and their suburbs , as well as the Panhandle . Democrats are strongest in the eastern part of the state and Little Dixie , as well as the most heavily African American parts of Oklahoma City and Tulsa . With a population of 8 @.@ 6 % Native American in the state , it is also worth noting that most Native American precincts vote Democratic in margins exceeded only by African Americans .
Following the 2000 census , the Oklahoma delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives was reduced from six to five representatives , each serving one congressional district . For the 112th Congress ( 2011 – 2013 ) , there were no changes in party strength , and the delegation included four Republicans and one Democrat . In the 112th Congress , Oklahoma 's U.S. senators were Republicans Jim Inhofe and Tom Coburn , and its U.S. Representatives were John Sullivan ( R @-@ OK @-@ 1 ) , Dan Boren ( D @-@ OK @-@ 2 ) , Frank D. Lucas ( R @-@ OK @-@ 3 ) , Tom Cole ( R @-@ OK @-@ 4 ) , and James Lankford ( R @-@ OK @-@ 5 ) .
In 2012 , Dan Boren ( D @-@ OK @-@ 2 ) retired from Congress , therefore making the seat vacant . This district , which covers most of Little Dixie , is the Democrats ' best region of the state , and has been represented by a Democrat for a dozen years . Republican Markwayne Mullin won the election , making the state 's congressional delegation entirely Republican .
= = = Military = = =
= = Cities and towns = =
= = = Major cities = = =
Oklahoma had 598 incorporated places in 2010 , including four cities over 100 @,@ 000 in population and 43 over 10 @,@ 000 . Two of the fifty largest cities in the United States are located in Oklahoma , Oklahoma City and Tulsa , and 65 percent of Oklahomans live within their metropolitan areas , or spheres of economic and social influence defined by the United States Census Bureau as a metropolitan statistical area . Oklahoma City , the state 's capital and largest city , had the largest metropolitan area in the state in 2010 , with 1 @,@ 252 @,@ 987 people , and the metropolitan area of Tulsa had 937 @,@ 478 residents . Between 2000 and 2010 , the cities that led the state in population growth were Blanchard ( 172 @.@ 4 % ) , Elgin ( 78 @.@ 2 % ) , Jenks ( 77 @.@ 0 % ) , Piedmont ( 56 @.@ 7 % ) , Bixby ( 56 @.@ 6 % ) , and Owasso ( 56 @.@ 3 % ) .
In descending order of population , Oklahoma 's largest cities in 2010 were : Oklahoma City ( 579 @,@ 999 , + 14 @.@ 6 % ) , Tulsa ( 391 @,@ 906 , − 0 @.@ 3 % ) , Norman ( 110 @,@ 925 , + 15 @.@ 9 % ) , Broken Arrow ( 98 @,@ 850 , + 32 @.@ 0 % ) , Lawton ( 96 @,@ 867 , + 4 @.@ 4 % ) , Edmond ( 81 @,@ 405 , + 19 @.@ 2 % ) , Moore ( 55 @,@ 081 , + 33 @.@ 9 % ) , Midwest City ( 54 @,@ 371 , + 0 @.@ 5 % ) , Enid ( 49 @,@ 379 , + 5 @.@ 0 % ) , and Stillwater ( 45 @,@ 688 , + 17 @.@ 0 % ) . Of the state 's ten largest cities , three are outside the metropolitan areas of Oklahoma City and Tulsa , and only Lawton has a metropolitan statistical area of its own as designated by the United States Census Bureau , though the metropolitan statistical area of Fort Smith , Arkansas extends into the state .
Under Oklahoma law , municipalities are divided into two categories : cities , defined as having more than 1 @,@ 000 residents , and towns , with under 1 @,@ 000 residents . Both have legislative , judicial , and public power within their boundaries , but cities can choose between a mayor @-@ council , council @-@ manager , or strong mayor form of government , while towns operate through an elected officer system .
= = State symbols = =
State law codifies Oklahoma 's state emblems and honorary positions ; the Oklahoma Senate or House of Representatives may adopt resolutions designating others for special events and to benefit organizations . Currently the State Senate is waiting to vote on a change to the state 's motto . The House passed HCR 1024 , which will change the state motto from " Labor Omnia Vincit " to " Oklahoma @-@ In God We Trust ! " The author of the resolution stated that a constituent researched the Oklahoma Constitution and found no " official " vote regarding " Labor Omnia Vincit " , therefore opening the door for an entirely new motto .
State symbols :
State cartoon : Gusty Created by Don Woods , Oklahoma 's first professional meteorologist , used on KTUL @-@ TV from 1954 @-@ 1989 .
State bird : Scissor @-@ tailed flycatcher
State tree : Eastern redbud
State mammal : American bison
State beverage : Milk
State fruit : Strawberry
State vegetable : Watermelon
State game bird : Wild turkey
State fish : Sand bass
State floral emblem : Mistletoe
State flower : Oklahoma rose
State wildflower : Indian blanket ( Gaillardia pulchella )
State grass : Indiangrass ( Sorghastrum nutans )
State fossil : Saurophaganax maximus
State rock : Rose rock
State insect : Honeybee
State soil : Port Silt Loam
State reptile : Collared lizard
State amphibian : Bullfrog
State meal : Fried okra , squash , cornbread , barbecue pork , biscuits , sausage and gravy , grits , corn , strawberries , chicken fried steak , pecan pie , and black @-@ eyed peas .
State folk dance : Square dance
State percussive instrument : Drum
State waltz : " Oklahoma Wind "
State butterfly : Black swallowtail
State song : " Oklahoma ! "
State language : English ; Cherokee and other Native American languages
State gospel song : " Swing Low , Sweet Chariot "
State rock song : " Do You Realize ? ? " by The Flaming Lips
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= New York State Route 429 =
New York State Route 429 ( NY 429 ) is a north – south state highway located entirely within Niagara County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 12 @.@ 16 miles ( 19 @.@ 57 km ) from an intersection with NY 265 and NY 384 in North Tonawanda to a junction with NY 104 ( Ridge Road ) on the border between the towns of Cambria and Lewiston . Although it is relatively minor in length , the route is regionally important nonetheless as it connects North Tonawanda to some of the county 's interior regions . About midway between North Tonawanda and Ridge Road , NY 429 serves the hamlet of Sanborn , where it briefly overlaps with NY 31 . At Pekin , a community situated between Sanborn and NY 104 , NY 429 descends the Niagara Escarpment .
The Sanborn – Ridge Road segment of modern NY 429 was originally designated as part of Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route , in 1908 . In the mid @-@ 1920s , the portion of Route 30 west of Rochester became part of the signed NY 31 ; however , NY 31 was realigned in the late 1920s to follow Ridge Road west from Cambria to the village of Lewiston . NY 31 's former alignment from Niagara Falls to Ridge Road via Sanborn became New York State Route 31A at this time . NY 31A was eliminated c . 1935 as part of the establishment of U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 ) . The portion of its former routing north of Sanborn became part of the new NY 429 , which was assigned to its current alignment upon assignment .
= = Route description = =
NY 429 begins on the banks of the Niagara River at a junction with NY 265 and NY 384 in downtown North Tonawanda . The route heads east as Wheatfield Street , crossing the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Niagara Subdivision at a grade crossing that separates an industrialized block of the street from more residential sections to the east . After three blocks , NY 429 turns onto Oliver Street and follows it northwestward through residential and industrial portions of the city , paralleling NY 265 and NY 384 for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to a junction with Ward Road . Oliver Street and Ward Road merge here , and the combined street takes on the Ward Road name as it proceeds due northward through the solely residential northern portion of North Tonawanda . NY 429 exits the city near a junction with Ruie Road , at which point maintenance of the route shifts from the city to the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) .
Now in the town of Wheatfield , NY 429 heads across populated but less developed areas on its way to a junction with US 62 . North of this point , the closely spaced homes gradually give way to more isolated houses and , eventually , rural farmland . It continues on a north – south line to the town of Lewiston and the hamlet of Sanborn , located adjacent to the Lewiston – Cambria town line . In the small but developed community , NY 429 follows Buffalo Street past three blocks of homes to a junction with NY 31 ( Saunders Settlement Road ) . Buffalo Street ends here ; however , NY 429 joins NY 31 for two blocks east to Townline Road , a north – south highway delimiting the boundary between Lewiston and Cambria . NY 429 continues north on Townline Road , passing the sprawling main campus of Niagara County Community College , a stark departure from the rural fields that NY 429 traversed in Wheatfield .
Past the college , NY 429 follows the Lewiston – Cambria town line for the rest of its length . In terms of elevation , it reaches a crest of 644 feet ( 196 m ) at Upper Mountain Road in Pekin before it begins to descend the Niagara Escarpment , a beach ridge that further west led to the formation of Niagara Falls eons ago . Here , on clear enough days , a wide panorama can be seen of the entire northern half of the county and Lake Ontario . After descending 100 feet ( 30 m ) , it crosses a narrow plateau containing Lower Mountain Road . Another 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) drop follows , and NY 429 ends shortly afterward at a junction with NY 104 ( Ridge Road ) located 392 feet ( 119 m ) above sea level — a 252 @-@ foot ( 77 m ) descent from Pekin . During this final , mostly undeveloped stretch , NY 429 passes the Buffalo Diocese 's Immaculate Conception Catholic Church .
= = History = =
The portion of modern NY 429 north of Sanborn was originally designated as part of Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . Route 30 entered Sanborn from the west on what is now NY 31 and followed current NY 429 north to Ridge Road , where it turned east toward Rochester . All of legislative Route 30 west of Rochester became part of NY 31 in the mid @-@ 1920s , while the remainder of what is now NY 429 outside of North Tonawanda was taken over by the state of New York by 1926 . In the late 1920s , NY 31 was realigned between Niagara Falls and the Lewiston – Cambria town line to follow Ridge Road west to the village of Lewiston . Its former routing to Niagara Falls via Sanborn became NY 31A .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the Niagara Falls – Sanborn leg of NY 31A became part of a realigned NY 3 , which had followed modern NY 425 from North Tonawanda to Saunders Settlement Road prior to the renumbering . Despite this fact , NY 31A continued to extend west to Niagara Falls , creating an overlap with the cross @-@ state NY 3 . The overlap remained in place until c . 1935 when US 104 was assigned across Upstate New York . West of Rochester , it replaced NY 31 , which was shifted southward to follow all of NY 3 from Niagara Falls to Rochester . NY 31A , meanwhile , was eliminated and partially replaced with NY 429 , a new route that continued south from Sanborn to North Tonawanda via Ward Road and Oliver and Wheatfield Streets . NY 429 has not been substantially altered since that time .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Niagara County .
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= Baćin massacre =
The Baćin massacre was the killing of 83 civilians just outside the village of Baćin , near Hrvatska Dubica , committed by Croatian Serb paramilitaries . The killings took place on 21 October 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence . Most of the civilians were Croats , but they also included two ethnic Serbs , taken from Hrvatska Dubica , Baćin and the nearby village of Cerovljani . The civilians were killed in the area of Krečane , at the very bank of the Una River , and their bodies were left unburied for two weeks . Most of them were subsequently bulldozed into a shallow mass grave , while a number of the bodies were thrown into the river .
The killings followed the takeover of Hrvatska Dubica and its immediate surroundings by the Serbian Autonomous Oblast Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian Latin : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) following the withdrawal of the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in mid @-@ September , when the bulk of the civilian population left the area . The remaining Croat population in the area was either killed or expelled by November . A mass grave containing the bodies of 56 civilians killed in Baćin was uncovered in 1997 , two years after Croatia recaptured the area . The event was included in the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) indictment against Slobodan Milošević and the ICTY indictment against Milan Martić . Milošević died before his trial concluded , and Martić was convicted and sentenced to 35 years in prison . Croatian authorities prosecuted and convicted seven other former SAO Krajina officers and officials in connection with the killings .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Croatian : Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbian Latin : Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In January 1991 , Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though it was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA request was refused on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated with the first fatalities . In early April , leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to amalgamate the areas under their control with Serbia . These were viewed by the Government of Croatia as breakaway regions .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled its police numbers to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the Croatian police force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police comprising twelve battalions organised along military lines . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons . In response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by expanding the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades . Under Ministry of Defence control and commanded by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj , the four guards brigades comprised approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops . The reserve police , also expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was attached to the ZNG and reorganised into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was poor command and control structure above the brigade level . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to using World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , the Croatian weapon stockpile consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . To replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades , a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established .
= = Prelude = =
By June 1991 , Banovina declared itself a part of the Serbian Autonomous Oblast Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) , and the Serb – Croat conflict began to escalate . Clashes peaked in late July , when Croatian Serb forces launched an offensive codenamed Operation Stinger . It was primarily aimed at the Croat @-@ populated villages between Dvor and Hrvatska Kostajnica , and the police station in the town of Glina . The offensive was successful in securing Glina , and prompted the withdrawal of Croat forces from the Una River valley south and west of Hrvatska Kostajnica on 27 July . During the fighting , 12 Croatian policemen and 20 civilians were killed .
On 28 July , fighting resumed around Topusko , which was besieged by SAO Krajina forces that day , as well as around Hrvatska Kostajnica and Hrvatska Dubica . Combat in the area continued into August , and Hrvatska Kostajnica was besieged on 9 September . Three days later , SAO Krajina forces captured a major hill overlooking Hrvatska Kostajnica , prompting local Croatian forces to withdraw . On 13 September , Hrvatska Kostajnica was captured by SAO Krajina forces with JNA support . Approximately 300 Croatian troops retreated from the town or surrendered . The capture of the town was followed by killings , looting and torching of buildings in the town and surrounding villages . A total of 67 Croatian troops were captured in the town and shipped to the jail in Glina , but none arrived . SAO Krajina forces captured Hrvatska Dubica the same day , and Topusko fell on 14 September . On 21 September , Petrinja was captured by SAO Krajina forces and the JNA , denying Croatia an important bridgehead on the south ( right ) bank of the Kupa River .
= = Timeline = =
On 13 September , after SAO Krajina forces captured Hrvatska Kostajnica and Hrvatska Dubica , the conflict shifted north , where a new line of control was established south of ZNG @-@ controlled Sunja and Novska . Daily skirmishes continued there . After the ZNG pulled out of Hrvatska Kostajnica and Hrvatska Dubica , a substantial number of civilians left the area as well , leaving only about 120 Croat civilians in the two towns and the surrounding villages . About half of these stayed behind in Hrvatska Dubica , where looting and torching of houses owned by Croats or Serbs who had previously fled the town continued until mid @-@ October . Most of the civilians who stayed in their homes were elderly or women .
Armed Serbs burnt Croat @-@ owned houses in the village of Cerovljani , just to the north of Hrvatska Dubica , on 13 September and once more on 21 September . Three days later , the gunmen returned and after some shooting , three civilians were found dead and four more houses were torched in the village . The same day , the Catholic church bell tower was shot at using rocket @-@ propelled grenades . In October , the armed Serbs gathered ten out of eleven remaining Cerovljani residents in the village 's community centre , telling them they were to take part in a meeting . Instead , they were detained for the night and shipped away the next day to the Krečane area next to the village of Baćin , just to the west of Hrvatska Dubica and killed there . Approximately 30 elderly civilians remained in Baćin after SAO Krajina forces captured the village . All of them were taken to Krečane and killed in October as well , except for three men who were detained and killed in Hrvatska Dubica .
On the morning of 20 October , SAO Krajina police picked up 53 civilians in Hrvatska Dubica . Most of them were Croats , but there were several Serbs and Muslims by nationality . They were told they were being taken to a meeting , but they were detained under armed guard in the town 's fire station . During the day , eleven people escaped or were released , either because they were Serbs or because they had Serb relatives . On 21 October , SAO Krajina forces moved 43 detainees from Hrvatska Dubica . The detainees were placed on a bus and told that they would be taken to Glina and released in a prisoner exchange . However the group , all of them Croats except for two Serbs , were taken to Krečane and killed . In the same period , an additional 24 civilians from villages around Hrvatska Dubica were killed by Serb forces at unknown locations .
The bodies of those killed at Krečane were left unburied for two weeks . Some of the victims were not immediately killed , rather they took days to die and people living on the opposite bank of the Una River in Bosnia and Herzegovina claim that they heard cries for help for days after the killings took place . After two weeks , most of the bodies were bulldozed into a shallow grave on the bank of the river , and the rest thrown into the Una . The grave was located sufficiently close to the river to allow the current to wash at least some of the bodies away .
= = Aftermath = =
All surviving Croat civilians were expelled from the area of Hrvatska Dubica on 20 November . At least 118 Croat and other non @-@ Serb civilians were killed in Baćin and its vicinity by February 1992 . By 1995 , numerous Croat @-@ owned houses in Hrvatska Dubica , all Croat @-@ owned houses in Cerovljani and about half the Croat @-@ owned houses in Baćin were torched , dynamited or otherwise destroyed . The Catholic churches in Hrvatska Dubica , Cerovljani and Baćin were destroyed , and the foundations of the church destroyed in Hrvatska Dubica were completely removed .
The mass grave at Krečane near Baćin was discovered in 1997 , two years after Croatian authorities recaptured the area in Operation Storm . The mass grave contained 56 bodies , 36 of which were identified . The remaining twenty were buried in a common grave at the Catholic cemetery in Hrvatska Dubica .
The killings of the civilians taken from Hrvatska Dubica , Cerovljani and Baćin were included in the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) trial of Milan Martić , and the trial of Slobodan Milošević . Martić , who coordinated the combat activities of SAO Krajina forces and the JNA with Colonel Dušan Smiljanić , the security head of the JNA 10th ( Zagreb ) Corps in the area of Hrvatska Kostajnica , was convicted and sentenced to 35 years in prison for his role in an ethnic cleansing campaign against non @-@ Serbs in Croatia . The judgment identified 83 civilians — the 43 taken from Hrvatska Dubica , 10 from Cerovljani and approximately 30 from Baćin who were killed at Krečani on or about 21 October 1991 . Milošević died in custody in March 2006 before a verdict could be reached .
Croatian authorities prosecuted in absentia and convicted seven Croatian Serbs for killing of at least 75 persons in the Baćin massacre in 2013 . Commanding officer of SAO Krajina TO in Dubica Milinko Janjetović , commander of SAO Krajina police in Dubica Momčilo Kovačević and two of their subordinates , Stevo Radunović and Veljko Radunović were sentenced to 20 years in prison each , and Stevan Dodoš was sentenced to 15 years in prison for organizing detention of the civilians and participation in their execution near Baćin . Head of the SAO Krajina civilian authorities in Dubica , Branko Dmitrović and the commander of SAO Krajina TO in Kostajnica , Slobodan Borojević , were sentenced to 15 years in prison each under the command responsibility for failing to prevent or punish the crime .
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= Buffalo nickel =
The Buffalo nickel or Indian Head nickel was a copper @-@ nickel five @-@ cent piece struck by the United States Mint from 1913 to 1938 . It was designed by sculptor James Earle Fraser .
As part of a drive to beautify the coinage , five denominations of US coins had received new designs between 1907 and 1909 . In 1911 , Taft administration officials decided to replace Charles E. Barber 's Liberty Head design for the nickel , and commissioned Fraser to do the work . They were impressed by Fraser 's designs showing a Native American and an American bison . The designs were approved in 1912 , but were delayed several months because of objections from the Hobbs Manufacturing Company , which made mechanisms to detect slugs in nickel @-@ operated machines . The company was not satisfied by changes made in the coin by Fraser , and in February 1913 , Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh decided to issue the coins despite the objections .
Despite attempts by the Mint to adjust the design , the coins proved to strike indistinctly , and to be subject to wear — the dates were easily worn away in circulation . In 1938 , after the expiration of the minimum 25 @-@ year period during which the design could not be replaced without congressional authorization , it was replaced by the Jefferson nickel , designed by Felix Schlag . Fraser 's design is admired today , and has been used on commemorative coins and gold bullion pieces .
= = Background = =
In 1883 , the Liberty Head nickel was issued , featuring designs by Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber . After the coin was released , it was modified to add the word " CENTS " to the reverse because the similarity in size with the half eagle allowed criminals to gild the new nickels and pass them as five dollar coins . An Act of Congress , passed into law on September 26 , 1890 required that coinage designs not be changed until they had been in use 25 years , unless Congress authorized the change . The act made the current five @-@ cent piece and silver dollar exceptions to the twenty @-@ five year rule ; they were made eligible for immediate redesign . However , the Mint continued to strike the Liberty Head nickel in large numbers through the first decade of the 20th century .
President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of the American coinage , and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens to redesign all the coins . Constrained by the 1890 act , the Mint only hired Saint @-@ Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces . Saint @-@ Gaudens , before his 1907 death , designed the eagle and double eagle , which entered circulation that year ; the cent , quarter eagle , and half eagle were designed by other artists and released into circulation by 1909 . By that time , the Liberty Head nickel had been in circulation for more than 25 years , and was eligible for redesign regardless of the special provision . In 1909 , Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels . Most of these coins featured the first president , George Washington . The press found out about the pieces , and speculated they would be released into circulation by the end of the year . The Mint received orders from banks in anticipation of the " Washington nickel " . However , the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1 , 1909 , to be replaced by Abram Andrew .
Andrew was dissatisfied with the just @-@ issued Lincoln cent , and considered seeking congressional authorization to replace the cent with a design by sculptor James Earle Fraser . While the change in the cent did not occur , according to numismatic historian Roger Burdette , " Fraser 's enthusiasm eventually led to adoption of the Buffalo nickel in December 1912 " .
= = Inception = =
= = = New design = = =
On May 4 , 1911 , Eames MacVeagh , son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father :
A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration , and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive sort . As possibly you are aware , it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration , as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty @-@ five years . I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation .
Soon after the MacVeagh letter , Andrew announced that the Mint would be soliciting new designs for the nickel . Fraser , who had been an assistant to Saint @-@ Gaudens , approached the Mint , and rapidly produced concepts and designs . The new Mint director , George Roberts , who had replaced Andrew , initially favored a design featuring assassinated President Abraham Lincoln , but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other . Andrew and Roberts recommended Fraser to MacVeagh , and in July 1911 , the Secretary approved hiring Fraser to design a new nickel . Official approval was slow in coming ; it was not until January 1912 that MacVeagh asked Roberts to inform Fraser that he had been commissioned . MacVeagh wrote , " Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo . " Roberts transmitted the news , then followed up with a long list of instructions to the sculptor , in which he noted , " The motto , ' In God We Trust ' , is not required upon this coin and I presume we are agreed that nothing should be upon it that is not required . " Fraser completed the models by June 1912 , and prepared coin @-@ size electrotypes . He brought the models and electrotypes to Washington on July 10 , where they met with the enthusiastic agreement of Secretary MacVeagh .
= = = Hobbs affair = = =
In July 1912 , word of the new design became publicly known , and coin @-@ operated machine manufacturers sought information . Replying to the inquiries , MacVeagh wrote that there would be no change in the diameter , thickness , or weight of the nickel . This satisfied most firms . However , Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company , of Worcester , Massachusetts requested further information . According to Hobbs , his firm was the manufacturer of a device which would detect counterfeit nickels inserted into vending machines with complete accuracy . Discussions continued for most of the rest of 1912 , with Hobbs demanding various changes to the design , to which the artist was reluctant to agree . When in December 1912 , the Hobbs Company submitted a modified design for the nickel , MacVeagh strongly opposed it . On December 18 , Roberts officially approved Fraser 's design , and the sculptor was authorized to complete and perfect the design , after which he would be paid $ 2 @,@ 500 ( US $ 61 @,@ 300 with inflation ) for his work .
On January 7 , 1913 , Fraser 's approved design was used to strike experimental pieces ; the sculptor later wrote that he remembered several of the workmen commenting that the new piece struck more easily than the old . Afterwards , Roberts asked Fraser if the Hobbs Company was content with the design . The sculptor told the Mint director that the firm wanted changes made , and Fraser agreed to meet with them further . Over the following two weeks , Fraser worked with George Reith , the Hobbs Company 's mechanic who had invented the anti @-@ slug device , in an attempt to satisfy the firm 's concerns . On January 20 , Fraser wired the Mint from his studio in New York , announcing that he was submitting a modified design , and explained that the delay was " caused by working with inventor until he was satisfied " . The next day , Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis sent Roberts a sample striking of the revised design , stating , " the only change is in the border , which has been made round and true " .
Despite the apparent agreement , the Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections . Engraver Barber was asked for his view ; he stated that Reith , who had attended the trial striking , had been given all the time and facilities he had asked for in testing the new pieces , and the mechanic had pronounced himself satisfied . Hobbs Company agent C. U. Carpenter suggested that Reith had been intimidated by the preparations that had already gone into the issue of the modified nickel , " and , instead of pointing out clearly just what the situation demanded , agreed to adapt our device to the coin more readily that [ sic ] he was warranted in doing " . On February 3 , Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin , and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs and Reith . On the fifth , following the conference , which ended with no agreement , Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten @-@ page letter , complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company , and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close . MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14 . When the Hobbs Company requested permission to bring a lawyer , Fraser announced he would be doing the same . The Hobbs Company sought letters of support from the business community , with little success ; Fraser 's efforts to secure support from artists for his position were more fruitful . Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made . MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing , and issued a letter the following day .
The Secretary noted that no other firm had complained , that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold , and that the changes demanded — a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Indian 's cheekbone — would affect the artistic merit of the piece .
It is of course true that only the most serious business considerations should stand in the way of the improvement of the coinage , and this particular coin has great claims of its own , because of its special quality . If we should stop new coinage — which is always allowed every twenty @-@ five years — for any commercial obstacles less than imperative , we should have to abandon a worthy coinage altogether . This would be a most serious handicap to the art of the Nation , for scarcely any form of art is more influential than an artistic coin , where the coin is widely circulated .
You will please , therefore , proceed with the coinage of the new nickel .
After he issued his decision , MacVeagh learned that the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Company , which Hobbs claimed had enthusiastically received his device , was actually removing it from service as unsatisfactory . The Secretary 's decision did not end the Hobbs Company efforts , as the firm appealed to President Taft . With only two weeks remaining in his term , the President was not minded to stop the new nickel ( production of which had started on February 18 ) and MacVeagh wrote to Taft 's secretary , Charles D. Hilles , " Certainly Hobbs got all the time and attention out of this administration that any administration could afford to give to one manufacturing corporation . " Numismatic historian and coin dealer Q. David Bowers describes the Hobbs matter as " much ado about nothing from a company whose devices did not work well even with the Liberty Head nickels " .
= = Release and production = =
The first coins to be distributed were given out on February 22 , 1913 , when Taft presided at groundbreaking ceremonies for the National American Indian Memorial at Fort Wadsworth , Staten Island , New York . The memorial , a project of department store magnate Rodman Wanamaker , was never built , and today the site is occupied by an abutment for the Verrazano @-@ Narrows Bridge . Forty nickels were sent by the Mint for the ceremony ; most were distributed to the Native American chiefs who participated . Payment for Fraser 's work was approved on March 3 , 1913 , the final full day of the Taft administration . In addition to the $ 2 @,@ 500 agreed upon , Fraser received $ 666 @.@ 15 ( US $ 15 @,@ 900 with inflation ) for extra work and expenses through February 14 .
The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4 , 1913 , and quickly gained positive comments as depicting truly American themes . However , The New York Times stated in an editorial that " The new ' nickel ' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ... [ it ] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny , and will be an abomination when old and dull . " The Numismatist , in March and May 1913 editorials , gave the new coin a lukewarm review , suggesting that the Indian 's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse .
With the coin now in production , Barber monitored the rate at which dies were expended , as it was the responsibility of his Engraver 's Department to supply all three mints with working dies . On March 11 , 1913 , he wrote to Landis that the dies were being used up three times faster than with the Liberty Head nickel . His department was straining to produce enough new dies to meet production . In addition , the date and denomination were the points on the coin most subject to wear , and Landis feared the value on the coin would be worn away . Barber made proposed revisions , which Fraser approved after being sent samples . These changes enlarged the legend " FIVE CENTS " and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground . According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives , the changes to what are known as Type II nickels ( with the originals Type I ) actually decreased the die life . The new Treasury Secretary , William G. McAdoo , wanted further changes in the coin , but Fraser had moved on to other projects and was uninterested in revisiting the nickel . The thickness of the numerals in the date was gradually increased , making them more durable ; however the problem was never addressed with complete success , and even many later @-@ date Buffalo nickels have the date worn away .
The Buffalo nickel saw minor changes to the design in 1916 . The word " LIBERTY " was given more emphasis and moved slightly ; however many Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s exhibit weak striking of the word , the Denver issue of 1926 especially ; Bowers questions whether any change was made to the portrait of the Indian , though Walter Breen in his reference work on United States coins states that Barber made the Indian 's nose slightly longer . According to Breen , however , none of these modifications helped , with the coin rarely found well @-@ struck and with the design subject to considerable wear throughout the remainder of its run . The bison 's horn and tail also posed striking problems , again with the Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s in general , and 1926 @-@ D in particular , showing the greatest propensity for these deficiencies .
The piece was struck by the tens of millions , at all three mints ( Philadelphia , Denver and San Francisco ) , through the remainder of the 1910s . In 1921 , a recession began , and no nickels at all were struck the following year . The low mintage for the series was the 1926 @-@ S , at 970 @,@ 000 — the only date @-@ mint combination with a mintage of less than 1 million . The second lowest mintage for the series came with the 1931 nickel struck at the San Francisco Mint . The 1931 @-@ S was minted in a quantity of 194 @,@ 000 early in the year . There was no need for more to be struck , but Acting Mint Director Mary Margaret O 'Reilly asked the San Francisco Mint to strike more so that the pieces would not be hoarded . Using materials on hand , including the melting down of worn @-@ out nickels , San Francisco found enough metal to strike 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 more pieces . Large quantities were saved in the hope they would become valuable , and the coin is not particularly rare today despite the low mintage .
A well @-@ known variety in the series is the 1937 – D " three @-@ legged " nickel , on which one of the buffalo 's legs is missing . Breen relates that this variety was caused by a pressman , Mr. Young , at the Denver Mint , who in seeking to remove marks from a reverse die ( caused by the dies making contact with each other ) , accidentally removed or greatly weakened one of the animal 's legs . By the time Mint inspectors discovered and condemned the die , thousands of pieces had been struck and mixed with other coins .
Another variety is the 1938 @-@ D / S , caused by dies bearing an " S " mintmark being repunched with a " D " and used to strike coins at Denver . While the actual course of events is uncertain , Bowers is convinced that the variety was created because Buffalo nickel dies intended for the San Francisco mint were repunched with the " D " and sent to Denver so they would not be wasted — no San Francisco Buffalo nickels were struck in 1938 , but they were produced at Denver , and it was already known that a new design would be introduced . The 1938 @-@ D / S was the first repunched mintmark of any US coin to be discovered , causing great excitement among numismatists when the variety came to light in 1962 .
When the Buffalo nickel had been in circulation for the minimum 25 years , it was replaced with little discussion or protest . The problems of die life and weak striking had never been solved , and Mint officials advocated its replacement . In January 1938 , the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design , to feature early President Thomas Jefferson on the obverse , and Jefferson 's home , Monticello on the reverse . In April , Felix Schlag was announced as the winner . The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938 , at the Denver Mint , the only mint to strike them that year . On October 3 , 1938 , production of the Jefferson nickel began , and they were released into circulation on November 15 .
= = Design , models , and name controversy = =
In a 1947 radio interview , Fraser discussed his design :
Well , when I was asked to do a nickel , I felt I wanted to do something totally American — a coin that could not be mistaken for any other country 's coin . It occurred to me that the buffalo , as part of our western background , was 100 % American , and that our North American Indian fitted into the picture perfectly .
The visage of the Indian which dominates Fraser 's obverse design was a composite of several Native Americans . Breen noted ( before the advent of the Sacagawea dollar ) that Fraser 's design was the second and last US coin design to feature a realistic portrait of an Indian , after Bela Pratt 's 1908 design for the half eagle and quarter eagle .
The identity of the Indians whom Fraser used as models is somewhat uncertain , as Fraser told various and not always consistent stories during the forty years he lived after designing the nickel . In December 1913 , he wrote to Mint Director Roberts that " [ b ] efore the nickel was made I had done several portraits of Indians , among them Iron Tail , Two Moons , and one or two others , and probably got characteristics from those men in the head on the coins , but my purpose was not to make a portrait but a type . "
By 1931 , Two Guns White Calf , son of the last Blackfoot tribal chief , was capitalizing off his claim to be the model for the coin . To try to put an end to the claim , Fraser wrote that he had used three Indians for the piece , including " Iron Tail , the best Indian head I can remember . The other one was Two Moons , the other I cannot recall . " In 1938 , Fraser stated that the three Indians had been " Iron Tail , a Sioux , Big Tree , a Kiowa , and Two Moons , a Cheyenne " . Despite the sculptor 's efforts , he ( and the Mint ) continued to receive inquiries about the identity of the Indian model until his 1953 death .
Nevertheless , John Big Tree , a Seneca , claimed to be a model for Fraser 's coin , and made many public appearances as the " nickel Indian " until his 1967 death at the age of 92 ( though he sometimes alleged he was over 100 years of age ) . Big Tree was identified as the model for the nickel in wire service reports about his death , and he had appeared in that capacity at the Texas Numismatic Association convention in 1966 . After Big Tree 's death , the Mint stated that he most likely was not one of the models for the nickel . There have been other claimants : in 1964 , Montana Senator Mike Mansfield wrote to Mint Director Eva B. Adams , enquiring if Sam Resurrection , a Choctaw was a model for the nickel . Adams wrote in reply , " According to our records , the portrait is a composite . There have been many claimants for this honor , all of whom are undoubtedly sincere in the belief that theirs is the one that adorns the nickel . "
According to Fraser , the animal that appears on the reverse is the American bison Black Diamond . In an interview published in the New York Herald on January 27 , 1913 , Fraser was quoted as saying that the animal , which he did not name , was a " typical and shaggy specimen " which he found at the Bronx Zoo . Fraser later wrote that the model " was not a plains buffalo , but none other than Black Diamond , the contrariest animal in the Bronx Zoo . I stood for hours ... He refused point blank to permit me to get side views of him , and stubbornly showed his front face most of the time . " However , Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo , but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo until he was sold and slaughtered in 1915 . Black Diamond 's mounted head is still extant , and has been exhibited at coin conventions . The placement of Black Diamond 's horns differs considerably from that of the animal on the nickel , leading to doubts that Black Diamond was Fraser 's model . One candidate cited by Bowers is Bronx , a bison who was for many years the herd leader of the bison at the Bronx Zoo .
From its inception , the coin was referred to as the " Buffalo nickel " , reflecting the American colloquialism for the North American bison . As the piece is 75 % copper and 25 % nickel , prominent numismatist Stuart Mosher objected to the nomenclature in the 1940s , writing that he was " uncertain why it is called a ' Buffalo nickel ' although the name is preferable to ' Bison copper ' " . The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation , Coin World , calls it an Indian head nickel , while R.S. Yeoman 's Red Book refers to it as an " Indian Head or Buffalo type " .
In 2001 , the design was adopted for use on a commemorative silver dollar . In 2006 , the Mint began striking American Buffalo gold bullion pieces , using a modification of Fraser 's Type I design .
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= Green children of Woolpit =
The legend of the green children of Woolpit concerns two children of unusual skin colour who reportedly appeared in the village of Woolpit in Suffolk , England , some time in the 12th century , perhaps during the reign of King Stephen . The children , brother and sister , were of generally normal appearance except for the green colour of their skin . They spoke in an unknown language , and the only food they would eat was beans . Eventually they learned to eat other food and lost their green pallor , but the boy was sickly and died soon after he and his sister were baptised . The girl adjusted to her new life , but she was considered to be " rather loose and wanton in her conduct " . After she learned to speak English , the girl explained that she and her brother had come from Saint Martin 's Land , a subterranean world inhabited by green people .
The only near @-@ contemporary accounts are contained in William of Newburgh 's Historia rerum Anglicarum and Ralph of Coggeshall 's Chronicum Anglicanum , written in about 1189 and 1220 respectively . Between then and their rediscovery in the mid @-@ 19th century , the green children seem to surface only in a passing mention in William Camden 's Britannia in 1586 , and in Bishop Francis Godwin 's fantastical The Man in the Moone , in both of which William of Newburgh 's account is cited .
Two approaches have dominated explanations of the story of the green children : that it is a folktale describing an imaginary encounter with the inhabitants of another world , perhaps one beneath our feet or even extraterrestrial , or it is a garbled account of a historical event . The story was praised as an ideal fantasy by the English anarchist poet and critic Herbert Read in his English Prose Style , published in 1931 . It provided the inspiration for his only novel , The Green Child , written in 1934 .
= = Story = =
One day at harvest time , according to William of Newburgh during the reign of King Stephen ( 1135 – 1154 ) , the villagers of Woolpit discovered two children , a brother and sister , beside one of the wolf pits that gave the village its name . Their skin was green , they spoke an unknown language , and their clothing was unfamiliar . Ralph reports that the children were taken to the home of Richard de Calne . Ralph and William agree that the pair refused all food for several days until they came across some raw beans , which they consumed eagerly . The children gradually adapted to normal food and in time lost their green colour . The boy , who appeared to be the younger of the two , became sickly and died shortly after he and his sister were baptised .
After learning to speak English , the children – Ralph says just the surviving girl – explained that they came from a land where the sun never shone and the light was like twilight . William says the children called their home St Martin 's Land ; Ralph adds that everything there was green . According to William , the children were unable to account for their arrival in Woolpit ; they had been herding their father 's cattle when they heard a loud noise ( according to William , the bells of Bury St Edmunds ) and suddenly found themselves by the wolf pit where they were found . Ralph says that they had become lost when they followed the cattle into a cave and , after being guided by the sound of bells , eventually emerged into our land .
According to Ralph , the girl was employed for many years as a servant in Richard de Calne 's household , where she was considered to be " very wanton and impudent " . William says that she eventually married a man from King 's Lynn , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Woolpit , where she was still living shortly before he wrote . Based on his research into Richard de Calne 's family history , the astronomer and writer Duncan Lunan has concluded that the girl was given the name " Agnes " and that she married a royal official named Richard Barre .
= = Explanations = =
Neither Ralph of Coggeshall nor William of Newburgh offer an explanation for the " strange and prodigious " event , as William calls it , and some modern historians have the same reticence : " I consider the process of worrying over the suggestive details of these wonderfully pointless miracles in an effort to find natural or psychological explanations of what ' really , ' if anything , happened , to be useless to the study of William of Newburgh or , for that matter , of the Middle Ages " , says Nancy Partner , author of a study of 12th @-@ century historiography . Nonetheless , such explanations continue to be sought and two approaches have dominated explanations of the mystery of the green children . The first is that the narrative descends from folklore , describing an imaginary encounter with the inhabitants of a " fairy Otherworld " . In a few early as well as modern readings , this other world is extraterrestrial , and the green children alien beings . The second is that it is a garbled account of a real event , although it is impossible to be certain whether the story as recorded is an authentic report given by the children or an " adult invention " . His study of accounts of children and servants fleeing from their masters led Charles Oman to conclude that " there is clearly some mystery behind it all [ the story of the green children ] , some story of drugging and kidnapping " . Jeffrey Jerome Cohen offers a different kind of historical explanation , arguing that the story is an oblique account of the racial difference between the contemporary English and the indigenous Britons .
= = = Folklore = = =
Scholars such as Charles Oman note that one element of the children 's account , the entry into a different reality by way of a cave , seems to have been quite popular . Gerald of Wales tells a similar story of a boy who , after escaping his master , " encountered two pigmies who led him through an underground passage into a beautiful land with fields and rivers , but not lit by the full light of the sun " . But the motif is poorly attested ; E. W. Baughman lists it as the only example of his F103.1 category of English and North American folk tale motifs : " Inhabitants of lower world visit mortals , and continue to live with them " . Martin Walsh considers the references to St Martin to be significant , and sees the story of the green children as evidence that the feast of Martinmas has its origins in an English aboriginal past , of which the children 's story forms " the lowest stratum " . E. S. Alderson suggests a Celtic connection in a 1900 edition of Notes and Queries : " ' Green ' spirits are ' sinless ' in Celtic literature and tradition ... It may be more than a coincidence that the green girl marries a ' man of [ Kings ] Lynn . ' Here the original [ Celtic word ] would be lein , evil , i.e. the pure fairy marries a sinful child of earth . "
In a modern development of the tale the green children are associated with the Babes in the Wood , who were left by their wicked uncle to die ; in this version the children 's green colouration is explained by their having been poisoned with arsenic . Fleeing from the wood in which they were abandoned , possibly nearby Thetford Forest , the children fell into the pits at Woolpit where they were discovered . Local author and folk singer Bob Roberts states in his 1978 book A Slice of Suffolk that " I was told there are still people in Woolpit who are ' descended from the green children ' , but nobody would tell me who they were ! "
Other commentators have suggested that the children may have been aliens , or inhabitants of a world beneath the Earth . In a 1996 article published in the magazine Analog , astronomer Duncan Lunan hypothesised that the children were accidentally transported to Woolpit from their home planet as the result of a " matter transmitter " malfunction . Lunan suggests that the planet from which the children were expelled may be trapped in synchronous orbit around its sun , presenting the conditions for life only in a narrow twilight zone between a fiercely hot surface and a frozen dark side . He explains the children 's green colouration as a side effect of consuming the genetically modified alien plants eaten by the planet 's inhabitants .
Lunan was not the first to state that the green children may have been extraterrestrials . Robert Burton suggested in his 1621 The Anatomy of Melancholy that the green children " fell from Heaven " , an idea that seems to have been picked up by Francis Godwin , historian and Bishop of Hereford , in his speculative fiction The Man in the Moone , published posthumously in 1638 .
= = = Historical explanations = = =
Many Flemish immigrants arrived in eastern England during the 12th century , and they were persecuted after Henry II became king in 1154 ; a large number of them were killed near Bury St Edmunds in 1173 at the Battle of Fornham fought between Henry II and Robert de Beaumont , 3rd Earl of Leicester . Paul Harris has suggested that the green children 's Flemish parents perished during a period of civil strife and that the children may have come from the village of Fornham St Martin , slightly to the north of Bury St Edmunds , where a settlement of Flemish fullers existed at that time . They may have fled and ultimately wandered to Woolpit . Disoriented , bewildered , and dressed in unfamiliar Flemish clothes , the children would have presented a very strange spectacle to the Woolpit villagers . The children 's colour could be explained by green sickness , the result of a dietary deficiency . Brian Haughton considers Harris 's explanation to be plausible , and the one most widely accepted , although not without its difficulties . For instance , he suggests it is unlikely that an educated local man like Richard de Calne would not have recognised the language spoken by the children as being Flemish .
Historian Derek Brewer 's explanation is even more prosaic :
The likely core of the matter is that these very small children , herding or following flocks , strayed from their forest village , spoke little , and ( in modern terms ) did not know their own home address . They were probably suffering from chlorosis , a deficiency disease which gives the skin a greenish tint , hence the term " green sickness " . With a better diet it disappears .
Jeffrey Jerome Cohen proposes that the story is about racial difference , and " allows William to write obliquely about the Welsh " : the green children are a memory of England 's past and the violent conquest of the indigenous Britons by the Anglo @-@ Saxons followed by the Norman invasion . William of Newburgh reluctantly includes the story of the green children in his account of a largely unified England , which Cohen juxtaposes with Geoffrey of Monmouth 's The History of the Kings of Britain , a book that according to William is full of " gushing and untrammeled lying " . Geoffrey 's history offers accounts of previous kings and kingdoms of various racial identities , whereas William 's England is one in which all peoples are either assimilated or pushed to the boundaries . According to Cohen , the green children represent a dual intrusion into William 's unified vision of England . On one hand they are a reminder of the racial and cultural differences between Normans and Anglo @-@ Saxons , given the children 's claim to have come from St Martin 's Land , named after Martin of Tours ; the only other time William mentions that saint is in reference to St Martin 's Abbey in Hastings , which commemorates the Norman victory in 1066 . But the children also embody the earlier inhabitants of the British Isles , the " Welsh ( and Irish and Scots ) who [ had been ] forcibly anglicized ... The Green Children resurface another story that William had been unable to tell , one in which English paninsular dominion becomes a troubled assumption rather than a foregone conclusion . " The boy in particular , who dies rather than become assimilated , represents " an adjacent world that cannot be annexed ... an otherness that will perish to endure " .
= = Legacy = =
The English anarchist poet and critic Herbert Read describes the story of the green children in his English Prose Style , published in 1931 , as " the norm to which all types of fantasy should conform " . It was the inspiration for his only novel , The Green Child , written in 1934 . A 1994 adaptation of the story by Kevin Crossley @-@ Holland tells it from the point of view of the green girl .
Author John Macklin includes an account in his 1965 book , Strange Destinies , of two green children who arrived in the Spanish village of Banjos in 1887 . Many details of the story very closely resemble the accounts given of the Woolpit children , such as the name of Ricardo de Calno , the mayor of Banjos who befriends the two children , strikingly similar to Richard de Calne . It therefore seems that Macklin 's story is an invention inspired by the green children of Woolpit , particularly as there is no record of any Spanish village called Banjos .
Australian novelist and poet Randolph Stow uses the account of the green children in his 1980 novel The Girl Green as Elderflower ; the green girl is the source for the title character , here a blond girl with green eyes . The green children become a source of interest to the main character , Crispin Clare , along with some other characters from the Latin accounts of William of Newburgh , Gervase of Tilbury , and others , and Stow includes translations from those texts : these characters " have histories of loss and dispossession that echo [ Clare 's ] own " . The green children are the subject of a 1990 community opera performed by children and adults , composed by Nicola LeFanu with a libretto written by Kevin Crossley @-@ Holland . In 2002 English poet Glyn Maxwell wrote a verse play based on the story of the green children , Wolfpit ( the earlier name for Woolpit ) , which was performed once in New York City . In Maxwell 's version the girl becomes an indentured servant to the lord of the manor , until a stranger named Juxon buys her freedom and takes her to an unknown destination .
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= Norman Yardley =
Norman Walter Dransfield Yardley ( 19 March 1915 – 3 October 1989 ) was an English cricketer who played for Cambridge University , Yorkshire County Cricket Club and England , as a right @-@ handed batsman and occasional bowler . An amateur , he captained Yorkshire from 1948 to 1955 and England on fourteen occasions between 1947 and 1950 , winning four Tests , losing seven and drawing three . Yardley was named Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1948 and in his obituary in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , he was described as Yorkshire 's finest amateur since Stanley Jackson .
Yardley played schoolboy cricket at St Peter 's , York . A highly talented all @-@ round sportsman , he went to St John 's College , Cambridge , and won Blues at cricket , squash , rugby fives and field hockey . In the university matches , he scored 90 in his second year , 101 in his third and was captain for his final year . He made his Yorkshire debut in 1936 and played for the county until 1955 , when he retired as a player . He made his Test match debut against South Africa in 1939 and after the Second World War was chosen as vice @-@ captain to Wally Hammond on the 1946 — 47 tour of Australia where he captained England in the fifth Test . He followed Hammond as skipper in 1947 , and captained England intermittently until 1950 when his business commitments allowed . In 1948 he succeeded to the Yorkshire leadership when Brian Sellers resigned . Yardley remained in the position until 1955 , during a time when Yorkshire had several difficult players in their dressing room . Under Yardley , Yorkshire were joint champions in 1949 but too often for the liking of supporters , finished second to Surrey in the County Championship . He served as a Test match selector between 1951 and 1954 , acting as chairman of selectors in 1952 . He was President of Yorkshire C.C.C. from 1981 to 1984 , when he resigned after becoming involved in controversy over the decision to release Geoffrey Boycott in 1983 . He died after a stroke in 1989 .
= = Early life = =
Yardley was born in Royston , near Barnsley , on 19 March 1915 to a family with no real background in cricket . He was sent to St Peter 's , York , where he made a good impression as a cricketer , being in the school team for five years from 1930 and captain in his final two years . In 1933 , his first season in charge , he scored 973 runs at an average of 88 @.@ 45 , scoring three centuries in consecutive innings . He headed the bowling averages , with 40 wickets at 11 @.@ 90 runs per wicket . His form that season saw him selected for the match between Young Amateurs and Young Professionals at Lord 's Cricket Ground , in which Yardley scored 189 in his first representative match , playing against his future England team @-@ mate Denis Compton . In 1934 , Yardley played in two further representative matches at Lord 's , for The Rest against Lord 's Schools , and for Public Schools against The Army , making 117 , the first century in the fixture for Public Schools , and 63 . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack later cited these successes as a demonstration of his ability to perform well on important occasions . While still at school , he came to the attention of Yorkshire County Cricket Club , playing for the Yorkshire Colts side and receiving coaching from George Hirst . He played for Yorkshire Second XI once in 1932 , twice in 1933 and twice in 1934 .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
= = = University Cricketer = = =
Leaving St Peter 's School , Yardley went to St John 's College , Cambridge University , where he immediately began to show all @-@ round ability at sports . He won the North of England Squash Championships every year between 1934 and 1939 , and won his Blue in hockey , squash , and Rugby Fives . However , his main distinction came from cricket , where he was a Blue in each his four years at Cambridge . He played for the University team in his first year , the 1935 season , making ten first @-@ class appearances without much success . His Wisden obituary noted that " class rather than performance guaranteed his place . " He made his first @-@ class debut against Sussex , scoring a duck in his first innings and 24 runs in the second . He passed fifty on just one occasion that season , scoring 319 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 78 , and bowled 69 balls without taking a wicket . Nevertheless , he played in the University Match , scoring just 19 and 36 .
In the following season , Yardley improved considerably , becoming a dominant force in University Cricket according to Wisden . His maiden first @-@ class century came in a narrow Cambridge victory over the Army , and he scored a second against Surrey , remaining not out for 116 in a total of 359 . Bowling much more regularly , his maiden wickets in first @-@ class cricket came in a performance of four wickets for 45 against Yorkshire , including the wicket of Len Hutton . Yardley topped the Cambridge batting averages and played an effective innings of 90 in the University Match . This display impressed Stanley Jackson , an influential former Yorkshire amateur cricketer , and he urged the Yorkshire selectors to include Yardley in the first team . Yardley was still appearing in the county second team at this stage , but at the end of August , he made his debut for the Yorkshire first eleven , appearing in the County Championship match against Derbyshire . He scored 12 in his only innings and took a wicket . He played in a further seven matches for Yorkshire , scoring 309 runs in ten innings with a highest score of 89 against Hampshire , with further fifties against Surrey and Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . In all first @-@ class cricket that season , Yardley scored 1 @,@ 017 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 66 and took 12 wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 08 .
Yardley continued to make progress in his batting in 1937 . For Cambridge , he scored fifties against the Army and Surrey . Against Hampshire he took four for 47 and five for 41 , and when Cambridge collapsed to 35 for six chasing a victory target of 141 , he scored 64 not out to take the side to a win . Playing Sussex , he scored a century and took four for 36 , while in the University match , he scored 101 in two and a half hours . Yardley 's form saw him selected for the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord 's , although he scored only 7 and 4 , and when he joined Yorkshire after the Cambridge season , he made his first century for the county against Surrey , as well as three other fifties . His overall first @-@ class figures were 1 @,@ 472 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 45 and 31 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 87 . He was picked for the winter MCC tour of India , under the captaincy of Lord Tennyson , where he scored 519 runs at an average 25 @.@ 95 but only took one wicket . No official Tests were played on the tour , but Yardley played in the representative matches which took place , scoring 96 in the first game , but his highest score in four other innings was 31 .
Honours continued to come Yardley 's way in the 1938 season . He was chosen to captain Cambridge in his final season in the team ; although his side did not win a match , Yardley enjoyed some personal success . Among his fifties were innings of 67 against the touring Australian team and 61 in the University Match . He was included in different representative sides ; he was selected in a Test trial , playing for the Rest , and played a second game against the Australians for the Gentlemen of England , although he did not pass fifty in either match . For the Gentlemen against the Players , Yardley scored 88 . He did not make the full England side but was twelfth man in two Tests against Australia . His highest innings of the season was 97 for Yorkshire against Gloucestershire , and in all first @-@ class matches , Yardley accumulated 1 @,@ 217 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 20 and took 22 wickets at 35 @.@ 45 .
= = = Test debut and war service = = =
By this stage , Yorkshire regarded Yardley as the heir to Brian Sellers as captain , and the England Test selectors also began to prepare him to assume the England captaincy . At the end of the 1938 season , Yardley was chosen to tour South Africa with MCC as vice @-@ captain to Wally Hammond . He made a good start to the tour , scoring centuries in his first two innings , both surpassing his previous highest score . Wisden noted that he made a good impression on spectators in these early matches . In his fourth match , he captained the MCC in Hammond 's absence for the first time . When Len Hutton was injured in a tour match and missed the first Test , Yardey made his debut but scored just seven runs in a total of 422 and did not bat in the second innings . Hutton returned for the second match , and the successes of other batsmen meant that Yardley was not required in the other Tests on the tour . However , he scored a third century when he captained the MCC against Border .
Having built up a reputation as one of the best amateur cricketers in England , Yardley played three early season matches for the MCC , but he was selected for neither the Gentlemen nor for England that year . He played his first full season for Yorkshire , scoring centuries against Cambridge , Warwickshire and Sussex ; in total , he scored 1 @,@ 086 runs at an average of 27 @.@ 84 and took 17 wickets .
War brought first @-@ class cricket to an end in 1939 , and Yardley joined the first battalion of the Green Howards , along with his Yorkshire team @-@ mate Hedley Verity . After training in Omagh , Northern Ireland , where he played several cricket matches with Verity , he served in India , Iran , Syria , Egypt , Sicily , Italy and Iraq . In January 1944 , he was wounded in Italy , rejoining the First Battalion in Iraq on his recovery to become an instructor , before being demobilised at the end of the war .
= = Career after the war = =
= = = Tour to Australia in 1946 – 47 = = =
When County cricket resumed in England in 1946 , Yorkshire won the County Championship . Yardley scored 788 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 17 , with just one century , for Yorkshire against Nottinghamshire . With the ball , he was used less frequently than before the war and took only nine wickets . He was not selected for any Test matches , but appeared for England in a Test trial and scored 39 and 11 . He also played twice for the MCC and represented the Gentlemen against the Players , making 29 and a duck in a heavy defeat for the amateurs . Critics regarded his season as unsuccessful , but he was chosen as vice @-@ captain to Hammond on the tour to Australia that winter , continuing his pre @-@ war role .
It was intended that Yardley would appear lower down in the batting order , batting with a substantial total accumulated by the previous batsmen . However , the frailties of the England batting meant he often appeared in a crisis and had to rebuild several innings . Bill Bowes , the Yorkshire and England bowler who covered the tour as a journalist , was impressed by Yardley 's approach , noting that he did not back away from the fast bowlers , who frequently bowled bouncers at him : " In fact , Yardley played cricket with a determination we had never seen in Yorkshire or in his days at the university . " He made the greatest impression as a bowler , surprising commentators with his effectiveness . He did not bowl in the first six matches , but in his first over of the tour dismissed Arthur Morris who had already scored a century . From that point , he was used effectively to break up partnerships . In the Tests , he removed Donald Bradman in three successive innings , while in the third Test , he took two wickets , including Bradman , in two deliveries . Bowes believed the natural length of Yardley 's bowling was perfect for Australian pitches — he was not skilful enough to alter the length at which he bowled so his bowling in other conditions was less effective . The Australian reporter Clif Cary wrote " It was always amusing to watch the Englishmen when Yardley took a wicket . The first time they seemed fairly amused , but when he was regularly breaking partnerships , their enthusiasm knew no bounds , and it is said that in Melbourne after he had obtained Bradman 's wicket for the third time , Yardley blushed profusely when one excited team @-@ mate slapped him on the back and shouted " Well , bowled , Spofforth " .
In the Tests , Yardley 's only scores over fifty , his first in Test cricket , came in the third Test , where he scored 61 and 53 not out . In England 's first innings , he helped his side to recover from a batting collapse , surviving for two hours . His second innings lasted 89 minutes and helped England to avoid defeat for the first time in the series . In the same match , Yardley bowled more overs than he had done previously on the whole tour , following injuries to Bill Voce and Bill Edrich , two of England 's main bowlers . Bowling leg theory with a fielders concentrated on the leg side , Yardley managed to move the ball off the seam . He dismissed Bradman twice in the match , having figures of three for 67 in the second innings and taking five wickets in the match . This was the first time that an England player had scored fifty runs in both innings and taken five wickets in a Test . Yardley also had substantial bowling workload in the fourth Test , delivering 31 overs in Australia 's first innings to take three for 101 . When Hammond did not play in the final Test , Yardley became captain , doing so courageously according to Wisden , which also pointed out that Yardley used field placing more effectively than Hammond . In the series , Yardley scored 252 runs at an average of 32 @.@ 50 , His ten wickets at an average of 37 @.@ 20 placed him first in the series bowling averages . He played in the drawn Test on the short tour to New Zealand which followed , opening the batting scoring 22 and taking a wicket .
= = = England captain = = =
Yardley enjoyed his most successful season with the bat in the 1947 season , scoring 1 @,@ 906 runs at an average of 44 @.@ 32 with five centuries ; his bowling took eleven wickets . Following Hammond 's retirement immediately after the 1946 – 47 tour , Yardley captained England against South Africa throughout the season . In the first Test , he made his highest Test score . England were unexpectedly made to follow on in the face of a large South African total ; when Yardley came to the crease in the second innings , England looked likely to be defeated at 170 for four , still 155 runs behind the tourists . Yardley scored 99 , being caught in the slips just before reaching his century , but his batting had helped to save the game and earned praise from Wisden for " batting soundly " . Yardley and Denis Compton added 237 , which was a record partnership for the fifth wicket in England and remains , in August 2010 , England 's best fifth wicket stand against South Africa . Yardley 's only other score over fifty in the series came in the drawn fifth Test when he scored 59 . However , he scored 41 in just over an hour in helpful conditions for fast bowlers in the third Test and 36 on a difficult pitch in the fourth Test . Yardley scored 273 runs at an average of 39 @.@ 00 in the series . In contrast to his efforts in Australia , he bowled just six overs in the series without taking a wicket . England won the second , third and fourth Tests to win the series , helped by a negative approach from the tourists . Yardley captained the Gentlemen against the Players for the first time , at Lord 's and Scarborough , and captained The Rest against Middlesex , the County Champions . His batting and captaincy in the season earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year .
= = = Playing the Invincibles = = =
Following Brian Sellers resignation , Yardley was appointed Yorkshire captain at the start of the 1948 season . With his England commitments and other absences , he only played in 12 County Championship matches . He had not toured the West Indies with MCC in 1947 – 48 , when Gubby Allen captained the side . However , Yardley resumed his leadership of England when Australia , captained by Bradman , toured the country without losing a match . Yardley led the MCC in an early match against the tourists , and captained England in a Test trial , but only played three other games , all for Yorkshire , before the first Test , with a top score of 46 .
In the first Test , England were bowled out for 165 after Yardley won the toss and batted in difficult conditions . Wisden did not blame Yardley for the collapse as England did not bat well . He then set defensive fields to keep down Australia 's scoring rate , taking a wicket himself with his fourth ball as part of figures of two for 32 . The Australian batsmen found it difficult to score quickly against the negative tactics but still established a lead of 344 . Yardley batted an hour in the second innings to score 22 but Australia recorded an eight wicket win . Before the second Test , Yardley played for Yorkshire against the Australians , and although unsuccessful with the bat , took two for nine with the ball , his first wickets of the season for his county .
England adopted an aggressive strategy in the second Test , but could not avoid a second defeat . Yardley frequently changed his bowlers to unsettle the Australians in their first innings , and took two for 35 himself as England briefly held the advantage . However , the lower order batsmen mounted a recovery , Yardley being criticised for his reluctance to bowl Doug Wright . The England captain then arrested a batting collapse by adding 87 with Denis Compton , scoring 44 himself , but Australia led by 135 on first innings . Yardley took two wickets in two balls in Australia 's second innings , narrowly missing a hat @-@ trick when Keith Miller only just got his bat down on the ball to avoid being bowled , and had figures of two for 36 , but Australia scored 460 for seven and bowled England out for 186 . In between Tests , Yardley scored his only century of the season , but his contributions to the third Test were minimal . He scored 22 and bowled four wicketless overs . However , the home side fought back in the match , for which Len Hutton was dropped . England scored 363 and bowled out Australia for 221 . They scored 174 for three before declaring , but rain intervened to prevent Yardley pushing for a win .
England maintained their newly confident approach , being on top for most of the fourth Test . Yardley 's men scored 496 and achieved a first innings lead of 38 , Yardley contributing two wickets . England increased their lead by 365 before Yardley declared . He kept the team batting for five minutes on the last day , allowing him to use the heavy roller to quicken the break @-@ up of the pitch . Australia had to score 404 in 345 minutes , a target considered unlikely as such a large total had never been made to win a Test match . In addition , the pitch was difficult to bat on by now and the spinners could turn the ball sharply . However , England made several errors : Godfrey Evans , the England wicket @-@ keeper had a bad day and missed some stumping chances ; three catches were dropped by fielders , and England 's only specialist spinner , Jim Laker , bowled poorly . Consequently , Yardley was forced to use Denis Compton 's bowling . Compton was not a specialist bowler and although he caused problems for the batsmen , Bill Bowes believed the selectors were mistaken in expecting him to be as effective as a front line spinner . Yardley seemed unsure of the best course of action as Bradman and Arthur Morris added 301 runs for the second wicket ; he resorted to using the very occasional leg spin of Hutton , who was hit for 30 runs in four overs , although Yardley himself dropped a catch from Hutton 's bowling . The pitch conditions were unfavourable for the faster bowlers , but the ineffectiveness of the spinners forced Yardley to take the new ball . Australia won by seven wickets ; the spectators were unhappy with the inadequate English bowling and the absence of a suitable bowler to exploit the pitch on the last day . Bowes later criticised Yardley for allowing Australia to score quickly enough to win ; he believed that Yardley used Hutton 's bowling to encourage the tourists to take risks against lesser bowling to keep up with required rate of scoring , but he miscalculated in using such bowling for too long . Wisden also stated that England should have won the match .
Around this time , and particularly after the fourth Test defeat , critics suggested that Walter Robins , one of the selectors , should captain England to bring a more attacking approach to the job . However , Robins ' age counted against him ; the selectors were satisfied with Yardley 's captaincy in what were difficult circumstances , and retained him for the final Test . In that match , he failed twice with the bat , scoring 7 and 9 as England were humiliated , bowled out for 52 and 188 to lose by an innings . England lost the series 4 – 0 . Yardley managed 150 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 66 , not passing fifty in a single innings . However , he once again topped the England bowling averages , taking nine wickets at an average of 22 @.@ 66 . Bowes believed that the pressure of captaincy had affected Yardley 's batting . Bowes also cast doubt on Yardley 's future , stating that other commitments may have prevented his continuing to play cricket much longer .
Yardley 's only other representative appearance in 1948 was as captain of the Gentlemen against the Players at Lords , where he scored 61 . In the whole season , he scored 1 @,@ 061 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 47 and 14 wickets at an average of 35 @.@ 14 — he took just five wickets outside of the Tests .
= = = Captain of Yorkshire = = =
Yardley was unavailable to captain the MCC tour of South Africa in the winter of 1948 – 49 , which was led by George Mann . Mann did well enough to retain the position for two Tests in the 1949 season ; Freddie Brown captained the other two and Yardley did not play for England that year . In all first @-@ class matches that season , he scored 1 @,@ 612 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 48 and took 22 wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 86 . He did not score a century in the County Championship , but passed three figures for Yorkshire against the New Zealand touring team and for the North against the South in a festival match . His only representative game outside of festival matches was for the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord 's ; Mann was appointed captain for the game . That season , Yorkshire shared the County Championship with Middlesex , the only time Yorkshire won the competition during Yardley 's leadership .
Yardley 's batting form dipped in the 1950 season . He scored 1 @,@ 082 runs at an average of 24 @.@ 59 , the final time he reached four figures in a season . With the ball he took 19 wickets at an average of 32 @.@ 10 . Yorkshire finished third in the County Championship behind joint winners Lancashire and Surrey . It took seven matches for Yardley to reach fifty runs in an innings , but he hit centuries against Surrey , Somerset and Scotland in the second half of the season . The West Indies toured England and Yardley resumed the England captaincy ; he also captained MCC against the tourists and England against The Rest in a Test trial . However , neither Yardley nor Mann , the two likeliest candidates , were able to accept the captaincy of the MCC side in Australia that winter . The selectors spent much of the season assessing other players . Although Yardley represented the Gentlemen against the Players , the side was led by Brown , who scored a century and was appointed captain of the touring side . Brown also assumed the captaincy of England for the final Test against West Indies and Yardley was left out of the team . In the three Tests he played , Yardley scored 108 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 00 with a top score of 41 . He won the first Test but lost the next two , West Indies ' first Test wins in England ; the final Test was also lost by Brown . Following this series , Yardley did not play any more Tests , although his name was mentioned as a potential captain in 1953 before Hutton was appointed as England 's first professional captain of the twentieth century . At the time , Yardley was still considered the best amateur candidate . In 20 Tests , Yardley scored 812 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 37 and four fifties . With the ball , he took 21 wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 66 . On the fourteen occasions he was captain , he won four times , lost seven and drew three .
Yorkshire finished second in the County Championship to Warwickshire in the 1951 season and second to Surrey in the 1952 season . However , in following season , Yorkshire dropped to equal twelfth , their worst ever finish at that time . In the following two seasons , the team were again runners up , Surrey winning on both occasions . Yardley scored more than 850 runs in each season , but only managed two more centuries . These were 183 not out against Hampshire in 1951 , the highest innings of his career , and an unbeaten score of exactly 100 against Gloucestershire in his final season . His batting average was generally between 24 and 31 , except in 1953 when in matches in England he averaged 36 @.@ 53 . Yardley used himself as a bowler more often in 1951 and 1952 , delivering more overs than any other time in his career in the latter year . He took 32 and 43 wickets respectively in each season , his highest two season totals , and taking five wickets in an innings on three occasions , having only done so twice before . However , he bowled less often during his final three seasons , with a subsequent drop in his tally of wickets . His only representative cricket , apart from annual matches at the Scarborough Festival for the Gentlemen against the Players and occasionally for T. N. Pearce 's XI , was the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's in 1954 .
Judgements were mixed on Yardley 's performance as Yorkshire 's captain . His record would have been considered good at any other county , but not by the standards set by previous Yorkshire sides . Critics felt that Yorkshire should have won the Championship with the players available . Contemporaries believed him to be the best captain in the country tactically , taking reasonable chances without too many risks and judging players strengths and weakness . Trevor Bailey , who played against him for Essex and under him for England , wrote that he thought him " an outstanding tactician and an expert on wicket behaviour . He was unquestionably one of the best captains I have ever played with or against . It has been said that he was too nice to lead Yorkshire , but I cannot think of anybody I have preferred playing under . " Alan Gibson believed that unlike some county captains , Yardley was worth his place in the side on cricketing ability . However , he seemed unable to extract the best from his players . Jim Kilburn noted that he used orthodox tactics , even when a different approach was called for , while other critics believed that he was shocked by the attitude of some difficult players in the side . Neither Yardley nor Hutton , his senior professional , were disciplinarians in the dressing room and kept apart from others . Both were frequently absent , playing in representative matches . This may have inflamed the situation , leading to accusations that some players were out of control . Yardley disliked confrontation , and Ray Illingworth , who played under him , described him as too nice to stand up to his players . But Bob Appleyard , another of his former players , gives Yardley credit for recognising his potential and encouraging him to become a spinner , and believes that he and Hutton made a formidable pair of tacticians . Generally , he was popular with his players .
Between 1951 and 1954 , Yardley served as a Test selector , serving as chairman in 1952 at the time when Hutton was chosen as England captain . Following the 1955 season , aged 40 and increasingly bothered by lumbago , Yardley retired from the team . He ended his first @-@ class career with 18 @,@ 173 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 17 , and 279 wickets at an average of 30 @.@ 48 . Wisden later described him as " the finest Yorkshire amateur since F. S. Jackson " .
= = Style and technique = =
Yardley had a good technique for batting . He possessed a fluent , attractive style , and his height allowed him to reach the ball and drive more comfortably than most . His best shots were on the leg side , using his strong wrists to turn the ball away when it was aimed towards his legs . Yardley performed best when his side was in difficulty , and he could play attacking or defensive innings depending on the situation . He bowled intelligently , leading to greater rewards than his gentle style led opponents to expect , but remained a reluctant bowler who was surprised by his own success . He was a good fielder in positions close to the batsmen .
= = Career after cricket = =
Yardley worked as a wine merchant outside cricket . After his retirement from playing he worked as a cricket journalist and served as an expert summariser on Test Match Special from 1956 until 1969 , as well as in 1973 . According to David Frith , the only time he was moved to express severe disapproval was when Brian Close was dismissed after a poor shot in the Fourth Test in 1961 at Old Trafford ; this was part of a final @-@ day England collapse that handed Australia the match and a 2 – 1 series win after the hosts had been on course for victory and the series lead . Trevor Bailey , who was a colleague in the commentary box for the later part of Yardley 's time with Test Match Special , wrote : " I always considered Norman Yardley to be an ideal summariser : accurate , informative and very sensible , and able to explain not only what happened but also the reasons why . His knowledge about pitches , tactics and the technicalities of the game was exceptional ... Articulate , expert , and possessing considerable charge [ sic ] , I thought his interpretation of events on the field and his post @-@ session summaries were sound , balanced and never less than fair . "
He served on the Yorkshire Cricket Committee , and from 1981 , he was Yorkshire President . However , he became involved in the controversy surrounding Geoffrey Boycott , to whom the committee had decided not to give a new contract . Yardley resigned early in 1984 after a vote of no confidence , dismayed by the attitude of Boycott 's supporters . Anthony Woodhouse wrote in his history of Yorkshire : " he conducted affairs in a fair and unbiased manner . Alas , he should never have been burdened with the politics of Yorkshire cricket in the 1980s . " He died at Lodge Moor , Sheffield on 3 October 1989 following a stroke .
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= Vorontsov Palace ( Alupka ) =
The Vorontsov Palace ( Ukrainian : Воронцовський палац ; Russian : Воронцо ́ вский дворе ́ ц ) or the Alupka Palace is an historic palace situated at the foot of the Crimean Mountains near the town of Alupka in Crimea . The Vorontsov Palace is one of the oldest and largest palaces in Crimea , and is one of the most popular tourist attractions on Crimea 's southern coast .
The palace was built between 1828 and 1848 for Russian Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov for use as his personal summer residence at a cost of 9 million silver rubles . It was designed in a loose interpretation of the English Renaissance revival style by English architect Edward Blore and his assistant William Hunt . The building is a hybrid of several architectural styles , but faithful to none . Among those styles are elements of Scottish Baronial , Mughal architecture , and Gothic Revival architecture . Blore had designed many buildings in the United Kingdom , and was later particularly well known there for completing the design of Buckingham Palace in London .
Once completed , the palace was visited by many members of the Russian Empire 's elite ruling class ; a great number of these vastly wealthy nobles were so taken with the palace and its seaboard site that they were moved to create their own summer retreats in the Crimea . By the early 20th century not only many aristocrats , but also members of the Imperial Family , including the Tsar himself , has palaces in an assortment of architectural styles in the vicinity .
An important feature of the Vorontsov Palace is the adjoining park ensemble , which features 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) of greenery and forestry arranged by German landscape gardener Carolus Keebach . Today , the Vorontsov Palace is a part of the " Alupka Palace @-@ Park Complex , " a national historical preserve including the Massandra Palace in neighbouring Massandra .
Owing to its status as an important local tourist attraction and architectural monument , the Vorontov Palace and its surrounding park complex were commonly featured in Ukrainian and Soviet cinema productions such as : An Ordinary Miracle ( 1964 ) , Nebesnye lastochki ( 1976 ) , Crazy Day or The Marriage of Figaro ( 2004 ) , and Sappho ( 2008 ) .
Russian poet Ivan Bunin visited the palace in 1900 and wrote a short poem entitled " Long alley leading down to the shore ... " ( Russian : К прибрежью моря длинная аллея ... ) .
= = History = =
In the period following the Napoleonic wars , the new city of Odessa emerged as Russia 's southern capital with a vibrant cosmopolitan society centered on a handful of brilliant Russian aristocrats and beautiful Polish ladies such as Zofia Potocka and Karolina Rzewuska . According to Filipp Vigel , the viceroy 's court in Odessa looked like a " small capital of an imperial fürst " . While many Neoclassical buildings appeared in Odessa , the Crimea ( or Taurica , as it was then better known ) was still perceived as a wild , exotic hinterland . The mid @-@ 1820s saw the appearance of highly popular Romantic works celebrating its rugged beauty , such as Alexander Pushkin 's poem The Fountain of Bakhchisaray and Adam Mickiewicz 's Crimean Sonnets . Both poets were fascinated with Lord Byron 's Oriental romances and pictured the Crimea as an exotic land of Tartar Muslim traditions which had flourished in the Khanate of Crimea until its demise in 1783 .
Mikhail Vorontsov was appointed Viceroy of Novorossiya in May 1823 . Even before their arrival in Odessa , the Vorontsovs started buying up lands in the southwest of Crimea , which was sparsely populated and little known at the time . Alupka was bought in 1824 from colonel Theodosios Reveliotis , the owner of Livadia and Oreanda . By that time , the Vorontsovs also had property in Gurzuf , Massandra , Ai @-@ Danil , and Cape Martian .
= = = Original design and ethos = = =
The Vorontsov Palace was commissioned as a summer residence for the Governor @-@ General of Novorossiya , Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov ( born 1782 – died 1856 ) . The Prince was a dedicated Anglophile . His father , Semyon Vorontsov , had been Catherine the Great 's ambassador to England , and the Prince had been educated in London . His sister , Catherine , had married an English aristocrat and become the châtelaine of one of England 's grandest country houses , Wilton House . On the accession of Paul I , in 1796 , Semyon Vorontsov fell from favour and his estates confiscated and not returned until 1801 , after the accession of Alexander 1 . It 's therefore unsurprising that he chose to reside with his daughter in England until his death and that Mikhail Vorontsov was a frequent visitor to that country .
Vorontsov had been purchasing land from the local Tartars for the site of his new palace at Alupka from 1823 ; however , the acquisition had been part of a deal which necessitated Vorontsov to build a new mosque . Part of the site had already been planted with fine trees in 1787 for Prince Potemkin by the English landscape gardener William Gould as part of Potemkin 's " improvements " to the area in perpetration of a visitation by Catherine the Great following Potemkin 's bloodless annexation of the Crimea to Russia . On acquiring ownership of the site , Vorontsov immediately employed the German gardener Karl Kebach to further improve the site and layout the grounds and gardens for the proposed new palace .
In 1824 , the architect Philip Elson was commissioned to build a small house for the Vorontsov family to inhabit while the new palace was under construction . Now much altered in form , and known as the Asiatic Pavilion , this building still stands .
Originally , the prince wanted a strictly Classical design , and plans for such a design were executed , in Chester by architect Thomas Harrison and modified , on site , by Odessa architect Francesco Boffo . The two architects had previously worked together on the design for Vorontsov 's official residence in Odessa . Harrison 's plans for he palace at Alupka show a classical villa on the site of the present palace 's corps de logis with bedroom floors below , on what are now the lower terraces of the present palace . On the garden front , facing the sea , the plans show a large double height classical exedra ; Vorontsov must have approved of this concept as it was the only feature ( albeit transformed to an Islamic style ) , to be incorporated from Harrison 's plans into the new plans .
Construction began in 1828 , however , it was suspended in June 1831 before the building has risen from its foundations . This may have been because the principal architect Harrison had died the previous year and Boffo working alone may not have been an option – his alterations to Harrison 's plans for the Governor 's residence in Odessa had been unfavorably received .
= = = Change of plan = = =
Vorontsov had traveled widely in England , and had doubtless seen the newly emerging Jacobethan style – a hybrid revival styles based on the English buildings of the late 16th and early 17th centuries , which , in turn , had been influenced by the English Renaissance style which had belatedly evolved from the Italian Renaissance style of a century earlier . Vorontsov decided to review the design in order to incorporate these new trends from Western European architecture .
This major change from a Classical design to a far more complex revival style , little known in Russia , meant Vorontsov had to find an alternative architect to execute a new design . This was further complicated by Vorontsov 's desire to not only have a loose Jacobethan style , but also to incorporate motifs from Islamic architecture so as to highlight the oriental strain evident in the Khan 's Palace , Enikale Fort , and other local Tatar architecture . The resulting design was to highlight the Crimea 's position as a place where the East and West meet . It was a radical departure from the Neoclassical strain that dominated the Russian architecture of the period .
As a result of the expansion of the British Empire , a similar approach was also gaining popularity in Britain . An Anglicised interpretation of Islamic architecture is exemplified by the Brighton Royal Pavilion , completed in 1823 , and the Sezincote House , completed a few years earlier . Both these buildings drew heavily on the Islamic motifs , which were later to be evident at the Vorontsov Palace and were new and novel designs at the time of the Prince 's visit to England .
Vorontsov decided upon the British architect Edward Blore to redesign and complete the building . Blore was a curious choice of architect ; though able his work has often been often considered bland and uninspired . The eminent architectural historian Howard Colvin claimed that " a dull competence pervaded all his work " , while the country house architectural expert Mark Girouard has described Blore as " a bit of a bore . " However , Blore 's stolid and conventional designs were admired by the English Tory aristocracy – a class to which Vorontsov 's sister belonged and for whom Blore had worked at Wilton . The Anglophile Vorontsov was also a great admirer and friend of Sir Walter Scott for whom Blore had worked at the great Scottish baronial country house Abbotsford ; therefore it seems likely that these latter connections led Vorontsov to Blore .
Blore had already worked on many grand British buildings and a couple of buildings in colonial Australia . Blore himself did not visit the town of Alupka , however , he was well informed about the area 's mountainous landscape and terrain . Construction restarted in 1830 , under the supervision of Blore 's fellow architect William Hunt .
= = = Architecture = = =
Blore 's new plan for the corps de logis of house was constrained by Vorontsov 's wish to use the footings and foundations which had been built for Harrison 's original design ; this severely restricted the shape , size and layout of the palaces principal rooms . However , rather than erect a compact and low classical villa , as Harrison had designed , Blore 's plan was radically different , with strong English Tudor Renaissance features on the northern side , and an eclectic medley of western and Islamic features on the southern . The central bay of the southern facade was inspired by Delhi 's Jummah Masjid mosque , which enabled the classical exedra of Harrison 's design to be incorporated , once given an Islamic makeover , harmoniously into the design .
In places , the seemingly at odds architectural styles can be viewed simultaneously ; this is particularly so in the chimney stacks which resemble Islamic minarets . These coupled with the castellated parapets add what appears to be an almost Moorish element to the late English Renaissance air of the northern facade .
However , it is the southern garden facade which displays the strongest of the building 's Islamic influences ; it has a flat roof and is topped by two minaret @-@ style towers at its centre . These minarets flank the massive , central bay , this takes the form of a projecting double height porch entered through a high Islamic horseshoe arch . The interior of the porch takes the form of an exedra , which is really an elaborately decorated open vestibule ; it has an inscribed Shahada stating " There is no God but Allah " in Arabic . The porch is flanked by two short wings , each of two bays and adorned with cast iron balconies and verandahs overlooking over the terraces and their statuary .
While the designs for the corps de logis were confined by the foundations of Harrison 's earlier plan , the secondary wings and precincts were not . Abandoning completely Harrisons concept of bedrooms set in terraces beneath the corp de logis , Blore 's assistant architect , Hunt , opted for the typical vast sprawling wings and servants ' quarters of the 19th century English country house . These took full advantage of the gradients and topography of the site , and with their courtyards came to resemble a small medieval , fortified town of towers and high castellated walls . Nowhere is this more evident than the Shuvalov Passage , an enclosed carriage drive squeezed between the high walls of two wings , leading from the castellated Western Gatehouse to the forecourt before the northern facade . The passage , which twists and turn beneath high wall and towers and even passes under a bridge , resembles the street of a medieval town , rather than the approach to a country house .
= = = Construction = = =
Vorotsov imported thousands of his serfs from the Moscow , Vladimir , and Voronezh governorates of the Russian Empire to construct the palace . These unpaid workers performed all the labour by hand , aided only by primitive hand tools . Masons were also brought in to help with the construction . The palace 's ashlar blocks were made from a local greenish @-@ gray tinge diabase , chosen for its unique color to match the colours of the surrounding mountainous landscape and forest greenery . All other building materials were imported from outside the Empire .
One of the first of the palace 's many rooms to be completed was the main dining room , built from 1830 to 1834 . The principal central wing of the mansion was constructed from 1831 to 1837 . Between 1841 and 1842 , a billiard room was constructed adjoining the dining room . From 1838 through to 1844 , the guest wing , the east wing , towers , the service wing , and the front entrance were completed . The final wing built of the mansion was the library wing ; this was under construction from 1842 to 1844 . The remaining four years of building works were spent on the palace 's interior decoration .
William Hunt , the onsite architect employed to oversee Blore 's design , while remaining faithful to Blore 's overall plans , was not afraid to alter them . Most notably , the Western Gatehouse , the main approach to the palace , was intended to have octagonal towers , but Hunt redesigned the gatehouse in an English 14th @-@ century castle style , with solid round towers and machicolations , nearly identical to the towers at Bodiam Castle , East Sussex .
After completion of the palace , Hunt remained at Alupka working on an assortment of projects in and around the estate building long carriage drives , roads and structural improvements to the gardens surrounding the palace . One of his largest projects was an extension to the palace itself , the Shuvalov wing , which was to be the summer retreat of the Vorontsov 's daughter Countess Sofia Shuvalova and her children , the countess was estranged from her husband This wing linled the palace to the western gatehouse , and created the enclosed Shuvalov Passage leading to the main entrance . Hunt remained in the Prince 's employ until his retirement in 1852 .
= = Interior = =
The palace consists of a total of 150 rooms , the principal of which are panelled with wood block floors . Inside the corps de logis , it had been Blore 's intention to follow the English 19th century tradition of distinct masculine and feminine suites of reception rooms ; with a library , dining rooms and billiard room ensuite to left of the central hall for men , and a massive drawing room to the right for women . This layout of sexually designated zones had become popular in Victorian England ; however its intention was not to segregate the sexes , but more to define furnishings – the male zones tended to have heavy oak furniture and dark ' Turkey ' carpets , whereas the female zones would have more delicate furnishings of rosewood , Aubusson carpets and chintz soft furnishings . However , for unknown reasons , this concept was never executed and the female part of the house was extended into the male territory , with the intended billiard room becoming the countess 's boudoir while the study became a further small sitting room for feminine use . Above these seaward facing rooms were the family bedrooms .
Following the female claim to the principal rooms of the corps de logis , the library and dining room were relocated to a secondary wing not built until much later . This secondary wing is linked to the west of corps de logis by a large arcaded loggia ; originally open , it is now glazed and known as the Winter Garden . A later secondary wing , known as the Shuvalov wing ( named after Vorontsov 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Count Shuvalov ) was not part of Blore 's original plan and designed by his assistant , William Hunt .
The most notable of which are the blue room , chintz room , dining room , and the Chinese cabinet . The museum covers the first floor 's first eight rooms , featuring more than 11 @,@ 000 exhibits , including engravings of the 18th century , paintings from the 16th through 19th centuries , including those depicting Crimean scenarios by Armenian seascape painter Ivan Aivazovsky , as well as furniture crafted by Russian wood masters from the 19th century .
The library , the last of the palace 's rooms to be completed , is based on Sir Walter Scott 's own library , revealing the personal friendship that Blore had with Scott . Inside , the library features about 6 @,@ 000 literary and musical works of the 18th and 19th centuries . The interior 's woodwork , including the doors , panelling , and ceilings , is made out of oak . The walls are adorned in cloth , with designs made by Dutch , Flemish , French , and Italian painters . The palace 's Gothic fireplaces are made out of polished diabase .
= = Grounds = =
The palace sits surrounded by gardens and a park ; these grounds consisting of 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) were laid out by the German landscape gardener Carolus Keebach. in the first half of the 19th century in the form of an amphitheatre : featuring wide open spaces and gardens planted alongside the walkways . The walkways are gravelled with 29 bags of coloured stones from the Crimean village of Koktebel .
The largest of the landscaping undertakings carried out on the palace 's grounds were performed between 1840 and 1848 with the aid of soldiers , who also assisted in the formation and leveling of the terraces laid out before of the palace 's southern façade . Fauna was introduced from various locations throughout the world , including the Mediterranean , the Americas , and East Asia . Flora imported over a 150 years ago still numbers almost 200 species .
Keebach had the park designed in such a way that it would incorporate the landscape 's native vegetation , mountain springs , and nearby rocky masses , in addition to foreign plant species brought in from the Mediterranean , both North and South America , as well as from East Asia . Today , the park still features more than 200 exotic tree and shrub species , including a wide variety of palm trees , laurels , cypresses , olive trees , and evergreen viburnum , among many others .
In the summer of 1848 , the palace and its grounds were enhanced by the addition of three pairs of white marble Medici lions ; this statuary was placed alongside the wide flight of steps climbing the terraces to the palace . Each of the statues , by Italian sculptor Giovanni Bonnani , are depicted in a varying pose – a pair of " sleeping lions " at the bottom of the steps , " waking lions " near the centre , and " standing lions " at the top nearest the palace .
Crimea 's coastal highway runs through the park , dividing it into the upper and lower portions . The upper park is dominated by the mountain springs , as well as by the native southern coast forestry and clusters of foreign tree growth . A feature of the upper park is the Fountain of Trilby , which was placed there in 1829 . The lower park is modelled upon a style called the Italian Renaissance garden . It features three pairs of Medici lions near the staircase leading up to the palace 's southern façade , carved out of carrara marble by sculptor Giovanni Bonnani .
= = Influence = =
The construction of Mikhail Vorontsov 's summer residence in Alupka so impressed Tsar Nicholas I that he decided to have his own family retreat built at neighbouring Oreanda . In September 1837 , the Tsar and Tsarina visited the Crimea for the first time . The viceroy entertained them at his new residence in Alupka . Impressed with the palace and its setting , the Prussian @-@ born Empress commissioned from Karl Friedrich Schinkel , a Berlin @-@ based architect , a design for a new residence . His design called for a striking combination of Greek Revival and Egyptian Revival elements . The palace was to be perched on the craggy shore in Oreanda . The court architect Andrei Stackenschneider offered a less expensive design , which was adopted . The Tsarina 's palace was built between 1843 and 1853 under the supervision of William Hunt and Combioggio , an architect from Odessa . This edifice was destroyed by a 1882 conflagration , with only a marble rotunda remaining . The next emperor , Alexander II , had the royal residence moved to Livadia .
Vorontsov 's building activities started a tradition of imperial residency of the area which would attract many of Russia 's smart and most elite to also build villas and palaces in the Crimea . One of the first such buildings was the Gaspra Palace , designed by William Hunt in the 1830s for Prince Alexander Galitzine , one of Alexander I 's most trusted advisors . Blore 's design inspired another straightforward imitation on the eastern shore of the Black Sea : the Dadiani Palace in Zugdidi that was commissioned by the last Princess of Mingrelia in 1873 and , at the time of the Russian Revolution , was in possession of the House of Murat . Neo @-@ Moorish architectural elements were also incorporated in the design of the royal villas in Dulber and Likani .
= = Owners and occupiers = =
Count , later ( 1845 ) Prince Mikhail Vorontsov ( 30 May 1782 – 18 November 1856 ) , Viceroy of New Russia , builder of the palace . He was renowned for his success in the Napoleonic wars . As the Viceroy of the Caucasus from 1844 to 1853 , he supervised the conduct of the Caucasian War . Having completed the palace , Vorotsov , now suffering progressive blindness , spent little time there . His commitments to the expanding Russian Empire took him to Tiflis ; there , he waged wars on the rebellious local tribes . The now elderly Vorontsov , a confirmed anglophile , was particularly distressed by the outbreak of the Crimean War , which , in England , was heavily promoted by his English nephew , Sidney Herbert . Embarrassed and distressed , he retired from public life to the privacy of Odessa . Vorontsov died in 1856 , having lived just long enough to see the signing of the Peace of Paris . Vorontsov 's tomb in the Odessa Cathedral was ruined by the Soviets , but his remains survived the Soviet era and were returned to the newly rebuilt cathedral in 2005 .
Countess , later Princess Yelizaveta Vorontsova ( 19 September 1792 – 27 April 1880 ) , a daughter of Count Franciszek Ksawery Branicki by Aleksandra von Engelhardt , one of the nieces and heiresses of Prince Potemkin , the founder of New Russia ( who was childless ) . She was one of the many Polish noble women who married the Russian aristocrats during the brief period of the " Polish enchantment " , when Alexander I publicly conducted an affair with Marie Czetwertyńska and his heir Konstantin was in love with her sister Joanna Wyszkowska . When exiled to the Black Sea coast after The Gabrieliad affair , Alexander Pushkin wooed Elise Vorontsova in Odessa and addressed several poems to her . Apparently resenting his advances , the countess complained to her husband , who had his young rival exiled to a northern village . After her husband 's death , Yelizaveta rarely visited the Alupka Palace , preferring to live in Odessa .
Prince Semyon Vorontsov ( 23 October 1823 – 6 May 1882 ) , the only son and heir of Prince Mikhail . He served under his father in the Caucasus with distinction and figures in Leo Tolstoy 's novella Hadji Murat , as do his wife and father . On 26 August 1851 he married in Alupka , against his parents ' wishes , Madame Stolypina , née Princess Trubetskaya , once famed for her radiant beauty . The couple found the cost of running the palace too high , and after making various economies they seldom visited the Crimea . After Semyon 's death without issue , the widow plundered the palace of many of its entailed furnishings and paintings and settled at the Avenue du Bois de Boulogne with the Duca di Montelfi , her son from a previous marriage .
Countess Sofia Shuvalova ( 1825 – 15 August 1879 ) , the daughter of Prince Mikhail and Princess Elizaveta . In 1844 , she married Count Andrei Shuvalov , the owner of Pargolovo ( not to be confused with another branch of the Shuvalov family whose family seat was the Schloss Ruhenthal in Courland ) . The marriage was not happy , inducing her to live separately from her husband , who died in the house of another woman in 1876 . From the 1850s Sofia and her children used Alupka as a country retreat , occupying the long West Wing now named after them , the Shuvalov Wing , while her brother Prince Semyon occupied the remainder of the palace .
Count , later ( 1882 ) Prince Pavel Vorontsov @-@ Shuvalov ( 1846 – 1885 ) , the son of Sofia Shuvalova and grandson of Mikhail Vorontsov , inherited the largely empty palace and the Vorontsov title on the death of his uncle in 1882 . He died three years later . His wife , Yelizaveta Stolypina , née Baroness Pilar von Pilchau , outlived him by 54 years . They had no children . An imperial ukase from 7 July 1882 designated Alupka the centrepiece of the Vorontsov majorat , which was to be inherited in the right of primogeniture .
Count Mikhail Shuvalov ( 7 July 1850 – 5 January 1904 ) inherited the entailed estate in 1885 from his brother Count Pavel . On 12 February 1886 , the Emperor authorized him to use the princely title and to style himself Prince Vorontsov @-@ Shuvalov . He was a bachelor and lived abroad . On his death , the title of Prince Vorontsov ( Serene Highness ) became extinct .
Countess Elizaveta Vorontsova @-@ Dashkova ( 25 July 1845 – 15 July 1924 ) , the elder sister of Pavel and Mikhail Shuvalov . She was the last private owner of the palace , and restored much of its former splendour , buying back many of its former furnishings , and living quietly there with her husband , Count Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov @-@ Dashkov , a scion of the only surviving branch of the Vorontsov family . At the beginning of the World War I , Count Illarion was the Governor @-@ General of Caucasus . He died in Alupka in 1916 .
Countess Yelizaveta Vorontsova @-@ Dashkova lived in the palace until April 1919 . During the great evacuation of the Crimea by the Russian Whites , she sailed to Malta aboard a British ship . She was accompanied by her grandchildren from the Sheremetev family , including Count Nikolai Sheremetev , who later married Princess Irina Yusupova ( Bébé ) . Yelizaveta 's descendants also include actress Anne Wiazemsky .
= = Later history = =
Four years after the October Revolution , in 1921 , the palace was nationalised , after which it was converted into a museum . This occupied the main , dining , and library wings of the building . In addition to the state @-@ confiscated Vorontsov family possessions , the museum also featured the exhibits of the nationalised estates of the Romanovs , Yusupovs , and Stroganovs all of whom had estates in the vicinity . In 1927 , the palace 's Shuvalov wing housed a sanatorium " 10 Years of October , " while the palace 's main concourse became home to Alupka resort 's polyclinic and spa baths .
When World War II began in 1941 , most of the museum 's exhibits were evacuated for safety from Alupka . However , some 537 artistic and graphics exhibits ( including temporary exhibition paintings from the State Russian Museum and the Simferopol Art Museum ) , 360 pieces of the building 's decor , sets of unique furniture , and a series of historic books were stolen by occupying Nazi German forces , amounting to a loss of 5 million rubles at the time .
During the war , Adolf Hitler presented the palace as a reward to Field Marshal Erich von Manstein , who made it personal headquarters . This explains why the palace was so well preserved . The building was later converted into a museum for Wehrmacht officers stationed in and around Crimea . Originally , the Nazis had planned to dynamite the palace , but the rapid advance of the Separate Coastal Army and supporting Yalta partisan groups during the Crimean Offensive saved the palace from destruction .
From 11 to 14 February 1945 , the Yalta Conference took place in the neighbouring , former imperial Livadia Palace ; this was between representatives from the United States , the United Kingdom , and the Soviet Union . Winston Churchill and his British delegation were given temporary residence within the Vorontsov Palace . Within two weeks , construction workers had restored 22 rooms in the main palace , 23 rooms in the Shuvalov wing , and even replanted the palace gardens . The palace 's English @-@ inspired architectural style gained praise from Churchill himself : Churchill was so taken by the garden 's Medici lions that he later asked Stalin if he could take them home ; Stalin declined the request .
The setting of our abode was impressive ... Behind the villa , half Gothic and half Moorish in style , rose the mountains , covered in snow , culminating in the highest peak in the Crimea . Before us lay the dark expanse of the Black Sea , severe , but still agreeable and warm even at this time of the year . Carved white lions guarded the entrance to the house , and beyond the courtyard lay a fine park with sub @-@ tropical plants and cypresses .
Following the war , the palace was used as a summer retreat for the Soviet secret police , and later as a trade sanatorium . In 1956 , the palace was once again reinstated as a museum , and two years later , it was further expanded by art treasures . However , the majority of the artwork looted during the war was never recovered , only a small fragment of the former collection was returned to the museum . In 1965 , the palace was included into the " Alupka Palace @-@ Park Complex , " a national historical preserve which also includes the Massandra Palace in neighboring Massandra , built in the Louis XIII château style for Russian Tsar Alexander III .
Although it has survived years of wear and warfare , one of the palace 's wings is now in danger of collapsing into the Black Sea below . Cracks have begun to appear in the library , housing almost 10 @,@ 000 books and manuscripts . Although Edward Blore had a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art drainage system built into the palace 's foundation , years of neglect and the construction of a nearby sewage pipe in 1974 have helped to increase the potential for a landslide . Another potential looming disaster is surrounding the medieval @-@ style gatehouse near the palace 's west side .
= = Gallery = =
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= Hugh Boyle Ewing =
Hugh Boyle Ewing , ( October 31 , 1826 – June 30 , 1905 ) , was a diplomat , author , attorney , and Union Army general during the American Civil War . He was a member of the prestigious Ewing family , son of Thomas Ewing , the eldest brother of Thomas Ewing , Jr. and Charles Ewing , and the foster brother and brother @-@ in @-@ law of William T. Sherman . General Ewing was an ambitious , literate , and erudite officer who held a strong sense of responsibility for the men under his command . He combined his West Point experience with the Civil War system of officer election .
Ewing 's wartime service was characterized by several incidents which would have a unique impact on history . In 1861 , his political connections helped save the reputation of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William T. Sherman , who went on to become one of the north 's most successful generals . Ewing himself went on to become Sherman 's most trusted subordinate . His campaigning eventually led to the near @-@ banishment of Lorenzo Thomas , a high @-@ ranking regular army officer who had intrigued against Sherman . He was present at the Battle of Antietam , where his brigade saved the flank of the Union Army late in the day . During the Vicksburg campaign , Ewing accidentally came across personal correspondence from Confederate President Jefferson F. Davis to former President Franklin Pierce which eventually ruined the reputation of the latter . Ewing was also present in Kentucky during Major General Stephen G. Burbridge 's " reign of terror " , where he worked to oppose Burbridge 's harsh policies against civilians , but was hampered by debilitating rheumatism . He ended the war with an independent command , a sign he held the confidence of his superiors , acting in concert with Sherman to trap Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in North Carolina .
After the war , Ewing spent time as Ambassador to the Netherlands and became a noted author . He died in 1905 on his family farm .
= = Early life and career = =
Hugh Ewing was born in Lancaster , Ohio . He was educated at the U.S. military academy , but was forced to resign on the eve of graduation after failing an engineering exam , which was a major embarrassment to his family . While a member of the cadet corps , he was close friends with future Union generals John Buford Jr . , Nathaniel C. McLean , and John C. Tidball . His father appointed Philip Sheridan to the open seat .
During the gold rush in 1849 , Ewing went to California , where he joined an expedition ordered by his father , then Secretary of the Interior , to rescue immigrants who were imprisoned in the Sierra by heavy snows . He returned in 1852 with dispatches for the government .
He then completed his course in law and settled in St. Louis . He practiced law there from 1854 to 1856 , when he moved with his young brother , Thomas Jr . , and brothers @-@ in @-@ law William T. Sherman and Hampden B. Denman to Leavenworth , Kansas , and began speculating in lands , roads , and government housing . They quickly established one of the leading law firms of Leavenworth , as well as a financially powerful land agency .
In 1858 , Ewing married Henrietta Young , daughter of George W. Young , a large planter of the District of Columbia , whose family was prominent in the settlement and history of Maryland . He soon afterward took charge of his father 's salt works in Ohio .
= = Civil War = =
In April 1861 , Governor William Dennison appointed Ewing as the brigade @-@ inspector of Ohio volunteers . He served under Rosecrans and McClellan in western Virginia . Ewing became colonel of the 30th Ohio Volunteer Infantry in August 1861 .
In November 1861 , when his brother @-@ in @-@ law William T. Sherman was relieved of his command in disgrace , Ewing aided his younger sister Ellen Ewing Sherman in making the rounds of Washington D.C. , denying sensationalist media claims that Sherman was insane , and personally lobbying the President for Sherman 's reinstatement . Ewing and his sister argued that Sherman 's requests for men and material in Kentucky had been denied in Washington , and that the charges of insanity had been part of a conspiracy orchestrated by Adjutant General Lorenzo Thomas . Eventually the political influence of the Ewing family persevered , and with the assistance of Henry Halleck , Sherman was returned to command . President Abraham Lincoln praised Sherman 's " talent & conduct " publicly to a large group of important officers , and later banished Thomas to a meaningless post on recruiting duty in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Theater .
Under McClellan , Ewing commanded a regiment and then a brigade in the Kanawha Division in the IX Corps . In the Battle of South Mountain , he led the assault which drove the enemy from the summit ; and at midnight of that day , he received an order placing him in command of the brigade of Colonel Eliakim P. Scammon , who was in temporary command of the Kanawha division after its commander Major General Jacob D. Cox had been elevated to command of the IX Corps , replacing the fallen Major General Jesse Lee Reno who was killed earlier that day . At Antietam his brigade was placed upon the extreme left of the army , where , according to the report of the commander of the left wing , General Ambrose Burnside , " by a brilliant change of front he saved the left from being completely driven in . "
After Antietam , Ewing was placed on sick leave because of chronic dysentery , and was promoted to Brigadier General on November 29 , 1862 . He transferred West and served throughout the campaign before Vicksburg , leading the assaults made by General Sherman ; and upon its fall was placed in command of a division in the XVI Corps . At Chattanooga , he was given command of the 4th Division of the XV Corps , which formed the advance of Sherman 's army and carried Missionary Ridge . Prior to the Battle of Chattanooga , Ewing 's command led a diversionary raid that resulted in the destruction of the Empire State Iron Works in Dade County , Georgia , which was being refurbished to increase the South 's manufacturing capability . Sherman considered Ewing his most reliable division commander .
In the aftermath of Vicksburg , Ewing 's command wrecked Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's Fleetwood Plantation , and Ewing turned over Davis ' personal correspondence to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Sherman . However , Ewing also sent copies of the letters to a few people he had known in Ohio , which , after the documents were published , permanently sullied the reputation of former President Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire . Their release coincided with that of Pierce 's book , Our Old Home . As early as 1860 , Pierce had written to Davis about " the madness of northern abolitionism " , and other letters uncovered stated that he would " never justify , sustain , or in any way or to any extent uphold this cruel , heartless , aimless unnecessary war " , and that " the true purpose of the war was to wipe out the states and destroy property . "
In October 1863 , Ewing was placed in command of the occupation forces in Louisville , Kentucky . He was unfortunate enough to serve during Maj. Gen. Stephen Gano Burbridge 's " reign of terror , " where martial law was declared several times . On August 11 , 1864 , Burbridge ordered soldiers from the 26th Kentucky to select four men to be taken from prison in Louisville to Eminence , Kentucky , to be shot for unknown outrages , and on August 20 , several suspected Confederate guerrillas were also to be taken from Louisville and executed . General Ewing declared their innocence and sought a pardon from Burbridge , but he refused to give the pardon and the men were shot .
In his autobiography , Ewing describes an incident in October 1862 with Colonel Augustus Moor , who had struck a member of Ewing 's regiment with his sword when the enlisted soldier had fallen out of a march . Ewing immediately confronted Moor . In his own words :
He was at the table with his Staff and Colonels , drinking Ohio wine from long @-@ necked bottles , and smoking , and presented quite an old @-@ time German scene . I Told him I would not tolerate the German custom of treating common soldiers , if applied to my men , by any officer . I preserved discipline by taking care of my troops , collectively and individually .
Colonel Moor quickly apologized . While General Ewing respected the discipline of the German regiment , he preferred a different atmosphere in his own command , better suited to Americans . He was capable of recognizing the military tradition of other units while accommodating the unique needs of his own . General Ewing was ordered to North Carolina in 1865 , and was planning an expedition up the Roanoke river to co @-@ operate with the Army of the James , when Lee surrendered .
In 1864 , Ewing suffered an attack of rheumatism , and received treatment several times thereafter , often being confined to his chair . He was likely prostrated with illness as Commander of Louisville during Burbridge 's madness in Kentucky . He was made a brevet major general on March 13 , 1865 . After leaving the Army , he experienced painful attacks for the rest of his life , often bedridden for periods of up to forty days .
= = Postbellum career = =
President Andrew Johnson appointed Ewing as U.S. Minister to Holland , where he served from 1866 to 1870 . This appointment may have drawn the ire of the Radical Republicans , for Speaker of the House James G. Blaine urged President Ulysses S. Grant that Ewing be recalled and replaced with his brother , Charles Ewing . Blaine told the President that Hugh was ' acting badly ' . Blaine himself was disingenuous , having represented to prominent politicians in Ohio including Senator John Sherman that he was doing everything possible to nominate his close personal friend , former Ohio General Roeliff Brinkerhoff , for the post . Nonetheless , Blaine 's request to recall General Ewing was never acted upon , possibly due to the influence of his sister , whose husband General Sherman was a very close friend to President Grant .
Upon his eventual return to the United States , Ewing retired to a farm near Lancaster , Ohio , where he died of old age .
He was the author of : The Black List ; A Tale of Early California ( 1887 ) ; A Castle in the Air ( 1887 ) ; The Gold Plague , and other works .
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= Ben Thompson ( actor ) =
Ben Thompson ( born 1 June 1992 ) is an English actor best known for his role as Ryan Connor in the British soap opera Coronation Street . Brought up in Radcliffe , Greater Manchester , Thompson made his screen debut when he appeared in the 2002 film Re @-@ Inventing Eddie . Shortly before turning 13 , he appeared in the 2004 CBBC children 's comedy programme Stupid ! .
Thompson rose to further prominence when he was cast as teenager Ryan Connor in Coronation Street in 2006 . As part of the longstanding series , he has been involved in storylines that have dealt with varying topics , including family life , death and coming of age . In addition to his career as an actor , Thompson is also an amateur musician . He is a member of the Rusholme Ruffians , an indie group who are largely influenced by established Manchester bands .
= = Youth and early career = =
Ben Thompson was brought up in Radcliffe , a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Bury , in Greater Manchester , England . He trained in acting from the age of eight at the Carol Godby Theatre Workshop in Bury . For five years , Thompson was educated at nearby Radcliffe Riverside High School . He later reflected that he enjoyed his time at school , interacted well with his teachers and " never went into one lesson where there wasn 't [ something ] interesting to do " .
In 2002 , Thompson starred alongside John Lynch , Geraldine Somerville , Lauren Cook and John Thomson in the Jim Doyle @-@ directed film Re @-@ Inventing Eddie . The movie is about a man named Eddie ( Lynch ) , who is hounded by social services and branded a paedophile after an innocent bathtime game with his children is taken out of context . About two years later and shortly before entering teenagehood , Thompson successfully auditioned to feature in the BBC children 's comedy programme Stupid ! . Out of around 400 hopeful youngsters , he was one of only a few to be selected to appear in the show . Prior to Stupid ! ' s launch on the CBBC channel in 2004 , Thompson commented , " When I first started going to auditions I was quite nervous but now I just get on with it . I go to quite a few and it gets easier . "
= = Coronation Street = =
Thompson auditioned in 2006 for the role of Cameron McIntyre in the long @-@ standing British soap opera Coronation Street . The part would have had him be on @-@ screen friends with Chesney Brown , played by Sam Aston , who Thompson already knew from the Carol Godby Theatre Workshop . Producers for Coronation Street , however , were so impressed by Thompson that they asked him to audition for a different role . His try @-@ out was successful and he was given a six @-@ month contract , along with the option to extend it for up to a year . He was cast as Ryan Connor , a boy who moves to Weatherfield — the fictional Greater Manchester setting of Coronation Street — with his mother , Michelle ( played by actress and former Hear 'Say band member Kym Marsh ) , and her brothers , Liam ( Rob James @-@ Collier ) and Paul ( Sean Gallagher ) . The Bolton News reported that Thompson would spend between one and two days in front of the camera , and that he would be given an on @-@ set tutor to help complete his school work .
On his first day of filming , in July 2006 , Thompson — who grew up watching Coronation Street — was starstruck . " [ It ] was the strangest day of my life because I was in a room with all these famous people . " He added : " It was completely different to how I imagined it would be . Everyone 's been really nice to me and it 's going well . " Prior to the airing of the Connor family 's arrival on the famous cobblestone street in August 2006 , Thompson commented , " I can 't say too much about Ryan and the story lines , but he 's very mischievous . The character is not a bad lad , but he 's not a good lad either . " Garth Philips , series producer , said at the time , " We held extensive casting sessions to get this family right , and the energy that Sean , Rob , Kym and Ben have will certainly make them a joy to watch on screen . " He continued , " They 're a twenty @-@ first century Coronation Street family , and we hope our viewers will be as enthralled and excited by them as we are . "
Within his first year on Coronation Street , Thompson had acted out scenes that involved his character stealing a car , graffiting the wall of the local newsagents , and discovering that his mother 's fiancée was having a gay affair with her male best friend . Still impressed with Thompson 's acting ability , producers of the series had his contract extended to 2009 . Reflecting on his first year in the soap , Thompson said : " It 's been a really strange year and a lot of things have happened . It 's been absolutely brilliant . The filming is everything that I could have wanted it to be . It 's fantastic and I enjoy it more than anything . " He added : " My favourite story lines so far have been doing the graffiti and stealing the car . I really enjoyed filming those two . "
In 2009 , opposite Sacha Parkinson , who plays Sian Powers , Thompson filmed his first screen kiss . He said of the experience , " It was bizarre because Sacha had done one before and I hadn 't . I knew the line I had to say and then kiss her . I knew it every time , and every time I said it I was shaking . " He continued , " Oh it was dreadful . I mean I don 't get nervous when I go on stage or anything like that , but it was just bizarre . It was one of those things that I got really nervous about . " The on @-@ screen romance was part of a controversial New Year 's Eve storyline which featured the two characters attempting to see in 2010 by losing their virginities , only to be discovered by Ryan 's adoptive mother Michelle . In May 2012 , it was confirmed that Ryan would be recast and played by Sol Heras , because Thompson chose not to return .
= = Private life and interests = =
Thompson has a keen interest in music and has played the guitar for several years . He often takes the instrument to work with him , as a means of occupying himself during takes . The actor is part of a group : the Rusholme Ruffians , formed by himself and two of his fellow schoolmates while they were still at Radcliffe Riverside High . The Rusholme Ruffians have performed at venues throughout the UK and the band 's set list includes their own material , as well as songs by home @-@ town influences such as Morrissey , The Smiths , Oasis , James and The Stone Roses . Thompson has expressed an interest in getting into the music industry later in life . He attended Holy Cross College in Bury , which he left after a year due to filming commitments .
Ben studied at SSR ( School of Sound Recording ) in Manchester and went on to work at Blueprint Studios in Salford .
= = Filmography = =
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= Ozy and Millie =
Ozy and Millie is a webcomic , created by D. C. Simpson syndicated by North America Syndicate , which debuted in January 1997 . The comic was part of Keenspot from 2001 to 2003 , going independent for several years before returning to Keenspot in November 2006 . It follows the adventures of assorted anthropomorphized animals . New strips were released on most weekdays , though the comic 's run ended in 2008 . The comic centers on Ozy and Millie , two young foxes attending North Harbordale Elementary School in Seattle , contending with everyday elementary school issues such as tests and bullies , as well as more surreal situations . Although the strip ceased being produced in 2008 , it is currently being re @-@ run on GoComics .
The strip concentrates on character interaction , but sometimes veers into commentary based on Simpson 's political views . Most of the strips have been reprinted in book form . Five collections were released through Plan 9 Publishing , but they have all gone out of print ; currently a complete set of the strip 's archives is available through Lulu.com. The strip is listed in the top 200 most read webcomic on The Webcomic List .
= = History = =
Ozy and Millie originally started as a print comic strip in a Washington college newspaper , the Copper Point Journal , in 1997 using ink and brush as drawing implements . Simpson claims to have been influenced by comics and cartoons such as Bloom County , Calvin and Hobbes , The Simpsons and Pogo . It became an irregular webcomic in early 1998 . In June 1998 , it became a Monday @-@ Friday daily strip . In the same year , Simpson won a newspaper syndicates ' college cartoonist award . When the strip began , Simpson 's artistic style was similar to that in Calvin and Hobbes . In 2000 , the strip went on hiatus and returned with a new , unique style . The strip also went on hiatus several times . It was once on hiatus for five months , between August 23 , 2003 to January 22 , 2004 . Between January 30 , 2004 , and January 12 , 2009 Simpson also ran another strip , I Drew This , a webcomic specifically about her political views , which also appear in Ozy and Millie . In 2002 , the strip won the Web Cartoonist 's Choice Awards for " Best Anthropomorphic Comic " . Ozy and Millie also won the 2006 and 2007 Ursa Major Awards for " Best Anthropomorphic Comic Strip " .
= = Characters = =
= = = Ozy = = =
Ozymandias Justin Llewellyn is a ten @-@ year @-@ old fox of an unidentified species ( also called an " Adolescent Gray Zen Fox " ) who attends North Harbordale Elementary School in Seattle , together with his friend Millie . He was originally supposed to be a wolf , until a fan showed Simpson a photo of Arctic fox cubs , that Simpson claimed were " absolute ringers " for Ozy . However , Ozy retained his whisker marks . Ozy 's full name , Ozymandias Justin Llewellyn , is a reference to the poem Ozymandias by Percy Bysshe Shelley .
Ozy is recognised by his large top hat , which he got from his father Llewellyn when he adopted Ozy . The only other clothing he wears is a vest , which makes him the target of some of Millie 's practical jokes . He is adept at letting Millie 's pranks pass by without effect , but he does suffer bullying at the hands of the school jock , Jeremy , who likes to stuff Ozy into rubbish bins . Ozy also suffers from annual baldness , usually through either a freak accident or because of Millie . Although it is caused by a gypsy curse ( later revealed by Llewellyn to be a myth ) which has passed on through Ozy 's adoptive father 's heritage largely unnoticed , it does affect Ozy badly since he is the first Llewellyn with any hair to lose . Ozy is also quiet and serene , usually playing the " straight person " . Under Llewellyn 's guidance , Ozy also practices Zen ; or rather a humorous version of it .
Ozy is told by Llewellyn that his birth mother 's name was Shelley and that she disappeared after discovering perfection when she created the " perfect " ice cream flavor , but since absolute perfection is incompatible with the world , she ascended to a higher plane of existence .
Ozy 's father left before he was born and become a monk . The pair met when the monk came to town for a visit , though Ozy decided to stay with Llewellyn , whom he considered his " true " dad .
= = = Millie = = =
Millicent Mehitabel Mudd , better known as Millie , is a ten @-@ year @-@ old red fox girl who is Ozy 's best friend . Millie is usually seen wearing a set of blue denim overalls . Unlike Ozy , who is calm , Millie is chaotic and manic , both in the destruction she leaves behind and the ways she devises of avoiding work . She is a rebel and is opposed to any form of authority , which regularly leads to confrontations with both her teacher , Ms. Sorkowitz , and her mother , Mililani Mudd . Her destructive and rebellious habits not only get herself into trouble , but Ozy too . Her most infamous antic was giving Ozy a haircut only to accidentally shave off all his fur . Although she is normally manic , she also has a strong sense of justice , facing the inexplicable wrongs of life and the world she sees . However , her rebellions are mostly limited to annoying her mother , playing jokes on Ozy and disrupting the peace at school . None of which matters any less to her , as long as she has fun doing it . Millie says aloud what others think , and does what others , for fear of reaction from the people around them , would not dare . She , like Ozy , often tries to answer the most important questions in life , but her method of finding the answers makes her unique .
= = = Llewellyn = = =
Ozy 's adoptive father , known only as Llewellyn , is a red dragon . Llewellyn and other members of his dragon family have been responsible for running several secret conspiracies . He also lends both Ozy and Millie advice , although his advice tends to be nonsense . He has also tried to run for U.S. president – first under the " Rainbow Peace Party " in 1968 , the " People With Nothing Better To Do " Party in 2000 , then under the " Zen Party " in 2004 and 2008 . He also runs his house as a separate nation : Greater Llewellynlland . His favourite pastime is playing the " House Rules Parcheesi " , a game which has many , very complicated rules , that is claimed to be rather opposite to Calvinball . Llewellyn married Millie 's Mother at the end of the Daily Strip . Of all the characters in Ozy and Millie , Simpson has claimed that Llewellyn is her favorite .
= = = Ms. Mudd = = =
Ms. Mililani Minerva Mudd , Millie 's mother , is a lawyer , who is as an older , wiser , more temperate version of Millie . She was like Millie in her childhood , and as a result knows how to deal with any trouble caused by her , much to Millie 's annoyance . While Ms. Mudd knows how to deal with Millie , she is also the first to lend her support if there is anything amiss . She married Llewellyn at the end of the strip 's run in a storyarc from November – December 2008 . Her full name was revealed on October 1 , 2008 .
= = = Other characters = = =
Other characters in Ozy and Millie include Avery , a raccoon friend who constantly tries to be " cool , " even ditching his " uncool " friends such as Ozy . Ironically , his friend Stephan the aardvark is the nerdiest character in the strip . Avery 's younger brother , Timulty , constantly undermines his coolness . The two major antagonists are Felicia the sheep , a " popular girl " who teases Millie for being too individualistic , and Jeremy the jock rabbit who bullies Ozy .
Other minor characters include Ms. Sorkowitz , Ozy and Millie 's kangaroo teacher and Principal Beau Vine , the bull principal of the school who allows bullying believing that , " Repeated exposure to unprovoked assault squelches unhealthy nonconformist tendencies . " Dr. I. Wahnsinnig ( German for insane or mad ) , is a ring @-@ tailed lemur psychiatrist of the school who fights with Vine over school issues . Ozy 's dragon cousin Isolde is another character who , like Llewellyn , is in charge of various conspiracies . Another character is Pirate Captain Locke , a child pirate from an alternate dimension on the other side of Llewellyn 's couch , in which people age backwards . Locke , currently the same age as Millie , is also her biological father .
= = Reception = =
Critic Fred Patten is one of the main supporters of the strip . In 2001 , he wrote that the strip was , " a gently humorous fantasy with a liberal political philosophy . " In 2006 , Patten still claimed that , " Ozy and Millie is one of the top anthropomorphic cartoon strips on the Internet , " although he did also comment negatively about the loss of colour in between changes of printed editions of books . The comic is also popular because of its relatively inoffensive content , with one person writing that it was , " Suitable for readers of all ages , really . "
= = Collected editions = =
Two series of Ozy and Millie books have been formed , the first of which was discontinued and replaced by the second . Simpson wrote that she would " be condensing the first five books into three that will be larger but cost the same , and making them as comprehensive as I can make them . " Editorial cartoonist Ted Rall included six pages of interview illustrated with Ozy and Millie strips in Attitude 3 : The New Subversive Online Cartoonists .
= = = Discontinued books = = =
= = = Current books = = =
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= The Madcap Laughs =
The Madcap Laughs is the debut solo album by the English singer @-@ songwriter Syd Barrett . It was recorded after Barrett had left Pink Floyd in April 1968 . The album had a chequered recording history , with work beginning in mid @-@ 1968 , but the bulk of the sessions taking place between April and July 1969 , for which five different producers were credited − including Barrett , Peter Jenner ( 1968 sessions ) , Malcolm Jones ( early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1969 sessions ) , and fellow Pink Floyd members David Gilmour and Roger Waters ( mid @-@ 1969 sessions ) . Among the guest musicians are Willie Wilson from ( Gilmour 's old band ) Jokers Wild and Robert Wyatt of the band Soft Machine .
The Madcap Laughs , released in January 1970 on Harvest in the UK , and on Capitol Records in the US , enjoyed minimal commercial success on release , reaching number 40 on the UK 's official albums chart , while failing to hit the US charts . It was re @-@ released in 1974 as part of Syd Barrett ( which contained The Madcap Laughs and Barrett ) . The album was remastered and reissued in 1993 , along with Barrett 's other albums , Barrett ( 1970 ) and Opel ( 1988 ) , independently and as part of the Crazy Diamond box set . A newly remastered version was released in 2010 .
= = Background = =
In the second half of 1967 and through to early 1968 , when still part of Pink Floyd , Barrett 's behaviour became increasingly erratic and unpredictable . Many report having seen him on stage with the group during this period , strumming on one chord through an entire concert or not playing at all . In August 1967 , Pink Floyd were forced to cancel their appearance at the prestigious National Jazz and Blues Festival , informing the music press that Barrett was suffering from nervous exhaustion . Band manager Peter Jenner and bassist Roger Waters arranged for Barrett to see a psychiatrist ( an appointment he failed to attend ) , while a stay on the Spanish island of Formentera with Sam Hutt , a doctor well established in the underground music scene , led to no visible improvement in Barrett 's behaviour . A few dates in September were followed by the band 's first tour of the United States . At this point , Barrett 's condition grew steadily worse . At a show at The Fillmore in San Francisco , during a performance of " Interstellar Overdrive " , Barrett slowly detuned his guitar ; the audience seemed to enjoy such antics , unaware of the rest of the band 's consternation . Sometime in October , Jenner transferred tapes of " In the Beechwood " , two takes of " Vegetable Man " , and a 5 @-@ minute backing track called " No Title " , which Jenner hoped Barrett would finish eventually .
Around Christmas 1967 , guitarist David Gilmour , an old friend of Barrett 's from Cambridge , was asked by the other members of Pink Floyd to join as a second guitarist , initially to not replace Barrett , but to cover for him , because his unpredictable behaviour prevented him from performing . For several shows Gilmour sang and played guitar while Barrett wandered around on stage , every now and then deciding to join in playing guitar and singing . Waters and fellow band members keyboardist Richard Wright and drummer Nick Mason soon grew weary of Barrett 's on @-@ stage antics and , on 26 January 1968 , when Waters was driving his bandmates from London to a show at Southampton University , they all agreed to go without Barrett : according to Gilmour 's recollection , one person asked , " Shall we pick Syd up ? " and another said , " Let 's not bother . " Since Barrett had written or co @-@ written 10 of the 11 songs on their debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , as well as the band 's three singles up to this point , the original plan was to keep him in the group as a non @-@ touring member − in a similar arrangement to what The Beach Boys had done with Brian Wilson − but this soon proved to be unworkable . On 6 April , the group officially announced that Barrett was no longer a member of Pink Floyd . Upon leaving the Floyd , Barrett said to Melody Maker : " I suppose it was really just a matter of being a little offhand about things " .
= = Recording = =
= = = Peter Jenner sessions = = =
After Barrett left Pink Floyd in April 1968 , Peter Jenner and Andrew King , from the band 's management , followed suit . In May , Jenner led Barrett into the then @-@ named EMI Studios , on Abbey Road in northwest London , to record some solo material , only part of which would later appear on The Madcap Laughs . Jenner thought Barrett would like to finish the tracks that Jenner transferred the previous October , Barrett on the other hand , had other plans . During these first , tentative sessions , Jenner failed to properly record any vocals at all , for the tracks " Golden Hair " , " Late Night " , " Clowns and Jugglers " ( later retitled " Octopus " ) , " Silas Lang " , or " Lanky ( Parts One and Two ) " . After recording had resumed in June and July , progress continued on these tracks , especially " Swan Lee " , and a new , improved version of " Clowns and Jugglers " was taped at this point also . Barrett wouldn 't commit to recording the track " Rhamadam " ( sic ) to tape properly , however .
Although Jenner claims he got on well with the singer , he would also state that the 1968 sessions had not gone smoothly , admitting : " I had seriously underestimated the difficulties of working with him ... " Shortly after the July dates , Barrett abruptly stopped recording , breaking up with girlfriend Lindsay Corner and then going off on a drive around Britain in his Mini ; he ended up in psychiatric care in Cambridge .
By the start of 1969 , a somewhat recovered Barrett decided to return to his musical career and revisit the Jenner @-@ produced recordings . He contacted EMI , and was passed on to Malcolm Jones , then @-@ head of EMI 's new prog rock label , Harvest . After both Jenner and Norman Smith , Pink Floyd 's producer at the time , declined to work on the album , Jones agreed to take on the role .
= = = Malcolm Jones sessions = = =
Jones had little difficulty in persuading his boss , Roy Featherstone , and Ron White , authoriser of EMI recordings , to allow Barrett to record with the company again . In April 1969 , the young executive took over the project and Barrett began working on newer material , while reworking the 1968 recordings . Jones would later explain the rationale behind EMI letting Barrett record again : " What was decided was to see what was the strength of Syd 's new material , and plan accordingly . If it worked , then , O.K. we 'd do an album . If not , we 'd call it a day ... " In a meeting at Barrett 's flat in Earls Court , unsure of Jenner 's production technique , Jones asked to hear some of the previous year 's tapes ; Barrett played him " Swan Lee " , " Late Night " , " Rhamadam " , " Lanky ( Parts One and Two ) " and " Golden Hair " . Of these , " Swan Lee " had no vocals , but Jones saw potential in the song ; " Late Night " did have vocals and , Jones remarked , " a certain charm " ; while " Golden Hair " was " great " . After the playbacks , Barrett performed several songs on guitar for Jones : " Opel " and " Clowns and Jugglers " ( both attempted during the sessions with Peter Jenner ) , and the newly written " Terrapin " and " Love You " .
The Jones @-@ produced sessions commenced on 10 April 1969 at EMI 's Studio 3 , with that day being dedicated to going through the 1968 tapes again to see what could be improved upon . The first track to be worked on was " Swan Lee " , which received vocal overdubs and a new guitar track , and several ideas for " Clowns and Jugglers " were considered ; Barrett and Jones both felt that the results were superior to the previous versions . The following day , in about five hours , Barrett recorded vocal and guitar tracks for four recently recorded songs , starting with " Opel " , and two old ones . Barrett and his new producer were in agreement that " Opel " was among the best of the new recordings at this time ; only two complete takes of the song were taped , though , after multiple false starts . The next song attempted was " Love You " , the first take of which featured a faster tempo than the officially released take 2 . After " Love You " , they recorded " It 's No Good Trying " , which was similarly completed in just a few takes . Barrett was in " great form , and very happy " , Jones recalled , and " very together " . During the lunch break that day , they talked about improving some of the other songs from the Jenner sessions , particularly " Golden Hair " and " Late Night " , the last of which was just a backing track at this point . After returning to the studio , they worked on " Terrapin " , with Barrett requiring just a single take , and added slide guitar and vocals to " Late Night " .
The following session took place on 17 April , in Studio 2 at Abbey Road . Jones arrived there to find that Barrett had brought in friends of his as support musicians : Jerry Shirley , drummer with Humble Pie , and Willie Wilson , Jokers Wild 's drummer , although for this occasion he was playing bass . The problem with this new set @-@ up , though , was that the songs were recorded as Barrett played them live in the studio ; on the released versions , a number of them have false starts and commentaries from Barrett . The first track Barrett and his fellow musicians worked on was " No Man 's Land " , after Barrett had played through the song several times , to allow Shirley and Wilson to pick up the segments . Once the rehearsal was through , they went for a take , to check how the band sounded and to test the equipment from within the control room . After these tests , the band recorded three takes , the last of which became the master take for " No Man 's Land " ; the bass , however , was re @-@ recorded at a later date . Playing along with Barrett wasn 't easy , according to Jones : " It was a case of following him , not playing with him . They were seeing and then playing so they were always a note behind ... " Shirley said of Barrett : " He gave the impression he knew something you didn 't . He had this music sort of giggle ... "
Next , they recorded a song that Barrett had written in a few minutes , " Here I Go " , which required no overdubs at all . This session for " No Man 's Land " and " Here I Go " lasted just three hours . When asked if he had any new songs for the following week 's session , on 23 April , Barrett 's replied that he had " a weird idea I want to try out " and that other musicians would not be required . Afterwards , Barrett mentioned that he was interested in revisting one of the Jenner tracks − " Rhamadam " . On the morning of the 23rd , Barrett arrived at the studio with a cassette player , on which he had recorded motorbike sounds ; these , he told Jones , were " all ready to [ be ] put onto the ' Rhamadam ' four track " . The producer described the sound quality as " terrible " , an opinion that was confirmed once Barrett 's player had been hooked up to a 4 @-@ track machine . Instead it was decided that Barrett should source the motorbike sounds from EMI 's large sound effects library . The selection process took up to an hour , at which point Jones started to lose faith in Barrett . Later on , Barrett changed his mind and abandoned the idea .
The session on 25 April was almost cancelled , due to Jones becoming ill from colitis . Beforehand , it had been agreed that this session would be dedicated to transferring their previously recorded , 4 @-@ track recordings onto Studio 3 's newer 8 @-@ track machine , for further overdubs in later sessions . At Jones ' suggestion , and despite warnings the producer had received that Barrett should not be in the studio unaccompanied . Barrett went in on his own to carry out the mixing . It had been decided that nearly all of the tracks that were recorded up to that point needed further overdubbing except for " No Man 's Land " and " Here I Go " . At this point , Barrett considered placing " Opel " on the album , Jones calls it among Barrett 's " best and most haunting " songs . On the session for 3 May , three tracks on the album were overdubbed by Robert Wyatt , Hugh Hopper and Mike Ratledge , all members of the band Soft Machine : The three songs were " Love You " , ( now dropping " It 's " ) " No Good Trying " , and " Clowns and Jugglers " . Even after the Soft Machine members added overdubs to " Clowns and Jugglers " , Barrett wished to add bass and drums to it .
Robert Wyatt had said that the musicians would ask " What key is that in , Syd ? " , to which Barrett would simply reply " Yeah " or " That 's funny " . During this time , Barrett also played guitar on the sessions for Soft Machine founder Kevin Ayers ' debut LP , Joy of a Toy , although his performance on " Religious Experience " was not released until the album was reissued in 2003 . The next day 's session had Barrett adding backwards guitar to " No Good Trying " , and lead to " Terrapin " and " No Man 's Land " . It was around this time that Jones ' involvement came to an end – during these last few sessions , Gilmour had started taking an interest in how Barrett was getting along with his album . Although Barrett had told his flatmate that he was going off " for an afternoon drive " , he instead followed Pink Floyd out to Ibiza . During the trip , he asked David Gilmour for his help on the album , and , at the end of May , Malcolm Jones abandoned his production responsibilities .
= = = David Gilmour and Roger Waters sessions = = =
In his book The Making of the Madcap Laughs , Jones states that " when Dave came to me and said that Syd wanted him and Roger to do the remaining parts of the album , I acquiesced " . Roger Waters and David Gilmour were in the process of completing Pink Floyd 's Ummagumma album when they got involved with The Madcap Laughs that July and helped Barrett finish his album − " in a two @-@ day sprint " , according to Pink Floyd biographer Rick Sanders . " We had very little time , " Gilmour recalled in a May 2003 interview . " Syd was very difficult , we got that very frustrated feeling : Look , its your fucking career , mate . Why don 't you get your finger out and do something ? The guy was in trouble , and was a close friend for many years before then , so it really was the least one could do . "
After the first session with new producers Gilmour and Waters , on 12 June , they had remade " Clowns and Jugglers " into " Octopus " , from the Soft Machine 's overdubbed version ; then , they re @-@ recorded " Golden Hair " , and recorded " Long Gone " and " Dark Globe " . As the following day 's session was dedicated to overdubbing " Octopus " , this became Barrett 's final session for over a month , due to a temporary halt while Gilmour and Waters mixed Ummagumma , to Barrett 's dismay , and a Floyd tour in the Netherlands . However , towards the end of July , on the 26th , they managed to record " She Took a Long Cold Look at Me " , " Feel " , " If It 's in You " , another version of " Long Gone " , an attempt at a re @-@ make of " Dark Globe " , and even a medley of " She Took " / " Feel " / " If It 's in You " . Barrett would not allow the musicians to rehearse or to re @-@ record their overdubs , insisting that they sounded fine . After several months of intermittent recording , the album was finally deemed complete . After the final recording sessions for the album had been completed , Gilmour and Waters mixed not just the tracks they had produced , but also the Jones tracks , in a matter of two days . Five tracks were mixed on 5 August : " Long Gone " , " She Took " , " Feel " , " If It 's in You " , and " Octopus " . The following day , three tracks , " Golden Hair " , " Dark Globe " , and " Terrapin " , were mixed in just three hours . The track order was sequenced by Barrett and Gilmour on 6 October .
= = Release , reception , and aftermath = =
" Octopus " was released as a single in November 1969 and The Madcap Laughs followed on 3 January 1970 . The album was released by Harvest in the UK , while in the US it was issued by Capitol Records . It sold 6 @,@ 000 copies in the first few months and reached number 40 in the UK and was fairly well @-@ reviewed by music critics . Upon release , Gilmour said : " Perhaps we were trying to show what Syd was really like . But perhaps we were trying to punish him ... " While Barrett admitted that " I don 't think it would stand as my last statement " , Waters was more optimistic , declaring Barrett a " genius " . Initial sales and reaction were deemed sufficient by EMI to sanction a second solo album .
Malcolm Jones was shocked by the substandard musicianship on the Gilmour and Waters @-@ produced songs , however : " I felt angry . It 's like dirty linen in public and very unnecessary and unkind ... " Barrett later said of the album : " I liked what came out , only it was released far too long after it was done . I wanted it to be a whole thing that people would listen to all the way through with everything related and balanced , the tempos and moods offsetting each other , and I hope that 's what it sounds like . " In a bid to increase sales , Jones wrote a letter to music magazine , Melody Maker , under an alternate name , writing how great the album was .
It 's quite nice but I 'd be very surprised if it did anything . If I were to drop dead , I don 't think it would stand as my last statement . "
On 6 June 1970 , Barrett gave his one and only solo performance , the performance was held at the Kensington Olympia , backed by Gilmour and Shirley , and baffled the audience ( including Gilmour and Shirley ) when he abruptly took off his guitar after the fourth number and walked off stage . They played " Terrapin " , " Gigolo Aunt " , " Effervescing Elephant " , and " Octopus " . From the start of the performance up to ( but not including ) " Octopus " , the vocals were inaudible . The performance has been bootlegged .
= = Cover artwork = =
For the album cover , Barrett painted the floor of his bedroom in Wetherby Mansions orange and purple . The nude woman appearing on the back of the record sleeve was an acquaintance of his known as " Iggy the Eskimo " . Photographer Mick Rock says , " When I arrived for ' The Madcap Laughs ' photo session , Syd was still in his underpants .. His lady friend of two weeks , ' Iggy the Eskimo ' , was naked in the kitchen .. " Iggy met Barrett in March 1969 , through Barrett 's then @-@ girlfriend , Jenny Spires . Barrett had moved into Wetherby Mansions , and Jenny took Iggy there one evening . Iggy stayed on at the flat when Jenny left for The States a couple of weeks later . Iggy didn 't know who Barrett was or that he was previously in Pink Floyd . Iggy heard Barrett play several songs that would later appear on the album , one being " Terrapin " , which she called " quite catchy " . In October 2010 she was interviewed , revealing that her name was Evelyn . The album was designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis . The original sleeve featured no musician credits , barring producer credit ; later issues contain musician credits . On the original release , track 10 is listed as " She Took a Long Cold Look " , although on the 2010 remaster the track is re @-@ titled to " She Took a Long Cool Look " , in similar vein to An Introduction to Syd Barrett .
= = Reissues = =
As part of Harvest Records 's " Harvest Heritage " series of reissues − and to capitalise on the breakthrough commercial success of Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon − The Madcap Laughs was re @-@ released in September 1974 as record one of a double album , record two being Barrett 's second and last solo album , Barrett . ( The cover of the double album was also designed by Storm Thorgerson . ) In 1993 , The Madcap Laughs ( along with Barrett and Opel ) was reissued both independently and as part of the Crazy Diamond Barrett box set , on 26 April 1993 . A remastered version was released in 2010 . For release on An Introduction to Syd Barrett in 2010 , Gilmour laid down a new bass track to four songs , three from Madcap : " Octopus " , " She Took a Long Cold Look " and " Here I Go " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Syd Barrett , except " Golden Hair " ( music by Barrett , based on a poem by James Joyce ) . All track info taken from album booklet .
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 1993 reissue = = =
= = = 2015 Japanese reissue = = =
= = Personnel = =
Syd Barrett – acoustic and electric guitar , vocals , production
David Gilmour – bass guitar , 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , drums ( on " Octopus " ) , production
Jerry Shirley – drums ( track 4 , 6 )
Willie Wilson – bass guitar ( track 4 , 6 )
Robert Wyatt – drums ( tracks 2 , 3 )
Hugh Hopper – bass guitar ( tracks 2 , 3 )
Mike Ratledge – keyboards ( tracks 2 , 3 )
Production personnel
Syd Barrett – producer ( tracks 7 , 8 )
David Gilmour – producer ( tracks 5 , 7 – 11 )
Peter Jenner – producer ( track 13 )
Malcolm Jones – producer ( tracks 1 – 4 , 6 , 12 , 13 )
Roger Waters – producer ( tracks 5 , 9 – 11 )
Phil McDonald – engineer
Peter Mew – engineer
Mike Sheady – engineer
Jeff Jarratt – engineer
Tony Clark – engineer
Mick Rock – photography
Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis – cover designs
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= The Field Where I Died =
" The Field Where I Died " is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode originally aired in the United States on November 3 , 1996 on the Fox network . It is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 3 and was seen by 19 @.@ 85 million viewers upon its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder 's search for an informant inside a cult compound leads him and Scully to one of the cult leader 's wives . What they soon discover is an unexpectedly close connection with the woman involving reincarnation . Scully discovers that spirits inhabit living beings in order to tell their stories . After Mulder 's regression scene , he details all of his past lives .
Morgan and Wong wrote the episode specifically for Kristen Cloke , who had previously been the protagonist of their science fiction series Space : Above and Beyond . The two also wanted to write an episode to challenge Duchovny as an actor . The installment was also inspired by Ken Burns ' eponymous Civil War documentary . " The Field Where I Died " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics , with many praising the episode 's exploration of loss and grief as well as Cloke 's acting . Others , however , felt that the entry was bogged down by Duchovny 's performance and the entry 's over @-@ use of emotion .
= = Plot = =
In Apison , Tennessee , authorities receive a tip from someone named Sidney alleging child abuse and weapons possession by a local cult called the Temple of the Seven Stars . The FBI and BATF stage a raid on the Temple 's compound , but are unable to find its leader , Vernon Ephesian ( Michael Massee ) . Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) experiences déjà vu and walks into a field on the compound , where he finds a trapdoor . Inside , Mulder and Agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) find Ephesian preparing to drink a red liquid with his six wives . Mulder stops them and handcuffs Ephesian , but he feels a strange connection to one of the wives , Melissa Riedal @-@ Ephesian ( Kristen Cloke ) .
Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) warns the FBI and BATF that Ephesian and his wives will be released in a day unless they can track down Sidney and the Temple 's reported weapons cache . The agents question Ephesian , who states that there is no member of the temple named Sidney . When they interview Melissa , she suddenly begins to talk like Sidney , claiming that Harry Truman is president . Scully believes Melissa is exhibiting multiple personality disorder , but Mulder thinks she is recalling a past life . The agents take her back to the temple , where she takes on the personality of a woman from the Civil War period and says that the weapons were hidden in another secret bunker in the field . She also states that Mulder , in a past life , was in the field with her , and she watched him die .
Mulder has Melissa undergo regression hypnosis for her to recount her past lives . She implies that she and Mulder have met over their past lives , always to be separated or lost to each other . To confirm her events , Mulder has himself hypnotized and recalls a time when he was a Jewish woman with a son , who had the same soul as his sister Samantha ; his deceased father , who was Scully , is dead . Melissa was his husband in this life , and had been taken to a Nazi concentration camp by a Gestapo officer who was The Smoking Man . Mulder also recalls his past life from the Civil War , when he was a man named Sullivan Biddle , while Melissa was Sarah Kavanaugh ; Scully , Mulder claims , was his sergeant in the Union Army . Scully finds pictures of Biddle and Kavanaugh in the county 's hall of records and gives them to Mulder .
The FBI and BATF plan to make another search of the compound . Ephesian , realizing that he will not survive another siege , passes out poison to the cult members and all but he and Melissa die , Melissa having feigned drinking it . As Mulder rushes into the temple , Ephesian forces Melissa to drink the poison , and when Mulder arrives he finds both of them dead . Mulder caresses Melissa , looking out into the field .
= = Production = =
Writers Glen Morgan and James Wong developed the episode specially for Kristen Cloke , both for her experience as the protagonist of their series Space : Above and Beyond , to translate Morgan 's feelings as his friendship with Cloke became an emotional relationship , and for showcasing her acting . Morgan stated , " I knew she did a lot of characters and voices , so I wanted to incorporate that ... I wanted to write something for her that challenged her " . Cloke did research on multiple personality disorders before filming , and based the various personalities on people she knew . Morgan also stated that he " wanted to write something for David Duchovny that challenged him . " When pitching the idea to director Rob Bowman , the writers stated they wanted " this episode to feel like the part in Ken Burns ' Civil War documentary where they read the Sullivan Ballou letter . " Michael Massee wanted his characterization of Ephesian to be " normal looking " and " nondemonic " , explaining , " You have to believe that he believes his own rap . When he speaks , he 's just explaining that ' this is the way it is ' – and that 's when it gets very scary . " The name " Vernon " comes from cult leader David Koresh 's real name , and " Ephesian " is taken from one of the books of the Bible .
The Temple of the Seven Stars was built on a soundstage at North Shore Studios , one of the most expensive sets built for the show . Composer Mark Snow used samples of Gregorian chants in his score for Melissa 's death scene . The production team contacted officials of Apison , Tennessee , who sent them a real citizen 's registry from the Civil War era which was reproduced by the props department and an expert calligrapher to make those Scully finds in the county courthouse . The photographs of Sullivan Biddle and Sarah Kavanaugh are " hybrids " of different public domain photographs , with computer effects " melding " the different features taken from different photographs . The face used for Sullivan was chosen because it bore an " uncanny " resemblance to Mulder . The poem Mulder reads at the beginning and end is from Paracelsus by Robert Browning . The first cut of " The Field Where I Died " was over an hour long , an excess length record for The X @-@ Files . Eighteen minutes had to be cut , which included two additional personalities of Melissa , and most of a third , Lily , which only makes a brief appearance in the final cut .
Sarah Stegall later noted that the penultimate scene , which features federal agents raiding the religious compound and finding that everyone inside has committed suicide , bears similarities to the Waco siege . Stegall even points out that the real name of the church leader in the episode , Vernon Warren , also resembles the name of the compound leader during the Waco siege : Vernon Wayne .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Field Where I Died " originally aired on the Fox network on November 3 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 3 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . " The Field Where I Died " was seen by 19 @.@ 85 million viewers on first broadcast .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Field Where I Died " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave " The Field Where I Died " a " B + " . He felt that it worked " pretty well " and there was a lot to appreciate about it , and while he noted that " the episode isn 't quite good enough for the conclusion to be as devastating as it should be " , he still praised the tragic ending . However , he felt it not believable that Mulder quickly accepts his past lives and Melissa 's part in it , and thought it would have worked better if he eased into believing it . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She called the entry " unabashedly emotional episode " that is " unafraid to plumb the depths of human loss and grief " . Furthermore , Vitaris praised Cloke 's acting ; she called her " a truly gifted actor , slipping faultlessly into the skin of all of Melissa 's personalities . " She was , however , more critical of Duchovny , noting that his hypnosis scene was underacted . Sarah Stegall , in The Munchkyn Zone , gave the episode a 5 out 5 rating . Stegall wrote that while the episode is " drowned in tears and soaked in muted sunlight , [ and ] teeters on the brink of sentimentality " , it manages " to stay just this side of it for a dynamite , gripping episode that showcases some fine actors " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and wrote that , while the episode " stumbles around a lot " , it gives the viewer " the impression there 's nothing else on TV quite like it " . The two felt that the idea that Mulder and Scully were friends throughout their various lives was " one of the best things about the story " . They also wrote that the fact that Melissa and Mulder were somehow soul mates also prevented the story from being " obvious and pat " . However , Shearman and Pearson felt that Morgan and Wong added " a few too many ingredients " which yielded an uneven episode . Entertainment Weekly , on the other hand , was negative , giving the episode an " F " and describing it as " stultifyingly awful " .
The episode is a favorite of Anderson 's , who said she " loved the script " and that it made her cry . Series creator Chris Carter received angry calls after the Heaven 's Gate , a UFO religion cult , committed mass suicide less than six months after the episode had aired . He declined to comment .
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= Daedaleopsis confragosa =
Daedaleopsis confragosa , commonly known as the thin walled maze polypore or the blushing bracket , is a species of polypore fungus in the family Polyporaceae . A plant pathogen , it causes a white rot of injured hardwoods , especially willows . The fruit bodies are semicircular and tough , have a concentrically zoned brownish upper surface , and measure up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter . The whitish underside turns gray @-@ brown as the fruit body ages , but bruises pink or red . It is found all year and is common in northern temperate woodlands of eastern North America , Europe , and Asia . The species was first described from Europe in 1791 as a form of Boletus , and has undergone several changes of genus in its taxonomic history . It acquired its current name when Joseph Schröter transferred it to Daedaleopsis in 1888 .
= = Taxonomy = =
Daedaleopsis confragosa was first described scientifically under the name Boletus confragosus by English naturalist James Bolton , in his 1791 work An History of Fungusses , growing about Halifax . He reported finding specimens on old trees near Fixby Hall , and having specimens sent to him from Darlington . The species has been shuffled between several genera in its taxonomic history : Daedalea by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 ; Trametes by Gottlob Ludwig Rabenhorst in 1844 ; Polyporus by Paul Kummer in 1871 ; Stigila by Otto Kuntze in 1891 ; Lenzites by Patouillard in 1900 ; Agaricus by William Alphonso Murrill in 1905 ; and Ischnoderma by Ivan Zmitrovich in 2001 . It was transferred to its current genus , Daedaleopsis , by German mycologist Joseph Schröter in 1888 . D. confragosa is the type species of the genus Daedaleopsis .
Several varieties have been described . L. Ljubarskii published var. bulliardi and var. rubecens in 1975 . Both of these varieties were published invalidly are not considered to have independent taxonomic significance : variety rubescens is folded into synonymy with the main variety , while variety bulliardi is now considered synonymous with Trametes suaveolens . Variety tricolor , proposed by Appollinaris Semenovich Bondartsev and Rolf Singer in 1953 , is now the independent species Daedaleopsis tricolor . Bondartsev described the form sibirica in 1953 , but this is also no longer independent .
The polypore has acquired several vernacular names , including " thin @-@ maze flat polypore " , " thin walled maze polypore " , " blood @-@ stained bracket " , and " blushing bracket " . The latter name refers to its characteristic bruising reaction . James Bolton referred to it as the " rugged boletus " .
= = Description = =
The shelflike or bracketlike fruit body is fan @-@ shaped to semicircular , and typically measures 5 – 15 cm ( 2 – 6 in ) in diameter , and up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Its upper surface is broadly convex to flat , dry , smooth to somewhat hairy , and usually has concentric zone lines . Its color ranges from reddish @-@ brown to brown to grayish , sometimes becoming blackish in maturity . The cap surface may have an umbo at the point of attachment to the substrate . Fruit bodies are leathery to corky when moist , but become hard and rigid when dry . The flesh is white to pinkish to brownish and tough . The underside of the fruit bodies features tiny pores measuring about 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mm in diameter . They are white to tan to brown , but will develop pinkish or reddish tones if bruised . Pore shape is highly variable , ranging from circular to elongated , to mazelike , to gill @-@ like . The tubes are up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long . The fruit body lacks a stalk , as the shelf attaches directly to the substrate . The inedible fruit bodies have no distinctive odor and a slightly bitter taste .
The spore print is white ; spores are cylindrical , smooth , and measure 7 – 11 by 2 – 3 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) have a shape ranging from cylindrical to club @-@ shaped , and dimensions of 20 – 40 by 3 – 5 μm . The hymenium features numerous hyphidia ( modified terminal hyphae ) , which measure 2 – 3 μm . The hyphal system of Daedaleopsis confragrosa is trimitic , meaning that there are three types of hyphae in the fruit body : skeletal hyphae , which provide structural support , are thick walled , measuring 3 – 7 μm in diameter ; generative hyphae , responsible for new growth , can be either thin- or thick @-@ walled , may contain clamps , and measure 2 – 6 μm ; binding hyphae , thick @-@ walled and much branched , are 2 – 5 μm .
The polypore is used in ornamental paper making , whereby the fruit bodies are pulped , pressed , and dried to produce sheets with unusual textures and colors .
= = = Similar species = = =
Cerrena unicolor ( formerly Daedalea unicolor ) is a common polypore species with a mazelike pore surface that can resemble D. confragosa . It can be distinguished by its thinner fruit bodies , a black line in the flesh , and the way that the tubes often break into irregular flattened teeth in maturity . Daedalea quercina , common on oak , has a larger fruit body up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter and 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick , and its pore surface is more distinctively labyrinthine ( maze @-@ like ) . It causes a brown heart rot , where carbohydrates are removed from the inner heartwood , leaving brownish , oxidized lignin .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
Daedaleopsis confragosa is a lignicolous fungus that produces a decay of sapwood . It causes white rot , a type of wood decay in which lignin is degraded and cellulose remains as a light @-@ colored residue . The fruit bodies grow singly or in groups , sometimes in tiers , in the wounds of living trees . Its preferred host is willow , but it has also been found on birch and other hardwoods . Fruiting usually occurs from June to December , but the hard shelves can persist year @-@ round . In North America , the species is most common in eastern locales , but rare in western regions . It is common in Europe , and is one of the 100 most common fungi in the United Kingdom . Its European range extends east to the Urals . In Asia it is widely distributed , having been recorded from China , western Maharashtra ( India ) , Iran , and Japan .
The fruit bodies are popular among fungus @-@ loving beetles . In a Russian study , 54 species from 16 families in the Coleoptera complex were recorded using the fungus ; the most common were Cis comptus , Sillcacis affinis ( Ciidae ) , Tritoma subbasalis , Dacne bipustulata ( Erotylidae ) , Mycetophagus multipunctatus , M. piceus ( Mycetophagidae ) , and Thymalus oblongus ( Trogossitidae ) .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
The triterpenes 3α @-@ carboxyacetoxyquercinic acid , 3α @-@ carboxyacetoxy @-@ 24 @-@ methylene @-@ 23 @-@ oxolanost @-@ 8 @-@ en @-@ 26 @-@ oic acid , and 5α , 8α @-@ epidioxyergosta @-@ 6 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 3β @-@ ol ( ergosterol peroxide ) have been isolated from D. confragosa . Lectins from D. confragosa , tested against rabbit and human erythrocytes , were determined to have anti @-@ H serological specificity .
Analysis of the lipid and fatty acid composition revealed that D. confragosa contains 20 @.@ 1 % total lipids ( mg / g dry weight ) , 32 @.@ 9 % neutral lipids , 53 @.@ 8 % phospholipid , and 13 @.@ 3 % glycolipids . An analysis of hydroxy fatty acid content showed that D. confragosa contains , as a percentage of total fatty acids , 0 @.@ 02 % 7 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 8 @,@ 14 @-@ dimethyl @-@ 9 @-@ hexadecenoic acid and 0 @.@ 01 % 7 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 8 @,@ 16 @-@ dimethyl @-@ 9 @-@ octadecenoic acid .
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= Aladdin ( 1992 Disney film ) =
Aladdin is a 1992 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Aladdin is the 31st animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series , and was part of the Disney film era known as the Disney Renaissance . The film was directed by John Musker and Ron Clements , and is based on the Arab @-@ style folktale Aladdin and the Magic Lamp from One Thousand and One Nights . The voice cast features Scott Weinger , Robin Williams , Linda Larkin , Jonathan Freeman , Frank Welker , Gilbert Gottfried , and Douglas Seale .
Lyricist Howard Ashman first pitched the idea , and the screenplay went through three drafts before then @-@ Disney Studios president Jeffrey Katzenberg agreed to its production . The animators based their designs on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld , and computers were used for both finishing the artwork and creating some animated elements . The musical score was written by Alan Menken and features six songs with lyrics written by both Ashman and Tim Rice , who took over after Ashman 's death .
Aladdin was released on November 25 , 1992 and was the most successful film of 1992 , earning over $ 217 million in revenue in the United States , and over $ 504 million worldwide . The film also won many awards , most of them for its soundtrack . The film is considered by many as the best film that came out during the Disney Renaissance . Aladdin 's success led to other material inspired by the film , including two direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels , The Return of Jafar and Aladdin and the King of Thieves , an animated television series of the same name , toys , video games , spin @-@ offs , including a live @-@ action remake about the genie titled Genies , Disney merchandise , and a Broadway adaptation that debuted in 2014 .
= = Plot = =
A peddler sets up shop in the fictional sultanate of Agrabah , offering to tell the audience about the story of an oil lamp in his possession . Jafar , the Grand Vizier of the Sultan , and his parrot Iago , seek the lamp hidden within the Cave of Wonders but is told that only a “ diamond in the rough ” may enter . Jafar identifies a street urchin named Aladdin as worthy . Aladdin and his pet monkey Abu cross paths with Princess Jasmine , who has run away from the palace , unwilling to be married off to another snobbish suitor . Aladdin and Jasmine become friends and fall in love , but Jafar has Aladdin apprehended , tricking Jasmine into thinking that he was decapitated .
Disguised as an old man , Jafar frees Aladdin and Abu , taking them to the Cave and promises to reward them if they retrieve the lamp . Inside , Aladdin befriends a magic carpet . Abu greedily tries to steal a jewel , despite the Cave ’ s request , and it collapses . Trapped underground , Aladdin rubs the lamp , releasing the Genie trapped inside , who explains Aladdin has become his master and will grant him three wishes . Aladdin tricks the Genie into freeing them from the Cave without wasting a wish , and then uses his first to become a prince to be near Jasmine . Jafar , on Iago ’ s suggestion , plots to become Sultan by marrying Jasmine , but Aladdin parades into the city as “ Prince Ali of Ababwa ” . However , Jasmine is unimpressed with Aladdin ’ s bravado .
Despite his friends advising him to tell Jasmine the truth , Aladdin refuses , believing she would never fall “ for some street rat ” . He takes Jasmine on a worldwide flight on the carpet , where she deduces his identity , though Aladdin says that he dresses as a peasant to escape the stresses of royal life , which convinces her . Aladdin returns Jasmine home , only to be attacked by the palace guards on Jafar ’ s orders and nearly drowned , until the Genie rescues him using his second wish . Jafar tries to hypnotise the Sultan into agreeing to his marriage to Jasmine , only for Aladdin to appear and expose Jafar ’ s schemes . Jafar flees , but notices Aladdin has the lamp , realising who he is .
Learning he will become Sultan , Aladdin has second thoughts about freeing the Genie , believing that without him , he would not be able to keep up appearances . Iago steals the lamp , and Jafar becomes the Genie ’ s new master . He uses his first two wishes to usurp the Sultan and become the world ’ s most powerful sorcerer , exposing Aladdin ’ s lies and exiles him , Abu , and the carpet to a frozen wasteland , though they escape death and return to the palace . Jafar orders the Genie to brainwash Jasmine into falling in love with him , but the Genie reveals he is unable to grant the wish . Jasmine feigns interest to distract Jafar and allow Aladdin to get the lamp , but he is caught .
Jafar transforms himself into a giant cobra and ensnares Aladdin , saying he is the most powerful being in the world . However , Aladdin points out the Genie is more powerful , inspiring Jafar to use his last wish to become a genie , only to be sucked into his own lamp as part of the genie ’ s nature , dragging Iago in with him . The Genie chucks Jafar ’ s lamp into the Cave of Wonders , and asks Aladdin to use his third wish to regain his royal title . However , Aladdin decides to free the Genie . Learning of Aladdin and Jasmine ’ s love , the Sultan alters the law to allow his daughter to marry whom she chooses . The Genie leaves to explore the world , while Aladdin and Jasmine celebrate their engagement .
= = Cast = =
Scott Weinger as Aladdin , a poor , but kind @-@ hearted Agrabah thief . Weinger sent in a homemade audition tape with his mother playing the Genie , and after several call backs he found six months later that he had the part . Aladdin 's supervising animator was by Glen Keane . Brad Kane provides Aladdin 's singing voice .
Robin Williams as The Genie , a comedic genie , with nigh omnipotent power that can only be exercised when his master wishes it . The Genie 's supervising animator was Eric Goldberg . Clements and Musker wrote the part of the Genie for Williams , and , when met with resistance , created a reel of Williams ' stand @-@ up to animation of the Genie . The directors asked Goldberg to animate a Genie over one of Williams ' old stand @-@ up comedy routines to pitch the idea to the actor . The resulting test , where Williams talking about schizophrenia was translated into Genie growing another head to argue with himself , made Williams " laugh his ass off " and convinced him to sign on for the role . Williams ' appearance in Aladdin ( despite his appearance along with Christian Slater and Tim Curry in the early 1992 animated film FernGully ) marks the beginning of a transition in animated film to celebrity voice actors , rather than specifically trained voice actors in animated film . Williams provided many celebrity impressions during recording sessions , which were re @-@ adapted into the fabric of the character . These included Ed Sullivan , Jack Nicholson , Robert De Niro , Groucho Marx , Rodney Dangerfield , William F. Buckley , Peter Lorre , Arnold Schwarzenegger , and Arsenio Hall . Williams also voices the Peddler , a mysterious merchant who appears at the beginning of the film . After promoting useless goods to the audience , he reveals the magic lamp and begins the story of Aladdin . Bruce Adler supplies his singing voice . The scene was completely unscripted — the production left Williams a table with props covered with a sheet and asked him to pull out objects without looking at them and describe them in @-@ character . The double role originally led to the Peddler revealing to be the Genie disguised , but that idea was later dropped . In October 2015 , Clements and Musker claimed that the Peddler is actually the Genie 's human form .
Jonathan Freeman as Jafar , the power @-@ hungry Grand Vizier of Agrabah . Jafar was originally envisioned as an irritable character , but the directors decided that a calm villain would be scarier . Freeman was the first actor cast and spent one year and nine months recording his dialogue . He later readjusted his voice after Weinger and Larkin were cast as he felt " Jafar had to be seen as a real threat to Aladdin and Jasmine " . Jafar 's supervising animator was Andreas Deja , who tried to incorporate Freeman 's facial expressions and gesturing into the character , while Jafar 's beggar and snake forms are animated by Kathy Zielinski .
Linda Larkin as Princess Jasmine : The princess of Agrabah , who is tired of life in the royal palace . Larkin was chosen nine months after her audition , and had to adjust ( or lower ) her high @-@ pitched voice to reach the voice the filmmakers were looking for in the character . Jasmine 's supervising animator was Mark Henn . Lea Salonga provides Jasmine 's singing voice .
Frank Welker as Abu , Aladdin 's kleptomaniac pet monkey with a high @-@ pitched voice . The animators filmed monkeys at the San Francisco Zoo to study their movements for Abu 's character . In the three years it took to record the film , Welker did not meet Weinger or Williams . Welker also voices Jasmine 's tiger Rajah and the Cave of Wonders . Duncan Marjoribanks was the supervising animator for Abu , while Rajah was animated by Aaron Blaise .
Gilbert Gottfried as Iago , Jafar 's sarcastic , foul @-@ mouthed parrot assistant . Iago 's supervising animator Will Finn tried to incorporate some aspects of Gottfried 's appearance into Iago 's design , especially his semi @-@ closed eyes and the always @-@ appearing teeth .
Douglas Seale as The Sultan , the pompous , but kind ruler of Agrabah , who desperately tries to find a suitor for his daughter Jasmine . Some aspects of the character were inspired by the Wizard of Oz , to create a bumbling authority figure . The Sultan 's supervising animator was David Pruiksma .
Jim Cummings as Razoul , the Captain of the Guard . He was named after layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani . He and the other guards were animated by Phil Young and Chris Wahl .
Charlie Adler as Gazeem : A thief that Jafar sends into the Cave of Wonders at the beginning of the film but is trapped inside for being unworthy . Gazeem was animated by T. Daniel Hofstedt .
Corey Burton as Prince Achmed , a snobbish prince who is rejected by Princess Jasmine as her suitor .
= = Production = =
= = = Script and development = = =
In 1988 , lyricist Howard Ashman pitched the idea of an animated musical adaptation of Aladdin . Ashman had written a 40 @-@ page film treatment remaining faithful to the plot and characters of the original story , but envisioned as a campy 1930s @-@ style musical with a Cab Calloway / Fats Waller @-@ like Genie . Along with partner Alan Menken , Ashman conceived several songs and added Aladdin 's friends named Babkak , Omar , and Kasim to the story . However , the studio were dismissive of Ashman 's treatment and removed the project from development in which Ashman and Menken were later recruited to compose songs for Beauty and the Beast . Linda Woolverton , who had also worked on Beauty and the Beast , used their treatment and developed a draft with inspired elements from The Thief of Bagdad such as a villain named Jaf 'far , an aged sidekick retired human thief named Abu , and a human handmaiden for the princess . Then , directors John Musker and Ron Clements joined the production , picking Aladdin out of three projects offered , which also included an adaptation of Swan Lake and King of the Jungle – that eventually became The Lion King . Before Ashman 's death in March 1991 , Ashman and Menken had composed " Prince Ali " and his last song , " Humiliate the Boy " .
Musker and Clements wrote a draft of the screenplay , and then delivered a story reel to studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg in April 1991 . Katzenberg thought the script " didn 't engage " , and on a day known by the staff as " Black Friday , " demanded that the entire story to be rewritten without rescheduling the film 's November 25 , 1992 release date . Among the changes Katzenberg requested from Clements and Musker were to not be dependent on Ashman 's vision , and the removal of Aladdin 's mother , remarking , " Eighty @-@ six the mother . The mom 's a zero . " Screenwriting duo Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio were brought in to rework the story , and the changes they made included the removal of Aladdin 's mother , the strengthening of the character of Princess Jasmine , and the deletion of several of the Ashman @-@ Menken songs . Aladdin 's personality was rewritten to be " a little rougher , like a young Harrison Ford , " and the parrot Iago , originally conceived as an uptight British archetype , was reworked into a comic role after the filmmakers saw Gilbert Gottfried in Beverly Hills Cop II . Gottfried was cast to provide Iago 's voice . By October 1991 , Katzenberg was satisfied with the new version of Aladdin . As with Woolverton 's screenplay , several characters and plot elements are based on the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad , the location of the film was changed from Baghdad , Iraq to the fictional Arabian city of Agrabah .
= = = Design and animation = = =
One of the first issues that the animators faced during production of Aladdin was the depiction of Aladdin himself . Director and producer John Musker explains :
He was initially going to be as young as 13 , but that eventually changed to eighteen . Aladdin was designed by a team led by supervising animator Glen Keane , and was originally made to resemble actor Michael J. Fox . During production , it was decided that the design was too boyish and wasn 't " appealing enough , " so the character was redesigned to add elements derived from actor Tom Cruise and Calvin Klein models .
The design for most characters was based on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld , which production designer Richard Vander Wende also considered appropriate to the theme , due to similarities to the swooping lines of Persian miniatures and Arabic calligraphy . Jafar 's design was not based on Hirschfeld 's work because Jafar 's supervising animator , Andreas Deja , wanted the character to be contrasting . Each character was animated alone , with the animators consulting each other to make scenes with interrelating characters . Since Aladdin 's animator Glen Keane was working in the California branch of Walt Disney Feature Animation , and Jasmine 's animator Mark Henn was in the Florida one at Disney @-@ MGM Studios , they had to frequently phone , fax or send designs and discs to each other . The Magic Carpet is a sentient carpet who is able to fly . Animator Randy Cartwright described working on the Carpet as challenging , since it is only a rectangular shape , who expresses himself through pantomime – " It 's sort of like acting by origami " . Cartwright kept folding a piece of cloth while animating to see how to position the Carpet . After the character animation was done , the carpet 's surface design was applied digitally .
For the scenery design , layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani took many pictures of his hometown of Isfahan , Iran for guidance . Other inspirations for design were Disney 's animated films from the 1940s and 50s and the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad . The coloring was done with the computerized CAPS process , and the color motifs were chosen according to the personality – the protagonists use light colors such as blue , the antagonists darker ones such as red and black , and Agrabah and its palace use the neutral color yellow . Computer animation was used for some elements of the film , such as the tiger entrance of the Cave of Wonders and the scene where Aladdin tries to escape the collapsing cave .
Musker and Clements created the Genie with Robin Williams in mind ; even though Katzenberg suggested actors such as John Candy , Steve Martin , and Eddie Murphy , Williams was approached and eventually accepted the role . Williams came for voice recording sessions during breaks in the shooting of two other films he was starring in at the time , Hook and Toys . Unusually for an animated film , much of Williams ' dialogue was ad @-@ libbed : for some scenes , Williams was given topics and dialogue suggestions , but allowed to improvise his lines . It was estimated that Williams improvised 52 characters . Eric Goldberg , the supervising animator for the Genie , then reviewed Williams ' recorded dialogue and selected the best gags and lines that his crew would create character animation to match .
The producers added many in @-@ jokes and references to Disney 's previous works in the film , such as a " cameo appearance " from directors Clements and Musker and drawing some characters based on Disney workers . Beast , Sebastian from The Little Mermaid , and Pinocchio make brief appearances , and the wardrobe of the Genie at the end of the film — Goofy hat , Hawaiian shirt , and sandals — are a reference to a short film that Robin Williams did for the Disney @-@ MGM Studios tour in the late 1980s .
= = = Robin Williams ' conflicts with the studio = = =
In gratitude for his success with Touchstone Pictures ' Good Morning , Vietnam , Robin Williams voiced the Genie for SAG scale pay ( $ 75 @,@ 000 ) , on condition that his name or image not be used for marketing , and his ( supporting ) character not take more than 25 % of space on advertising artwork , since Williams ' film Toys was scheduled for release one month after Aladdin 's debut . For financial reasons , the studio went back on the deal on both counts , especially in poster art by having the Genie in 25 % of the image , but having other major and supporting characters portrayed considerably smaller . The Disney Hyperion book Aladdin : The Making of an Animated Film listed both of Williams ' characters " The Peddler " and " The Genie " ahead of main characters , but was forced to refer to him only as " the actor signed to play the Genie " .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Alan Menken and songwriters Howard Ashman and Tim Rice were praised for creating a soundtrack that is " consistently good , rivaling the best of Disney 's other animated musicals from the ' 90s . " Menken and Ashman began work on the film together , with Rice taking over as lyricist after Ashman died of AIDS @-@ related complications in early 1991 . Although fourteen songs were written for Aladdin , only six are featured in the movie , three by each lyricist . The DVD Special Edition released in 2004 includes four songs in early animations tests , and a music video of one , " Proud of Your Boy " , performed by Clay Aiken , which also appears on the album DisneyMania 3 .
= = Themes = =
The filmmakers thought the moral message of the original tale was not appropriate , and decided to " put a spin on it " , by making the fulfillment of wishes seem like a great thing , but eventually becoming a problem . Another major theme was avoiding an attempt to be what the person is not – both Aladdin and Jasmine get into trouble faking to be different people , and the Prince Ali persona fails to impress Jasmine , who only falls for Aladdin when she finds out who he truly is . Being " imprisoned " is also discussed , a fate that occurs to most of the characters – Aladdin and Jasmine are stuck to their lifestyles , Genie is attached to his lamp and Jafar , to the Sultan – and is represented visually by the prison @-@ like walls and bars of the Agrabah palace , and the scene involving caged birds which Jasmine later frees . Jasmine is also depicted as a different Disney Princess , being rebellious to the royal life and the social structure , and trying to make her own way , unlike the princesses who just wait for rescue .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
A large promotion campaign preceded Aladdin 's debut in theaters , with the film 's trailer being attached to most Disney VHS releases , and numerous tie @-@ ins and licensees being released . After a limited release on November 13 , 1992 , Aladdin debuted in 1 @,@ 131 theaters on November 25 , 1992 , grossing $ 19 @.@ 2 million in its opening weekend – number two at the box office , behind Home Alone 2 : Lost in New York . It took eight weeks for the film to reach number one at the US box office , breaking the record for the week between Christmas and New Year 's Eve with $ 32 @.@ 2 million . The film held the top spot five times during its 22 @-@ week run . Aladdin was the most successful film of 1992 grossing $ 217 million in the United States and over $ 504 million worldwide . It was the biggest gross for an animated film until The Lion King two years later . As of January 2014 , it is the thirtieth highest grossing animated film and the third highest grossing traditionally animated feature worldwide , behind The Lion King and The Simpsons Movie . It sold an estimated 52 @,@ 442 @,@ 300 tickets in the US .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 94 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on a sample of 68 reviews , with an average score of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 .
Most critics ' praise went to Robin Williams ' performance as Genie , with Janet Maslin of The New York Times declaring that children " needn 't know precisely what Mr. Williams is evoking to understand how funny he is " . Warner Bros. Cartoons director Chuck Jones even called the film " the funniest feature ever made . " Furthermore , English @-@ Irish comedian Spike Milligan considered it to be the greatest film of all time . James Berardinelli gave it 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , praising the " crisp visuals and wonderful song @-@ and @-@ dance numbers " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the comedy made the film accessible to both children and adults , a vision shared with Desson Howe of The Washington Post , who also said " kids are still going to be entranced by the magic and adventure . " Brian Lowry of Variety praised the cast of characters , describing the expressive magic carpet as " its most remarkable accomplishment " and considered that " Aladdin overcomes most story flaws thanks to sheer technical virtuosity " .
Some aspects of the film were widely criticized . Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wrote a negative review , describing the film as racist , ridiculous , and a " narcissistic circus act " from Robin Williams . Roger Ebert , who generally praised the film in his review , considered the music inferior to its predecessors The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast , and claimed Aladdin and Jasmine were " pale and routine " .
= = = Awards = = =
Aladdin also received many award nominations , mostly for its music . It won two Academy Awards , Best Music , Original Score and Best Music , Original Song for " A Whole New World " and receiving nominations for Best Song ( " Friend Like Me " ) , Best Sound Editing ( Mark A. Mangini ) , and Best Sound ( Terry Porter , Mel Metcalfe , David J. Hudson and Doc Kane ) . At the Golden Globes , Aladdin won Best Original Song ( " A Whole New World " ) and Best Original Score , as well as a Special Achievement Award for Robin Williams , with a nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . Other awards included the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature , a MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance to Robin Williams , Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Film , Performance by a Younger Actor to Scott Weinger and Supporting Actor to Robin Williams , the Best Animated Feature by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association , and four Grammy Awards , Best Soundtrack Album , and Song of the Year , Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media for " A Whole New World " .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was first released in VHS on October 1 , 1993 , as part of the " Walt Disney Classics " line . In its first week of availability , Aladdin sold over 10 @.@ 6 million copies , and went on to sell over 25 million in total ( a record only broken by the later release of The Lion King ) . It entered moratorium on April 30 , 1994 .
On October 5 , 2004 , Aladdin was released on DVD , as part of Disney 's Platinum Edition line . The DVD release featured retouched and cleaned @-@ up animation , prepared for Aladdin 's planned but ultimately cancelled IMAX reissue in 2003 , and a second disc with bonus features . Accompanied by a $ 19 million marketing campaign , the DVD sold about 3 million units in its first month , but it was less than the number of copies , sold in that amount of time , by any other Platinum Edition released before it . The film 's soundtrack was available in its original Dolby 5 @.@ 1 track or in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix . The DVD went into moratorium in January 2008 , along with its sequels .
According to an insert in the Lady and the Tramp Diamond Edition release case , Aladdin was going to be released on Blu @-@ ray Disc as a Diamond Edition in Spring 2013 . Instead , Peter Pan was released on Blu @-@ ray as a Diamond Edition on February 5 , 2013 to celebrate its 60th anniversary . A non @-@ Diamond Edition Blu @-@ ray was released in a few select European countries in March 2013 . The Belgian edition ( released without advertisements , commercials or any kind of fanfare ) comes as a 1 @-@ disc version with its extras ported over from the Platinum Edition DVD ) . The same disc was released in the United Kingdom on April 14 , 2013 . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on a Diamond Edition Blu @-@ ray on October 13 , 2015 . The film was released on Digital HD on September 29 , 2015 . Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S. , the film topped the Blu @-@ ray Disc sales chart and debuted at number 2 at the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart , which tracks overall disc sales behind the disaster film San Andreas .
= = = Controversies = = =
One of the verses of the opening song " Arabian Nights " was altered following protests from the American @-@ Arab Anti @-@ Discrimination Committee ( ADC ) . The lyrics were changed in July 1993 from " Where they cut off your ear if they don 't like your face , " in the original release to " Where it 's flat and immense and the heat is intense . " The change first appeared on the 1993 video release . The original lyric was intact on the initial CD soundtrack release , but the re @-@ release uses the edited lyric . The rerecording has the original voice on all other lines and then a noticeably deeper voice says the edited line . The Broadway adaptation also uses the edited line . Entertainment Weekly ranked Aladdin in a list of the most controversial films in history , due to this incident . The ADC also complained about the portrayal of the lead characters Aladdin and Jasmine . They criticized the characters ' Anglicized features and Anglo @-@ American accents , in contrast to the other characters in the film , which are dark @-@ skinned , have foreign accents and grotesque facial features , and appear villainous or greedy .
Protests were also raised to another scene . When Aladdin is attacked by the tiger Rajah on the palace balcony , Aladdin quietly says a line that some people reported hearing as " Good teenagers , take off your clothes , " which they considered a subliminal reference to promiscuity . However , according to the director 's commentary on the 2004 DVD , while Musker and Clements did admit Scott Weinger ad @-@ libbed during the scene , they claimed " we did not record that , we would not record that . " and said the line was " Good tiger , take off and go ... " and the word " tiger " is overlapped by Rajah 's snarl . After the word tiger , a second voice can be heard which has been suggested was accidentally grafted onto the soundtrack . Because of the controversy , Disney removed the line on the DVD release .
Animation enthusiasts have noticed similarities between Aladdin and Richard Williams ' unfinished film The Thief and the Cobbler ( also known as Arabian Knight under Miramax Films and The Princess and the Cobbler under Majestic Films International ) . These similarities include a similar plot , similar characters , scenes and background designs , and the antagonist Zig @-@ Zag 's resemblance in character design and mannerisms to Genie and Jafar . Though Aladdin was released prior to The Thief and the Cobbler , The Thief and the Cobbler was started much earlier in the 1960s , its production being mired in difficulties including financial problems , copyright issues , and late production times caused by separate studios trying to finish the film after Richard Williams was fired from the project for lack of finished work . The late release , coupled with Miramax purchasing and re @-@ editing the film , has sometimes resulted in The Thief and the Cobbler being labeled a copy of Aladdin .
= = Live @-@ action prequel = =
On July 15 , 2015 , the studio started developing a live @-@ action comedy adventure prequel called Genies that is being written by Damian Shannon and Mark Swift , while Tripp Vinson is on board to produce via his Vinson Films banner . The film is planned to lead for a live @-@ action Aladdin movie . On November 8 , Disney revealed it had originally planned to use Robin Williams ' unused lines from the 1991 – 2 recording sessions for the film , but his will prohibited the studio from using his likeness for twenty @-@ five years after his death .
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= Martin Gélinas =
Martin Gélinas ( French pronunciation : [ ʒeliˈna ] ; born June 5 , 1970 ) is a Canadian former ice hockey forward who played 1 @,@ 273 games in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Edmonton Oilers , Quebec Nordiques , Vancouver Canucks , Carolina Hurricanes , Calgary Flames , Florida Panthers and Nashville Predators . A first round selection of the Los Angeles Kings , 7th overall , at the 1988 NHL Entry Draft , Gélinas never played for the team as he was included in one of the most significant trades in NHL history while he was still playing junior hockey for the Hull Olympiques . He was sent to the Oilers as a part of the Wayne Gretzky trade in 1988 .
Gélinas reached the Stanley Cup finals with four teams . He was a member of Edmonton 's 1990 championship team and also reached the final in 1994 with Vancouver , 2002 with Carolina and 2004 with Calgary . He tied a record in 2004 by scoring three series @-@ winning goals in one playoff year , earning the nickname " The Eliminator " . After playing his final professional season with SC Bern in the Swiss National League A ( NLA ) , Gélinas turned to coaching and player development . He was named an assistant coach with the Calgary Flames in 2012 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Gélinas played two seasons of junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) for the Hull Olympiques between 1987 and 1989 . He scored 101 goals and 107 assists in 106 games . In his first year , 1987 – 88 , Gélinas finished 10th in QMJHL scoring with 131 points . He won the Michel Bergeron Trophy as offensive rookie of the year and was named Canadian Hockey League rookie of the year in addition to being named a QMJHL first @-@ team all @-@ star . Gélinas added 32 points in 17 playoff games as the Olympiques defeated the Drummondville Voltigeurs in the final to win the President 's Cup . At the 1988 Memorial Cup , Gélinas won the George Parsons Trophy as the most sportsmanlike player of the tournament .
The National Hockey League ( NHL ) Central Scouting Bureau ranked Gélinas as the eighth best prospect at the 1988 NHL Entry Draft . He was selected by the Los Angeles Kings with the seventh overall pick . Gélinas never played for the Kings as on August 9 , 1988 , he was included in one of the most significant trades in NHL history . The Edmonton Oilers sent Wayne Gretzky , Mike Krushelnyski and Marty McSorley to the Kings in exchange for Gelinas , Jimmy Carson , three first round draft picks and $ 15 million in cash .
As one of the key players coming to Edmonton in what he later called " the biggest trade in sports history " , Gélinas endured the scrutiny of the Canadian media and pressure created by angry and disappointed fans after the Oilers dealt away a player in Gretzky who was considered a national icon . Gélinas began the 1988 – 89 season with the Oilers and made his NHL debut and scored his first point , on an assist , on October 7 , 1988 , against the New York Islanders . He scored his first goal ten days later against Jon Casey of the Minnesota North Stars but he was returned to Hull after six games to complete his second season of junior hockey . Making his international debut , Gélinas played with the Canadian national junior team at the 1989 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . He recorded two assists in seven games for the fourth place Canadians .
= = = Edmonton , Vancouver and Carolina = = =
Joining the Oilers full @-@ time in 1989 – 90 , Gélinas recorded 25 points in 46 games . At the age of 19 , he was a member of Edmonton 's " Kid Line " playing alongside 22 @-@ year @-@ olds Joe Murphy and Adam Graves . The trio provided an offensive boost in the post @-@ season as the Oilers reached the 1990 Stanley Cup Final against the Boston Bruins . Edmonton won the best @-@ of @-@ seven championship series four games to one and captured the Stanley Cup . After recording 40 points in 1990 – 91 , Gélinas scored only 29 points the following season . The Quebec Nordiques , who had been criticized by local fans and media for failing to select Gélinas at the 1988 draft , attempted to acquire him in exchange for Bryan Fogarty . The deal failed to materialize and Gélinas remained with the Oilers for the 1992 – 93 season where his offensive production again declined , to 23 points .
The Nordiques finally acquired Gélinas on June 20 , 1993 , in exchange for Scott Pearson . He lasted only 31 games with Quebec before being placed on waivers and claimed by the Vancouver Canucks . After scoring 16 points in 33 games to end the 1993 – 94 regular season with Vancouver , Gélinas added nine points in 24 playoff games . The Canucks reached the 1994 Stanley Cup Final but were defeated in seven games by the New York Rangers . In the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , he scored 23 points in 46 games and won his first of two consecutive Fred J. Hume Awards as Vancouver 's " unsung hero " . Gélinas finally achieved the offensive production expected of him when he was drafted by recording consecutive 30 @-@ goal seasons . He scored 30 goals in 1995 – 96 and led the Canucks with 35 goals , was second to Alexander Mogilny with 68 points and recorded a four @-@ goal game against the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996 – 97 . He won three team awards : The Cyclone Taylor Award as Vancouver 's most valuable player , the Molson Cup for earning the most three star selections and the Most Exciting Player Award .
A collision with Edmonton 's Dan McGillis early in the 1997 – 98 season forced Gélinas out of the lineup with a sprained knee . He missed 16 games due to the injury and had only eight points in 24 games played . His tenure with the Canucks ended January 3 , 1998 . He was traded , along with Kirk McLean to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for Sean Burke , Geoff Sanderson and Enrico Ciccone . Gélinas was added to Carolina 's roster to add a physical presence to the team and improve the team at both ends of the ice . He finished the season with 24 points in 40 games with the Hurricanes , and was invited to join Team Canada for the 1998 World Championship . Gélinas scored one goal for the sixth @-@ place Canadians .
Placed in a defensive role , Gélinas 's offensive statistics fell to 28 points in 1998 – 99 and 30 in 1999 – 2000 . The Hurricanes placed him on waivers late in the latter season , but remained with the team after he went unclaimed . His teammates expressed relief that he hadn 't been moved the following season as , after improving to 59 points , Gélinas scored the game @-@ winning goal to clinch a playoff spot for Carolina . He recorded only one assist in six post @-@ season games , then accepted a lessened role with the Hurricanes as he was placed on the third line in 2001 – 02 . Gélinas led the Hurricanes to their first Stanley Cup Final in franchise history after scoring the overtime @-@ winning goal in the sixth game of the Eastern Conference final to eliminate the Toronto Maple Leafs . Carolina fell to the Detroit Red Wings in five games in the 2002 Stanley Cup Final .
= = = Calgary , Florida and Nashville = = =
Gélinas chose to decline his contract option for 2002 – 03 and left Carolina as a free agent . He signed a contract with the Calgary Flames on July 2 , 2002 . A 52 @-@ point season was fourth best on the Flames and included his 500th career point , a game @-@ winning goal against the Detroit Red Wings on January 25 , 2003 . Gélinas reached another career milestone during the 2003 – 04 season as he played in his 1,000th NHL game on December 9 against the Minnesota Wild . His 35 points on the season was again fourth @-@ best on the team .
In qualifying for the 2004 Stanley Cup Playoffs , the Flames reached the post @-@ season for the first time in eight seasons . With eight goals and 15 points in the playoffs , Gélinas emerged as one of Calgary 's post @-@ season heroes . He scored the series @-@ winning goal in overtime of game seven of the Flames ' first round series against Vancouver . The victory advanced Calgary to the second round of the playoffs for the first time in 15 years . Gélinas also scored the overtime goal that eliminated Detroit in six games , which made him the first player in NHL history to score three series @-@ winning goals in overtime . He then became the second player in NHL history to score three series @-@ clinching goals in one playoff year by tallying the goal that eliminated the San Jose Sharks and propelled the Flames into the 2004 Stanley Cup Final . His heroics throughout the post @-@ season resulted in Gélinas being called " the Eliminator " .
The Flames ' Cinderella run ended in the final as the Tampa Bay Lightning won the series in seven games . The result was controversial as Gélinas appeared to have scored the tie @-@ breaking goal in the sixth game that would have won the Stanley Cup for Calgary had the score held up . Television replays of the play showed that the puck deflected off Gélinas ' skate and appeared to be across the goal line before Tampa goaltender Nikolai Khabibulin kicked it out of the net . The referees did not signal a goal , however , and no video review was requested . Tampa Bay went on to win the game in overtime .
As the 2004 – 05 NHL season went unplayed due to a labour dispute , Gélinas spent the season in Switzerland . He played one regular season and five playoff games with HC Lugano in the Nationalliga A ( NLA ) , but otherwise spent the season with HC Forward @-@ Morges in the Nationalliga B ( NLB ) where he scored 37 goals in 41 games and recorded 58 points . A free agent when the NHL resumed play in 2005 – 06 , Gélinas signed a two @-@ year contract with the Florida Panthers . Brought in as a capable veteran , he played all 82 games for Florida and scored over 40 points in each season . Gélinas scored his 300th career goal in Florida 's final game of the 2006 – 07 season .
Leaving Florida , Gélinas signed with the Nashville Predators for the 2007 – 08 season . He had 20 points in 57 games before suffering a torn anterior cruciate ligament in February 21 , 2008 , game against the Vancouver Canucks that was ultimately his final contest in the NHL . Gélinas returned to Switzerland 2008 – 09 as he signed a contract to play with SC Bern in the NLA . In 27 games , he scored 15 goals and 22 points . He retired following the season . In his NHL career , Gélinas played 1 @,@ 273 regular season games and added 147 in the playoffs . His former junior team , now known as the Gatineau Olympiques , retired his uniform number 20 in 2012 .
= = Coaching career = =
The Nashville Predators hired Gélinas as their director of player development in 2009 . He had spent the final years of his playing career mentoring younger teammates and general Manager David Poile praised him as being an ideal person for the role : " we will depend on Martin and his experience , work ethic and professionalism to help develop our prospects into NHL players " . Spending up to 20 days per month on the road , he often served in a coaching capacity by assisting players during practices when visiting Nashville 's farm club , the Milwaukee Admirals . He carried that experience back to Calgary in 2012 when he was hired as the Flames ' assistant coach under Bob Hartley . One of Gélinas ' duties with the team is to work with the special teams units , both the power play and the penalty kill . The 2013 – 14 season is his second with the team .
= = Personal life = =
A native of Shawinigan @-@ Sud , Quebec , Martin is the son of René Gélinas and Lise Lebel . His father was a barber in Shawinigan @-@ Sud . Martin and his wife Jane have three children : son Matthew and daughters Cameron and Morgan . The family have made Calgary their permanent home since he first signed with the Flames in 2002 . Mathew is also a hockey player , and in 2013 – 14 is in junior as a member of the Tri @-@ City Americans .
Active with charitable endeavours throughout his career , Gélinas was named the recipient of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in 2004 . A Calgary Flames team award , it is given to the player who best combines on @-@ ice leadership with a dedication to community service . He is involved with the Calgary Flames Alumni Association 's charitable events . Gélinas is also involved with Calgary 's business industry : He holds an interest in Calgary @-@ based Whitecap Resources .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= The Guardian Legend =
The Guardian Legend , known in Japan as Guardic Gaiden ( ガーディック外伝 , Gādikku Gaiden ) , is a 1988 hybrid action @-@ adventure / shoot ' em up video game developed by Compile for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . It is the sequel to the 1986 MSX game Guardic , and was published and released in Japan by Irem in 1988 , in North America by Brøderbund in 1989 , and in Europe by Nintendo in 1990 .
In the game , the player controls a lone protagonist , the Guardian , who is on a quest to destroy a large alien @-@ infested world named Naju before it reaches the planet Earth . The player must deactivate ten safety devices scattered throughout Naju , thus activating the alien world 's self @-@ destruct sequence . The player explores Naju in a non @-@ linear fashion and can acquire different weapons during the course of the game .
The Guardian Legend received mixed reviews from magazines such as Electronic Gaming Monthly and Nintendo Power . While it has been praised for its impressive graphics , memorable sound , and responsive controls , it has been criticized for its repetitive gameplay and complicated password system .
The game received little fanfare upon its release , but it has since been considered a classic example of a multiple @-@ genre game that set a standard for others such as the title Sigma Star Saga and incorporated gameplay elements from other titles such as The Legend of Zelda , Metroid , and 1942 .
= = Plot = =
In The Guardian Legend , the player controls the gynoid guardian of Earth , a " highly sophisticated aerobot transformer " . The player 's mission is to infiltrate Naju , a large planet @-@ like object which aliens sent hurtling towards the Earth . While inside , the player must activate ten safety devices in order to initialize Naju 's self @-@ destruct mechanism and destroy the alien world before it reaches Earth . Five hostile tribes of alien lifeforms are vying for control of territories within Naju , and the player needs to fight through them to successfully activate the switches and escape .
The story is advanced through a series of messages left by one or more unidentified predecessor ( s ) who unsuccessfully attempted to engage the self @-@ destruct mechanism of Naju before the Guardian arrived . Left by the sole remaining survivor of the attack on Naju , the first message serves as an introduction ; later messages give hints that help the player open locked corridors .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay varies depending on the player 's location within Naju . The player controls the Guardian in humanoid form when exploring the surface of Naju ( the Labyrinth ) and in spaceship form when investigating Naju 's interior ( the Dungeon ) . The Guardian has a life meter that decreases after sustaining damage from enemies ; it can be replenished by collecting various items . If the life meter runs out , the Guardian explodes , and the game ends . The player can use a primary rapid @-@ fire weapon with unlimited ammunition as well as various powerful secondary weapons that consume " power chips " with each use . Power chips are also used as currency to purchase upgrades for the Guardian in a handful of shops throughout Naju . Found within the Labyrinth or obtained after defeating a boss , these upgrades include primary weapon improvements , new or upgraded secondary weapons , and round , brightly colored creatures called Landers .
Blue and Red Landers , recurring characters in many Compile games , increase the player 's maximum life and power chip capacities , respectively . Blue Landers play multiple roles in The Guardian Legend . Some of them are not items but non @-@ player characters that dispense advice to the player or exchange upgrades for power chips ; others provide a password that allows the player to resume the game at a later time with their progress retained . These Blue Landers also serve as checkpoints ; players can restart their game in these designated rooms after being defeated provided the system has not been turned off .
In the action @-@ adventure portion of the game known as the " Labyrinth " , the player explores the surface of Naju in humanoid form in a top @-@ down perspective . The player must navigate the Labyrinth and find and infiltrate the corridors and ultimately activate Naju 's ten safety devices . The Labyrinth consists of screen @-@ wide passages and rooms individually plotted as X – Y coordinates . A map that details these coordinates in a grid @-@ like form can be viewed on the pause subscreen . While the player can generally walk from one screen to the next , some screens are separated by portals called " warp panels " . Warp panels bear a symbol indicative of their surrounding area , and the player can only access these warp panels with keys that match these symbols . Some warp panels lead to rooms containing various clues and story elements while others are gateways to shops , password rooms , and corridors . Keys allow players to access different portions of the Labyrinth , which they can then explore in a non @-@ linear fashion .
In the shoot ' em up portion of the game known as the " Dungeon " , the player battles through Naju 's interior in spaceship form . The Dungeon consists of a series of enemy @-@ filled corridors which are found during exploration of the Labyrinth . The player 's objective in the Dungeon is to progress through each corridor and defeat the boss at the end . Upon completion , the player destroys the corridor and is returned to the Labyrinth , where a power @-@ up ( and sometimes a warp panel key ) is collected as a reward . While some corridors can be accessed freely , others can only be entered by performing a particular action in the corridor room . Some rooms in the Labyrinth contain clues that indicate how to unseal these corridors . Ten of the corridors in the game serve as the safety devices which must be deactivated to win the game .
= = Development = =
The Guardian Legend was developed for the Nintendo Famicom by Compile as the sequel to the 1986 MSX game Guardic , and it was released as Guardic Gaiden in Japan by Irem on February 5 , 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 02 @-@ 05 ) . The director was Masamitsu " Moo " Niitani , Compile 's president and the creator of the Puyo Puyo series . The development team featured many of the staff who helped create Guardic as well as Zanac and Blazing Lazers . The box art for Guardic Gaiden was created by Japanese science @-@ fiction illustrator Naoyuki Kato and depicts the Guardian as a female cyborg . The Guardian Legend was released for the NES and released in North America by Brøderbund in April 1989 ; it was published in Europe by Nintendo in 1990 . Nintendo Power previewed The Guardian Legend in January 1989 , where they discussed the game 's mechanics , graphics , and shoot ' em up sequences . They promised a full review in the following issue , but it was postponed due to a delay of the game 's release . The Guardian Legend was exhibited at the 1989 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , Nevada before its release ; it was one of the prime attractions at the Brøderbund booth along with the U @-@ Force controller . In 1990 , remaining inventory of The Guardian Legend was among the assets Brøderbund sold to THQ along with the rest of its New Ventures Division .
= = Reception = =
The game has received both praise and criticism for its multiple @-@ genre format . It was reviewed by four people in a 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly shortly after the release of the game in 1989 . Steve Harris said that the game does more than most shoot ' em ups and that it 's a " good follow @-@ up for Zanac fans " . He added that the multiple @-@ genre format " helps elevate the whole title to a much higher level " . Ed Semrad called the game a Blaster Master clone and " only average at best " , and he echoed Harris ' opinion that those who enjoyed Zanac would enjoy The Guardian Legend . Donn Nauert said that the game is repetitive and offers little challenge and that it would have been better as a pure shoot ' em up ; he pointed to a special password ( " TGL " ) in which players can enter to bypass all of the Labyrinth portions . Jim Allee also compared the game to Zanac and repeated what Nauert said about the lack of difficulty except in the boss battles ; he overall praised the game for successfully bringing together two distinct themes .
The Guardian Legend received accolades from the editors of Nintendo Power . The game appeared in the magazine 's September 1989 issue , where it debuted at # 9 on its " Top 30 " NES Chart . The editors praised the game , and described the protagonist as " the ultimate transforming hero " . The game would remain on the chart for nearly a year . In recognition of its achievements , the magazine 's editors and staff nominated the game for several awards in its first @-@ ever Nintendo Power Awards for 1989 — among them , " Best Graphics & Sound " , " Best Play Control " , and " Best Overall " — but the game did not win the top award in any of these categories . Nintendo Power published a partial walkthrough for the game in the following November 1989 issue .
The game received moderate praise in some German gaming magazines after its European release . In Video Games magazine the reviewer praised the game as being a good action @-@ adventure game in the same style of The Legend of Zelda ; he notes that the need to find hidden items and areas and the top @-@ down perspective closely resemble the Nintendo classic . He appreciated the variety and extras in the game , the various strategies needed to fight bosses , its difficulty , and the well @-@ done graphics . The reviewers from Power Play compared The Guardian Legend to The Legend of Zelda and Life Force . They praised the diverse gameplay and weapons , difficulty , and the mixture of action @-@ adventure and shoot ' em up elements . They criticized the game for lacking battery @-@ backed RAM to save player progress — one of the reviewers said that " the wretched fumbling with the password had long ended " — as well as its lack of challenging puzzles and a high difficulty level in some of the shoot ' em up sections .
= = Legacy = =
The game continued to receive praise from major game reviewers over a decade since its release . Lucas Thomas of the Evansville Courier & Press favorably compared The Guardian Legend with the NES title The Legend of Zelda and the Game Boy Advance title Sigma Star Saga ; he emphasized Compile 's successful fusion of the action @-@ adventure , shoot ' em up and action role @-@ playing game genres . Later , in a 2008 IGN article , Thomas listed the game at # 2 on his " Top 10 Unreleased NES Hits " list and contended that The Guardian Legend took the concept of the multiple @-@ genre game to a farther extent than Blaster Master . In October 2009 , IGN ranked The Guardian Legend as # 87 on its " Top 100 NES Games of All Time " list and deemed it " one of the most influential games in the history of the gaming industry " . In March 2008 , Game Informer editors referred to the game as " the ultimate genre bender " and likened it to a combination of the NES games The Legend of Zelda , Metroid , and 1942 . While they acclaimed the game for its " exciting and challenging " shooter stages , they criticized it for its complex world map and " outrageous " password system . In a Gamasutra interview , Retro Game Challenge designer Mike Engler said that " The Guardian Legend is one of the best games ever released " .
The graphics and sound of The Guardian Legend have been influential . Robert Dewar and Matthew Smosna of the open computing magazine Open Systems Today cited the game as an example of how graphics co @-@ processors such as those in the NES can compensate for inadequate CPU speed in graphics @-@ intensive computer applications . They noted that the fast @-@ paced action seen in the game could not be replicated on a personal computer at that time ( 1992 ) without an expensive graphics board and regardless of CPU speed . The music of the game , composed by Masatomo Miyamoto and Takeshi Santo , has remained popular years after the game 's release . Samantha Amjadali of the Melbourne @-@ based newspaper The Herald Sun reported that a remixed tune from the game was rated as the second most popular track on the website OverClocked ReMix in March 2002 . Video game cover band The Advantage 's 2006 album Elf Titled featured a cover version of music from one of the game 's dungeon levels .
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= Hiyō @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The two Hiyō @-@ class aircraft carriers ( 飛鷹型航空母艦 , Hiyō @-@ gata kōkūbokan ) were built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War II . Both ships of the class , Hiyō and Junyō , were originally laid down as luxury passenger liners before being acquired by the IJN for conversion to aircraft carriers in 1941 . Junyō was the first of the sister ship to be completed in May 1942 and the ship participated in the invasion of the Aleutian Islands the following month . Both ships participated in several battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign in late 1942 . Their aircraft were disembarked several times and used from land bases in a number of battles in the South West Pacific .
Hiyō was torpedoed in June 1943 and Junyō in November ; both ships spent about three months under repair . They spent most of the time after their repairs training and ferrying aircraft before returning to combat . Hiyō was sunk by a gasoline vapor explosion caused by an American torpedo hit during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid @-@ 1944 while Junyō was damaged by several bombs . Lacking aircraft , she was used as a transport in late 1944 and was torpedoed in December . The ship was under repair until March 1945 when the repairs were deemed uneconomical . Junyō was then effectively hulked for the rest of the war . The ship was deemed not worth the cost to repair by the Americans after the surrender of Japan in September and she was broken up in 1946 – 47 .
= = Design and description = =
The ships were ordered as the fast luxury passenger liners Izumo Maru and Kashiwara Maru by Nippon Yusen Kaisha ( Japan Mail Steamship Company @-@ NYK ) in late 1938 . In exchange for a 60 % subsidy of their building costs by the Navy Ministry , they were designed to be converted to aircraft carriers . To facilitate this process , they were fitted with a double hull , additional fuel oil capacity , provisions for the fitting of additional transverse and longitudinal bulkheads , installation of a longitudinal bulkhead to separate the turbine rooms , a strengthened main deck , more height between decks , rearrangement of the superstructure and passenger accommodations to facilitate the installation of aircraft elevators and hangars , more space for additional wiring , installation of a bulbous bow and the addition of aviation gasoline storage tanks fore and aft of the machinery spaces . NYK was only interested in a maximum speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) to save fuel , but the Navy wanted a maximum speed of no less than 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) so they compromised by limiting the performance of the turbines to 80 % of maximum power during peacetime .
The ships had a length of about 219 @.@ 32 meters ( 719 ft 7 in ) overall . They had a beam of 26 @.@ 7 meters ( 87 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 15 meters ( 26 ft 9 in ) . They displaced 24 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 770 long tons ) at standard load . Their crew ranged from 1 @,@ 187 to 1 @,@ 224 officers and enlisted men .
Both ships were fitted with two Mitsubishi @-@ Curtis geared steam turbine sets with a total of 56 @,@ 250 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 950 kW ) , each driving a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 18 ft ) propeller . Steam was provided by six water @-@ tube boilers ; Junyō had Mitsubishi three @-@ drum boilers that operated at a pressure of 40 kg / cm2 ( 3 @,@ 923 kPa ; 569 psi ) and temperature of 420 ° C ( 788 ° F ) while Hiyō had Kawasaki @-@ La Mont boilers . Their machinery , designed for merchant service , was over four times heavier than that of the purpose @-@ built aircraft carrier Hiryū . The ships had a designed speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots , but both exceeded that by small margins during sea trials . They carried 4 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 11 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 21 @,@ 700 km ; 13 @,@ 500 mi ) or more at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
The flight deck was 210 @.@ 3 meters ( 690 ft 0 in ) long and had a maximum width of 27 @.@ 3 meters ( 89 ft 7 in ) . A large island was fitted on the starboard side that , for the first time in a Japanese carrier , was integrated with the ship 's funnel . This was angled 26 ° outwards to help keep its exhaust from interfering with flight operations . The ships were designed with two superimposed hangars , each approximately 153 meters ( 502 ft 0 in ) long , 15 meters ( 49 ft 3 in ) wide and 5 meters ( 16 ft 5 in ) high . Each hangar could be subdivided by four fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The hangars were served by two square elevators with rounded corners , 14 @.@ 03 meters ( 46 ft 0 in ) on each side . The elevators had a maximum capacity of 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) and took 15 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . The ships were fitted with electrically operated Kure type model 4 arresting gear with nine cables . They also mounted two Type 3 crash barricades . No aircraft catapult was fitted . The ships mounted a crane on the port side of the flight deck , just aft of the rear elevator . When collapsed , it was flush with the flight deck .
Their air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " fighters , plus 4 in storage , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers , with an additional 2 in reserve , and 18 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers . This was revised to substitute a dozen Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , plus 3 in storage , for the A5Ms by the time the ship commissioned in 1942 . As a result of the lessons learned from the Battle of Midway in June , the ships ' fighter complement was strengthened to 21 Zeros , and the other aircraft reduced to 12 D3As and 9 B5Ns . By the end of the year , 6 more Zeros replaced an equal number of D3As . Although it was possible to fit all these aircraft into the hangars , 8 or 9 were usually stored on the flight deck to reduce crowding below decks .
= = = Armor , armament and sensors = = =
As a conversion from an ocean liner , it was not possible to add much armor , although the ships had a double hull . Two plates of Ducol steel , each 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , protected the sides of the ships ' machinery spaces . Their aviation gasoline tanks and magazines were protected by one layer of Ducol steel . In addition , their machinery spaces were further subdivided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads to limit any flooding .
The primary armament consisted of a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . They fired 23 @.@ 45 @-@ kilogram ( 51 @.@ 7 lb ) projectiles at a rate between 8 and 14 rounds per minute at a muzzle velocity of 700 – 725 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 380 ft / s ) ; at 45 ° , this provided a maximum range of 14 @,@ 800 meters ( 16 @,@ 200 yd ) , and a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 400 meters ( 30 @,@ 800 ft ) . The ships were also initially equipped with eight triple 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull . They fired .25 @-@ kilogram ( 0 @.@ 55 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 7 @,@ 500 meters ( 8 @,@ 202 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at + 85 ° . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute due to the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . In mid @-@ 1943 , four more triple mounts were added and another four triple mounts in late 1943 – early 1944 . Two of these last four mounts were mounted on the stern and the others were placed in front of and behind the island . A dozen single mounts were also added , some of which were portable and could be mounted on tie @-@ down points on the flight deck . After the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 , Junyō 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with three more triple mounts , two twin mounts and 18 single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun . These guns were supplemented by six 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . Each 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) rocket weighed 22 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 50 lb ) and had a maximum velocity of 200 m / s ( 660 ft / s ) . Their maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 yd ) . In October 1944 , Junyō had a total of 91 25 mm barrels ; 57 in 19 triple mounts , four in two twin mounts , and 30 single mounts .
Two Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors , one on each side of the ship , were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . Each director mounted a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . When Junyō first commissioned only the rangefinders were fitted and the directors were added later . Four Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and another pair were added in early 1943 . Early warning was provided by two Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars . The first of these was mounted on the top of the island in mid- to late 1942 on each ship , and the other was added during 1943 . This latter system was fitted on the port side of the hull , outboard of the rear elevator . A smaller Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 air search radar was added in 1944 on Junyō .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
The ships were purchased on 10 February 1941 by the Navy Ministry for the price of ¥ 48 @,@ 346 @,@ 000 and their armament and aircraft cost an additional ¥ 27 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 . The cost to convert the two ships was budgeted at ¥ 38 @,@ 073 @,@ 000 , for a grand total of ¥ 114 @,@ 219 @,@ 000 . Kashiwara Maru and Izumo Maru were temporarily referred to as No. 1001 Ship ( Dai 1001 bankan ) and No. 1002 Ship respectively to keep their conversions secret . Junyō was initially classified as an auxiliary aircraft carrier ( Tokusetsu kokubokan ) , but following the loss of four Japanese fleet carriers in the Battle of Midway , she was redesignated as a regular carrier ( Kokubokan ) in July ; Hiyō , completed after the loss of the carriers , received that designation from the beginning .
Despite being launched several days after Hiyō , Junyō was the first of the pair to be commissioned in May 1942 . She was assigned to the Fourth Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet , together with Ryūjō . The ship was tasked to support the invasion of the Aleutian Islands , a diversionary thrust in support of the attack on Midway . Junyō carried 18 A6M2 Zeros and 18 D3As for this operation . The ship launched her first airstrike at dawn on 3 June against Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island . She accomplished little during this operation , losing 5 aircraft to all causes , and her own aircraft only shot down 5 American aircraft .
Upon arrival at Truk on 9 October , the two sisters were assigned to the Second Carrier Division to begin operations against American forces in the Guadalcanal area as part of the 3rd Fleet . On 15 October , the two carriers reached the vicinity of Malaita Island in the Solomon Islands and their aircraft discovered a resupply convoy for Guadalcanal that was escorted by the destroyer Meredith . Their aircraft attacked and sank the destroyer . The next day , they found the small seaplane tender , McFarland , in Lunga Roads offloading avgas into barges . Dive bombers from the sisters blew the ship 's stern off , but failed to sink McFarland . The two carriers were intended to play a prominent role in the Japanese effort to retake Guadalcanal Island and were assigned to the Advance Force for this operation . Their aircraft were supposed to provide air cover after the Japanese night attack that retook Henderson Field and then they were to be flown ashore , but Hiyō 's machinery problems caused her to return to Truk . Some of her aircraft were transferred to her sister before she departed .
In late October 1942 , during the Guadalcanal Campaign , Junyō took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . At this time , her air group consisted of 18 Zeros , 18 D3As and 9 B5Ns . Her aircraft made hits on the carrier Hornet , the battleship South Dakota and the light cruiser San Juan , but inflicted little substantial damage . A torpedo hit from one of her B5Ns , however , did force the Americans to abandon their effort to repair Hornet . During this time , Hiyō 's remaining aircraft flew to Rabaul on 23 October where they provided air cover for Japanese forces on Guadalcanal . A detachment from the air group was transferred to Buin , Papua New Guinea on 1 November and participated in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal later in the month . Those aircraft that remained at Rabaul flew back to Truk by 11 November , but the Buin detachment was ferried back to Japan on 14 December .
In mid @-@ November 1942 , Junyō was tasked to provide air cover for the convoy bringing reinforcements for the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal during the three @-@ day @-@ long Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . The ship 's fighters were unable to do so ; seven transports were sunk and the remaining four transports were damaged . In December 1942 – January 1943 , the carrier covered several convoys that brought reinforcements to Wewak , New Guinea and her air group was based there for several days to protect the forces there before returning to Truk on 20 January . The ship then covered the evacuation of forces from Guadalcanal through early February .
Hiyō had returned to Japan in December and Junyō followed in February . Both ships returned to Truk in late March and their air groups were detached from in early April to participate in Operation I @-@ Go , a land @-@ based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . The ships returned to Japan in late May and sailed for Truk on 7 June , but Hiyō was torpedoed that evening and forced to return to port for repairs . Her fighters were flown to Truk by 15 July and assigned to the light carrier Ryūhō . The ship was under repair at Yokosuka until 15 September . Junyō 's air group was deployed to Buin , Papua New Guinea on 2 July in response the American invasion of Rendova Island on 30 June . Leaving her aircraft behind , the carrier returned to Japan in late July .
Junyō ferried aircraft to Singapore in mid @-@ August and troops and equipment to the Caroline Islands the following month . On 5 November 1943 , she was hit by a torpedo , but the damage was light , other than the disabled rudder . The ship was under repair and refit until 29 February 1944 at Kure . The air groups of both carriers were reconstituted at Singapore on 1 November . The aircraft transferred to Truk on 1 December and then to Kavieng at the end of December before reaching Rabaul on 25 January 1944 ; the survivors were back at Truk on 20 February and the air group was disbanded .
Hiyō departed Japan for Singapore on 24 November . She arrived on 3 December and was almost immediately assigned duties as an aircraft ferry until January when the ship returned to Japan . In the meantime , the Japanese Navy had restructured its carrier air groups so that one air group was assigned to one carrier division and Air Group 652 was assigned to the 2nd Carrier Division with Hiyō , Junyō and Ryūhō on 1 March . The air group was last in priority to be rebuilt and only had 30 Model 21 Zeros , 13 Model 52 Zeros and 4 D3As on hand on 1 April of its authorized 81 fighters , 36 dive bombers and 27 torpedo bombers . The ships conducted training for their aircraft in the Inland Sea until 11 May when she sailed for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack . However , the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The Japanese fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refuelled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . The Americans failed to locate Ozawa 's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning . At this time , Air Group 652 consisted 81 Zeros , 27 D3As , 9 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers and 18 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers , roughly evenly divided among the three ships . The three carriers launched multiple air strikes against the American ships , but generally failed to locate them and did not inflict any damage while losing most of their aircraft .
At dusk , the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance . They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched . Hiyō was struck by two bombs , one of which detonated above the bridge and killed or wounded virtually everyone there . More seriously , the ship was struck by one torpedo dropped by a Grumman TBF Avenger from Belleau Wood . This knocked out the starboard engine room and started fires , but Hiyō was able to continue , albeit a slower speed . Two hours later , a large explosion occurred when leaking gasoline vapor ignited and it knocked out all power on the ship . The fires raged out of control and Hiyō sank stern first shortly afterwards at 16 ° 20 ′ N 132 ° 32 ′ E. Roughly 1 @,@ 000 men were rescued by her escorting destroyers , but 247 officers and enlisted men died aboard the carrier .
Junyō was hit by two bombs near her island . The ship was not badly damaged , but the damage did stop flight operations . Air Group 652 claimed 2 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters and 9 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers shot down , but lost 11 aircraft , plus another 3 that had to ditch . By the end of the battle , the air group only consisted of 11 A6M5s , 5 A6M2s and 1 B6N and it was disbanded on 10 July . Most of its remaining personnel were assigned to Air Group 653 .
After repairs at Kure , the ship remained in the Inland Sea without aircraft until 27 October when she was tasked to transport material to Borneo . On 3 November , she was attacked by the submarine Pintado , but her escorting destroyer , Akikaze , deliberately sacrificed herself by intercepting the torpedoes and sank with no survivors . While returning from Manila , Junyō was attacked by the submarines Sea Devil , Plaice and Redfish early in the morning of 9 December 1944 . She was hit by three torpedoes , but she was able to proceed on one engine . She reached Sasebo the following day and began repairs on 18 December .
The repairs were abandoned in March 1945 for lack of materials and the ship was moved from the dock to Ebisu Bay , Sasebo on 1 April . Efforts to camouflage the ship began on 23 April and she was reclassified as a guard ship on 20 June . Junyō 's armament was ordered removed on 5 August and the ship was surrendered to the Allies on 2 September . An American technical team evaluated the ship 's condition on 8 October and deemed her a constructive total loss . Junyō was stricken from the Navy List on 30 November and scrapped between 1 June 1946 and 1 August 1947 by the Sasebo Ship Company .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
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= Hank Azaria =
Henry Albert " Hank " Azaria ( / əˈzɛəriə / ə @-@ ZAIR @-@ ee @-@ ə ; born April 25 , 1964 ) is an American actor , voice actor , comedian and producer . He is known for starring in the animated television sitcom The Simpsons ( 1989 – present ) , voicing Moe Szyslak , Apu Nahasapeemapetilon , Chief Wiggum , Comic Book Guy , Carl Carlson and numerous others . After attending Tufts University , Azaria joined the series with little voice acting experience , but became a regular in its second season , with many of his performances on the show being based on famous actors and characters .
Along with the series , Azaria became more widely known through his live @-@ action appearances in films , such as The Birdcage ( 1996 ) , Godzilla ( 1998 ) , Mystery Men ( 1999 ) , America 's Sweethearts ( 2001 ) , Shattered Glass ( 2003 ) , Along Came Polly ( 2004 ) , Run Fatboy Run ( 2007 ) , Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian ( 2009 ) and The Smurfs ( 2011 ) .
He also had recurring roles on the television series Mad About You and Friends , played the title character in the drama Huff ( 2004 – 2006 ) , and appeared in the popular stage musical Spamalot . Though originally known as a comic actor , Azaria has also taken on more dramatic roles including the TV films Tuesdays With Morrie ( 1999 ) and Uprising ( 2001 ) . He has won five Emmys and a Screen Actors Guild Award . Azaria was married to actress Helen Hunt from 1999 to 2000 and has been married to actress Katie Wright since 2007 .
= = Early life = =
Azaria was born in Queens , New York City , the son of Sephardic Jewish parents , Ruth ( Altcheck ) and Albert Azaria . His grandparents on both sides hailed from Thessaloniki , Greece , and his family spoke Ladino . Azaria 's father ran several dress @-@ manufacturing businesses , while his mother raised him and his two older sisters , Stephanie and Elise . Before marrying his father , Azaria 's mother had been a publicist for Columbia Pictures , promoting films in Latin American countries , as she was fluent in both English and Spanish . During his childhood , Azaria often " memorize [ d ] and mimic [ ked ] " the scripts of the films , shows and stand @-@ up comedy routines that he enjoyed .
Azaria attended The Kew @-@ Forest School in Forest Hills . He decided to become an actor after performing in a school play at the age of 16 , becoming , at the expense of his academic studies , " obsessed with acting . " Both of his parents loved all forms of show business , which further spurred him to become an actor . He studied drama at Tufts University from 1981 to 1985 , where he met and befriended actor Oliver Platt and noted that " Oliver was a better actor than I was in college , and he really inspired me . " Together they both starred in various college stage productions , including The Merchant of Venice , before Azaria trained at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts . Although he did not expect the endeavor to be successful , Azaria decided to become a professional actor , so that later in his life , he would not regret not having tried . Azaria 's first acting job was an advertisement for Italian television when he was seventeen years old . He also worked as a busboy . Azaria originally intended to work predominantly as a theatrical actor , and he and Platt set up their own company , named Big Theatre , although Harold Pinter 's The Dumb Waiter was the only thing they ever performed . He decided that television was a better arena and offered more opportunity so , after being offered work with talent agent Harry Gold , Azaria moved to Los Angeles .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1986 – 1988 ) = = =
Azaria got along with Gold who was lukewarm about working with him , but after a woman Azaria had " worked with in New York got really furious with him because he said he 'd work with me and then didn 't " , Gold sent him out for auditions . He made his television debut with a role in the pilot episode of the 1986 ABC comedy @-@ drama series Joe Bash , with Peter Boyle . His part – a one @-@ line role as the police officer Maldonado – was edited out before the show was broadcast , although the role secured him admission to the Screen Actors Guild . Azaria appeared in the TV film Nitti : The Enforcer , about the gangster Frank Nitti , and appeared in the failed pilot Morning Maggie , alongside Matthew Perry , with whom he became good friends . He played Joe in an episode of the sitcom Family Ties in 1988 , in which he had one line and the following year he played Steve Stevenson in an episode of Growing Pains . Azaria has described his career progression as being gradual ; he did not achieve overnight recognition or fame . In Los Angeles , Azaria was trained by acting coach Roy London . Between acting jobs he performed as a stand @-@ up comedian , and worked as a bartender for a catering firm .
= = = The Simpsons ( 1989 – present ) = = =
Azaria became famous for his voice work in the ongoing animated television series The Simpsons . He joined the show having previously performed only one voice over : as the titular animated dog in the failed Fox pilot Hollywood Dog , a show he described as " sort of Roger Rabbit @-@ esque , where the dog was animated but everybody else was real . " The first voice he performed on The Simpsons was that of town bartender Moe Szyslak , replacing Christopher Collins who had initially recorded the character 's voice . Having known him from Hollywood Dog , casting director Bonita Pietila called Azaria and asked him to audition for the voice of Moe . At the time he was performing the role of a drug dealer in a play , utilizing a voice based on actor Al Pacino 's performance in the film Dog Day Afternoon . He used the voice in his audition for The Simpsons and , at the request of the show 's executive producers Matt Groening and Sam Simon , made the voice more " gravelly " . Groening and Simon thought the resultant voice was ideal for Moe and took Azaria over to the Fox recording studio . Before he had even seen a script , he recorded several lines of dialogue as Moe for the episode " Some Enchanted Evening " , dubbing Collins ' voice . Azaria did not expect to hear from the show again , but they continued to call him back , first to perform the voice of Chief Wiggum , and then Apu Nahasapeemapetilon . He felt that , initially , " [ the producers ] didn 't seem too pleased with what I had done ... [ Simon ] was very exacting ... [ and ] was kind of impatiently directing me on the ABCs of comedy . But then , much to my surprise , he would still keep having me back every week . But each week , I thought it was going to be my last week , because I really didn 't think I had done that well . " Nevertheless , by the show 's second season he was performing multiple recurring voices , and so was given a contract and made a permanent member of the main cast . Since he joined later than the rest of the cast , Groening still considered Azaria the " new guy " . In addition to Moe , Wiggum and Apu , Azaria provides the voices of the Comic Book Guy , Carl Carlson , Cletus Spuckler , Professor Frink , Dr. Nick Riviera , Lou , Snake Jailbird , Kirk Van Houten , the Sea Captain , Superintendent Chalmers , Disco Stu , Duffman , the Wiseguy and numerous other one @-@ time characters .
As Moe 's voice is based on Al Pacino 's , likewise many of Azaria 's other recurring characters are based on existing sources . He took Apu 's voice from the many Indian and Pakistani convenience store workers in Los Angeles that he had interacted with when he first moved to the area , and also loosely based it on Peter Sellers ' character Hrundi V. Bakshi from the film The Party . Originally , it was thought that Apu being Indian was too offensive and stereotyped , but after Azaria 's reading of the line " Hello , Mr. Homer " , which the show 's producers thought was hilarious , the character stayed . Azaria , however , disputed this on LateNet with Ray Ellin , claiming that Apu was always intended to be stereotypical . Chief Wiggum 's voice was originally a parody of David Brinkley , but when Azaria was told it was too slow , he switched it to that of Edward G. Robinson . Officer Lou is based on Sylvester Stallone , and Dr. Nick is " a bad Ricky Ricardo impression . " The " Wise Guy " voice is " basically Charles Bronson , " while Carl is " a silly voice [ Azaria ] always did . " Two of the voices come from his time at college : Snake 's is based on Azaria 's old college roommate , while Comic Book Guy 's voice is based on a student , who lived in the room next door to Azaria , who went by the name " F " . Professor Frink is based on Jerry Lewis 's performance in the original The Nutty Professor , and the Sea Captain is based on English actor Robert Newton 's portrayal of many pirates . Azaria based his performance for the one @-@ time character Frank Grimes , from the episode " Homer 's Enemy " , on actor William H. Macy . He counts Grimes as the hardest , most emotional performance he has ever had to give in the history of The Simpsons .
Azaria 's work on the show has won him four Emmy Awards for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance , in 1998 , 2001 , 2003 and 2015 . He was also nominated for the award in 2009 and 2010 , but lost to co @-@ star Dan Castellaneta and guest star Anne Hathaway respectively . He was nominated again in 2012 . Azaria , with the rest of the principal cast , reprised all of his voice roles from The Simpsons , for the 2007 film The Simpsons Movie . Azaria notes that he spends " an embarrassingly small amount of time working on The Simpsons " . He works for " an hour on Thursdays when we read through the script , then four hours on Monday when we record it , and I 'll pop in again once or twice . " He concludes it is " the best job in the world , as far as I 'm concerned . "
Up until 1998 , Azaria was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . Azaria and the five other main The Simpsons voice actors were then involved in a pay dispute in which Fox threatened to replace them with new actors , and went as far as preparing for casting of new voices . However , the issue was soon resolved and from 1998 to 2004 , they received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode . In 2004 , the voice actors intentionally skipped several script read @-@ throughs , demanding they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . The strike was resolved a month later , with Azaria 's pay increasing to something between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . In 2008 , production for the twentieth season was put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors , who wanted a " healthy bump " in salary . The dispute was later resolved and Azaria and the rest of the cast received their requested pay raise , approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Azaria and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
His co @-@ star in The Simpsons Nancy Cartwright wrote that : " The thing about Hank that I most remember is that he started out so unassuming and then , little by little , his abilities were revealed and his contributions to the show escalated . I realized Hank was going to be our breakaway star . "
= = = Further career ( 1991 – present ) = = =
= = = = Television series work = = = =
With the continuing success of The Simpsons , Azaria began taking on other , principally live @-@ action , roles . He was a main cast member on the show Herman 's Head ( 1991 – 1994 ) playing Jay Nichols , alongside The Simpsons co @-@ star Yeardley Smith . He regularly recorded for The Simpsons and filmed Herman 's Head during the same day . Following the series ' cancellation Azaria unsuccessfully auditioned for the role of Joey Tribbiani , one of the lead characters in the sitcom Friends . He was instead cast in the role of the scientist David , one of Phoebe Buffay 's boyfriends in the series . He appeared in the show 's tenth episode " The One with the Monkey " , before the character left for a research trip in Minsk . He reprised the role in the show 's seventh season ( 2001 ) , before making several appearances in the ninth ( 2003 ) . This return culminates in David proposing to Phoebe ; she rejects him , and David leaves the show for good . From 1995 to 1999 , Azaria had a recurring role in the sitcom Mad About You as Nat Ostertag , the dog walker . Azaria was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his roles in both Mad About You ( in 1998 ) and Friends ( in 2003 ) . Azaria had the lead role in the short @-@ lived sitcom If Not For You in 1995 , playing record producer Craig Schaeffer .
Azaria produced and starred in the sitcom Imagine That in 2002 , replacing Emeril mid @-@ season in the NBC lineup . He played Josh Miller , a comedy writer , who " transformed " each episode into a character Miller has imagined , " provid [ ing ] a humorous outlet for his frustrations at home and work " . Production closed after five episodes and it was canceled after just two aired , due to poor critical reaction and ratings . Azaria later commented on the show " I wanted to do something really truthful and interesting and impactful . We had a bunch of executives sitting in the room , all agreeing that The Larry Sanders Show was our favorite thing on television , but we couldn 't do it on NBC , and nor would we want to from a business standpoint ; it simply wouldn 't make enough money . By the time it aired , the writing was sort of on the wall , and I don 't blame them at all . It was apparent it wasn 't working . "
He starred as psychiatrist Craig " Huff " Huffstodt in the Showtime drama series Huff , which ran for two seasons between 2004 and 2006 , airing 24 episodes . Azaria served as an executive producer on the show and directed an episode of its second season . After reading the pilot script , he sent it to Platt , who took the role of Huff 's friend Russell Tupper . Azaria enjoyed working on the show , but struggled with the bleak subject matter and was often in dispute with its creator Bob Lowry ( producer ) , noting that it " was tough to marry our visions all the time , [ because ] we both cared so much about it that neither of us were willing to let go . " Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly called Azaria " impressively subtle " in the role , while John Leonard of New York magazine said he was a " shrewd bit of casting . " The show garnered seven Emmy nominations in 2005 , including a nomination for Azaria for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series . Despite the awards , the show continually received low ratings , and Showtime chose not to commission it for a third season .
Returning to live @-@ action television in 2011 , Azaria starred in the NBC sitcom Free Agents , a remake of the British series of the same name . He played Alex Taylor , a recently divorced public relations executive " who is missing his kids and trying to keep himself together " , and ends up sleeping with a co @-@ worker ( Kathryn Hahn ) . Azaria also served as a producer on the show . He was apprehensive about the project , disliking the lengthy schedule required of a lead actor in a single @-@ camera series , and favoring the " sensibility " of cable shows . However , he liked the script and executive producer John Enbom 's previous series Party Down and decided to accept the part . Despite Azaria mounting a campaign on Twitter to save it , the series was canceled after four episodes due to low ratings . In 2014 , Azaria had a recurring role in the second season of Showtime 's Ray Donovan , playing FBI agent Ed Cochran .
= = = = Film work = = = =
Azaria made his film debut in the direct @-@ to @-@ video release Cool Blue ( 1990 ) , as Buzz . His first theatrically released feature film appearance came the same year in Pretty Woman , as a police detective . His next major film role was as television producer Albert Freedman in the 1994 film Quiz Show , which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . In 1996 , Azaria played gay Guatemalan housekeeper Agador Spartacus in the film The Birdcage . For the role , which Azaria considers to be his " big break " , he was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role , and critically branded " the most hilarious performance in the film , " by Alison Macor of The Austin Chronicle , while Empire wrote that he " [ stole ] the show . " For the role he used a Guatemalan accent , and made himself sound as effeminate as possible . He had chosen two possible voices , an effeminate one and a tougher one . After advice from a drag queen , he chose the effeminate voice . Three weeks into production , he realized he sounded exactly like his grandmother , which aided his performance . Agador was originally going to be a single scene part , with the larger role of the housekeeper being played by David Alan Grier . With the producers fearing the racial connotations of a black actor in such a part , Azaria inherited the full role .
He appeared in numerous other films in the late 1990s , including Heat ( 1995 ) , Grosse Pointe Blank ( 1997 ) , Celebrity ( 1998 ) and worked opposite Gwyneth Paltrow , as Walter Plane , in the 1998 adaptation of Great Expectations . He played photographer Victor " Animal " Palotti in Godzilla ( 1998 ) . Godzilla was one of Azaria 's first starring roles in a blockbuster film . Its five @-@ month shoot was the longest of his career to date , but he considered it a good chance to boost his profile . He noted , " I 'm so used to melding into every character I play . Even people in the business think the guy who did Birdcage , Quiz Show and Great Expectations are three different actors — which in a way makes me proud , but in another way is very frustrating . It 's the curse and blessing of the character actor " . The shoot 's physical challenges , and the film 's critical failure , led Azaria to later describe it as " tough to make , and very disappointing when it came out . It was one you definitely chalk up and say , ' That was part of paying your dues , better luck next time ' . " In 1999 , he starred in the drama Mystery , Alaska as Charles Danner , and the comedy superhero film Mystery Men , as the faux @-@ British silverware throwing expert The Blue Raja . Other film roles included Hector Gorgonzolas in America 's Sweethearts ( 2001 ) , Claude in Along Came Polly ( 2004 ) , and the young Patches O 'Houlihan in Dodgeball : A True Underdog Story ( 2004 ) , the latter two with Ben Stiller . For his role of Claude , a French scuba instructor , in Along Came Polly , Azaria donned a wig and worked out extensively to get into the physical shape the part required .
Azaria played composer Marc Blitzstein in Tim Robbins ' film Cradle Will Rock in 1999 . Paul Clinton wrote that Azaria was " brilliant as the tortured ( is there any other kind ) artist Blitzstein . " The same year he appeared as author and journalist Mitch Albom alongside Jack Lemmon in the television film Tuesdays with Morrie , winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for the role . Azaria described the latter as the " best work [ he has ] done . " These were two of the first dramatic roles Azaria had taken ; throughout his career Azaria has primarily worked in comedy , but tries to balance the two . Azaria commented : " all the roles I got were in comedy at first , and I was certainly happy to get those , so I never felt the lack of being considered a dramatic actor because I was so happy to get what I got . And then I became surprised later on when I got dramatic roles . But I never went , ' OK , now it 's time to get a dramatic role . ' " His next dramatic part was in the television film Uprising in 2001 . The film was based on the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and Azaria played Mordechaj Anielewicz , one of the revolt 's leaders . Azaria was confused by his casting in Uprising and frequently asked the film 's producer and director Jon Avnet why he was selected . " I know [ Avnet ] liked the fact I was Jewish , and he knew I could do accents well . He cast me and David Schwimmer in [ Uprising ] , and we were both sort of mystified . He had some instinct that he wanted people who were more known for being funny . He never explained it satisfactorily to me ; I don 't understand why . " His parts in Tuesdays With Morrie and Uprising affected him , causing a depressive state which he countered with DVDs of the comedy series Monty Python . Azaria found Uprising to be " very difficult very depressing very emotionally challenging " material . In 2003 , Azaria played journalist Michael Kelly , the former editor of The New Republic , in the drama film Shattered Glass . Kelly died a few months before the film was released and Azaria said the film " has become a weird kind of eulogy to him . "
Since Huff 's conclusion in 2006 , Azaria has continued to make multiple film appearances . He played the smooth @-@ talking Whit in David Schwimmer 's directorial debut Run Fatboy Run ( 2007 ) . During production he became good friends with co @-@ star Simon Pegg , performing The Simpsons voices on request , frequently distracting Pegg when he was supposed to be filming . He worked with Stiller again on 2009 's Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian in which Azaria played the villainous pharaoh Kah Mun Rah , utilizing a Boris Karloff accent . Although the film received mixed reviews , critics praised Azaria 's performance . Perry Seibert of TV Guide wrote that " thanks to Azaria , a master of comic timing . His grandiose , yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he 's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating if Oscar the Grouch and Darth Vader are evil enough to join his team . " He appeared as Abraham in Year One ( 2009 ) , Dr. Knight in 2010 's Love and Other Drugs , and played Deep Throat director Gerard Damiano in Lovelace ( 2013 ) .
Azaria played Gargamel in the computer @-@ animated / live @-@ action adaptation of The Smurfs ( 2011 ) . Azaria wore a prosthetic nose , ears , buck teeth , eyebrows and a wig , as well as shaving his head . He spent approximately 130 hours in the make @-@ up chair over the course of the production . Azaria considered Gargamel 's voice to be the most important part of his performance . The producers wanted an " old , failed , Shakespearean actor " voice , but Azaria felt this would lack energy and wanted something more Eastern European . He eventually selected a voice similar to that of Paul Winchell 's from the cartoon . Azaria disliked the cartoon when it first aired , and considered Gargamel too one @-@ dimensional a character and " just this straight villain " ; he opted to make Gargamel " more sarcastic " than in the cartoon , but " discovered that there 's no way to play Gargamel without screaming your head off at certain points – ramping him up and getting him very upset over Smurfs " . He interpreted him as " very lonely " , adding that " he hates the Smurfs because they 're such a happy family . He wants in really badly . I think he wants to be embraced as a Smurf " . Azaria worked with the writers to " infuse " the script with some of his ideas about the character , " particularly with the ' married ' relationship between Gargamel and [ his cat ] Azreal [ sic ] " which Azaria conceived .
Reviewers from The San Francisco Chronicle and The Boston Globe commented on Azaria 's " overacting " in the role of Gargamel . More positive reaction came from Scott Bowles of USA Today called Azaria the " human standout " ; Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times felt he suffered the " greatest disservice " of the film 's cast due to a poor script . Azaria noted in an interview with The A.V. Club that The Smurfs and Night at the Museum were films he agreed to do primarily for the money , but that " I won ’ t even do that unless I think it will at least be fun to do ... I really try to throw myself into it , figure out the funniest , cleverest way to get the material over , and make it fun to do and fun to watch . " Azaria reprised his role in the 2013 sequel The Smurfs 2 . Azaria is set to star in Oppenheimer Strategies with Richard Gere .
= = = = Further voice work = = = =
Azaria performed a number of voice roles in addition to The Simpsons , although he noted in 2005 : " I started doing other voiceovers for cartoons for a couple of years , but I didn 't really love it . I was spoiled by The Simpsons . " He voiced Venom / Eddie Brock in Spider @-@ Man : The Animated Series between 1994 and 1996 . In the animated feature Anastasia ( 1997 ) , he voiced Bartok the bat and reprised the role in the direct @-@ to @-@ video prequel Bartok the Magnificent ( 1999 ) . For his performance in Anastasia , Azaria won the Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Feature Production . He also voiced Eric in the American dub of the series Stressed Eric , Harold Zoid in the 2001 Futurama episode " That 's Lobstertainment ! " , and Abbie Hoffman and Allen Ginsberg in Chicago 10 ( 2007 ) . For the 2011 film Hop , Azaria voiced Carlos and Phil . The response to the film was mostly negative , but many reviewers praised Azaria 's performance . For example , Sandie Chen of The Washington Post said " Azaria has been honing his over @-@ the @-@ top Spanish accent since The Birdcage , so anything he says grabs some laughs " , while Emma Simmonds of Time Out called him an " unflappable presence , voicing two characters with style " . Later in the year he voiced The Mighty Sven in Happy Feet Two . Azaria voices Shelfish Sheldon in Mack & Moxy . He also voices the lead character , Texan border agent Bud Buckwald , in Bordertown , which started in 2016 .
Once The Simpsons was " going steadily " and Azaria had enough money to live on , he stopped working on commercials as he found them " demoralizing " , feeling that he sounded sarcastic whenever he read for them . When recording the part of " Jell @-@ O Man " for a Jell @-@ O commercial , he was told to make the voice he offered " more likeable and friendly so that children like him . " After pointing out that " Jell @-@ O Man " was a fictional character , he left and pledged to never record for an advertisement again . However , in 2012 he voiced several insects in a commercial for the Chevrolet Sonic .
= = = = Other work = = = =
Azaria wrote and directed the 2004 short film Nobody 's Perfect , which won the Film Discovery Jury Award for Best Short at the US Comedy Arts Festival . In January 2007 , he was confirmed to be directing Outsourced , a film about two American workers who journey to get their jobs back , after their factory is moved to Mexico . In 2009 , Azaria told Empire he was instead focusing on making a documentary about fatherhood . Two years later he told the Los Angeles Times that this project was " half @-@ complete " and was " forever looking for financing to finish it . " It eventually began in 2014 , airing on AOL as an online series titled Fatherhood . According to AOL , the series of short episodes documents Azaria 's " touching , humorous , and often enlightening journey from a man who is not even sure he wants to have kids , to a father going through the joys , trials and tribulations of being a dad . "
He has periodically returned to theatrical work , appearing in several productions . In 2003 , he appeared as Bernard in a run of David Mamet 's play Sexual Perversity in Chicago , along with Matthew Perry and Minnie Driver , in London 's West End . Azaria made his first appearance as Sir Lancelot , the French Taunter , and four other characters in Spamalot , the musical version of Monty Python and the Holy Grail , which opened in Chicago in December 2004 , before moving to the Shubert Theatre on Broadway . The show met with critical acclaim , receiving fourteen Tony Award nominations in 2005 , with Azaria being nominated for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical . Reuniting with The Birdcage director Mike Nichols , and being a huge Monty Python fan , he saw it as an opportunity he could not pass up , describing it as " so much fun that I haven 't realized how tiring it is " , and " the most fun that I 've ever had in my entire life " . He took a break from the show in June 2005 , with Alan Tudyk filling in for him , to work on Huff , but returned in December 2005 . In late 2007 he starred in Aaron Sorkin 's The Farnsworth Invention , playing RCA head David Sarnoff . In 2016 , he starred in the world premiere of Dry Powder opposite Claire Danes , John Krasinski , and Sanjit De Silva , directed by Thomas Kail , at The Public Theater in New York City .
Azaria starred in and co @-@ wrote the third episode of the Funny or Die web @-@ series Gamechangers , entitled " A Legend in the Booth " . He played Jim Brockmire , a legendary baseball announcer , fired for a profanity @-@ filled breakdown live on air after discovering his wife was having an affair . Azaria based the voice and style of Brockmire on several veteran sportscasters , including Bob Murphy and Phil Rizzuto . He has since appeared as Brockmire on the NFL Network 's The Rich Eisen Podcast to discuss the National Football League . In November 2012 , Azaria sued actor Craig Bierko over the ownership of the Brockmire voice . The case was ruled in Azaria 's favour in 2014 . Both actors had been using a baseball announcer voice before and since meeting at a party in 1990 , but US district judge Gary Allen Feess ruled that only Azaria 's voice was , as Brockmire , a defined , " tangible " character and thus subject to copyright .
= = Acting style and vocal range = =
Azaria 's friends refer to him as " the freakish mimic " due to his ability to copy almost anyone 's voice , instantly after he has heard it . As a child he believed that everyone could do this , but later realized that it was not a common talent . Azaria can " remember every voice I hear , famous or otherwise ... they kind of remain in the memory banks , so I 'm ready to trot them out . " Azaria was glad to have found the " ultimate outlet " for this skill , in The Simpsons . He " didn 't realize it [ when he joined the show ] , but it became like a lab for a character actor . I had to do so many voices . " In the early 2000s , Azaria felt he had reached the maximum number of voices he was capable of : " For the first 10 years of The Simpsons , I would develop a bunch of voices . And then ... I hit a point when I was tapped out . Every noise I can make , I have made . Even characters like Gargamel , I 've done . Even if it was only two or three lines , at some point I 've done something similar on The Simpsons , at least somewhere along the line . "
For many of Azaria 's characters , much of their humor is derived from a " funny voice " , such as The Birdcage and Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian . He stated that " being funny with a funny voice is more my comfort zone , a broader character that I try to humanize , a kind of silly or wacky persona that I try to fill in , " although he finds it " much easier to be someone much closer to myself , " as it requires " less energy ... than playing characters that are so out there and high strung " .
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening has stated that Azaria possesses the ability to turn unfunny lines into some of the best in an episode , while former writer Jay Kogen stated : " Just when I think I know [ Azaria 's ] bag of tricks , he 's always got a new thing he does to surprise me . " Throughout the run of The Simpsons , Azaria has had to sing in character several times , a task which he describes as easier than singing normally . The Smurfs writer David N. Weiss says Azaria " has a beautiful treasure trove of talent , " and " became what you wished you were writing " . Playwright Jenelle Riley wrote in 2005 that Azaria was " by far " her favorite actor , praising his " versatility " and " tendency to take small roles that would normally fade into the background and to consistently create characters people care about " , noting his roles in Shattered Glass , Mystery , Alaska and especially Dodgeball : A True Underdog Story .
= = Personal life = =
In the early 1990s , Azaria was in a relationship with the actress Julie Warner . His relationship with actress Helen Hunt began in 1994 ; they married in a traditional Jewish ceremony at the couple 's home in Southern California on July 17 , 1999 . The two had appeared together in Mad About You and " Dumbbell Indemnity " , an episode of The Simpsons . After a year of marriage , Azaria moved out of the couple 's home , and after a six @-@ month separation , Hunt filed for divorce , citing " irreconcilable differences " . The divorce was finalized on December 18 , 2000 .
Azaria began dating former actress Katie Wright in 2007 , and the two later married . They have a son together , Hal , who was born in 2009 . In 2013 , the family moved to New York , renting a home on 80th Street , with plans to make a final decision on where to live in two years . They previously lived in a four @-@ bedroom house in Pacific Palisades , which Azaria bought from his The Simpsons ' co @-@ star Dan Castellaneta and his wife Deb Lacusta in 2011 . Several weeks earlier , Azaria sold his home in Bel Air . Azaria previously owned the fifth @-@ floor co @-@ op loft at 84 Mercer Street in Manhattan 's Soho neighborhood , which he bought in 2005 from photographer Cindy Sherman , before selling it in 2013 .
Azaria is the godfather of Oliver Platt 's son , George . He is also a regular poker player , appearing twice on Celebrity Poker Showdown and competing at other events , finishing a few places short of the bubble in the main event of the 2010 World Series of Poker . Politically , Azaria has made contributions that support the Democratic Party . He enjoys the music of Elvis Costello , and has stated that he would have been a therapist if he were not an actor . He considers The Godfather Trilogy to be what inspired him to become an actor , and counts Peter Sellers and Walt Frazier as his heroes . Azaria co @-@ founded the educational support charity , " Determined to Succeed " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= New Jersey Route 94 =
Route 94 is a state highway in the northwestern part of the New Jersey , United States . It runs 45 @.@ 94 mi ( 73 @.@ 93 km ) from the Portland – Columbia Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Knowlton Township , Warren County , where it connects to Pennsylvania Route 611 ( PA 611 ) , northeast to the New York state line in Vernon Township , Sussex County . At the New York border , New York State Route 94 ( NY 94 ) continues to Newburgh , New York . Route 94 is mostly a two @-@ lane undivided road that runs through mountain and valley areas of Warren and Sussex counties , serving Columbia , Blairstown , Newton , and Hamburg . The route intersects several roads , including U.S. Route 46 ( US 46 ) and Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) in Knowlton Township , US 206 in Newton , Route 15 in Lafayette Township , and Route 23 in Hamburg .
What is now Route 94 was legislated as part of two separate routes in 1927 . The portion of road between Route 6 / US 46 near the Delaware Bridge to Newton became Route 8 , while the route north of Newton to the New York border became a part of Route 31 . Prior to 1953 , the only portion of Route 31 north of Newton that was a state highway was between North Church and Hamburg . In 1953 , Route 94 was designated to replace all of Route 8 as well as Route 31 north of Newton ; the number was chosen to match NY 94 . After the Portland – Columbia Toll Bridge and the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge were both completed in December 1953 , the southern terminus of Route 94 was cut back to an intersection with US 611 in Columbia , which had been rerouted into New Jersey across both bridges , following a freeway between Columbia and the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge that would later become a part of I @-@ 80 . The former alignment of Route 94 between the Delaware Bridge and the Portland – Columbia Toll Bridge became a part of US 46 . By 1969 , US 611 was routed out of New Jersey , and Route 94 was extended to the state line on the Portland – Columbia Toll Bridge . Through the 1960s and 1970s , a freeway was proposed for the Route 94 corridor . This freeway , proposed to be a part of the Interstate Highway System , was never built .
= = Route description = =
= = = Warren County = = =
Route 94 begins at the two @-@ lane undivided Portland – Columbia Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Knowlton Township , where it connects to PA 611 on the Pennsylvania side of the river . This bridge is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission ; the rest of Route 94 is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) . Immediately after the bridge , the route comes to a large interchange with the western terminus of US 46 as well as with I @-@ 80 a short distance later , near the community of Columbia . In the area of the US 46 / I @-@ 80 interchange , the directions of Route 94 split , carrying two lanes in each direction .
From here , the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that continues northeast through a mix of woods and farms with some development , passing under the abandoned Lackawanna Cut @-@ Off . After passing through the community of Hainesburg , the road turns more to the east and enters Blairstown Township . Route 94 turns northeast before reaching the community of Blairstown , where the road continues east past some development before intersecting CR 521 . It forms a short wrong @-@ way concurrency with that route , along which it crosses the Paulins Kill . A short distance later , Route 94 enters Frelinghuysen Township , passing through more rural surroundings . The road turns northeast through the community of Marksboro before heading east again . After the intersection with CR 661 , Route 94 makes a sharp turn to the north @-@ northeast .
= = = Sussex County = = =
The route continues into Sussex County at Fredon Township , heading through rural areas . The road turns more to the northeast as a two @-@ lane road before heading east again and entering Newton . Here , Route 94 becomes High Street and passes several homes , intersecting CR 519 . CR 519 forms a concurrency with Route 94 and the two routes continue to downtown Newton . In the downtown area , the road comes to the Park Place square , where it meets US 206 . At this point , all three routes run concurrent north on four @-@ lane undivided Water Street for a short distance . CR 519 splits from the road by turning north on Mill Street , while US 206 and Route 94 continue north as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , where a shopping district lines the road as it leaves Newton for Hampton Township . The road narrows back to two lanes as it heads into areas of farmland . Route 94 splits from US 206 by making a right turn to continue east .
The road passes a mobile home park before making a turn northeast and heading into Lafayette Township . In Lafayette Township , the route resumes to the east through a mix of rural and industrial areas . The road continues to a junction with Route 15 , where Route 94 makes a right turn to head southeast along Route 15 in a wrong way concurrency . Upon splitting , Route 15 stays straight and heads southeast as Route 94 turns at a right hand reverse jughandle to head northeast . Route 94 continues through more rural areas with occasional development and enters Sparta Township , where it is known as North Church Road . Here , the road passes near some residential developments before continuing into Hardyston Township . In Hardyston Township , the route runs through the community of North Church . After making a sharp turn to the east , Route 94 enters Hamburg and becomes Vernon Avenue . The route passes a few homes before intersecting Route 23 in the center of town . From this intersection , the route makes a turn to the northeast before leaving the town and heading back into Hardyston Township . The road passes rural developed areas before entering Vernon Township .
At this point , the surroundings become more wooded and mountainous as the road passes near residential areas and reaches the community of McAfee . In McAfee , CR 517 intersects with Route 94 and the two routes head east for a short wrong way concurrency , crossing the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railway before CR 517 turns to the south . Route 94 continues northeast as McAfee Vernon Road , briefly becoming a divided highway as it passes the entrance to the Mountain Creek ski resort . Continuing northeast , the route comes to an intersection with CR 515 , which it runs concurrent with on Vernon Warwick Road . The two routes continue north , with CR 515 splitting from Route 94 a short distance after crossing the Appalachian Trail . From here , Route 94 continues through more countryside before reaching the New York state line , where the road continues into that state as NY 94 .
= = History = =
In the 1927 renumbering of state highways , Route 8 was defined to run along present @-@ day Route 94 from Route 6 ( current US 46 ) at the Delaware Bridge north to Columbia before turning northeast to Route 31 ( now U.S. Route 206 ) in Newton . Past Newton , Route 31 continued northeast to the New York state line ( current US 206 north of here was Route S31 ) . In the original version of the renumbering bill , Route 31 was to reach the border via Sussex , incorporating pre @-@ 1927 Route 8 ( now Route 284 ) from Sussex to the state line . However , in the final version , Route 31 ran via Hamburg , using the same alignment as a planned spur of pre @-@ 1927 Route 8 from Lafayette to North Church . Route 8 was eventually taken over by the state . On the other hand , by 1949 , only one section of Route 31 north of the Route S31 split had been taken between North Church to Hamburg .
In the 1953 renumbering , Route 8 was renumbered to Route 94 , which was extended northeast past Newton along former Route 31 to the New York state line , matching NY 94 across the border . It was initially only marked south of Hamburg , as none of the route north of Hamburg was state @-@ maintained . Originally , Route 94 began at the now razed Delaware Bridge , where US 46 would cross into Pennsylvania . Route 94 would wind right and north @-@ east a few to Columbia , where it joined its current route . In December 1953 , both the Portland – Columbia Toll Bridge and Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge opened . That year a section of Old Mine Road was rebuilt and aligned as a four lane freeway between Columbia and the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge . Following this , US 46 was rerouted over the first several miles of Route 94 between the Delaware Bridge and Columbia , and Route 94 was cut back to Columbia , near the Portland @-@ Columbia Toll Bridge . Here , US 46 would end and US 611 , would cross the Portland @-@ Columbia Toll Bridge from Pennsylvania and follow the freeway north to the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge . The freeway portion that US 611 followed became a part of I @-@ 80 in 1959 . When US 611 was removed from New Jersey by 1969 , Route 94 was extended to the state line on the Portland @-@ Columbia Toll Bridge . Also by this time , the unsigned portions of Route 94 north of Newton were signed . In 1973 , this whole area was realigned into a complex interchange as the New Jersey portion of Interstate 80 was completed .
In 1964 , a Route 94 freeway was proposed to run from I @-@ 80 in Netcong north to the planned Route 23 freeway in Hamburg , following US 206 north to Newton and current Route 94 to Hamburg . In the late 1960s , the NJDOT planned for the Route 94 freeway to run from I @-@ 80 / US 46 in Columbia northeast to the New York border near Wawayanda State Park . The NJDOT hoped to get funding for the freeway in 1970 for it to become an Interstate highway as it was planned to serve a proposed national recreation area along the Delaware River that would have been built in conjunction with the controversial Tocks Island Dam project . This proposed Interstate , which was to run from I @-@ 80 in Hope Township to I @-@ 84 in Port Jervis and continue northeast along US 209 , was denied funding . After reviewing the proposal again in 1972 , the NJDOT determined that the freeway would cost $ 96 million . It was eventually canceled due to environmental concerns and financial constraints .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Troop sleeper =
In United States railroad terminology , a troop sleeper was a railroad passenger car which had been constructed to serve as something of a mobile barracks ( essentially , a sleeping car ) for transporting troops over distances sufficient to require overnight accommodations . This method allowed part of the trip to be made overnight , reducing the amount of transit time required and increasing travel efficiency .
= = History = =
= = = Background and development = = =
Between December , 1941 and June , 1945 U.S. railroads carried almost 44 million armed services personnel . As there were not enough cars and coaches available to meet the massive need for troop transit created by World War II , in late 1943 the U.S. Office of Defense Transportation contracted with the Pullman Company to build 2 @,@ 400 troop sleepers , and with American Car and Foundry ( ACF ) to build 440 troop kitchen cars .
This new rolling stock was either converted from existing boxcars or built from scratch based on Association of American Railroads ( AAR ) standard 50 ' -6 " single @-@ sheathed steel boxcar designs , and were constructed entirely out of steel with heavily reinforced ends . In some instances baggage cars were converted into temporary kitchen cars before ACF could complete its order . The cars were painted the standard Pullman Green and affixed with gold lettering . Along the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway 's ( ATSF ) " Surf Line , " trains consisting of 10 @-@ 12 former Southern Pacific interurban trailer cars , owned by the U.S. Maritime Commission but bearing ATSF markings , were fitted with conventional knuckle couplers at each end of the trainset and pressed into service to handle the additional passenger loads .
Equipped with special Allied Full Cushion high @-@ speed swing @-@ motion trucks , Pullman troop sleepers were designed to be fully interchangeable with all other passenger equipment . The units came equipped with end doors similar to those found on standard railway cars , but had no vestibules . Loading and unloading of passengers was accomplished via wide doors positioned on each side at the center of the cars with built @-@ in trap doors and steps . Light and ventilation was provided by ten window units mounted on each side , each equipped with rolling black out shades and wire mesh screens .
Troop sleepers , generally intended for use by enlisted personnel , were equipped with bunks stacked 3 @-@ high , and slept 29 servicemen plus the Pullman porter . Every passenger was provided with a separate Pullman bed , complete with sheets and pillowcases that were changed daily . The berths were laid out in a cross @-@ wise arrangement that placed the aisle along one side of the car , as opposed to down the center . Though the upper berths were fixed , the middle and lower sections could be reconfigured into seating during the daytime . Weapon racks were provided for each group of berths . Four washstands ( two mounted at each end of the car ) delivered hot and cold running water . The cars also came outfitted with two enclosed toilets and a drinking water cooler .
= = = Troop kitchens = = =
Troop kitchens , rolling galleys , also joined the trains to provide meal service en route ( the troops took their meals in their seats or bunks ) . As the cooking was performed by regular U.S. Army cooks , the cars were outfitted with two Army @-@ standard coal ranges . The cars were also equipped with a pair of 200 @-@ gallon cold water tanks and a 40 @-@ gallon hot water tank ; supplies were stocked on open shelves with marine @-@ type railings , a bread locker , a large refrigerator , and a series of built @-@ in cabinets and drawers . The cars served approximately 250 men each , and were typically placed in the middle of the train so that food could be served from both ends .
Troop hospital cars , also based on the troop sleeper carbody , transported wounded servicemen and typically travelled in solid strings on special trains averaging fifteen cars each . Each had 38 berths for patients , 30 of which were arranged in the central section of the car in three tiers on each side . There was also a section with six berths which could be used for isolation cases as well as private compartments for special cases . Each unit was ice air @-@ conditioned and came fitted with a shower room along with a modern kitchen with the latest equipment .
= = = Afterlife and preservation = = =
Troop cars saw service through 1947 , after which many were sold by the U.S. Army Transportation Corps to the railroads and subsequently converted into mail cars , express service boxcars , or refrigerator cars , while others remained in sleeper configuration for use in maintenance of way ( MOW ) service as bunk cars for the maintenance workers . Subsequent conflicts have not created the need for such an arrangement , partially due to the much smaller level of manpower involved but primarily due to the wider use of aircraft for long @-@ distance transportation of troops .
Today , preserved troop sleepers can be seen in several railroad museums across the United States .
Troop sleeper # 7437 is on display at the B & O Railroad Museum in Baltimore , MD . It was purchased as surplus by the Western Maryland Railroad and used on work trains as crew quarters . The museum has restored it to its original outside appearance . The inside has half the beds put back and the other half has displays about the B & O RR during the war .
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= French battleship Condorcet =
Condorcet was one of the six Danton class semi @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1900s . When World War I began in August 1914 , she unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Western and Central Mediterranean . Later that month , the ship participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . Condorcet spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to keep German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships bottled up .
After the war , she was modernized in 1923 – 25 and subsequently became a training ship . In 1931 , the ship was converted into an accommodation hulk . Condorcet was captured intact when the Germans occupied Vichy France in November 1942 and was used by them to house sailors of their navy ( Kriegsmarine ) . She was badly damaged by Allied bombing in 1944 , but was later raised and scrapped by 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
Although the Danton @-@ class battleships were a significant improvement from the preceding Liberté class , they were outclassed by the advent of the dreadnought well before they were completed . This , combined with other poor traits , including the great weight in coal they had to carry , made them unsuccessful ships overall , though their numerous rapid @-@ firing guns were of some use in the Mediterranean .
Condorcet was 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 m ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 2 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 736 metric tons ( 19 @,@ 424 long tons ) at deep load and had a crew of 681 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam generated by twenty @-@ six Niclausse boilers . The turbines were rated at 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of around 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Condorcet reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 7 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 km / h ; 22 @.@ 7 mph ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 370 miles ( 2 @,@ 930 nmi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Condorcet 's main battery consisted of four 305mm / 45 Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in twin turrets , three on each side of the ship . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 65 guns and ten 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also armed with two submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's main belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower also had 300 mm thick sides .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
During the war 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed on the roofs of the ship 's two forward 240 mm gun turrets . During 1918 , the mainmast was shortened to allow the ship to fly a captive kite balloon and the elevation of the 240 mm guns was increased which extended their range to 18 @,@ 000 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = Career = =
Construction of Condorcet was begun on 26 December 1906 by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in Saint @-@ Nazaire and the ship was laid down on 23 August 1907 . She was launched on 20 April 1909 and was completed on 25 July 1911 . Condorcet was initially assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron ( escadre ) of the Mediterranean Fleet when she was commissioned . The ship participated in combined fleet maneuvers between Provence and Tunisia in May – June 1913 and the subsequent naval review conducted by the President of France , Raymond Poincaré on 7 June 1913 . Afterwards , Condorcet joined her squadron in its tour of the Eastern Mediterranean in October – December 1913 and participated in the grand fleet exercise in the Mediterranean in May 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
At the beginning of the war , the ship , together with her sister Vergniaud and the dreadnought Courbet , unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau in the Balearic Islands . On 9 August , Condorcet cruised the Strait of Sicily in an attempt to prevent the German ships from breaking out to the West . On 16 August 1914 the combined Anglo @-@ French Fleet under Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère , including Condorcet , made a sweep of the Adriatic Sea . The Allied ships encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta , escorted by the destroyer SMS Ulan , blockading the coast of Montenegro . There were too many ships for Zenta to escape , so she remained behind to allow Ulan to get away and was sunk by gunfire during the Battle of Antivari off the coast of Bar , Montenegro . Condorcet subsequently participated in a number of raids into the Adriatic later in the year and patrolled the Ionian Islands . From December 1914 to 1916 , the ship participated in the distant blockade of the Straits of Otranto while based in Corfu . On 1 December 1916 , Condorcet was in Athens and contributed troops to the Allied attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia . Shortly afterwards , she was transferred to Mudros to prevent Goeben from breaking out into the Mediterranean and remained there until September 1917 . The ship was transferred to the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron in May 1918 and returned to Mudros where she remained for the rest of the war .
= = = Postwar career = = =
From 6 December 1918 to 2 March 1919 , Condorcet represented France in the Allied squadron in Fiume that supervised the settlement of the Yugoslav question . Afterwards , the ship was assigned to the Channel Division of the French Navy . She was modernized in 1923 – 24 to improve her underwater protection and her four aft 75 mm guns were removed . Together with her sisters Diderot and Voltaire , she was assigned to the Training Division at Toulon . Condorcet housed the torpedo and electrical schools and had a torpedo tube fitted on the port side of her quarterdeck . She was partially disarmed in 1931 and converted into an accommodation hulk ; by 1939 her propellers had been removed . The famous underwater explorer Jacques Cousteau began diving while stationed aboard the ship in 1936 .
In April 1941 , the ship was towed to sea to evaluate the propellant used by the battleship Richelieu during the Battle of Dakar on 24 September 1940 . One 38 @-@ centimetre ( 15 in ) gun had an explosion in the breech and the propellant for the shell was thought to be the cause . A number of shots were successfully fired from Condorcet 's aft turret by remote control that exonerated the propellant . The following July , the ship was modified to house the signal , radio and electrician 's schools . Berthing areas were installed in the bases of four funnels , which had been removed previously , and the latest radio equipment was installed for the students to train on . Later that year , Condorcet was accidentally rammed by the submarine Le Glorieux as she was leaving drydock . The impact punctured the ship 's hull and flooded one compartment which required Condorcet to be drydocked for repairs . The ship was captured intact by the Germans when they occupied Vichy France on 27 November 1942 . Unlike the bulk of the French Fleet in Toulon , Condorcet was not scuttled because she had trainees aboard . Used by the Germans as a barracks ship , she was badly damaged by Allied aircraft in August 1944 and scuttled that same month by the Germans . The ship was salvaged in September 1945 and listed for sale on 14 December . Condorcet 's breaking up was completed about 1949 .
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= Decapitated ( band ) =
Decapitated is a Polish death metal band formed in Krosno in 1996 . The group comprises guitarist , founder and composer Wacław " Vogg " Kiełtyka , vocalist Rafał Piotrowski , bassist Paweł Pasek , and drummer Michał Łysejko . Decapitated have gained recognition as one of the genre 's most widely respected bands and one of the finest exponents of technical death metal . The band earned an international fan base in the underground music community , and became an innovating act in the modern death metal genre .
Vogg and his younger brother , drummer Witold " Vitek " Kiełtyka , founded Decapitated along with vocalist Wojciech " Sauron " Wąsowicz in their mid @-@ teens , joined by bassist Marcin " Martin " Rygiel a year later . After releasing two demos , the band signed with Wicked World ( subsidiary of Earache Records ) and , in 2000 , released their debut album , Winds of Creation . In 2002 and 2004 the band released the albums Nihility and The Negation , respectively . The band 's ambitious fourth album , Organic Hallucinosis , was released in 2006 with a new vocalist , Adrian " Covan " Kowanek .
In late 2007 , the band was involved in an automobile accident . Vitek died at the age of 23 on November 2 , 2007 of the injuries he suffered from the accident and Covan survived , but he slipped into a coma as a result . After a period of disbandment , Vogg reformed Decapitated and in 2011 released the fifth album , Carnival Is Forever . The latest album , Blood Mantra , was released in 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Winds of Creation , Nihility and The Negation ( 1996 – 2004 ) = = =
Decapitated was founded in Krosno , Poland in 1996 , by guitarist Wacław " Vogg " Kiełtyka , who was 15 at the time , his brother drummer Witold " Vitek " Kiełtyka , who was 12 years old , and vocalist Wojciech " Sauron " Wąsowicz , who was 16 . One year later , bassist Marcin " Martin " Rygiel , 13 , joined the band . Decapitated released its first demo , Cemeterial Gardens , in 1997 and its second demo , The Eye of Horus , in 1998 . After signing to Earache Records subsidiary Wicked World , the band released its debut album , Winds of Creation , which included a cover version of Slayer 's " Mandatory Suicide " , and was produced by Piotr Wiwczarek from the Polish band Vader , in April 2000 . The band toured with Vader in early 2001 in the United Kingdom . Allmusic states that " Decapitated have quickly gained recognition as one of Poland 's , and even Europe 's , finest exponents of ultra @-@ technical death metal . "
Decapitated 's self @-@ produced second album , Nihility , which was released in February 2002 , fulfilled the high expectations that followed the well @-@ received debut album . Nihility also included a cover version of Napalm Death 's " Suffer the Children " . Decapitated was chosen to perform at the Polish Ozzfest event in late May and toured in North America and Europe in August . Sławek and Wojtek Wiesławscy produced the band 's next album , The Negation , which was released in February 2004 . The album received a positive response from the critics and was followed by a tour in Europe and the United States throughout 2004 .
= = = Organic Hallucinosis and hiatus ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = =
In mid @-@ 2005 , Sauron announced his withdrawal from Decapitated , stating : " It was not an easy decision . However , I could reconcile the welfare of the band with my personal plans , and hence quitting appeared to be the best solution not hampering the evolution of Decapitated . ( ... ) Moreover , another reason that contributed to my decision have been some health complications . " The band chose Adrian " Covan " Kowanek , a previous member of Atrophia Red Sun , as his replacement and entered Hertz Studios in Białystok in August to record their ambitious fourth album Organic Hallucinosis , which was released the following February . According to Allmusic , the band 's musical change of direction on this album was " likely to polarize longtime Decapitated fans " .
During the following tour in December 2005 , Martin could not perform with the band due to military conscription issues and was shortly substituted by Richard Gulczynski , but joined again in February 2006 . During the year , Decapitated toured with American bands Suffocation , Six Feet Under , Fear Factory , and others . In June and July 2007 , Decapitated played with Cephalic Carnage and others in the Summer Slaughter trek across the US . Later on , Martin departed from Decapitated to live with his family and to move to California .
On October 28 , 2007 the band members were involved in an automobile accident that injured Vitek and Covan . Their tour bus collided with a truck carrying wood in Gomel , near the border from Russia to Belarus . Vitek died on November 2 , 2007 at the age of 23 in a Russian hospital from the injuries . Covan slipped into a coma and was later moved to Poland . In 2008 , Metal Mind Productions released the concert DVD Human 's Dust .
= = = Reformation and Carnival Is Forever ( 2009 – 2013 ) = = =
On March 8 , 2009 , after a period of disbandment , Vogg announced he was planning to continue the band and was searching for a new drummer and vocalist . Covan was unable to continue with Decapitated due to the slow improvement of his condition . In early 2009 , Vogg participated on recording of the guitars for Vader 's album Necropolis and continued with the band on a tour in support of the album , starting in September .
In mid @-@ 2009 Vogg stated : " It has been the hardest thing for me to move on without Vitek by my side , but he would have wanted me to continue with the band . Finally , I have found some great musicians who can continue the work of Vitek and Covan . " " There 's no sense in stopping this amazing thing we built up so many years ago together with Vitek , Sauron , Martin and Covan . "
On July 31 , 2009 , the Austrian drummer Kerim " Krimh " Lechner of Thorns of Ivy joined Decapitated . On November 20 , 2009 , the new line @-@ up was completed with the vocalist Rafał Piotrowski of the band Ketha and bassist Filip " Heinrich " Hałucha of Vesania and Masachist . Decapitated continued with support of Nuclear Blast record label and Hard Impact Music management . The band toured in United Kingdom in February 2010 as well as in April and May in Australia , New Zealand and European festivals and the Summer Slaughter tour in United States in mid @-@ 2010 .
The band entered RG Studio in Gdańsk on February 9 , to begin recording their fifth studio album entitled Carnival Is Forever . The album was produced by Vogg ; while mixing and drums production was done by Swedish producer Daniel Bergstrand , who previously worked with Behemoth and Meshuggah among others . Heinrich departed from Decapitated after the recording in order to concentrate on Vesania , and Carnival Is Forever was released on July 12 , 2011 .
On November 1 , 2011 , the band was on board LOT Polish Airlines Flight 16 when the crew were unable to extend the landing gear and were forced to land the aircraft on its belly . Everyone aboard the flight survived . Lechner left the band in September 2012 and was replaced by former Vader drummer Paweł Jaroszewicz .
In late 2012 , Decapitated played concerts in Nepal , Japan , and Thailand , among others .
= = = Blood Mantra ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On March 13 , 2014 , the band announced the addition of drummer Michał Łysejko to its lineup , who had been touring with Decapitated since January 2014 . Decapitated recorded Blood Mantra during March in Hertz Studio in Poland , and released the album in September . During a tour in United States in October , the band was involved in serious van accident on the way to a show in New Orleans , Louisiana . Nobody was seriously injured and the band continued on tour . Decapitated accompanied Soulfly on their 2015 We Sold Our Souls To Metal Tour .
= = Musical style and critical reception = =
Decapitated 's music is composed by the " mastermind " of the band , Vogg , who co @-@ worked with Vitek while writing prior to his death . Decapitated became known for its songwriting and technical instrumental approach at an extraordinarily young age and earned an international fan base in the underground music community . In the review of Decapitated 's debut album , Allmusic said " the band has a seemingly effortless understanding and command of ... their instruments and ... the songwriting is extremely solid ; even in the first listen . " The characteristics of Nihility and Negation are " powerful , blastbeat @-@ filled drumming , dissonant yet memorable guitar riffs , and inventive guitar solos " and substantially high production quality . In the review of The Negation , Metal Hammer states that " Sauron is one of the most capable vocalists on the scene " . With Organic Halucinosis , Decapitated focused on non @-@ traditional death metal aesthetics , more complex songwriting and grooves , and polyrhythmic approach ; Covan contributed more versatile vocals . A notable element of groove is present in Decapitated 's death metal sound , which has been often described as technical death metal .
Decapitated 's releases are some of death metal 's most significant albums of the early 21st century . Winds of Creation was " responsible for re @-@ igniting a stagnating death metal scene " and Organic Hallucinosis proved to be substantially influential in the subsequent development of the genre . According to Kerrang ! , Decapitated have released " classic albums ; ( ... ) that have turned these youthful Poles into one of the genre 's most widely respected bands . Tomas Haake , the drummer of the Swedish band Meshuggah , commented the death of Vitek : " The metal community has lost one of the most talented and skillful drummers of our time ! [ ... ] Vitek was a true talent and drummer genius . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilation = = =
= = = Demos = = =
= = = Split album = = =
= = = Video album = = =
= = Music videos = =
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= Oceanic whitetip shark =
The Oceanic whitetip shark ( Carcharhinus longimanus ) , also known as Brown Milbert 's sand bar shark , Brown shark , Nigano shark , Oceanic white @-@ tipped whaler , and Silvertip shark , is a large pelagic requiem shark inhabiting tropical and warm temperate seas . Its stocky body is most notable for its long , white @-@ tipped , rounded fins .
This aggressive but slow @-@ moving fish dominates feeding frenzies , and is a danger to shipwreck or air crash survivors . Recent studies show steeply declining populations because its large fins are highly valued as the chief ingredient of shark fin soup and , as with other shark species , the whitetip faces mounting fishing pressure throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The oceanic whitetip shark , or lesser white shark was described in 1831 by naturalist René @-@ Primevère Lesson , who named the shark Carcharhinus maou . It was next described by Cuban Felipe Poey in 1861 as Squalus longimanus . The name Pterolamiops longimanus has also been used . The species epithet longimanus refers to the size of its pectoral fins ( longimanus translates from Latin as " long hands " ) . The oceanic whitetip shark has many common names in English : Brown Milbert 's sand bar shark , brown shark , nigano shark , whitetip whaler , and whitetip shark .
The rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature are that in general the first @-@ published description has priority ; therefore the valid scientific name for the oceanic whitetip shark should be Carcharhinus maou . However , Lesson 's name remained forgotten for so long that Carcharhinus longimanus remains widely accepted .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The oceanic whitetip is found globally in deep , open water , with a temperature greater than 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . It prefers waters between 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) and tends to withdraw from areas when temperatures fall outside of this . They were once extremely common and widely distributed , and still inhabit a wide band around the globe ; however , recent studies suggest that their numbers have drastically declined . An analysis of the US pelagic longline logbook data between 1992 – 2000 ( covering the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic ) estimated a decline of 70 % over that period .
They are found worldwide between 45 ° north and 43 ° south latitude . In 2004 , an oceanic whitetip was discovered dead on the west coast of Sweden — far beyond what was once considered the northern boundary of its range .
The shark spends most of its time in the upper layer of the ocean — to a depth of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) — and prefers off @-@ shore , deep @-@ ocean areas . According to longline capture data , increasing distance from land correlates to a greater population of sharks . Occasionally it is found close to land , in waters as shallow as 37 metres ( 120 ft ) , mainly around mid @-@ ocean islands such as Hawaii , or in areas where the continental shelf is narrow and there is access to nearby deep water . It is typically solitary , though gatherings have been observed where food is plentiful . Unlike many animals , it does not have a diurnal cycle , and is active both day and night . Its swimming style is slow , with widely spread pectoral fins . Despite their habitual isolation from members of their own species , pilot fish , dolphinfish , and remora may accompany them . In 1988 , Jeremy Stafford @-@ Deitsch reported seeing an individual accompanied by a shortfin pilot whale .
= = Description = =
C. longimanus ' most distinguishing characteristics are its long , wing @-@ like pectoral and dorsal fins . The fins are significantly larger than most other shark species , and are conspicuously rounded . The shark 's nose is rounded and its eyes are circular , with nictitating membranes .
C. longimanus has a ' typical ' , although somewhat flattened requiem shark body , often with a mildly humpbacked aspect . It is bronze , brown , bluish or grey dorsally ( the colour varies by region ) , and white ventrally ( although it may occasionally have a yellow tint ) . The oceanic whitetip shark is a medium @-@ sized requiem shark . The largest specimen ever caught measured 4 m ( 13 ft ) , an exceptionally large size considering few specimens are known to exceed a length of 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . The maximum reported weight is 170 kg ( 370 lb ) . The female is typically larger than the male by 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Males attain sexual maturity at 1 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 9 m ( 5 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 2 ft ) and females about 1 @.@ 8 to 2 m ( 5 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . In the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s , the mean weight of oceanic whitetip sharks was 86 @.@ 4 kg ( 190 lb ) . In the 1990s , the sharks of the species from the same area averaged only 56 @.@ 1 kg ( 124 lb ) .
Most of its fins ( dorsal , pectoral , pelvic , and caudal ) have white tips ( juvenile specimens and some adults may lack these ) . Along with white tips , the fins may be mottled , and in young specimens can have black marks . A saddle @-@ like marking may be apparent between first and second dorsal fins . The shark has several kinds of teeth . Those in the mandible ( lower jaw ) have a thin serrated tip and are relatively small and triangular ( somewhat fang @-@ like ) . There are between 13 and 15 teeth on either side of the symphysis . The teeth in the upper jaw are triangular , but much larger and broader with entirely serrated edges — there are 14 or 15 along each side of the symphysis . The denticles lie flat and typically have between five and seven ridges .
= = Diet = =
C. longimanus feeds mainly on pelagic cephalopods and bony fish . However , its diet can be far more varied and less selective — it is known to eat threadfins , stingrays , sea turtles , birds , gastropods , crustaceans , and mammalian carrion . The bony fish it feeds on include lancetfish , oarfish , barracuda , jacks , dolphinfish , marlin , tuna , and mackerel . Its feeding methods include biting into groups of fish and swimming through schools of tuna with an open mouth . When feeding with other species , it becomes aggressive . Peter Benchley , author of Jaws , observed this shark swimming among pilot whales and eating their faeces .
= = Behaviour = =
The oceanic whitetip is usually solitary and slow @-@ moving , and tends to cruise near the top of the water column , covering vast stretches of empty water scanning for possible food sources . Until the 16th century , sharks were known to mariners as " sea dogs " and the oceanic whitetip , the most common ship @-@ following shark , exhibits dog @-@ like behaviour when its interest is piqued : when attracted to something that appears to be food , its movements become more avid and it will approach cautiously but stubbornly , retreating and maintaining a safe distance if driven off , but ready to rush in if the opportunity presents itself . Oceanic whitetips are not fast swimmers , but they are capable of surprising bursts of speed . Whitetips commonly compete for food with silky sharks , making up for its comparatively leisurely swimming style with aggressive displays .
Groups often form when individuals converge on a food source , whereupon a feeding frenzy may occur . This seems to be triggered not by blood in the water or by bloodlust , but by the species ' highly strung and goal @-@ directed nature ( conserving energy between infrequent feeding opportunities when it is not slowly plying the open ocean ) . The oceanic whitetip is a competitive , opportunistic predator that exploits the resource at hand , rather than avoiding trouble in favour of a possibly easier future meal .
There does not seem to be segregation by sex and size . Whitetips follow schools of tuna or squid , and trail groups of cetaceans such as dolphins and pilot whales , scavenging their prey . Their instinct is to follow baitfish migrations that accompany ocean @-@ going ships . When whaling took place in warm waters , oceanic whitetips were often responsible for much of the damage to floating carcasses .
= = Reproduction = =
Mating season is in early summer in the northwest Atlantic Ocean and southwest Indian Ocean , although females captured in the Pacific have been found with embryos year round , suggesting a longer mating season there . The shark is viviparous — embryos develop in utero and are fed by a placental sac . Its gestation period is one year . Litter sizes vary from one to 15 with the young born at a length of about 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 24 in ) . Sexual maturity is reached at close to 1 @.@ 75 metres ( 69 in ) for males and 2 metres ( 80 in ) for females .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The oceanic whitetip is a commercially important species for its fins , meat , and oil . It is eaten fresh , smoked , dried , and salted and its hide is used for leather . It is subject to fishing pressure throughout virtually its whole range — although it is more often taken as by @-@ catch than by design , since it is drawn to longline bait that is intended for other species .
Famed oceanographic researcher Jacques Cousteau described the oceanic whitetip as " the most dangerous of all sharks " . Despite the greater notoriety of the great white shark and other sharks habitually found nearer the shore , the oceanic whitetip is suspected to be responsible for many fatal shark bites on humans , as a result of predation on survivors of shipwrecks or downed aircraft . Such incidents are not included in common shark @-@ bite indices for the 20th and 21st centuries , and as a result of this , the oceanic whitetip does not have the highest number of recorded incidents ; only 5 recorded bites as of 2009 . In one incident , the torpedoing of USS Indianapolis on 30 July 1945 , oceanic whitetips are believed to be responsible for many of the fatal bites of sailors who survived the initial sinking , though most reportedly died from exposure to the elements rather than from shark bites .
Also during World War II , the Nova Scotia , a steamship carrying approximately 1 @,@ 000 people near South Africa , was sunk by a German submarine . With only 192 survivors , many deaths were attributed to the whitetip .
One particularly infamous oceanic whitetip was implicated in several bites on tourists in the Red Sea near Sharm El Sheikh , Egypt in 2010 , and was featured in a Shark Week episode called " Rogue Sharks " . This oceanic whitetip was recognized individually by the bite mark taken out of its upper tail lobe . Accumulating evidence revealed this shark to have been conditioned to being hand fed . Upon associating the divers with an easy supply of food , it bit the divers and snorkelers where it had seen the fish being kept ; fanny packs the divers carried . This caused the shark to target the divers ' buttock and thigh regions in the hope of obtaining a meal . These 2010 Sharm El Sheikh bites resulted in one death and four injuries to humans . The bites were further worsened by the overfishing in that area of the Red Sea , effectively forcing the shark closer to shore where the bites took place .
Dr. Christopher Neff , a policy analyst at the University of Sydney , argues that terms like " attack " are laden with cultural stigmatization . Instead of the word " attack , " he proposes labeling human @-@ shark interactions , on a scale of extremity , either :
encounters
minor bites
moderate bites
fatal bites
The term " attack " is only appropriate in specific instances where specialists can confirm the predatory nature of the shark @-@ human encounter , which is extremely difficult to do . While many encounters with Oceanic White Tip Sharks appear predatory in nature , without the verification of a scientific community in each instance , it is best to assume the accidental or non @-@ predatory intent of the encounters .
= = Captivity = =
The oceanic whitetip has fared better in captivity than other large sharks of the open ocean , such as the mako and blue shark . Among five recorded captive oceanic whitetips , the three with time records all lived for more than a year in captivity . One of these , a female in Monterey Bay Aquarium 's Outer @-@ Bay exhibit , lived for more than three years during which it grew 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 ft ) . The two remaining lack a time record , but grew about 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) during their time in captivity . The Monterey Bay oceanic whitetip was featured briefly in the Shark Week special " Sharks Under Glass " .
= = Conservation status = =
In 1969 , Lineaweaver and Backus wrote of the oceanic whitetip : " [ it is ] extraordinarily abundant , perhaps the most abundant large animal , large being over 100 pounds [ 45 kg ] , on the face of the earth " . There was little further population study until 2003 when the numbers were estimated to have dropped by as much as 70 % in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic between 1992 and 2000 . Another study focusing on the Gulf of Mexico , using a mix of data from US pelagic longline surveys from the mid @-@ 1950s and observations from the late @-@ 1990s , estimated a decline in numbers in this location of 99 @.@ 3 % over this period . However , changes in fishing practices and data collection methods complicate estimates .
As a result of these findings its status on the IUCN Red List was moved to " Vulnerable " globally ( from " Lower Risk / Near Threatened " ) and " Critically Endangered " in the Northwest and Western Central Atlantic areas .
Under the 1995 UN Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks ( UNFSA ) , coastal and fishing states are specifically required to adopt measures to conserve listed species , but little progress is visible on the oceanic whitetip .
From 3 January 2013 the shark was fully protected in New Zealand territorial waters under the Wildlife Act 1953 .
In March 2013 , three endangered commercially valuable sharks , the hammerheads , the oceanic whitetip and porbeagle were added to Appendix 2 of CITES , bringing shark fishing and commerce of these species under licensing and regulation .
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= Youngstown Ohio Works =
The Youngstown Ohio Works baseball team was a minor league club that was known for winning the premier championship of the Ohio – Pennsylvania League in 1905 , and for launching the professional career of pitcher Roy Castleton a year later . A training ground for several players and officials who later established careers in Major League Baseball , the team proved a formidable regional competitor and also won the 1906 league championship .
During its brief span of activity , the Ohio Works team faced challenges that reflected common difficulties within the Ohio – Pennsylvania League , including weak financial support for teams . Following a dispute over funding , the team 's owners sold the club to outside investors , just a few months before the opening of the 1907 season .
The club 's strong record and regional visibility spurred the growth of amateur and minor league baseball in the Youngstown area , and the community 's minor league teams produced notable players throughout the first half of the 20th century . In the late 1990s , this tradition was rekindled , with the establishment of the Mahoning Valley Scrappers , a minor league team based in neighboring Niles , Ohio .
= = Formation and league championship = =
The Ohio Works team was organized in Youngstown , in 1902 , under the sponsorship of Joseph A. McDonald , superintendent of the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Company . In 1905 , the club joined the Class C Division , Ohio – Pennsylvania League , which was founded that year in Akron , Ohio , by veteran ballplayer Charlie Morton . The league 's Ohio members included clubs from Akron , Barberton , Bucyrus , Canton , Kent , Lima , Massillon , Mount Vernon , Newark , Niles , Steubenville , Washington , Wooster , Youngstown , and Zanesville , while Pennsylvania was initially represented by teams from Braddock , Butler , Homestead , and Sharon . Within the first two weeks of the season , clubs from Lancaster and McKeesport also joined the league . Only eight of the original 21 participating clubs finished the 1905 season , however . These included clubs from Akron , Homestead , Lancaster , Newark , Niles , Sharon , Youngstown , and Zanesville . The name , " Youngstown Ohio Works " , became officially associated with the Youngstown team when it joined the Ohio – Pennsylvania League . From the outset , the Youngstown ball club was managed by ex @-@ major leaguer Marty Hogan , a former outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds and St. Louis Browns .
The team opened the 1905 season with an unexpected 4 – 1 loss to the Canton Protectives , inspiring a local newspaper to comment that the Youngstown team made " as many errors as hits while Canton fielded almost perfectly and hit opportunely " . The Ohio Works club gained steam , however , and began to win games . On May 11 , 1905 , the Youngstown team garnered controversy when The Akron Times @-@ Democrat reported that the Ohio Works ' sponsors provided player salaries that nearly doubled those offered by other clubs in the Ohio – Pennsylvania League . In a report on the outcry in Akron , The Youngstown Daily Vindicator warned that , " if the Youngstown backers keep adding and force the other clubs to add to the salaries , it is a question of only a short time until independent baseball will be an impossibility " . The newspaper article concluded that the large salaries provided by the Ohio Works 's sponsors placed a special burden on teams based in " smaller cities " .
Competition among league participants was intense , and games were often raucous affairs . On July 16 , 1905 , a riot broke out during a contest with a team in neighboring Niles , Ohio . According to a newspaper account , the trouble began when two female fans became involved in a " hair @-@ pulling fight " . At one point , two " well @-@ known men " were arrested for " taking an umbrella from a woman and breaking it after she had been annoying them with it " . Finally , dozens of fans swarmed into the field , where they " pushed around the umpire and interfered with the defensive play of the Youngstown fielders " .
In September 1905 , the Youngstown Ohio Works won the first league championship , though sources disagree on the club 's final record . This confusion may be due to the disorganized nature of the new league , with its sprawling roster of teams . According to the Spalding Guide ( 1906 ) , " The failure to furnish official reports was probably due to the clubs being new to a league " . Baseball researcher Jim Holl summarizes the varied accounts as follows : " The Reach Guide ( 1906 ) credits Youngstown with an 84 – 32 won – lost record where the Spalding Guide of the same year list a 90 – 35 record . The Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball ( 1993 ) tells a third story , giving Youngstown an 88 – 35 mark " . Despite this uncertainty over the club 's record , its championship status was not in dispute , and the team became popularly known as " the Champs " . This moniker , however , was not officially connected to a Youngstown @-@ based ball club until 1907 , when it became the legal name of the Ohio Works ' local successors .
= = Final season = =
By the outset of the 1906 season , the Ohio – Pennsylvania League had trimmed down to a more manageable eight teams . Departing teams included franchises from Barberton , Braddock , Bucyrus , Butler , Canton , Homestead , Kent , Lima , Massillon , McKeesport , Mount Vernon , Niles , Steubenville , Washington , and Wooster . At the same time , the league attracted new teams from New Castle , Pennsylvania , and Mansfield , Ohio .
The Ohio Works team opened with 16 players , three of whom had been part of the club during the 1905 season . The team 's lineup included William J. Maloney of Bradford , Kentucky ; Will M. Thomas of Morristown , Pennsylvania ; Tommy Thomas of Piqua , Ohio ; Lee Fohl of Allegheny , Pennsylvania ; Louis Schettler of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ; " Dotty " Freck of Columbus , Ohio ; A. C. McClintock of Columbus ; Roy Castleton of Salt Lake City , Utah ; Lewis Groh of Rochester , New York ; John Kennedy of Youngstown , Charles Crouse of Detroit , Michigan ; Roy Chase of Andover , Ohio ; Forrester J. Dressner of Garrettsville , Pennsylvania ; Harry Schwartz of Cleveland , Ohio ; and Roy Gould of Middlesex , Pennsylvania . Other players associated with the club during the 1906 season were Edward Hilley , Curley Blount , and Charles McCloskey .
The Youngstown club kicked off the 1906 season with an exhibition game against a Cleveland team , emerging as victors in a close contest of 3 – 4 . " Up till the closing minutes it looked like the visiting team , the Cleveland Leaders , would stow the contest away in their bat @-@ bags and leave the field on top " , the Vindicator reported . " The finish was exciting , and 400 fanatics who took chances on pneumonia had a chance to warm up and go home in good spirits . " . The paper stated that , at the top of the first inning , the Cleveland team was leading by one point , when " the Youngstown gentlemen got busy in the most approved style " . According to the Vindicator , Ohio Works player Curley Blount " stepped in front of a slow pitched ball and was sent to third " , while A. C. McClintock " stole second with all hands asleep " . At this point , the paper added , " [ Charles ] McCloskey took another base hit and Blount and McClintock scored " . The Vindicator 's summary of the game called attention to pitcher Roy Castleton , " who struck out all three batters in the tenth and got one in the ninth " . The paper described McClintock and McCloskey ( the " two Macs " ) as the Youngstown club 's " star hitters " .
Early in the season , as the Ohio Works team prepared for a second game with the Zanesville Moguls ( close rivals in the 1905 championship games ) , the club manager , Hogan , spoke confidently on their chances of capturing the league pennant . " If the boys go through the season as they are playing now , we will have no trouble winning out " , he said to a reporter with The Youngstown Daily Vindicator . " Our pitchers are in good condition and are holding the opposing batsmen to few hits . It is the pitching staff that has saved many a game for us . We have no .350 batters on the club , but any man on it is liable to step in and break up a game " . A local newspaper confirmed Hogan 's assessment of the team , observing that only one player , outfielder Will Thomas , had worked up a batting average of .306 . Nevertheless , as Hogan predicted , the team defeated the Moguls , with a final score of 11 – 8 . The game 's highlights included the pitching of " Long John " Kennedy , who kept the Moguls to seven hits , and the batting of Edward Hilley , who " unloosened a drive to middle field that permitted him to go all the way around " .
Hogan 's overall confidence in the club was rewarded . The Youngstown team closed the season with an 84 – 53 record and won its second consecutive Ohio – Pennsylvania League championship . The star of the Ohio Works team was a gangling , left @-@ handed pitcher named Roy Castleton , a Utah native who went on to pitch for the New York Highlanders and Cincinnati Reds . On August 17 , 1906 , Castleton gained national recognition when he pitched a perfect game against rival Akron , shutting them out at 4 – 0 . With Castleton 's assistance , the Youngstown Ohio Works claimed its third consecutive Ohio state pennant , a prize distinct from the league championship .
= = Dissolution = =
In the wake of the Ohio Works ' second league championship , steps were taken to incorporate the club . Sporting Life noted in December 1906 that the team 's backers , Joseph and Thomas McDonald ( superintendent and assistant superintendent , respectively , of the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Company ) were compelled to invite additional investors because of planned ( and costly ) improvements at the steel plant . " The incorporators of the club will be Thomas McDonald , Joseph McDonald , Thomas Carr , Thomas Carter and Marty Hogan " , the paper stated . " Manager Hogan will be given even more control of the team next season than he has had . Heretofore he has had the entire control of the team and transacted most of the business " .
At some point , however , disagreements over funding evidently arose between the McDonald brothers and Hogan . On February 18 , 1907 , the Zanesville Signal reported that Hogan had received permission from " the Messrs. McDonald " ( Joseph and Thomas ) to negotiate a $ 3 @,@ 000 deal for the sale of the team , including its players , to a group of Zanesville investors . The following day , Hogan was quoted as saying , " Youngstown couldn 't or didn 't raise enough money to cover a sparrow 's blanket " . The ball club manager 's evident frustration during this period was reflected in comments published in The Youngstown Daily Vindicator almost a week after the team 's sale . When questioned on his widely publicized decision to resign as manager of the Youngstown club before the opening of the 1907 season , Hogan reportedly said that he had received " the short end of the deal " . No reference was made to the club 's sale .
The former Ohio Works manager was apparently not the only observer to suggest that Joseph McDonald engaged in " unsportsmanlike tactics " . A feature story , that appeared in The Youngstown Daily Vindicator in 1920 , stated that McDonald took deliberate steps in 1907 to replace the Ohio Works team with a more seasoned club from Homestead , Pennsylvania . The new club became known officially as the " Youngstown Champs " . Rumors of McDonald 's supposed strategy apparently angered local baseball fans . According to the 1920 feature article , the Youngstown media highlighted the Champs ' unexpected loss to the amateur Rayen Athletics in 1907 . At this point , however , McDonald 's relationship with the club was less direct . According to Sporting Life , the Youngstown franchise had been " declared forfeit " in early 1907 , on the recommendation of the Akron club ; it was subsequently " awarded " to a recently established baseball company . " This was only a formality to make legal the actions taken by Magnate [ Joseph ] McDonald when they turned over the old franchise to the newly organized company in Youngstown " , the paper reported . In any event , the Youngstown Champs went on to win the Ohio – Pennsylvania League championship .
Meanwhile , former Ohio Works players in Zanesville quickly regained their momentum . In March 1907 , the new club was admitted into the Pennsylvania – Ohio – Maryland League , a Division D league . By the close of the 1907 season , the club had seized the championship of the eight @-@ team P @-@ O @-@ M league . In 1908 , Hogan 's final season as manager , the team was christened as the Zanesville Infants and joined the Central League . Further research is needed to determine the Zanesville Infants ' league ranking at the close of the 1908 season , but available information shows that the team neither won the championship nor placed as a runner @-@ up .
With the exception of a few notable figures , the progress of former Ohio Works players is difficult to track . After leaving the club at the end of the 1906 season , Roy Castleton went on to pitch for the New York Highlanders and Cincinnati Reds . Lee Fohl , another noteworthy alumnus , managed the Cleveland Indians between 1915 and 1919 . Fohl later served as manager of the St. Louis Browns and Boston Red Sox . Although Fohl was often criticized as a manager , sports journalist John J. Ward ( writing in August 1924 ) credited him , to a large extent , for the early successes of the Red Sox , an underdog that briefly challenged the New York Yankees and Washington Senators before slipping to seventh place in the eight @-@ team American League . Former major leaguer Billy Phyle , who played for the Ohio Works team during the 1905 season , went on to the St. Louis Cardinals in 1906 . A fourth ex @-@ team member , Louis Schettler , played for the Philadelphia Phillies during the 1910 season . Schettler ( a Pittsburgh native ) eventually settled in Youngstown , where he died in 1960 .
Much is known about the subsequent career of the team 's ex @-@ manager . In 1909 , Marty Hogan moved to Lancaster , Pennsylvania , where he signed future Hall of Fame pitcher Stan Coveleski to his first professional contract . In 1909 , the Lancaster Red Roses worked up a 75 @-@ 39 record , seizing the championship of the Tri @-@ State League . As Spalding 's Baseball Guide ( 1910 ) reported : " Lancaster , under manager Marty Hogan , won its first pennant in the league , and the top rung of the ladder was only gained by the hardest kind of fighting " . Hogan went on to manage clubs in Zanesville and Fond du Lac , Wisconsin . In 1913 , during a stint in Zanesville , the manager signed pitcher Sam Jones to his first professional contract . In the mid @-@ 1910s , Hogan permanently resettled in Youngstown , where he died in 1923 , several months after being injured in an automobile accident .
= = Legacy = =
The Youngstown Ohio Works team not only gave several members a " shot " at the major leagues , but it also played an indirect role in launching the career of Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans . On September 1 , 1903 , Evans , a reporter at The Youngstown Daily Vindicator , was assigned to cover a game between the Ohio Works and the Homestead Library Athletic Club that was held in Youngstown . Evans took his first step toward a legendary career when club manager Hogan offered him $ 15 to fill an umpire vacancy . ( In 1905 , Evans received a major career boost from Youngstown native Jimmy McAleer , who recommended Evans to the American League . )
The story of the Ohio Works team proved to be an early chapter in Youngstown 's long history of amateur and minor league baseball . In the 1930s and 1940s , the city was a frequent host of the National Amateur Baseball Federation ( NABF ) championship . NABF officials praised the community for the condition of its sandlot baseball diamonds , which they rated as among the best in the country . During the first half of the 20th century , Youngstown @-@ based teams provided experience and exposure to future major league players such as Everett Scott , Floyd Baker , and Johnny Kucab . Today , the Youngstown – Warren area is home base to the Mahoning Valley Scrappers , a minor league team that competes in the Class A New York – Penn League .
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= M @-@ 74 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 74 was the designation of a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway ran through rural Missaukee County connecting Pioneer with Merritt . The highway was designated by 1919 along a longer route . It was shortened before it was totally removed from the highway system in the late 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 74 started at a junction with M @-@ 66 near the community of Pioneer . It ran east on Moorestown Road through Stittsville to Moorestown before turning south on Nelson Road . There it ran through the community of Star City , turning west briefly on Walker Road and running south on Star City Road before terminating at a junction with M @-@ 55 west of Merritt . All of M @-@ 74 was a gravel highway .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 74 ran between Pioneer and M @-@ 55 west of Merritt . There it turned east running concurrently with M @-@ 55 to Merritt where it turned south to Moddersville and terminated . The spur south of Merrit remained a state highway through at least late 1938 . Late that year or early the next , the roadway between Merritt and Moddersville was turned back to local control and removed from the highway system . By late 1939 , the entire highway was decommissioned in its entirety . The highway designation has not been used since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Missaukee County .
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= Dutch pacification campaign on Formosa =
The Dutch Pacification Campaign on Formosa was a series of military actions and diplomatic moves undertaken in 1635 and 1636 by Dutch colonial authorities in Dutch @-@ era Taiwan ( Formosa ) aimed at subduing hostile aboriginal villages in the southwestern region of the island . Prior to the campaign the Dutch had been in Formosa for eleven years , but did not control much of the island beyond their principal fortress at Tayouan , and an alliance with the town of Sinkan . The other aboriginal villages in the area conducted numerous attacks on the Dutch and their allies , with the chief belligerents being the village of Mattau , who in 1629 ambushed and slaughtered a group of sixty Dutch soldiers .
After receiving reinforcements from the colonial headquarters at Batavia , the Dutch launched an attack in 1635 and were able to crush opposition and bring the area around present @-@ day Tainan fully under their control . After seeing Mattau and Soulang , the most powerful villages in the area , defeated so comprehensively , many other villages in the surrounding area came to the Dutch to seek peace and surrender sovereignty . Thus the Dutch were able to dramatically expand the extent of their territorial control in a short time , and avoid the need for further fighting . The campaign ended in February 1636 , when representatives from twenty @-@ eight villages attended a ceremony in Tayouan to cement Dutch sovereignty .
Solidifying the southwest under their rule , the Dutch were able to expand their operations from the limited entrepôt trading carried out by the colony prior to 1635 . The expanded territory allowed access to the deer trade , which later became very lucrative , and guaranteed security in food supplies . It provided fertile land , which the Dutch used imported Chinese labour to farm . The aboriginal villages also provided warriors to aid the Dutch in times of trouble , notably in the Lamey Island Massacre of 1636 , the Dutch defeat of the Spanish in 1642 and the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652 . The allied villages also provided opportunities for Dutch missionaries to spread their faith . The pacification campaign is considered the foundation stone on which the later success of the colony was built .
= = Background = =
The Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) arrived in southern Formosa in 1624 and , after building their stronghold of Fort Zeelandia on the peninsula of Tayouan , began to sound out local villages as to the possibility of forming alliances . Although initially the intention was to run the colony solely as an entrepôt ( a trading port ) , the Dutch later decided that they needed control over the hinterland to provide some security . Additionally , a large percentage of supplies for the Dutch colonists had to be shipped from Batavia at great expense and irregular intervals , and the government of the fledgling colony was keen to source foodstuffs and other supplies locally . The Company decided to ally with the closest village , the relatively small Sinkan , who were able to supply them firewood , venison and fish . However , relations with the other villages were not so friendly . The aboriginal settlements of the area were involved in more or less constant low @-@ level warfare with each other ( head @-@ hunting raids and looting of property ) , and an alliance with Sinkan put the Dutch at odds with the foes of that village . In 1625 the Dutch bought a piece of land from the Sinkaners for the sum of fifteen cangans ( a kind of cloth ) , where they then built the town of Sakam for Dutch and Chinese merchants .
Initially other villages in the area , chiefly Mattau , Soulang and Bakloan , also professed their desire to live in peace with the Dutch . The villages saw that it was in their interest to maintain good relations with the newcomers , but this belief was weakened by a series of incidents between 1625 and 1629 . The earliest of these was a Dutch attack on Chinese pirates in the bay of Wancan , not far from Mattau , in 1625 . The pirates were able to drive off the Dutch soldiers , causing the Dutch to lose face among the Formosan villages . Encouraged by this Dutch failure , warriors from Mattau raided Sinkan , believing the Dutch too weak to defend their Formosan friends . At this point , the Dutch returned to Wancan and this time were able to rout the pirates , restoring their reputation . Mattau was then forced by the colonials to return the property stolen from Sinkan and make reparations in the form of two pigs . The peace was short @-@ lived , however , because in November 1626 the villagers of Sinkan attacked Mattau and Bakloan , before going to the Dutch to ask for protection from retribution . Although the Dutch were able to force Sinkan 's enemies to back down in this case , in later incidents they proved incapable of fully protecting their Formosan allies .
Frustrated by the inability of the Dutch to protect them , the Sinkan villagers turned to Japanese traders , who were not on friendly terms with the VOC . In 1627 a delegation from the village visited Japan in order to ask for Japanese protection and to offer sovereignty to the Japanese Shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu . The Shōgun refused them an audience , but on their return to Formosa the Sinkan villagers , along with their erstwhile foes from Mattau , Bakloan and Soulang , went to Governor Nuyts to demand that the company pay an annual tribute to the villages for operating on their land . The Governor refused . Soon after , the Japanese isolationist policy of sakoku removed Japanese support for the Formosans , leaving Sinkan once more at the mercy of its rivals , prompting missionary George Candidius to write that " this village Sinkan has been until now under Dutch protection , and without this protection it would not stand for even a month . " In 1629 however the Dutch were unable to defend either themselves or their allies . Governor Nuyts went to Mattau on an official ( friendly ) visit with a guard of sixty musketeers , who were fêted on their arrival . After leaving the village the next morning , the musketeers were ambushed while crossing a stream and slaughtered to a man , by warriors of both Mattau and Soulang . The Governor had a lucky escape as he had returned to Fort Zeelandia the previous evening .
Shortly after the massacre Governor Nuyts was recalled by the VOC governor @-@ general in Batavia for various offences , including responsibility for the souring of relations with the Japanese . Hans Putmans replaced Nuyts as governor , and immediately wanted to attack the ringleaders in Mattau , but the village was judged too strong to assault directly . Therefore , the Dutch moved against the weaker Bakloan , who they believed sheltered proponents of the massacre , setting out on 23 November 1629 , and returning later that day " having killed many people and burned most of the village . " The Bakloan villagers sued for peace , and Mattau too signed a nine @-@ month peace accord with the company . However , in the years that followed , the Mattau , Bakloan and Soulang villagers continued a concerted campaign to harass employees of the company , particularly those who were rebuilding structures destroyed by the Mattauers in Sakam . The situation showed no signs of improvement for the Dutch , until relations between Mattau and Soulang soured in late 1633 and early 1634 . The two villages went to war in May 1634 , and although Mattau won the fight , the company was happy to see divisions among the villages which it felt it could exploit .
= = Dutch retaliation = =
Although both Governor Nuyts and subsequently Governor Putmans wanted to move against Mattau , the garrison at Fort Zeelandia numbered only 400 , of which 210 were soldiers – not enough to undertake a major campaign without leaving the Dutch fortress guard under @-@ strength . After persistent unheeded requests from the two governors , in 1635 Batavia finally sent a force of 475 soldiers to Taiwan , to " avenge the murder of the expeditionary force against Mattau in 1629 , to increase the prestige of the Company , and to obtain the respect and authority , necessary for the protection of the Chinese who had come all the way from China , to cultivate the land . "
By this stage , relations with the other villages had also deteriorated to the extent that even Sinkan , previously thought to be tightly bound to the Dutch , was plotting rebellion . The missionary Robert Junius , who lived among the natives , wrote that " rebels in Sinkan have conspired against our state . . . and [ are planning ] to murder and beat to death the missionaries and soldiers in Sinkan . " The governor in Tayouan moved quickly to quell the uprising , sending eighty soldiers to the village and arresting some of the key conspirators . With potential disaster averted in Sinkan , the Dutch were further encouraged by the news that Mattau and Soulang , their principal enemies , were being ravaged by smallpox , whereas Sinkan , now back under Dutch control , was spared the disease - this being viewed as a divine sign that the Dutch were righteous .
On 22 November 1635 , the newly arrived forces set out for Bakloan , headed by Governor Putmans . Junius joined him with a group of native warriors from Sinkan , who had been persuaded to take part by the clergyman in order to further good relations between themselves and the VOC . The plan was initially to rest there for the night , before attacking Mattau the next morning , but the Dutch forces received word that the Mattau villagers had learned of their approach and planned to flee . They therefore decided to press on and attack that evening , succeeding in surprising the Mattau warriors and subduing the village without a fight . The Dutch summarily executed 26 men of the village , before setting fire to the houses and returning to Bakloan .
On the way back to Fort Zeelandia , the troops stopped in Bakloan , Sinkan and Sakam , at each step warning the chiefs of the village of the price of angering the VOC , and obtaining guarantees of friendly conduct in the future . The village of Soulang sent two representatives to the Dutch while they were resting in Sinkan , offering a spear and a hatchet as a symbol that they would ally their forces to the Dutch . Also present with offers of friendship were men from Tevorang , a collection of three villages in the hills previously outside Dutch influence . Finally two chiefs from Mattau arrived , kow @-@ towing to the Dutch officials and wishing to sue for peace .
The aborigines signalled their surrender by sending a few of their best weapons to the Dutch , and then by bringing a small tree ( often betel nut ) planted in earth from their village as a token of the granting of sovereignty to the VOC . Over the next few months as word of the Dutch victory spread , more and more villages came to pay their respects at Fort Zeelandia and assure the VOC of their friendly intentions . However , the new masters of Mattau also inherited their enemies , with both Favorlang and Tirosen expressing hostility towards the VOC in the wake of their victory .
After the victory over Mattau the governor decided to make use of the soldiers to cow other recalcitrant villages , starting with Taccariang , who had previously killed both VOC employees and Sinkan villagers . The villagers first fought with the Sinkanders who were acting as a vanguard , but on receiving a volley from the Dutch musketeers the Taccariang warriors turned and fled . The VOC forces entered the village unopposed , and burnt it to the ground . From Taccariang they moved on to Soulang , where they arrested warriors who had participated in the 1629 massacre of sixty Dutch soldiers and torched their houses . The last stop on the campaign trail was Tevorang , which had previously sheltered wanted men from other villages . This time the governor decided to use diplomacy , offering gifts and assurances of friendship , with the consequences of resistance left implicit . The Tevorangans took the hint , and offered no opposition to Dutch rule .
= = Pax Hollandica = =
On hearing of the Dutch show of force , aboriginal tribes from further afield decided to submit to Dutch rule , either through fear of Dutch military might or hope that such an alliance would prove beneficial to the tribe . Representatives came from Pangsoia ( Pangsoya ; modern @-@ day Linbian , Pingtung ) , 100 km to the south , to ally themselves with the VOC . The Dutch decided to hold a landdag ( a grand convention ) to welcome all the villages into the fold and impress them with Dutch largesse and power . This duly took place on 22 February 1636 , with 28 villages represented from southern and central Formosa . The governor presented the attendees with robes and staffs of state to symbolise their position , and Robert Junius wrote that " it was delightful to see the friendliness of these people when they met for the first time , to notice how they kissed each other and gazed at one another . Such a thing had never before been witnessed in this country , as one tribe was nearly always waging war against another . "
The net effect of the Dutch campaign was a pax Hollandica ( Dutch peace ) , assuring VOC control in the southwest of the island . The Dutch called their new area of control the Verenigde Dorpen ( United Villages ) , a deliberate allusion to the United Provinces of their homeland . The campaign was vital to the success and growth of the Dutch colony , which had operated as more of a trading post than a true colony until that point .
= = Other pacification campaigns = =
Multiple Aboriginal villages rebelled against the Dutch in the 1650s due to oppression like when the Dutch ordered aboriginal women for sex , deer pelts , and rice be given to them from aborigines in the Taipei basin in Wu @-@ lao @-@ wan village which sparked a rebellion in December 1652 at the same time as the Chinese rebellion . Two Dutch translators were beheaded by the Wu @-@ lao @-@ wan aborigines and in a subsequent fight 30 aboriginals and another two Dutch people died , after an embargo of salt and iron on Wu @-@ lao @-@ wan the aboriginals were forced to sue for peace in February 1653 .
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= Brian Eaton =
Air Vice Marshal Brian Alexander Eaton , CB , CBE , DSO & Bar , DFC ( 15 December 1916 – 17 October 1992 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Tasmania and raised in Victoria , he joined the RAAF in 1936 and was promoted to flight lieutenant on the outbreak of World War II . He held training positions before being posted to No. 3 Squadron at the beginning of 1943 , flying P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighter @-@ bombers in North Africa . Despite being shot down three times within ten days soon after arriving , Eaton quickly rose to become the unit 's commanding officer , and by year 's end had been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . His leadership earned him the Distinguished Service Order and Bar in 1944 – 45 , and command of No. 239 Wing RAF in Italy , with the temporary rank of group captain . He was also awarded the US Silver Star in 1946 in recognition of his war service .
In the decade following World War II , Eaton led No. 81 Wing in Japan , and No. 78 Wing in Malta . He commanded RAAF Base Williamtown from 1957 to 1959 , after which he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . As Director @-@ General of Operational Requirements in 1965 , Eaton argued for increased RAAF co @-@ operation with the Australian Army in light of growing involvement in the Vietnam War . He was promoted to air vice marshal the next year , and became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . Posted to Singapore as Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No. 224 Group RAF in 1967 , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath for his work as chief of staff at Headquarters RAF Far East Air Force in 1969 . He then served as Air Member for Personnel , before being selected as AOC Operational Command in 1973 . Eaton retired from the RAAF in December that year , and became an executive for Rolls @-@ Royce in Canberra . He died in 1992 at the age of 75 .
= = Early career = =
Brian Eaton was born in Launceston , Tasmania , on 15 December 1916 , to Sydney and Hilda Eaton . The family later moved to Canterbury , Victoria , and Brian was educated at Carey Grammar . His early ambition to be a doctor was curtailed when his father died and he had to leave school early . He enlisted as an air cadet in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 20 January 1936 , undergoing flying training at RAAF Station Point Cook .
Eaton was commissioned as a pilot officer upon graduation from flying school in January 1937 , and posted to No. 1 Squadron . Within six months he was promoted to flying officer and joined No. 21 Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton . In 1938 , he became an instructor at Point Cook 's No. 1 Flying Training School , where he also took part in the RAAF 's early long navigation exercises . He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 September 1939 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Early war service = = =
In April 1940 , Eaton was assigned to the newly re @-@ formed Central Flying School at Camden , New South Wales , as an instructor . Promoted to temporary squadron leader in September 1940 , he was transferred to the Directorate of Training in June 1941 . He became a fighter controller at No. 5 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Darwin , Northern Territory , in March 1942 . In October that year , he departed Australia for North Africa via India and the United Kingdom , fearful that the fighting would be over before he arrived . He posted in to No. 1 Middle East Training School in January 1943 prior to taking up duties with No. 3 Squadron RAAF , which was then engaged in the Battle of Tunisia .
Eaton 's combat career began inauspiciously , when he was shot down three times in the space of ten days . On the first occasion , his P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk was hit by 20 mm cannon shells from an enemy fighter that he never saw . He later recalled , " I was too busy getting the kite down to be frightened . But my God was I surprised . " Eaton brought his crippled aircraft in for a forced landing at El Hamma — in the midst of a tank battle between German and New Zealand forces . After the fighting had died down he made his way over to the New Zealanders , who gave him a lift back to his air base . The second time he was shot down , his plane was struck by 88 mm anti @-@ aircraft fire , necessitating another crash landing , this time behind enemy lines . Sympathetic Arab tribesmen smuggled him past the Germans and back to his airfield . Two days later , his P @-@ 40 was hit by fire from an Me 109 that dived at him from out of the sun . He was able to glide back to base , 80 miles ( 130 km ) away , but on arriving found that it was under attack by German bombers . He decided he had no other option than to land the damaged plane among the exploding bombs , and managed to do so without mishap . His series of narrow escapes engendered a spirit of fatalism , and a habit of keeping his emotions severely in check while on duty : " I just couldn 't see myself living when so many were dying . It was something which , at the time , didn 't bear much dwelling on . "
= = = Squadron and wing command = = =
Despite his early setbacks in combat , Eaton soon rose to command No. 3 Squadron , taking over from Squadron Leader Bobby Gibbes on 21 April 1943 . He led the unit as it relocated to Malta the following month , in preparation for the Allied invasion of Sicily . Illness forced him to hand over command in June – July , but he returned to take charge of the squadron in August as it continued to fly escort and interdiction missions in Sicily with other units of No. 239 Wing RAF . His brother Roger , a flight sergeant serving with the RAF , was killed in a Wellington bomber raid during the campaign . On 3 September , No. 3 Squadron took part in the opening day of the Allied invasion of Italy , supporting the British XIII Corps as it moved inland after landing at Calabria . Enemy air resistance remained light and worthwhile ground targets few as the campaign progressed but , on 24 October , Eaton led an attack against German shipping off the Yugoslav coast that left a merchant ship and two barges on fire . He repeated the exercise on 7 November , when the squadron scored hits on vessels in two separate raids in the harbour at Split . On 19 November , when the rest of No. 239 Wing was unable to complete any missions due to adverse weather , Eaton found a hole in the clouds and led eight Kittyhawks in a successful attack on Opi in central Italy . He was promoted to temporary wing commander on 1 December . On 14 December , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for pressing home a night attack on Axis armour at Termoli . The citation was promulgated in the London Gazette :
One evening in October , 1943 , this officer led his squadron in an attack on a strong enemy force , equipped with tanks , which were attacking our troops near Termoli . In spite of intense antiaircraft fire , Squadron Leader Eaton led his formation in at a low level and pressed home an attack which completely disrupted the enemy 's forces . In this spirited action , Squadron Leader Eaton displayed inspiring leadership , great courage and tenacity .
On 16 February 1944 , the day after the contentious destruction of Monte Cassino , Eaton took No. 3 Squadron through a break in the bad weather to attack the ruined monastery , the only one of No. 239 Wing 's units to successfully bomb its target that day . He handed over command of No. 3 Squadron later that month , and was transferred to No. 1 Mobile Operations Room Unit as forward air controller for the final assault on Monte Cassino . The run of luck that Eaton experienced in his first weeks of air combat in Tunisia continued on the ground in Italy . He survived three months of constant artillery fire , including an occasion when a shell exploded directly above his observation post , striking down a British officer standing next to him . He also came under machine @-@ gun fire when he took a wrong turn one day and drove into the German lines , but again escaped unhurt . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 7 April , in recognition of his leadership of No. 3 Squadron in North Africa , Malta , Sicily and Italy .
Raised to acting group captain , Eaton was given command of No. 239 Wing on 3 August 1944 , taking responsibility for No. 3 Squadron and No. 450 Squadron RAAF , No. 112 Squadron and No. 260 Squadron RAF , No. 5 Squadron of the South African Air Force , and No. 250 Squadron of the Royal Rhodesian Air Force . Credited with leading " many outstanding raids " , he was known to his staff as " The Boss " , and often flew twice a day with a different squadron on each mission ; when his superiors found out how many sorties he was personally undertaking and ordered him to cut back , he simply ceased recording his flying hours . The wing 's two RAF squadrons had already re @-@ equipped with P @-@ 51 Mustangs when Eaton took over ; No. 5 converted in September and No. 3 in November . As well as supporting the Eighth Army in Italy , the Mustang units carried out missions in Yugoslavia in concert with the Balkan Air Force , prior to Axis forces surrendering on 2 May .
Eaton was unofficially credited with shooting down as many as seven enemy aircraft during the Mediterranean campaigns , but was never listed among Australian flying aces . Many of the missions that he undertook with No. 3 Squadron and in command of No. 239 Wing were ground attack or anti @-@ shipping sorties , rather than air @-@ to @-@ air combat . He was also known as a leader who , when opportunities did arise to engage other aircraft , would attempt to manoeuvre his rookie pilots into position to make a " kill " , rather than take the shot himself . On 12 June , he was awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Service Order for " Outstanding skill and leadership against heavy odds " . His war service also earned him the US Silver Star , permission to wear it being gazetted on 14 June 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Rise to senior command = = =
Eaton was posted to Britain following the end of World War II , and attended RAF Staff College the next year . In September 1947 , he was appointed Officer Commanding No. 81 ( Fighter ) Wing in Japan , as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . The Australian contingent initially comprised three combat units , Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , as well as No. 381 ( Base ) Squadron , No. 481 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , No. 111 Mobile Fighter Control Unit , and No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron . By mid @-@ 1949 , it had been reduced to No. 77 Squadron alone , and Headquarters BCOF had been disbanded ; Eaton served as " RAAF Component " commander for the remainder of his tenure in Japan . As well as surveillance patrols , training and inter @-@ service exercises , the Australian airmen took part in ceremonial flypasts . On one such occasion , over Tokyo , Eaton led his formation of thirty Mustangs into cloud with a faulty artificial horizon in his plane , with the result that he and his comrades , who were following his lead , became badly disorientated and were fortunate to avoid collision ; RAAF historian Alan Stephens considered this a not @-@ atypical example of the casual attitude to flying safety exhibited at the time by the veteran pilots of World War II .
Returning to Australia in November 1949 , Eaton became Deputy Director of Training at the Department of Air , Canberra , where he remained until 1951 . Later that year , he was appointed Officer Commanding No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales . He had reverted to a substantive rank of wing commander since leaving Japan , as the RAAF shrank dramatically with demobilisation and many senior officers lost the temporary or acting ranks they had gained in wartime . On 15 September , he landed a Vampire jet fighter at Point Cook with one flat tyre and one wheel retracted , after its undercarriage had become jammed . The plane skidded off the runway but Eaton was able to walk away , reportedly remarking " Well , I didn 't wreck it " . He married Josephine Rumbles at Toorak Presbyterian Church in Melbourne on 10 May 1952 ; the couple later had a son and two daughters . Following Britain 's request to the Australian government for a Commonwealth garrison in the Mediterranean , in July 1952 Eaton led No. 78 Wing on deployment to RAF Hal Far near Valletta , Malta , where its combat squadrons , Nos. 75 and 76 , were equipped with leased Vampire FB9s . As the overseas posting was for a minimum of two years , his new bride and the families of other staff were permitted to make the journey as well . The Australian airmen participated in many NATO exercises while stationed at Malta , and one year took first and second place in the Middle Eastern Gunnery Contest for the " Imshi " Mason Cup . Promoted to the substantive rank of group captain on 1 January 1953 , Eaton was granted command of RAF Ta 'Kali when the wing transferred there from Hal Far in June .
Completing his tour with No. 78 Wing in mid @-@ 1954 , Eaton joined Air Vice Marshal Alister Murdoch on an international mission to examine potential new fighter , bomber , transport and training aircraft for the RAAF . The team 's report advocated the F @-@ 104 Starfighter as a replacement for the CAC Sabre , as well as nuclear @-@ capable British V @-@ bomber strike aircraft to augment Australia 's Canberra bombers , and C @-@ 130 Hercules transports to replace the C @-@ 47 Dakota . While the proposals for V @-@ bombers and the F @-@ 104 were not taken up , the Australian Government acquired the C @-@ 130 in 1958 . Described as second only to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C as the " most significant " purchase by the RAAF , the Hercules gave the Air Force its first strategic airlift capability , which in years to come would provide a " lifeline " to Australian forces deployed to Malaya , Vietnam , and other parts of the South @-@ West Pacific . The mission also recommended the locally built Vampire T35 as a jet trainer for No. 1 Applied Flying Training School ; sixty @-@ nine were later delivered by the de Havilland factory in Bankstown , New South Wales . Eaton served as RAAF Director of Operations during 1955 – 56 , and as Officer Commanding RAAF Base Williamtown and Commandant of the co @-@ located School of Land @-@ Air Warfare from March 1957 until February 1959 . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1959 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
Following his tour at Williamtown , Eaton spent two years as Director of Joint Services Plans before attending the Imperial Defence College , London in 1961 . Raised to air commodore , he was appointed Director @-@ General Operational Requirements in 1962 . Concurrently he became an Honorary Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to Queen Elizabeth II , in which capacity he served until 1965 . As the Army reorganised to deal with Australia 's increasing commitments to the Vietnam War in the mid @-@ 1960s , it sought to procure a dozen twin @-@ engined aircraft of a size hitherto only operated by the RAAF , and also proposed a joint review of close air support . RAAF senior command chose to deal with the Army 's proposals by ignoring them . As Director @-@ General of Operational Requirements , Eaton argued that if the RAAF did not more fully satisfy the ground support requirements of the Army , then the Army itself would seek to take control of this sphere of operations , undermining the RAAF 's position as the main provider of Australia 's air power . Pointing out to the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Murdoch , that it was " clearly the Army 's intention to have complete command and control " of air @-@ to @-@ ground assets , he warned of a parallel situation in America , where the US Army was looking to take over all battlefield air support in response to the USAF failing to keep up to date in the provision of basic attack aircraft . The RAAF 's refusal to adequately deal with its ground support responsibilities led to long @-@ running inter @-@ service enmity , and contributed to the Australian government 's decision twenty years later to transfer control of battlefield helicopters to the Army . At this time , Eaton also led the acquisition team that selected the Macchi MB @-@ 326 as the RAAF 's new jet trainer , as it met all requirements , could be licence @-@ built in Australia , and was relatively inexpensive . The first of ninety @-@ seven was delivered by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation in 1967 .
= = = Senior command and retirement = = =
Promoted to air vice marshal , Eaton became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1966 . In December that year , with Australian Caribou transports and Iroquois helicopters already serving in Vietnam , Eaton advocated building up the RAAF 's " sharp end " there , increasing air support for ground troops . He preferred deploying Sabre or Mirage fighters rather than the mooted Canberra bombers , which he saw as more suitable for a strategic role . Above all , he accepted the " domino theory " and believed that if Australia did not aid South Vietnam , " we 'd lose the lot " . In the event , Canberras were despatched rather than fighters . In 1967 , Eaton became the last AOC of No. 224 Group RAF under the British Far East Air Force ( FEAF ) in Singapore , as permanent squadrons were dropped from its strength . This reorganisation led to him taking over as chief of staff at Headquarters FEAF the following year . In this capacity , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the 1969 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
Returning to Australia , Eaton became Air Member for Personnel ( AMP ) in October 1969 . As AMP , he sat on the Air Board , the RAAF 's controlling body , which consisted of its most senior officers and was chaired by the Chief of the Air Staff . In January 1973 , he succeeded to the post of AOC Operational Command ( now Air Command ) . He served in this position until retirement , his tenure witnessing the introduction of the F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber to service in Australia , when the first machines touched down at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in July . Leaving the military on 15 December 1973 , Eaton became Regional Executive for Rolls Royce Australia in Canberra . He remained with the company for the next decade , continuing to live in Canberra until his death on 17 October 1992 , at the age of 75 . In 1996 , his widow Josephine donated funding for the Air Vice @-@ Marshal B.A. Eaton ' Airman of the Year ' Award to the RAAF , to annually recognise " significant contribution to both the Service and the community " by airmen and airwoman ranked corporal or below .
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= M @-@ 218 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 218 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that served as a connector route from Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 , originally US Highway 16 , US 16 ) in Wixom through Oakland County 's lake country area to Business US 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) in Pontiac . M @-@ 218 was originally designated by 1936 and extended into Pontiac in 1938 . The highway was decommissioned in 1963 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 218 began at a junction with I @-@ 96 in Wixom . From there , the road traveled north via Wixom Road to present @-@ day Pontiac Trail ( which at the time was 14 Mile Road ) and continued northeast . The trunkline then continued along Pontiac Trail , meandering through the communities of Walled Lake , Orchard Lake Village , Keego Harbor and Sylvan Lake in Oakland County 's lake country . Northeast of Sylvan lake , the highway crossed US 10 ( Telegraph Road ) and crossed into Pontiac . M @-@ 218 terminated at a junction with Bus . US 10 in downtown .
= = History = =
When M @-@ 218 was first introduced into the State Trunkline System by 1936 , it served as a connector between M @-@ 58 in Pontiac and US 16 in West Novi . In 1938 , the route was extended into Pontiac where it terminated at US 10 . The trunkline continued to serve in this capacity until it was removed from the trunkline system in 1963 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Oakland County .
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= Hurricane Olga ( 2001 ) =
Hurricane Olga was a late season Category 1 North Atlantic hurricane that formed during the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season . The fifteenth named storm , ninth and final hurricane of the 2001 season , Olga formed as a subtropical cyclone on November 24 . After acquiring tropical characteristics later that day , Olga meandered westward , and eventually reached hurricane status on November 26 . Olga ’ s winds peaked at 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) before the storm turned southwestward and weakening back into a tropical storm . On November 30 it deteriorated further to a tropical depression , although it re @-@ intensified two days later to tropical storm intensity . Olga then dissipated as a tropical cyclone on December 4 east of the Bahamas . Its damaging effects were limited to ships at sea . The cyclone 's remnants produced heavy rainfall across the Bahamas and Florida . It was a relatively rare storm to exist in December , which is outside of the normal Atlantic hurricane season .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Olga were from the interaction of a cold front and a small weather disturbance in the north Atlantic Ocean , producing an extratropical low east of Bermuda on November 22 ; five other tropical cyclones and gales formed earlier in the season in the same manner . The low gradually intensified , developing an area of convection east of the center and producing a large area of gale force winds . By 0000 UTC on November 24 , the system organized enough to be classified as Subtropical Storm Two , while located about 900 mi ( 1450 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda . Subsequently , the convection markedly increased and became more concentrated , with hints of an eye feature . Within 12 hours of becoming a subtropical , it is estimated the cyclone transitioned into Tropical Storm Olga ; however , it was not purely tropical , due to being positioned beneath an upper @-@ level low . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not initiate advisories until nine hours later , referring it as Subtropical Storm Two for two more days .
When advisories first began on Olga , forecasters were uncertain how long the storm would persist , due to the storm 's presence within a much larger storm ; one hurricane model anticipated an increase in wind shear within 24 hours , which would likely cause quick dissipation . However , the NHC accurately forecast the storm to remain a cyclone for several days . Olga initially tracked northeastward , followed by a turn to the west due to a building ridge to its north . On November 25 , the storm began acquiring more characteristics of a tropical storm , such as detaching from the larger storm and developing more distinct convective rainbands . This was due to decreasing wind shear and continued atmospheric instability , although only marginally warm sea surface temperatures . After turning to the southwest , Olga resumed a northwest motion , and at 1200 UTC on November 26 intensified into a hurricane . By that time , an eye had developed in the center , and the previously large wind field had contracted . Upon attaining hurricane status , Olga was tracking northwestward due to an approaching trough . The eye steadily became better defined as outflow increased , and on November 27 Olga attained peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) , along with a minimum pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . While at peak intensity , the hurricane executed a double loop about 455 mi ( 730 km ) east of Bermuda , due to interaction with a larger cyclonic circulation that was isolated from the westerlies .
On November 28 after finishing the second loop , Olga turned to the southwest due to a building ridge to its northwest . Around the same time , it began a steady weakening trend , due to strong wind shear displacing the convection . The eye became poorly defined as the center became exposed , and on November 29 Olga weakened to tropical storm status . With the thunderstorms rapidly diminishing , the storm weakened quickly , and Olga deteriorated further to a tropical depression on November 30 . Forecasters anticipated continued weakening until dissipation , although the cyclone was expected to move over an area of more favorable conditions , including warmer waters and lighter shear . Still existing as a tropical cyclone on December 1 , Olga extended the hurricane season beyond its typical boundaries . It continued producing a small area of deep convection , prompting one forecaster to note that " Olga is stubbornly holding on to tropical cyclone status ... for now . " After reaching a position about 240 mi ( 385 km ) northeast of the Turks and Caicos Islands , the depression turned toward the north after a trough created a weakness in the ridge . After a decrease in wind shear , deep convection redeveloped over the center , and Olga re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on December 2 .
After becoming a tropical storm again , the thunderstorms organized into a rainband about 100 mi ( 160 km ) away from the center , characteristics more typical of a subtropical cyclone . By late on December 2 , the structure resembled that of a hurricane with an eye in the center , and although convection was weak , Olga was able to intensify further to winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . At the time , there was uncertainty whether the storm would strengthen further , possibly to near hurricane status , or rapidly weaken . Ultimately , an approaching trough caused weakening by increasing wind shear , while also forcing the storm eastward . On December 4 , Olga again weakened to a tropical depression as it lost most of its convection . Later that day , the circulation turned to the southeast as a ridge built to its north , and Olga degenerated into a remnant low pressure area , about 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east of Nassau , Bahamas . The remnant circulation turned to the south and west , completing a loop and later moving through the Bahamas before dissipating along the north coast of Cuba on December 7 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Forecasters at the National Hurricane Center began issuing advisories on Olga on November 24 anticipating that the storm would threaten shipping lanes in the Atlantic . Several ships and boats in the path of Olga reported seas of 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) or higher . One boat , the Manana Tres , reported a barometric pressure of 989 millibars ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) and sustained structural damage .
In Bermuda , the Bermuda Weather Service issued gale warnings and local marine warnings for boats and other small water craft . The approach of Olga also forced cancellation of the World Yacht regatta , but there was little damage on the island . Olga brought winds of 35 – 45 mph ( 56 – 72 km / h ) and waves 15 – 22 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 7 m ) to the island for several days , but there were no reports of any damage . The hurricane also brought rough seas to the East Coast of the United States , the Bahamas , and as far south and east as the Lesser Antilles . A buoy near Guadeloupe reported 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) waves . High waves in Florida eroded beaches , threatening the foundations of two homes in Flagler County . The remnants of Olga later produced heavy rainfall across the Bahamas , Cuba and south Florida .
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= Mary of Modena =
Mary of Modena ( Maria Beatrice Anna Margherita Isabella d 'Este ; 5 October [ O.S. 25 September ] 1658 – 7 May [ O.S. 26 April ] 1718 ) was Queen of England , Scotland and Ireland as the second wife of James II and VII ( 1633 – 1701 ) . A devout Catholic , Mary married the widowed James , who was the younger brother and heir presumptive of Charles II , ( 1630 – 1685 ) . She was uninterested in politics and devoted to James and their children , two of whom survived to adulthood : the Jacobite ( previous Roman Catholic / Stuart dynasty ) claimant to the thrones , James Francis Edward , ( who would have become James III of England , but later in life known as " The Old Pretender " ) , and Louisa Maria Teresa .
Born a princess of the northwestern Italian Duchy of Modena , Mary is primarily remembered for the controversial birth of James Francis Edward , her only surviving son . It was widely rumoured that he was a " changeling " , brought into the birth @-@ chamber in a warming @-@ pan , in order to perpetuate her husband 's Catholic Stuart dynasty . Although the accusation was almost certainly false , and the subsequent Privy Council investigation affirmed this , James Francis Edward 's birth was a contributing factor to the " Glorious Revolution " , the revolution which deposed James II and VII and replaced him with his Protestant eldest daughter from his first marriage to Anne Hyde , ( 1637 – 1671 ) , Lady Mary , ( later Queen Mary II ) . She and her husband , William III , Prince of Orange @-@ Nassau , would reign jointly on the English Throne as " William and Mary " .
Exiled to France , the " Queen over the water " — as the " Jacobites " , ( followers of James II and VII , Stuart dynasty claims , and generally Roman Catholics ) called Mary — lived with her husband and children in the Château de Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , provided by King Louis XIV of France ( " The Sun King " ) . Mary was popular among Louis XIV 's courtiers ; however , James was considered a bore . In widowhood , Mary spent much time with the nuns at the Convent of Chaillot , where she and her daughter Louisa Maria Teresa spent their summers . In 1701 , when James II died , young James Francis Edward became king at age 13 in the eyes of the " Jacobites " , as now " King James III and VIII " . As he was too young to assume the nominal reins of government , Mary acted as his regent until he reached the age of 16 . When young James Francis Edward was asked to leave France as part of the settlement from the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 , which ended the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 – 1714 ) , Mary of Modena stayed , despite having no family there , her daughter Louisa Maria Teresa having unfortunately died of smallpox . Fondly remembered by her French contemporaries , Mary died of breast cancer in 1718 .
= = Early life ( 1658 – 1673 ) = =
Mary Beatrice d 'Este , the second but eldest surviving child of Alfonso IV , Duke of Modena , and his wife , Laura Martinozzi , was born on 5 October 1658 NS in Modena , Duchy of Modena , Italy . Her only younger brother , Francesco , succeeded their father as Duke upon his death in 1662 , the year Mary turned four . Mary and Francesco 's mother Laura was strict with them , and acted as regent of the duchy until her son came of age . Mary 's education was excellent ; she spoke French and Italian fluently , had a good knowledge of Latin and , later , mastered English .
Mary was described by contemporaries as " tall and admirably shaped " , and sought as a bride for James , Duke of York , by Lord Peterborough . Lord Peterborough was groom of the stole to the Duke of York . A widower , James was the younger brother and heir of Charles II of England . Duchess Laura was not initially forthcoming with a reply to Peterborough 's proposal , hoping , according to the French ambassador , for a " grander " match with the eleven @-@ year @-@ old Charles II of Spain . Whatever the reason for Laura 's initial reluctance , she finally accepted the proposal on behalf of Mary , and they were married by proxy on 30 September 1673 NS .
Modena was within the sphere of influence of Louis XIV of France , who endorsed Mary 's candidature and greeted Mary warmly in Paris , where she stopped en route to England , giving her a brooch worth £ 8 @,@ 000 . Her reception in England was much cooler . Parliament , which was entirely composed of Protestants , reacted poorly to the news of a Catholic marriage , fearing it was a " Papist " plot against the country . The English public , who were predominantly Protestant , branded the Duchess of York — as Mary was thereafter known as until her husband 's accession — the " Pope 's daughter " . Parliament threatened to have the marriage annulled , leading Charles to suspend parliament until 7 January 1674 OS , to ensure the marriage would be honoured and safeguarding the reputation of his House of Stuart .
= = Duchess of York ( 1673 – 1685 ) = =
= = = Household = = =
The Duke of York , an avowed Catholic , was twenty @-@ five years older than his bride , scarred by smallpox and afflicted with a stutter . He had secretly converted to Catholicism around 1668 . Mary first saw her husband on 23 November 1673 OS , on the day of their second marriage ceremony . James was pleased with his bride . Mary , however , at first disliked him , and burst into tears each time she saw him . Nonetheless , she soon warmed to James . From his first marriage to the commoner Anne Hyde , who had died in 1671 , James had two daughters : Lady Mary and Lady Anne . They were introduced to Mary by James with the words , " I have brought you a new play @-@ fellow " . Unlike Lady Mary , Lady Anne disliked her father 's new wife . Mary played games with Anne , to win her affection .
The Duchess of York annually received £ 5 @,@ 000 spending money and her own household , headed by Carey Fraser , Countess of Peterborough ; it was frequented by ladies of her husband 's selection : Frances Stewart , Duchess of Richmond — Charles II 's discarded mistress — and Anne Scott , 1st Duchess of Buccleuch . That the Duchess of York loathed gambling did not stop her ladies compelling her to do so almost every day . They believed that " if she refrained , it might be taken ill " . Consequently , Mary incurred minor gambling debts .
The birth of the Duchess of York 's first child , Catherine Laura , named after Queen Catherine , on 10 January 1675 OS represented the beginning of a string of children that would die in infancy . At this time she was on excellent terms with Lady Mary and she visited her in The Hague after the younger Mary had married William of Orange . She travelled incognito and took Anne with her .
= = = Popish plot and exile = = =
The Duchess of York 's Catholic secretary , Edward Colman , was , in 1678 , falsely implicated in a fictitious plot against the King by Dr. Titus Oates . The plot , known as the Popish Plot , led to the Exclusionist movement , which was headed by Anthony Ashley Cooper , 1st Earl of Shaftesbury . The Exclusionists sought to debar the Catholic Duke of York from the throne . Their reputation in tatters , the Yorks were begrudgingly exiled to Brussels , a domain of the King of Spain , ostensibly to visit Lady Mary — since 1677 the wife of Prince William III of Orange . Accompanied by her not yet three @-@ year @-@ old daughter Isabella and Lady Anne , the Duchess of York was saddened by James 's extra @-@ marital affair with Catherine Sedley . Mary 's spirits were briefly revived by a visit from her mother , who was living in Rome .
A report that King Charles was very sick sent the Yorks back to England post @-@ haste . They feared the King 's eldest illegitimate son , James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth , and commander of England 's armed forces , might usurp the crown if Charles died in their absence . The matter was compounded by the fact that Monmouth enjoyed the support of the Exclusionists , who held a majority in the House of Commons of England . Charles survived but , feeling the Yorks returned to court too soon , sent James and Mary to Edinburgh , where they stayed on @-@ and @-@ off for the next three years . Lodging in Holyrood Palace , the Yorks had to make do without Ladies Anne and Isabella , who stayed in London on Charles 's orders . The Yorks were recalled to London in February 1680 , only to return again to Edinburgh that autumn ; this time they went on a more honourable footing : James was created King 's Commissioner to Scotland . Separated from Lady Isabella once again , Mary sank into a state of sadness , exacerbated by the passing of the Exclusion bill in the Commons . Lady Isabella , thus far the only one of Mary 's children to survive infancy , died in February 1681 . Isabella 's death plunged Mary into a religious mania , worrying her physician . At the same time as news reached Holyrood of Isabella 's death , Mary 's mother was falsely accused of offering £ 10 @,@ 000 for the murder of the King . The accuser , a pamphleteer , was executed by order of the King .
The Exclusionist reaction that followed the Popish plot had died down by May 1682 . Exclusionist @-@ dominated Parliament , suspended since March 1681 , never again met in the reign of Charles II . Therefore , the Duke and Duchess of York returned to England , and the Duchess gave birth to a daughter named Charlotte Mary in August 1682 ; Charlotte Mary 's death three weeks later , according to the French ambassador , robbed James of " hope that any child of his can live " — all James 's sons by Anne Hyde , his first wife , died in infancy . James 's sadness was dispelled by his revival in popularity following the discovery of a plot to kill the King and him . The objective of the plot , known as the Rye House Plot , was to have Monmouth placed on the throne as Lord Protector . The revival was so strong that , in 1684 , James was re @-@ admitted to the Privy Council , after an absence of eleven years .
= = Queen ( 1685 – 1689 ) = =
Despite all the furore over Exclusionism , James ascended to his brother 's thrones easily upon the latter 's death , which occurred on 6 February 1685 OS , possibly because the said alternative could provoke another civil war . Mary sincerely mourned Charles , recalling in later life , " He was always kind to me . " Mary and James 's £ 119 @,@ 000 joint coronation ceremony , occurring on 23 April OS , Saint George 's day , was meticulously planned . Precedents were sought for Mary because a full @-@ length joint coronation had not occurred since the ceremony performed for Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon .
Queen Mary 's health had still not recovered after the death of Lady Isabella . So much so , in fact , that the Tuscan envoy reported to Florence that " general opinion turns [ for Mary 's successor ] in the direction of the Princess , Your Highness 's daughter " . France , too , was preparing for the Queen 's imminent demise , putting forward as its candidate for James 's new wife the Duke of Enghien 's daughter . The Queen was then trying to make her brother , the Duke of Modena , marry the former , Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici .
In February 1687 , the Queen , at the time irritated by the King 's affair with Catherine Sedley , Countess of Dorchester , moved into new apartments in Whitehall ; Whitehall had been home to a Catholic chapel since December 1686 . Her apartments were designed by Christopher Wren at the cost of £ 13 @,@ 000 . Because the palace 's renovation was thus far unfinished , the King received ambassadors in her rooms , much to the Queen 's chagrin . Five months later , shortly after the marriage talks with Tuscany collapsed , the Queen 's mother , Duchess Laura , died . Therefore , the whole English court went into mourning . Duchess Laura left Mary " a considerable sum of cash " and some jewellery . William III of Orange , James 's son @-@ in @-@ law , sensed popular discontent with James 's government ; he used the death of Mary 's mother as a guise to send his half @-@ uncle , Count Zuylestein , to England , ostensibly to condole Queen Mary , but in reality as a spy .
Having visited Bath , in the hope its waters would aid conception , Queen Mary became pregnant in late 1687 . When the pregnancy became public knowledge shortly before Christmas , Catholics rejoiced . Protestants , who had tolerated James 's Catholic government because he had no Catholic heir , were concerned . The Protestant disillusion came to a head after the child was known to be male , and many Protestants believed the child was spurious ; if not , James II 's Catholic dynasty would have been perpetuated . Popular opinion alleged that the child , named James Francis Edward , was smuggled into the birth chamber as a substitute to the Queen 's real but stillborn child . This rumour was widely accepted as fact by Protestants , despite the many witnesses of the birth . Mainly by mismanagement on James ' part , these rumours had some excuse as from personal prejudice he had excluded many from the ceremony whose testimony must have been counted valid ; most of the witnesses were Catholics or foreigners , and several , such as the Princess Anne of Denmark , later to be Queen Anne , and the Protestant prelates , or the family of the Princesses whom the new birth would remove from the direct succession , were not allowed to be present . Anne later answered a memorandum of 18 questions regarding James Francis Edward 's birth for her sister , the Princess of Orange . Anne 's answers , biased and unreliable , convinced the Princess of Orange that her father had thrust a changeling upon the nation . Count Zuylestein , returning to the Netherlands shortly after the birth , agreed with Anne 's findings .
Issued by seven leading Whig nobles , the invitation for William to invade England signalled the beginning of a revolution that culminated in James II 's deposition . The invitation assured William that " nineteen parts of twenty of the people throughout the kingdom " wished for an intervention . The revolution , known as the Glorious Revolution , deprived James Francis Edward of his right to the English throne , on the grounds he was not the King 's real son and , later , because he was a Catholic . England in the hands of William of Orange 's 15 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army , James and Mary went into exile in France . There , they stayed at the expense of King Louis XIV , who supported the Jacobite cause .
= = Queen over the water ( 1689 – 1701 ) = =
= = = Reception at Louis XIV 's court = = =
As Mary II and William III & II had ascended the English and Scottish thrones , Mary of Modena ceased to be Queen of England on 11 December 1688 OS and of Scotland on 11 May 1689 OS . This was concurrent with her husband 's formal deposition . James II , however , backed by Louis XIV of France , still considered himself king by divine right and maintained it was not within parliament 's prerogative to depose a monarch .
Louis XIV gave the exiled King and Queen the use of Château de Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , where they set up court @-@ in @-@ exile . Mary soon became a popular fixture at Louis XIV 's court at Versailles , where diarist Madame de Sévigné acclaimed Mary for her " distinguished bearing and her quick wit " . Questions of precedence , however , marred Mary 's relations with the Dauphine of France , Maria Anna of Bavaria . Because Mary was accorded the privileges and rank of a queen , Maria Anna was outranked by her . Therefore , Maria Anna refused to see Mary , etiquette being a sensitive issue at Versailles . In spite of this , Louis XIV and his secret wife , Madame de Maintenon , became close friends with Mary . As there was no queen at the French court , nor a dauphine after 1690 , Mary took precedence over all the female members of the French court and French royal house , as did her daughter in her capacity of a royal princess until the next French dauphine appeared in 1711 . James was largely excluded from French court life . His contemporaries found him boring , and French courtiers frequently joked that " when one talks to him , one understands why he is here . " Mary gave birth to Princess Louise Mary in 1692 . She was to be James and Mary 's last child .
Initially supported by Irish Catholics in his effort to regain the thrones , James launched an expedition to Ireland in March 1689 . He abandoned it upon his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 . During James 's campaign , Mary supported his cause throughout the British Isles : she sent three French supply ships to Bantry Bay and £ 2 @,@ 000 to Jacobite rebels in Dundee . She financed those measures by selling her jewellery . Money problems plagued the Stuart court @-@ in @-@ exile , despite a substantial pension from Louis XIV of 50 @,@ 000 livres . Mary tried her best to assist those of her husband 's followers living in poverty , and encouraged her children to give part of their pocket money to Jacobite refugees .
= = = Estensi succession = = =
The collapse of James 's invasion of Ireland in 1691 upset Mary . Her spirits were lifted by news of the marriage of her brother , the Duke of Modena . He married Margherita Maria Farnese of Parma . When , in 1695 , Mary 's brother died , the House of Este was left with one progenitor , Cardinal @-@ Duke Rinaldo . Queen Mary , concerned for the dynasty 's future , urged the Cardinal @-@ Duke to resign his cardinalate , " for the good of the people and for the perpetuation of the sovereign house of Este " . Duke Rinaldo 's bride , Princess Charlotte Felicitas of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg , was , according to Mary , " of an easy disposition best suited to [ the Duke ] " .
A bone of contention , however , arose over the Queen 's inheritance and dowry . Duke Rinaldo refused to release the former , and left the latter £ 15 @,@ 000 in arrears . In 1700 , five years later , the Duke finally paid the Queen her dowry ; her inheritance , however , remained sequestered , and relations with Modena worsened again when Rinaldo allied himself with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I. Leopold was an enemy of Louis XIV , James and Mary 's patron .
= = = Regency = = =
In March 1701 , James II suffered a stroke while hearing mass at the Château de Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , leaving him partially paralysed . Fagon , Louis XIV 's personal physician , recommend the waters of Bourbon @-@ l 'Archambault , to cure the King 's paralysis . The waters , however , had little effect , and James II died of a seizure on 16 September 1701 . Louis XIV , in contravention of the Peace of Ryswick , declared James Francis Edward King of England , Ireland and Scotland as James III and VIII . This act irritated King William III and II , who had ruled alone since the death of his wife , Mary II . Because James Francis Edward was a minor , Queen Mary acted as nominal regent for her son . Mary presided over his regency council , too , although she was uninterested in politics . Before his death , James II expressed his wish that Mary 's regency would last no longer than their son 's 18th birthday .
Dressed in mourning for the remainder of her life , Queen Mary 's first act as regent was to disseminate a manifesto , outlining James Francis Edward 's claims . It was largely ignored in England . In Scotland , however , the confederate Lords sent Lord Belhaven to Saint @-@ Germain , to convince the Queen to surrender to them custody of James Francis Edward and accede to his conversion to Protestantism .
The conversion , said Belhaven , would enable James Francis Edward 's accession to the English throne upon William III 's death . The Queen @-@ Regent was not swayed by Belhaven 's argument , so a compromise was reached : James Francis Edward , if he became King , would limit the number of Roman Catholic priests in England and promise not to tamper with the established Church of England . In exchange , the confederate Lords would do all in their power to block the passing of the Hanoverian succession in Scottish parliament . When , in March 1702 , William III died , Simon Fraser , 11th Lord Lovat , declared for James Francis Edward at Inverness . Soon after , Lovat travelled to the court @-@ in @-@ exile at Saint @-@ Germain , and begged the Queen @-@ Regent to allow her son to come to Scotland . Lovat intended to raise an army of 15 @,@ 000 soldiers in Scotland , to seize the throne for James Francis Edward . Mary refused to part with James Francis Edward , and the rising failed . Mary 's regency ceased with her son 's reaching of the age of 16 .
Having wished to become a nun in her youth , Queen Mary sought refuge from the stresses of exile at the Convent of the Visitations , Chaillot , near Paris , where she befriended Louis XIV 's penitent mistress , Louise de La Vallière . There , Mary stayed with her daughter for long periods almost every summer . It was here , too , in 1711 , that Queen Mary found out that , as part of the embryonic Treaty of Utrecht , James Francis Edward was to lose Louis XIV 's explicit recognition and be forced to leave France . The next year , when James Francis Edward was expelled and Louise Mary died of smallpox , Mary was very upset ; according to Mary 's close friend Madame de Maintenon , Mary was " a model of desolation " . Deprived of the company of her family , Queen Mary lived out the rest of her days at Chaillot and Saint @-@ Germain in virtual poverty , unable to travel by her own means because all her horses had died and she could not afford to replace them .
Following her death from cancer on 7 May 1718 , Mary was remembered fondly by her French contemporaries , three of whom , Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate , the Duke of Saint @-@ Simon and the Marquis of Dangeau , deemed her a " saint " . Mary 's remains were interred in Chaillot among the nuns she had befriended .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
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= Fight Like Apes =
Fight Like Apes ( also referred to as FLApes or FLA ) are an Irish alternative rock band formed in Dublin in 2006 .
Their current members are Mary @-@ Kate " MayKay " Geraghty ( vocals and synth ) , Jamie " Pockets " Fox ( keyboard and vocals ) , Conor Garry ( bass ) , Lee Boylan ( drums ) and Frog Cullen . Original members Adrian Mullan ( drums ) and Tom Ryan ( bass ) left the band in 2010 .
They are known for their elongated record titles , usually inspired by B movies . They have released three EPs , How Am I Supposed to Kill You If You Have All the Guns ? ( 2007 ) , David Carradine is a Bounty Hunter Whos Robotic Arm Hates Your Crotch ( 2007 ) and Whigfield Sextape ( 2014 ) , and two albums , Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion ( 2008 ) and The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner ( 2010 ) . In 2009 , they released an EP for the American market titled You Filled His Head with Fluffy Clouds and Jolly Ranchers , What Did You Think Was Going to Happen ? .
Fight Like Apes have toured the UK with The Von Bondies , The Ting Tings , New Found Glory , The Prodigy and Kasabian and have played several Irish and European festivals throughout their career . They have appeared on several television shows in Ireland , including Tubridy Tonight , WeTV , The View , Other Voices and The Cafe . They have also had some success in Asia , where they have been signed up by Sony Music Entertainment Japan for an album release on that continent in April 2009 . The band have been nominated for five Meteor Music Awards , Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion was nominated for the Choice Music Prize and was named 31st best album of the decade by Phantom FM at the end of 2009 . Fight Like Apes were named the fourth best Irish musical act of their generation by The Irish Times in 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Fight Like Apes formed late 2006 following the breakup of the band Soft Cuddly Toys by Mary @-@ Kate Geraghty ( known as " MayKay " ) , Jamie Fox ( known as " Pockets " ) , Adrian Mullan and Tom Ryan . MayKay and Pockets first met as teenagers on holiday in Spain where they realised they both went to nearby schools and shared the same " extremely optimistically cynical outlook on life " . When MayKay told Pockets she loved singing he had her sign a contract on a piece of tissue in a bar . Pockets 's parents were unhappy with their son 's " disgusting " taste in music . He dropped out of his final year of study at Dublin City University and a potential career in journalism to pursue his musical career . MayKay had been studying medicinal chemistry , and later a philosophy course at Trinity College Dublin . They habitually met from early morning and spent their days eating together before deciding to form a band . Their chosen name was inspired by Caesar 's battle cry of “ Now fight like apes ” in the what they describe as the " notoriously bad " Battle for the Planet of the Apes .
= = = Early EPs ( 2007 ) = = =
Their debut EP , How Am I Supposed to Kill You If You Have All the Guns ? , Recorded by Lee Boylan and released by Irish indie label FIFA Records in early 2007 , sold out and generated a significant amount of interest in the media and in the Irish blogging community in the process . In May 2007 , Fight Like Apes won Phantom FM 's Topman Unsigned Band Search ; their prize was to be a support act of The Holloways at show in Dublin . Fight Like Apes played both Electric Picnic ( their first major Irish festival ) and Hard Working Class Heroes in 2007 and also performed at the CMJ Music Marathon in New York . They were also chosen to play the Futureshock stage at EXIT in Serbia after sending a demo of their songs to the organisers . On 13 October 2007 , Fight Like Apes performed " Jake Summers " on television chat show , Tubridy Tonight .
The title of their second EP , David Carradine is a Bounty Hunter Whos Robotic Arm Hates Your Crotch , released on 2 November 2007 ( produced by Lee Boylan ) , was inspired by the film Future Force starring David Carradine , which the band found on the internet . The EP 's lead track , " Do You Karate ? " , was a minor hit on the Irish independent music scene . The band set off on their first UK tour after the EP 's release and their " Jake Summers " single was released there through the label , Cool For Cats ( sister of Fierce Panda ) . In February 2008 , the band toured Ireland and the UK as a support act of The Von Bondies . Von Bondies member Jason Stollsteimer has described Fight Like Apes as “ candy wrapped in barbed wire ” . Fight Like Apes were invited to participate in the sixth series of RTÉ 's annual Other Voices music show , performing on 19 March 2008 . They also appeared on RTÉ Two 's WeTV television show . Fight Like Apes performed at the South by Southwest festival in Austin , Texas in 2008 . Upon their return from South by Southwest in March / April 2008 , they went on a national tour of Ireland . Later that year , Fight Like Apes appeared at several music festivals in Ireland and the UK , including an appearance on the Futures Stage at T in the Park , and two appearances at the 2008 Glastonbury Festival , as well as Oxegen 2008 and Indie @-@ pendence in Ireland . The single " Lend Me Your Face / Lightsabre Cock @-@ sucking Blues " was released in the UK on 21 – 28 July 2008 .
= = = Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion ( 2008 ) = = =
The band spent a month in Seattle , Washington , in early 2008 , recording tracks for their debut album , produced by John Goodmanson . The album , titled Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion , was released on 26 September 2008 on Model Citizen Records , selling continually well in Ireland and the UK . It was preceded by the release of the single " Something Global " on 11 July 2008 . They played a sold @-@ out launch show at Whelan 's in Dublin , which was broadcast live on Phantom FM on the day of release . The Irish Times described the album as an " astonishing debut that encompasses melancholy and whimsy ( both lyrically and musically ) " . The Irish Independent , on the other hand , " strongly urge [ d ] all not to waste their money " on " the woeful debut " of a band with " lots of blogger and media friends , all aurally challenged " . RTÉ also gave the album a lukewarm response . MayKay has said she is unbothered by any criticism as long as the album is simply being reviewed . Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion reached the top five of the Irish Albums Chart , meaning the band became the first alternative act from Ireland to achieve this for several years , and " Jake Summers " and " Lend Me Your Face " became regularly played at indie clubs throughout Ireland .
They went on to support The Ting Tings on a sell @-@ out UK tour , receiving kung fu lessons from their security guard Preston and a champagne bottle on the final night . They appeared on The Cafe on 16 October 2008 . The Prodigy personally invited the band to support them on their sold @-@ out arena tour of the UK ; all of the members are fans of Fight Like Apes and Liam Howlett entered their dressing room to give his regards . Sony Music Entertainment Japan signed the band for the Asian release of Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion . They headlined the Levi 's One to Watch Tour in November 2008 . In December 2008 , a video of students of the Tisch School of the Arts in New York , featuring several females miming to " Digifuckers " , was released .
= = = Eurosonic , UK , US and Japan ( 2009 ) = = =
Fight Like Apes represented Ireland in the Eurosonic Festival in Groningen , the Netherlands , in January 2009 , This appearance led to the band qualifying for admission into the European Talent Exchange Programme , allowing the band to be booked for music festivals across Europe , including Glastonbury and T in the Park . Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion was released in the UK on 26 January 2009 . The band played a studio session for Steve Lamacq of BBC Radio 1 around this time , with Maykay also encountering Jonathan Ross , a fan of the band who has played their music on his show . They released a video for a new single , " Tie Me Up with Jackets " , later that month and performed the song on The View on 10 March 2009 . Also In March 2009 , came the release of the EP You Filled His Head with Fluffy Clouds and Jolly Ranchers , What Did You Think Was Going to Happen ? for the US market as well as a return to South by Southwest .
Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion was released in Japan in April 2009 , with Fight Like Apes filming a music video for the international release of their " Something Global " single in Whelan 's , Dublin . On 3 April 2009 , The Irish Times named Fight Like Apes the fourth best contemporary Irish musical act , above Lisa Hannigan and below Cathy Davey , Jape and David Holmes . The newspaper claimed that " Ireland has , quite simply , never seen a band like Fight Like Apes " , reasoning that this was due to them " acting as a palette @-@ cleansing antidote to the dour “ woolly jumper brigade ” that dragged Irish music into the depths of despair not a decade ago " . They played at the 2009 Trinity Ball in May , an event likened to " a mini @-@ Oxegen without the mud " . The band 's 2009 summer tour consisted of both domestic and European festival dates , and an appearance in Wales . Their performance at Festival Internacional de Benicàssim in Spain was cancelled due to a fire and extreme winds . Their performance at Oxegen 2009 was their second at the festival , with band members banging chairs during their performance and The Irish Times tipping them to appear on the Main Stage in 2010 .
At the end of 2009 , Fight Like Apes performed a show in The Academy inside a specially constructed wrestling ring . Their music is also being used to promote television series such as Making the Band and Valemont in the United States . A second album will be released in 2010 . The first album was named 31st best album of the decade by Phantom FM at the end of 2009 . They will appear at Electric Picnic 2010 .
= = = Second studio album , Adrian 's departure ( 2010 - Present ) = = =
The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner , the second album by Fight Like Apes , was released in Ireland on August 27 , 2010 , through Model Citizen Records . A further European release , as well as release dates for Japan and North America , are due to be announced soon . The first single was released as a download only in Ireland on August 20 , 2010 with the lead single being " Hoo Ha Henry " . The band began promoting the album in Ireland on July 30 , with live performances in Meath , Cork , Galway and at Electric Picnic in County Laois . The band appeared on Beat 102 103 to promote their new album on August 8 , 2010 .
Adrian Mullan left the band in 2010 due to " creative differences " .
On Friday September 3 , 2010 their new album The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner entered the Irish charts at number 3 . On 1 November , they announced an extension to their end @-@ of @-@ year national tour . In March 2011 , they announced an Irish nationwide tour and released the single " Jenny Kelly " . The band performed at The Trinity Ball 2011 with new bassist Conor Garry as Tom Ryan has gone back to college to study .
= = = Whigfield Sextape EP and Fight Like Apes Third Album = = =
On April 9 , 2013 Fight Like Apes launched its Fund It campaign to help facilitate the making of their third album . The band received € 20 @,@ 000 in donations to cover the cost of PR , album artwork , equipment , mastering among other things . Donations ranged from € 10 which will get the donor a signed version of the album up to € 5 @,@ 000 where the donor would receive VIP tickets to regular gigs and festivals . The band aimed to receive all donations within 34 days , and they were successful within a few days .
In the run @-@ up to the launch of their new album due for , the band performed at two dates one in Dublin and another in Cork in December 2013 . The band played a number of new tracks at both live venues . Fans who funded the new album will receive a special EP . On May 12 , 2015 Fight Like Apes released the Whigfield Sextape EP . In early 2015 , the band played a number of dates in Japan and Ireland . They release their self @-@ titled third studio album on May 15 , 2015 .
= = Style and influences = =
BBC Radio 1 's Steve Lamacq has described Fight Like Apes as a " great Misfit band " inhabiting " a lonely place out on the periphery of the indie rock world " . At one show in June 2008 , he witnessed them " thrash about on their guitars and keyboards and wotnot [ sic ] like it 's some kind of pop exorcism " and saw them " rolling around the empty dancefloor playflighting [ sic ] " . Today FM presenter Alison Curtis has described them as " really talented ... kind of rocky and metallic and their front girl is extremely watchable , almost going into Debbie Harry territory " .
The band 's influences include B movies , computer games , kung @-@ fu and wrestling . " Do You Karate ? " , " a thumping bass driven flourish of a song " , displays the band 's " trademark twin @-@ synth attack " and the Pixies @-@ style " Canhead " has been described as " a concise ode to fish and chips " . Musically they are fond of My Bloody Valentine , Mclusky and Tom Waits , Grand Pocket Orchestra , Adebisi Shank , Jape and Giveamanakick . They dislike guitars and have been known to perform with kitchen implements such as pots and pans when on stage ; MayKay and Pockets even play keyboards with their heads . They purposefully construct lengthy record titles to " piss off " journalists and radio presenters and their self @-@ defined " karate rock " genre was directed at the NME after the British magazine tried to place them in the same category as two other female @-@ fronted bands .
Vocalist MayKay has been described as one of Ireland 's " most mesmerising front women " in recent history , with her long black hair and banshee wail provoking male fans to confess simultaneous feelings of terror and attraction online . She is known to vociferate lyrics such as " you 're like Kentucky Fried Chicken but without the taste " and " you 're a fucking disappointment to the human race " , taken from the song " Jake Summers " , a song inspired by former teen idol of California Dreams fame . Pockets writes most of the band 's songs , plays the keyboard and provides vocals for some of the band 's songs . Adrian and Tom tend to remain in the background , choosing not to be photographed . The band have never written anything fictional and their lyrics have been described by Nadine O 'Regan in The Sunday Business Post as " occasionally literally gynaecological in their detail and regularly relatively shocking in their honesty " . MayKay and Pockets claim that most of their lyrics are shaped by one person who has broken each of their hearts .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion ( 2008 )
The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner ( 2010 )
Fight Like Apes ( 2015 )
= = Awards = =
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
The band 's debut album , Fight Like Apes and the Mystery of the Golden Medallion , was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2009 . The award was won by Jape for the album Ritual on 4 March 2009 .
The Body of Christ and the Legs of Tina Turner was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in 2011 .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Fight Like Apes were nominated for two Meteor Awards in 2008 , one for Best Irish Live Performance for their November 2007 show at Whelan 's in Dublin and the other for Best Irish Band . In 2009 , they were nominated for three Meteor Music Awards , for Best Irish Band , Best Irish Live Performance and Best Irish Album .
= = = UK Festival Awards = = =
In September 2009 , Fight Like Apes were nominated in the Best Breakthrough Artists category at the UK Festival Awards , competing against three British and one American acts — Florence and The Machine , Little Boots , Passion Pit and Friendly Fires .
= = = IMTV Music Video Awards 2009 = = =
" Something Global " won the award for Most Original Concept at the 2009 Irish Music Television Awards . The video was directed by Eoghan Kidney .
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= 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division ( United Kingdom ) =
The 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division was an infantry division of the British Army formed at the beginning of 1943 , during the Second World War . For the twenty months that the division existed , it was a training formation . Army recruits that had been assigned to the division and fully trained were allocated to formations fighting overseas . Notably , the division was used as a source of reinforcements for the 21st Army Group , which was fighting in Normandy . After all available troops left the United Kingdom for France , the division was disbanded .
A phantom 80th Infantry Division was formed in the division 's place to aid the Operation Fortitude deception effort that supported the invasion of France . This division was part of the notional British Fourth Army , which was portrayed as part of the threatened Allied landing at the Pas de Calais . The overall deception plan was successful , and affected the German response to the Allied invasion . The phantom division was " disbanded " towards the end of the war .
= = Divisional history = =
= = = Training formation = = =
During the Second World War , the divisions of the British Army were divided between " Higher Establishment " and " Lower Establishment " formations . The former were intended for deployment overseas and combat , whereas the latter were strictly for home defence in a static role . During the winter of 1942 – 43 , three " Lower Establishment " divisions were renamed " Reserve Divisions " . On 1 January 1943 , these three were supplemented by the raising of a new reserve division , the 80th Infantry , placed under the command of Major @-@ General Lionel Howard Cox . The four reserve divisions were used as training units . Soldiers who had completed their corps training were assigned to these divisions . The soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section , platoon and company level , before undertaking a final three @-@ day exercise . Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations . Training was handled in this manner to relieve the " Higher Establishment " divisions from being milked for replacements for other units and to allow them to intensively train without the interruption of having to handle new recruits .
During its existence , the 80th Division was assigned to Western Command . The division was spread out across Western Command 's area of responsibility with at least one battalion based in Bowerham Barracks , Lancaster , Lancashire and another based around Shropshire . The Imperial War Museum comments that the division insignia of a troopship was derived from " one of the prime functions of the Division [ that being ] to find drafts for overseas postings " . The design included " two long and prominent bow waves from the ship " , which resulted in the troops giving it the nickname the " torpedoed troopship " . The insignia was only worn by the permanent members of the division .
On 30 June 1944 , the four training divisions had a combined total of 22 @,@ 355 men . Of this number , only 1 @,@ 100 were immediately available as replacements for the 21st Army Group . The remaining 21 @,@ 255 men were considered ineligible at that time for service abroad , for medical reasons , or for not being fully fit or fully trained , or for other reasons . Over the following six months , up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce 21st Army Group following the completion of their training and certification of fitness . Stephen Hart comments that , by September , the 21st Army Group " had bled Home Forces dry of draftable riflemen " after the losses suffered during the Normandy Campaign , leaving the army in Britain , with the exception of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , with just " young lads , old men , and the unfit " . On 1 September 1944 , the division was disbanded . Cox took command of the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , which took over the role of the 80th Division .
= = = Deception formation = = =
The creation of the fictitious division arose from an actual reorganization of British forces . During 1944 , the British Army was facing a manpower crisis as it did not have enough men to replace the losses to front line infantry . While efforts were made to address this ( such as transferring men from the Royal Artillery and Royal Air Force to be retrained as infantry ) , the War Office began disbanding divisions to downsize the army so as to transfer men to other units to help keep those as close to full strength as possible . The War Office decided to disband several " Lower Establishment " divisions , which included the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division .
The Fortitude deception staff seized upon this opportunity to retain the division as a phantom unit . A cover story was established to explain the change in the division 's status . It was claimed that with the war nearing an end , several Territorial Army divisions would revert to their peacetime recruiting role and release their equipment and resources to other units . For the 80th , this was the 38th Division . With the transfer of equipment , the 80th was notionally raised to the " Higher Establishment " , readied for war , and joined the phantom VII Corps that was part of the notional British Fourth Army . The phantom 80th , retaining the insignia of the real division , was supposedly based in Canterbury and composed of the 50th , 208th and 211th brigades .
The notional Fourth Army was part of Operation Bodyguard , the codename for the deception plan designed to protect Operation Overlord . Initially , the Fourth Army was part of Fortitude North . This plan aimed to make the Germans believe that the notional 250 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Fourth Army , based in Scotland , would assault Norway . The deception plan aimed to keep the German garrison of nearly half a million men stationed in Norway to resist such an attack . Following the invasion of Normandy , the Fourth Army was " transferred " south to reinforce the First United States Army Group ( FUSAG ) , another fictitious formation . Fortitude South aimed to convince the Germans that FUSAG had 500 @,@ 000 men in more than fifty divisions and would launch the main Allied invasion in the Pas de Calais , 45 days after the Normandy landings . The goal of the operation was to persuade the Germans not to move the 18 divisions of the 15th Army to Normandy . VII Corps was notionally transferred south , as part of Fourth Army , to join FUSAG . Following this move , the newly created fictitious 80th Infantry Division was assigned to the imaginary Corps . To aid in the deception , signallers from the 61st Infantry Division maintained wireless traffic , to give the Germans the impression of an actual 80th Division . In addition , Juan Pujol García , the British double agent known as Garbo who played a vital role in Fortitude , reported to the Germans that the 80th Division was undertaking assault training .
Fortitude South has been credited with ensuring the German 15th Army was not deployed against the Allied invasion force too soon and ensuring the success of Operation Overlord . Gerhard Weinberg stated that the Germans " readily accepted the existence and location " of FUSAG , believed the threat to the Pas de Calais was real and " it was only at the end of July " that they realized a second assault was not coming ; " by that time , it was too late to move reinforcements " . However , Mary Barbier wrote " it is time to consider that the importance of the deception has been overrated " . She argues that 15th Army was largely immobile and not combat @-@ ready , that despite the deception numerous German divisions – including the 1st SS Panzer Division , which was held in reserve behind the 15th Army – from across Europe were transferred to Normandy to repel the invasion , and that the Germans had realized as early as May that a real threat to Normandy existed . Barbier further commented that while the Germans believed the deception due to " preconceived ideas about the importance of the Pas De Calais " , the Allied staff had overestimated the effectiveness of the deception after the 15th Army 's inaction because they held a " preconceived notion of what FORTITUDE would accomplish " . Following the Battle of Normandy , the phantom 80th Division was " transferred " around the east coast of England , moving back and forth between VII Corps and the equally bogus II Corps . The division was eventually " disbanded " in April 1945 .
= = General officer commanding = =
= = Order of Battle = =
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= 12 oz . Mouse =
12 oz . Mouse is an American animated television series created by Matt Maiellaro for Adult Swim . The series revolves around Mouse Fitzgerald , nicknamed " Fitz " ( voiced by Maiellaro ) , an alcoholic mouse who performs odd jobs so he can buy more beer . Together with his chinchilla companion Skillet , Fitz begins to recover suppressed memories that he once had a wife and a child who have now vanished . This leads him to seek answers about his past and the shadowy forces that seem to be manipulating his world .
In producing the series , Maiellaro crudely designed the characters as a cost @-@ cutting measure ; the series is animated by Radical Axis . He intended for the series to lack continuity starting from the pilot , but established a serial format after starting the second episode . He had constructed an ending for the series as well as a detailed map of characters ; however , the series finale concluded differently from planned . Maiellaro cast people around his office for the characters , starring himself as the protagonist and Nine Pound Hammer vocalist Scott Luallen as the voice of Roostre ; the band also performs the opening theme .
The pilot episode for 12 oz . Mouse , " Hired " , premiered on June 19 , 2005 . The series became a regular staple of Adult Swim 's lineup on October 23 , 2005 and ended on December 17 , 2006 . Critical reception was mixed ; some praised the series ' experimental nature , while others felt confounded by it .
= = Premise = =
The show revolves around a mouse named Mouse Fitzgerald ( voiced by Matt Maiellaro ) , nicknamed " Fitz " , who is fond of beer and caught in a world of espionage , love and the delights of odd jobs . The show employs a serial format , and its ongoing storyline developed from absurdist comedy to include mystery and thriller elements . Fitz begins to recover suppressed memories that he once had a wife and a child who have now vanished . This leads him to seek answers about his past and the shadowy forces that seem to be manipulating his world .
Fitz suspects there is a sinister conspiracy which appears to revolve around fields of " asprind [ sic ] " pills beneath the city , and Shark ( Adam Reed ) , Clock , and Rectangular Businessman 's ( Kurt Soccolich ) attempts to control the nature of time and reality . Fitz and Skillet receive help from Liquor ( Matt Harrigan ) , Roostre ( Scott Luallen ) , Stoned Peanut Cop ( Nick Weidenfeld ) and others as they engage in gun battles , blow things up , and try to understand cryptic hints . The show also sometimes contains surreal " subliminal " images that flash across the screen during key plot moments , including skulls , mustached snake beasts and people screaming .
The series concludes the revelation that Fitz has been kidnapped and placed into a simulation by the Shadowy Figure . He is about to be killed by Shark and the Rectangular Businessman , in their true forms outside the simulation , when he is rescued by the true form of Peanut Cop and a nurse who works in the simulation chamber . They kill Shark and Rectangle Businessman , but it is unknown if they are truly dead because the simulation in which most of the show takes place is probably taking place in another simulation . One of the purposes of the simulation seen in most of the show was to extract information from Fitz . The conclusion to episode 20 is ambiguous as to whether or not it is actually the end of the series , as some aspects of the plot remain unresolved – Golden Joe says " I thought this was done , " to which Fitz replies , " I thought so too . I guess we 're not . "
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
According to Maiellaro , the series was pitched as a table read to the network . He jokingly stated that they accepted it after claiming that production costs would total " five dollars and will take some of the paper sitting in the copier . " Maiellaro borrowed inspiration from surrealism and the films of David Lynch . He intended for the series to lack continuity starting from the pilot , but established a serial format after starting to work on the second episode . He had constructed an ending for the series as well as a detailed map of characters ; however , the series finale concluded differently from planned .
Radical Axis provided animation for the series using Final Cut Pro . Described as " lo @-@ fi animation " , Maiellaro crudely designed the characters as a cost @-@ cutting measure , with the exception of Amalockh , a many @-@ armed monster summoned in the season two episode " Corndog Chronicles " , which was drawn and animated by Todd Redner at the studio , and Shark , which was borrowed from the Space Ghost Coast to Coast episode " Kentucky Nightmare " . In a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip of the show , Maiellaro explained that to animate the series , he would first grab a nearby sheet of copy paper , draw something , and then scan it , followed by him sending the file to an animator . Rhoda , a character from the series , was drawn on the back of a script page for Perfect Hair Forever . A scan of the paper revealed the textual contents behind it , which Maiellaro decided to leave in .
= = = Cast = = =
Maiellaro cast people around his office to voice the characters . He provides the voice of the protagonist , Mouse Fitzgerald . He originally only gave the scratch dialogue for the character during production of the pilot episode , but chose himself to voice Mouse regularly after hearing his lines assembled in the final cut . Kurt Soccolich was chosen by Maiellaro to voice Rectangular Businessman , who " already had that sort of smooth arrogance in his voice " , making him a " perfect " fit for him . Matt Harrigan was selected to voice Liquor , who is " always looking to make light of a situation " , according to Maiellaro .
Nick Weidenfeld provides the voice of Peanut Cop ; Melissa Warrenburg portrays an annoying woman in a green sweater , who Maiellaro dubs " Robogirl " . Bonnie Rosmarin voices Man / Woman , picked for what Maiellaro stated is a " pouty , stand @-@ offish quality " in her delivery . Nick Ingkatanuwat voices The Eye and Adam Reed plays Shark . Vocalist of Nine Pound Hammer Scott Luallen voices Roostre ; the band also composed the opening theme song for the series . Golden Joe is voiced by Vishal Roney ; after hearing his first take on the character , Maiellaro explained that he was left unable to write any of his lines . He proceeded to only provide the basic structure of his lines in the script , instructing him to retroscript the rest .
= = = Title sequence and music = = =
Maiellaro spent three weeks working with Ingkatanuwat on putting together the set for the opening title sequence . The set was filmed with a motion control camera , and was inserted with miniature explosives and smoke bombs for special effect . Nine Pound Hammer composed the opening theme song ; Maiellaro sought for a song representing the " carefree " lifestyle of Mouse who " does things like drive drunk , film porno and shoot guns . " Maiellaro , who plays the electric guitar in his free time , also composed the song " F @-@ Off " , featured in the first episode , which he wrote while working on Space Ghost Coast to Coast .
= = Episodes = =
The pilot episode for 12 oz . Mouse , " Hired " , premiered on June 19 , 2005 and became a regular series in the Adult Swim lineup in October 2005 . An Adult Swim bumper shown with the sixth installment claimed that twenty additional episodes were being produced and taunted viewers who had complained they couldn 't understand the absurdist presentation . On December 31 , 2005 , a marathon of the series aired , replaying all six episodes followed by the premiere of the then @-@ unfinished seventh episode " Adventure Mouse " . The second season aired on Adult Swim on Monday mornings at 12 : 45 a.m. EST from September 24 , 2006 to December 17 , 2006 . On May 16 , 2007 , the 21st episode , entitled " Enter the Sandmouse " , premiered as a webisode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The season two episodes , " Auraphull " and " Meat Warrior " , were respectively seen by 460 @,@ 000 and 431 @,@ 000 viewers upon broadcast . In addition , the episodes ranked as the thirteenth and twelfth most watched episodes aired by the network for the week of October 23 , 2006 , also respectively .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The series has received mixed critical reception ; About.com 's Nancy Basile gave the series four out of five stars , opining that the series is " what Adult Swim should be ... experimental , but in a cheap , simple , not @-@ trying @-@ to @-@ be @-@ cool way . " She found the crude animation " refreshing " but joked that the series " can kill " viewers not used to the slow pace . Writing for AOL TV , Adam Finley regarded the show as " the most simplistically drawn of all the Adult Swim shows , and yet the most complex in terms of story . " He contrasted it with other Williams Street productions , finding it to " instead unrave [ l ] slowly , revealing a little bit more of what 's underneath the surface while also piling on more and more questions . " Rob Mitchum of Pitchfork Media called it " the asymptote of the block 's crude style " .
Justin Heckert of Atlanta magazine opined that " the animation and art look like they were done by daycare students " , while Lucy Maher of Common Sense Media rated it one star , criticizing Fitz 's " anarchist " qualities and ultimately stated that " parents with teens who are interested in watching should preview an episode or two before letting them tune in on their own . " Felix Staica of Impulse Gamer gave the DVD release 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , stating he was " left confounded " after watching and noted the video transfer as " decidedly and deliberately rough , with weird unfocused pixilation [ sic ] cropping up frequently . "
= = Other appearances = =
The hip hop duo Danger Doom have produced a song inspired by 12 oz . Mouse entitled " Korn Dogz " from their EP Occult Hymn . The song uses audio clips from the episode " Rooster " , with the line " Corn dogs for the pickin ' " being recited by Danger Doom 's MC MF Doom and Mouse Fitzgerald . A scene from the episode " Sharktasm " is visible in Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters .
= = Home release = =
A DVD release of the complete series was released February 29 , 2008 , exclusively on the Williams Street shop . The DVD cover depicts Leonardo 's The Last Supper with the series ' characters replacing Christ and the twelve apostles . However , under a black light , the cover depicts the skeletons of the characters , as well as letters and symbols which make out an email address . The series is presented as a single , continuous movie , with newly produced footage bridging the gaps between episodes . It also features production footage , new music , the episode " Auraphull " in its entirety and collected fan art .
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= Selma 's Choice =
" Selma 's Choice " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 21 , 1993 . In the episode , Selma decides to have a baby , inspired by her late aunt 's wish that she would not spend her life alone . She experiences what life with children is like by taking Bart and Lisa to the Duff Gardens amusement park , which does not go as planned . It was written by David M. Stern and directed by Carlos Baeza .
= = Plot = =
After watching an advertisement on television for Duff Gardens , Homer , Bart and Lisa decide to go . As they prepare to leave , Marge tells them that spinster Great Aunt Gladys died and they will be going to her funeral instead . The Simpsons , along with Patty and Selma , drive to Littleneck Falls to attend her funeral and the reading of her will . On the video will , Great Aunt Gladys tells Patty and Selma not to die alone , as she did . Selma hears the ticking of her biological clock , and decides she wants a child . Selma tries video dating , but gets rejected by Groundskeeper Willie . She goes to a psychic who tries to sell her a love potion . The psychic ingests it , blurts out the innocuous ingredients and discovers that she accidentally drank a truth serum . Selma dates Hans Moleman after revoking his license at the DMV . All goes well until Hans tries to kiss her goodnight ; Selma envisions herself as the mother of several ugly , blind children and kicks Hans out of the car to prevent that future from happening . Lisa then suggests to Selma that she go through artificial insemination .
When the day comes for Homer to take Bart and Lisa to Duff Gardens , he falls ill from food poisoning after eating a hoagie that became spoiled days after he took it home from a company picnic . In an attempt to give Selma a taste of motherhood , Marge nominates her to take the kids to Duff Gardens while she stays home to look after Homer .
When the trio arrives at Duff Gardens , Bart and Lisa wear Selma out , especially when they go on the Little Land of Duff ride and Bart dares Lisa to drink the toxic " water " . Lisa is confused , but Bart mocks her until Selma intervenes , shouting at Bart to shut up and ordering Lisa to drink the water . When Lisa takes a sip , she hallucinates , grows violent and paranoid , and wanders away from the ride , tripping out to the parade music . While Selma is looking for Lisa , Bart gets on a roller coaster called The Barrel Roll and ends up having to be rescued after the car stops in the center of one of the inversions . Lisa is soon found swimming nude in the Fermentarium , returned to Selma and given pills by an unlicensed doctor .
After Bart and Lisa return home , Selma decides she can live without children for now and adopts Jub @-@ Jub , Gladys ' pet iguana .
= = Production = =
Writer David Stern said he wanted to go back to a " Patty and Selma episode " , because it was sustained so well when he wrote " Principal Charming " . He thought it was important to " keep these characters ( Patty and Selma ) alive . " The animators had trouble with the size of the characters ' pupils during the season . In this episode , they are noticeably larger . When the family watches the video will , Julie Kavner did five voices in the scene . When Gladys shows off her collection of potato chips , the scene was inspired by an actual guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , who was showing off her collection of chips that looked like famous people . Jub @-@ Jub made his debut appearance in this episode ; the name of the iguana Jub @-@ Jub came from Conan O 'Brien .
Though research is usually done when real languages are used on the show , the language heard on Selma 's ham radio is fictional .
= = Cultural references = =
Marge 's flashback of her and her sisters swimming in a lake is based on The Prince of Tides . The singers at Duff Gardens , Hooray for Everything , are a tribute to Up with People . The group is seen performing a kid @-@ friendly version of the Lou Reed song " Walk on the Wild Side " . Homer and Bart start to sing " Ding Dong ! The Witch is dead " from The Wizard of Oz . The poem that Great Aunt Gladys reads at the start of her video will is " The Road Not Taken " by Robert Frost . The song and ride that Bart , Lisa , and Selma go on , with animatronic kids from all over the world singing is a parody of the song " It 's a Small World " . The Duff Gardens parade is a parody of Disneyland 's Main Street Electrical Parade . Lisa 's hallucination where she sees Selma after drinking the water on the ride is based on the work of artist Ralph Steadman , particularly in the novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas . When Lisa says " I am the Lizard Queen ! " , it is a tribute to Jim Morrison 's poem " Celebration of the Lizard " . After acquiring Jub @-@ Jub , Selma sings " ( You Make Me Feel Like ) A Natural Woman " , a reference to the season four finale of the sitcom Murphy Brown , in which reporter Murphy Brown sings the song after giving birth to her baby .
= = Reception = =
" Selma 's Choice " finished 27th in the weekly ratings for the week of January 18 – 24 , 1993 with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 2 .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood said , " A nice episode for Selma and good for Marge and Homer as well . But it 's the kids who provide the highlights in this one , with their antics at Duff Gardens . " The author of Planet Simpson : How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation , Chris Turner said it " Fills in with the usual grab bag of great gags " and " The episode had some crowd @-@ pleasing moments . " He went on to say , " The last few minutes of the show played out to continuous laughter ( in the pub he was watching it in ) " .
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= 24th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Karstjäger =
The 24th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Karstjäger was a German mountain infantry division of the Waffen @-@ SS , the armed wing of the German Nazi Party that served alongside but was never formally part of the Wehrmacht during World War II . Named Karstjäger , it was one of the thirty @-@ eight divisions fielded by the Waffen @-@ SS . Formed on 18 July 1944 from the SS Volunteer Karstwehr Battalion , its nominal strength was never more than theoretical and the division was soon reduced to the Waffen Mountain ( Karstjäger ) Brigade of the SS . Throughout its existence as a battalion , division and brigade , it was primarily involved in fighting partisans in the Karst region on the frontiers of Yugoslavia , Italy , and Austria ; the mountainous terrain required specialized mountain troops and equipment .
Founded in 1942 as a company , the unit consisted mainly of Yugoslav Volksdeutsche and recruits from South Tyrol . Although primarily focused on anti @-@ partisan operations , it also saw action in the wake of the Italian surrender when it moved to disarm Italian troops in Tarvisio and protect ethnic German communities in Italy . In addition , at the end of the war it successfully fought to keep passes into Austria open , allowing German units to escape the Balkans and subsequently surrender to British forces . The remnants of the unit became some of the last Germans to lay down their arms when they surrendered to the British 6th Armoured Division on 9 May 1945 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In mid @-@ 1942 , the Waffen @-@ SS formed a company intended for anti @-@ partisan operations in the rugged and high @-@ altitude border region between Italy , Austria and Yugoslavia known as the Karst . SS @-@ Standartenführer ( Colonel ) Hans Brandt , a geologist and speleologist , suggested the creation of the unit . The company was formed at the SS training centre at Dachau on 10 July 1942 from soldiers of the supply services training and replacement battalion of the 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) .
It was expanded to battalion strength of around 500 troops in November 1942 , and as the SS @-@ Freiwilligen @-@ Karstwehr Battalion , it spent the first six months of 1943 training in Austria . The unit drew its recruits mainly from Yugoslav Volksdeutsche ( ethnic Germans ) and South Tyrolians , with the officer cadre being drawn from SS geological detachments . The battalion @-@ strength Waffen @-@ SS Geological Corps ( German : SS @-@ Wehrgeologenkorps ) from which such detachments were drawn had been formed in April 1941 , and consisted mainly of engineers with a few geologists . They examined caves and natural obstacles , and determined whether off @-@ road terrain was suitable for tanks . They were also responsible for locating sources of fresh water . Following the Italian capitulation in September 1943 , the battalion was tasked with disarming Italian troops around Tarvisio on the border between the three countries . It then moved on to protective duties for nearby Volksdeutsche communities . From October 1943 until June 1944 , the battalion was based at Gradisca d 'Isonzo in Italy , and participated in anti @-@ partisan operations in the areas of Trieste , Udine and the Istrian peninsula . On 10 October , a column of the battalion was ambushed at the Predil Pass , suffering three killed and eight wounded . The following day the battalion burned down the village of Strmc and killed 16 local men in retaliation . Up to 19 October 1943 , the battalion suffered a total of 18 killed and 45 wounded in a series of engagements near the village of Flitsch . During the same period , the battalion captured two Italian 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) mountain guns , which significantly increased its firepower .
During late October and November 1943 , the battalion was engaged in anti @-@ partisan operations around Saga and Karfreit , including Operation Traufe ( Eaves ) . In late November , the battalion was placed under the command of the Supreme SS and Police Leader , Italy , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS ( Lieutenant General ) Karl Wolff for an operation . In February 1944 , the battalion conducted Operation Ratte ( Rat ) , during which it burned down the villages of Komen and Rihenberg , and interned the population of both villages in labour camps . Early in 1944 , Brand suggested that Slovene nationalists be recruited into the battalion , but the idea was rejected by SS headquarters , who feared that such a policy would allow the infiltration of the unit by Yugoslav Partisans . At this stage , it was estimated that there were about 20 @,@ 000 communist partisans operating in the Gorizia region . During March 1944 , the battalion was involved in a rapid series of named operations , including Zypresse ( Cypress ) , Märzveilchen ( Violet ) , Maulwurf ( Mole ) and Hellblau ( Light Blue ) , resulting in significant guerilla casualties , as well as executions of captured partisans . In March and April , Operation Osterglocke ( Daffodil ) was conducted over 12 days , followed by Operation Liane in late May , and the long @-@ running Operation Annemarie which covered the period 7 May to 16 July 1944 . In June 1944 , a patrol from the battalion failed to return from a task in the vicinity of Cividale del Friuli . Two days later , they were located with their torsos stripped naked and their severed heads impaled on bayonets . The unit became known for shooting suspected partisans . While engaged in anti @-@ partisan work , the battalion grew to a strength of around 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = Expansion = = =
On 18 July 1944 , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler ordered that the battalion be expanded to divisional size , although the authorised strength was only 6 @,@ 600 troops . The 24th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Karstjäger was to be established by the Higher SS and Police Leader ( German : Höhere SS @-@ und Polizeiführer ) for the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral , SS @-@ Gruppenführer ( Major General ) Odilo Globocnik . The name Karstjäger was derived from a combination of Karst , denoting the region of operations , and Jäger , the German military term for light infantry . The division was to consist of two Gebirgsjäger ( mountain infantry ) regiments , with an artillery regiment , reconnaissance , Panzerjäger ( anti @-@ tank ) and pioneer battalions , as well as replacement and supply troops . The division was supplied with 14 captured Italian Carro Armato P 40 tanks , but these proved unreliable , with only half being serviceable at any one time . In August 1944 , the under @-@ strength division participated in Operation Dachstein under the command of the 188th Mountain Division . Between August and November 1944 , the division continued performing anti @-@ partisan duties in the same region , but its strength had only reached 3 @,@ 000 , less than half of its authorised establishment . It proved impossible to recruit sufficient troops for the division , and in December 1944 the division was downgraded to a brigade .
During late 1944 and early 1945 , the Waffen Mountain ( Karstjäger ) Brigade of the SS fought first against British @-@ supported partisans in the Julian Alps , and was then deployed to the coastal area around Trieste and the Marano @-@ Grado Lagoon . In danger of being cut off by Allied forces , the brigade soon returned to the Julian Alps , having to fight its way through the Tagliamento river valley between Osoppo and Gemona . Toward the end of April 1945 , the brigade fought British and New Zealand forces on the southern fringe of the Julian Alps . The brigade replacement company , which had been sent to Cividale from its training centre at Pottenstein , Austria , managed to destroy a number of British tanks with panzerfausts and the assistance of a tank company . In the final weeks of the war the brigade was part of a Kampfgruppe ( battlegroup ) commanded by SS @-@ Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen @-@ SS ( Brigadier ) Heinz Harmel , which was ordered to keep the Karawanken passes open between Yugoslavia and Austria . This task was critical in allowing German forces to withdraw from Yugoslavia in order to surrender to British rather than Yugoslav forces . The Kampfgruppe succeeded in its final task , and was one of the last German units to surrender , when it encountered the British 6th Armoured Division on 9 May 1945 .
= = Order of battle = =
On paper , the division 's final order of battle was to consist of :
59th Waffen Gebirgsjäger ( Mountain Infantry ) Regiment of the SS ( three battalions )
60th Waffen Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the SS ( three battalions )
24th SS Mountain Artillery Regiment ( four battalions )
24th SS Reconnaissance Battalion
24th SS Panzerjäger ( Anti @-@ tank ) Battalion
24th SS Pioneer Battalion
24th SS Mountain Signals Battalion
24th SS Replacement Battalion
The division establishment also included supply units . However , only the 59th Waffen Gebirgsjäger Regiment , one battalion of the 24th SS Mountain Artillery Regiment , one company of the 24th SS Pioneer Battalion and a half @-@ company of the divisional panzer company were ever established .
= = Commanders = =
According to Gordon Williamson , three Waffen @-@ SS officers commanded the division and subsequently the brigade :
SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Karl Marx ( Dec 1944 )
SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Werner Hahn ( Dec 1944 – Feb 1945 )
SS @-@ Oberführer Adolf Wagner ( Feb – May 1945 )
In contrast , Roland Kaltenegger only lists Hahn as commanding the unit .
= = Uniform = =
The unit insignia was a stylised Týr rune with arrows pointing to the left and right . A collar insignia was manufactured , but it is believed that these were never issued or worn , and the members of the division wore the Sig runes .
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= Celebration : The Video Collection =
Celebration : The Video Collection is a greatest videos DVD compilation by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . Released by Warner Bros. Records on September 29 , 2009 , the release accompanied the greatest hits Celebration . The collection follows on from her other greatest videos compilations The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and The Video Collection 93 : 99 ( 1999 ) . The release of the DVD was announced in July 2009 and contained videos spanning Madonna 's entire career from 1983 to 2009 .
Contemporary critics gave mixed reviews of the DVD . Some were disappointed with the low quality and the lack of clarity of the videos , while others praised the collection for being a reminder of Madonna as the visual artist . Celebration : The Video Collection debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Music Videos and the top of the DVD charts in Australia , Czech Republic , Hungary , Spain and Switzerland . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies across United States .
= = Background = =
On March 18 , 2009 , Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg announced the plans for the release of a greatest hits package by September . On July 22 , 2009 , Warner Bros. Records officially announced the release date as September 28 , 2009 and confirmed the name of the album as Celebration through Madonna 's official website , adding that a DVD containing Madonna 's best music videos would also be released . According to the official press statement , the DVD included unedited and never before seen footage of " Justify My Love " , as well as the completed video of the single " Celebration " . The music videos included on the DVD were selected by Madonna and her fans through her official website Icon . The cover for Celebration was created by street pop artist Mr. Brainwash who is best known for " throwing modern cultural icons into a blender and turning it up to eleven " . The compilation included the music videos of " Burning Up " , " Into the Groove " , " True Blue " , " Who 's That Girl " , " Erotica " , " Deeper and Deeper " , " I Want You " , " I 'll Remember " and " American Pie " , which were previously never included in any of Madonna 's DVDs . It also included the award winning music videos – " Like a Virgin " , " Papa Don 't Preach " , " Open Your Heart " , " Like a Prayer " , " Express Yourself " , " Vogue " , " Rain " , " Take a Bow " , " Frozen " , " Ray of Light " , " Beautiful Stranger " , " Music " , " Don 't Tell Me " and " Hung Up " . " Justify My Love " and " Erotica " were banned by MTV for their sexually provocative themes . The video is presented in 4 : 3 aspect ratio , with the widescreen videos windowboxed .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Douglas Wolk from Pitchfork Media commented that the DVD was " a lot closer to the mark [ of celebrating Madonna 's career ] . A lot of the fun of her career has always been its visual side . " Don Shewey from Rolling Stone said , " The video exemplified the fact that there 's no @-@ one like Madonna , who can turn the music video in to an art @-@ form . " Chad Presley from Blogcritics felt that , " There 's a healthy dose of nostalgia involved in watching these videos for anyone who grew up during the 1980s in particular . [ ... ] The video quality is a mixed bag . Most of the visual problems crop up during the earlier clips , which were photographed on much more primitive equipment . [ ... ] All things considered , especially when viewed on a Blu @-@ ray player and hi @-@ def TV , this is a pretty rough looking set . Even some of the later videos have an excess of visual noise and are lacking in sharpness . " Ian Sturges from Daily Mirror commented , " Celebration is a journey [ of Madonna ] from coquettish wannabe to pop goddess to institution . [ ... ] The videos parallel this transformation from her innocent cavorting on a Venetian gondola for ' Like a Virgin ' to the determinedly X @-@ rated couplings of ' Justify My Love ' and ' Erotica ' , both of which were banned . Monica Herrera from Billboard was not impressed with the collection and was disappointed with the " dull quality of the videos . The collection is a probable shame in Madonna 's catalogue , but a great one for her fans . " Bönz Malone from Spin said , " Celebration : The Video Collection is a reminder that Madonna is , and always will be , a true video artist . You cannot ignore her contribution to the music video art form . " Tim Sendra from Allmusic gave the DVD four and a half stars out of five , and commented that " it is indeed a celebration of Madonna 's career and some of the most celebratory and thrilling pop music ever created . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Celebration : The Video Collection debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Music Videos for the issue dated October 12 , 2009 , replacing Beyoncé 's live release I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas . It remained on the top of the music video chart for five weeks . The DVD was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 50 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen Soundscan , the DVD has sold 60 @,@ 000 copies in United States and placed at number 30 on the year @-@ end DVD chart for 2009 .
On October 5 , 2009 , the DVD debuted at the top of the ARIA Top 40 Music DVD chart in Australia , replacing Believe Again : Australian Tour 2009 by Delta Goodrem . After two weeks on the top , Celebration : The Video Collection was replaced by Funhouse Tour : Live in Australia by Pink . The collection was present on the DVD chart for twenty weeks , and ranked at twenty on the Australian Highest Selling Music DVD chart for 2009 . The DVD debuted at the top of the Hungarian Top 20 DVD chart on September 27 , 2009 and was present for one week on the top . In Czech Republic , the DVD debuted at the top of the DVD chart on October 14 , 2009 , replacing Madonna 's compilation album Celebration . Celebration : The Video Collection was certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies in total . Celebration : The Video Collection also received a two @-@ times platinum certification in France , for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies of the video .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Notes
The nudity in " Justify My Love " and " Erotica " has been censored by black bars .
Many of the music videos included had not appeared on a Madonna video compilation previously , so this was their first commercial release . Those 26 of the 47 videos are marked with an * .
= = = Formats = = =
The DVD collection has been released in two different versions — both of them double @-@ disc releases .
Keep case — DVD @-@ size packaging
DVD Digipak — CD @-@ size packaging
iTunes Store digital download — deluxe video edition of Celebration with 68 tracks , including 38 audio tracks ( including bonus material : " It 's So Cool " and a remix of " Celebration " ) and 30 MP4 music videos
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ernest Lucas Guest =
Sir Ernest Lucas Guest KBE , CMG , CVO , LLD ( 20 August 1882 – 20 September 1972 ) was a Rhodesian politician , lawyer and soldier . He held senior ministerial positions in the government , most notably as Minister for Air during the Second World War .
Guest was born in Grahamstown , Cape Colony . His grandfather had moved the family there , leaving Kidderminster , England , where it had been in the printing business for three generations . He saw active service in the Second Boer War , enlisting despite being underage , and again in the First World War , when he was injured in France . His legal career began while back in Southern Rhodesia between those two wars . He won a case against Sir Charles Coghlan , at the time Premier of Southern Rhodesia , and Coghlan invited him to become a partner in his firm , which became known as Coghlan , Welsh & Guest . On his return from the First World War , Guest took responsibility for the Salisbury practice .
He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1928 as a member of Coghlan 's Rhodesia Party , representing the constituency of Charter , which he held until 1946 . He first became a cabinet minister in Godfrey Huggins ' government , appointed Minister of Mines and Public Works in June 1938 . During the Second World War , Guest was Minister for Air and administered the Rhodesia Air Training Group . After the war he was also Minister of Defence , Minister of Finance and Leader of the House . At the 1946 elections he stood for Salisbury Gardens and held the seat until his retirement from office in 1948 .
He married Edith May Jones and had two daughters and twin sons , both of whom were killed in action during the Second World War . At his death , both the High Court and Parliament paid public tributes to him . His continuing legacy is most evident in the Kariba Dam , a project that went ahead with his active support .
= = Early life = =
Ernest Lucas Guest was born in Grahamstown , Cape Colony ( in modern South Africa 's Eastern Cape province ) on 20 August 1882 . Guest 's grandfather had moved the family to South Africa in 1861 from Kidderminster , England , where they had been involved in the printing business for three generations . His grandfather was appointed manager of the Frontier Times , printed and published in Grahamstown . The family resided there until 1889 when Ernest 's father , Herbert Melville Guest , moved them to Klerksdorp , Transvaal , after buying the local newspaper and printing business .
= = Military career = =
= = = Second Boer War = = =
At the outbreak of the Second Boer War in 1899 , Guest was below the minimum age of 18 for enlisting . He nevertheless managed to join the First City Volunteers , a Grahamstown regiment in which his father had served . Its task of guarding a bridge over a railway line was unappealing , so he took the opportunity of joining the Eastern Province Light Horse , attached to the Highland Brigade , which was recruiting volunteers who could both ride and shoot . Early in the Brigade 's advance into the Orange Free State on its way to the relief of Kimberley , Guest got food poisoning and he returned to Grahamstown .
After recovering , he joined the Kimberley Mounted Corps and guided two officers from Lichtenburg to Klerksdorp , where they persuaded the Boers to surrender by bluffing that a strong British force was following close behind . The Boers soon retook the town and Guest was captured . He was sent with other prisoners to Pietersburg to be executed but he managed to escape and travelled to Warmbaths . After satisfying the authorities that he had actually been taken prisoner and had not surrendered voluntarily , he returned to his depot at Kimberley . His unit had been disbanded and he was discharged .
Guest joined up again , enlisting in Kitchener 's Fighting Scouts on 2 January 1901 . He was given the rank of Sergeant , chasing Boer commandoes without success . He was recommended for a commission and posted to the Johannesburg Mounted Rifles , whose Colonel decided that Guest was too young to lead a force composed of miners who were considerably older than him . Returning to Klerksdorp , Guest learned that the Bechuanaland Rifles were recruiting experienced officers ; he went to Mafeking and was accepted into the unit , with whom he served until the end of the war . The Rifles were part of a mobile force , the Divisional Scouting Corps , whose function was to round up Boer detachments and to execute Kitchener 's scorched earth policy , destroying Boer farm buildings and crops , and detaining women and children in concentration camps .
= = = First World War = = =
Great Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914 , and as part of the British Empire , Southern Rhodesia was also now at war . The British South Africa Company ( which then administered the territory ) took no steps to aid recruiting for the forces , so many men paid their own fares to England to join up . A number of eligible recruits could not afford to go , so Guest , together with Captain Alwyn Knowles of the Bedfordshire Regiment , who as a reserve officer was awaiting his call @-@ up , organised a private fund to pay their passages . When the recruits arrived in England they were enlisted by Captain ( later Colonel ) John Banks Brady ( who was in 1934 to be elected to the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Assembly as member for Bulawayo North ) to form a Rhodesian platoon in the King 's Royal Rifle Corps .
Guest and Knowles were summoned to the Defence Department and told to stop recruiting . The Administration had decided to raise a regiment in Rhodesia , and Guest joined the Salisbury battalion of the 1st Rhodesian Regiment with the rank of Lieutenant . The battalion was sent to South Africa to assist in suppressing the 1914 Maritz Rebellion by Boers opposed to fighting for Britain . It was not , however , deployed against the Rebellion and when it ended the battalion was sent , with the Imperial Light Horse , to reinforce the South African troops in the South @-@ West Africa Campaign in German South @-@ West Africa , present @-@ day Namibia . They landed at Lambert 's Bay on Christmas morning 1914 , but made no contact with the enemy until they were sent to Swakopmund .
When the campaign came to an end , the battalion returned to Salisbury . Guest then travelled to England and sought a commission , joining the South Lancashire Regiment with the rank of Lieutenant in September 1916 . He was later promoted to Captain . He went with his battalion to France where they were posted to the 59th Division , then in the line . The sector they occupied was not very active , but shelling and sniping from both sides were carried out fairly regularly . It was not long before Guest was wounded , and then he fell victim to an irritating and persistent skin complaint which was common in the trenches and did not respond to treatment . He was evacuated to England and after a brief period in hospital was sent to the Imperial Hydro at St Annes , where he was told that he would not be fit to return to his unit for six months .
Through a contact at the War Office , Guest had his name added to a list of officers available for special employment , and was selected to undertake a propaganda tour of the United States , delivering 160 lectures to approximately 282 @,@ 000 people in total . He was then sent to France to promote the benefits of Southern Rhodesia to the large number of soldiers who had become unsettled and wished to emigrate . Guest then returned to Rhodesia with his family , who had spent most of the war in England .
Other members of the Guest family also served in the First World War . Ivor Guest , Ernest 's eldest brother , was a lieutenant in the Witwatersrand Rifles in the South @-@ West Africa Campaign . After the regiment was disbanded at the end of the campaign , he was commissioned as a machine gun officer in the Second Cape Corps for service in East Africa ; he was killed in action in November 1917 at the Battle of Mahiwa while checking the advance of a vastly superior enemy force . His gun crew had become casualties and he was handling the gun himself when he was killed .
Guest 's two younger brothers also served in the Transvaal Scottish . The elder of them , Duke , was later commissioned in the South African Scottish and served in France . He was gassed and after a long stay in hospital was declared unfit for further service and remained in England until the end of the war .
= = Legal career = =
= = = Admission to the Rhodesian Court = = =
At the start of the Second Boer War , Guest had left school without any educational qualifications . Nevertheless , he managed to start his legal career when a Klerksdorp solicitor , Maurice Rood , offered him a job drawing up claims for compensation by farmers whose properties had been destroyed or damaged by the British forces . The claims were to be submitted to the " Compensation Committee " , on which Guest 's father served . When the committee ceased to function Rood suggested that Guest become articled to him .
The need to matriculate was an obstacle . He used a family connection with St. Andrew 's College , Grahamstown , to attend as a day boy and passed his matriculation . He duly applied to the Supreme Court for admission as an attorney in the Transvaal , was accepted and took the oath . He was offered a post with the leading firm of attorneys in Klerksdorp , but a clause in his articles prohibited Guest from practising in competition with Rood 's firm for some years without the latter 's permission .
Guest became acquainted with Fred Hopley , who had recently been practising in Bulawayo . He informed Guest that a solicitor in Bulawayo , Louis Champion , wanted someone to take over his practice for six months while he was away on a shooting trip . Guest 's application was accepted by return of post and he was asked to report early in July 1910 . Champion 's practice , as Deputy Sheriff , consisted mainly of debt @-@ collecting and lending money to doubtful borrowers at a high rate of interest .
Guest prepared his petition for admission to the Rhodesian Court and briefed counsel to represent him before the Chief Justice , Sir Joseph Vintcent . The Judge dispensed with the requirement to apply first for admission in the Cape Colony and admitted him as an attorney of the High Court of Southern Rhodesia .
A few days after Guest 's arrival a young man arrived to practise in Bulawayo as an advocate , Robert Hudson . So began a friendship that was to endure for the rest of Hudson 's life and through many vicissitudes – in the legal profession , on active service in the First World War , and during the years when they were both members of the Cabinet . Hudson , who for some years was Minister of Justice , became Chief Justice of Southern Rhodesia .
= = = Coghlan , Welsh & Guest = = =
Bryce Hendrie , whose office was next door to Louis Champion 's , had been appointed Commanding Officer of the Rhodesian contingent to attend the coronation of King George V on 22 June 1911 . Before his departure to England , he offered Guest the management of his practice during his absence . Hendrie 's brother was an estate agent and put all his property transfers through the firm , so Guest gained much valuable experience , especially in conveyancing , through a number of cases in the High Court , in the Magistrate 's Court and in the Court of the Mining Commissioner .
Guest came up against Sir Charles Coghlan , the senior partner of Coghlan and Welsh , in a case before the Court of the Mining Commissioner . Coghlan represented a mining company , which had pegged some gold claims on Guest 's client 's farm . The Commissioner gave judgment in favour of Guest , who had been instructed to oppose their registration . Following this case , although initially irritated by Guest , Coghlan invited him to join his firm in Salisbury , which Guest did in January 1912 . The Salisbury office had been opened by Bernard Tancred . His passing away provided the opportunity for Guest to join the firm as a partner . For a while , the firm was known as Coghlan , Welsh , Townsend and Guest , when Townsend , one of the 1820 Settlers in the Eastern Cape , joined the firm in Salisbury . It reverted to Coghlan , Welsh and Guest , when Townsend died a little time later .
On his return to Rhodesia after the First World War , Guest took over the Salisbury practice from Sir Charles , who returned to Bulawayo .
= = Politics = =
= = = Early career = = =
After the First World War , Guest became involved in municipal affairs . He served on a committee to help returning soldiers adjust to civilian life . He was elected to the Salisbury Town Council , and during his second term was appointed Deputy Mayor . For the best part of a year , he acted as Mayor during the Mayor 's absence in the United States .
Guest was one of several prominent citizens who were members of the Rhodesian Union Association , advocating joining the Union of South Africa in the 1922 government referendum ; the alternative option was " responsible government " , under which Southern Rhodesia would become a self @-@ governing colony of Britain in its own right . The electorate returned a vote for the latter proposition , and in October 1923 Coghlan became the first Premier of Southern Rhodesia . Although Guest was on the opposite side to Coghlan the statesman was impressed by his capabilities , and when he drew up a list of those he would like to see stand for election to the next Legislative Assembly , just before his death , he put Guest 's name at the head of it . Guest first stood for Charter , representing the Rhodesia Party at the 1928 elections . Despite the constituency being largely Afrikaans , he won the seat , defeating the incumbent Charles Edward Gilfillan of the Progressive Party with a majority of 283 votes to 211 . He held Charter until 1946 , being re @-@ elected in 1933 , 1934 ( unopposed ) and 1939 . At the 1946 elections he stood for Salisbury Gardens and won , remaining there until his retirement from politics in 1948 .
= = = Cabinet Minister = = =
At the 1933 elections , the Rhodesia Party was defeated by the Reform Party of Godfrey Huggins . Guest was a key advocate of accepting the merger of the two parties under the new name of the United Party and Huggins appointed him to his Cabinet in 1938 .
Guest was Minister of Mines and Public Works , from 1 June 1938 to 1 February 1944 . The Electricity Supply Commission came under his portfolio . It had responsibility for ensuring that the generation of electricity kept pace with the ever · growing needs of mining , farming and secondary industry . When Guest became Minister the Commission was constructing a thermal power station at Umsweswe , but kept running short of money . The Minister of Finance , Jacob Smit , was reluctant to grant further funds but would support a hydro @-@ electric scheme . Guest proposed Kariba as a source of hydro @-@ electric power and Smit provided the money for further investigation . Guest arranged with a civil engineer named Jeffares , who had earlier surveyed the route of the proposed Sinoia / Kafue railway and knew the country around Kariba , to survey the area , select a site for a power station and submit a report . When he eventually did so , Guest appointed a committee of engineers to examine the proposal . They reported favourably but did not recommend that the scheme be proceeded with immediately . Nor was the Cabinet particularly impressed , and the idea was strongly criticised by the Opposition in Parliament . The outbreak of the Second World War caused the project to be shelved but after the war the project was revived as a joint scheme to serve the two Rhodesias .
= = = Second World War = = =
At a special sitting of Parliament on 28 August 1939 , Rhodesia determined to stand by Great Britain in the event that war should break out , as was expected . Of a white population of just 65 @,@ 000 , only 10 @,@ 000 were fit and available for active service . It was decided not to create a full Rhodesian formation : if it were wiped out , the colony 's future prosperity would be put at risk . Instead mostly small groups of Rhodesians were distributed throughout the British Army , Navy and Air Force . In the Defence Report of 1939 , it was stated that forces would be trained and organised not only for internal security and defence but also to defend British interests in service outside its borders .
= = = = Empire Air Training Scheme = = = =
As early as 1936 , an air training scheme was inaugurated at Cranborne , near Salisbury , where the civilian flying school instructed pilots . Facilities were later extended to Bulawayo . In August 1937 , Squadron Leader G.A Powell and Flight Lieutenant V.E. Maxwell were seconded from the RAF to oversee service training . In September 1939 , the Rhodesian Air Training Group , under the direction of Air Vice Marshal ( later Sir ) Charles Warburton Meredith , took in 500 recruits at Cranborne . An offer was made to British Air Ministry to run a flying school and to train personnel to man three squadrons , which was duly accepted .
The Southern Rhodesia Air Force effectively ceased to exist after its last training course was completed on 6 April 1940 . Its three squadrons became 44 , 237 and 266 Squadrons , Royal Air Force , bearing the name of Rhodesia . The Rhodesian Air Training Group invited the public to submit design proposals for the Squadrons ' crests .
= = = = = Rhodesia Air Training Group = = = = =
Meanwhile , preparations were underway in Rhodesia to expand facilities for the training of pilots . In January 1940 the government announced the creation of a Department of Air , completely separate from that of Defence . Guest was appointed Minister of Air , a post he held from 28 March 1940 to 6 May 1946 . He inaugurated and administered what became the second largest Empire Air Training Scheme , beginning with the establishment of three units at Salisbury , Bulawayo and Gwelo , each comprising a preliminary and an advanced training school .
Rhodesia was the last of the Commonwealth countries to enter the Empire Air Training Scheme and the first to turn out fully qualified pilots . No.25 Elementary Flying Training School at Belvedere Air Station , Salisbury , was the first school to be opened , on 25 May 1940 by Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke @-@ Popham . It was followed by a Service School at Cranborne . In Bulawayo , an Elementary School was established at Sauerdale , although due to the unsuitability of the ground surface , it was moved to Induna , with a Service School at Kumalo . Gwelo had an Elementary School at Guinea Fowl and a Service School at Thornhill . The Elementary Schools were equipped with Tiger Moths and the Service Schools , single @-@ engine Harvards and twin @-@ engine Airspeed Oxfords . At Moffat , the first gunners passed out in September 1941 from the only Bombing and Gunnery School in Southern Rhodesia .
The trainees came mainly from Britain but also from Australia , Canada , South Africa , New Zealand , USA , Yugoslavia , Greece , France , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika , Fiji and Malta . In total 8 @,@ 500 British aircrew were trained in Southern Rhodesia during the War .
= = = = = 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron = = = = =
No. 1 Squadron , Southern Rhodesia Air Force , was among the units posted to East African Force in Kenya in September 1939 to undertake the role of army co @-@ operation , including reconnaissance and air @-@ photography work , as well as dive @-@ bombing operations and ground @-@ strafing , and conducting artillery shoots . On 22 April 1940 , the squadron was renamed No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , Royal Air Force and took the Latin motto Primum Agmen in Caelo ( The Vanguard in the Sky ) , being Rhodesia 's first in the field .
In September 1940 , 237 Squadron was relieved by units of the South Arican Air Force and redeployed in Sudan , where the Operations Record for the last three months of 1940 showed it was involved in reconnaissance , dive @-@ bombing and pamphlet @-@ dropping . At the start of 1941 , the Squadron was re @-@ equipped with less antiquated aircraft . The Hardys were replaced by Westland Lysander II army co @-@ operation planes as well as Gloster Gladiator fighter biplanes . 237 Squadron moved out of East Africa after the defeat of the Italians in May 1941 . They had seen active service in Kenya , Sudan , Eritrea and Abyssinia . The Squadron was involved in the Western Desert Campaign against Rommel . After a lull in the summer of 1941 , it took heavy casualties in the closing months inflicted on it by Me109F and Macchis . It was withdrawn to the Canal Zone in February 1942 after five months in the Western Desert .
The Squadron 's crest was presented to it by Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder on 30 March 1942 .
= = = = = 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron = = = = =
266 Squadron , RAF , was formed at RAF Sutton Bridge on 30 October 1939 . The majority of the Squadron were Rhodesian , with the exception of a few groundstaff and the commanding officer . Equipped with Spitfires , it was the Rhodesian fighter squadron and it took as its motto a Sindebele word Hlabezulu ( Stabber of Skies ) . It first went into action over Dunkirk on 2 June 1940 . By June 1941 , the Squadron , led by Sqn Ldr T.B. de la P. Beresford , was stationed at RAF Wittering , near Peterborough . Its duties included patrolling , escorting convoys , offensive sweeps of northern France and the Belgian and Dutch coasts , as well as escorting bombing raids over France and the Rhine . In January 1942 , the Squadron received Hawker Typhoons and later in the month moved to Duxford .
= = = = = 44 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron = = = = =
44 Squadron , RAF , stationed at Waddington , south of Lincoln , was renamed 44 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron in September 1941 , and took as its motto Fulmina Regis Justa ( The King 's thunderbolts are righteous ) . The bomber Squadron , equipped with Hampdens , took part in raids on Berlin and many other targets , as well as mine @-@ laying in sea traffic lanes .
It was also in September 1941 that the Squadron received the proto @-@ type Lancaster bomber , the first squadron of the RAF to receive the new aircraft . On a visit to the Squadron in December , Guest and Meredith were taken on a flight in the new plane . Although the order was given in December to cease operations in the Hampdens , it was not until 3 March 1942 that the Lancaster was put on active service on its first battle mission for the entire RAF . The Squadron , with its Lancasters , was given key targets to bomb : on 17 April 1942 , six Lancasters from 44 Squadron alongside six from 97 Squadron , bombed the MAN diesel engine factory , which produced more than half of the German U @-@ boats , as well as engines for ships , tanks and transport vehicles . The success – at a cost of five planes and crew to 44 Squadron – earned the thanks of the Prime Minister himself . The Squadron was further involved in the obliteration of Rostock on 8 May and took part in the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ aircraft attack on Cologne on 30 May .
= = = After the war = = =
From 1944 , Guest was Leader of the House until he retired from political office in 1948 . He retained his wartime role as Air Minister and Rhodesia capitalised on her experience to form her own highly efficient Air Force . He also tackled the problem of young airmen returning to civilian life , training aircrews for civilian duty as well as helping young men complete their academic education . He continued as Minister of Defence and Air from 7 June 1946 to 15 September 1948 . He chaired the South African Air Transport Council in its deliberations in 1947 regarding air traffic control and the establishment of control centres at Nairobi , Salisbury and Johannesburg , as well as communications and the future needs of air transport in southern Africa .
During this time , he was also Minister of Internal Affairs from 1944 to 1946 and briefly Minister of Finance from 7 May 1946 to 26 September 1946 . He acted as Prime Minister at various times in 1947 and 1948 during the absence of Huggins and acted for other ministers on a number of occasions .
Although he had retired from political office , Guest continued to be active in public life , for example in organising the 1953 Rhodes Centenary Exhibition in Southern Rhodesia .
= = Family = =
Ernest Guest married Edith May , daughter of Thomas Jones of Singapore . The couple met in Johannesburg , where she had been brought up by an uncle . They had two daughters and twin sons . Both their sons were killed in action in the Second World War .
His second daughter , Maureen Edith Pilling , enlisted in the Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) soon after the outbreak of the Second World War and was eventually promoted to Flight Officer in July 1944 . Posted to Cairo and Palestine , she married a Squadron Leader in the RAF and then remained in Cairo until the end of the war .
Ernest Melville Charles Guest ( 1920 – 4 October 1943 ) was commissioned as Pilot Officer in the Royal Air Force on 9 October 1939 and eventually promoted to Flight Lieutenant on 9 October 1941 . He was initially posted to 206 Squadron in England , flying anti @-@ submarine missions , then to 200 Squadron in West Africa before being transferred to 61 Air School at George in the Western Cape as a navigation instructor . He transferred back to England and soon after was killed in action . A fortnight later , his son , Melville Richard John Guest , was born . He received three Mentions in Despatches and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross in 1942 .
John Desmond Thomas Guest ( 1920 – 21 November 1941 ) , Melville 's twin brother , turned down a Rhodes Scholarship at Trinity College , Oxford as the war broke out and enlisted in England instead , commissioned Second Lieutenant in the King 's Royal Rifle Corps in June 1940 . He served in the Abyssinian campaign and then in the Western Desert , where he was killed in a bayonet charge at the Battle of Sidi Rezegh on 21 November 1941 .
= = Honours = =
Guest was appointed OBE in 1938 and KBE ( Civil Division ) in the 1944 New Year Honours List " for public services , especially in inauguration of Empire Air Training Scheme . " He was also appointed CVO by King George VI during the Royal Family 's visit to Rhodesia in April 1947 , and CMG in 1949 New Years Honours List . He was granted the right in December 1948 to retain the title Honourable , having served for more than three years as a member of the Executive Council of Southern Rhodesia .
The University of Witwatersrand , South Africa , recognised him with an Honorary Degree in 1953 , Doctor of Laws .
= = Death = =
Sir Ernest Lucas Guest died on 20 September 1972 at the age of 90 , in Salisbury , Rhodesia . A special sitting of both divisions of the High Court was convened to pay tribute to Guest on 27 September 1972 . In Parliament , a motion of condolence was moved on 14 November 1972 by Jack Howman , Minister of Foreign Affairs , Defence and Public Services – and a partner in Coghlan , Welsh & Guest – as Acting Leader of the House .
= = Legacy = =
The construction of Kariba Dam was of enormous value to the development of both Rhodesia and the Zambian Copperbelt , and led to the creation of what was at the time the largest manmade lake in Africa south of the Sahara .
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= Tales of Vesperia =
Tales of Vesperia ( Japanese : テイルズ オブ ヴェスペリア , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Vesuperia ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game developed by Namco Tales Studio for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) . The tenth mainline entry in the Tales , it was published in Japan and North America by Namco Bandai Games in 2008 , and in European territories by Atari in 2009 . An expanded port of the game for the PS3 was released in 2009 in Japan , but has not been released in Western territories . The gameplay is similar to previous Tales games , featuring a new version of the series ' trademark action @-@ based Linear Motion Battle System , while also introducing new elements such as online scoring boards .
Vesperia is set in the world of Terca Lumireis , which uses an energy source called blastia for all its needs , including creating protective barriers around its cities . The story focuses on Yuri Lowell , a former Imperial soldier who forms a guild called Brave Vesperia to aid Estelle , a noble woman he encounters on a mission . As they explore the world , Brave Vesperia are challenged by factions who have different plans related to the abuse of blastia resources , and Yuri is forced to confront his friend and former comrade Flynn . The game 's story theme is justice , and its Characteristic Genre Name is " RPG to Enforce Justice " ( 正義を貫くＲＰＧ , Seigi o tsuranukitōsu RPG ) .
Preliminary work on Vesperia began in 2005 . Full development began in May of the following year and lasted approximately two years . Returning staff included producer Yoshito Higuchi , composers Motoi Sakuraba and Shinji Tamura , and character designer Kōsuke Fujishima . The writers included Takashi Hasegawa and Hideo Baba . Developed by the same team that made Tales of Symphonia and Tales of the Abyss , it was designed for the Xbox 360 as the PS3 had yet to be shown to the company and the former console was achieving international popularity . The anime cutscenes were created by Production I.G , with an art style influenced by cel @-@ shaded animation . The game 's theme song , Ring a Bell by Bonnie Pink , was used for both the Japanese and English releases . Upon release , the game was an international commercial success , selling over 600 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . Critical reception has been generally positive , and further media related to the world of Vesperia has been developed .
= = Gameplay = =
Tales of Vesperia is a role @-@ playing video game set in a fantasy world featuring three @-@ dimensional environments and characters . The game 's environments are split into two types . On the field map , the main characters navigate reduced @-@ scale environments . A compass and mini @-@ map are displayed , along with towns , other named locations , and enemy icons . Striking an enemy icon triggers a battle , while interacting with a town causes the party to enter it . In battle and towns or similar locations , characters move around environments built on a lifelike scale relative to the human characters . In these areas , the party may interact with non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . Within these environments , items such as crates came be moved by the currently @-@ assigned character . After a certain point in the game , an item called the Sorcerer 's Ring is given to the party , enabling them to shoot bolts of energy . These bolts can be used to activate switches , move objects , and attack enemies from a distance . Save points can be found in dungeons and towns . Items such as equipment and weapons are purchased with Gald , the in @-@ game currency . While in environments , players can trigger optional character conversations called Skits . In Skits , characters are represented by head @-@ and @-@ shoulder portraits , and the conversations can range from dramatic to comedic .
Characters have several different stats and gauges : their health ( HP ) , a magic meter stocked by Technical Points ( TP ) , and Learning Points ( LP ) for learning skills. a character 's respective agility or luck , and how a character reacts to attacks . Attack types are physical and magical , while defense is limited to physical attacks . Characters gain experience levels through accumulating experience points ( EXP ) . EXP and Gald is earned through battles , along with recovering a degree of TP and occasionally items dropped by defeated enemies . Skills , attributes that change different stats , can be assigned to each character . The number of skills that can be assigned is calculated by the number of skill points each character has available . Battling with equipment associated with a particular skill enables that character to learn it when they have filled their LP meter . Cooking , creating meals with ingredients found in battle or around explored environments , can also be used by individual characters to restore their HP and TP and grant temporary enhancements . Recipes are learned from a character called the Wonder Chef .
= = = Battle system = = =
Vesperia uses a variation on the series ' trademark action @-@ oriented Linear Motion Battle System ( LMBS ) , which plays out in a similar way to a fighting game . The variation used in Vesperia is called the " Evolved Flex @-@ Range LMBS " . Battles take place in an isolated battle arena within the environment , with the battle party being made up of one player @-@ controlled character and three characters controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) . The AI commands can be customized from a set of skills , with their assigned tasks affecting their actions and placement on the battlefield . Vesperia also features a local four @-@ player multiplayer option : up to four players can connect to a single Xbox 360 console through both wired and wireless controllers . While no online multiplayer is available , players can use Xbox Live to post their respective scores , including damage chains and consecutive hit numbers , on online leaderboards . The boards can be updated by players while saving the game .
Enemies , encountered in environments as icons , react differently depending on how they are approached and attacked : using the right attack or approaching them unawares grants the party an advantage in battle . If other groups of enemies are close by , they are also drawn into the initiated battle . For both player characters and enemies , battle skills and character performance can be affected by elemental attributes . Status ailments can also be inflicted by both the party and enemies . They are divided into physical ailments and magical ailments , which have a variety of negative effects : physical effects can be effects like slowing or poisoning a character , while magical ailments can cause units to turn on their allies or automatically recover a knocked @-@ out party member . Items used on characters can restore TP or HP , or remove status ailments . Characters learn new skills during battles , along with Titles that affect aspects of characters .
In battle , players can perform multiple actions : walking or running along a fixed axis , freely running around the battlefield , jumping in any direction , guarding against attacks , and pausing the battle to select a different enemy to attack . Characters can launch various attacks , from standard strikes to strikes that can interrupt enemy attacks . The player character 's attacks can be chained together to create combo attacks , which create a continual flow of attacks without giving the enemy a chance to attack . Continual strikes activate the change for a Fatal Strike , which kills normal enemies and heavily damages bosses . Landing successive Fatal Strikes grants bonuses at the end of the battle . During battle , landing successive strikes without taking hits fill an Over Limit meter . Once the meter is full , the player character can perform continual attacks and cast Artes without casting time during the Over Limit 's duration . During battles , Secret Mission can be triggered by performing unspecified actions . Completing Secret Missions grants a bonus to the battle grade or acquire an item . All characters can use Artes , special physical and magical abilities which can range from standard attacks to healing magic . Learned by leveling up a character , Artes can be both specifically directed and have a general area of effect . Four Artes can be assigned to each character , and each Arte can be assigned to a hot key . Some Artes can be used outside battle to cure characters . In addition to standard Artes , each character can access Mystic Arts , extra @-@ powerful cinematic attacks .
= = Plot = =
The people of Terca Lumireis rely on an energy source called " blastia " , devices created by the Krytia from using the crystallized remains of a powerful race known as the Entelexeia . Blastia are powered using a mystical substance known as " aer " and were used to provide resources and protection to major cities . In ancient times , misuse of blastia by the Krytia prompted the Entelexeia to absorb the excess aer generated by blastia abuses : consuming too much aer to handle , a group of Entelexeia transformed into a monster known as the Adephagos , which would consume every living thing on the planet by converting it into aer and absorbing it . Sacrificing humans with the innate ability to convert aer into magical energy , known as " Children of the Full Moon " , they created a barrier to seal away the Adephagos . The remaining Children of the Full Moon and the Entelexeia decided on the new arrangement of the world : in future times , an unnamed Empire rules over large portions of Terca Lumireis , with the Children 's descendants being its ruling family . Ten years prior to the events of Vesperia , a new form of blastia was developed that could seriously damage Terca Lumireis ' ecosystem and potentially release the Adephagos . The Entelexeia attempted to warn humanity in vain , and when they attempted to destroy the new blastia , they were defeated in a war . One of the veterans of the Great War , Duke , is utterly disillusioned with humanity after his Entelexeia companion Elucifer is seen as a potential threat and killed .
In the present , former Imperial knight Yuri Lowell goes on a mission to retrieve his neighborhood 's blastia core from a nobleman when their reservoir fails . While on his mission , he encounters a noble woman called Estelle , and flees with her from the capital in pursuit of the blastia thief . On their journey , they also meet Karol , a trainee hunter separated from his guild ; a blastia researcher named Rita ; Raven , a Great War veteran ; Judith , a Krytia who seeks to destroy the blastia harming the aer balance ; and exclusive to the PS3 version only , seemingly the descender of a legendary pirate Aifread named Patty Fleur . Together , the group recover the stolen core from a corrupt guild leader and return it to Yuri 's friend and former fellow knight Flynn . Yuri and Karol then decide to form an independent guild called Brave Vesperia . Shortly after this , Estelle is attacked by an Entelexeia called Phaeroh , who accuses her of poisoning the planet . After investigating and meeting a second time with Phaeroh , Brave Vesperia learn that Estelle is a Child of the Full Moon , capable of converting aer into magic without the aid of a blastia core , and that her actions are causing the aer krene , the sources of aer , to overproduce aer with deadly results . Alongside these events , Yuri sees that the Imperial authorities are powerless to act against powerful figures involved in blastia abuse : he takes matters into his own hands and murders two officials connected to the abuses . These acts put a strain on his friendship with Flynn .
After this , Estelle is kidnapped by Raven , revealed to be an agent of Commandant Alexei , leader of the Knights and the mastermind behind the blastia thefts : Alexei intends to use Estelle 's power and the replica of a magical sword to activate an ancient weapon called the Enduring Shrine of Zaude and remake the world , erasing the harmful blastia . After Raven decides to remain with Brave Vesperia after helping Estelle to escape with them , the group travel to Zaude to stop Alexei . They fail , and as Zaude is activated , it is revealed to be a barrier generator which kept the Adephagos sealed off from the world . As the Adephagos is released , Alexei is killed as Zaude collapses and Yuri is separated from the group after one of Flynn 's subordinates attempts to kill him without Flynn 's knowledge . Rescued by Duke , Yuri decides to stop the Adaphagos . During his absence , Rita discovers a means of converting blastia cores into spirits , which can process aer into a less @-@ dangerous alternate energy called mana , stabilizing the aer krene and keeping Estelle 's powers in check . In turn , the mana could power a weapon capable of destroying the Adephagos . After receiving permission from the world 's leaders to carry out their plan , Brave Vesperia must confront Duke aboard the city @-@ sized weapon Tarqaron . Duke intends to convert all of human life , including himself , into energy to power the weapon and destroy the Adephagos , returning the world to a more primal state of being . While they share some goals , they are forced to fight due to their conflicting methods . After defeating Duke , Yuri attempts to use the converted blastia energy against Adaphagos , but it proves insufficient . Moved by Brave Vesperia 's efforts , Duke provides the extra power and Adaphagos is destroyed . The Entelexeia that formed the Adaphagos are then converted into spirits to revitalize the planet . A post @-@ credits scene shows Brave Vesperia continuing their adventures .
= = Development = =
Preliminary work for Tales of Vesperia began in 2005 during the later development stages of Tales of the Abyss , which released that year . Due to the success of Abyss , Vesperia was initially planned as a title for the PlayStation 2 . However , upon seeing the projected lifespan of sixth @-@ generation consoles , the executives at Namco Bandai informed the team that Abyss would be the last Tales title of that generation . In addition to this , the team felt limited by the previous generation 's hardware . In response , they decided to make the next flagship installment on next @-@ generation hardware . At the time when a platform was chosen , the PlayStation 3 had yet to be shown to the company and the Xbox 360 was highly popular in the west , so they settled on the latter . Being on that platform , the team were also able to make use of Xbox Live , enabling trophy and online ranking implementation . During areas of development , the team were in communication with Microsoft about how to best utilize the platform . Full development began in May 2006 , taking approximately two years to complete . The development team , dubbed " Team Symphonia " , was the same group that developed Abyss and the 2003 entry Tales of Symphonia . While designing the battle system , the team drew inspiration from the version used in Abyss .
During the early production phases , the team was torn between a cel @-@ shaded anime or realistic style of art direction : they eventually settled on an anime style and production went fairly smoothly from there on . The shaders for the characters were designed using the game 's drawing engine , as opposed to the hand @-@ drawn shaders of characters in Abyss . The game 's director Yoshito Higuchi originally wanted a realistic feel after the cartoon @-@ like styling and shader techniques of Abyss and the Wii spin @-@ off title Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World . One of the challenges this presented for the background designers was adjusting for the advent of LCD televisions . The positive aspect of this was that more colors could be displayed than on cathode ray tubes . In hindsight , it was felt that the final effect lacked the desired polish . The anime cutscenes were created by Production I.G , with the number and length increasing from previous titles .
The scenario was written by Takashi Hasegawa , who had written for multiple series entries since Tales of Eternia ; Koki Matsumoto , who had written the scenario of Tales of Legendia ; Hideo Baba , who had previously done work on Tales of Rebirth ; and Takaaki Okuda , a newcomer to the series . The game 's title , meant to be indicative of the games ' theme of justice , was derived from " Vesper " , a name referring to the planet Venus . Its general meaning was to depict the protagonists and their ship as a newly @-@ born star shining on the land , similar to Venus in the evening sky . The logo was also design to convey this , and the term " Vesperia " was used in @-@ game for the party 's airship . The game 's main protagonist , Yuri Lowell , was created to be a more mature , evolved protagonist than Kyle Dunamis in Tales of Destiny 2 or Luke fon Fabre in Abyss . His role was to facilitate the growth of the other characters , and to have a sense of justice that did not take account of the law . Veteran Tales character designer , Kōsuke Fujishima , was brought in to design the main characters . Fujishima found designing Yuri difficult , while Flynn proved one of the easiest designs . One of the intentions for Flynn and Yuri was for their designs to contrast with each other . A main character not designed by Fujishima was Repede , who was designed by the art director Daigo Okumura .
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by Motoi Sakuraba , who had composed for nearly all the previous Tales games , and his regular partner Shinji Tamura , the latter working under the alias Hibiki Aoyama . While creating the soundtrack , Sakuraba was caught in the transition between sequenced to prerecorded streamed music , the latter of which gave room for rearrangements and improvisation mid @-@ production . Sequenced music had been used up to Abyss , so it was the first time in the series that Sakuraba used this method , although he had done so for all his other projects at the time . For some tracks , a heavy piano element was used , with Sakuraba playing the instrument . Tamura worked with Sakuraba to create different feelings for the various tracks : character themes were melodic , dungeon themes were given a simple and minimalist mood , while town themes struck a balance between these two approaches . In addition to original tracks , three remixed tracks from other Namco Bandai games were included .
The game 's theme song , " Ring a Bell " , was sung by Japanese singer @-@ songwriter Bonnie Pink , and was the first theme song to be shared by both the Japanese and western versions of a Tales game . The song 's subject matter , inspired by the game 's story and themes , focused on deep friendship between men , and by extension love between men and women . Bonnie Pink was chosen by the producers after a long period of internal consultation . They contacted Warner Music Japan , Bonnie Park 's label company , fairly early in the game 's production , and discussed the theme song 's connection to the story at great length . Bonnie Pink was also chosen as part of the team 's plans for an international release , as they wanted to create an English version of the song for the Western release . Bonnie both wrote the original lyrics and translated them into English . Arrangements of " Ring a Bell " are used in some tracks in the main soundtrack , but the song itself is not included on the soundtrack album .
= = Release = =
Vesperia was first announced in December 2007 at that year 's Jump Festa for a 2008 release in Japan , although its planned platform was not revealed . The game 's characteristic genre name , a recurring feature for the series representative of the game 's theme , is " RPG to Enforce Justice " ( 正義を貫くＲＰＧ , Seigi o tsuranukitōsu RPG ) . It represents Yuri 's feelings and personal goals . It was announced for a 2008 overseas release on Xbox 360 in February 2008 . It was later confirmed that it would release for that platform in Japan . In a first for the series , the team wanted to have a simultaneous worldwide release for the title , and so were developing the localized version alongside the original . This process proved exhausting . The team were able to make the skits , the game 's extra conversation pieces , fully voice in the western version , which they were not able to do for Abyss or Symphonia because of time constraints . The translation was done by 8 @-@ 4 , and dubbed by Cup of Tea Productions .
The game released in Japan on August 7 , 2008 . Alongside the standard release , the game was packaged with an Xbox 360 Premium Edition . The game released in North America on August 26 , just under three weeks after its Japanese release . In July , a demo for the game was released via Xbox Live . Along with the standard edition , a Special Edition bundled with a CD featuring selected music from previous games was released to celebrate the series ' tenth anniversary in the west . The European release , which came nearly a year after the game 's North American release , was handled by Atari . The game released in Europe on June 26 , 2009 . The game was released in Australia on June 25 , 2009 .
= = = PlayStation 3 port = = =
A port of the game for the PlayStation 3 was announced in April 2009 . The port features full voice acting , containing nearly twice as much voice work as the original voice script , which covers previously unvoiced cutscenes in the 360 version . The game also features various new characters , has Flynn as a permanent playable character , and adds a new playable character in the form of Patty Fleur . Development on the port began in 2008 , after the release of the original version . Speaking on why the port was being developed , a developer who worked on Vampire Rain said that companies like Namco Bandai first developed for the Xbox 360 due to superior funding and development support when compared to Sony , then ported to PS3 with minimal effort so they could recoup development costs and add features that needed to be cut from the original game .
The port was released on September 17 , 2009 . It was later re @-@ released as part of Sony 's budget series release on August 2 , 2012 . Speaking in January 2010 , Namco Bandai announced that they had no plans to release the port overseas . Later that year , Yuri 's English voice actor Troy Baker said that he had been recording new English dialogue for the PS3 port . A report from a Namco Bandai employee sparked speculation that the reason behind the lack of a localization was due to a deal with Microsoft to keep the game as an Xbox 360 exclusive in western territories . Later , she retracted this statement , apologizing for creating false impressions . Series producer Hideo Baba later said that the main factor in this decision was the strain put on the team with the simultaneous release of the original , meaning a Japan @-@ exclusive release was chosen to lessen the burden . This also coincided with poor marketing feedback for the series in western territories .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The game garnered a positive critical reception upon release : on GameRankings and Metacritic , it scored 81 % and 79 / 100 based on 54 and 67 critic reviews respectively . In IGN 's Best of 2008 awards , Vesperia was nominated for Best RPG and Best Original Score in the Xbox 360 category . In GameSpot 's own similar awards , it was nominated for awards in the " Special Achievement - Best Story " and " Special Achievement - Best Graphics , Artistic " categories . The year after its release , Technology Tell cited it as one of the best Tales games to have come overseas .
Famitsu gave the game a strong review , with one reviewer calling it " [ one ] of the most outstanding games in the series " , giving it a Platinum award and giving it the highest score out of the game 's reviewed in that edition of the magazine . Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin said that , while lacking the big @-@ budget look of other JRPG series and sticking to many of the genre 's conventions , " Namco is to be applauded for updating the series with no small amount of consideration and flair , an effort that has resulted in the strongest entry to the aging series yet " . Edge praised the cast 's strength and the battle system , saying that the development team 's focus in other areas was what made the game enjoyable and easy to play . Andrew Fitch , writing for 1UP.com , greatly enjoyed the technical improvement over Abyss and enjoyed the battle system and other elements including some mature plot elements , but noted translation issues in the English script and a lack of end @-@ game content . As part of his review , he called it " perhaps the finest franchise entry to date " . Matt Miller of Game Informer was less positive than most other reviewers , finding the story and gameplay lacking while appreciating the graphical polish .
IGN 's Ryan Geddes called it " a strong anime @-@ style Japanese RPG " , generally citing the game as an enjoyable experience . Francesca Reyes , writing for Official Xbox Magazine , found some aspects of the battle system frustrating , but stated that most other aspects of the game made up for this deficiency . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot was positive overall , despite noting a lack of strategy in a lot of battles and similarity to previous Tales games . Hardcore Gamer 's Steve Hannley called the game a good starting point for the series on then @-@ current consoles . RPGFan 's Ashton Liu said that , while it stood as perhaps the best entry in the series , he also noted that it had not evolved very much mechanically when compared to other RPG series . GameSpy 's Gabe Graziani cited it as a graphical improvement over other JRPGs on the console , and praised the characters despite citing the story as being conventional , and called it " [ a ] superior blend of style and production value " .
Famitsu gave the PS3 port a positive review , noting its expanded content when compared to the original and sharing many sentiments with their original review . Japanese gaming website 4Gamer.net recommended the PS3 port to both veterans of the series and to newcomers , and positively noting its expanded content . James Quentin Clark , reviewing the port for RPGFan , said that the added features had made Vesperia the best JRPG of its console generation . In conclusion , he called it " the most complete package game in the series and a must @-@ have for fans of action RPGs " .
= = = Sales = = =
In its debut week , Vesperia reached # 4 in Famitsu 's sales charts , selling around 120 @,@ 000 units . An alternate assessment by Media Create placed the game at # 4 with sales of 108 @,@ 000 units . The game helped boost sales of its console in Japan : sales rose to just under 25 @,@ 000 over roughly 5 @,@ 000 during the previous week , doubling the console 's sales when compared to the PS3 . By the beginning of 2009 , the game had sold just over 161 @,@ 000 , reaching # 82 in Famitsu 's list of 100 top @-@ selling games of 2008 . It was also the only Xbox 360 game to appear in the list . As of April 2010 , the game 's Japanese sales have reached 204 @,@ 305 units . This makes it the second best @-@ selling Xbox 360 game in Japan , behind Star Ocean : The Last Hope and ahead of Blue Dragon .
In North America , Vesperia sold 33 @,@ 000 copies during the 4 days after its launch . In its debut week , the Premium and Standard editions were placed first and second in North American sales charts . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at # 35 in the country 's gaming charts . According to Namco Bandai 's fiscal report for that financial year , the game sold a combined total of 410 @,@ 000 units in North America and in the UK , becoming the company 's third best @-@ selling title in that period .
During its first day on sale , the PS3 port sold 140 @,@ 000 units , more than the first month 's sales of the original version and nearly equal to its lifetime sales at the time . The port has sold 407 @,@ 000 units as of September 2011 , making one of the better @-@ selling Tales games on PlayStation consoles at the time . The budget series release of the port sold a further 7 @,@ 229 units .
= = Media adaptations = =
In October 2009 , an anime film titled Tales of Vesperia : The First Strike was released in Japanese cinemas , roughly coinciding with the release of the PS3 version of the game . The anime is prequel to the game showing Yuri Lowell 's time as an Imperial Knight . It was released as a Blu @-@ ray / DVD bundle in Japan with downloadable content for the PS3 version in May 2010 . The game was also released in Japan on Universal Media Disc . An English localization of the anime was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD in 2012 . Speaking in 2009 after the theatrical release of The First Strike , Makoto Yoshizumi , the publishing general manager for Namco Bandai , said that there was a possibility of sequels to both Tales of Vesperia and The First Strike , but as yet nothing has materialized .
Tales of Vesperia spawned five manga adaptations : one specially @-@ produced anthology collection , one traditional adaptation , one yonkoma titled Tales of Vepseria Four Panels Kings , an adaptation of the last segment of the game titled Tales of Vesperia : Trajectory of Venus , and an adaptation of The First Strike . Ichijinsha was the publisher for all but Trajectory of Venus , which was published by ASCII Media Works . Three novel adaptations have also been made : a four @-@ part novelization of the game , a four @-@ part series focusing on Raven titled Tales of Vesperia : Mask of the Void , and a two @-@ part series focusing on Judith titled Tales of Vesperia : Silence of the Errand Dragon . An episodic audio novel adaptation following Yuri and Flynn 's childhood , Tales of Vesperia : Genealogy of the Condemned , began release on Android and iOS in April 2014 . Multiple CD dramas have also been produced : these include an audio adaptation of Vesperia , comic dramas focused around Brave Vesperia , a prequel to Mask of the Void , and a prequel to The First Strike .
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= 1897 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1897 Atlantic hurricane season was an inactive season , featuring only six known tropical cyclones , four of which made landfall . There were three hurricanes , none of which strengthened into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The first system was initially observed south of Cape Verde on August 31 , an unusually late date . The storm was the strongest of the season , peaking as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . While located well north of the Azores , rough seas by the storm sunk a ship , killing all 45 crewmen . A second storm was first spotted in the Straits of Florida on September 10 . It strengthened into a hurricane and tracked northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico , striking Louisiana shortly before dissipating on September 13 . This storm caused 29 deaths and $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1897 USD ) in damage .
The third storm developed in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on September 20 . It tracked along the East Coast of the United States , causing widespread damage , particularly in Florida . A fourth storm was first observed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea on September 25 . This storm moved in a semicircular path around Cuba and was last noted offshore Florida four days later . Minor wind and flood damage was reported in Cuba . On October 9 , the fifth hurricane of the season was located near the Windward Islands . Moving westward , the storm eventually curved northeastward while crossing the Caribbean Sea , causing it to strike Cuba . Minor damage was reported on the island , though a ship sank with 230 people aboard ; 42 of them were rescued , while the remaining 188 were presumed dead . The final observed system developed in the vicinity of the Bahamas on October 23 . It later struck the Outer Banks of North Carolina ; the storm caused severe flooding in southeastern Virginia , with six deaths reported . It was last noted on October 29 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 55 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first hurricane of the season was observed near Cape Verde , beginning at 0600 UTC on August 31 . Initially a tropical storm , it slowly strengthened while heading west @-@ northwestward , reaching hurricane status on September 1 . Curving northwestward , the storm intensified further into a Category 2 hurricane on September 3 . It continued heading northwestward until curving to the northeast late on September 6 . Around 1130 UTC on the following day , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Early on September 9 , the system weakened to a Category 1 , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone well north of the Azores later that day . The extratropical remnants continued weaken , before dissipating west of Ireland on September 10 The crew of the barkentine St. Peter reported that another ship capsized with 45 men aboard ; all of them drowned .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A second hurricane was spotted in the Straits of Florida at tropical storm intensity on September 10 . Several hours later , the system made landfall in Marquesas Keys , Florida . Early on September 11 , it strengthened into a hurricane . Intensifying slightly further , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) shortly thereafter . The hurricane maintained this intensity while moving west @-@ northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico and struck extreme southwestern Cameron Parish , Louisiana early on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , it weakened to a tropical storm over Texas , before dissipating several hours later .
No impact was reported in the Florida Keys . Strong winds in southwestern Louisiana damaged crops and toppled windmills . Offshore , boats and schooners suffered severe damage from wind @-@ driven waves . Severe damage occurred in eastern Texas , with strong winds and storm surge damaging or destroying numerous buildings , houses , and crops in several cities , including Beaumont , New Sabine Pass , Orange , Sabine Pass , and Port Arthur . The storm was considered the worst in Orange since 1875 . Overall , the storm caused at least 29 fatalities in Texas , with six died at Port Arthur , three offshore , four in Sabine Pass , and sixteen others at Beaumont . Damage in the state reached approximately $ 150 @,@ 000 .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
The third storm of the season was first observed in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on September 20 . Strengthening while heading northeastward , the system made landfall near Boca Grande , Florida with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) early on the following day . Heavy rainfall in Tampa caused the streets and sideways to become inundated , leaving portions of the city impassable , especially areas adjacent to the DeSoto Hotel . Two fire stations were severely damaged . On the east coast of Florida , the worst impact occurred in Cocoa , where some buildings were destroyed and others were deroofed . Further north in Fernandina Beach , ships in the harbor broke loose and tossed about , leaving considerable damage .
Although the storm weakened while crossing Florida , it later re @-@ strengthened after emerging into the Atlantic Ocean later on September 21 . The system moved northeastward and made landfall near Hatteras , North Carolina at 1000 UTC on September 23 , with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . In eastern North Carolina , strong winds and high tides were observed in New Bern . Shortly thereafter , it re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . The system began weakening , while making two landfalls on September 24 , the first on Long Island , New York , and the second near New London , Connecticut . Thereafter , the storm accelerated to the northeast and weakened to a tropical depression over New Brunswick early on September 25 . Several hours later , the system dissipated offshore southeastern Labrador .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
Early on September 25 , a tropical storm was spotted about 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Grand Cayman . It moved slowly northwestward and passed near Cape San Antonio , Cuba early on September 27 . The storm then entered the Gulf of Mexico and began strengthening while curving northward . On September 28 , the system attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 010 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Early on September 29 , the storm curved eastward and dissipated several hours later offshore Florida . In Cuba , the storm brought strong winds and heavy rainfall as far east as Havana , causing flooding , " but no great damage " .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
The fifth tropical cyclone of the season was first observed near the Windward Islands on October 9 . It moved west @-@ northwestward across the Caribbean Sea and remained at that intensity for several days . The storm curved in a northwesterly direction by October 14 while located over the northwestern Caribbean Sea , and then northeastward on the following day . Eventually , it began to strengthen and reached hurricane intensity early on October 18 . Several hours later , the hurricane made landfall in modern @-@ day Sancti Spíritus Province , Cuba with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Minimal damage was reported in Cuba . However , the ship Triton sank offshore Pinar del Río Province with 230 men aboard . Forty @-@ two people were rescued by passing ships , while the remaining 188 died , including the captain , who committed suicide .
The system weakened while crossing Cuba and fell to tropical storm intensity early on October 19 . Around that time , the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near the central Bahamas . Crossing through the islands , the system curved north @-@ northeastward and began to accelerate . It did not re @-@ strengthen and made landfall near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Strong winds and rainfall totals ranging from 1 to 7 inches ( 25 to 178 mm ) were observed along the coast of North Carolina . Strong winds were reported in portions of the Northeastern United States , with highest wind speed being 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) , observed in Block Island , Rhode Island . Reemerging into the Atlantic Ocean , this system continued rapidly northeastward , before becoming extratropical offshore New England on October 21 .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
The final tropical cyclone was located over the Bahamas on October 23 . It moved north @-@ northeastward and remained at the same intensity . By October 25 , the storm began executing a cyclonic loop while offshore the East Coast of the United States . Around that time , the system attained its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Moving southwestward , the storm made landfall near Duck , North Carolina at 2300 UTC on October 25 , at the same intensity . Early on October 26 , the system curved southeastward and quickly moved offshore . It then moved eastward and later to the northeast , before becoming extratropical on October 29 .
Along much of the East Coast of the United States , the Weather Bureau warned about gales and rough seas . From Cape Hatteras , North Carolina to Maine , storm surge and tides resulted in considerable damage to boardwalks and beach cottages . In Virginia , storm surge caused a number of small crafts and a few ships to be washed ashore or destroyed . The James River rose to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above high tide . A few cities experienced coastal flooding , including Chincoteague and Norfolk . The Willoughby Spit was split by the tides , washing away the Old Point Comfort railroad tracks . Cedar Island was " leveled to a mere flat breath of sand " . Six fatalities were reported in Virginia , four of them from drowning in Newport News , while the other two were caused by electrocution .
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= Hurricane Rafael =
Hurricane Rafael produced minor damage in the northeastern Caribbean Sea in mid @-@ October 2012 . The seventeenth named storm and ninth hurricane of the annual hurricane season , Rafael originated from a tropical wave roughly 230 mi ( 370 km ) south @-@ southeast of Saint Croix on October 12 ; because the system already contained tropical storm @-@ force winds , it skipped tropical depression status . Though initially disorganized due to moderate wind shear , a subsequent decrease allowed for shower and thunderstorm activity to develop in earnest by October 14 . While moving north @-@ northwestward the following morning , Rafael intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . A cold front off the East Coast of the United States caused the system to turn northward and eventually northeastward by October 16 , at which time Rafael attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . As the cyclone entered a more stable atmosphere and tracked across increasingly cooler sea surface temperatures , it began extratropical transition , a process the system completed by the following afternoon .
As a disorganized tropical cyclone in the northeastern Caribbean , Rafael produced major flooding across the region . As much as a foot of rain fell across portions of the Lesser Antilles , causing mudslides , landslides , and river flooding . In addition , the heavy rains led to significant crop loss . Sustained winds near hurricane force were recorded on Saint Martin , while tropical storm @-@ force gusts occurred widespread . Lightning activity as a result of heavy thunderstorms caused many fires and power outages . One fatality occurred when a woman in Guadeloupe unsuccessfully attempted to drive her car across a flooded roadway . As Rafael passed just to the east of Bermuda as a hurricane , light rainfall was recorded . Gusts over 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) left hundreds of houses without electricity . Large swells from the system caused significant damage to the coastline of Nova Scotia , while many roads were washed away or obscured with debris , but overall , damage was minimal .
= = Meteorological history = =
The formation of Hurricane Rafael is attributed to a low @-@ latitude tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa on October 5 . The wave remained disorganized until roughly midway between the Cape Verde Islands and Lesser Antilles , at which time a broad area of low pressure developed and convection began to consolidate around it . As a result , the disturbance was introduced into the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) ' s 48 @-@ hour Tropical Weather Outlook with a low chance of tropical development . These chances were subsequently raised as further development occurred , with the system receiving a medium chance of development early on October 10 , and a high chance of development as it approached the southern Leeward Islands late the following evening . As the wave crossed into the eastern Caribbean Sea and slowed down , the previously broad and open surface low consolidated and became stacked with the mid @-@ level center . The disturbance was already producing tropical storm @-@ force winds , and as a result , skipped tropical depression status to become Tropical Storm Rafael at 1800 UTC on October 12 . At this time , the cyclone was located roughly 200 mi ( 320 km ) south @-@ southeast of St. Croix .
Despite being named , Rafael remained disorganized initially ; this was the result of the interaction between an upper @-@ level trough and the cyclone itself . Moderate to strong wind shear dislocated the center of Rafael and the deepest shower and thunderstorm activity . Over the course of the next few days , however , the upper @-@ level trough gradually weakened and backed westward , allowing for the development of an anticyclone atop the tropical storm . Wind shear lessened , allowing the center to become obscured from view and outflow to develop in association with the system . As it began to execute a turn towards the north under the influence of an upper @-@ level trough to its west , a central dense overcast was noted on satellite imagery . Following a series of intensity estimates , Rafael was upgraded to a hurricane around 0600 UTC on October 15 , while positioned about 650 mi ( 1045 km ) south of Bermuda , although this intensity was speculated upon until later that afternoon following a hurricane hunters flight into the system .
As Rafael moved northward , it continued to intensify rapidly in spite of moderate wind shear . An eye became visible on microwave imagery during the morning hours of October 16 , during which time the cyclone attained its peak intensity as a Category 1 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 969 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 61 inHg ) . By the afternoon hours of that same day , data from an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft indicated that Rafael was on the verge of a weakening trend , attributed to decreasing sea surface temperatures and higher wind shear . Though the system retained hurricane @-@ force winds , it began to transition into an extratropical cyclone on October 17 , a process it completed by 1800 UTC that same day after interacting with a cold front ; at the time of the transition , Rafael was positioned well southwest of Nova Scotia . The remnants of the cyclone looped around a larger extratropical low over the north @-@ central Atlantic Ocean for several days prior to dissipating over Portugal by 1800 UTC on October 26 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Caribbean islands = = =
Shortly after the development of Rafael , a tropical storm watch was issued for the island of Puerto Rico ; tropical storm warnings were issued for surrounding locations , including the British and U.S. Virgin Islands . By the morning hours of October 13 , the warnings were discontinued for Saint Lucia and Martinique , but issued for Culebra and Vieques . The warnings were discontinued for Guadeloupe and Saint Martin by the pre @-@ dawn hours of the following morning as Rafael pulled away , and expired for the remaining northeastern Caribbean Islands several hours later . In preparation for the system , the Virgin Islands Territorial Management Angecy ( VITEMA ) activated several emergency operation centers across the region , and requested assistance from the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , who deployed a team of workers to cover the aftermath of Rafael . The departments of public works and power authority placed emergency crews on standby , while all ports out of the U.S. Virgin Islands were open to outbound vessel traffic only ; the Coast Guard advised mariners to prepare for impending severe weather .
As a tropical storm , Rafael hit Guadeloupe with large amounts of rain , causing significant damage to homes and especially crops . According to Météo @-@ France , up to 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 150 mm ) fell in 3 hours in the prefecture of Basse @-@ Terre , and up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in 48 hours between October 13 and 14 ; an estimated 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 200 mm ) fell during that same timeframe in Grande @-@ Terre . Flooding and mudslides as a result of the heavy rain damaged 60 to 80 % of the vegetable crops in Grande @-@ Terre , and lightning as a result of strong storms sparked fires and led to power outages . Sustained winds of 24 mph ( 39 km / h ) and gusts reaching 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) occurred in Raizet ; gusts reached 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) in La Désirade . A woman was killed in Matouba , part of Saint @-@ Claude , after attempting to drive her car across a flooded roadway ; she was swept away . Heavy rains in St. Kitts , amounting to 11 @.@ 87 in ( 301 mm ) in a 30 ‑ hour span , caused significant flooding and mudslides , especially around Basseterre . Traffic across the area was paralyzed as roads became impassable , and most businesses were closed for the duration of the storm . Many residents lost power and water supply as well . A few people attempted to drive through flooded roads and required rescue . Numerous weather stations in the French islands of Saint Barthélémy and Saint Martin recorded gusts of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) and 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) , respectively . Although several boats were grounded , overall damage remained fairly minor in the French territories . Road 2 between Manati , Puerto Rico and Vega Baja , Puerto Rico was flooded ; several houses were also flooded at Toa Alta High .
= = = Bermuda = = =
As Rafael exited the northeastern Caribbean Sea , a tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda on October 14 . This watch was subsequently upgraded to a tropical storm warning the following morning , but was dropped by early on October 17 as the system passed northeast of the island . In advance of the system , residents were urged to take their typical precautionary measures ; in addition , the main two airlines on Bermuda — WestJet and United Airlines — cancelled hundreds of flights on October 16 . Officials warned of minor storm surge along low @-@ lying coasts , while the Bermuda Weather Service ( BWS ) warned of two to four inches of rainfall . Winds , while stronger than locals expected , did not cause significant damage . The BWS noted that sustained winds of 34 mph ( 55 km / h ) , and gusts reaching 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) , occurred at the L.F. Wade International Airport as the storm made its closest approach ; these winds left about 600 houses without electricity according to the Bermuda Electric Light Company . Rainfall was less than originally feared , peaking at 1 @.@ 71 inches ( 43 mm ) .
= = = Newfoundland = = =
Though tropical cyclone watches and warnings were not issued , city officials in St. John 's recommended all residents in Newfoundland to prepare for Rafael . Large swells and storm surge produced by the post @-@ tropical cyclone caused extensive damage along the Avalon Peninsula . According to locals , the waves were more intense than during Hurricane Igor , a cyclone which devastated the region during the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . Large sections of roads were washed out or covered in debris left behind by the waves . Near Trepassey , the local breakwater was destroyed in three sections , allowing waves to wash inland . As a result , a 9 @.@ 1 m ( 30 ft ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) deep gap in one of the main roads was left behind . In an area known as the Lower Coast , 50 people were cut off from the surrounding area . Overall damage in the area was estimated at C $ 1 – 2 million . Rainfall associated with the storm was light , amounting to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in Cape Race .
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= Ralph Larkin =
Ralph Wild Larkin ( born May 27 , 1940 ) is an American sociologist and research consultant . He is the author of Suburban Youth in Cultural Crisis ( 1979 ) , Beyond Revolution : A New Theory of Social Movements ( 1986 ) , and Comprehending Columbine ( 2007 ) . He obtained his bachelor 's degree from the University of California , Santa Barbara and received a master 's degree in education from California State University at Northridge .
In 1969 he received a Ph.D. in Sociology of Education from the University of California , Los Angeles , and he taught sociology at Rutgers University in 1973 . He met fellow sociologist Daniel A. Foss while teaching at Rutgers , and they later partnered in researching social movements . They co @-@ authored a book together on social movements , and have jointly published studies in academic journals including Theory & Society , Sociological Analysis , and Social Text . Larkin is a Senior Research Associate at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice , City University of New York , and owns his own consulting firm called Academic Research Consulting Service .
= = Early life and education = =
Larkin was born in Los Angeles , California on May 27 , 1940 , and obtained his bachelor 's degree from the University of California , Santa Barbara in 1961 . After teaching elementary school in California , Larkin obtained a master 's degree in education from California State University at Northridge in 1966 , and received his Ph.D. in Sociology of Education from the University of California , Los Angeles , in 1969 . In 1970 , Larkin moved to New York and worked as a research associate at the Center for Urban Education . He became an Assistant Professor of Sociology at Rutgers University in 1973 .
= = Career = =
= = = Research on social movements = = =
Larkin met fellow sociologist Daniel A. Foss when they were both teaching Sociology at Rutgers University . They have frequently partnered in research on the study of social movements . The book Beyond Revolution : A New Theory of Social Movements was co @-@ authored with Foss . Larkin and Foss have also jointly published research in sociology journals , including a piece on the white middle class youth movement of the 1960s and its relationship to later movements such as the Children of God , the Divine Light Mission , Swami Muktananda and the Revolutionary Youth Movement in Theory and Society . They later wrote a more focused article dealing with Guru Maharaj Ji and his followers , which was published in Sociological Analysis , and a piece dealing with the vocabulary utilized in these social movements , in Social Text . Larkin and Foss ' research has later been cited by books on both the 1960s subculture , and on movements of social change such as the Hippie movement and other forms of counterculture and subculture .
= = = Teaching = = =
Larkin has taught coursework in the Department of Sociology at the Newark College of Arts and Science of Rutgers University , and was also a professor at the Center for the Study of Evaluation , University of California , Los Angeles Graduate School of Education . After the publication of his work Comprehending Columbine , Larkin was contacted by the press for comment on the Columbine High School massacre , and discussed a judge 's decision to seal information and tapes containing information about the killers . " The judge said the tapes were incendiary . We have plenty of things already that stimulate violence , " said Larkin . Prior to writing the book , Larkin had given a seminar at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice 's Center on Terrorism , entitled : " From Oklahoma City to Columbine : Paramilitary Influences on Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold . " Larkin is a Senior Research Associate at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice , City University of New York , and owns his own consulting firm called Academic Research Consulting Service .
= = Published works = =
= = = Books = = =
Larkin , Ralph W. ( January 28 , 2007 ) . Comprehending Columbine . Temple University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 59213 @-@ 491 @-@ 2 .
Foss , Daniel A. ; Ralph Larkin ( March 31 , 1986 ) . Beyond Revolution : A New Theory of Social Movements ( Critical Perspectives in Social Theory ) . Bergin & Garvey . ISBN 0 @-@ 89789 @-@ 077 @-@ 9 .
Larkin , Ralph W. ( October 18 , 1979 ) . Suburban Youth in Cultural Crisis . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 502523 @-@ 7 .
= = = Articles = = =
Larkin , Ralph W. ( November 1 , 1988 ) . " Lurching Toward the Millennium : Youth in the Next Decade " . The world & I online ( Modern Thought / Children of the Baby Boomers : Prospects for the Future ) .
Larkin , Ralph ; Daniel Foss ( Spring – Summer 1984 ) . " Lexicon of Folk @-@ Etymology " . Social Text ( Duke University Press ) 9 / 10 ( The 60 's without Apology ) : 360 – 377 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 466589 . JSTOR 466589 .
Foss , Daniel A. ; Ralph W. Larkin ( 1979 ) . " The Roar of the Lemming : Youth Postmovement Groups , and the Life Construction Crisis " . Sociological Inquiry ( Blackwell Publishing Ltd ) 49 ( 2 – 3 ) : 264 – 85 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1475 @-@ 682X.1979.tb00375.x.
Larkin , Ralph W. ; Daniel A. Foss ( Summer 1978 ) . " Worshiping the Absurd : The Negation of Social Causality among the Followers of Guru Maharaj Ji " . Sociological Analysis ( Oxford University Press ) 39 ( 2 ) : 157 – 164 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 3710215 . JSTOR 3710215 .
Larkin , Ralph W. ; Daniel A. Foss ( March 1976 ) . " From " the gates of Eden " to " day of the locust " " . Theory and Society ( ISSN 0304 @-@ 2421 ) 3 ( 1 ) : 45 – 64 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF00158479 .
Larkin , Ralph W. ( Autumn 1975 ) . " Social Exchange in the Elementary School Classroom : The Problem of Teacher Legitimation of Social Power " . Sociology of Education ( American Sociological Association ) 48 ( 4 ) : 400 – 410 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2112257 . JSTOR 2112257 .
Larkin , Ralph W. ( Autumn 1973 ) . " Contextual Influences on Teacher Leadership Styles " . Sociology of Education ( American Sociological Association ) 46 ( 4 ) : 471 – 479 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2111900 . JSTOR 2111900 .
Larkin , Ralph W. ( November 1972 ) . " Class , Race , Sex and Preadolescent Attitudes " . California Journal of Educational Research 23 ( 5 ) : 213 – 23 .
Larkin , Ralph W. ( 1970 ) . " Pattern Maintenance and Change in Education " . The Teachers College Record ( Teachers College , Columbia University ) 72 ( 1 ) : 111 – 120 .
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= Royal Mail Case =
The Royal Mail Case or R v Kylsant & Otrs was a noted English criminal case in 1931 . The director of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company , Lord Kylsant , had falsified a trading prospectus with the aid of the company accountant to make it look as if the company was profitable and to entice potential investors . Following an independent audit instigated by HM Treasury , Kylsant and John Moreland , the company auditor , were arrested and charged with falsifying both the trading prospectus and company records and accounts . Although they were acquitted of falsifying records and accounts , Kylsant was found guilty of falsifying the trading prospectus and sentenced to twelve months in prison . The company was then liquidated , and reconstituted as The Royal Mail Lines Ltd with the backing of the British government .
As well as its immediate impact , the case instigated massive changes in the way companies were audited . The case highlighted flaws in the way company accounts were reviewed , and " probably had a greater impact on the quality of published data than all the Companies Acts passed up to that date " . The case " fell like an atomic bomb and profoundly disturbed both the industrial and the accountancy worlds " , and has also been linked to reduced public trust of big businesses . The case is also seen as the reason for the demise of accounting with the aid of secret reserves .
= = Background = =
The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was a British shipping company founded in London in 1839 by James MacQueen . It became the largest shipping group in the world when it took over the White Star Line in 1927 . Lord Kylsant had been chairman of the company since 1902 . He had expanded the company rapidly : aside from the White Star Line , he bought the Pacific Steam Navigation Company in 1910 for £ 1 @.@ 5 million , the Union @-@ Castle Line in 1912 , and assumed control of the Harland and Wolff shipyards in 1924 .
The company had prospered during the First World War as the government paid to requisition its ships as military supply vessels and troop transports . The company had saved the profits , predicting that it would need them to cover income tax and excess profits tax . After these taxes had been paid there was approximately £ 1 million left , which they again saved , hoping to use this to cover any financial difficulties that might arise . The reserves were again boosted with government money paid under the Trade Facilities Act 1921 , but between 1921 and 1925 the profits of the company rapidly dropped and , beginning from 1926 , the directors supplemented the company income by taking money from the reserves .
In 1929 the company asked HM Treasury for an extension of the period in which government loans to the company could be paid . The Treasury first demanded an audit of the company accounts , and sent Sir William McClintock to write a report on the financial state of the company . McClintock 's report revealed that the company had not earned any trading profits since 1925 , but was still paying dividends by taking money from the reserves . The company had reported £ 439 @,@ 000 profits for 1926 , but had drawn £ 750 @,@ 000 out of the reserves and falsified accounts to make it appear that the money came from trading . In 1927 the company made a trading loss of £ 507 @,@ 000 , but money was again drawn from the reserves to make it appear that the company had made a profit of £ 478 @,@ 000 . As a result of this , and a report that in 1928 the company had issued a fraudulent prospectus inviting customers to buy shares in the company and saying that it had earned an average £ 500 @,@ 000 a year in the last decade , arrest warrants were issued for Lord Kylsant and John Moreland , the company auditor . At the time the ruse was discovered the company had a trading deficit of £ 300 @,@ 000 a year , the reserves were completely exhausted , and the company owed £ 10 million .
= = Trial = =
The trial began at the Old Bailey on 20 July 1931 before Mr Justice Wright , with Sir William Jowitt , D.N. Pritt and Eustace Fulton for the prosecution , Sir John Simon , J.E. Singleton and Wilfred Lewis for Lord Kylsant and Sir Patrick Hastings , Stuart Bevan , Frederick Tucker and C.J. Conway for John Moreland . The indictment contained 3 counts . On count 1 Kylsant was charged with issuing a document , namely the annual report for 1926 with intent to deceive the shareholders about the true state of the company , Morland was charged with aiding and abetting this offence . Count 2 was an identical count relating to the annual report for 1927 against both defendants and on count 3 Kylsant alone was charged with issuing a document — the debenture stock prospectus of 1928 with intent to induce people to advance property to the company . All counts were contrary to section 84 of the Larceny Act 1861 . Both defendants pleaded not guilty to all counts .
The main defence on the use of secret reserve accounting came with the help of Lord Plender . Plender was one of the most important and reliable accountants in Britain , and under cross @-@ examination stated that it was routine for firms " of the very highest repute " to use secret reserves in calculating profit without declaring it . Patrick Hastings said that " if my client ... was guilty of a criminal offence , there is not a single accountant in the City of London or in the world who is not in the same position . " Both Kylsant and Moreland were acquitted of counts 1 and 2 , but Kylsant was found guilty on count 3 and was sentenced to 12 months in prison .
Kylsart appealed his conviction on count 3 and was bailed pending the appeal . The appeal was heard in November 1931 where the Court of Appeal upheld the conviction , ruling that although the statements within the prospectus were all true , the document as a whole was false because of what it concealed , omitted or implied .
= = Aftermath = =
Following Kylsant 's conviction the company was liquidated , and reconstituted as The Royal Mail Lines Ltd with the backing of the British government . The case led to several changes in the way companies were audited . Because many accountants shared Plender 's view that secret reserve accounting was a regular and respectable practice , and because the pair had not been found guilty of publishing false information as a result of this , the professional response was disjointed and half @-@ hearted . There were major changes , however : although the practice of secret reserve accounting remained acceptable , companies disclosed their use of this in their audit reports . The Companies Act 1947 made it clear that failing to disclose the use of this process was unacceptable , and undermined the " true and fair view " companies were required to give in their financial statements .
A second major change was in the approach accountants took to their job . Previously the attitude was that accountants were only required to do their legal duty , but after the Royal Mail Case accountants were more and more expected to use their ethical and moral judgement in making decisions . Contemporaries said that the case " probably had a greater impact on the quality of published data than all the Companies Acts passed up to that date " . The case " fell like an atomic bomb and profoundly disturbed both the industrial and the accountancy worlds " , and has been linked to reduced public trust of big businesses .
Following his release in 1932 , Kylsant stayed mainly out of the public eye despite a brief return in 1933 .
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= A Thousand Suns =
For the 1991 Russell Morris album of the same name , see A Thousand Suns ( Russell Morris album )
A Thousand Suns is the fourth studio album by American rock band Linkin Park . It was released on September 8 , 2010 , by Warner Bros. Records . The album was written by the band and was produced by Linkin Park vocalist Mike Shinoda and Rick Rubin , who worked together to produce the band 's previous studio album Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 ) . Recording sessions for A Thousand Suns took place at NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , California from 2008 until early 2010 .
A Thousand Suns is a multi @-@ concept album dealing with human fears such as nuclear warfare . The band has said the album is a drastic departure from their previous work ; they experimented on different and new sounds . Shinoda told MTV the album references numerous social issues and blends human ideas with technology . The title is a reference to Hindu Sanskrit scripture , a line of which was first popularized in 1945 by J. Robert Oppenheimer , who described the atomic bomb as being " as bright as a thousand suns " . It also appears in a line from the first single of the album , " The Catalyst " .
" The Catalyst " was sent to radio and released to digital music retailers on August 2 , 2010 . " The Catalyst " peaked at the Billboard Alternative Songs and Rock Songs charts . Three more singles were released to promote the album : " Waiting for the End " , " Burning in the Skies " and " Iridescent " . " The Catalyst " and " Waiting for the End " were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Linkin Park promoted the album through the A Thousand Suns World Tour from October 2010 to September 2011 .
Upon release , the album polarized critics and fans . The band 's fanbase divided over their new sound , splitting them into " love @-@ it versus hate @-@ it groups " according to one reviewer . Despite this , the album has been a commercial success , debuting at number one on over ten charts . It was certified gold by the RIAA in February 2011 . By June 2014 , it had sold over 960 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Writing and recording = =
Recording for the album began in 2008 , less than a year after the release of Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 ) . As with Minutes to Midnight , Shinoda and Rick Rubin produced the album . Primary recording sessions for A Thousand Suns took place at NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , California . In November 2008 , lead singer Chester Bennington said the new record was a concept album ; he said it " sound [ ed ] a little daunting to me , so , I think my confidence level will drop , but when it was presented to us by this friend of ours , we liked the idea . It was an inspiring idea , and it was something we could relate a lot of the things we like to write about to . "
In May 2009 , Mike Shinoda revealed info on the album in a Billboard magazine story , saying : " I feel like we 've been writing a lot . I 'd say we 've got about half the music done , though I shouldn 't say halfway because who knows how long the next batch of songs will take . But all the material 's just kind of coming together , and every week we meet up and assess the situation and for the rest of the week we just go and work on whatever we find exciting . " He also explained the experimentation that the band would be working with , saying , " It 's not going to be Hybrid Theory . It 's not going to be Minutes to Midnight . And if we do it right , it 'll have a cutting edge sound that defines itself as an individual record separate from anything else that 's out there . "
Bennington continued composing for the album while touring with Dead by Sunrise in support of their 2009 studio album Out of Ashes . He said Linkin Park was still making a concept record , stating in another interview with MTV , " we might need to just make a record and still try to do a concept but figure out a way to do it without actually waiting another five or six years to put out a record , to try to pull off all the grandiose insanity we were thinking of doing . And we 're doing that . " Bassist Dave " Phoenix " Farrell predicted the band 's fans would be divided about A Thousand Suns , saying , " We 've known [ the album is ] going to be different , and if fans were expecting Hybrid Theory or Meteora , they 're going to be surprised . It 's going to take people some time to figure it out and know what to do with it . "
When asked about the new project , drummer Rob Bourdon said , " We tend to be perfectionists and it 's sort of how we work . We like being in the studio and when we get in there we write a ton of material . " Bourdon said the album was a challenge to complete ; he said , " We 've been making music for a long time so one of the challenges was to evolve and make something to keep us interested and also have a lot of fun in the process . We 've been used to making a certain type of music and using sounds to accomplish that . So to break out of that and push ourselves to grow is definitely challenging . " Shinoda later said the album was not a concept record , saying , " People asked us if it 's a concept record , and in the middle of the process , we were contemplating whether or not that was what we wanted to do , " although he said that eventually , A Thousand Suns at its completion has no narrative and is " more abstract " than many concept albums .
= = Style and composition = =
In an interview with Rolling Stone in May 2009 , Shinoda said the band was in the process of writing and recording material for the album . The album was originally scheduled for an early 2010 release , but Shinoda was concerned with " the quality of the tunes " and said , " if we need to take a step back and make sure everything is top , top quality by our standards , we will " . Shinoda also said that , in comparison to Minutes to Midnight , the new album would have a bigger " thread of consistency " and would be more experimental and " hopefully more cutting @-@ edge " .
Christopher Weingarten of The Village Voice compared the album to Radiohead 's third studio album , OK Computer , describing the record 's composition as " uninhibited hooks , daffy left turns , piano @-@ soaked bathos , explorations of the human relationship with technology , [ and ] a complete avoidance of metal " . Weingarten noted various elements and styles the band incorporated in A Thousand Suns , saying the band was " sink [ ing ] their distortion pedals into a tender oblivion , embracing the pulseless Vocoder syrup of Imogen Heap , the cuddly heavenward synths of Yeasayer , the post @-@ apocalyptic stutter @-@ hop of El @-@ P , the head rush of Ibiza house " . Jordy Kasko of Review Rinse Repeat compared the style of A Thousand Suns to that of Pink Floyd 's eighth studio album The Dark Side of the Moon and Radiohead 's fourth studio album Kid A.
James Montgomery of MTV compared the album to Kid A because of the lack of guitars , the style of being completely different to the band 's previous works , and the album 's message . Montgomery said , " None of these problems , these terrors or these specters that haunt us in 2010 are particularly new . Quite the opposite , in fact . We 've just chosen to ignore the warnings . And now it might be too late . " According to turntablist Joe Hahn , the album 's title is a reference to a line in the Hindu Sanskrit scripture the Bhagavad Gita " If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky , that would be like the splendor of the mighty one , " which was made famous by J. Robert Oppenheimer in reference to the atomic bomb . The title also appears in the album 's lead single " The Catalyst " , which appears in the line " God save us everyone , will we burn inside the fires of a thousand suns ? " . The band said Oppenheimer 's comments about the nuclear bomb influenced the apocalyptic themes of the album . The band wrote about these comments in the album 's liner notes :
Oppenheimer 's words resonate today not only for their historical significance , but for their emotional gravity . So , too , A Thousand Suns grapples with the personal cycle of pride , destruction , and regret . In life , like in dreams , this sequence is not always linear . And , sometimes , true remorse penetrates the devastating cycle . The hope , of course , springs from the notion that the possibility of change is born in our most harrowing moments .
The band has stated that the album 's tenth track , " Wretches and Kings " , pays homage to the hip @-@ hop group Public Enemy . Speaking to NME about the song 's reference to Public Enemy , Shinoda said , " There is a homage to Chuck D on there . It 's probably the most hip @-@ hop song on the record and one of the most aggressive ... Public Enemy were very three @-@ dimensional with their records because although they seemed political , there was a whole lot of other stuff going on in there too . It made me think how three @-@ dimensional I wanted our record to be without imitating them of course , and show where we were at creatively . " Ian Winwood of Kerrang ! noted that " Wretches and Kings " references the Public Enemy song " Fight the Power " and compared the album 's content to Public Enemy 's third studio album , Fear of a Black Planet . Chuck D later provided vocals on a remix by HavocNdeeD . The fifth track " When They Come for Me " references The Blueprint2 : The Gift & The Curse , the seventh studio album by hip hop artist Jay @-@ Z , with whom the band collaborated on the 2004 EP Collision Course . The album includes samples of notable speeches by American political figures , including Martin Luther King , Jr . , J. Robert Oppenheimer , and Mario Savio .
Chester Bennington stated in an interview with MTV News , which referred to Linkin Park 's new style as being less technical and more organic :
" When it came to doing things that felt very much like older Linkin Park , like mixing hip @-@ hop with a rock chorus , [ we ] felt like , if we were going to do it , we need to really do it in a way that felt natural and felt original and felt like it was something we hadn 't done in the past ... [ While ] there are hip @-@ hop songs on the album — ' Wretches and Kings ' , ' When They Come for Me ' — they 're like nothing the band have tried before : snarling , raw , dark and ... strangely organic . "
Critics and reporters labeled the album 's material with several different genres , including trip hop , electronic rock , ambient , alternative rock , industrial rock , experimental rock , rap rock , and progressive rock on the album . Compared to their previous record , Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 ) , Shinoda contributed many more vocals , while Brad Delson 's guitar riffs are put further into the background , which Gary Graff of Billboard described as " on the back burner ( and barely even in the oven ) " . Shinoda raps on the tracks " When They Come for Me " , " Wretches and Kings " and the album 's second single " Waiting for the End " . Derek Oswald of AltWire.net noted reggae @-@ like influences on Shinoda 's verses in " Waiting for the End " . He sings verses on " Burning in the Skies " , " Robot Boy " , " Blackout " , " Iridescent " and " The Catalyst " . Bennington and Shinoda sing together on " The Catalyst " , " Jornada del Muerto " and " Robot Boy " , while " Iridescent " features all band members singing together .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was exhibited at a 3 @-@ D laser exhibition at Music Box Theater in Hollywood on September 7 , 2010 . A Thousand Suns was officially released on September 10 , 2010 , in Germany , Austria and Switzerland ; and on September 13 , 2010 , in the U.S. Linkin Park started worldwide promotion of the album with the A Thousand Suns World Tour , which started on October 7 , 2010 , and ended on September 25 , 2011 . The band performed an entire setlist in the Puerta de Alcalá Gate in Madrid ; their live performance of " Waiting for the End " was shown at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards .
Linkin Park also promoted A Thousand Suns by featuring songs from the album in video games . Joe Hahn said " The Catalyst " would be included in the video game Medal of Honor . Hahn also announced he would direct a trailer for the game ; it was released on August 1 , 2010 — one day before the single 's release . Dave " Phoenix " Farrell stated that the band 's members believed the song 's " dark undertones ... fits with the subject matter " of the game , which was the reason " The Catalyst " was chosen for Medal of Honor . During the Japanese release of the album on September 15 , 2010 , Warner Music Japan announced that " The Catalyst " would be the official theme song of Mobile Suit Gundam : Extreme Vs . " Blackout " was featured in the soccer video game FIFA 11 . The band released a video game called Linkin Park Revenge — an edition of Tap Tap Revenge that features four tracks from the album and six songs from previous Linkin Park albums . " Wretches and Kings " is featured in the trailer for the video game EA Sports MMA .
" Blackout " , " Burning in the Skies " , " The Catalyst " , " The Messenger " , " Waiting for the End " , and " Wretches and Kings " were available as downloadable content in the " Linkin Park Track Pack " for the rhythm video game Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , which was released on October 19 , 2010 , on the PlayStation Store , Xbox Live Marketplace , and Wii Shop Channel . Customers who purchased Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock from Amazon.com between October 17 and October 23 received a copy of A Thousand Suns . Three songs were remixed and released as downloadable content for the rhythm video game DJ Hero 2 in late 2010 . On January 11 , 2011 , a Linkin Park track pack was released for the rhythm video game Rock Band 3 ; it includes " Waiting for the End " and five songs from the band 's previous albums .
On March 5 , 2011 , Mike Shinoda announced the European release of A Thousand Suns + , a limited re @-@ issue of the album that was released on March 28 , 2011 . The re @-@ release includes a live DVD of the band 's MTV Europe Music Awards concert at Puerta de Alcalá , Madrid on November 7 , 2010 , and an MP3 audio file of the show . On June 19 , 2012 , a live version of the album , titled A Thousand Suns : Live Around the World was released on Spotify . It features ten of the album 's fifteen songs . The tracks were recorded in London , Hamburg , Paris , Berlin , and Las Vegas .
= = = Singles = = =
During the announcement of the album 's release date , Linkin Park said the album 's first single would be " The Catalyst " , which was released on August 2 , 2010 . From July 9 , 2010 until July 25 , 2010 , the band held a contest titled " Linkin Park , Featuring You " . In the contest , fans could download stems from " The Catalyst " , remix the stems and / or write their own parts for the song on any instrument . The winner of this contest was Czeslaw " NoBraiN " Sakowski from Świdnica , Poland , whose remix is featured as an extra track on a version of the album made available from Best Buy and Napster . The album 's liner notes credit Sakowski with " supplemental programming " on " When They Come for Me " . The top 20 remixes that were selected by the band are being considered for future use as b @-@ sides and online downloads .
Two of the remixes by DIGITALOMAT and ill Audio have since been released via the band 's webpage as free mp3 downloads , while two by Cale Pellick and DJ Endorphin been released on an exclusive German release of " The Catalyst " . The music video for " The Catalyst " , directed by Joe Hahn , premiered on August 26 , 2010 . On August 31 , 2010 , It was announced that the band would give their first live performance of the single at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 , at Griffith Observatory . The venue was kept secret until the performance , although it was revealed to be a prominent landmark in Los Angeles . The single peaked at number one on the Billboard Rock Songs and Alternative Songs charts , and on the UK Rock Chart . The single also peaked at number twenty @-@ seven in the Billboard Hot 100 upon the release of A Thousand Suns , and spent five weeks on the chart . " The Catalyst " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in July 2011 .
On September 2 , 2010 , Linkin Park released the promotional single " Wretches and Kings " to those who had pre @-@ ordered the album . On September 8 , 2010 , the band debuted " Waiting for the End " and " Blackout " on their Myspace page . The band announced on its official website the " Full Experience Myspace Premiere " , the streaming of the entire album on its Myspace page on September 10 . A remix of " Blackout " by Renholdër was included in the soundtrack of Underworld : Awakening .
" Waiting for the End " was released as the album 's second single on October 1 , 2010 . The music video for the song premiered on October 8 , 2010 , and was directed by Joe Hahn . Linkin Park 's performance of " Waiting for the End " at Puerta de Alcala in Madrid was broadcast as part of the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Waiting for the End " and " When They Come for Me " were performed live on Saturday Night Live on February 5 , 2011 . " Waiting for the End " was featured in an episode of CSI : Crime Scene Investigation broadcast on CBS on October 14 , 2010 . The single peaked at number one on the Alternative Songs chart ; it was Linkin Park 's tenth number @-@ one song on the chart . It peaked at number two on the Rock Songs chart and at number forty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , spending nine weeks on the chart . The single achieved success in other countries , peaking at number thirty @-@ four in Austria , number twenty in Belgium , number 29 in Germany , and number thirty @-@ four in Japan . " Waiting for the End " was certified gold by the RIAA in April 2011 .
On January 22 , 2011 , Linkin Park announced that its next international single would be " Burning in the Skies " . The music video , directed by Hahn , premiered on February 22 and the single was released on March 21 . The single reached number thirty @-@ five in Austria , number 35 in Portugal , number twenty @-@ six in German airplay , and number six in Mexico .
On April 13 , 2011 , Shinoda confirmed that the album 's third U.S. , fourth international , and overall final single would be " Iridescent " . He also said a slightly shorter version of the song would be included the soundtrack of the movie Transformers : Dark of the Moon , and that a music video directed by Hahn had been made to promote the single . Linkin Park performed the single remix of " Iridescent " at the film 's premiere at Red Square , Moscow , on June 23 , 2011 . The single peaked at number eighty @-@ one at the Billboard Hot 100 , spending three weeks on the chart ; it also peaked at number nineteen at the Alternative Songs chart and number twenty @-@ nine at the Rock Songs chart . Despite these low peaks , the single achieved moderate success in other countries , peaking at number thirty @-@ nine in Australia , number ten in Israel , and number two in South Korea and on the UK Rock Chart .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
A Thousand Suns debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart with first @-@ week sales of 241 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , exceeding sales of Trey Songz 's Passion , Pain & Pleasure by 1 @,@ 000 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It became Linkin Park 's fourth US number @-@ one album , although the first @-@ week sales were significantly lower than those of their previous album Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 ) , which opened at 623 @,@ 000 copies . The album entered Billboard 's Rock Albums , Alternative Albums , Hard Rock Albums , and Digital Albums charts at number one . In the second week , the album slid to number three , selling 70 @,@ 000 copies ; in December 2010 , two months after its release , its sales passed the half @-@ million mark . On January 11 , 2011 , A Thousand Suns was certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies sold in the U.S. It spent 30 weeks on the Billboard 200 . By June 2014 , the album had sold 906 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. according to SoundScan .
In Canada , A Thousand Suns peaked at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart with 23 @,@ 000 copies sold . In February 2011 , the album was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for 80 @,@ 000 units sold . In the United Kingdom album chart , on which it spent seventeen weeks , the album debuted at number two with first @-@ week sales of 46 @,@ 711 copies , behind The Script 's album Science & Faith . On September 10 , 2010 , two days after the album 's UK release , A Thousand Suns was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , marking shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies to retailers . In Australia , it debuted at number one on the ARIA Top 50 Albums , and retained the top position for four weeks . The album remained in the chart 's top 50 for 18 weeks . By the end of 2010 , A Thousand Suns had been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , and the following year it was certified platinum .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , A Thousand Suns polarized critics , some of whom gave a positive response to the album and others less so . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 66 based on 10 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave the album five stars out of five , saying , " after A Thousand Suns , all rock ' n ' roll will revolve around Linkin Park " ; he credited Linkin Park with creating their own genre . Ian Winwood of Kerrang ! gave it an " excellent " rating , saying it " can only be best described as a political album " . He praised the songwriting , saying , " These are songs that have been constructed as much as they 've been written " , and that its closest comparison was Public Enemy 's 1990 album Fear of a Black Planet . Dave de Sylvia of Sputnikmusic called it " an extremely well @-@ crafted rock album , " saying it was somewhat better than its predecessor Minutes to Midnight ( 2007 ) , but does not live up to their debut , Hybrid Theory ( 2000 ) . David Buchanan of Consequence of Sound gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five , saying , " Some might argue this new sound is posturing , complete mutation to the point of absurdity ; in the band ’ s associated artwork and videos , evolution has been touted from day one . In essence , Linkin Park has been chasing this all along , and now it has become tangible , complete . " Johan Wippsson from Melodic said Linkin Park " have created a very cool and unique sound " and described " Blackout " and " When They Come for Me " as " really innovative " . Ian Winwood of BBC Music , in his review of the band 's succeeding album Living Things , praised A Thousand Suns and described it as " a body of work startling enough that it gambled with the massive commercial success the group had achieved since their debut album , 2000 's Hybrid Theory . "
James Montgomery of MTV called A Thousand Suns a " sprawling , discordant , ambitious and an all @-@ out game changer " and compared it with Radiohead 's 2000 album Kid A , but said A Thousand Suns is more optimistic than Kid A. Jordy Kasko with Review Rinse Repeat gave A Thousand Suns a perfect rating , calling it an " epic quest " . He compared it to Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) and Radiohead 's Kid A , saying " A Thousand Suns is an ALBUM . It is not a collection of songs . It is not meant to be listened to as such . The band is going so far as to release an iTunes version that is one track , 47 minutes and 56 seconds long . This is no more an ' album ' by conventional standards than Dark Side of the Moon or Kid A are . Sure , there are identifiable songs , but to understand or to appreciate any of them you must take them in the context of the entire album . " Christopher Weingarten of The Village Voice praised the album , calling it " 2010 's best avant @-@ rock nuclear @-@ anxiety concept record " , as well as comparing it to Radiohead 's OK Computer ( 1997 ) .
Mikael Wood of Spin gave the album six stars out of ten , saying it " contains plenty of aggressively arty material " and calling " The Messenger " the " most unexpected track on the boldly conceived A Thousand Suns " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B rating and said " at times the band 's odd mélange of industrial grind , hip @-@ hop swagger , and teenage @-@ wasteland angst feels jarring " . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave it three stars out of five ; she said Linkin Park were " feeling their way toward a new identity " ; she called their skill for melody " obvious " and said they sounded like " a killer Linkin Park tribute band " . Australia 's Music Network magazine gave the album a mixed review , calling it " a radical shift for the band , but it ’ s also a very uneven one ... while there 's some commanding moments ( ' The Catalyst , ' ' Wretches and Kings ' ) , many of the tracks feel like experiments rather than fully @-@ formed songs " .
Johnny Firecloud of Antiquiet condemned the album , called it a " melodramatic farce " , and said it was a " mechanized mess of sentimentality ... the 15 track collection is entirely unconvincing as a call to action for uprising and activism " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the album was a " clear continuation " of its predecessor , called it " recycled ideas " , and said " the problem is , the subdued rhythms , riffs and raps of A Thousand Suns winds up monochromatic " . Jim Farber of The New York Daily News gave the album one star out of five , saying , " no fewer than 15 cuts crowd the tight 47 @-@ minute length of the CD , many of them fragments or , more accurately , sonic non sequiturs " . Jamie Primack of The Badger Herald wrote , " there are at least five filler tracks that contain nothing more than noise and sound bites ... the full @-@ length songs aren ’ t particularly daring or interesting " .
Fans of the band were equally polarized by A Thousand Suns . Initial signs of the fans ' division over the band 's new material occurred when " The Catalyst " was released as a single . MTV conducted a poll asking fans how they received the song ; most responses were positive but a large amount were dissatisfied with it . Fans then therefore debated on what they thought of the new sound . Sara Ferrer of Orange County Reloaded said the album split the views of fans and critics into " love @-@ it versus hate @-@ it groups " . Montgomery expressed similar sentiments , saying the album " alternately thrilled and thinned [ Linkin Park 's ] substantial fanbase with its vast swaths of sonic sprawl ( and overall lack of guitar solos ) . " Shinoda shared his thoughts on the divided reception of the fans ; he thanked the people who accepted the album and defended it from the criticism of those who disliked it . Commenting on fans ' polarized response to the album , Bennington said , " [ A Thousand Suns ] is definitely something that we knew people would need to digest and get over the fact that it 's not what they thought we would do . "
= = = = Accolades = = = =
Kerrang ! listed A Thousand Suns as the nineteenth @-@ best album of 2010 on their list of the top 20 albums that year . James Montgomery of MTV listed the album as twentieth best album of 2010 , calling it " the year 's most ambitious major @-@ label rock album ... there 's no denying the dense , dark power it packs " .
The album received numerous awards and nominations . At the 2011 MTV Video Music Aid Japan , A Thousand Suns was nominated for Album of the Year , while " The Catalyst " was nominated for Best Group Video and Best Rock Video . The album received two 2011 Billboard Music Award nominations ; Best Rock Album and Top Alternative Album . " Waiting for the End " was nominated for Top Alternative Song . The music video for " Waiting for the End " was nominated at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Special Effects . Linkin Park won the Best International Rock / Alternative Group for A Thousand Suns at the 2011 ECHO Awards . At the MTV Video Game Awards , " Blackout " won the Best Song in a Video Game award for its use in FIFA 11 . " Waiting for the End " was nominated at the 2011 Teen Choice Awards for Choice Rock Song .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Linkin Park .
= = = iTunes Deluxe Edition Bonus Content = = =
The iTunes deluxe edition of A Thousand Suns has numerous features and bonus content .
Note From The Band
20 ' In the Studio ' Exclusive photos
Meeting of A Thousand Suns ( Making Of The Album ) – 29 : 46
Linkin Park Visualizers
Secret Code Puzzle
The Catalyst ( Music Video )
= = Personnel = =
Source : Allmusic and A Thousand Suns booklet .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Other charted songs = = =
= = = Album number @-@ one chart successions = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Astrid Kirchherr =
Astrid Kirchherr ( born 20 May 1938 ) is a German photographer and artist and is well known for her association with the Beatles ( along with her friends Klaus Voormann and Jürgen Vollmer ) , and her photographs of the band 's original members - John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best - during their early days in Hamburg .
Kirchherr met artist Sutcliffe in the Kaiserkeller bar in Hamburg in 1960 , where he was playing bass with the Beatles , and was later engaged to him , before his death in 1962 . Although Kirchherr has taken very few photographs since 1967 , her early work has been exhibited in Hamburg , Bremen , London , Liverpool , New York City , Washington , D.C. , Tokyo , Vienna and at the Rock ' n ' Roll Hall of Fame . She has published three limited @-@ edition books of photographs .
= = Early life = =
Astrid Kirchherr was born in 1938 in Hamburg , Germany , and is the daughter of a former executive of the German branch of the Ford Motor Company . During World War II she was evacuated to the safety of the Baltic Sea where she remembered seeing dead bodies on the shore ( after the ships Cap Arcona and the SS Deutschland had been bombed and sunk ) and the destruction in Hamburg when she returned .
After her graduation , Kirchherr enrolled in the Meisterschule für Mode , Textil , Graphik und Werbung in Hamburg , as she wanted to study fashion design but demonstrated a talent for black @-@ and @-@ white photography . Reinhard Wolf , the school 's main photographic tutor , convinced her to switch courses and promised that he would hire her as his assistant when she graduated . Kirchherr worked for Wolf as his assistant from 1959 until 1963 .
In the late 1950s and early 1960s Kirchherr and her art school friends were involved in the European existentialist movement whose followers were later nicknamed " Exis " by Lennon . In 1995 she told BBC Radio Merseyside : " Our philosophy then , because we were only little kids , was wearing black clothes and going around looking moody . Of course , we had a clue who Jean @-@ Paul Sartre was . We got inspired by all the French artists and writers , because that was the closest we could get . England was so far away , and America was out of the question . So France was the nearest . So we got all the information from France , and we tried to dress like the French existentialists ... We wanted to be free , we wanted to be different , and tried to be cool , as we call it now . "
= = The Beatles = =
Kirchherr , Voormann and Vollmer were friends who had all attended the Meisterschule , and shared the same ideas about fashion , culture and music . Voormann became Astrid 's boyfriend , and moved into the Kirchherr home , where he had his own room . In 1960 , after Kirchherr and Vollmer had had an argument with Voormann , he wandered down the Reeperbahn ( in the St. Pauli district of Hamburg ) and heard music coming from the Kaiserkeller club . Voormann walked in and watched a performance by a group called the Beatles : Lennon , McCartney , Harrison , Sutcliffe and Best , their drummer at the time . Voormann asked Kirchherr and Vollmer to listen to this new music , and after being persuaded to visit the Kaiserkeller ( which was in the rough area of the Reeperbahn ) , Kirchherr decided that all she wanted to do was to be as close to the Beatles as she could . The trio of friends had never heard this new music called Rock n ' Roll before , having previously listened to only Trad jazz , with some Nat King Cole and The Platters mixed in . The trio then visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night , arriving at 9 o 'clock and sitting by the front of the stage . Kirchherr later said : " It was like a merry @-@ go @-@ round in my head , they looked absolutely astonishing ... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes . All I wanted was to be with them and to know them . "
Kirchherr later said that she , Voormann and Vollmer felt guilty about being German , and about Germany 's recent history . Meeting the Beatles was something very special for her , although she knew that English people would think that she ate sauerkraut , and would comment on her heavy German accent , but they made jokes about it together . Lennon would make sarcastic remarks from the stage , saying " You Krauts , we won the war , " knowing that very few Germans in the audience spoke English , but any English sailors present would roar with laughter .
Sutcliffe was fascinated by the trio , but especially Kirchherr , and thought they looked like " real bohemians " . Bill Harry later said that when Kirchherr walked in , every head would immediately turn her way , and that she always captivated the whole room . Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her and had tried to talk to Kirchherr during the next break , but she had already left the club . Sutcliffe managed to meet them eventually , and learned that all three had attended the Meisterschule , which was the same type of art college that Lennon and Sutcliffe had attended in Liverpool . ( Note : Meisterschule für Mode , Textil , Grafik und Werbung [ Master Craftspeople College for Fashion , Textile , Graphics , and Advertising ] , although it is now called the University of Applied Sciences ) .
= = Photographs = =
Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session , which impressed them , as other groups had only snapshots that were taken by friends . The next morning Kirchherr took photographs with a Rolleicord camera , at a fairground in a municipal park called Hamburger Dom which was close to the Reeperbahn , and in the afternoon she took them all ( minus Best , who decided not to go ) to her mother 's house in Altona . Kirchherr 's bedroom ( which was all in black , including the furniture , with silver foil on the walls and a large tree branch suspended from the ceiling ) , was decorated especially for Voormann , with whom she had a relationship , although after the visits to the Kaiserkeller their relationship became purely platonic . Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe , although she always remained a close friend of Voormann .
Kirchherr later supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin , which , when taken with beer , made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning . The Beatles had taken Preludin before , but it was possible at that time to get Preludin only with a doctor 's prescription note , so Kirchherr 's mother got them from a local chemist , who supplied them without asking questions . After meeting Kirchherr , Lennon filled his letters to Cynthia Powell ( his girlfriend at the time ) with " Astrid said this , Astrid did that " , which made Powell jealous , until she read that Sutcliffe was in a relationship with Kirchherr . When Powell visited Hamburg with Dot Rhone ( McCartney 's girlfriend at the time ) in April 1961 , they stayed at Kirchherr 's house . In August 1963 , Kirchherr met Lennon and Cynthia in Paris while they were both there for a belated honeymoon , as Kirchherr was there with a girlfriend for a few days ' holiday . The four of them went from wine bar to wine bar and finally ended up back at Kirchherr 's lodgings , where all four fell asleep on Kirchherr 's single bed .
The Beatles met Kirchherr again in Hamburg in 1966 when they were touring Germany , and Kirchherr gave Lennon the letters he had written to Sutcliffe in 1961 and 1962 . Lennon said it was " the best present I 've had in years " . All of the Beatles wrote many letters to Kirchherr : " I only have a couple from George [ Harrison ] , which I 'll never show anyone , but he wrote so many . So did the others . I probably threw them away . You do that when you 're young - you don 't think of the future . " Harrison later asked Kirchherr to arrange the cover of his Wonderwall Music album in 1968 .
= = = The Beatles haircut and clothes = = =
Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles ' moptop haircut although she disagrees , saying : " All that rubbish people said , that I created their hairstyle , that 's rubbish ! Lots of German boys had that hairstyle . Stuart [ Sutcliffe ] had it for a long while and the others copied it . I suppose the most important thing I contributed to them was friendship . " In 1995 , Kirchherr told BBC Radio Merseyside : " All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles haircut . And my boyfriend then , Klaus Voormann , had this hairstyle , and Stuart liked it very very much . He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the Brylcreem out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him . Pete [ Best ] has really curly hair and it wouldn 't work . " Kirchherr says that after she cut Sutcliffe 's hair , Harrison asked her to do the same when she was visiting Liverpool , and Lennon and McCartney had their hair cut in the same style while they were in Paris , by Kirchherr 's friend , Vollmer , who was living there at the time as an assistant to photographer William Klein .
After moving into the Kirchherr family 's house , Sutcliffe used to borrow her clothes , as he was the same height as Kirchherr . He wore her leather pants and jackets , collarless jackets , oversized shirts , and long scarves . He also borrowed a corduroy suit with no lapels that he wore on stage , which prompted Lennon to sarcastically ask if his mother had lent him the suit .
= = Stuart Sutcliffe = =
Sutcliffe wrote to friends that he was infatuated with Kirchherr , and asked her friends which colours , films , books and painters she liked , and whom she fancied . Best later commented that the beginning of their relationship was , " like one of those fairy stories " . Kirchherr says that she immediately fell in love with Sutcliffe , and still calls him " the love of my life " . Kirchherr and Sutcliffe got engaged in November 1960 , and exchanged rings , as is the German custom . Sutcliffe later wrote to his parents that he was engaged to Kirchherr , which they were shocked to learn , as they thought he would give up his career as an artist , although he told Kirchherr that he would like to be an art teacher in London or Germany in the future . Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr for the airfare to fly back to Liverpool in February 1961 , returning to Hamburg in March .
Kirchherr and Sutcliffe went to Liverpool in the summer of 1961 , as Kirchherr wanted to meet Sutcliffe 's family ( and to see Liverpool ) before their marriage . Everybody was expecting a strange beatnik artist from Hamburg , but Kirchherr turned up at the Sutcliffe 's house at 37 Aigburth Drive , Liverpool , bearing a single long @-@ stemmed orchid in her hand as a present , and dressed in a round @-@ necked cashmere sweater and tailored skirt . In 1962 , Sutcliffe collapsed in the middle of an art class in Hamburg . He was suffering from intense headaches , and Kirchherr 's mother had German doctors perform various checks on him , although they were unable to determine exactly what was causing the headaches . While living at the Kirchherrs ' house in Hamburg his condition got worse . On 10 April 1962 , Kirchherr 's mother phoned her daughter at work and told her Sutcliffe was not feeling well , had been brought back to the house , and an ambulance had been called for . Kirchherr rushed home and rode with Sutcliffe in the ambulance , but he died in her arms before it reached the hospital .
Three days later Kirchherr met Lennon , McCartney and Best at the Hamburg airport ( they were returning to Hamburg to perform ) and told them Sutcliffe had died of a brain haemorrhage . Harrison and manager Brian Epstein arrived on another plane sometime later with Sutcliffe 's mother , who had been informed by telegram . Harrison and Lennon were helpful towards the distraught Kirchherr , with Lennon telling her one day that she definitely had to decide if she wanted to " Live or die , there is no other question . "
= = Freelance photographer = =
In 1964 , Kirchherr became a freelance photographer , and with her colleague Max Scheler she took " behind the scenes " photographs of the Beatles during the filming of A Hard Day 's Night , as an assignment for the German Stern magazine . Epstein had forbidden any publicity photographs to be taken without his permission , but Kirchherr phoned Harrison , who said he would arrange it , but added , " Only if they pay you . "
Stern phoned Bill Harry at his Mersey Beat newspaper and asked if he could arrange a photograph of all the groups in Liverpool , so Harry suggested Kirchherr be the photographer , although Kirchherr later said she placed an advertisement in the Liverpool Echo newspaper . Kirchherr and Scheler said that any group who wanted their photograph taken in front of St. George 's Hall would be paid £ 1 per musician , but over 200 groups turned up on the day , which meant Kirchherr and Scheler soon ran out of money . Kirchherr didn 't publish the photographs until 1995 , in a book called Liverpool Days , which is a limited @-@ edition collection of black @-@ and @-@ white photographs . In 1999 , a companion book called Hamburg Days was published ( a two @-@ volume limited edition ) , containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and " memory drawings " by Voormann . The drawings are recollections of places and situations that Voormann clearly remembers , but Kirchherr had never photographed , or had lost the photographs .
Kirchherr described how difficult it was to be accepted as a female photographer in the 1960s : " Every magazine and newspaper wanted me to photograph the Beatles again . Or they wanted my old stuff , even if it was out of focus , whether they were nice or not . They wouldn 't look at my other work . It was very hard for a girl photographer in the 60s to be accepted . In the end I gave up . I 've hardly taken a photo since 1967 . " Kirchherr was quoted as saying that When We Was Fab ( Genesis Publications 2007 ) , would be her last book of photographs : " I have decided it is time to create one book in which I am totally involved so that it contains the pictures I like most , printed the way I would print them , even down to the text and design .... This book is me and that is why it will be the last one . The very last one . "
Kirchherr has expressed respect for other photographers , such as Annie Leibovitz ( because of the humour in her work ) , Irving Penn , Richard Avedon , Jim Rakete and Reinhard Wolf ( German Wikipedia ) , and French film @-@ makers François Truffaut , and Jean Cocteau . Kirchherr said that her favourite photos are the ones she took of Sutcliffe by the Baltic sea , and of Lennon and Harrison in her attic room at 45a Eimsbütteler Strasse . She has expressed reservations about digital photography , saying that a photographer should concentrate on the art of photography and not on the technical results , although admitting that she knows nothing about computers and is " afraid of the internet " .
Kirchherr admits that she is not good at business as she is not organised enough , and has never really looked after the negatives of her photographs to prove ownership . Her business partner Ulf Krüger — a songwriter and record producer — successfully found many of Astrid 's negatives and photographs and had them copyrighted , although he believes that Kirchherr has lost £ 500 @,@ 000 over the years because of people using her photographs without permission . In July 2001 Kirchherr visited Liverpool to open an exhibition of her work at the Mathew Street art gallery , which is close to the former site of The Cavern Club . She appeared as a guest at the city 's Beatles Week Festival during the August Bank Holiday . Kirchherr 's work has been exhibited internationally in places , such as Hamburg , Bremen , London , Liverpool , New York City , Washington D.C. , Tokyo , Vienna , and at the Rock ' n ' Roll Hall of Fame .
= = Later life to present = =
In 1967 , Kirchherr married English drummer Gibson Kemp ( born Gibson Stewart Kemp , 1945 , Liverpool , Lancashire ) , who had replaced Ringo Starr in Rory Storm and the Hurricanes . The marriage ended in divorce after seven years . She then worked as a barmaid , as an interior designer , and then for a music publishing firm , getting married for a second time to a German businessman . Kirchherr worked as an advisor in 1994 on the film Backbeat , which portrayed Kirchherr , Sutcliffe and the Beatles during their early days in Hamburg . She was impressed with Stephen Dorff ( who played Sutcliffe in the film ) , commenting that he was the right age ( 19 years old at the time ) , and his gestures , the way he smoked , and talked were so like Sutcliffe 's that she had goose pimples . Kirchherr was portrayed in the film by actress Sheryl Lee .
Since the mid @-@ 1990s Kirchherr and business partner Krüger have operated the K & K photography shop in Hamburg , offering custom vintage prints , books and artwork for sale . K & K periodically helps arrange Beatles ' conventions and other Beatles ' events in the Hamburg area . She has no children , and now lives alone : " " My [ second ] marriage ended in 1985 ... I regretted I had no children . I just couldn 't see me have [ sic ] any . But now I am pleased when I see the situation the world is in . I live alone and am very happy . "
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= Morya Gosavi =
Morya Gosavi or Moraya Gosavi ( Morayā Gosāvi ) alias Moroba Gosavi was a prominent saint of the Hindu Ganapatya sect , which considers the elephant @-@ faced god Ganesha as the Supreme Being . Morya Gosavi is considered the chief spiritual progenitor of the Ganapatyas and has been described as the " most famous devotee " of Ganesha .
The lifetime of Morya Gosavi is speculated between the 13th to 17th century . Numerous legends recall his life . Morya became devoted to Ganesha when he started visiting the Morgaon temple of Ganesha . It is believed that due to the hindrance in Morya 's services to the god in the popular Ganesha shrine , Ganesha told Morya that he would appear in Chinchwad for Morya to worship , so Morya moved from Morgaon to Chinchwad , where Morya built a Ganesha temple . Consequently , Morya took sanjeevan samadhi by burying himself alive in his tomb .
Morya had a son called Chintamani , venerated as a living incarnation of Ganesha and addressed as Dev ( god ) . Chintamani was succeeded by six more Devs . The tomb of Morya Gosavi and the Ganesha temple at Chinchwad still attract many Ganesha devotees .
= = Dating = =
While Yuvraj Krishan places Morya Gosavi in the 13th – 14th century , RC Dhere places him in the 16th century . Paul B. Courtright and Anne Feldhaus date him to 1610 – 59 . The Pimpri @-@ Chinchwad Municipal Corporation dates him to c . 1330 to 1556 . His marriage year is given as 1470 and his son 's birth corresponds to 1481 . The Encyclopedia of Religion dates his death to 1651 .
Various legends associate Morya Gosavi with Humayun ( 1508 – 1556 ) , Shahaji ( 1594 – 1665 ) and his son Shivaji ( 1627 – 1680 ) . His memorial temple has an inscription records that it was started in 1658 @-@ 9 .
= = Early life = =
According to one version of the story , Morya was born in Bidar , Karnataka . He was thrown out of the house by his father as he was thought to be of no use to the family . Morya travelled to the Ganesha shrine at Morgaon – in neighbouring Maharashtra – where he found a liking to Ganesha . He settled at Chinchwad , 50 miles ( 80 km ) away from Morgaon . Another story declares him to be a son of a poor but pious couple from Pune , Maharashtra . Morya is believed to have been born due to the grace of Ganesha , whom the childless couple propitiated . After the birth of Morya , the family moved to Pimple , 40 miles ( 64 km ) away from Chinchwad . After the death of his parents , Morya moved to Tathavade , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away from Chichwad . Both legends declare he visited the Morgaon temple regularly , daily or monthly to worship Ganesha .
Another tale tells that Morya 's parents , Bhat Shaligram and his wife moved to Morgaon from Bidar . His parents prayed to Ganesha at Morgaon . Soon , Morya was born to them . Later , Morya became seriously ill and was not recovering so they prayed to Ganesha again . Soon , a Gosavi ( priest ) named Nayan Bharati came and gave medicine to Morya , curing him . Nayan Bharati also preached to Morya . Henceforth , the Bhat family took the family name Gosavi and Morya was known as Morya Gosavi .
= = From Morgaon to Chinchwad = =
According to a legend , on the occasion of Ganesh Chaturthi ( August – September ) – the largest festival dedicated to Ganesha – Morya could not find a place in the temple , crowded by the laity and the wealthy Pingle family . Morya left his offering under a tree and then by a " miracle " , the laity 's offerings from temple were exchanged with Morya 's offerings under the tree . The laity accused Morya of sorcery and prohibited his entry in Morgaon . Ganesha appeared in a dream of Pingle and told Pingle that he was offended by the ill @-@ treatment of his favourite devotee Morya . So Pingle requested Morya to come back to Morgaon , but Morya refused . Ganesha thus gave a vision to Morya saying that he would come to stay with Morya in Chinchwad . Accordingly , Morya found an image of Ganesha – similar to the one worshipped at Morgaon – while bathing in the river and built a small shrine for it .
Another tale tells that the head @-@ man of Morgaon was impressed by Morya 's pious ways and offered him milk every day he visited Morgaon . Once the head @-@ man was not present at his house , so a blind girl went to offer the milk to Morya . The moment she touched the threshold of the house where Morya was waiting , her sight was restored . Morya became famous due to this miracle and is credited to have cured the eyes of Shivaji ( 1627 – 1680 ) too – who would become the founder of the Maratha Empire later . To escape the crowds of people , Morya relocated to the forest , where present @-@ day Chinchwad stands . Due to his growing age , Morya found it hard to continue his visits to Morgaon . Once he reached Morgaon after the temple was closed . Tired and hungry , he slept . Ganesha gave Morya a dream @-@ vision telling Morya to offer his prayers to him and that he would reside with Morya in Chinchwad and incarnate in Morya 's lineage for seven generations . Morya woke to find the temple doors miraculously opened and offered his prayers . In morning when the temple @-@ priests opened the temple @-@ doors , they were astonished to see fresh flowers offered to the Lord and a pearl necklace missing . The necklace was discovered on Morya 's neck , who was imprisoned but then freed due to Ganesha 's aid . Morya found a conical stone rising in Chinchwad home , which he recognized as Ganesha and built a temple for it .
Another legend does not talk about his arrest , but says that Morya realised the presence of Ganesha at Morgaon but realised that there was hindrance in his devotion , so he moved to the forest near Tathavade to worship Ganesha . On every fourth lunar day after the full moon , Morya used to visit the Chintamani Temple of Theur . Once , devotees from Chinchwad requested Morya to visit the bank of Pavana River at Chinchwad . There , Chintamani – the form of Ganesha worshipped at Theur – is believed to have ordered Morya to marry . As per Ganesha 's orders , Morya got married to Uma , the daughter of Govindrao Kulkarni whose family was staying in Tathavade near Chinchwad .
According to a story , as per his guru 's orders , Morya performed penance at Theur by observing a strict fast for 42 days , within this period , he is believed to have " divine revelations " . After the death of his parents , Morya moved from Morgaon to Chinchwad . The present structure of the Theur temple is built by Morya .
= = Death and lineage = =
Morya continued to visit Theur , Ranjangaon ( another Ganesha temple site ) and Chinchwad . Morya had a son , whom he named Chintamani ( Chintaman ) . Chintamani was venerated as a living incarnation of Ganesha . But before that according to some experts , he helped the deposed Mughal emperor Humayun ( 1508 – 1556 ) to escape to Kabul , when Humayun again became the Emperor of Delhi , he showered Morya with gifts . According to Dhere , Shivaji 's father Shahaji ( 1594 – 1665 ) is recorded as a donor to Morya Gosavi .
After his wife 's death and his guru Nayan Bharati 's sanjeevan samadhi , Morya also took sanjeevan samadhi by burying himself alive in a tomb with a holy book in his hand . Morya left strict orders that his tomb be never opened . Chintamani built a temple over his father 's tomb . Chintamani is described to have shown his true form as Ganesha to the Varkari saint @-@ poet Tukaram ( 1577 – c.1650 ) , who called Chintamani a Dev spelt also as Deva or Deo ( god ) . The lineage was henceforth known as the Dev family .
Chintamani was followed as a Dev by Narayan , Chintamani II , Dharmadhar , Chintamani III , Narayan II and Dharmadhar II . The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ( 1658 – 1707 ) gifted Narayan the hereditary grant of eight villages , impressed by the latter 's " miracle " of changing a piece of beef sent by the former into jasmine flowers . ( Beef is considered unholy in Hinduism and killing of cows – considered sacred – is prohibited . ) Narayan II violated Morya 's orders and opened the latter 's tomb . According to the tale , Morya who was found still mediating in the tomb , was disturbed and cursed Narayan that his son would be the last Dev . Narayan 's son , Dharmadhar II – the seventh generation of Morya – died childless in 1810 ending the direct lineage of Morya , but a distant relative of Dharmadhar , Sakhari was installed as a Dev by the priesthood to continue the temple funding . Devotional poetry of all the Devs still survive .
= = Veneration = =
Morya Gosavi is considered the chief spiritual progenitor and the most important saint of the Ganapatya – the Hindu sect centred on Ganesha worship – tradition and has been described as the " most famous devotee " of Ganesha .
Chinchwad has shrines to the departed Devs , chief of which is that of Morya . Morya 's memorial temple is a low plain building ( 30 ' x 20 ' x 40 ' ) with a square hall or mandap and an octagonal inner shrine , inscribed with a Marathi inscription : " This temple was begun on the bright twelfth of Kartik ( November – December ) Shaka 1580 ( A.D. 1658 @-@ 9 ) Vilambi Samvatsara and finished on Monday the bright fourth of Ashadha , Vikari Samvatsara " . The temples enjoyed the revenue from the eight villages given by Aurangzeb in the past . The tomb of Morya Gosavi as well as the Ganesha temple constructed by him still attracts many Ganesha devotees to Chinchwad . Devotees believe that though Morya Gosavi attained moksha ( salvation ) but " his presence continues to endow the shrine with sacred significance . "
On the circumbulation path ( Pradakshina path ) of the Morgaon Ganesha temple , there is a tree near the Kalpavrushka Mandir . The tree is believed to have the spot where Morya Gosavi underwent penance . An image of Morya Gosavi is worshipped in the temple complex too . Morya Gosavi is also credited to have popularized the Morgaon temple .
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= Meredith Grey =
Meredith Grey , M.D. is a fictional character from the hit medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy , which airs on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States . The character was created by series ' producer Shonda Rhimes , and is portrayed by actress Ellen Pompeo . Meredith is the series ' protagonist , and was introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital ( later Seattle Grace @-@ Mercy West , and afterwards Grey Sloan Memorial ) , eventually obtaining the position of a resident , and later the position of an attending , and in 2015 , attaining the Chief of General Surgery position . As the daughter of world @-@ renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , Meredith struggles with the everyday life of being in a competitive profession , maintaining the relationship with her one @-@ night stand and eventual husband Derek Shepherd ( deceased ) , her motherhood and the friendships with her colleagues .
Meredith is the narrator of the show and serves as the focal point for most episodes . Pompeo 's connection with Patrick Dempsey ( Derek Shepherd ) is acclaimed as a high point of the series . Rhimes has characterized Meredith as not believing in good or bad , but instead doing what she thinks is right . Grey has been positively received by television critics , with Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times referring to her as " the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy " . News of Pompeo leaving arose when it was made clear that her contract ended after the eighth season , and whether or not she would return to the series after her contract expires has been the centre of media speculation ever since . In 2016 , Pompeo re @-@ negotiated her contract and signed up for the thirteenth season of the show .
Pompeo 's performance has been well received throughout the show and the character has gained widespread popularity worldwide . Pompeo has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of the character in the long running ABC medical drama including Satellite Award for Best Actress and multiple nominations at the People 's Choice Awards for Best Actress winning at 39th People 's Choice Awards in 2013 and again in 2015 at 41st People 's Choice Awards , Pompeo has also received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards .
= = Storylines = =
Dr. Meredith Grey is the daughter of world @-@ renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , who suffers from Alzheimer 's disease . She is a graduate of Dartmouth College . The night before Grey 's internship begins , she has a one @-@ night stand with Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , a stranger she meets at a bar . She discovers the next day that he is the recently @-@ hired attending and new head of neurosurgery at her new workplace , Seattle Grace Hospital . Grey is assigned to work under resident Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , and befriends her fellow interns , George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) , Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) . Grey initially resists Shepherd 's advances , but they eventually begin a relationship . She is surprised by the arrival of Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) , Shepherd 's wife , having been unaware that he was married . Shepherd struggles to choose between the two , but ultimately returns to Montgomery . Grey is devastated and turns to searching for her father , Thatcher , though their brief reunion fails to give her any closure regarding her childhood . She learns that her father remarried and had two more daughters , which is why he never fought for her . Grey has a series of one @-@ night stands , including one with O 'Malley , who is in love with her . When she cries in the middle of their encounter , their friendship temporarily ends . Grey embarks on a relationship with veterinarian Finn Dandridge ( Chris O 'Donnell ) , but it comes to a close when she reunites with Shepherd .
Her mother experiences a completely lucid day , and expresses her great disappointment at how ordinary Grey has turned out to be . Following a ferryboat accident , Grey is knocked into the water and has to be rescued by Shepherd . She flatlines at the hospital , and awakens in an " afterlife " , where she interacts with deceased former acquaintances . Ellis dies in the interim , and Grey meets with her mother , who tells her that she is anything but ordinary and urges her to wake up . Grey is subsequently resuscitated . She is promoted to a resident , as her half @-@ sister Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , begins working at Seattle Grace Hospital as an intern . Grey initially rejects Lexie 's attempts to form a relationship , but slowly softens towards her . Shepherd pushes Grey to make a greater commitment to their relationship than she feels able to , and the two break up once more . He begins dating a nurse , Rose , and Grey sees a therapist , Dr. Wyatt ( Amy Madigan ) , to seek happiness . She initiates a neurosurgical clinical trial , enlisting Shepherd as a consulting neurosurgeon . The trial fails repeatedly , but the final patient they treat survives , which leads them to reuniting and moving in together . Shepherd loses his confidence after a minor mistake in the initial operation started a chain of events which ended with the patient 's death and faced a malpractice lawsuit , leading to him taking a sabbatical and pushing everyone , including Grey , away . When Stevens is diagnosed with stage four metastatic melanoma , Grey convinces Shepherd to return to operate on her . He agrees to perform the surgery , and later proposes to Grey in the hospital elevator . Stevens begins to plan the perfect wedding for a reluctant Grey , but when , on their wedding day , Shepherd discovers that Stevens has a second brain tumor , the couple let her and Karev marry instead .
Grey and Shepherd marry by writing their wedding vows on a post @-@ it note . Having become a heavy drinker following Susan 's death , Thatcher experiences liver failure . For Lexie 's sake , Grey agrees to donate part of her liver to him . Thereafter , she discovers she is pregnant soon before a hospital shooting , endangering Shepherd . In the midst of the crisis , Grey miscarries the baby . She learns that she has a " hostile uterus " , which leads her to consider her other possible genetic flaws . Shepherd , worried about the possibility that she will develop Alzheimer 's , initiates a clinical trial hoping to cure the disease . Grey opts to work on the trial , with Shepherd . When the chief of surgery , Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr . ) ' s wife , Adele , is diagnosed with Alzheimer 's , she receives a spot on Shepherd 's trial . Grey tampers with the drugs so that Adele does not receive the placebo . She and Shepherd decide to adopt Zola , an orphaned baby from Malawi , and make their marriage official . When the truth about Grey 's tampering comes out , however , a furious Shepherd tells her he cannot raise a child with her . Grey is fired , and tries to conceal both this and her marital separation from the adoption counselor . Although Webber steps down as chief of surgery and takes the blame for the trial tampering to protect Grey , Zola is taken away . She and Shepherd reconcile and fight to get Zola back , eventually having her returned to them . Meanwhile , Meredith experiences several traumatic events , such as an ambulance accident with Alex Karev . As her last year of residency is coming to a close , the residents travel around the country , searching for the best jobs in their specialties . In order to finish their residency , the residents must take the medical boards , and Grey passes them successfully . She decides to take a job offer at The Brigham and Women 's Hospital , and is subsequently involved in an aviation accident , killing Lexie , and leaving her and her co @-@ workers stranded .
Following their rescue , Grey becomes an attending general surgeon at the newly merged Seattle Grace Mercy West . Her newfound attitude and sarcasm leads to her being dubbed " Medusa " by the hospital 's new batch of interns . In mid @-@ season , Grey becomes pregnant for the second time . In the aftermath of the plane accident , the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence . Each victim including Shepherd , Yang , Robbins , and herself must receive $ 15 million of compensation , which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurance company refuses to pay due to a loophole . Those doctors and Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) buy the hospital with the help of the Harper Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing , and each become members of the new directing board . She asks Bailey to perform gene mapping on her to finally know whether she has Alzheimer 's genes like her mother or not and she tests positive for more than one of the genetic markers for the disease .
During this time , Meredith discovers she is pregnant again and she gives birth to a son . The baby is delivered via C @-@ section during a storm because it was not in the correct position . While stitching Meredith up , the obstetrician who operated on Meredith is called away to another patient and intern Shane Ross completes the stitching . When blood begins to appear from everywhere , Meredith diagnoses herself in as being in DIC . Bailey performs a spleen removal , which saves Meredith 's life . In return , Derek and Meredith name their son Bailey .
As a spouse , surgeon , and mother , Meredith has cited a number times that she did not want to be like either of her parents : her father had followed her mother around and ended up leaving as she valued her career over her family while her mother won two Harper Avery Awards but emotionally neglected her , resulting in her " dark and twisty " attitude towards life . She and Cristina drift apart as they realize that they now have different values and career paths . After being snubbed by Cristina for failing to keep up with the medical science while on maternity leave , Meredith calls Cristina out on her actions , stating that it was not fair for her to ignore those who did not value the same things she did . Cristina realizes that she has to leave Seattle before things deteriorate and eventually moves to Switzerland to work with Dr. Preston Burke , her former attending . Meanwhile , Meredith and Derek come to an agreement that he , having already established his career and reputation , would take a step back to take care of the children and allow her to shine .
Meredith and Derek 's marriage becomes strained when Derek goes against his promise and accepts an offer from the President to participate in the Brain Mapping Initiative , which gradually consumed his time . He receives an offer to head the project itself in Washington D.C. , meaning that he would have to be based there permanently , but she puts her foot down as she did not want to uproot their young family to move across the country . They begin a series of on @-@ and @-@ off arguments and " cold wars " over their careers . Derek accepts the job in the heat of the moment and promptly leaves for Washington D.C. During a phone call with Meredith , they agree to work things out after she tells him that she did not want them to become " one of those couples " who ended things and he reciprocates , saying that he missed her . She privately admits to Alex that she realized that she could live independently of Derek but chose not to .
Meredith finds out she has a half sister called Maggie Pierce who is now working in Grey Sloan Memorial . Meredith thinks she would have remembered if her mother was pregnant and thinks Maggie is lying until she finds a hospital document confirming the revelation . Meredith tries to piece together her relationship with her mother and half sister by going through old videos of her mother . She eventually recovers her repressed memories of the pregnancy when she 's views her mother 's diary and has a change of heart , choosing to accept her and begin building a relationship .
Meredith is widowed when Derek is a victim in a car accident and taken to Dillard Medical Center which did not have Level I trauma center status and was understaffed . He was on his way to the airport for his final trip to Washington D.C. to hand in his final report and official resignation letter when he took a shortcut and stopped to help victims of a multiple vehicle accident . The doctors at Dillard fail to recognize his head injury in time . Derek becomes brain dead , and police arrive at Derek and Meredith 's residence to notify her that Derek has been in an accident . Meredith begins to imagine arriving at the hospital and seeing Derek in stable condition , alive and alert . The scene then switches to reality with Meredith arriving at the hospital to see Derek in grave condition , where she spends time with him and then consents to remove him from life support , shortly before she 's hit with the first waves of morning sickness . She tells Penny , the intern who was assigned to Derek , that every doctor has " that one " patient who dies on their watch and haunts them forever and " that one will make you work harder , and they make you better . "
After Derek 's death , Meredith returns to Grey Sloan Memorial to inform the others of his passing . Following the funeral service , Meredith impulsively packs up her belongings and leaves with the children to San Diego . Months pass by while her friends and family are unaware of her whereabouts . Eventually , we are shown the parallels between Meredith and Ellis ' lives . Both have lost the love of their life , both run away from Seattle following their loss , and both eventually give birth to a daughter . We are again reminded that " the carousel never stops turning . " Meredith names her newborn daughter after her mother , Ellis . Although still grieving over Derek , Meredith returns to Seattle with the children and later becomes chief of general surgery . She sells the " dream house " as it no longer felt like home without her husband . She moves back to her mother 's house and now lives there with Maggie Pierce and Amelia Shepherd . Meredith hosts a dinner party and at the party Callie brings Penny as a date . Later at the event she finds out Penny ( Derek 's doctor ) will be joining her at Grey Sloan Memorial .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Pompeo discovered Grey 's Anatomy after a year of doing nothing but reading scripts looking for the project that suited her best . While casting actresses for the part of Meredith Grey , series ' creator Shonda Rhimes said : " I kept saying we need a girl like that girl from Moonlight Mile , and after a while , they were like , ' We think we can get that girl from Moonlight Mile . ' I spent time with her and got to know her , and then we started casting for the men . " She reported that Grey was not an easy role to cast . Rhimes was informed that the actress in question was Pompeo , who had a deal in place with ABC , having previously tested for a pilot show on the network . It has been speculated that Pompeo was the first character to be cast , but when asked , she said she did not know of this . When asked of how she created Pompeo 's character , Rhimes said :
Pompeo was cast as the program 's titular character , described by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times as " a prickly , independent sort whose ambition , and ambivalence , is fueled by the fact that her mother was a gifted surgeon and now suffers from Alzheimer 's . " Grey also serves as the show 's narrator , and as such was likened in early reviews to Carrie Bradshaw ( Sarah Jessica Parker ) , the narrator and protagonist of Sex and the City . After her initial contract with Grey 's Anatomy expired , Pompeo negotiated a new one , in which she would be paid US $ 200 @,@ 000 per episode , making her the highest @-@ paid cast member on the show . In 2012 , Forbes recognized Pompeo as the eighth highest @-@ paid actress on television , with a salary of US $ 275 @,@ 000 per episode for her role on Grey 's Anatomy .
Pompeo 's second contract with Grey 's Anatomy expired after the eighth season , and speculation arose that she would be leaving after this . In September 2011 , Pompeo reported that she is open to the idea of extending her contract , if invited . She told TV Guide : " I would never turn up my nose at [ Grey 's Anatomy ] . As long as the stories are honest and truthful , and Patrick [ Dempsey ] and I feel there is material for us to be passionate about , it still beats a 9 @-@ to @-@ 5 job any day . If I hear from the fans that they want us to keep going , then I would continue because we owe them everything . " E ! Online reported in May 2012 , that Pompeo , as well as all original cast members have signed on for two more years . With the Huffington Post 's announcement of season nine having officially been renewed , the contract is set into place for Pompeo to return .
Pompeo 's contract expired again at the end of the twelfth season . She signed a new contract to keep her in the starring role on the series for thirteenth season . According to a report in Deadline.com , Pompeo was earning $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode under the new deal .
= = = Characterization = = =
Grey is the protagonist and focal point of the series . She has been called " intelligent , compassionate , hard @-@ working , oftentimes outspoken , easily distracted , and indecisive " by Grey 's Anatomy executives . Pompeo says she is unaware if her character knows how to have fun , adding : " All of my scenes with [ Dempsey ] are the same — we 're either breaking up or having sex . " Her personality has evolved over the past few seasons from depressed , to happy and " fixed " . Pompeo said to Good Morning America , " I am so incredibly lucky to have Patrick [ Dempsey ] , to have the chemistry that we do , we have an amazing relationship , and it 's like any other relationship , you have your ups and downs . But we work it out , and we 've found a way to do this for this long and still get along , and make it work and believe in what we 're doing . " Pompeo told Entertainment Weekly : " It 's awkward with Patrick [ Dempsey ] because he 's like my brother . As soon as the camera is off , I 'm like , ' Is your hand on my butt ? ' But there are millions of girls who have been waiting for this , so I feel an obligation to the fans . " Rhimes used the dog " Doc " , which Meredith and Derek shared , as a metaphor of their relationship during the second season . She characterizes Grey as doing what she thinks is right :
The character had a one @-@ night stand with George O 'Malley , in the second season . Series writer Stacy McKee , said of the sexual encounter : " There ’ s no turning back . There ’ s nothing George and Meredith can do . The damage is done – things will never be the same . They ’ ve just changed something important in their lives FOREVER and … they are freaking out . " Grey 's character development has also been known as an influence on the creation of her half @-@ sister , Lexie Grey . Particularly , it has been made clear that they both share the same motives . McKee offered her thoughts : " Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed . They want to be strong . They want to feel normal . They want , so much , to be whole . But it ’ s a struggle – a genuine struggle for them . Being hardcore doesn ’ t come naturally . Sometimes , they have to fake it . " Grey 's personality has been compared with that of Alex Karev 's . Rhimes offered the insight :
" I like to create moments for him and Meredith . Because , in my head , they are very similar people . Even though Karev can be such an ass , even though he ’ s arrogant , even though he gave O 'Malley the Syph . He and Meredith are both lost , both lonely , both former screw @-@ ups who got their acts together . In another lifetime , they would be really good friends . So throughout the season , we watch them pause from time to time to look at each other and see that they are mirrors of one another .
Pompeo fights for a truthful storyline for her character — she wants it to be realistic and says you can 't always wrap it up in a neat little package . Referring to Grey 's tampering with Shepherd 's trial , Pompeo said : " Listen , what Meredith did clearly crossed a line . Derek has a right to be pissed . " Following the tampering , Rhimes said she believes that Grey and Shepherd are meant to be together and that it in the end , they will end up with each other . Grey 's relationship with Cristina Yang , has been looked upon as " sisterhood " , and Yang has repeatedly referred to Grey as " her person " . This led to the two being dubbed " the twisted sisters " . At the conclusion of season three , the duo went on a " honeymoon " together , and Rhimes called it her favorite detail of the finale . Grey has been characterized , by some , as " whiny " . Rhimes offered her insight :
Rhimes felt that the 100th episode showed well Meredith 's evolution throughout the show from a " dark and twisty girl " to a " happy woman " . She said : " She is the thing her mother wished for her . She is extraordinary . Because , to get past the crap of your past ? To move on ? To let the past go and change ? That is extraordinary . To love ? Without fear ? Without screwing it up ? That is extraordinary . It makes me happy to see her happy . "
Following the departure of Patrick Dempsey 's character , Rhimes was quoted as saying that " ... Meredith and the entire Grey ’ s Anatomy family are about to enter uncharted territory as we head into this new chapter of her life . The possibilities for what may come are endless . " With at least a year left in Pompeo 's contract with the show , viewers are sure to witness some of the most difficult times of Meredith 's life yet .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The character has received both overwhelmingly positive reviews to weary response from television critics throughout the course of the show . The initial response to the character was positive but as the series progressed Meredith Grey became immensely popular and Pompeo established the character as a critic and fan favorite featuring on a number of Top TV Character lists . The development of the character has been deemed as the highlight of the show . Grey has constantly been defined as " the heroine of Grey 's Anatomy " . At the time of inception Newsday 's Diane Werts praised the character stating , " Like Hugh Laurie 's irascible " House " title character , star Ellen Pompeo 's newly minted Dr. Grey conveys such substance that you simply can 't stop watching . " Ellen A. Kim of After Pompeo not receiving an Emmy nomination for her work as Grey , McNamara of the Los Angeles Times suggested that Pompeo , " who has worked very hard and against all narrative odds to make Meredith Grey an interesting character at last " should have received a nomination at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . Later , during the twelfth season Western Gazette gave Ellen Pompeo the credit for carrying the show and re @-@ ittirated . " ( It 's ) time for Pompeo to finally win an Emmy Award . " Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly referred to Grey as the " trusty voice over master " of Grey 's Anatomy .
Former television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger Alan Sepinwall expressed his boredom on the focus given on Grey 's relationships storylines while reviewing the second season 's finale : " On those occasions when Meredith 's not involved in a plot about her love life , I do kind of like her , but those moments are so infrequent compared to her constant angsting over McDreamy -- not to mention all those seemingly unrelated storylines that always turn into a metaphor for that relationship -- that I really , really can 't stand her . " During the show 's third season , the development of the character received negative reviews , with Cristopher Monfette of IGN stating that her storyline has become " some bizarrely under @-@ developed sub @-@ plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do . " Also during the third season , Robert Rorke of the New York Post noted the decline in Meredith 's role in the show , expressing disappointment : " She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas , but lately , she 's been a little dopey , what with the endless McDreamy soliloquies . " Similarly , Macleans.ca found their storyline in the fourth season overused , " This whole ' Oh I need more time , ' but ' Oh , I 'm jealous if you look at someone else ' angst was tired in the second season , frustrating in the third and now a total channel changer . The will @-@ they @-@ or @-@ won 't @-@ they plot doesn 't work because they 've already been in and out of that relationship too many times . Meredith is a nag and McDreamy is henpecked . " On a more positive note , her relationship with Shepherd was included in AOL TV 's list of the " Best TV Couples of All Time " and in the same list by TV Guide . During the sixth season the development of the character was praised , Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV commented that " You gotta love Mer when she 's gloomy . " , in addition to praising Pompeo 's performance . In her review of the episode Tainted Obligation she wrote " I felt for Meredith , but after Lexie 's heartfelt begging and pleading , I was happy that Mere finally grows up and casts her selfishness aside . Three seasons ago Meredith would never have dreamed of putting Lexie first , and I was proud of her for giving up part of her liver — her offer to get to know her dad was an even bigger milestone . " Reviewing the first part of the eighth season , TV Fanatic lauded the character and wrote : " this season belongs to Meredith Grey . She is the heart and soul of the show and has been outstanding . This is a character that used to be so dark and twisty and has now grown into a more mature woman . Ellen Pompeo has been at the top of her game this season . "
Wit & Fancy praised the transformation of the character and stated , " Of course Meredith will still make rash decisions like when she took off with Zola , or tampered with the trial but she does things out of love and the kindness of her heart now and not because she is dark and twisty . Considering where Meredith was at the beginning and where she is now , I think she went through a remarkable journey and did more than just growing up , she finally became “ all whole and healed “ . "
Maura O 'Malley of Bustle also lauded the development of the character ahead of season 12 saying , " When the series began , Meredith was just a girl sitting in a bar celebrating the exciting next phase of her life . She had graduated medical school , she was starting her residency at a prestigious hospital , and she was simply looking for a no @-@ strings attached , one night stand . What she got instead was a complicated romantic relationship that rivals Romeo and Juliet — but the key is , she wasn 't searching for love . Working and learning were — and continue to be — her priorities , while McDreamy was simply an added perk . Hopefully , the new season of Grey 's Anatomy will reflect this change in tone , because Meredith is a strong , independent woman — and she will be just fine . "
Later in the series , Ellen Pompeo received critical acclaim with numerous critics lauding her portrayal of the character . Reviewing the episode She 's Leaving Home CarterMatt called her the " anchor " for Grey 's saying , " Throughout , this was an episode completely anchored by Ellen Pompeo , who has done some of her best work ever on the show the past couple of weeks . Tonight , she cried , she fought , and she learned that she was carrying his child . " and added that Pompeo is often " ovelooked " saying , " Her subtlety is probably why she is often overlooked . " Rick Porter of Zap2it reviewing " How to Save a Life " wrote , " Without Meredith , and without one of Pompeo 's strongest performances in her long time on the show , " How to Save a Life " would have run the risk of coming across as a baldly manipulative death episode , the likes of which the show has done several times before . He added . " How to Save a Life " may not be the ideal Emmy @-@ submission episode for Pompeo , considering Meredith is off screen for more than half of it . But it 's among the best work she 's ever done on the show . " USA Today also lauded Pompeo saying , " In some ways , the episode ( How to Save a Life ) was even more of a showcase for Pompeo . She had some of the more memorable and well @-@ played scenes , from her angry response to the doctor who tries to tell her what her choices are , to her resignation when she realizes she has to comfort and motivate the young doctor whose mistakes cost Derek his life . "
The relation between Meredith and Cristina has been acclaimed and been a highlight of the show . Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald considered the friendship to be " the secret core of Grey 's " . Aisha Harris of Slate called their relation The Best Female Friendship on TV adding that " With those two characters , showrunner Shonda Rhimes and her team of writers created one of the most nuanced and realistic portrayals of female friendship on television . " Samantha Highfill of Entertainment Weekly called Cristina and Meredith the best female friends on TV because " they don ’ t try to be " . There ’ s nothing fake about them , which is a rarity in how female friends are portrayed on television . She further went on to call them ' soulmates ' , " And even though they ’ d never dare get sappy enough to say it , they ’ re soul mates . Margaret Lyons of Vulture ( magazine ) called the friendship " dream BFF relationship . " and the primary focus of the show , " One of the series ' calling cards has been its depiction of female friendship and particularly the primacy that friendship enjoyed over romantic relationships . "
E ! at the time of Sandra Oh 's exit wrote , " In Grey 's Anatomy 's 10 @-@ year history , the doctor duo has been through a lot together : weddings , deaths , plane crashes , bomb threats , shooting , you name it , they 've lived ( and danced ) through it . " and added , " And with the three words , " You 're my person . " Cristina Yang and Meredith Grey solidified their status as the small screen 's best best friends ever . " Marama Whyte of Hypable wrote , " Critically , the key relationship in Meredith ’ s life was not her romance with Derek Shepherd , but her passionate , indestructible , absolutely enviable friendship with Cristina . Talk about relationship goals ; who wants McDreamy when Cristina Yang could be your person . These two were the real powerhouse , and Shonda Rhimes didn ’ t shy away from making the audience remember this . Derek was the love of her life , but Cristina was her soul mate . More than anyone else , Cristina challenged Meredith , was honest with her , and inspired her . For these reasons , it was Cristina who was constantly the source of Meredith ’ s character development , not Derek . "
Pompeo 's character has also been used to define the image a strong woman , Bustle previewing the 12th sesson wrote , " Meredith Grey has always been capable of being on her own . Grey 's Anatomy is about Meredith 's journey . Men and romantic interests are a part of her life , but they are not the priority . She doesn 't need McDreamy . Grey 's Anatomy doesn 't need McDreamy . So even if the writers do decide to create a new love interest for Ms. Grey ( Martin Henderson , perhaps ? ) , it wouldn 't matter . I have faith that the show 's writers will do this storyline justice , because TV needs more strong single women — and Meredith seems like the perfect candidate . " The site added , " This past season was almost a trial run for a McDreamy @-@ less Grey 's Anatomy . When Derek left for Washington D.C. to pursue his research , Meredith stayed behind and focused on her own career . She didn 't chase him . Her priority were her children and the Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital . Meredith showed that she would never put aside her own dreams and aspirations for a man , and I believe that this won 't change after Derek 's death . "
= = = Awards = = =
Pompeo has won and has been nominated for multiple awards for her portrayal of Grey . She and the Grey 's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards . During the following year 's ceremony , she was named Best Actress in a Television Drama Series . She was among the Grey 's Anatomy cast members awarded the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series accolade at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards , and received nominations in the same category in 2006 and 2008 . Pompeo received a Best Performance by an Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 64th Golden Globe Awards – the program won Best Drama Series at the same ceremony . Also in 2007 , Pompeo and the female cast and crew of Grey 's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award , which honors those " whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women . "
Pompeo 's performance has garnered her multiple People 's Choice Awards . At the 37th People 's Choice Awards , she was nominated against Dempsey and Oh in the Favorite TV Doctor category , and the following year , she was a contender in the Favorite TV Drama Actress category . Since 2012 Pompeo has received nomination at the People 's Choice Awards every year in two categories at 40th People 's Choice Awards alongside Patrick Dempsey and Sandra Oh respectively . She won the Best Drama Actress Award at both the 39th People 's Choice Awards and the 41st People 's Choice Awards . In 2007 , show @-@ business awards reporter Tom O 'Neil commented that Pompeo was overdue an Emmy Award nomination for her role in Grey 's Anatomy . Readers of O 'Neil 's awards website , The Envelope , included Pompeo in their 2009 nominations for Best Drama Actress in the site 's Gold Derby TV Awards . Entertainment Weekly launched the EWwy Awards in 2008 , to honor actors who have not received Emmy nominations . Pompeo was nominated in the Best Actress in a Drama Series category , and placed fourth , with 19 percent of readers ' votes .
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= Pinniped =
Pinnipeds ( / ˈpɪnᵻˌpɛdz / ) , ( from Latin pinna " fin " and pes , pedis " foot " ) commonly known as seals , are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous , fin @-@ footed , semiaquatic marine mammals . They comprise the extant families Odobenidae ( whose only living member is the walrus ) , Otariidae ( the eared seals : sea lions and fur seals ) , and Phocidae ( the earless seals , or true seals ) . There are 33 extant species of pinnipeds , and more than 50 extinct species have been described from fossils . While seals were historically thought to have descended from two ancestral lines , molecular evidence supports them as a monophyletic lineage ( descended from one ancestral line ) . Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and their closest living relatives are bears and musteloids ( weasels , raccoons , skunks and red pandas ) , having diverged about 50 million years ago .
Seals range in size from the 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) Baikal seal to the 5 m ( 16 ft ) and 3 @,@ 200 kg ( 7 @,@ 100 lb ) southern elephant seal , which is also the largest carnivoran . Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism . They have streamlined bodies and four limbs that are modified into flippers . Though not as fast in the water as dolphins , seals are more flexible and agile . Otariids use their front limbs primarily to propel themselves through the water , while phocids and walruses use their hind limbs . Otariids and walruses have hind limbs that can be pulled under the body and used as legs on land . By comparison , terrestrial locomotion by phocids is more cumbersome . Otariids have visible external ears , while phocids and walruses lack these . Pinnipeds have well @-@ developed senses — their eyesight and hearing are adapted for both air and water , and they have an advanced tactile system in their whiskers or vibrissae . Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths . They have a layer of fat , or blubber , under the skin to keep warm in the cold water , and , other than the walrus , all species are covered in fur .
Although pinnipeds are widespread , most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . They spend most of their lives in the water , but come ashore to mate , give birth , molt or escape from predators , like sharks and killer whales . They feed largely on fish and marine invertebrates ; but a few , like the leopard seal , feed on large vertebrates , such as penguins and other seals . Walruses are specialized for feeding on bottom @-@ dwelling mollusks . Male pinnipeds typically mate with more than one female ( polygyny ) , although the degree of polygyny varies with the species . The males of land @-@ breeding species tend to mate with a greater number of females than those of ice- or water @-@ breeding species . Male pinniped strategies for reproductive success vary between defending females , defending territories that attract females and performing ritual displays or lek mating . Pups are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear almost all the responsibility for raising them . Mothers of some species fast and nurse their young for a relatively short period of time while others take foraging trips at sea between nursing bouts . Walruses are known to nurse their young while at sea . Seals produce a number of vocalizations , notably the barks of California sea lions , the gong @-@ like calls of walruses and the complex songs of Weddell seals .
The meat , blubber and fur coats of pinnipeds have traditionally been used by indigenous peoples of the Arctic . Seals have been depicted in various cultures worldwide . They are commonly kept in captivity and are even sometimes trained to perform tricks and tasks . Once relentlessly hunted by commercial industries for their products , seals and walruses are now protected by international law . The Japanese sea lion and the Caribbean monk seal have become extinct in the past century , while the Mediterranean monk seal and Hawaiian monk seal are ranked Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Besides hunting , pinnipeds also face threats from accidental trapping , marine pollution , and conflicts with local people .
= = Taxonomy = =
The German naturalist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger was the first to recognize the pinnipeds as a distinct taxonomic unit ; in 1811 he gave the name Pinnipedia to both a family and an order . American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen reviewed the world 's pinnipeds in an 1880 monograph , History of North American pinnipeds , a monograph of the walruses , sea @-@ lions , sea @-@ bears and seals of North America . In this publication , he traced the history of names , gave keys to families and genera , described North American species and provided synopses of species in other parts of the world . In 1989 , Annalisa Berta and colleagues proposed the unranked clade Pinnipedimorpha to contain the fossil genus Enaliarctos and modern seals as a sister group . Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and the suborder Caniformia ( known as dog @-@ like carnivorans ) . Pinnipedia was historically considered its own suborder under Carnivora . Of the three extant families , the Otariidae and Odobenidae are grouped in the superfamily Otarioidea , while the Phocidae belong to the superfamily Phocoidea .
Otariids are also known as eared seals due to the presence of pinnae . These animals rely on their well @-@ developed fore @-@ flippers to propel themselves through the water . They can also turn their hind @-@ flippers forward and " walk " on land . The anterior end of an otariid 's frontal bones extends between the nasal bones , and the supraorbital foramen is large and flat horizontally . The supraspinatous fossas are divided by a " secondary spine " and the bronchi are divided anteriorly . Otariids consist of two types : sea lions and fur seals . Sea lions are distinguished by their rounder snouts and shorter , rougher pelage , while fur seals have more pointed snouts , longer fore @-@ flippers and thicker fur coats that include an undercoat and guard hairs . The former also tend to be larger than the latter . Five genera and seven species ( one now extinct ) of sea lion are known to exist , while two genera and nine species of fur seal exist . While sea lions and fur seals have historically been considered separate subfamilies ( Otariinae and Arctocephalinae respectively ) , a 2001 genetic study found that the northern fur seal is more closely related to several sea lion species . This is supported by a 2006 molecular study that also found that the Australian sea lion and New Zealand sea lion are more closely related to Arctocephalus than to other sea lions .
Odobenidae consists of only one living member : the modern walrus . This animal is easily distinguished from other extant pinnipeds by its larger size ( exceeded only by the elephant seals ) , nearly hairless skin and long upper canines , known as tusks . Like otariids , walruses are capable of turning their hind @-@ flippers forward and can walk on land . When moving in water , the walrus relies on its hind @-@ flippers for locomotion , while its fore @-@ flippers are used for steering . In addition , the walrus lacks external ear flaps . Walruses have pterygoid bones that are broad and thick , frontal bones that are V @-@ shaped at the anterior end and calcaneuses with pronounced tuberosity in the middle .
Phocids are known as true or " earless " seals . These animals lack external ear flaps and are incapable of turning their hind @-@ flippers forward , which makes them more cumbersome on land . In water , true seals swim by moving their hind @-@ flippers and lower body from side to side . Phocids have thickened mastoids , enlarged entotympanic bones , everted pelvic bones and massive ankle bones . They also lack supraorbital processes on the frontal and have underdeveloped calcaneal tubers . A 2006 molecular study supports the division of phocids into two monophyletic subfamilies : Monachinae , which consists of Mirounga , Monachini and Lobodontini ; and Phocinae , which includes Pusa , Phoca , Halichoerus , Histriophoca , Pagophilus , Erignathus and Cystophora .
In a 2012 review of pinniped taxonomy , Berta and Morgan Churchill suggested that , based on morphological and genetic criteria , there are 33 extant species and 29 subspecies of pinnipeds , although five of the latter lack sufficient support to be conclusively considered subspecies . They recommend that the genus Arctocephalus be limited to Arctocephalus pusillus , and they resurrected the name Arctophoca for several species and subspecies formerly placed in Arctocephalus . More than 50 fossil species have been described .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
One popular hypothesis suggested that pinnipeds are diphyletic ( descended from two ancestral lines ) , with walruses and otariids sharing a recent common ancestor with bears and phocids sharing one with Musteloidea . However , morphological and molecular evidence support a monophyletic origin . Nevertheless , there is some dispute as to whether pinnipeds are more closely related to bears or musteloids , as some studies support the former theory and others the latter . Pinnipeds split from other caniforms 50 million years ago ( mya ) during the Eocene . Their evolutionary link to terrestrial mammals was unknown until the 2007 discovery of Puijila darwini in early Miocene deposits in Nunavut , Canada . Like a modern otter , Puijila had a long tail , short limbs and webbed feet instead of flippers . However , its limbs and shoulders were more robust and Puijila likely had been a quadrupedal swimmer – retaining a form of aquatic locomotion that give rise to the major swimming types employed by modern pinnipeds . The researchers who found Puijila placed it in a clade with Potamotherium ( traditionally considered a mustelid ) and Enaliarctos . Of the three , Puijila was the least specialized for aquatic life . The discovery of Puijila in a lake deposit suggests that pinniped evolution went through a freshwater transitional phase .
Enaliarctos , a fossil species of late Oligocene / early Miocene ( 24 – 22 mya ) California , closely resembled modern pinnipeds ; it was adapted to an aquatic life with a flexible spine , and limbs modified into flippers . Its teeth were adapted for shearing ( like terrestrial carnivorans ) , and it may have stayed near shore more often than its extant relatives . Enaliarctos was capable of swimming with both the fore @-@ flippers and hind @-@ flippers , but it may have been more specialized as a fore @-@ flipper swimmer . One species , Enaliarctos emlongi , exhibited notable sexual dimorphism , suggesting that this physical characteristic may have been an important driver of pinniped evolution . A closer relative of extant pinnipeds was Pteroarctos , which lived in Oregon 19 – 15 mya . As in modern seals , Pteroarctos had an orbital wall that was not limited by certain facial bones ( like the jugal or lacrimal bone ) , but was mostly shaped by the maxilla .
The lineages of Otariidae and Odobenidae split almost 28 mya . Otariids originated in the North Pacific . The earliest fossil Pithanotaria , found in California , is dated to 11 mya . The Callorhinus lineage split earlier at 16 mya . Zalophus , Eumetopias and Otaria diverged next , with the latter colonizing the coast of South America . Most of the other otariids diversified in the Southern Hemisphere . The earliest fossils of Odobenidae — Prototaria of Japan and Proneotherium of Oregon — date to 18 – 16 mya . These primitive walruses had much shorter canines and lived on a fish diet rather than a specialized mollusk diet like the modern walrus . Odobenids further diversified in the middle and late Miocene . Several species had enlarged upper and lower canines . The genera Valenictus and Odobenus developed elongated tusks . The lineage of the modern walrus may have spread from the North Pacific to the Caribbean ( via the Central American Seaway ) 8 – 5 mya and subsequently made it to the North Atlantic and returned to the North Pacific via the Arctic 1 mya . Alternatively , this lineage may have spread from the North Pacific to the Arctic and subsequently the North Atlantic during the Pleistocene .
The ancestors of the Otarioidea and Phocoidea diverged 33 mya . The Phocidae are likely to have descended from the extinct family Desmatophocidae in the North Atlantic . Desmatophocids lived 23 – 10 mya and had elongated skulls , fairly large eyes , cheekbones connected by a mortised structure and rounded cheek teeth . They also were sexually dimorphic and may have been capable of propelling themselves with both the foreflippers and hindflippers .
Phocids are known to have existed for at least 15 mya , and molecular evidence supports a divergence of the Monachinae and Phocinae lineages 22 mya . The fossil monachine Monotherium and phocine Leptophoca were found in southeastern North America . The deep split between the lineages of Erignathus and Cystophora 17 mya suggests that the phocines migrated eastward and northward from the North Atlantic . The genera Phoca and Pusa could have arisen when a phocine lineage traveled from the Paratethys Sea to the Arctic Basin and subsequently went eastward . The ancestor of the Baikal seal migrated into Lake Baikal from the Arctic ( via the Siberian ice sheet ) and became isolated there . The Caspian seal 's ancestor became isolated as the Paratethys shrank , leaving the animal in a small remnant sea , the Caspian Sea . The monochines diversified southward . Monachus emerged in the Mediterranean and migrated to the Caribbean and then the central North Pacific . The two extant elephant seal species diverged close to 4 mya after the Panamanian isthmus was formed . The lobodontine lineage emerged around 9 mya and colonized the southern ocean in response to glaciation .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Pinnipeds have streamlined , spindle @-@ shaped bodies with reduced or non @-@ existent external ear flaps , rounded heads , flexible necks , limbs modified into flippers , and small tails . Pinniped skulls have large eye orbits , short snouts and a constricted interorbital region . They are unique among carnivorans in that their orbital walls are significantly shaped by the maxilla and are not limited by certain facial bones . Compared to other carnivorans , their teeth tend to be fewer in number ( especially incisors and back molars ) , are pointed and cone @-@ shaped , and lack carnassials . The walrus has unique upper canines that are elongated into tusks . The mammary glands and genitals of pinnipeds can retract into the body .
Pinnipeds range in size from the 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) and 45 kg ( 99 lb ) Baikal seal to the 5 m ( 16 ft ) and 3 @,@ 200 kg ( 7 @,@ 100 lb ) southern elephant seal . Overall , they tend to be larger than other carnivorans ; the southern elephant seal is the largest carnivoran . Several species have male @-@ biased sexual dimorphism that correlates with the degree of polygyny in a species : highly polygynous species like elephant seals are extremely sexually dimorphic , while less polygynous species have males and females that are closer in size . In lobodontine seals , females are slightly larger than males . Males of sexually dimorphic species also tend to have secondary sex characteristics , such as the prominent proboscis of elephant seals , the inflatable red nasal membrane of hooded seals and the thick necks and manes of otariids . Despite a correlation between size dimorphism and the degree of polygyny , some evidence suggests that size differences between the sexes originated due to ecological differences and prior to the development of polygyny .
Almost all pinnipeds have fur coats , the exception being the walrus , which is only sparsely covered . Even some fully furred species ( particularly sea lions ) are less haired than most land mammals . In species that live on ice , young pups have thicker coats than adults . The individual hairs on the coat , known collectively as lanugo , can trap heat from sunlight and keep the pup warm . Pinnipeds are typically countershaded , and are darker colored dorsally and lighter colored ventrally , which serves to eliminate shadows caused by light shining over the ocean water . The pure white fur of harp seal pups conceals them in their Arctic environment . Some species , such as ribbon seals , ringed seals and leopard seals , have patterns of contrasting light and dark coloration . All fully furred species molt ; phocids molt once a year , while otariids gradually molt all year . Seals have a layer of subcutaneous fat known as blubber that is particularly thick in phocids and walruses . Blubber serves both to keep the animals warm and to provide energy and nourishment when they are fasting . It can constitute as much as 50 % of a pinniped 's body weight . Pups are born with only a thin layer of blubber , but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos .
Pinnipeds have a simple stomach that is similar in structure to terrestrial carnivores . Most species have neither a cecum nor a clear demarcation between the small and large intestines ; the large intestine is comparatively short and only slightly wider than the latter . Small intestine lengths range from 8 ( California sea lion ) to 25 times ( elephant seal ) the body length . The length of the intestine may be an adaptation to frequent deep diving , as the increased volume of the digestive tract serves as an extended storage compartment for partially digested food during submersion . Pinnipeds do not have an appendix . As in most marine mammals , the kidneys are divided into small lobes and can effectively absorb water and filter out excess salt .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Pinnipeds have two pairs of flippers on the front and back , the fore @-@ flippers and hind @-@ flippers . The elbows and ankles are enclosed within the body . Pinnipeds tend to be slower swimmers than cetaceans , typically cruising at 5 – 15 kn ( 9 – 28 km / h ; 6 – 17 mph ) compared to around 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) for several species of dolphin . Seals are more agile and flexible , and some otariids , such as the California sea lion , are capable of bending their necks backwards far enough to reach their hind @-@ flippers , allowing them to make dorsal turns . Pinnipeds have several adaptions for reducing drag . In addition to their streamlined bodies , they have smooth networks of muscle bundles in their skin that may increase laminar flow and make it easier for them to slip through water . They also lack arrector pili , so their fur can be streamlined as they swim .
When swimming , otariids rely on their fore @-@ flippers for locomotion in a wing @-@ like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles . Fore @-@ flipper movement is not continuous , and the animal glides between each stroke . Compared to terrestrial carnivorans , the fore @-@ limbs of otariids are reduced in length , which gives the locomotor muscles at the shoulder and elbow joints greater mechanical advantage ; the hind @-@ flippers serve as stabilizers . Phocids and walruses swim by moving their hind @-@ flippers and lower body from side to side , while their fore @-@ flippers are mainly used for steering . Some species leap out of the water , which may allow then to travel faster . In addition , sea lions are known to " ride " waves , which probably helps them decrease their energy usage .
Pinnipeds can move around on land , though not as well as terrestrial animals . Otariids and walruses are capable of turning their hind @-@ flippers forward and under the body so they can " walk " on all fours . The fore @-@ flippers move in a transverse , rather than a sagittal fashion . Otariids rely on the movements of their heads and necks more than their hind @-@ flippers during terrestrial locomotion . By swinging their heads and necks , otariids create momentum while they are moving . Sea lions have been recorded climbing up flights of stairs . Phocids are less agile on land . They cannot pull their hind @-@ flippers forward , and move on land by lunging , bouncing and wiggling while their fore @-@ flippers keep them balanced . Some species use their fore @-@ flippers to pull themselves forward . Terrestrial locomotion is easier for phocids on ice , as they can sled along .
= = = Senses = = =
The eyes of pinnipeds are relatively large for their size and are positioned near the front of the head . One exception is the walrus , whose smaller eyes are located on the sides of its head . This is because it feeds on immobile bottom dwelling mollusks and hence does not need acute vision . A seal 's eye is adapted for seeing both underwater and in air . The lens is mostly spherical , and much of the retina is equidistant from the lens center . The cornea has a flattened center where refraction is nearly equal in both water and air . Pinnipeds also have very muscular and vascularized irises . The well @-@ developed dilator muscle gives the animals a great range in pupil dilation . When contracted , the pupil is typically pear @-@ shaped , although the bearded seal 's is more diagonal . In species that live in shallow water , such as harbor seals and California sea lions , dilation varies little , while the deep @-@ diving elephant seals have much greater variation .
On land , pinnipeds are near @-@ sighted in dim light . This is reduced in bright light , as the retracted pupil reduces the lens and cornea 's ability to bend light . They also have a well @-@ developed tapetum lucidum , a reflecting layer that increases sensitivity by reflecting light back through the rods . This helps them see in low @-@ light conditions . Ice @-@ living seals like the harp seal have corneas that can tolerate high levels of ultraviolet radiation typical of bright , snowy environments . As such , they do not suffer snow blindness . Pinnipeds appear to have limited color vision , as they lack S @-@ cones . Flexible eye movement has been documented in seals . The extraocular muscles of the walrus are well developed . This and its lack of orbital roof allow it to protrude its eyes and see in both frontal and dorsal directions . Seals release large amounts of mucus to protect their eyes . The corneal epithelium is keratinized and the sclera is thick enough to withstand the pressures of diving . As in many mammals and birds , pinnipeds possess nictitating membranes .
The pinniped ear is adapted for hearing underwater , where it can hear sound frequencies at up to 70 @,@ 000 Hz . In air , hearing is somewhat reduced in pinnipeds compared to many terrestrial mammals . While they are capable of hearing a wide range of frequencies ( e.g. 500 to 32 @,@ 000 Hz in the northern fur seal , compared to 20 to 20 @,@ 000 Hz in humans ) , their airborne hearing sensitivity is weaker overall . One study of three species — the harbor seal , California sea lion and northern elephant seal — found that the sea lion was best adapted for airborne hearing , the harbor seal was equally capable of hearing in air and water , and the elephant seal was better adapted for underwater hearing . Although pinnipeds have a fairly good sense of smell on land , it is useless underwater as their nostrils are closed .
Pinnipeds have well @-@ developed tactile senses . Their mystacial vibrissae have ten times the innervation of terrestrial mammals , allowing them to effectively detect vibrations in the water . These vibrations are generated , for example , when a fish swims through water . Detecting vibrations is useful when the animals are foraging and may add to or even replace vision , particularly in darkness . Harbor seals have been observed following varying paths of another seal that swam ahead several minutes before , similar to a dog following a scent trail , and even to discriminate the species and the size of the fish responsible for the trail . Blind ringed seals have even been observed successfully hunting on their own in Lake Saimaa , likely relying on their vibrissae to gain sensory information and catch prey .
Unlike terrestrial mammals , such as rodents , pinnipeds do not move their vibrissae over an object when examining it but instead extend their moveable whiskers and keep them in the same position . By holding their vibrissae steady , pinnipeds are able to maximize their detection ability . The vibrissae of phocids are undulated and wavy while otariid and walrus vibrissae are smooth . Research is ongoing to determine the function , if any , of these shapes on detection ability . The vibrissa 's angle relative to the flow , not the shape , however , seems to be the most important factor . The vibrissae of some otariids grow quite long — those of the Antarctic fur seal can reach 41 cm ( 16 in ) . Walruses have the most vibrissae , at 600 – 700 individual hairs . These are important for detecting their prey on the muddy sea floor . In addition to foraging , vibrissae may also play a role in navigation ; spotted seals appear to use them to detect breathing holes in the ice .
= = = Diving adaptations = = =
Before diving , pinnipeds typically exhale to empty their lungs of half the air and then close their nostrils and throat cartilages to protect the trachea . Their unique lungs have airways that are highly reinforced with cartilaginous rings and smooth muscle , and alveoli that completely deflate during deeper dives . While terrestrial mammals are generally unable to empty their lungs , pinnipeds can reinflate their lungs even after complete respiratory collapse . The middle ear contains sinuses that probably fill with blood during dives , preventing middle ear squeeze . The heart of a seal is moderately flattened to allow the lungs to deflate . The trachea is flexible enough to collapse under pressure . During deep dives , any remaining air in their bodies is stored in the bronchioles and trachea , which prevents them from experiencing decompression sickness , oxygen toxicity and nitrogen narcosis . In addition , seals can tolerate large amounts of lactic acid , which reduces skeletal muscle fatigue during intense physical activity .
The main adaptations of the pinniped circulatory system for diving are the enlargement and increased complexity of veins to increase their capacity . Retia mirabilia form blocks of tissue on the inner wall of the thoracic cavity and the body periphery . These tissue masses , which contain extensive contorted spirals of arteries and thin @-@ walled veins , act as blood reservoirs that increase oxygen stores for use during diving . As with other diving mammals , pinnipeds have high amounts of hemoglobin and myoglobin stored in their blood and muscles . This allows them to stay submerged for long periods of time while still having enough oxygen . Deep @-@ diving species such as elephant seals have blood volumes that make up to 20 % of their body weight . When diving , they reduce their heart rate and maintain blood flow only to the heart , brain and lungs . To keep their blood pressure stable , phocids have an elastic aorta that dissipates some energy of each heartbeat .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
Pinnipeds conserve heat with their large and compact body size , insulating blubber and fur , and high metabolism . In addition , the blood vessels in their flippers are adapted for countercurrent exchange . Veins containing cool blood from the body extremities surround arteries , which contain warm blood received from the core of the body . Heat from the arterial blood is transferred to the blood vessels , which then recirculate blood back to the core . The same adaptations that conserve heat while in water tend to inhibit heat loss when out of water . To counteract overheating , many species cool off by flipping sand onto their backs , adding a layer of cool , damp sand that enhances heat loss . The northern fur seal pants to help stay cool , while monk seals often dig holes in the sand to expose cooler layers to rest in .
= = = Sleep = = =
Pinnipeds spend many months at a time at sea , so they must sleep in the water . Scientists have recorded them sleeping for minutes at a time while slowly drifting downward in a belly @-@ up orientation . Like other marine mammals , seals sleep in water with half of their brain awake so that they can detect and escape from predators . When they are asleep on land , both sides of their brain go into sleep mode .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Living pinnipeds mainly inhabit polar and subpolar regions , particularly the North Atlantic , the North Pacific and the Southern Ocean . They are entirely absent from Indo @-@ Malayan waters . Monk seals and some otariids live in tropical and subtropical waters . Seals usually require cool , nutrient @-@ rich waters with temperatures lower than 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Even those that live in warm or tropical climates live in areas that become cold and nutrient rich due to current patterns . Only monk seals live in waters that are not typically cool or rich in nutrients . The Caspian seal and Baikal seal are found in large landlocked bodies of water ( the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal respectively ) .
As a whole , pinnipeds can be found in a variety of aquatic habitats , including coastal water , open ocean , brackish water and even freshwater lakes and rivers . Most species inhabit coastal areas , though some travel offshore and feed in deep waters off oceanic islands . The Baikal seal is the only freshwater species , though some ringed seals live in freshwater lakes in Russia close to the Baltic sea . In addition , harbor seals may visit estuaries , lakes and rivers and sometimes stay as long as a year . Other species known to enter freshwater include California sea lions and South American sea lions . Pinnipeds also use a number of terrestrial habitats and substrates , both continental and island . In temperate and tropical areas , they haul @-@ out on to sandy and pebble beaches , rocky shores , shoals , mud flats , tide pools and in sea caves . Some species also rest on man @-@ made structures , like piers , jetties , buoys and oil platforms . Pinnipeds may move further inland and rest in sand dunes or vegetation , and may even climb cliffs . Polar @-@ living species haul @-@ out on to both fast ice and pack ice .
= = Behavior and life history = =
Pinnipeds have an amphibious lifestyle ; they spend most of their lives in the water , but haul @-@ out to mate , raise young , molt , rest , thermoregulate or escape from aquatic predators . Several species are known to migrate vast distances , particularly in response to extreme environmental changes , like El Niño or changes in ice cover . Elephant seals stay at sea 8 – 10 months a year and migrate between breeding and molting sites . The northern elephant seal has one of the longest recorded migration distance for a mammal , at 18 @,@ 000 – 21 @,@ 000 km ( 11 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 mi ) . Phocids tend to migrate more than otariids . Traveling seals may use various features of their environment to reach their destination including geomagnetic fields , water and wind currents , the position of the sun and moon and the taste and temperature of the water .
Pinnipeds may dive during foraging or to avoid predators . When foraging , Weddell seals typically dive for less than 15 minutes to depths of around 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) but can dive for as long as 73 minutes and to depths of up to 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . Northern elephant seals commonly dive 350 – 650 m ( 1 @,@ 150 – 2 @,@ 130 ft ) for as long as 20 minutes . They can also dive 1 @,@ 259 – 4 @,@ 100 m ( 4 @,@ 131 – 13 @,@ 451 ft ) and for as long as 62 minutes . The dives of otariids tend to be shorter and less deep . They typically last 5 – 7 minutes with average depths to 30 – 45 m ( 98 – 148 ft ) . However , the New Zealand sea lion has been recorded diving to a maximum of 460 m ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) and a duration of 12 minutes . Walruses do not often dive very deep , as they feed in shallow water .
Pinnipeds have lifespans averaging 25 – 30 years . Females usually live longer , as males tend to fight and often die before reaching maturity . The longest recorded lifespans include 43 years for a wild female ringed seal and 46 years for a wild female grey seal . The age at which a pinniped sexually matures can vary from 2 – 12 years depending on the species . Females typically mature earlier than males .
= = = Foraging and predation = = =
All pinnipeds are carnivorous and predatory . As a whole , they mostly feed on fish and cephalopods , followed by crustaceans and bivalves , and then zooplankton and endothermic ( " warm @-@ blooded " ) prey like sea birds . While most species are generalist and opportunistic feeders , a few are specialists . Examples include the crabeater seal , which primarily eats krill , the ringed seal , which eats mainly crustaceans , the Ross seal and southern elephant seal , which specialize on squid , and the bearded seal and walrus , which feed on clams and other bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates . Pinnipeds may hunt solitarily or cooperatively . The former behavior is typical when hunting non @-@ schooling fish , slow @-@ moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey . Solitary foraging species usually exploit coastal waters , bays and rivers . An exception to this is the northern elephant seal , which feeds on fish at great depths in the open ocean . In addition , walruses feed solitarily but are often near other walruses in small or large groups that may surface and dive in unison . When large schools of fish or squid are available , pinnipeds such as certain otariids hunt cooperatively in large groups , locating and herding their prey . Some species , such as California and South American sea lions , may forage with cetaceans and sea birds .
Seals typically consume their prey underwater where it is swallowed whole . Prey that is too large or awkward is taken to the surface to be torn apart . The leopard seal , a prolific predator of penguins , is known to violently swing its prey back and forth until it is decapitated . The elaborately cusped teeth of filter @-@ feeding species , such as crabeater seals , allow them to remove water before they swallow their planktonic food . The walrus is unique in that it consumes its prey by suction feeding , using its tongue to suck the meat of a bivalve out of the shell . While pinnipeds mostly hunt in the water , South American sea lions are known to chase down penguins on land . Some species may swallow stones or pebbles for reasons not understood . Though they can drink seawater , pinnipeds get most of their fluid intake from the food they eat .
Pinnipeds themselves are subject to predation . Most species are preyed on by the killer whale or orca . To subdue and kill seals , orcas continuously ram them with their heads , slap them with their tails and fling them in the air . They are typically hunted by groups of 10 or fewer whales , but they are occasionally hunted by larger groups or by lone individuals . Pups are more commonly taken by orcas , but adults can be targeted as well . Large sharks are another major predator of pinnipeds — usually the great white shark but also the tiger shark and mako shark . Sharks usually attack by ambushing them from below . The prey usually escapes , and seals are often seen with shark @-@ inflicted wounds . Otariids typically have injuries in the hindquarters , while phocids usually have injuries on the forequarters .
Pinnipeds are also targeted by terrestrial and pagophilic predators . The polar bear is well adapted for hunting Arctic seals and walruses , particularly pups . Bears are known to use sit @-@ and @-@ wait tactics as well as active stalking and pursuit of prey on ice or water . Other terrestrial predators include cougars , brown hyenas and various species of canids , which mostly target the young . Pinnipeds lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups . Some species are capable of inflicting damaging wounds on their attackers with their sharp canines — an adult walrus is capable of killing polar bears . When out at sea , northern elephant seals dive out of the reach of surface @-@ hunting orcas and white sharks . In the Antarctic , which lacks terrestrial predators , pinniped species spend more time on the ice than their Arctic counterparts . Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual , appear more restless when hauled out , and rarely defecate on the ice . Ringed seals would build dens underneath fast ice .
Interspecific predation among pinnipeds does occur . The leopard seal is known to prey on numerous other species , especially the crabeater seal . Leopard seals typically target crabeater pups , which form an important part of their diet from November to January . Older crabeater seals commonly bear scars from failed leopard seal attacks ; a 1977 study found that 75 % of a sample of 85 individual crabeaters had these scars . Walruses , despite being specialized for feeding on bottom @-@ dwelling invertebrates , occasionally prey on Arctic seals . They kill their prey with their long tusks and eat their blubber and skin . Steller sea lions have been recorded eating the pups of harbor seals , northern fur seals and California sea lions . New Zealand sea lions feed on pups of some fur seal species , and the South American sea lion may prey on South American fur seals .
= = = Reproductive behavior = = =
The mating system of pinnipeds varies from extreme polygyny to serial monogamy . Of the 33 species , 20 breed on land , and the remaining 13 breed on ice . Species that breed on land are usually polygynous , as females gather in large aggregations and males are able to mate with them as well as defend them from rivals . Polygynous species include elephant seals , grey seals and most otariids . Land @-@ breeding pinnipeds tend to mate on islands where there are fewer terrestrial predators . Few islands are favorable for breeding , and those that are tend to be crowded . Since the land they breed on is fixed , females return to the same sites for many years . The males arrive earlier in the season and wait for them . The males stay on land and try to mate with as many females as they can ; some of them will even fast . If a male leaves the beach to feed , he will likely lose mating opportunities and his dominance . Polygynous species also tend to be extremely sexual dimorphic in favor of males . This dimorphism manifests itself in larger chests and necks , longer canines and denser fur — all traits that help males in fights for females . Increased body weight in males increases the length of time they can fast due to the ample energy reserves stored in the blubber . Larger males also likely enjoy access to feeding grounds that smaller ones are unable to access due to their lower thermoregulatory ability and decreased energy stores . In some instances , only the largest males are able to reach the furthest deepest foraging grounds where they enjoy maximum energetic yields that are unavailable to smaller males and females .
Other seals , like the walrus and most phocids , breed on ice with copulation usually taking place in the water ( a few land @-@ breeding species also mate in water ) . Females of these species tend to aggregate less . In addition , since ice is less stable than solid land , breeding sites change location each year , and males are unable to predict where females will stay during the breeding season . Hence polygyny tends to be weaker in ice @-@ breeding species . An exception to this is the walrus , where females form dense aggregations perhaps due to their patchy food sources . Pinnipeds that breed on fast ice tend to cluster together more than those that breed on pack ice . Some of these species are serially monogamous , including the harp seal , crabeater seal and hooded seal . Seals that breed on ice tend to have little or no sexual dimorphism . In lobodontine seals , females are slightly longer than males . Walruses and hooded seals are unique among ice @-@ breeding species in that they have pronounced sexual dimorphism in favor of males .
Adult male pinnipeds have several strategies to ensure reproductive success . Otariids establish territories containing resources that attract females , such as shade , tide pools or access to water . Territorial boundaries are usually marked by natural breaks in the substrate , and males defend their territorial boundaries with threatening vocalizations and postures , but physical fights are usually avoided . Individuals also return to the same territorial site each breeding season . In certain species , like the Steller sea lion and northern fur seal , a dominant male can maintain a territory for as long as 2 – 3 months . Females can usually move freely between territories and males are unable to coerce them , but in some species such as the northern fur seal , South American sea lion and Australian sea lion , males can successfully contain females in their territories and prevent them from leaving . In some phocid species , like the harbor seal , Weddell seal and bearded seal , the males have underwater territories called " maritories " near female haul @-@ out areas . These are also maintained by vocalizations . The maritories of Weddell seal males can overlap with female breathing holes in the ice .
Lek systems are known to exist among some populations of walruses . These males cluster around females and try to attract them with elaborate courtship displays and vocalizations . Lekking may also exist among California sea lions , South American fur seals , New Zealand sea lions and harbor seals . In some species , including elephant seals and grey seals , males will try to lay claim to the desired females and defend them from rivals . Elephant seal males establish dominance hierarchies with the highest ranking males — the alpha males — maintaining harems of as many as 30 – 100 females . These males commonly disrupt the copulations of their subordinates while they themselves can mount without inference . They will , however , break off mating to chase off a rival . Grey seal males usually claim a location among a cluster of females whose members may change over time . Male harp seals , crabeater seals and hooded seals follow and defend lactating females in their vicinity — usually one or two at a time , — and wait for them to reach estrus .
Younger or subdominant male pinnipeds may attempt to achieve reproductive success in other ways . Subadult elephant seals will sneak into female clusters and try to blend in by pulling in their noses . They also harass and attempt to mate with females that head out to the water . In otariid species like the South American and Australian sea lions , non @-@ territorial subadults form " gangs " and cause chaos within the breeding rookeries to increase their chances of mating with females . Alternative mating strategies also exist in young male grey seals , which do have some success . Female pinnipeds do appear to have some choice in mates , particularly in lek @-@ breeding species like the walrus , but also in elephant seals where the males try to dominate all the females that they want to mate with . When a female elephant seal or grey seal is mounted by an unwanted male , she tries to squirm and get away , while croaking and slapping him with her tail . This commotion attracts other males to the scene , and the most dominant will end the copulation and attempt to mate with the female himself . Dominant female elephant seals stay in the center of the colony where they are more likely to mate with a dominant male , while peripheral females are more likely to mate with subordinates . Female Steller sea lions are known to solicit mating with their territorial males .
= = = Birth and parenting = = =
With the exception of the walrus , which has five- to six @-@ year @-@ long inter @-@ birth intervals , female pinnipeds enter estrous shortly after they give birth . All species go through delayed implantation , wherein the embryo remains in suspended development for weeks or months before it is implanted in the uterus . Delayed implantation postpones the birth of young until the female hauls @-@ out on land or until conditions for birthing are favorable . Gestation in seals ( including delayed implantation ) typically lasts a year . For most species , birthing takes place in the spring and summer months . Typically , single pups are born ; twins are uncommon and have high mortality rates . Pups of most species are born precocial .
Mother pinnipeds have different strategies for maternal care and lactation . Phocids such as elephant seals , grey seals and hooded seals remain on land or ice and fast during their relatively short lactation period – four days for the hooded seal and five weeks for elephant seals . The milk of these species consist of up to 60 % fat , allowing the young to grow fairly quickly . In particular , northern elephant seal pups gain 4 kg ( 9 lb ) each day before they are weaned . Some pups may try to steal extra milk from other nursing mothers and gain weight more quickly than others . Alloparenting occurs in these fasting species ; while most northern elephant seal mothers nurse their own pups and reject nursings from alien pups , some do accept alien pups with their own .
For otariids and some phocids like the harbor seal , mothers fast and nurse their pups for a few days at a time . In between nursing bouts , the females leave their young onshore to forage at sea . These foraging trips may last anywhere between a day and two weeks , depending on the abundance of food and the distance of foraging sites . While their mothers are away , the pups will fast . Lactation in otariids may last 6 – 11 months ; in the Galápagos fur seal it can last as long as 3 years . Pups of these species are weaned at lower weights than their phocid counterparts . Walruses are unique in that mothers nurse their young at sea . The female rests at the surface with its head held up , and the young suckle upside down .
Male pinnipeds generally play little role in raising the young . Male walruses may help inexperienced young as they learn to swim , and have even been recorded caring for orphans . Male California sea lions have been observed to help shield swimming pups from predators . Males can also pose threats to the safety of pups . In terrestrially breeding species , pups may get crushed by fighting males . Subadult male South America sea lions sometimes abduct pups from their mothers and treat them like adult males treat females . This helps them gain experience in controlling females . Pups can get severely injured or killed during abductions .
= = = Communication = = =
Pinnipeds can produce a number of vocalizations such as barks , grunts , rasps , rattles , growls , creaks , warbles , trills , chirps , chugs , clicks and whistles . Vocals are produced both in air and underwater . Otariids are more vocal on land , while phocids are more vocal in water . Antarctic seals are more vocal on land or ice than Arctic seals due to a lack of terrestrial and pagophliic predators like the polar bear . Male vocals are usually of lower frequencies than those of the females . Vocalizations are particularly important during the breeding seasons . Dominant male elephant seals advertise their status and threaten rivals with " clap @-@ threats " and loud drum @-@ like calls that may be modified by the proboscis . Male otariids have strong barks , growls , roars and " whickers " . Male walruses are known to produce distinctive gong @-@ like calls when attempting to attract females . They can also create somewhat musical sounds with their inflated throats .
The Weddell seal has perhaps the most elaborate vocal repertoire with separate sounds for airborne and underwater contexts . Underwater vocals include trills , chugs , chirps , chugs and knocks . The calls appear to contain prefixes and suffixes that serve to emphasize a message . The underwater vocals of Weddell seals can last 70 seconds , which is long for a marine mammal call . Some calls have around seven rhythm patterns and are comparable to birdsongs and whalesongs . Similar calls have been recorded in other lobodontine seals and in bearded seals . In some pinniped species , there appear to be geographic differences in vocalizations , known as dialects , while certain species may even have individual variations in expression . These differences are likely important for mothers and pups who need to remain in contact on crowded beaches . Otariid females and their young use mother @-@ pup attraction calls to help them reunite when the mother returns from foraging at sea . Female pinnipeds are also known to bellow when protecting their young .
While most vocals are audible to the human ear , a captive leopard seal was recorded making ultrasonic calls underwater . In addition , the vocals of northern elephant seals may produce infrasonic vibrations . Non @-@ vocal communication is not as common in pinnipeds as in cetaceans . Nevertheless , when disturbed by intruders harbor seals and Baikal seals may slap their fore @-@ flippers against their bodies as warnings . Teeth chattering , hisses and exhalations are also made as aggressive warnings . Visual displays also occur : Weddell seals will make an S @-@ shaped posture when patrolling under the ice , and Ross seals will display the stripes on their chests and teeth when approached . Male hooded seals use their inflatable nasal membranes to display to and attract females .
= = = Intelligence = = =
In a match @-@ to @-@ sample task study , a single California sea lion was able to demonstrate an understanding of symmetry , transitivity and equivalence ; a second seal was unable to complete the tasks . They demonstrate the ability to understand simple syntax and commands when taught an artificial sign language , though they only rarely used the signs semantically or logically . In 2011 , a captive California sea lion named Ronan was recorded bobbing its head in synchrony to musical rhythms . This " rhythmic entrainment " was previously seen only in humans , parrots and other birds possessing vocal mimicry . In 1971 , a captive harbor seal named Hoover was trained to imitate human words , phrases and laughter . For sea lions used in entertainment , trainers toss a ball at the animal so it may accidentally balance it or hold the ball on its nose , thereby gaining an understanding of the behavior desired . It may require a year to train a sea lion to perform a trick for the public . Its long @-@ term memory allows it to perform a trick after at least three months of non @-@ performance .
= = Human relations = =
= = = Cultural depictions = = =
Various human cultures have depicted pinnipeds for millennia . The anthropologist , A. Asbjørn Jøn , has analysed beliefs of the Celts of Orkney and Hebrides who believed in the selkie — seals that could change into humans and walk on land . Seals are also of great importance in the culture of the Inuit . In Inuit mythology , the goddess Sedna rules over the sea and marine animals . She is depicted as a mermaid , occasionally with a seal 's lower body . In one legend , seals , whales and other marine mammals were formed from her severed fingers . One of the earliest Ancient Greek coins depicts the head of a seal , and the animals were mentioned by Homer and Aristotle . The Greeks believed that seals loved both the sea and sun and were considered to be under the protection of the gods Poseidon and Apollo . The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped the sea and its animals , and often depicted sea lions in their art . In modern popular culture , pinnipeds are often depicted as comical figures based on their performances in zoos , circuses and marine mammal parks .
= = = In captivity = = =
Pinnipeds have been kept in captivity since at least the 17th century and can be found in facilities around the world . Their large size and playfulness make them popular attractions . Some exhibits have rocky backgrounds with artificial haul @-@ out sites and a pool , while others have pens with small rocky , elevated shelters where the animals can dive into their pools . More elaborate exhibits contain deep pools that can be viewed underwater with rock @-@ mimicking cement as haul @-@ out areas . The most common pinniped species kept in captivity is the California sea lion as it is abundant and easy to train . These animals are used to perform tricks and entertain visitors . Other species popularly kept in captivity include the grey seal and harbor seal . Larger animals like walruses and Steller sea lions are much less common . Some organizations , such as the Humane Society of the United States and World Animal Protection , object to keeping pinnipeds and other marine mammals in captivity . They state that the exhibits could not be large enough to house animals that have evolved to be migratory , and a pool could never replace the size and biodiversity of the ocean . They also oppose using sea lions for entertainment , claiming the tricks performed are " exaggerated variations of their natural behaviors " and distract the audience from the animal 's unnatural environment .
California sea lions are used in military applications by the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program , including detecting naval mines and enemy divers . In the Persian Gulf , the animals can swim behind divers approaching a U.S. naval ship and attach a clamp with a rope to the diver 's leg . Navy officials say that the sea lions can do this in seconds , before the enemy realizes what happened . Organizations like PETA believe that such operations put the animals in danger . The Navy insists that the sea lions are removed once their mission is complete .
= = = Conservation and management issues = = =
As of 2013 , International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) recognizes 35 pinniped species . Two species — the Japanese sea lion and the Caribbean monk seal — are recently extinct , and ten more are considered at risk , as they are ranked " Critically Endangered " ( the Mediterranean and Hawaiian monk seals ) , " Endangered " ( Galápagos fur seal , Australian sea lion , Caspian seal and Galápagos sea lion ) , and " Vulnerable " ( northern fur seal , hooded seal and New Zealand sea lion ) . Three species — the walrus , the ribbon seal , and the spotted seal — have a " Data Deficient " ranking . Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing climate change , particularly declines in sea ice . There has been some debate over the cause of the decline of Steller sea lions in Alaska since the 1970s .
Humans have hunted seals since the Stone Age . Originally , seals were hit with clubs during haul @-@ out . Eventually , seal hunters used harpoons to spear the animals from boats out at sea , and hooks for killing pups on ice or land . They were also trapped in nets . The use of firearms in seal hunting during the modern era drastically increased the number of killings . Pinnipeds are typically hunted for their meat and blubber . The skins of fur seals and phocids are made into coats , and the tusks of walruses continue to be used for carvings or as ornaments . There is a distinction between the subsistence hunting of seals by indigenous peoples of the Arctic and commercial hunting : subsistence hunters typically use seal products for themselves and depend on them for survival . National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of killing are seen as less destructive and wasteful . This distinction is being questioned as indigenous people are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with , and are selling seal products in the marketplace . Some anthropologists argue that the term " subsistence " should also apply to these cash @-@ based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption . More than 100 @,@ 000 phocids ( especially ringed seals ) as well as around 10 @,@ 000 walruses are harvested annually by native hunters .
Commercial sealing was historically just as important an industry as whaling . Exploited species included harp seals , hooded seals , Caspian seals , elephant seals , walruses and all species of fur seal . The scale of seal harvesting decreased substantially after the 1960s , after the Canadian government reduced the length of the hunting season and implemented measures to protect adult females . Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers ; for example , Antarctic fur seals may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting . The northern elephant seal was hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century , with only a small population remaining on Guadalupe Island . It has since recolonized much of its historic range , but has a population bottleneck . Conversely , the Mediterranean monk seal was extirpated from much of its former range , which stretched from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea and northwest Africa , and only remains in the northeastern Mediterranean and some parts of northwest Africa .
Several species of pinniped continue to be harvested . The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals allows limited hunting of crabeater seals , leopard seals and Weddell seals . However , Weddell seal hunting is prohibited between September and February if the animal is over one year of age , to ensure breeding stocks are healthy . Other species protected are southern elephant seals , Ross seals and Antarctic fur seals . The Government of Canada permits the hunting of harp seals . This has been met with controversy and debate . Proponents of seal hunts insist that the animals are killed humanely and the white @-@ coated pups are not taken , while opponents argue that it is irresponsible to kill harp seals as they are already threatened by declining habitat .
The Caribbean monk seal has been killed and exploited by Europeans settlers and their descendants since 1494 , starting with Christopher Columbus himself . The seals were easy targets for organized sealers , fishermen , turtle hunters and buccaneers because they evolved with little pressure from terrestrial predators and were thus " genetically tame " . In the Bahamas , as many as 100 seals were slaughtered in one night . In the mid @-@ nineteenth century , the species was thought to have gone extinct until a small colony was found near the Yucatán Peninsula in 1886 . Seal killings continued , and the last reliable report of the animal alive was in 1952 . The IUCN declared it extinct in 1996 . The Japanese sea lion was common around the Japanese islands , but overexploitation and competition from fisheries drastically decreased the population in the 1930s . The last recorded individual was a juvenile in 1974 .
Some species have become so numerous that they conflict with local people . In the United States , pinnipeds and other marine mammals are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 ( MMPA ) . Since that year , California sea lion populations have risen to 250 @,@ 000 . These animals began exploiting more man @-@ made environments , like docks , for haul @-@ out sites . Many docks are not designed to withstand the weight of several resting sea lions , which causes major tilting and other problems . Wildlife managers have used various methods to control the animals , and some city officials have redesigned docks so they can better withstand them . Sea lions also conflict with fisherman since both depend on the same fish stocks . In 2007 , MMPA was amended to permit the lethal removal of sea lions from salmon runs at Bonneville Dam . The 2007 law seeks to relieve pressure on the crashing Pacific Northwest salmon populations . Wildlife officials have unsuccessfully attempted to ward off the sea lions using bombs , rubber bullets and bean bags . Efforts to chase sea lions away from the area have also proven ineffective . Critics like the Humane Society object to the killing of the sea lions , claiming that hydroelectric dams pose a greater threat to the salmon . Similar conflicts have existed in South Africa with brown fur seals . In the 1980s and 1990s , South African politicians and fisherman demanded that the fur seals be culled , believing that the animals competed with commercial fisheries . Scientific studies found that culling fur seals would actually have a negative effect on the fishing industry , and the culling option was dropped in 1993 .
Pinnipeds can also be threatened by humans in more indirect ways . They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries and accidentally swallow fishing hooks . Gillnetting and Seine netting is a significant cause of mortality in seals and other marine mammals . Species commonly entangled include California sea lions , Hawaiian monk seals , northern fur seals and brown fur seals . Pinnipeds are also affected by marine pollution . High levels of organic chemicals accumulate in these animals since they are near the top of food chains and have large reserves of blubber . Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young . These pollutants can cause gastrointestinal cancers , decreased reproductivity and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases . Other man @-@ made threats include habitat destruction by oil and gas exploitation , encroachment by boats and underwater noise .
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= Murder of Robert Eric Wone =
Robert Eric Wone was murdered in Washington , D.C. in August 2006 in the home of a college friend , Joe Price . Wone , who was 32 years old at the time , was a lawyer living in suburban Oakton , Virginia , but had been working as general counsel at Radio Free Asia in downtown Washington , D.C. He had stayed the night at the home of friends located about one mile from his office . According to police affidavits , Wone was believed to have been " restrained , incapacitated , and sexually assaulted " before his death . The murder was not committed by an intruder unknown to residents of the home Price , Victor Zaborsky and Dylan Ward .
Within days of the murder , D.C. police alleged that the crime scene had been tampered with , but no charges were filed for over two years . In late 2008 , police charged Price , Zaborsky and Ward with obstruction of justice and conspiracy related to alleged tampering with the crime scene . The men were acquitted of the charges in June 2010 . No one has been charged with Wone 's killing . In November 2008 , Wone 's widow filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Price , Zaborsky and Ward ; the suit was settled on August 3 , 2011 for an undisclosed sum and agreement .
= = Crime = =
Late on August 2 , 2006 , Robert Eric Wone was fatally stabbed while staying overnight at a Swann Street , NW townhouse in Washington , D.C. , owned by Joseph Price ( a / k / a Joseph Anderson ) and his domestic partner Victor Zaborsky , where they lived with Dylan Ward ( a / k / a Dylan Thomas ) in a polyamourous relationship as a family . Wone had gone to Price 's residence at approximately 10 : 30 PM after working late , as had been arranged days before . Neighbors reported hearing a scream , later identified as Zaborsky 's , during the 11 : 00 PM newscast ( i.e. before 11 : 35 PM ) . Zaborsky made a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call at 11 : 49 PM , and paramedics arrived five minutes later , followed by the police . Price phoned Wone 's wife , and Wone was pronounced dead at George Washington University Hospital at 12 : 24 AM on August 3 .
Price , Zaborsky and Ward all initially spoke with the police without attorneys , and video recordings of those interviews were shown at the subsequent conspiracy trial . They denied any involvement in the death and speculated that an intruder had killed Wone . The three also denied any sexual relationship with Wone , and Wone 's family have described him as both " straight and happily married " . All three men attended Wone 's funeral , where Price served as a pallbearer . Eric Holder , who worked at that time at Covington & Burling , called Wone " a kind and gentle man " who was " killed in the most horrible of ways " .
= = Investigation = =
Paramedics responding to the emergency call " found the three residents ’ calm behavior unusual ; none was screaming or even helping direct the paramedics . " According to Ward 's attorney , detectives who interrogated the three housemates on the night of the murder informed them that they were the main suspects in the case , and asked many sexually charged , accusatory questions . Three days after the murder , the Gay and Lesbian Liaison Unit of the D.C. police were called in , but unit head Sgt. Brett Parson declined to discuss the unit 's involvement . Within two weeks of the murder , police publicly alleged that the crime scene had been tampered with . Investigators spent more than three weeks examining the townhouse in detail , " removing flooring , pieces of walls , a chunk of staircase , the washing machine , even sink traps . " Allegations that the area around Wone 's body had been cleaned were revealed in an affidavit in support of a search warrant for homeowner Joseph Price 's offices at the D.C. law firm of Arent Fox .
= = = Burglary = = =
Three months after Wone 's death , Price 's brother and an accomplice burgled the Swann Street residence ; they took more than $ 7 @,@ 000 of electronic equipment . Two individuals , including Price 's brother , were charged with the burglary , but those charges were later dropped . In 2007 , D.C. police revealed that they had been preparing to make an arrest in the Wone murder case in 2006 , but that the burglary had derailed those plans . Police have not revealed the name of the arrest target , nor the charge ( s ) that would have been filed .
= = = Lack of progress = = =
In August 2007 The Washington Post reported Katherine Wone 's frustration with the FBI crime lab , " It has been trying at times as we continue to wait for the FBI to complete their analysis of all the samples that were taken . " Over one year the case had been transferred to three separate prosecutors , earning it " vagabond status " in the U.S. Attorneys ' office . On the one @-@ year anniversary of Wone 's death , Katherine Wone held a press conference to appeal for public assistance in finding the killer , her first public comment on the case . During the press conference , Holder publicly pleaded with the three residents to provide additional information , saying " You need to ask yourself , ' Have I provided police with all the information I know ? ' " Interested parties , such as the OCA , used the first anniversary of Wone 's death to criticize what they deemed police inaction in the investigation . In contrast to the first anniversary of Wone 's murder , there was no press conference on the second anniversary , and neither the Wone family nor police made any statements to the press .
= = = Arrests and charges = = =
An obstruction of justice charge was filed in October 2008 against housemate Dylan Ward , who had since moved to Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida and was living in a home owned by Price . In November 2008 , Price and Zaborsky were arrested and also charged with obstruction of justice . All three men were later released pending trial , but subject to electronic monitoring and curfews . On December 19 , 2008 , additional charges of conspiracy were filed against all three men . During the same hearing , the electronic monitoring and curfew restrictions for the three defendants were ended and prosecutors announced the possibility that charges related to tampering with evidence could be filed in the future .
The affidavit filed by authorities supporting the arrest warrant for Ward showed that investigators had concluded the men were not telling the truth about what happened . The report states " The evidence demonstrates that Robert Wone was restrained , incapacitated , sexually assaulted , and murdered inside 1509 Swann Street , " and there exists " overwhelming evidence , far in excess of probable cause " that Price , Zaborsky , and Ward " obstructed justice by altering and orchestrating the crime scene , planting evidence , delaying the reporting of the murder to the authorities , and lying to the police about the true circumstances of the murder . " Lawyers for the three accused men have called the affidavit " speculation , innuendo , assumptions , and irrelevant inflammatory comments " and maintain their clients ' innocence . Price and Zaborsky were domestic partners , and the affidavit alleges that Price had previously had a sexual relationship with Ward . Washington attorney Dale Sanders opined that the release of the extensively detailed affidavit was intended to turn one of the housemates , presumably Ward , against the others , and hypothesized that it indicated prosecutors lacked sufficient evidence to charge any of the housemates with additional crimes without the cooperation of a witness .
Officials believe that a knife from the kitchen had been smeared with blood and placed near the body , while a duplicate of the knife which was missing from a set found in Ward 's bedroom would have been more consistent with the wounds to Wone 's body . The autopsy revealed evidence of some degree of suffocation , perhaps by a pillow , and puncture marks on his neck , chest , foot and hand . Though no toxins were found in his blood , a lack of evidence of struggle led investigators to suspect Wone had been injected with a paralytic agent . Cadaver dogs found a blood residue in a dryer lint trap and the patio drain , which detectives believe may be evidence that someone washed themselves in the back patio area , and dried wet clothes in the dryer . City Paper Columnist Jason Cherkis reported unattributed criticism of the medical examiner 's failure to test for exotic drugs and to keep a sample of Wone 's blood for later testing , as well as detectives ' failure to follow up on a lint trap that had attracted a cadaver dog 's attention . Price 's lawyer has challenged the timing of the indictments , has said that the civil suit " looked unseemly " , and questioned whether the prosecutors and Wone family attorneys were acting in concert .
In April , 2009 , prosecutors disclosed that two emails had been drafted on Wone 's BlackBerry " at a time when prosecutors believed Wone dead " . An independent criminal law attorney noted that " The defense will argue that this is consistent with their claim that the murder happened quickly by an intruder and it was not a long , drawn @-@ out effort to sexually assault Wone before he was killed , as the government is alleging . " Previously a court filing indicated the government intended to release a personal profile that Price allegedly used on ALT.com , " a sexually oriented web site specializing in S & M practices " .
Formal defense in the conspiracy case began on June 17 , 2010 , and concluded without any of the defendants testifying .
Judge Lynn Leibovitz found each of the three men not guilty of charges of conspiracy , obstruction of justice and tampering with evidence on June 29 , 2010 . Leibovitz , in explaining her ruling for almost an hour from the bench , stated that she personally believed that the men knew who killed Wone , but was not convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that they committed the offenses with which they were charged .
= = = Civil lawsuit = = =
On November 25 , 2008 , Wone 's widow Katherine filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the three men , largely based on the police affidavit . The lawsuit alleged " defendants ' negligent failure to rescue Robert Wone after he was injured , defendants ' destruction of evidence of Robert Wone ’ s murder , and defendants ' conspiracy to destroy evidence and obstruct the police investigation into Robert Wone ’ s murder . " The suit was settled August 3 , 2011 for an undisclosed sum and agreement . Prior to his nomination as United States Attorney General , Eric Holder advised Wone 's widow on a pro bono basis .
= = Aftermath = =
Wone 's death has proven to be one of Washington , D.C. ' s most mysterious homicide cases . The Washington Examiner listed the Wone case , in light of the arrests , as one of eight top crime stories in D.C. for 2008 . The Washington Blade stated that the case " has captured the interest of the gay community because it occurred inside the home of a prominent gay male couple . " In March 2009 , a MyFoxDC.com story on the crime highlighted a website ( Whomurderedrobertwone.com ) cataloging the investigative efforts of " four amateur sleuths who live in the neighborhood " .
Since Wone 's death , multiple organizations have established scholarships and other memorials in his name , including the Virginia Department of Social Services " Robert E. Wone Award for Exemplary Service " ; the annual " Robert E. Wone Judicial Clerkship & Internship Conference , " which rotates among the D.C. area law schools , including Georgetown University Law Center , American University Washington College of Law , and Howard University School of Law ; a workroom at OCA headquarters ; the " Robert E. Wone Fellowship " of the Asian Pacific American Bar Association Educational Fund ; the " Robert E. Wone Scholarship " of OCA 's New Jersey Chapter ; the " Robert E. Wone Memorial Trust , " administered by the Community Foundation of the National Capital Region ; and the " Robert E. Wone Clinical Fellowship " at the University of Pennsylvania Law School , including a room in the law school 's Civil Practice Clinic . On October 22 , 2011 , family and friends gathered at Barksdale Field at the College of William and Mary to dedicate two benches and two Chinese pistache trees in Robert 's memory . The plaques on the benches read " Rest awhile and enjoy the wonderful world around you , " a reference to one of Wone 's favorite songs by Louis Armstrong , It 's a Wonderful World .
= = Victim = =
Robert Eric Wone ( June 1 , 1974 – August 3 , 2006 ) was a fourth generation Chinese American , born in Manhattan and raised in Brooklyn , New York . After graduating from Xaverian High School as salutatorian of his class , he attended The College of William and Mary as a James Monroe Scholar . There , Wone met Joseph Price , then a senior , in the 1992 – 93 academic year . Wone and Price shared several activities , including an honor society and student government leadership positions , before Price graduated in 1993 . During 1993 , the Richmond Times Dispatch published an opinion piece co @-@ written by Wone , criticizing a prior Times Dispatch article on William and Mary faculty . Graduating in 1996 , Wone then received his law degree with honors from the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1999 . He subsequently served as law clerk to Judge Raymond A. Jackson of the Federal District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia . Wone later worked in commercial real estate law for six years as an associate with the Washington , D.C. , firm of Covington & Burling . As part of his public service responsibilities with the law firm , Wone served as general counsel for the Organization of Chinese Americans ( OCA ) . On June 7 , 2003 , Wone married Katherine Ellen Yu , and the couple lived in Fairfax County . On June 30 , 2006 , about two months before he was killed , Wone left Covington & Burling and was hired as general counsel for Radio Free Asia . Wone was very active within the Asian American community , supporting organizations such as OCA and the Museum of Chinese in the Americas . At the time of his death , he was president @-@ elect of the Asian Pacific American Bar Association .
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= Ivan the Russian =
Ivan the Russian ( Bulgarian : Иван Русина , Ivan Rusina ; Hungarian : Orosz Iván ) ( fl . 1288 / 1323 – 1332 ) was a 14th @-@ century Bulgarian military leader of Russian origin who served Bulgarian tsars Michael Shishman and Ivan Alexander . Prior to joining the armed forces of the Second Bulgarian Empire , Ivan the Russian may have been a military commander in the service of the Hungarian governor of Severin .
Ivan the Russian rose to a high rank in the Bulgarian military in the wake of the accession of Michael Shishman to the throne . In 1323 , he was in charge of the Bulgarian defence of Plovdiv during the prolonged and ultimately successful Byzantine siege of the city . In 1328 , he was involved in a failed Bulgarian attempt to capture the Byzantine capital Constantinople from within . Probably taking part in the turbulent events that surrounded and followed Michael Shishman 's death , Ivan the Russian was last mentioned as a representative of Ivan Alexander in 1332 .
= = Early years and siege of Plovdiv = =
Bulgarian historian Plamen Pavlov conjectures that Ivan the Russian was a Ruthenian born in the Kingdom of Galicia – Volhynia ( centred on modern western Ukraine ) , a hypothesis based only on his ties to Hungary , the western neighbour of Galicia – Volhynia . Hungarian sources from 1288 make notice of one Russian named Ivan ( Iwan dicto Oroz ) as an ally of the ban of Severin , Theodore Vejtehi from the kindred Csanád , who was one of the nobles that opposed the rule of Charles I of Hungary in 1316 – 1317 . The land to the south of Severin was governed for Bulgaria by the despot of Vidin , Michael Shishman , a supporter of Vejtehi . Thus , as the Hungarian king established his authority over Severin and suppressed Vejtehi 's rebellion , Ivan the Russian may have fled to Vidin and entered the service of Michael Shishman . Ivan is thought to have been joined , as a commander subordinate to the despot of Vidin , by his personal forces which consisted of Hungarians and , presumably , Russians .
While Hungarian scholar György Györffy supports the identification of Ivan the Russian as the Iwan dicto Oroz of Hungarian chronicles , historian István Vásáry points to the lack of clear evidence and the large time span between the two . Before that identification was proposed , it was considered that Ivan had arrived in Bulgaria after fleeing the Mongol conquest of Rus ' , much like another Russian in Bulgarian service , Jacob Svetoslav . Either way , in 1323 Ivan 's right @-@ hand man was a Hungarian named Inas .
Michael Shishman 's accession to the Bulgarian throne in 1323 meant that Ivan the Russian assumed an elite rank in the Bulgarian military hierarchy . Pavlov theorizes that he became protostrator , a title borrowed from Byzantium . The title was held by the second @-@ in @-@ command of the army and was approximate to the Western marshal . In the same year , Ivan was dispatched to the city of Plovdiv ( Philippopolis ) which had been recently conquered by Bulgaria after decades of Byzantine rule . With a one @-@ thousand @-@ strong cavalry force of Alans , Bulgarians and possibly Hungarians and two thousand infantrymen , Ivan was to defend the city from Byzantine raids . In that task he was assisted by his deputy Inas and the Alan chieftains Itil and Temir . At the time , Ivan was already well @-@ known even in Byzantium as a military commander .
The Bulgarian forces commanded by Ivan the Russian managed to withstand the four @-@ month siege of Plovdiv undertaken by Andronikos III Palaiologos , claimant to the Byzantine throne , and his Bulgarian ally Voysil , despot of Kopsis . In their attempts to capture the city , the Byzantines employed German specialists to construct a siege machine , from which they fired with crossbows at the Bulgarian defenders . Despite the elaborate siege tactics , by the summer of 1323 the Bulgarians had not only retained the city , but also launched raids on nearby Byzantine @-@ held fortresses in the Rhodope Mountains , such as Stenimachos ( modern Asenovgrad ) and Tsepina . Plovdiv was lost , however , to the Byzantines soon thereafter . As Ivan 's forces were leaving the city to meet the Bulgarian garrison that was to replace them , the pro @-@ Byzantine inhabitants of Plovdiv opened the city gates and let a covert Byzantine detachment in .
= = Anti @-@ Byzantine plot and later career = =
The loss of Plovdiv did not seem to have had a profound effect on Ivan 's career , and he remained a royal favourite . In 1328 , Ivan was tasked by Tsar Michael Shishman with the defence of the Great Palace of Constantinople , the residence of emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos . Andronikos II , facing imminent defeat at the hands of his grandson and co @-@ emperor Andronikos III in a protracted civil war , was distrustful of his own guard , and had requested the assistance of Michael Shishman . The Bulgarian emperor sent Ivan the Russian along with 3 @,@ 000 horsemen to Constantinople in aid . In the words of Byzantine historian Nikephoros Gregoras , the actual intentions of Michael Shishman were to use Ivan and his men as a Trojan Horse . In a suitable moment , the Bulgarian guard would arrest the emperor and take hold of the palace before allowing Michael Shishman with a large army and Tatar mercenaries into Constantinople .
In accordance with the plan , Ivan and his cavalry approached Constantinople while Michael Shishman waited in Yambol with his army . The plot was uncovered by the spies of Andronikos III . Fearing for his own imperial ambitions , he wrote to his rival and grandfather not to accept the Bulgarians into the capital . While Ivan stuck to the plan and signed an oath that he had come with peace to persuade the Byzantines , he promptly retreated to Bulgarian territory upon receiving that order from Michael Shishman .
Ivan 's role in the final years of Tsar Michael Shishman 's reign and the rule of Ivan Stephen is uncertain , as he is not mentioned in the sources pertaining to that period . His high @-@ ranking position nevertheless leads Pavlov to conjecture that Ivan took part in the Battle of Velbazhd of 28 July 1330 , a Serbian victory over Bulgaria that paved the way to the Serbian dominance of the Balkans in the mid @-@ 14th century . Michael Shishman was killed in the battle and succeeded by his son Ivan Stephen ( 1330 – 1331 ) . Pavlov believes that Ivan the Russian was among the Bulgarian nobles that ousted the weak Ivan Stephen in 1331 and placed Ivan Alexander ( 1331 – 1371 ) on the throne . It is also probable that Ivan the Russian took part in the Bulgarian victory over Byzantium at Rusokastro in 1332 because he was last recorded as Ivan Alexander 's representative in the peace negotiations that followed .
= = Assessment = =
Ivan the Russian was held in high regard by John VI Kantakouzenos , writer and later Byzantine emperor who likely personally faced Ivan in battle . In his History , Kantakouzenos calls Ivan a man “ skilled in strategy ” . Kantakouzenos also referred to Ivan as “ one of Bulgaria 's illustrious people ” in his writings . Czech historian Konstantin Josef Jireček , a prominent researcher of Bulgarian history , assesses Ivan as “ the most clear @-@ cut figure of a Bulgarian military leader ” of that age . In the eyes of Pavlov , despite his foreign origin Ivan the Russian was not considered an emigrant or a mercenary by the Bulgarian nobility and the emperor , but rather a trusted commander and one of their own .
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= Lethal Inspection =
" Lethal Inspection " is the sixth episode of the sixth season of the animated sitcom Futurama , originally aired on July 22 , 2010 on Comedy Central . In the episode Bender learns that he suffers from a terminal manufacturing defect , effectively rendering him mortal . Bender must cope with his newfound mortality and enlists Hermes Conrad 's help to track down the mysterious quality inspector , Inspector No. 5 , whom he blames for allowing him to enter the world only to die .
The episode was written by Eric Horsted and directed by Ray Claffey . From June 8 to June 15 , as part of its " Countdown to Futurama " event , Comedy Central Insider , Comedy Central 's news outlet , released various preview materials for the episode , including a storyboard of Bender 's and Hermes ' entry into the Central Bureaucracy and character designs for the war reenactment sequence . " Lethal Inspection " received positive reviews from critics , who viewed the emotional ending to be a return to form that the season had been missing .
= = Plot = =
After a reenactment of the " Sith @-@ al War " , Bender touts his perfection and " immortality " , specifically citing his ability to download a backup copy of himself into a new working body should anything happen to his present one . Bender soon discovers that he suffers from a terminal manufacturing defect : he is built without a backup unit , making him mortal . He is devastated by the revelation of his mortality and of Inspector No. 5 , believing the inspector 's careless error resulted in him being sent out into the world only to die . He becomes determined to find Inspector No. 5 and demand an answer to why he allowed Bender to exist despite his fatal flaw .
Hermes agrees to help Bender in his quest to discover the identity of Inspector No. 5 , which is locked in the Central Bureaucracy . While at the Central Bureaucracy , Hermes logs into the computer system with his ID to look up Inspector No. 5 's records . However , he and Bender find that the electronic record on Inspector No. 5 has been deleted and that the physical file is also missing . Bender calls Mom 's Friendly Robot Company , who created him , and tells her he is defective . Mom attempts to have Bender destroyed to cover up the existence of a defective robot . The two flee from Mom 's Killbots by train and arrive in Tijuana — where Bender was manufactured .
The original manufacturing plant is abandoned , but Bender finds an old directory listing Inspector No. 5 's address . However , upon reaching the home , they also find it abandoned . Realizing that he may never find the answers he seeks , Bender is forced to confront the reality of death . Hermes consoles him , telling him that now life is precious and he should not spend it bitter and angry . The two bond and soon the Killbots arrive and begin shooting into the house . Hermes tells Bender to flee while he attempts to hack into Inspector No. 5 's old Central Bureaucracy computer and fake Bender 's death . Successful , Hermes uploads false information to the Killbots claiming Bender has been eliminated , which ends their pursuit and he narrowly escapes the burning wreckage of the house .
Back at Planet Express , Bender celebrates his new outlook on life with the other crew members . Meanwhile , Hermes secretly burns Inspector No. 5 's file , whose cover falls away to reveal that he was Inspector No. 5 . A flashback reveals that he overrode the " defective " assessment on Bender to prevent him from being scrapped , then resigned from the company immediately afterward . Hermes ' personnel file was deleted , and he stole his own physical file from the Central Bureaucracy ; the computer at the Tijuana house was his own , so he did not have to hack into it . In the present , Hermes smiles quietly over the burning file , happy in knowing he did the right thing .
= = Production = =
From June 8 to June 15 , as part of its 2010 " Countdown to Futurama " event , Comedy Central Insider , Comedy Central 's news outlet , released various preview materials for the episode , including a storyboard of Bender 's and Hermes ' entry into the Central Bureaucracy and character designs for the war reenactment sequence . The episode is one of the few times where Hermes plays a major role and is key to the plot . The episode ends with " Little Bird , Little Bird " , an American children 's song , performed by Elizabeth Mitchell .
The cultural references in the episode include when Hermes and Bender enter " cubicle room 729 " , with cubicles set up in groups of nine , three rows across and three columns down . In order to get to Hermes ' cubicle , the group rotates right and left and up and down in the same fashion as a Rubik 's Cube . When Hermes 's cubicle stops , he says , " This is mine , right next to the center square , " also referencing the game show Hollywood Squares . The bureaucrat next to Hermes makes a comment and a red ' X ' pops up on his desk . This is a reference to actor and comedian Paul Lynde , who was the regular " center square " on the show .
The episode deals with the concept of realizing one 's mortality and discovering that life is more precious because of it . Learning that he is in fact not immortal as he once thought , Bender initially feels that living a life that is anything less than immortal is worthless . He deals with the devastating news of his newfound mortality by trying to find the one person who he believes can answer his questions about the reason for his life and why he was allowed to " be born " only to die . Though Bender cannot find the answers to his mortality , he ultimately ends up developing a new outlook on life , believing it to be more precious than it was before now that it is finite , and he resolves that life is worth living no matter how brief it is .
= = Reception = =
" Lethal Inspection " originally aired on July 22 , 2010 on Comedy Central . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 1 @.@ 920 million viewers . The episode had a 1 @.@ 3 rating / 2 % share in Nielsen ratings and a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 3 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning 1 @.@ 3 % of households with televisions were watching the episode and 2 % of television viewers during the half @-@ hour were watching this episode . " Lethal Inspection " was down two tenths of a point from the previous week 's episode " The Duh @-@ Vinci Code " .
The episode received acclaim from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave it an A- , praising the unlikely pairing of Bender and Hermes , writing : " If I had to name a character on the show least likely to pluck at my heartstrings , Bender and Hermes would be near the top of the list ... and yet they pulled it off . I 'm not sure if Baby Bender violates continuity or not , but I don 't care . It worked . " Handlen called the episode " more thoughtful " and also felt that the episode provided depth and growth to both Bender and Hermes without compromising characterization . In the case of Hermes , Handlen stated , " Hermes can be an obsessive , number @-@ loving accountant , and still have that memory of his younger self saving Baby Bender from the trash heap . It works because the twist is the discovery of compassion in someone we liked and wanted to love . " Danny Gallagher of TVSquad felt that the episode marked the return of the Futurama 's " true sense of emotion , " comparing it to previous episodes like season four 's " Jurassic Bark " . In particular , Gallagher noted the highly effective use of the Central Bureaucracy , stating that it allowed the show to use a Douglas Adams @-@ feel . Merrill Bar of Film School Rejects stated that the episode worked " 99 @.@ 9 % " and that it recovered what he felt had been lacking from the previous episodes of season six . While he disliked the opening Star Wars gag , he felt that the rest of the episode made up for it , stating that " Lethal Inspection " was " by far , the funniest episode since the shows [ sic ] return . If the writers can keep this up , then my faith will have been fully restored . "
Robert Canning of IGN was also pleased with the episode , noting that Hermes ' and Bender 's team @-@ up worked well and that the ending was cathartic . He found the episode to be his favorite of the new season , giving it a 9 / 10 and stating , " after an okay start , [ it ] turned out to be my favorite episode of this comeback season so far . The more I think about it , the more pleasure I find in it . It was an episode full of laughs , action and the kind of emotional tug the series has been missing of late . " Sean Gandert of Paste gave the episode a rating of 8 @.@ 7 / 10 and wrote : " Judging from this episode and the last it seems like Futurama is intentionally straying away from its old groupings and trying new things . The sixth season is moving off from the repetition of its first two episodes and is all the better for it . " Though he felt the episode was weaker with its jokes , he noted that this " is frequently the case in with episodes that deal more with the characters and less about making jokes in a wacky world . But this isn 't something I think will bother real fans , as that 's part of what 's given Futurama its cult audience in the first place : that the show gives a damn about its characters . "
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= Education in Medieval Scotland =
Education in Medieval Scotland includes all forms of education within the modern borders of Scotland , between the departure of the Romans from Britain in the fifth century , until the establishment of the Renaissance late fifteenth century and early sixteenth century . Few sources on Scottish education survived the Medieval era . In the early Middle Ages , Scotland was an oral society , with verbal rather than literary education . Though there are indications of a Gaelic education system similar to that of Ireland , few details are known . The establishment of Christianity from the sixth century brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools .
In the High Middle Ages , new sources of education arose , such as song and grammar schools designed to train priests with emphases on music and Latin grammar , respectively . The number and size of these schools expanded rapidly after the 1380s . By the end of the Middle Ages , all the main burghs and some small towns had grammar schools . Educational provision was probably much weaker in rural areas , but there were petty or reading schools in rural areas , providing an elementary education . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers that sometimes developed into " household schools " . Girls of noble families were taught in nunneries and by the end of the fifteenth century Edinburgh also had schools for girls . There is documentary evidence for about 100 schools of these different kinds before the Reformation . The Education Act 1496 decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period .
Those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent , and just over 1 @,@ 000 students have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410 . Major intellectual figures produced by Scotland with this system included John Duns Scotus , Walter Wardlaw , William de Tredbrum , Laurence de Lindores and John Mair . This situation was transformed by the founding of St John 's College , St Andrews ( 1418 ) . St Salvator 's College was added to St. Andrews in 1450 , followed by foundations at Glasgow in 1451 and King 's College , Aberdeen in 1495 . Initially , these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law . They provided only basic degrees and those wanting to study for the more advanced degrees , which were common amongst European scholars , needed to go to universities in other countries . In this period , Scottish universities largely had a Latin curriculum , designed for the clergy and civil and canon lawyers . Towards the end of the fifteenth century , a humanist influence and the teaching of Greek was becoming more evident .
= = Gaelic education and monasteries = =
In the early Middle Ages , Scotland was overwhelmingly an oral society and education was verbal rather than literary . Fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there were filidh , who acted as poets , musicians and historians , often attached to the court of a lord or king , and who passed on their knowledge in Gaelic to the next generation . After the " de @-@ gallicisation " of the Scottish court from the twelfth century , a less highly regarded order of bards took over these functions and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century . They often trained in bardic schools , of which a few , such as the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were bards to the Lord of the Isles , existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland , until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century . Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century . Evidence of formal schooling is largely only preserved in place names .
The establishment of Christianity from the sixth century brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools and providing a small , educated and overwhelmingly male , elite , who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society . Literary life revolved around the contemplation of texts and the copying of manuscripts . Libraries were of great importance to monastic communities . The one at Iona may have been exceptional , but it demonstrates that the monks were part of the mainstream of European Christian culture .
= = Schools = =
In the High Middle Ages , new sources of education arose . Choir and grammar schools were designed to train priests , with an emphasis respectively on music and Latin grammar . The reorganisation of the church that began in the reign of David I ( 1124 – 53 ) gave the church a clearer diocesan and parochial structure , meaning that the seats of sheriffdoms , such as Perth , received schools that were usually under monastic patrons . Early examples of grammar schools include the High School of Glasgow in 1124 and the High School of Dundee in 1239 . These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church . The newly created diocesan chancellors may have had authority over cathedral schools and schoolmasters within their diocese .
The new religious orders that became a major feature of Scottish monastic life in this period also brought new educational possibilities and the need to train larger numbers of monks . Benedictine and Augustinian foundations probably had almonry schools , charity schools using funds from the almoner to provide a type of bursary to educate young boys , who might enter the priesthood . At the Cluniac Paisley Abbey , secular chaplains were employed as schoolmasters . Some monasteries , including the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss , Sweetheart Abbey and Beauly , opened their doors to a wider range of students to teach the sons of gentlemen . St Andrews , which was both the seat of a bishop and the site of a major Augustinian foundation , had both a grammar school , under the archdeacon , and a song school , under the priory . The foundation of over 100 collegiate churches of secular priests between 1450 and the Reformation would have necessitated the training of large numbers of choristers . Sometimes , as at Lochwinnoch , they were taught both music and grammar . Dominican friars were noted for their educational achievements and were usually located in urban centres , probably teaching grammar , as at Glasgow and Ayr . The number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s . By the end of the Middle Ages , grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns .
Educational provision was probably much weaker in rural areas , but there were petty or reading schools that provided an elementary education . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers . Sometimes these developed into " household schools " , that may also have catered to neighbours and kin , as well as the sons of the laird 's household , which is known to have happened at Huntly . All these schools were almost exclusively aimed at boys . Girls of noble families were taught in nunneries such as Elcho , Aberdour and Haddington . By the end of the fifteenth century Edinburgh also had schools for girls , sometimes described as " sewing schools " , whose name probably indicates one of their major functions . Although reading may also have been taught in these schools , the students were probably taught by lay women or nuns .
There is documentary evidence for about 100 schools of these different kinds before the Reformation . Most of the schoolmasters of these schools were clergy , and also acted as chaplains of religious foundations , hospitals or private chaplains of noblemen to supplement their merge incomes . To some extent , all education was controlled by different branches of the church , but towards the end of the period there was an increasing lay interest . This sometimes resulted in conflict , as between the burgh of Aberdeen and the cathedral chancellor , when the former appointed a lay graduate as schoolmaster in 1538 , and when a married man was appointed to the similar post in Perth . Education began to widen beyond the training of the clergy , particularly as lay lawyers began to emerge as a profession , with a humanist emphasis on educating the future ruling class for their duties . The growing humanist @-@ inspired emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , thought to have been steered through parliament by the Keeper of the Privy Seal William Elphinstone , Bishop of Aberdeen , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period .
= = Universities = =
From the end of the eleventh century , universities had been founded across Europe , developing as semi @-@ autonomous centres of learning , often teaching theology , mathematics , law and medicine . Until the fifteenth century , those Scots who wished to attend university had to travel to England , to Oxford or Cambridge , or to the Continent . Just over 1 @,@ 000 students have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410 . Among the destinations Paris was the most important , but also Cologne , Orléans , Wittenberg , Louvain and Vienna .
Among these travelling scholars , the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus ( c . 1266 – 1308 ) , who studied at Oxford , Cambridge and Paris . He probably died at Cologne in 1308 , after becoming a major influence on late medieval religious thought . After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence ( 1296 – 1357 ) , with occasional exceptions under safe conduct , English universities were closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant . Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities . At Paris , this included John de Rait ( died c . 1355 ) and Walter Wardlaw ( died c . 1387 ) in the 1340s and 1350s , William de Tredbrum in the 1380s and Laurence de Lindores ( 1372 – 1437 ) in the early 1500s . The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early sixteenth century , of which John Mair ( 1467 – 1550 ) was a member . He had probably studied at a Scottish grammar school and then Cambridge , before moving to Paris where he matriculated in 1493 .
This situation was transformed by the founding of St John 's College , St Andrews in 1418 . Henry Wardlaw , bishop of St. Andrews , petitioned the anti @-@ Pope Benedict XIII during the later stages of the Great Western Schism , when Scotland was one of his few remaining supporters . Wardlaw argued that Scottish scholars in other universities were being persecuted for their loyalty to the anti @-@ Pope . St Salvator 's College was added to St. Andrews in 1450 . The other great bishoprics followed , with the University of Glasgow being founded in 1451 and the King 's College , Aberdeen in 1495 . Both were also papal foundations , by Nicholas V and Alexander VI respectively . St Leonard 's College was added at St. Andrews in 1511 . St. Andrews was deliberately modelled on Paris , and although Glasgow adopted the statues of the University of Bologna , there , like Aberdeen , there was an increasing Parisian influence , partly because all its early regents had been educated in Paris . Initially , these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law . They provided only basic degrees . Those wanting to study for the more advanced degrees that were common amongst European scholars still needed to go to universities in other countries . As a result , Scottish scholars continued to visit the Continent and returned to English universities after they reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century .
By the fifteenth century , beginning in northern Italy , universities had become strongly influenced by humanist thinking . This put an emphasis on classical authors , questioning some of the accepted certainties of established thinking and manifesting itself in the teaching of new subjects , particularly through the medium of the Greek language . However , in this period , Scottish universities largely had a Latin curriculum , designed for the clergy , civil and common lawyers . They did not teach the Greek that was fundamental to the new humanist scholarship , focusing on metaphysics and putting a largely unquestioning faith in the works of Aristotle , whose authority would be challenged in the Renaissance . Towards the end of the fifteenth century , a humanist influence was becoming more evident . A major figure was Archibald Whitelaw , a teacher at St. Andrews and Cologne who later became a tutor to the young James III and served as royal secretary from 1462 to 1493 . By 1497 , the humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris , returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen . In 1518 Mair returned to Scotland to become Principal of the University of Glasgow . He transferred to St. Andrews in 1523 and in 1533 he was made Provost of St Salvator 's College . While in Scotland his students included John Knox and George Buchanan . These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of Humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life in the sixteenth century .
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= The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History =
The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History is a non @-@ fiction book about the American animated television series The Simpsons . It was written by John Ortved , and first published in October 2009 by Faber and Faber . In the United Kingdom , the book is called Simpsons Confidential : The uncensored , totally unauthorised history of the world 's greatest TV show by the people that made it . The book is an oral history of the show , and concentrates particularly on the writers and producers of the show . The book includes entire chapters devoted to key figures such as creator Matt Groening and James L. Brooks and Sam Simon , who helped develop the series . According to National Public Radio reviewer Linda Holmes , " Ortved 's thesis , essentially , is that lots of people are responsible for the success of The Simpsons , and their creator , Matt Groening , has too often been viewed as the sole source to the detriment of others who also deserve to be praised . "
In 2007 , John Ortved wrote an article for Vanity Fair titled " Simpson Family Values " . Producers of the show , including Groening , Brooks and Simon , chose not to cooperate in the project . Ortved believes that the reason was because " were upset [ that ] the myth of The Simpsons would be challenged . " Shortly after the article was published , an agent suggested that Ortved write a full book . The producers again decided not to participate , and , according to Ortved , Brooks asked current and former Simpsons employees not to talk to Ortved . However , the book does include portions of interviews that several figures did with other sources . Ortved did interview a number of sources for the book , including Hank Azaria , a cast member of the show since the second season , Fox Broadcasting Company owner Rupert Murdoch and former writer Conan O 'Brien .
Reviews of the book were mostly positive , with most reviewers commenting that the book was well researched and provided a solid history of the show . Critics felt that the final chapters , in which Ortved gives his opinion of the current state of the show , were out of place and did not fit in with the rest of the book .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , John Ortved wrote an article for Vanity Fair titled " Simpson Family Values " . It was an oral history of The Simpsons , featuring interviews with several of the crew and cast members . According to Ortved , the producers of The Simpsons decided not to cooperate and be interviewed for the project because they had heard that he was asking questions about Sam Simon . Simon , one of the first executive producers of the show , had left after the fourth season after clashing with creator Matt Groening and executive producer James L. Brooks . Ortved believes that the producers " were upset [ that ] the myth of The Simpsons would be challenged . " He still wrote the story , without the approval of the Simpsons producers .
Shortly after the article was published , an agent suggested that Ortved write a full book . They put together a proposal and shopped it to several publishers , before being signed by Faber and Faber . According to Ortved , " When word of this got out , Brooks sent a letter to every current Simpsons employee , and all the former ones he thought mattered , asking them not to speak to me . The writers ’ agents sent denial after denial for interview requests and eventually stopped responding altogether . " He added , " There was one ' D 'oh ! ' in James L. Brooks and the Gracie Films master plan : Many people don ’ t like James L. Brooks . [ ... ] The book I ended up writing quotes more than 75 sources — some of them Simpsons staffers , former and current , who opened up because they considered his and Matt Groening ’ s attempt to stomp on my project very ' un @-@ Simpsons . ' "
Ortved decided to write the book as an oral history because he found that every person interviewed had a different perspective on the events . His decision was " reinforced " when he found out that the producers of the show would not cooperate .
= = Content = =
According to National Public Radio reviewer Linda Holmes , " Ortved 's thesis , essentially , is that lots of people are responsible for the success of The Simpsons , and their creator , Matt Groening , has too often been viewed as the sole source to the detriment of others who also deserve to be praised . " The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History is an oral history of the show , examining its beginnings , rise to success , impact on pop culture , as well as the people behind the show , including the animators , writers and producers . The content consists mostly of quotations from various figures , which are tied together by comments from Ortved . The book includes entire chapters devoted to key figures such as Matt Groening , James L. Brooks , Sam Simon and Conan O 'Brien . The book 's foreword was written by Canadian author Douglas Coupland . The final chapters of the book consist mostly of commentary from Ortved , in which he states that he believes that quality of the show has declined since its early years .
= = = Interviews = = =
Ortved interviewed a number of sources for the book , including main cast member Hank Azaria , former director Brad Bird , former supervising director Gábor Csupó and former writer O 'Brien . Groening , Brooks and Simon refused to participate in the book , or be interviewed by Ortved . However , the book does include portions of interviews that they did with other sources . According to Ortved , most of the participants " had stories to tell , or axes to grind , " or are " too successful to care . " Research and interviews for both the book and Vanity Fair article were conducted between January 2007 and May 2008 . Ortved commented that the person he most would have liked to interview was Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer Simpson . Rupert Murdoch , the owner of the Fox Broadcasting Company , agreed to be interviewed , and reportedly told Ortved " Those creative types , they 're always looking to pick a fight . " He also interviewed figures such as Fox CEO Barry Diller and guest stars Ricky Gervais , Art Spiegelman and Tom Wolfe .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the book were mostly positive . Linda Holmes of National Public Radio felt that " most of Ortved 's work provides a solid basic history . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the book a " B + " , writing , " you have to admire all the work that went into this unauthorized history . " He noted that he " felt a little bad afterward for the central players who got sucker punched . [ ... ] The subsequent testimony about the empire Groening created is contentious and mesmerizing . It 's also conflicting and compromised , since some of the biggest fishies of all did not talk to Ortved . [ ... ] The reader should be wary when sources assert that Groening is little more than an affable frontman for the show or that Brooks sometimes wielded his power imperiously : The guys aren 't there to defend themselves . In most cases , though , Ortved amasses quotes from many sources to establish such points , so the negative stuff doesn 't seem gratuitous . " Michael C. Lorah of Newsarama described the book as a " very effective , very worthwhile read " but felt that Ortved 's " editorializing " was " probably the most distracting element of the book . " Michael Hingston of See Magazine called the book " a well @-@ told patchwork that shines formidable light on the show " and gave it three and a half stars . However , he felt the book was released prematurely and should have been published after the end of the show , also criticizing Ortved 's narration and the lack of quotes from Matt Groening or James L. Brooks . Kyle Ryan of The A.V. Club pointed out that the book has " numerous factual errors " that " may only trip the alarms of hardcore fans , but even casual readers may be put off by the book 's redundancy . " He concluded that despite flaws , the " insight into its routines and eccentric personalities can 't help but fascinate . "
Ryan Bigge of The Toronto Star felt that Ortved 's " diligence and research is faultless , and [ he ] has worked hard to avoid writing another insider @-@ y true @-@ fans @-@ only look at the show . Still , certain chunks of the book are unlikely to appeal to casual Simpsons viewers . [ .. ] By mixing journalism about yellow people with a bit of yellow journalism , Ortved provides a tough , necessary look at Homer Simpson 's odyssey that would make Kent Brockman proud . "
Bryan Appleyard of The Sunday Times criticized the format of the book , writing that it was " alternately engrossing and infuriating book [ ... ] It is infuriating because of a fatal structural decision taken by the author and / or his publisher to include long quotations from interviewees as breaks in the text . This destroys narrative coherence and , for much of the time , makes reading a chore . " Appleyard concluded that it is " an important and controversial contribution to the ever @-@ expanding scope of Simpsons studies . "
Several critics felt that the final chapters , in which Ortved gives his opinion of the current state of the show , were out of place when compared with the rest of the book . Ken Tucker felt Ortved 's " complaints aren 't original or illuminating . " Linda Holmes wrote that " After spending most of the book using actual reporting to flesh out the facts , Ortved largely turns the floor over to himself for the part of the book in which he describes the creative decline of the show and tries to figure out whose fault it is by not infrequently simply declaring , among other things , which episodes are good and which are bad , sometimes without explaining himself at all . " Michael C. Lorah felt that Ortved 's criticism of the later seasons was " disconcerting " , noting that " It 's not that he 's wrong , but it seems unnecessary and at times even petty when cast against his own fawning over the undeniably massive influence of the show on current pop culture and comedy . "
= = Other editions = =
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= Team Homer =
" Team Homer " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 7 , 1996 . In the episode , Homer starts a bowling team with Moe , Apu , and Otto . When Mr. Burns discovers the team was funded with his money , he insists on joining . Meanwhile , Bart 's " Down with homework " T @-@ shirt incites a student riot that leads to the implementation of a uniform dress code .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Mark Kirkland . Scully came up with the idea for it when he went bowling one day . The episode features cultural references to Mad magazine and the film Caddyshack . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , and was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Unable to afford the $ 500 registration fee to join a bowling league , Homer and his friends ( Moe , Apu , and Otto ) go to Mr. Burns for a sponsorship . Homer sneaks into Burns office , where he finds an anesthetized Burns ( who mistakes him for the Pillsbury Doughboy ) . Homer takes this opportunity to get Burns to sign the check . Meanwhile , at school , Bart 's " Down with homework " T @-@ shirt incites a student riot , and as a result , Principal Skinner forces all students to wear uniforms in order to prevent it from happening again .
Back at the bowling alley , Homer and his friends enter the bowling league competition , calling themselves the Pin Pals . They beat three teams before moving up into second place in their league . Meanwhile , Burns recovers from his stupor and discovers the check he wrote to Homer . Burns surprises everyone when he reveals he not only isn 't mad but also wants to join the team ( replacing Otto in the team ) , but since Burns is a horrible bowler , the team is convinced they will lose the championship .
Back at school , Skinner 's dress code demoralizes the students until a rainstorm soaks through the uniforms , causing the grey color to be washed out , revealing tie @-@ dye colors that make the playful spirit of the children return . At the bowling alley , before the championship game begin , Burns gives the team new shirts . Two pins away from victory , Burns takes his turn . Otto tips over a vending machine and the vibrations help the Pin Pals win by knocking down the pins . As the team celebrates their win , Burns takes the trophy and keeps it for himself . Cheered on by his teammates , Homer attempts to break into the mansion and recover the trophy ; however , this ends disastrously when the hounds are released and catch Homer a few feet from the gate , mauling him severely .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Mike Scully . He was bowling " a lot " at the time and one day on when he was bowling he came up with the idea for " Team Homer " . The idea for the school plot came later in production when the school that Scully 's children went to was thinking of " switching over " to school uniforms . Both Scully and his children were against it so he decided to put it in the episode .
Former show runner of The Simpsons David Mirkin thought the episode was " really fun " because there were " lots of characters " in it and it featured " lots of terrific animation " . Mirkin liked that viewers could see the different characters " team up " and how they pair off . " It 's kind of cool to see them hang around like this . Particularly Homer 's group which has some nice emotion and they really comes together as a group , " Mirkin commented .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland . When he first read the script , he thought the challenge of this episode was that the bowling theme had already been covered in the season one episode " Life on the Fast Lane " . Since it had been done before , Kirkland felt pressure to make the bowling alley look " really good " . Kirkland and his team of The Simpsons animators at Film Roman all went over to a local bowling alley and had lunch . They checked out the whole alley for inspiration and drew sketches . " Life on the Fast Lane " deals with Marge becoming infatuated with Jacques , a French bowling instructor . Mirkin points out that Jacques makes a brief appearance in this episode , but without a speaking role . Also appearing with non @-@ speaking roles are Mindy Simmons , Lurleen Lumpkin and Princess Kashmir , the three women who almost broke up Marge and Homer 's marriage .
Mirkin remembered the episode " very fondly " because when it was finished , the staff got customized Simpsons bowling balls , bowling bags , and Pin Pal shirts as gifts . Scully said the bowling balls were " really cool " because they were yellow and had the Simpsons logo on them .
Doris Grau , script supervisor for the show and voice of Lunchlady Doris , died on December 30 , 1995 , from respiratory failure at a hospital in Los Angeles , California . " Team Homer " was one of the last episodes to feature her voice , and included a dedication to her .
In one scene , Homer tells Marge : " We were so close to winning the championship . Now , thanks to Burns , it 's never going to happen . And I spent so much time building that trophy case . " The scene then cuts to the trophy case with an Academy Award in it that Homer has stolen . In the original Fox broadcast , the name in the inscription on the Academy Award was Haing S. Ngor . In American syndication and the season seven DVD , the name was changed to Don Ameche ( who had won for Cocoon ) . Ngor , who won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the 1984 film The Killing Fields , was murdered on February 25 , 1996 , between the original and the syndicated broadcast . Producers were concerned the syndicated episode would imply Homer had murdered Ngor to steal the statue .
= = Cultural references = =
Bart and Milhouse buy an issue of Mad magazine . Bart also puts a Mad iron @-@ on reading " Down with Homework " on one of his T @-@ shirts , which causes controversy at school . Milhouse is shocked to see the new school uniforms , and his jaw drops , a " Woody Allen @-@ esque " type of joke . The final bowling scene is similar to the final golfing scene in the 1980 film Caddyshack . Homer references the song " Mr. Roboto " by Styx . Moe 's unsuccessful attempt to sideline Mr. Burns by hitting his leg with a crowbar is done in a similar manner to Shane Stant 's attempt in 1994 to sideline figure skater Nancy Kerrigan by physical assault . When Martin and Lisa are modeling the new grey uniforms , the song playing in the background is " Spanish Flea " , by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass . , which had previously appeared in the third season episode " The Otto Show " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Team Homer " finished 58th in the ratings for the week of January 1 – 7 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 , and Married ... With Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It was named the fifth best episode of the show by MSNBC . They praised how the episode utilized Burns 's physical weaknesses for laughs , and Homer 's line ; " I guess some people never change . Or , they quickly change and then quickly change back . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that to his surprise , " the dress code plot works the best " . He liked the mockery of Mad magazine and the " overemphasis on the way it disrupts the educational process " . Jacobson thought the bowling plot had plenty of " nice moments " too , " and these add up to a solid show . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Homer ends a phone conversation with the " highly quotable " line , " I gotta go . My damn wiener kids are listening . " The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A − . Mirkin described the episode as " excellent " , and praised Scully 's " great " script .
The episode received criticism from the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , who said that " Team Homer " is one of their least favorite episodes . They thought the school uniform plot was " a lot more satisfying than the bowling story " They added that the scene where Martin and Lisa model the new uniforms is the highlight of the episode .
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= Mortal Kombat =
Mortal Kombat is a video game franchise originally developed by Midway Games ' Chicago studio in 1992 . Following Midway 's bankruptcy , the Mortal Kombat development team was acquired by Warner Bros. and turned into NetherRealm Studios . Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment currently owns the rights of the franchise and rebooted it in 2011 .
The development of the first game was originally based on an idea that Ed Boon and John Tobias had of making a video game starring Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , but as that idea fell through , a fantasy @-@ themed fighting game titled Mortal Kombat was created instead . The original game has spawned many sequels and has been spun off into several action @-@ adventure games , films ( animated and live @-@ action with its own sequel ) , and television series ( animated and live @-@ action ) . Other spin @-@ offs include comic book series , a card game and a live @-@ action tour . Along with Capcom 's Street Fighter and Bandai Namco 's Tekken , Mortal Kombat has become one of the most successful fighting franchises in the history of video games .
The series has a reputation for high levels of bloody violence , including , most notably , its Fatalities ( finishing moves , requiring a sequence of button inputs to perform ) . The Fatalities , in part , led to the creation of the ESRB video game rating system . The series name itself is also known for using the letter " K " in place of " C " for the hard C sound , thus intentionally misspelling the word " combat " , as well as other words with the hard C sound within later games in the series . Early games in the series were also noted for its realistic digitized sprites ( which differentiated it from its contemporaries ' hand @-@ drawn sprites ) and an extensive use of palette swapping to create new characters .
= = Gameplay = =
The original three games and their updates , Mortal Kombat , Mortal Kombat II , Mortal Kombat 3 , Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 and Mortal Kombat Trilogy , were styled in a 2D fighting fashion . The first two of them were played in the arcades with a joystick and five buttons : high punch , low punch , high kick , low kick , and block . Mortal Kombat 3 and its updates added a sixth " run " button . Characters in the early Mortal Kombat games play virtually identically to one another , with the only major differences being their special moves . Through the 1990s , the developer and publisher Midway Games would keep their single styled fighting moves with four attack buttons for a different array of punches and kicks and blocks . Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance changed this by differentiating characters normal moves and even giving them multiple fighting styles . Beginning in Deadly Alliance and until Mortal Kombat : Deception , the characters would have three fighting styles per character : two unarmed styles , and one weapon style . Few exceptions to this arose in Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , such as monster @-@ like boss characters like Moloch and Onaga who would have only one fighting style . While most of the styles used in the series are based on real martial arts , some are entirely fictitious . Goro 's fighting styles , for example , are designed to take advantage of the fact that he has four arms . For Armageddon , fighting styles were reduced to a maximum of two per character ( generally one hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat style and one weapon style ) due to the sheer number of playable characters . Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe dropped the multiple fighting style trend altogether in favor of giving each character a much wider variety of special moves , but some characters still use multiple fighting styles . 2011 's Mortal Kombat returned to a single 2D fighting plane although characters are rendered in 3D ; unlike previous MK games , each of four buttons on the game controller represents an attack linked to a corresponding limb .
According to Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator Ed Boon , " since the beginning , one of the things that 's separated us from other fighting games is the crazy moves we 've put in it , like fireballs and all the magic moves , so to speak . " When asked if Capcom 's Street Fighter series would ever do a crossover game with Mortal Kombat , Street Fighter producer Yoshinori Ono called Mortal Kombat a very different serious game from Street Fighter fun silly fantasy style . Capcom 's senior director of communications compared Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat by asking if the interviewer preferred the " precision and depth " of Street Fighter or the " gore and comedy " of Mortal Kombat ; he also stated that the Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat rivalry was considered similar to the Coke and Pepsi rivalry in the 1990s . Senior producer of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , Hans Lo , himself also called Street Fighter " a little more cartoonic fantasy " in comparison to Mortal Kombat . In 2013 , Boon named the hypothetical " MKvsSF " as his dream crossover game . In 2014 , Boon said his team has remained in touch with Capcom , but no one could resolve the incompatibility problem of Mortal Kombat being much more brutal than Street Fighter .
Mortal Kombat : Deception and Mortal Kombat : Armageddon feature " Konquest " , a free @-@ roaming action @-@ adventure mode that significantly expanded on the single @-@ player experience . Both games also include distinct minigame modes such " Chess Kombat " , an action @-@ strategy game similar to Archon . Two other bonus minigames , " Puzzle Kombat " inspired by Puzzle Fighter and " Motor Kombat " inspired by Mario Kart , feature super deformed versions of Mortal Kombat characters . The games also contain various unlockable content and hidden " cheats " .
= = = Finishing moves = = =
A defining and best @-@ known feature of the Mortal Kombat series is its finishing move system called Fatality . An original idea behind it was to give gamers a free hit at the end of the fight . The basic Fatalities are finishing moves that allow the victorious characters to end a match in a special way by murdering their defeated , defenseless opponents in a gruesome manner , usually in the predefined ways exclusive for the given character . The only exception from this is Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , which instead features the Kreate @-@ A @-@ Fatality , allowing the players to perform their own Fatalities by conducting a series of violent moves chosen from a pool that is common for all characters .
Other finishing moves in the various Mortal Kombat games include Animalities ( introduced in Mortal Kombat 3 ) turning a victor into an animal to violently finish off the opponent ; Brutality ( introduced in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 ) which is bashing an opponent into pieces with a long combo of hits ; and Stage Fatalities / Death Traps ( introduced in the original Mortal Kombat Pit Stage , and later made more difficult in Mortal Kombat II by requiring specific and different button sequences to be pressed ) utilizing parts of certain stages to execute a lethal finishing move . Mortal Kombat : Deception added the Hara @-@ Kiri , a self @-@ Fatality allowing the losers to engage in a suicide @-@ based finishing move ( enabling a possible race between both players to see if the winning player can finish off the losing player before the losing character can kill himself or herself first ) .
There are also some non @-@ violent finishing moves in the series . Friendship moves , introduced in Mortal Kombat II and involving displays of friendship towards the enemy , instead of killing , were made as a comical response to the attention the series gathered due to its violent content . A Fatality similar to Friendship is Babality , also introduced in MKII and turning the opponent into a baby . Mortal Kombat 3 saw Mercy , where the victor restores a minimal amount of the opponent 's health bar and the fight then resumes ; performing Mercy first is required to enable Animality .
= = Plot = =
The series takes place in a fictional universe consisting of eighteen surviving realms which , according to in @-@ game backstories , were created by the Elder Gods . The Mortal Kombat : Deception manual described six of the realms as : " Earthrealm , home to such legendary heroes as Liu Kang , Kung Lao , Sonya Blade , Johnny Cage , and Jax , and also under the protection of the Thunder God Raiden ; Netherrealm , the fiery depths of which are inhospitable to all but the most vile , a realm of demons and shadowy warriors such as Quan Chi and Noob Saibot ; Outworld , a realm of constant strife which Emperor Shao Kahn claims as his own ; Seido , the Realm of Order , whose inhabitants prize structure and order above all else ; the Realm of Chaos , whose inhabitants do not abide by any rules whatsoever , and where constant turmoil and change are worshipped ; and Edenia , which is known for its beauty , artistic expression , and the longevity of its inhabitants . " The Elder Gods decreed that the denizens of one realm could only conquer another realm by defeating the defending realm 's greatest warriors in ten consecutive Mortal Kombat tournaments .
The first Mortal Kombat game takes place in Earthrealm ( Earth ) where seven different warriors with their own reasons for entering participated in the tournament with the eventual prize being the continued freedom of their realm , threatened with a takeover by Outworld . Among the established warriors were Liu Kang , Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade . With the help of the thunder god Raiden , the Earthrealm warriors were victorious and Liu Kang became the new champion of Mortal Kombat . In Mortal Kombat II , unable to deal with his minion Shang Tsung 's failure , Outworld Emperor Shao Kahn lures the Earthrealm warriors to the Outworld where the Earthrealm warriors eventually defeat Shao Kahn . By the time of Mortal Kombat 3 , Shao Kahn revives Edenia 's ( now a part of his Outworld domain ) former queen Sindel in Earthrealm , combining it with Outworld as well . He then attempts to invade Earthrealm but is ultimately defeated by the Earthrealm warriors again . After Kahn 's defeat , Edenia was freed from Kahn 's grasp and returned to a peaceful realm , ruled by Princess Kitana . The following game , Mortal Kombat 4 , features the former elder god Shinnok attempting to conquer the realms and attempting to kill the thunder god Raiden . However , he is also defeated by the Earthrealm warriors .
In Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , the evil sorcerers Quan Chi and Shang Tsung join forces to conquer the realms . By Mortal Kombat : Deception , after several fights , the sorcerers emerge victorious having killed most of Earthrealms ' warriors until Raiden steps forth to oppose them . The Dragon King Onaga , who had been freed by Reptile at the end of Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , had deceived Shujinko into searching for six pieces of Kamidogu , the source of Onaga 's power . Onaga then confronted the alliance of Raiden , Shang Tsung , and Quan Chi and thus obtained Quan Chi 's amulet , the final piece of his power . Only a few warriors remained to combat against the Dragon King and his forces . Shujinko eventually triumphed over the Dragon King and removed his threat to the Mortal Kombat universe .
In Mortal Kombat : Armageddon the catastrophe known as Armageddon starts . Centuries before the first Mortal Kombat , Queen Delia foretold the realms would be destroyed because the power of all warriors from all the realms would rise to such greatness it would overwhelm and destabilize the realms , triggering an all @-@ destructive chain of events . King Argus had his sons , Taven , and Daegon , put into incubation who would one day be awakened to save the realms from Armageddon by defeating a firespawn known as Blaze . In the end , however , Shao Kahn is the one who defeats Blaze , causing Armageddon .
In Mortal Kombat ( 2011 ) , it is revealed that the battle between the warriors of the six realms culminated into only two survivors : Shao Kahn and Raiden . Badly beaten , Raiden had only one last move he could make to prevent Shao Kahn from claiming the power of Blaze . He sends last @-@ ditch visions of the entire course of the Mortal Kombat timeline to himself in the past right before the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament ( first game ) . This transfer of information to his former self causes a rift in time , causing a new " reboot " timeline to be introduced that splits off from the original Armageddon timeline , with a new outcome of Mortal Kombat history to be written . But this story leads to even worse unforeseen events . It ends with many of the main game characters dying at the hands of Queen Sindel and Raiden accidentally killing Liu Kang in self @-@ defense . Eventually , the Elder Gods aid Raiden in killing Shao Kahn and saving Earthrealm . But as the scene goes on it is later revealed that this was all a plan by Shinnok and Quan Chi .
Mortal Kombat X sees Shinnok and Quan Chi enacting their plan , leading an army of undead revenants of those that were killed in Shao Kahn 's invasion against the realms . A team of warriors led by Raiden , Johnny Cage , and Sonya Blade oppose Shinnok , and in the ensuing battle , Shinnok is imprisoned , Quan Chi escapes , and various warriors are resurrected and freed from Shinnok 's thrall . Twenty @-@ five years later , Quan Chi resurfaces and allies himself with the insect @-@ like D 'Vorah in manipulating events that lead to Shinnok 's release . Though Quan Chi is killed by a vengeful Scorpion in the process , Shinnok resumes his assault against the realms . After a grueling , protracted battle , Shinnok is defeated by Cassandra Cage representing the next generation of Earthrealm 's warriors . With both Quan Chi and Shinnok gone , the undead revenants of Liu Kang and Kitana assume control of the Netherrealm and Lord Raiden now protects the Earthrealm not defensively but offensively with the help of the remaining revenants .
= = Characters = =
The series features scores of player characters ( 64 as of 2012 ) , including Baraka , Cassie Cage , Cyrax , Ermac , Goro , Jade , Jax Briggs , Johnny Cage , Kabal , Kano , Kenshi , Kitana , Kung Lao , Kurtis Stryker , Liu Kang , Mileena , Motaro , Nightwolf , Noob Saibot , Quan Chi , Raiden , Rain , Reptile , Scorpion , Sektor , Shang Tsung , Shao Kahn , Sheeva , Shinnok , Sindel , Smoke , Sonya Blade , and Sub @-@ Zero . Among them are Earth 's humans and cyborgs , good and evil deities , and denizens of Outworld and other realms . There are also some guest and crossover characters , such as several DC Universe heroes and villains , as well as Freddy Krueger from A Nightmare on Elm Street , Kratos from God of War , the Predator from Predator , Jason Voorhees from Friday the 13th , and Alien ( Xenomorph ) from Alien .
= = Development history = =
= = = Origins = = =
Mortal Kombat started development in 1991 with only four people : Ed Boon , John Tobias , John Vogel and Dan Forden . In 2009 , Boon said : " The first Mortal Kombat game was 4 guys , literally , one programmer , myself ( Boon ) , two graphics guys ( Tobias and Vogel ) , and a sound guy ( Forden ) was the entire team , literally . " Originally , Boon and Tobias were approached to create a video game adaptation of the 1992 film Universal Soldier starring martial arts film actor Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , with a digitized version of the action star fighting villains . Intending to make a game " a lot more hard edge , a little bit more serious , a little bit more like Enter the Dragon or Bloodsport " than Street Fighter II 's cartoon fantasy style , Boon and Tobias decided to continue their project even after the deal to use the Bloodsport license fell through . One of their own characters , Johnny Cage , became " a spoof on the whole Van Damme situation . "
John Tobias said that his inspirations for the game 's story and characters came from the Chinese mythology and some of the stories and rumored events about the Shaolin monks . Regarding the film Big Trouble in Little China , Tobias wrote that although this movie " kind of Americanized my obsession for supernatural kung fu films from China , it was not my biggest influence . My biggest influences came from Tsui Hark films -- Zu Warriors & The Swordsman . We had to get them from bootleggers in Chicago 's Chinatown . " Tobias ' writing and artistic input on the series ended in 1997 . Fifteen years later , he said : " I knew exactly what I was going to do with a future story . A few years ago I [ wrote ] a sort of sequel to the first MK film and an advancement to the game 's mythological roots . The goal was to not runaway from what came before with a retelling , but to move the themes forward . I did it for fun as an exercise in screenwriting , but it felt good to get that out of my system . "
Ed Boon recalled that for six out of the eight months while they were in production of the original Mortal Kombat , " nobody could come up with a name nobody didn 't hate . " Some of the names suggested included " Kumite " , " Dragon Attack " , " Death Blow " and just " Fatality " . Someone had written down " combat " on the drawing board for the names in Boon 's office and then someone wrote a K over the C , according to Boon , " just to be kind of weird . " Steve Ritchie , a pinball designer at that time , was sitting in Boon 's office and saw the word " Kombat " and said to Boon , ' Why don 't you name it Mortal Kombat ? ' and that name " just stuck . " Since then , the series uses the letter " K " in place of " C " for various words containing the hard C sound . According to Boon , during the MK games ' development they usually spell the words correctly and only " korrect it " when one of the developers points out they should do it .
= = = Graphics = = =
The characters of the original Mortal Kombat and its initial sequels were created using digitized sprites mostly based on filmed actors , as opposed to drawn graphics . Early Mortal Kombat games were known for their extensive use of palette swap , a practice of re @-@ coloring certain sprites to appear as different characters which was used for the ninja characters . In fact , many of the most popular characters have originated as simple palette swaps . In the very first game , the male ninja fighters were essentially the same character ; only the colors of their attire , fighting stance , and special techniques indicated the difference . Later games added other ninjas based on the same model , as well as several female ninja color swap characters initially also using just one base model ( beginning with Kitana in Mortal Kombat II ) . All of them gradually became very different characters in the following installments of the series .
Mortal Kombat 4 brought the series into 3D , replacing the digitized fighters of previous games with polygon models . The team switched from digitized actors to motion capture technology .
= = = Hidden content = = =
Mortal Kombat included secret characters , secret games , and other Easter eggs . For example , Mortal Kombat 3 includes a hidden game of Galaga and there is a hidden game of Pong in Mortal Kombat II . Many extras in the series have only been accessible through very challenging , demanding , and sometimes coincidental requirements . The Sega Mega Drive / Genesis versions contains some unique eggs , such as " Fergality " . The Sega Mega @-@ CD version also contained an additional code ( known as the " Dad 's Code " ) , which changed the names of the fighters to that of characters from the classic comedy series Dad 's Army . Popular characters of Reptile and Jade were originally introduced as hidden enemies , becoming playable after returning in subsequent games .
Some Easter eggs originated from in @-@ jokes between members of the development team . One example is " Toasty " , which found its way into the game in the form of a small image of sound designer Dan Forden , who would appear in the corner of the screen during gameplay ( after performing an uppercut ) and yell the phrase " Toasty ! " This egg was also the key to unlocking the hidden character Smoke when it happened in the Portal stage . In Mortal Kombat 4 , Forden would say " Toasty ! 3D ! " after Scorpion did his burn Fatality , a reference to the fact that it is the first 3D game of the series . " Toasty ! " is also found in Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , appearing randomly after the character pulls off a chain of hits , though the picture of Forden was removed for that title , but brought back for the 2011 Mortal Kombat game .
Yet another private joke was the hidden character Noob Saibot , who has appeared in various versions of the game starting with Mortal Kombat II . The character 's name derived from two of the series ' creators ' surnames , Ed Boon and John Tobias , spelled backwards . In addition , a counter for ERMACS on the game 's audits screen ( ERMACS being short for error macros ) , was generally considered by some players to be a reference to a hidden character . The development team decided to turn the rumor into reality , introducing Ermac in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 as an unlockable secret character . The character Mokap , introduced in Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , is a tribute to Carlos Pesina , who played Raiden in MK and MKII and has served as a motion capture actor for subsequent titles in the series .
= = Media = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = = Fighting games = = = =
The original Mortal Kombat game was released for arcade machines during October 1992 , having since been ported to several console and home computer systems by Probe Software and released by Acclaim Entertainment . The sequel , Mortal Kombat II , was released for arcades in 1993 , featuring an increased roster and improved graphics and gameplay , then ported to the numerous home systems in 1993 @-@ 1995 by Probe Entertainment and Sculptured Software , released again by Acclaim ; it was rereleased in 2007 for the PlayStation 3 . Mortal Kombat 3 followed in 1995 in both arcade and home versions . MK3 got two updates which expanded the number of characters and other features from the game : Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 , published that same year , and Mortal Kombat Trilogy the next year . The following game , Mortal Kombat 4 , was released in 1997 , marked the jump of the series to 3D rendered graphics instead of the series ' previously staple digitized 2D graphics . Mortal Kombat 4 was ported to the PlayStation , Nintendo 64 and PC . An update of MK4 titled Mortal Kombat Gold was released exclusively for the Dreamcast in 1999 .
While to this point Mortal Kombat games were only titled with their installment number , starting with Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance in 2002 , the series ' naming scheme changed to favor the use of sub @-@ titles instead . It was also at this point that the series started being targeted at consoles only , with Mortal Kombat 4 being the last game in the series to ever be released for the arcades . Deadly Alliance was released initially for the Xbox , PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) and GameCube . Deadly Alliance was also the first Mortal Kombat game to feature fully 3D gameplay , where up to Mortal Kombat 4 the gameplay had stayed in a 2D plane ; this trend would continue for the following two games . The Game Boy Advance port titled Mortal Kombat : Tournament Edition was released in 2003 . The next sequel was the 2004 Mortal Kombat : Deception , released for the PS2 , Xbox and GameCube . Its port for the PlayStation Portable , Mortal Kombat : Unchained , was developed by Just Games Interactive in 2006 . Mortal Kombat : Armageddon was published in the same year for the PS2 , Xbox , and in 2007 on the Wii . In 2008 , Midway released the Mortal Kombat Kollection , an anthology of the three then @-@ most recent titles to the main franchise : Mortal Kombat : Deception , Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , and Mortal Kombat : Armageddon . Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , a crossover between the Mortal Kombat franchise and DC Universe released in 2008 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .
A ninth game in the series , a reboot titled simply Mortal Kombat , was developed by former Midway Games Chicago , now owned by Warner Bros. Games and renamed as NetherRealm Studios . It was first released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011 , and was ported for the PlayStation Vita in 2012 and for the PC Windows in 2013 . A sequel , Mortal Kombat X was released in April 2015 on PlayStation 4 , Xbox One , and Microsoft Windows .
Ed Boon has stated that he would like to do an Mortal Kombat / Killer Instinct crossover game for the Xbox One .
= = = = Action @-@ adventure games = = = =
Besides the fighting games , there are three action titles that work as spin @-@ offs from the Mortal Kombat storyline . Mortal Kombat Mythologies : Sub @-@ Zero was released in 1997 for the PlayStation and Nintendo 64 ; its story is focused on the first incarnation character of Sub @-@ Zero and is focused in the timeline of before the first Mortal Kombat game . The next action game was Mortal Kombat : Special Forces released in 2000 for the PlayStation ; it is an action game starring Major Jackson Briggs in his mission to destroy the Black Dragon . Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks was released in 2005 for the PS2 and the Xbox ; starring Liu Kang and Kung Lao and telling an alternate version of the events between the first and second Mortal Kombat games . A similar game titled Mortal Kombat : Fire & Ice , which would star Scorpion and again Sub @-@ Zero , was canceled when Paradox Development ( Midway Studios – Los Angeles ) , the creators of Shaolin Monks , " couldn ’ t do it in time and under budget . "
= = = Other media = = =
= = = = Films = = = =
Mortal Kombat was adapted into two major motion pictures , Mortal Kombat ( 1995 ) , and Mortal Kombat : Annihilation ( 1997 ) , both co @-@ developed by Threshold Entertainment and released by New Line Cinema ( eventual corporate sibling , and later label , of Mortal Kombat rights holder Warner Bros. ) . Neither film was screened for critics prior to theatrical release . The first movie was released on August 18 , 1995 , grossing $ 23 million on its first weekend . Mortal Kombat , despite mixed reviews from critics , became a financial success , eventually grossing $ 70 million in the U.S. ( and over $ 122 million worldwide ) and gaining a cult following from fans of the series while jump starting the Hollywood career of its director Paul W. S. Anderson . That momentum did not carry over into John R. Leonetti 's Annihilation , however , which suffered from a poor reception by critics and fans alike , grossing only $ 36 million in the U.S. and $ 51 million worldwide , compared to the first movie 's worldwide intake of $ 122 million . In 2010 , director Kevin Tancharoen released an eight @-@ minute Mortal Kombat short film titled Mortal Kombat : Rebirth , made as a proof of concept for Tancharoen 's pitch of a reboot movie franchise to Warner Brothers . Tancharoen later confirmed that while the short is entirely unofficial , it does feature the writing of Oren Uziel , who was rumored to be writing the screenplay for the third Mortal Kombat movie . In September 2011 , New Line Cinema and Warner Bros. announced that Tancharoen has signed on to direct the reboot from a screenplay written by Uziel . In October 2013 , however , Tancharoen left the project to pursue " other creative opportunities " . In 2015 , it was reported that James Wan had signed @-@ on to produce the film .
= = = = Literature = = = =
Several Mortal Kombat comic books were based on the video game series , including the official Mortal Kombat and Mortal Kombat II comic books created by Tobias and advertised in the attract modes on early versions of the first two games . In 1994 , Malibu Comics launched an official MK comic book series , spawning two six @-@ issue series ( " Blood and Thunder " and " Battlewave " ) , along with several miniseries and one @-@ shot special issues dedicated to specific characters , until its publication ended in August 1995 . Two more comics were also made as tie @-@ ins for Mortal Kombat 4 and the DC Universe crossover game and a new miniseries was published prior to the release of Mortal Kombat X in 2015 . Jeff Rovin penned a novelization of the first Mortal Kombat game , which was published in June 1995 in order to coincide with the release of the movie . Novelizations of both Mortal Kombat movies were written by Martin Delrio and Jerome Preisler .
= = = = Music = = = =
Mortal Kombat : The Album , a techno album based on the first game was created for Virgin America by Lords of Acid members Praga Khan and Oliver Adams as The Immortals in 1994 . Its iconic theme " Techno Syndrome " , incorporating the " Mortal Kombat ! " yell first shown in the Mortal Kombat commercial for home systems , was first released in 1993 as a single and was also used as a theme music for the Mortal Kombat film series . Each movie had their own soundtracks ( including the hit and award @-@ winning compilation album Mortal Kombat : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) , as had the second video game ( Mortal Kombat II : Music from the Arcade Game Soundtrack ) . The 2011 video game saw the release of Mortal Kombat : Songs Inspired by the Warriors , a new soundtrack album featuring electronic music by various artists .
= = = = Television = = = =
The franchise sparked two television series by New Line Television : the 1996 cartoon Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm and the 1998 live @-@ action series Mortal Kombat : Konquest , both of them co @-@ developed by Threshold Entertainment . Neither series ran for more than one season . In 2010 , Warner Premiere ordered a web series inspired by the Rebirth short , titled Mortal Kombat : Legacy and also directed by Kevin Tancharoen . The series ' first season was released for free on YouTube starting in April 2011 , promoted by Machinima.com , and the second season arrived in 2013 . In October 2014 , Warner Bros and Blue Ribbon are developing a live @-@ action untitled Mortal Kombat series that will tie in with Mortal Kombat X. The webseries will be released in 2016 .
= = = = Other media = = = =
An animated prequel to the first movie , titled Mortal Kombat : The Journey Begins , was released direct @-@ to @-@ video in 1995 . The stage show Mortal Kombat : Live Tour was launched at the end of 1995 , expanded to 1996 , and featured Mortal Kombat characters in a theatrical display on stage . Brady Games produced the collectible card game Mortal Kombat Kard Game in 1996 . Score Entertainment 's 2005 collectible card game Epic Battles also used some of the Mortal Kombat characters .
= = Legacy and cultural impact = =
Ed Boon reported that the Mortal Kombat games have sold 26 million copies by 2007 , and the number has reportedly reached over 30 million by 2012 . As of April 2015 , after the release of Mortal Kombat X , the franchise had sold 35 million units . A particularly successful game was Mortal Kombat II , which had unprecedented opening week sales figures never seen before in the video game industry , for the first time beating the box office numbers of summer hit films . The 2008 edition of Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition awarded the Mortal Kombat series with seven world records , including " most successful fighting game series " . The franchise holds ten world records in the 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition , including the " largest promotional campaign for a fighting video game " ( Mortal Kombat 3 ) , " highest grossing film based on a beat ‘ em up video game " ( Mortal Kombat 1996 ) , and " most successful video game spin @-@ off soundtrack album " ( Mortal Kombat : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) .
Numerous publications described it as one of the most important and also most violent series in the history of video games ; in 2011 , the staff of GameSpy wrote " its place in fighting game history is undeniable . " In 2009 , GameTrailers ranked Mortal Kombat as the ninth top fighting game franchise as well as the seventh bloodiest series of all time . In 2012 , Complex ranked Mortal Kombat as 37th best video game franchise overall , commenting on its " legendary status in video game history . " Mortal Kombat as a series was also ranked as the goriest video game ever by CraveOnline in 2009 and by G4tv.com in 2011 ; including it on their list of the goriest games , Cheat Code Central commented that " Mortal Kombat had enough gore to simultaneously offend a nation and change gaming forever . "
According to IGN , during the 1990s " waves of imitators began to flood the market , filling arcades with a sea of blood from games like Time Killers , Survival Arts , and Guardians of the Hood . Mortal Kombat had ushered in an era of exploitation games , both on consoles and in arcades , all engaging in a battle to see who can cram the most blood and guts onto a low @-@ res screen . " Notable Mortal Kombat clones , featuring violent finishing moves and / or digitized sprites , included Bio F.R.E.A.K.S. , BloodStorm , Cardinal Syn , Catfight , Eternal Champions , Kasumi Ninja , Killer Instinct , Mace : The Dark Age , Primal Rage , Street Fighter : The Movie , Tattoo Assassins , Thrill Kill , Ultra Vortek , Way of the Warrior , and Midway 's own War Gods , among many others ( even the Japanese game Tsuukai Gangan Kohshinkyoku was localized in the U.S. as Aggressors of Dark Kombat ) . Of all these , only Eternal Champions and Killer Instinct achieved a considerable success and were followed by sequels ( Eternal Champions : Challenge from the Dark Side and Killer Instinct 2 ) .
In a 2009 poll by GamePro , 21 % of voters chose Mortal Kombat as their favorite fighting game series , ranking it third after Street Fighter and Tekken . In 2012 , Capcom 's Street Fighter producer Yoshinori Ono said he is getting a lot of requests for Street Fighter vs. Mortal Kombat and understands why people want it , " but it 's easier said than done . Having Chun Li getting her spine ripped out , or Ryu 's head bouncing off the floor ... it doesn 't necessarily match . " In 2014 , martial artist Frankie Edgar opined Mortal Kombat has been far superior to Street Fighter .
The series and its characters are also referenced in the various other works of popular culture , such as in the title of Powerglove 's debut album Metal Kombat for the Mortal Man and the Workaholics episode " Model Kombat " . According to Complex in 2012 , " Years ago , MK became a phenomenon far outside gaming circles alone . Its name has become recognizable enough to be name dropped on sitcoms ( Malcolm in the Middle and Married ... With Children ) , found in movies ( Christian Slater plays MK4 in Very Bad Things ) , and used as part of cultural studies ( see Justine Cassell and Henry Jenkins ' book From Barbie to Mortal Kombat : Gender and Computer Games ) . " It was also featured in the film Doom Generation . The name " Mortal Kombat " was even given to a dangerous illegal recreational drug that was introduced and caused multiple fatalities in early 2014 .
In 2012 , John Tobias said : " If you look at any other pop culture phenomenon — like if you look at the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , for instance — it became popular at the time right around when Mortal Kombat became popular , and it had its highs and lows , and here they are once again talking about a major motion picture . That ’ s because of its place in pop culture . It ’ s always there for someone to pick up , polish off , blow the dust off of it , and re @-@ release it . And Mortal Kombat will always be that way . It ’ ll be around 50 years from now . "
= = = Controversies = = =
The series was subject of a major video game controversy and several court cases , largely related to its extremely violent content , especially in relation to the original game which paved a way for the introduction of the ESRB ( Entertainment Software Rating Board ) game rating system in 1994 as well as Australian Classification Board . Various games in the series have been banned in a number of countries . SuperData Research CEO Joost van Dreunen said , " Because of the obvious rift between gamers on the one hand and adult society on the other , Mortal Kombat set the tone for what constituted gamer culture . "
= = Further information = =
The History Of Mortal Kombat Video Series ( recommended by Netherrealm Studios )
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= Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In Theater Restaurant =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In Theater Restaurant is a theme restaurant at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , one of the four main theme parks at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake , Florida , United States . Established in May 1991 , the restaurant is modeled after a 1950s drive @-@ in theater . Walt Disney Imagineering designed the booths to resemble convertibles of the period , and some servers act as carhops while wearing roller skates . While eating , guests watch a large projection screen displaying film clips from such 1950s and 1960s films as Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster , Plan 9 from Outer Space , and Attack of the 50 Foot Woman .
The restaurant serves traditional cuisine of the United States . Popcorn functions as a complimentary hors d 'oeuvre . Initially , the menu listed items with themed names , such as " Tossed in Space " ( garden salad ) , " The Cheesecake that Ate New York " , and " Attack of the Killer Club Sandwich " , but these playful names were later altered so that they now describe the dishes in a more standard and straightforward manner .
In 1991 , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In opened along with nineteen other new Walt Disney World attractions marking the complex 's twentieth anniversary . By the following year , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In was serving upwards of 2 @,@ 200 people daily during peak periods , making it the park 's most popular restaurant . Thai movie theater operator EGV Entertainment opened the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe in Bangkok in 2003 , in a very similar style to the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In .
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In has received mixed reviews . USA Today 's list of the best restaurants in American amusement parks ranks the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In fifteenth , but many reviewers rate it more highly for its atmosphere than for its cuisine . Ed Bumgardner of the Winston @-@ Salem Journal wrote that the food is more expensive than it is worth , specifically calling the restaurant 's roast beef sandwich both delicious and a ripoff . In their book Vegetarian Walt Disney World and Greater Orlando , Susan Shumaker and Than Saffel call the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In " the wackiest dining experience in any Disney park " .
= = History = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , located on Commissary Lane across from Star Tours and adjacent to ABC Commissary , opened in May 1991 as one of the twenty new attractions opened at Walt Disney World to mark the complex 's twentieth anniversary . The restaurant was created with a strong emphasis on theme , in emulation of the 50 's Prime Time Café , which had opened two years prior . Disney hoped that the focus on theme would bring the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In the level of success that had been garnered by the 50 's Prime Time Café . Within five weeks of opening , it was serving between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 meals on a daily basis , just as the 50 's Prime Time Café was doing . A year after opening , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In had become the most popular restaurant in the park , serving more than 2 @,@ 200 people per day at peak periods . Starting from its earliest days , the restaurant equipped its servers with point of sale mobile devices that relayed orders to a printer in the kitchen , which was considered at the time to be in keeping with the science fiction theme because the technology had been developed shortly prior .
In 2003 , there were twenty character meals offered at Walt Disney World , during which actors portraying various Disney characters would interact with guests while they ate at the parks ' restaurants , and Disney was in the process of increasing the presence of costumed characters in the parks at the time . Nonetheless , Minnie Mouse character meals held at Hollywood & Vine were discontinued that year , and Robert Johnson of the Orlando Sentinel partially attributed this cancellation to competition from the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , which he said " almost always has a line of customers waiting " .
= = Theme = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is modeled after a 1950s drive @-@ in theater . The entrance is made to look like a box office , and guests can walk from there along a tall fence to the dining room , where guests sit at formica countertops in booths made to look like convertibles from the 1940s and 1950s . These booths were designed by Walt Disney Imagineering and are made of fiberglass with much chrome plating . The cars have whitewall tires , and speakers are mounted on poles next to each car . The license plates are dated from 1955 , and each convertible seats four people , although these mock vehicles were initially six @-@ seaters when the restaurant first opened . There are six picnic tables near the back of the room that are only used when the rest of the restaurant is full and there are guests who are willing to forego the experience of sitting in the cars . All guests who make reservations are seated in the cars , although this was not the case the year the restaurant first opened . The restaurant has a total seating capacity of 260 .
Some of the servers at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In wear roller skates , acting as carhops , while others improvise characters such as a police officer ostensibly in search of people who have sneaked into the theater without paying . The dining room is dark and air @-@ conditioned , and measures 8 @,@ 400 square feet ( 780 m2 ) . The ceiling simulates a night sky replete with twinkling stars made from optical fibers . There is the facade of a snack counter at the back of the room , behind which is the kitchen . The upper walls of the dining room display a cyclorama of Southern California as seen over a fence .
While eating at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , guests watch film clips from 1950s and 1960s science fiction films , B horror films , monster movies , pseudo @-@ documentaries , bizarre newsreels , and animated cartoons , all on a loop that lasts 47 minutes . The film clips are taken from such films as The Blob , Frankenstein Meets the Space Monster , Teenagers from Outer Space , The Amazing Colossal Man , Plan 9 from Outer Space , Invasion of the Saucer Men , and Cat @-@ Women of the Moon . The original Attack of the 50 Foot Woman trailer is also included . The clips are shown on a large projection screen . During Star Wars Weekends , a special breakfast is offered called the Star Wars Dine @-@ In Galactic Breakfast , during which guests can interact with Star Wars characters and watch clips from the Star Wars films .
= = Food = =
At the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , lunch guests stay for an average of fifty minutes and dinner guests for an average of just longer than an hour , with lunch and dinner guests being served their food on average five and ten minutes after ordering respectively . The restaurant participates in the Disney Dining Plan . Meals are served starting at 10 : 30 a.m. on Sundays and Wednesdays , and starting at 11 : 00 a.m. every other day of the week . The restaurant closes each day at the same time that the park does , which is in the late evening . The menu is the same all day , without a distinction between lunch and dinner . A full bar service is available , and there is also a limited wine selection .
Food selection at the restaurant comes from the traditional cuisine of the United States . Popcorn is served as a free hors d 'oeuvre . Other food items include milkshakes , hot fudge sundaes , seafood salad , turkey sloppy joes , fried pickles , St. Louis @-@ style barbecue ribs , beef @-@ and @-@ blue @-@ cheese salads , sautéed shrimp with farfalle , French fries , cucumber salads , Buffalo wings , Boca Burgers , Tofutti , and steaks . Drinks include souvenir phosphorescent ice cubes . The desserts are served in larger portions than are customary elsewhere . There are vegetarian options . The chefs at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In sometimes cater for special requests in advance . The cookbook Delicious Disney Just for Kids contains a recipe for the BLT soup served at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In .
Items in the restaurant 's menu used to have themed names , such as " The Galactic Grill " ( triple @-@ decker grilled cheese sandwich ) , " Beast from 1 @,@ 000 Islands " ( Reuben sandwich ) , " Tossed in Space " ( garden salad ) , " The Cheesecake that Ate New York " , " Attack of the Killer Club Sandwich " , " Beach Party Panic " ( fish fillet ) , " Saucer Sightings " ( rib eye steak ) , " Terror of the Tides " ( broiled fish ) , and " Journey to the Center of the Pasta " ( vegetable lasagne ) , but these have since been replaced with more descriptive names . A popcorn bisque was once on the menu , but it was removed due to poor reception .
= = Imitation = =
In 2003 , EGV Entertainment , a movie theater operator in Thailand , opened the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe in Bangkok , explicitly modeling the restaurant after the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In . Wichai Poolwaraluk , the company 's executive president and chief executive officer , visited the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In in 2000 , and was inspired to open a similar restaurant . He said that , while he was eating at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , the other guests seemed more interested in their food than in the film clips on the screen , and he therefore considered the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In more of a restaurant than a theater , with the film reel simply being a gimmick . Appealing to EGV 's identity as a movie theater operator , Poolwaraluk said that the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe " can probably do a better job blending the cinema and the food together and also concentrate on both of them " . Like the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In , the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe features classic cars for seating , but , instead of showing film clips on a loop , the EGV Drive @-@ in Cafe shows entire short films .
In 2014 , NBCUniversal opened a new Universal Orlando hotel called Cabana Bay Beach Resort , which houses the Bayliner Diner , a restaurant that borrows its premise from the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In . Both restaurants play old film footage on a loop .
= = Reception = =
The Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In has received mixed reviews . Jack Hayes of Nation 's Restaurant News calls the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In " wacky " and " on the cutting edge of sheer dining fun " . In USA Today 's list of the sixteen best restaurants in American amusement parks , the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ranks fifteenth . Samuel Muston of The Independent writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is " memorable in the best way " . In the Evansville Courier & Press , Pete DiPrimio writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ranks among the most unusual of the restaurants at Disney 's Hollywood Studios . In The Unofficial Guide to Walt Disney World 2015 , Bob Sehlinger and Len Testa call the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In the most entertaining restaurant in Walt Disney World , writing that " everyone gets a kick out of this unusual dining room " .
Multiple reviewers have called the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In more notable for being an attraction than a food destination . One reviewer from The Guardian compares the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In to Epcot 's Coral Reef Restaurant , writing that both restaurants " are great settings " where " eating is awful " . Sehlinger and Testa consider the prices too high , and the food too simple , although they praise the Reuben sandwich and the ribs . Schultz writes that the food is simple and that some of the beers are decent . The book DK Eyewitness Travel Guide : Walt Disney World Resort & Orlando also states that the food is more expensive than it is worth . Ed Bumgardner of the Winston @-@ Salem Journal shared this opinion as well , specifically singling out the restaurant 's roast beef sandwich as a ripoff , despite calling it delicious . Peggy Katalinich of the Tampa Bay Times writes that , although the food is mediocre , " Who cares ? Food is besides the point " . She goes on to argue that the prices are low , particularly for sandwiches . In Frommer 's Walt Disney World and Orlando 2012 , Laura Lea Miller expresses disappointment that the menu no longer contains the playful item names it once did . She writes positively of the atmosphere , but considers the food mediocre . In the book Walt Disney World Resort : Also Includes Seaworld and Central Florida , Corey Sandler writes that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In is " a must @-@ see eatery ... for adults and adventurous kids " and that " the food is appropriate for a drive @-@ in theater — very ordinary , but that 's not really the reason you came " .
Some food items at the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In have been received favorably by reviewers . Rona Gindin and Jennifer Greenhill @-@ Taylor write highly of the restaurant 's hot @-@ fudge sundaes in Fodor 's 2012 Walt Disney World . In Plan Your Walt Disney World Vacation in No Time , Douglas Ingersoll writes very positively of the milkshakes , and argues that the sandwiches and burgers are better than at the fast food restaurants in the park . A reviewer for the United Kingdom 's The Sentinel also writes positively of the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In 's milkshakes , and writes that , " if you chose to treat yourself to a good lunch in one of the Disney parks , then this is the one " .
Positive reviews of the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In have indicated diverse reasons for appreciating the restaurant . In Vegetarian Walt Disney World and Greater Orlando , Susan Shumaker and Than Saffel write that the restaurant has " the wackiest dining experience in any Disney park " . Shumaker and Saffel contend that the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In provides a reasonable compromise when vegetarians and non @-@ vegetarians are looking to eat together , and that it is also suitable for both large and small families with young children . The restaurant tends to be popular with children , and it is common for people who lived through the 1950s to enjoy the restaurant for its nostalgia value . Paul Schultz of the Daily News writes , " Anyone who is a fan of trashy sci @-@ fi movies of the 1950s should check [ the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In ] out " . In his book Sci @-@ Fi Movie Freak , Robert Ring calls the Sci @-@ Fi Dine @-@ In film clips " hokey " , while David Steele of The Rotarian calls them " classically awful " , and Rick Ramseyer of Restaurant Business Magazine calls them " campy " .
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= 1991 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1991 Giro d 'Italia was the 74th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro began on May 26 with a mass @-@ start stage that began and ended in the Italian city of Olbia . The race came to a close in Milan on June 16 . Twenty teams entered the race , which was won by the Italian Franco Chioccioli of the Del Tongo @-@ MG Boys Maglificio team . Second and third respectively were the Italians Claudio Chiappucci and Massimiliano Lelli .
The race was first led by Frenchman Philippe Casado who won the first stage into Olbia . Casado lost the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) after stage 2a that contained a mountainous course . Éric Boyer took the race lead from Chioccioli after winning the event 's fourth stage . However , he lost the lead back to Chioccioli the following day . Chioccioli protected his lead and built upon his advantage by winning three stages of the race before the race 's finish .
In the race 's other classifications , Massimiliano Lelli of the Ari @-@ Ceramiche Ariostea team finished as the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification , finishing in third place overall ; Carrera Jeans – Tassoni rider Claudio Chiappucci won the points classification , Iñaki Gastón of the CLAS @-@ Cajastur team won the mountains classification , and CLAS @-@ Cajastur rider Alberto Leanizbarrutia won the intergiro classification . Carrera Jeans @-@ Tassoni finished as the winners of the team classification .
= = Teams = =
Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1991 edition of the Giro d 'Italia , ten of which were based outside of Italy . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 25 May . From the riders that began the race , 133 made it to the finish in Milan .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did include the previous year 's winner Gianni Bugno . He also stated that Claudio Chiappucci would likely contend for the overall crown due to his good form coming into the race . According to Paolo Viberti of El País , Bugno came in as the odds on favorite to win the race . Eugenio Capodacqua of La Repubblica and La Stampa 's Gianni Ranieri believed that the race was going be won by either Chiappucci or Bugno . Despite being favored to win the race , Bugno entered the race with no victories to his name that season . American Greg LeMond told the press he planned to be more competitive at this Giro than he had in years past . Other favorites to win the race were Laurent Fignon , Pedro Delgado , and Marino Lejarreta .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1991 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani , on 1 December 1990 . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were twelve stages containing thirty @-@ nine categorized climbs , of which five had summit finishes : stage 12 , to Monviso ; stage 13 , to Sestriere ; stage 15 , to Aprica ; stage 16 , to Selva di Val Gardena ; and stage 17 , to Passo Pordoi . The organizers chose to include one rest day , which was used to transfer the riders from Cagliari to Sorrento . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 265 km ( 165 mi ) shorter , contained one more rest day , and the same number of individual time trials and split @-@ stages . In addition , this race contained one more stage .
Capodacqua of La Repubblica believed that the route favored a rider that could defend well and put in a good time during the uphill time trial . La Stampa writer Gianni Ranieri felt the two non @-@ uphill time trials would favor Gianni Bugno , while the up @-@ hill time trial could be a place where Claudio Chiappucci could gain time on the field . Pedro Delgado believed the race to be tougher than the Tour de France that same year . The Cima Coppi – the highest point in altitude the race reached – was scheduled to be the Passo dello Stelvio , but the pass was scrapped from the race and the Passo Pordoi – the next highest mountain – became the new Cima Coppi .
= = Race overview = =
During the first stage , Alberto Leanizbarrutia attacked on his own and led the race for 150 km ( 93 mi ) before being caught by the chasing peloton within the final ten kilometers . It then came down to a bunch sprint finish that was so close that it required a photo to determine the winner , Philippe Casado . The next day of racing consisted of a mass @-@ start stage in the morning and an individual time trial in the afternoon . Reigning winner Gianni Bugno won the trans @-@ alpine morning stage ahead of other main contenders . This stage saw the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) switch from Casado to Franco Chioccioli . Gianluca Pierobon of ZG Mobili team won the afternoon time trial by five seconds over Spaniard Marino Lejarreta . The following day of racing was the last on the island of Sardinia before the race was transferred to mainland Italy . The day of racing ended with a bunch sprint contested by Adriano Baffi , Mario Cipollini , and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov , of which Cipollini got the best and won .
The fourth leg of the event consisted of five laps on a set circuit of 35 km ( 22 mi ) . The stage saw several attacks on the final lap of the course with most being caught by the peloton . Éric Boyer attacked with fifteen kilometers to go in the stage and was able to establish a solid gap between himself and the peloton . Boyer went on to win the stage by twenty @-@ three seconds over the chasing peloton , gaining enough time to earn the race lead . The following day saw the general classification contenders reach the final climb of the day , Mount Godi , together . Chioccioli attacked on the climb and only Lejarreta was able to mark his move . The two rode to the finish together as Boyer led the group of chasing riders to the finish fifty seconds later . Lejarreta won the stage and Chioccioli regained the race lead .
The sixth day of racing was marred by poor weather . General classification contenders Pedro Delgado and Laurent Fignon lost time due to crashing on the descent of Monte Terminillo , while Greg LeMond lost over two minutes . On the final climb of the day , Iñaki Gastón and Leonardo Sierra attacked with eight kilometers to go but were caught by the chasing riders . Gaston attacked again with a kilometer remaining , but was robbed of the stage win as Vladimir Poulnikov overtook him three meters before the finish . Cipollini won the event 's seventh leg by means of a field sprint .
The following stage saw a group of nine riders form off the front of the peloton with under twenty kilometers remaining . Despite the best efforts of the chasing peloton , the breakaway group survived and saw Ari @-@ Ceramiche Ariostea 's Davide Cassani take the stage by edging out Mario Mantova . Massimo Ghirotto of Carrera Jeans – Tassoni team attacked with about fifty kilometers to go in the ninth stage . He rode solo and wound up winning the stage , while the general classification remained largely unchanged . The next stage was a 43 km ( 27 mi ) individual time trial that was won by Bugno . He won by margin of eight seconds and moved up into second place overall , a second off the leader Chioccioli .
The eleventh stage was contested in rainy conditions on a winding course . After an unsuccessful breakaway attempt by fifteen riders , Maximilian Sciandri , LeMond , and Michele Coppolillo attacked and formed a group off the front . Sciandri and LeMond crossed the line in first and second , respectively , while Coppolillo was caught by the peloton in the closing meters of the stage . The next day saw the race 's first mountain @-@ top finish , to Monviso . The group of main contenders reached the final climb together , with Banesto 's Jean @-@ François Bernard launching the first attack which saw him gain a maximum advantage of around thirty seconds . The next to make a serious effort was Lejarreta , who was followed by Chioccioli , Massimiliano Lelli , and Sierra , who attacked with ten kilometers left in the stage . The trio caught up to Bernard and rode as a group to the finish . Lelli took the stage as Chioccioli defended his lead . Bugno lost almost two minutes during the day .
The thirteenth leg of the race featured two ascents of the Alpine mountain Sestriere , the second of which served as the finish for the day . The day began with a breakaway of twelve that was caught before the final climb to Sestriere . The first rider to launch a serious attack on the climb was Pedro Delgado , who was quickly followed by Chioccioli , Lejaretta , Eduardo Chozas , and Chiappucci , meanwhile Bugno was unable to follow their wheels . Chozas managed to win the stage as the group of four finish within four seconds of each other . With twenty kilometers to go in the fourteenth leg , Franco Ballerini , Casado , Juan Martínez Oliver , and Brian Peterson formed a breakaway group . The group managed to stretch out an advantage of almost two minutes as they entered the closing kilometers . Ballerini took the stage victory after he and Casado had managed to distance themselves slightly from the two other breakaway riders . LeMond abandoned the race following the conclusion of the fourteenth stage . The next day , on the ascent of the Mortirolo , race leader Chioccioli attacked and formed a solo attack . He rode the remaining fifty kilometers on his own to the stage victory , with his lead expanding to at most two minutes thirty seconds . He managed to put over a minute into each of his rivals .
The sixteenth saw no major shifts in the general classification . The top five riders in the general classification formed a leading group on the final climb but there were no major moves to create time gaps . Lelli took the stage win after ahead of Bugno . The following day was the last in the Dolomites and saw the ascension of five major climbs , including the Cima Coppi Passo Pordoi . On the second climbing of Pordoi , Chioccioli attacked and rode to the top of the climb to win the stage by thirty @-@ eight seconds . Lejaretta crashed on the day and lost over six and a half minutes , putting him out of contention for the podium and overall victory . Mid @-@ way through the stage , Fignon abandoned the race . The eighteenth day of racing was a transition stage . Several attempts were made to form a breakaway group before a group of eight were successful in creating a gap . The group was caught with five hundred meters to go by the chasing peloton which was setting up for a field sprint . Silvio Martinello managed to outsprint the likes of Cipollini and Abdoujaparov to win the day .
The nineteenth leg featured only one categorized climb , which Iñaki Gastón won to seal his victory in the mountains classification . The stage saw no major time disparities in the general classification contenders as they finished together , with Bugno taking the stage win . The penultimate stage of the race was a 66 km ( 41 mi ) individual time trial that contained one un @-@ categorized climb within the route . Race leader Chioccioli took the course and at the first time check at 15 @.@ 5 km ( 10 mi ) he had already put thirty seconds into Bugno . He ended up winning the stage by fifty @-@ seconds over Bugno , thereby extending his lead over the rest of his competitors . The final stage culminated with a bunch sprint that was won by Cipollini . Chioccioli had won the Giro d 'Italia for the first time by almost four minutes over the second place finisher Chiappucci .
Four riders achieved multiple stage victories : Cipollini ( stages 3 , 7 , and 21 ) , Bugno ( stages 2a , 10 , and 19 ) , Lelli ( stages 12 and 16 ) , and Chioccioli ( stages 15 , 17 , and 20 ) . Stage wins were achieved by eight of the twenty competing squads , six of which won multiple stages . Del Tongo @-@ MG Boys Maglificio collected a total of seven stage wins through three riders , Cipollini , Ballerini ( stage 14 ) , and Chioccioli . Carrera Jeans @-@ Tassoni earned three stage wins through Poulnikov ( stage 6 ) , Ghirotto ( stage 9 ) , and Sciandri ( stage 11 ) . Ari @-@ Ceramiche Ariostea achieved the same feat through Cassani ( stage 8 ) and Lelli . Chateau d 'Ax @-@ Gatorade garnered three stage victories through Bugno . Z amassed a total of two stage victories through Casado ( stage 1 ) and Boyer ( stage 4 ) . ONCE gained two stage victories through Lejaretta ( stage 5 ) and Chozas ( stage 13 ) . ZG Mobili and Gis Gelati @-@ Ballan each won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Pierobon ( stage 2b ) and the second through Martinello ( stage 18 ) .
= = Classification leadership = =
Five different jerseys were worn during the 1991 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro . The time bonuses for the 1991 Giro were twelve seconds for first , eight seconds for second , and four seconds for third place on the stage .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo Pordoi . It was crossed twice by the riders , for the first climbing of the mountain , Italian Franco Vona was the first over the climb , while Franco Chioccioli was first over the second passing . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1967 were eligible for it .
The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = = Team classification = = =
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= Tropical Storm Candy =
Tropical Storm Candy produced minor impact in the state of Texas during the 1968 Atlantic hurricane season . The third tropical cyclone of the annual season , it developed from a tropical disturbance in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on June 22 . Gradual strengthening occurred , with the depression becoming Tropical Storm Candy on the following day . The storm reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) later that day and made landfall Port Aransas , Texas on June 23 . Candy weakened into a tropical depression only hours after moving inland . However , the system remained a designated cyclone until June 26 , at which time it completed extratropical transition over the state of Michigan .
Due to rainfall from a trough for several days , combined 11 inches ( 280 mm ) in some areas from Candy itself , flooding occurred in eastern Texas ; there was minor damage to crops , roads , and bridges . Agricultural losses alone were slightly less than $ 2 million ( 1968 USD ) . Storm surge along the coast of Texas caused " cuts " on Padre Island . The storm spawned 24 tornadoes , though only one caused significant impact . Candy and its remnants dropped rainfall in 24 other states , reaching as far north as New Hampshire . Overall , the system caused $ 2 @.@ 7 million in damage and no fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
Between mid- to late June , satellite imagery indicated above normal amounts of shower and thunderstorm activity over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico . By June 22 , the system developed into a tropical depression just off the coast of Mexico in the Bay of Campeche . The depression , which initially had an elongated structure , moved north to north @-@ northwestward at roughly 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . On June 22 , three separate and distinct circulation centers were noted in weather radar images from Brownsville , Texas . Later that afternoon , a United States Navy reconnaissance aircraft investigated the depression and recorded sustained winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Therefore , the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Candy at 1800 UTC on that same day .
Late on June 23 , Candy made landfall near Port Aransas , Texas . Despite moving ashore , Candy attained its peak intensity at 0000 UTC on June 24 , with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Both were observations from a weather station in Austwell , Texas . The storm quickly weakened inland , falling to tropical depression status early on June 24 . In advance of a cold front , Candy curved northeastward on June 25 and began to accelerate . While moving across the Midwestern United States , the storm began to lose tropical characteristics due to the presence of cold air . At 0000 UTC on June 26 , Candy transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while situated over southern Michigan . The remnants continued eastward for several more hours before dissipating over western New York .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Gale @-@ force winds were reported from Corpus Christi to Galveston , Texas . Sustained winds were above 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) for more than an hour at Austwell , Texas . The peak wind gust of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) was measured at Port Aransas , Texas , where the storm made landfall . Storm surge was highest in San Antonio and Corpus Christi Bays , at 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , and was 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) along the rest of the Texas coast . However , damage from the storm surge was confined to the formation of " cuts " along Padre Island and to coastal oil refinery equipment .
Prior to the formation of Candy , a trough had brought eight to ten days of rainfall throughout Texas which helped the heavy rainfall from the storm produced damage to crops , roads , and bridges throughout eastern Texas . The rains from Candy also caused flooding on many middle and upper coastal rivers with significant damage confined to the eastern and western forks of the San Jacinto River . The highest recorded rainfall was 11 @.@ 28 inches ( 287 mm ) at Point Comfort , Texas . Elsewhere in southeast Texas , precipitation amounts were generally 3 to 6 inches ( 76 to 152 mm ) . Impact from winds was mostly minor , except at the 740 feet ( 230 m ) public fishing pier in Port O 'Connor , which was severely damaged by 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . Ten towboats and barges , as well as several other small vessels , received minor impacts at Hopper 's Landing on San Antonio Bay .
Outside of Texas , 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) of rain was reported in eastern Oklahoma , northwestern Arkansas , central Missouri , and northern Illinois . Precipitation in Michigan exceeded 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in some areas , contributing to the ongoing flooding event in Ann Arbor . Flash flooding was reported in western New York , due to precipitation amounts up to 3 @.@ 04 inches ( 77 mm ) in Buffalo during a 24 – hour period . As a result , streams overflowed their banks , inundating many basements , sewers , and underpasses . While tropical , Candy spawned 19 tornadoes or funnel @-@ clouds to form between June 23 and 25 . Ten were reported in Texas , five in Arkansas , three in Louisiana , and one in Missouri . Five additional tornadoes , which were associated with the extratropical remnants of Candy , were reported on June 25 in eastern Ohio . Despite the amount of tornadoes , only one caused significant damage . That tornado " nearly demolished " a school in Morning Star , Arkansas . The total property damage from the storm was " conservatively " estimated at $ 1 million , while losses to agriculture in eastern Texas approached $ 2 million . No deaths were reported in relation to the storm . Candy made 1968 only one of four years to have three named storms in June , with the others being 1886 , 1936 , and 1959 .
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= Mother Gothel =
Mother Gothel is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) as the main antagonist . The character is voiced by American actress and singer Donna Murphy in her voice @-@ acting debut , prior to which she was predominantly known as a stage actress . Upon learning from her agent that Disney was auditioning potentials for the antagonistic role of Mother Gothel , Murphy decided to audition for the part spontaneously . Loosely based on the witch character in the German fairy tale " Rapunzel " , Mother Gothel is a vain old witch who hoards the healing powers of a magical flower in order to remain young and beautiful forever . When the flower is suddenly harvested by the kingdom in order to heal its ailing queen , its rejuvenating powers are inherited by the king and the queen 's daughter , Princess Rapunzel , stripping Gothel of her access to it . With her life suddenly endangered , Gothel kidnaps the baby , imprisoning the young Princess Rapunzel in an isolated tower for eighteen years while masquerading as her mother .
Inspired by the Evil Queen in Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) and Lady Tremaine in Disney 's Cinderella ( 1950 ) , Gothel was developed by directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard into a much more complex villain than the fairy tale witch upon whom she is based because the character is forced to rely solely on her wit , charisma and intelligence as opposed to sorcery in order to survive . The film 's most difficult character to develop , Gothel 's exotic appearance , whose beauty , dark curly hair and voluptuous figure were deliberately drawn to serve as a foil to Rapunzel 's , was inspired by both Murphy and American singer Cher .
Mother Gothel has been mostly well received by film critics , who enjoyed the character 's humor , complexity , charisma and showmanship , dubbing her a scene stealer , while praising Murphy 's performance enthusiastically . However , some critics felt that Gothel was simply too passive – a weaker , less intimidating Disney villainess than Maleficent from Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) , Cruella de Vil from One Hundred and One Dalmatians and Ursula from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Walt Disney himself first attempted to adapt the fairy tale " Rapunzel " into a feature @-@ length animated film during the 1940s . However , the filmmaker 's efforts were never fully realized because the fairy tale was considered too " small " . In 2008 , co @-@ directors Nathan Greno and Byron Howard decided to enlarge the film 's scale in order to transform it into a " big event " in order for it to be successful . Meanwhile , the character Mother Gothel was developed into a much more complex villain than the witch upon whom she is based , conceiving her as " a very lonely woman who really did not know how to have a relationship of any kind " . Little else had been determined about the character at the time , who was simply described as " the type of woman who ... envisioned herself in the spotlight . " A departure from traditional Disney villains , Mother Gothel is not a witch or a sorceress . Because she lacks supernatural powers , the character is forced to rely solely on her wit , charm , intellect and charisma because , a conscious decision made by Greno and Howard . However , in the Brothers Grimm 's original fairy tale , Gothel is very much depicted as a typical witch @-@ like character , an idea that was modified for the Disney film adaptation in favor of having Gothel 's agelessness instead be " derive [ d ] ... from Rapunzel 's hair " , becoming one of the few Disney villainesses to not possess magical powers of her own .
Seeking inspiration for Gothel and Rapunzel 's " bizarre " relationship , Greno and Howard conducted a series of interviews with several female Disney employees , asking them to list qualities in their mothers that " they found annoying and cloying or restricting " , specifically " the things that they ’ re [ sic ] mothers would do that made them feel trapped or made them feel smothered " in order to make the villain appear more relatable . Gothel 's " Mother Knows Best " line " Getting kind of chubby " was in fact borrowed from one of these interviews . Gothel embodies " the darker side " of overprotective parents ; at the beginning of the film , Gothel and Rapunzel 's relationship resembles more @-@ so of " a pure mother @-@ daughter relationship . " Elaborating on Gothel 's " unique mothering style " , Howard explained to Den of Geek that the character " has to convince this smart girl that she is her mother ... whatever her motivations are . " Citing Gothel as one of the film 's most difficult characters to develop as a result of her complex relationship with Rapunzel , Greno explained to Den of Geek :
" Mother Gothel can 't be mean . She has to be very passive @-@ aggressive . She was one of the hardest characters to crack . When we were developing her , people were saying that she doesn 't feel enough like a villain , and people would point to characters like Ursula . And then she was too dark for a while ... Because what you do with her directly affects how you play Rapunzel in the movie . Because , if you play an extremely dominant and cruel villain , that girl is going to become meek and downtrodden , with almost nothing of a person , with low self @-@ esteem . And we knew we didn 't want a character like that ... We had to balance it out , and figured that Gothel has to be more subtle than that , rather than a one @-@ note , domineering mother . "
The St. Paul Pioneer Press observed that Gothel represents " an update " of the traditional wicked stepmother , evolving into " the passive @-@ aggressive stepmother " instead . In actress Donna Murphy 's opinion , a " classic " villainess is " somebody who wants something with such intensity and such great need but comes to a place of not being bound by any kind of moral code or any sense of what ’ s ethical " , concluding that " They will do anything to get what they want " . The Austin Chronicle observed that the directors ' inclusion of Gothel as " an evil mother figure as a trigger for the storyline " remains one of the " classic hallmarks of Disney animation " . According to Kay Turner , author of the book Transgressive Tales : Queering the Grimms , " Gothel " means " godmother " in German .
= = = Voice = = =
The directors admitted that they were not keen on hiring solely big @-@ named , A @-@ list celebrities or top @-@ billed actors to voice the film 's main characters . Howard explained that , in order to be cast , the actors simply had to have the " right voice " for the characters , preferring voice actors " who could ... bring a natural ease to those characters . " Greno elaborated , " It was never about how big the star was ... It was always about ... who ’ s best for the part " . Film critic James Berardinelli of ReelViews observed that this decision echoed " Disney 's approach during the late 1980s and early 1990s , when big name stars where often bypassed in favor of lesser known talents . " An additional asset was that the actor be able to perform well both independently and collaboratively .
Mother Gothel is voiced by American actress and singer Donna Murphy , a Tony Award @-@ winning Broadway actress who was informed about the casting call for Tangled by her agent . Having never voiced an animated character before , the actress decided to audition for the role of the film 's villain based solely on the expectation that the unfamiliar experience would be " fun " . Almost immediately , Murphy developed a strong liking towards Gothel because of the character 's complexity . Known for her award @-@ winning Broadway performances , Murphy prepared herself for her Tangled audition similar to the way in which the actress would have prepared for a Broadway audition . Refusing to rely solely on her voice , Murphy also provided Gothel with an additional background that " flush [ ed ] out the moments beyond what we see in the film . " Although Greno and Howard had already held Murphy in high regard as " a spectacular singer " , the actress was required to audition a song for the directors nonetheless , performing " Children Will Listen " from the musical Into the Woods . Howard revealed in an interview that Murphy was ultimately chosen out of hundreds of actresses because she possessed " something extra " ; the directors especially enjoyed the charisma and intelligence Murphy brought to the role .
Growing up a fan of Disney films , Murphy had never wanted to play a princess , preferring characters who were adventurous and " drove the action " instead . In the actress ' opinion , villains continue to be the most dynamic characters in Disney films . Describing the opportunity to voice a Disney villain as a " juicy " experience , Murphy explained that this is because these characters are " not bound by ethics or moral codes or concern for what someone thinks or how it might hurt someone else " , providing actors with more freedom . Upon her first session , Murphy appreciated the directors for exposing her to early concepts and ideas about Gothel . However , Murphy was not provided with a complete script because " They ’ re very protective about that . " Murphy was directed to lower the pitch of her voice in favor of demonstrating a rather " flat " sound . Although Murphy did not base her own performance on any one individual in particular , she admitted to Babble that she was somewhat inspired by Betty Lou Gerson 's performance as Cruella de Vil in Disney 's One Hundred and One Dalmatians ( 1961 ) . Comparing voice acting to Broadway , Murphy commented that , in animation , " You ’ re recording and you ’ re discovering it and giving the performance all at the same time . It ’ s not like you have three weeks rehearsal . " Additionally , Murphy never worked with co @-@ star Mandy Moore , voice of Rapunzel ; instead , Murphy revealed that scenes with Gothel and Rapunzel were actually recorded opposite one of the directors impersonating Moore , who also explained to Murphy that Gothel 's design will continue to evolve as the character begins to adapt the actress ' mannerisms . Howard enthused that Murphy " nailed " Gothel , admitting to ultimately using 90 % of the actress ' original material and takes because " The character just came right to life when she came in . "
= = = Characterization , design and analysis = = =
Convinced that " Disney does villains better than anyone , " the directors felt pressured to create a villain who would ultimately " live up to the classic villains of [ Disney 's ] past films . " Greno and Howard wanted Gothel to be both a funny and frightening character , describing her as " a commanding and powerful presence ... who could also have warmth " . Greno believes that Gothel is particularly scary because she is not a witch , explaining , " She 's a real @-@ world @-@ type villain . " Considered " one of the [ film 's ] hardest characters to crack " by Greno , he and Howard wanted Gothel to be depicted as a conniving villain who is likeable and charismatic enough that audiences would be convinced by her and Rapunzel 's unconventional relationship . Greno explained , " if Mother Gothel was a mean villainess , and looked like a villainess and acted scary , you 'd be like , ' Why is Rapunzel staying in the tower ? ' " In early drafts , Gothel was inspired by Ursula from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , causing the character to become " too dark . " Ultimately , the filmmakers voted in favor of having Gothel be subtle as opposed to having her remain " a one @-@ note , domineering mother , " similar to Lady Tremaine from Disney 's Cinderella ( 1950 ) .
As reported by The Korea Times , the thought of Gothel being a villain who is both a " greedy , selfish woman and a mother figure to Rapunzel " was initially " perplexing " for animator Jin Kim , and it wasn 't until after Kim heard Gothel 's " Mother Knows Best " for the first time that he " came up with the 1940s Hollywood screen siren motif " for the character . The directors also strived to make it obvious that Mother Gothel and Rapunzel are not related . Greno told Animation World Network , " When they 're standing together , it is very clear that this is not a mother and daughter , just by the frames of their bodies , their hair , the pigments of their skin , " as opposed to when Rapunzel is in close proximity with her true parents , the King and Queen . Howard added that , in comparison to Rapunzel , " Gothel is very tall and curvy , she ’ s very voluptuous , she ’ s got this very exotic look to her . Even down to that curly hair , we ’ re trying to say visually that this is not this girl ’ s mother . " The animators studied footage of Murphy in order to get " ideas about facial expressions " and " gestures . " After much speculation , the directors finally admitted that , in addition to Murphy , Gothel 's physical appearance was in fact influenced by American singer Cher . Howard explained that this was " because Cher is very exotic and Gothic looking , " continuing that the singer " definitely was one of the people we looked at visually , as far as what gives you a striking character . "
The term passive @-@ aggressive has since gone on to be commonly associated with Gothel . Critics felt that Gothel could possibly pioneer " a new kind of Disney villainess , " introducing " the undermining , passive @-@ aggressive , guilt @-@ trip @-@ inducing witch . " The Village Voice wrote that , as a villain , Gothel " is Disney ’ s first villainess whose chief crime is being an underminer , " warning Rapunzel that she is simply " too silly , too uneducated , too unsophisticated " to survive life outside of the tower . The Los Angeles Times referred to Gothel as " A guilt @-@ tripping , overprotective , super @-@ manipulative parent from hell . " One film critic observed that " Gothel is one of the most understated villains Disney has used in a long time . She harkens back to the wicked step mother idea in Cinderella ... She proves it 's possible to be evil without all the theatrics . " The author continued , " Gothel is one for the ages with a bit of darkly comedic timing and the overall greed and menace a villain needs to be disdained . " The character has received comparisons to the Evil Queen from Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) .
Donna Murphy believed that Gothel did really love Rapunzel in her own way .
" I also think there is this thread of a kind of love that she does have for Rapunzel . It ’ s not what she set out . But she does raise this child and it ’ s the most intimate and certainly the most sustained relationship I think the woman has had in her 387 years or however old she might be . So as deep as the need is to get something for herself , she can ’ t help but fall in love with her . She ’ s spirited , creative , and charming and I think that stirs something in her that is confusing for Gothel . And Gothel has to keep reminding herself of what is most important , which is taking care of herself . But I think there is a genuine kind of humanity . It ’ s by degree , it ’ s not unconditional love but there is a love that develops . "
= = = Music = = =
Mother Gothel performs two of the films songs : " Mother Knows Best , " described as a " brassy , Broadway @-@ targeted tune " and an " authoritarian anthem " in which Gothel warns her daughter " all about the evils out to get Rapunzel , " and " Mother Knows Best ( Reprise ) , " both written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater . While making Rapunzel 's music more modern in the vein of a singer @-@ songwriter , " young and contemporary and fresh , " Menken decided to make Gothel 's songs " more classic Broadway , " described as more of " a big stage diva type " of music . Critics have observed similarities between " Mother Knows Best " and " Out There " from Disney 's The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , on which Menken also served as a composer .
Musically , the filmmakers " were open ... to ideas that [ Murphy ] had , " as the actress had felt different about " a slightly different ending to something musically in the arrangement , " requesting to try something else , to which the filmmakers responded , " Absolutely ! "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Tangled = = =
Mother Gothel appears in in Tangled ( 2010 ) . For hundreds of years , Gothel , a vain old woman , hoards the rejuvenative powers of a magical flower in order to remain young and beautiful , while selfishly keeping the flower 's whereabouts a secret from the rest of the kingdom . However , when the pregnant Queen of Corona falls fatally ill , the flower is desperately retrieved and fed to her , healing her and in turn inadvertently stripping Gothel of her access to what is essentially the only thing that is keeping her alive . Meanwhile , the King and Queen 's newborn daughter Rapunzel is gifted with the flower 's abilities , which manifest via her long , golden hair when a special song is sung so long as it remains uncut . Desperate to stay alive , Gothel steals the baby from the palace and she imprisoned her in a secluded tower for eighteen years , raising the child as her own and prohibiting her from leaving solely in order to use her hair to stay young .
As her eighteenth birthday approaches , Rapunzel continues to grow eager to leave the tower in order to view the mysterious " floating lights " – secretly lanterns released annually by the King and Queen in remembrance of their lost daughter – from up close . While Gothel , reprimanding Rapunzel when she asks , forbids this , she agrees to Rapunzel 's request to take a three @-@ day @-@ long journey to retrieve art supplies for Rapunzel , giving her just enough time to escape the tower , aided by a wanted thief named Flynn Rider . However , not too far from the castle , Gothel is soon tipped off by Maximus , a guard horse who is searching for Flynn , that Rapunzel has gone missing . With her life endangered and her age rapidly increasing , Gothel desperately pursues Rapunzel and Flynn .
Enlisting the help of the Stabbington Brothers , a duo of muscular thieves who were once betrayed by Flynn , Gothel offers them both revenge on Flynn Rider and Rapunzel 's gift once they agree to help her find them , not intending to keep the latter half of her promise as she only wants Rapunzel for herself . When her initial attempt to convince Rapunzel to return home with her fails , Gothel , upon a second encounter , tricks the Stabbington Brothers into immobilizing Flynn , later knocking them unconscious when they attempt to kidnap Rapunzel . Convincing Rapunzel that Flynn has betrayed her , they return to the tower . While Flynn escapes from the dungeon , Rapunzel suddenly realizes her true identity and rebels against Gothel , only to be chained and gagged . Gothel stabs Flynn upon his arrival to rescue Rapunzel , but agrees to free Rapunzel long enough to heal him on the condition that she remain with her forever . However , Flynn unexpectedly cuts Rapunzel 's hair , causing it to lose its magic . It turns brown , and a horrified Gothel ( failing to salvage Rapunzel 's hair ) ages rapidly , falling out of the tower 's window but disintegrating into dust before she hits the ground , essentially dying of old age . Flynn dies in Rapunzel 's arms , but is miraculously revived by Rapunzel 's tear , and Rapunzel is finally reunited with her parents .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Mother Gothel has garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics . Nigel Andrews of the Financial Times felt that the character was given the film 's " best lines and tunes . " Film4 described Gothel as a " fun " character " to the extent that she risks making the good guys seem a bit dull . " Hailing Gothel as the film 's " pierre de resistance , " Georgie Hobbs of Little White Lies wrote that Gothel " performs ... ' Mother Knows Best ' ... with a schizophrenic frenzy worthy of the very best of [ Stephen ] Sondheim 's crazed heroines . " IGN 's Jim Vejvoda penned , " Mother Gothel nearly steals the show , with her overprotective tyranny being made to seem almost rational . " Dubbed Disney 's " first passive @-@ aggressive villain " by Helen O 'Hara of Empire , the author reviewed , " the fact that [ Gothel ] is entirely bereft of superpowers and reliant on her considerable wits to keep her going makes her strangely admirable . " Writing for the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , Cathy Jakicic called the character " a great contemporary villain " who " many daughters ( and mothers ) will find ... funny and a little too familiar . " In the The New York Times ' A. O. Scott 's opinion , " The Disney pantheon is full of evil stepmothers , though none quite match Mother Gothel for sheer sadistic intensity . " According to Jake Coyle of the Southtown Star , Gothel is " one of Disney 's best " villains , while Gary Thompson of the Philadelphia Daily News dubbed the character " one reason to love Disney . " Michael Smith of the Tulsa World reviewed Gothel as " perfectly wicked as she kills Rapunzel 's dreams . " Kirk Baird of The Blade identified Gothel as the film 's " strongest character . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune commented , " In her own way , Gothel is scarier than Snow White 's wicked stepmother " because the character " doesn 't cast spells ; she 's fully capable of manipulating , guilt @-@ tripping and emotionally undermining the girl . " Several comparisons have been made between Gothel and the Evil Queen in Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , while several critics observed the character 's likeness to singer Cher ; Peter Howell of the Toronto Star joked that Gothel is " suspiciously Cher @-@ like in her quest for eternal youth . "
However , critics were not unanimous in their praise , as some reviewers felt that the character was too passive and tame to be a convincing villain . Jeff Meyers of the Detroit Metro Times wrote that the film 's " villain isn 't all that villainous , " while Tyler Hanley of the Palo Alto Daily News received Gothel as too " one @-@ dimensional and generic . " PopMatters ' Bill Gibron wrote that , as a villain , Gothel " can ’ t compete with traditional House of Mouse miscreants like Maleficent or Cruella de Vil . " Alison Gang of U @-@ T San Diego felt that Gothel was an " annoying " character at times , while USA Today 's Claudia Puig wrote that " Gothel plays the role of Rapunzel 's loving mom [ only ] sometimes convincingly . " Although Michelle Orange of Movieline enjoyed Gothel 's personality to an extant , the author criticized the character in a mixed review that " By reducing Mother Gothel to a vain woman who doesn 't want immortality so much as she 's determined to keep her profile taut , the film misses the chance to get seriously mythical , and as a result the narrative lacks dramatic impact . "
Meanwhile , Donna Murphy 's vocal performance as Gothel has garnered unanimous praise . Critics hailed the actress as a " standout " – in particular , Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly singled out Gothel as " a firecracker " amidst an otherwise " sedate " cast . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote that " Donna Murphy does evil deliciously as the voice of Mother Gothel " , while Now 's Norman Wilner felt that the actress successfully " channelled " Broadway actress Patti LuPone in her performance . Meanwhile , Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph compared Murphy 's performance to actress and singer Julie Andrews , writing , " the Julie @-@ Andrews @-@ on @-@ stimulants vocal stylings of Broadway star Donna Murphy ... makes Mother Gothel into a memorable manipulative diva . " Joe Neumaier of the Daily News called Murphy 's acting " deliciously mischievous " . Meanwhile , Jonathan Crocker of Total Film wrote , " Donna Murphy 's vocal performance as the vain , villainous fake @-@ matriarch is marvellous " , adding , " her belted @-@ out rendition of ‘ Mother Knows Best ’ is easily the film ’ s top musical number . " Likewise , the Tampa Bay Times ' Steve Persall penned , " Nobody but Murphy should be cast as Gothel " , continuing , " her ' Mother Knows Best ' is a knockout . " Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy felt that " Donna Murphy steals the show " . Similarly dubbing Murphy a scene @-@ stealer , Canoe.ca 's Lindsey Ward wrote that " Murphy ... turns into a giant spectacle with her voice , a powerful force to be reckoned with . " David Edelstein of Vulture.com hailed Murphy as " Broadway ’ s gift to animated movies " , praising in particular the actress ' delivery of " the movie ’ s best line : “ Oh , so I ’ m the bad guy now ? ” Quickflix deemed Murphy " wonderful " , while Stephen Witty of The Star @-@ Ledger ' called her " terrific " . Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media opined , " As for the dramatic tension , it 's best in the form of Mother Gothel -- brilliantly played by Murphy , whose signature Broadway voice ... adds the necessary punch " . Chen added that Gothel " is ... a personal favorite " while comparing the character to Cher and actress Sophia Loren . The A.V. Club 's Tasha Robinson wrote that Gothel was " magnificently voiced by star Murphy . " Murphy 's performance of " Mother Knows Best " has also been very positively received , with critics again comparing the actress to Julie Andrews . While calling Gothel 's voice " to die for " , Peter Travers of Rolling Stone deemed her performance of the song " comic bliss . " Linda Cook of the Quad @-@ City Times penned that the song was " belted out wonderfully by Murphy and makes the purchase of the soundtrack worthwhile . " Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle opined , " Murphy brings stage showmanship to her musical interludes as Mother Gothel , which drip with sarcasm and biting wit . " Slant Magazine 's Christian Blauvelt , who felt that the film 's songs lacked as a result of Moore 's " pop @-@ star vocals " , happened to very much enjoy Gothel 's performances , writing , " when Broadway vet Murphy takes to scaling Menken 's octave @-@ climbing melodies like a vocal escalator , it 's a different story . " Calling Gothel " one of the most potent schemers in the Disney canon , " Time 's Richard Corliss felt that Murphy 's performance was worthy of a Tony Award for Best Actress , concluding , " no one can summon the malice in humor , and the fun in pain , like this prima Donna . " In his review of the film 's soundtrack , James Christopher Monger of AllMusic wrote that both " Moore and Murphy take on the lion ’ s share of the work here , and both deliver the goods . "
IGN ranked Mother Gothel fourth on their list of " the 12 Disney Villainesses " . In a list of the thirty @-@ three greatest Disney villains conducted by E ! , Mother Gothel was ranked twenty @-@ fifth .
= = = Merchandise = = =
In addition to the popular Mother Gothel Classic Doll and appearing alongside Rapunzel , Flynn , Pascal and Maximus in the Rapunzel Tangled Figure Play Set , the character 's likeness has since been adapted and modified by Disney into a much more glamorous doll for sale alongside several re @-@ imagined Disney villainesses as part of the company 's Disney Villains Designer Collection , released in 2012 . Costumed in a long burgundy gown made of satin , Gothel wears her thick black hair in " a theatrical up @-@ do . "
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= Alasdair Cochrane =
Alasdair Cochrane ( born 1978 ) is a British political theorist and ethicist who is currently a senior lecturer in political theory in the Department of Politics at the University of Sheffield . He is known for his work on animal rights from the perspective of political theory , which is the subject of his two books : An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory ( 2010 , Palgrave Macmillan ) and Animal Rights Without Liberation ( 2012 , Columbia University Press ) . He is a founding member of the Centre for Animals and Social Justice , a UK @-@ based think tank focussed on furthering the social and political status of nonhuman animals . He joined the Department at Sheffield in 2012 , having previously been a faculty member at the Centre for the Study of Human Rights , London School of Economics .
Cochrane 's work forms part of the political turn in animal ethics — that is , the emergence of academic literature exploring the normative aspects of human / nonhuman animal relationships from a political perspective . He is known for his interest @-@ based account of animal rights , a theory of justice which claims that animals have rights based on their possession of normatively @-@ significant interests . The account is a two @-@ tiered one , with individuals ' strong interests grounding prima facie rights , and some prima facie rights becoming concrete , or all @-@ things @-@ considered , rights . In this picture , the violation of concrete rights , but not necessarily prima facie rights , represents an injustice . In particular , Cochrane argues that sentient animals ' interests against suffering and death ground prima facie rights against the infliction of suffering and death . These prima facie rights convert to concrete rights in , for example , animal agriculture and animal testing , meaning that killing nonhuman animals or making them suffer for these purposes is unjust .
Cochrane argues that nonhuman animals do not possess an intrinsic interest in freedom . Therefore , owning or using nonhuman animals is not , in itself , unjust . This aspect of his thought has generated responses by others , including the political theorist Robert Garner and the philosopher John Hadley , who argue that there may be reasons to claim that nonhuman animals do possess an interest in freedom . Cochrane has also proposed a cosmopolitan alternative to Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka 's picture of a political animal rights , explicated in their 2011 book Zoopolis . Though Donaldson and Kymlicka have defended their account against Cochrane 's criticism , they have said that they welcome attempts to develop alternative political theories of animal rights to their own . Cochrane 's other research focusses variously on bioethics , punishment , just war and human rights .
= = Life = =
= = = Education = = =
Alasdair Cochrane studied in the Department of Politics at Sheffield as an undergraduate . There , he was taught by James Meadowcroft , a specialist in environmental politics , who sparked his interest in political and environmental philosophy . Cochrane received a first @-@ class honours degree in politics in 2000 from the university . He subsequently obtained an MSc in political theory from the London School of Economics ( LSE ) . It was during this time that he met Cécile Fabre , who went on to become his PhD supervisor . In 2007 , Cochrane received a PhD from the Department of Government at the LSE . His thesis , supervised by Fabre with Paul Kelly acting as an advisor , was entitled Moral obligations to non @-@ humans . In that year , Cochrane published his first peer @-@ reviewed research article : " Animal rights and animal experiments : An interest @-@ based approach " . The paper , a reworked version of chapter five ( " Non @-@ human animals and experimentation " ) of Moral obligations to non @-@ humans , appeared in Res Publica , and was the winner of the journal 's second annual postgraduate essay prize .
= = = Academic career = = =
In 2007 , after completing his postgraduate studies , Cochrane joined the Centre for the Study of Human Rights at the LSE . He was initially a fellow , then became a lecturer . In 2009 , he published articles in Utilitas and Political Studies defending his " liberty thesis " , the idea that nonhuman animals lack an intrinsic interest in freedom . This claim has attracted article @-@ length responses from the political theorist Robert Garner , and the philosophers John Hadley , Andreas T. Schmidt , and Valéry Giroux . Cochrane 's first book , An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory , was published in 2010 , and was one of the first to consider nonhuman animals from the perspective of political theory . The book introduces readers to the debate about the inclusion of nonhuman animals within accounts of justice . He first addresses the historical dimension of the question , arguing that there was disagreement in classical exploration of the issue , unanimous rejection in medieval considerations and disagreement in contemporary treatments . He then considers the place of nonhuman animals in utilitarian , liberal , communitarian , Marxist and feminist political theory , concluding that no single tradition is sufficient to account for the place nonhuman animals should have in politics , but that all have something worthwhile to offer to the debate .
In 2011 Cochrane became a founding member of the Centre for Animals and Social Justice ( CASJ ) . The CASJ is a think tank that aims to bring academics and policy makers together with a view to understanding and furthering the social and political status of nonhuman animals . In January 2012 Cochrane became a faculty member in the Department of Politics at the University of Sheffield , first as a lecturer in political theory , and then as a senior lecturer in political theory . His second book , Animal Rights Without Liberation , was released that year by Columbia University Press . The book is based upon the research he completed during his PhD at LSE , and offers an extended defence of the theoretical basis and practical consequences of his interest @-@ based rights account of animal ethics . In 2013 he edited a special section in the journal Global Policy on " International Animal Protection " ; the section included articles by the philosopher Oscar Horta , the environmental law scholar Stuart R. Harrop and the animal law scholar Steven White , with an introduction by Cochrane . He also contributed to the inaugural issue of the journal Law , Ethics and Philosophy as a part of a symposium on Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka 's Zoopolis . Cochrane 's paper argued for a " cosmozoopolis " , a cosmopolitan alternative to Donaldson and Kymlicka 's proposal for a " zoopolis " — a picture of a mixed human / nonhuman animal state with group @-@ differentiated political rights for nonhuman animals . A reply to Cochrane 's piece ( as well as the other contribution , by Horta ) from Donaldson and Kymlicka was also included . In 2014 , he was named a BBC Radio 3 New Generation Thinker for his work on animal rights .
= = Research = =
Cochrane has research interests in animal ethics , bioethics , environmental ethics , rights theory , and human rights , as well as contemporary political theory more broadly . He is a leading figure in what Garner calls the " political turn in animal ethics " , though precisely what this means is disputed . Similarly , Tony Milligan characterises Cochrane as a key figure in the " political turn in animal rights " , while Svenja Ahlhaus and Peter Niesen identify a discipline of " Animal Politics " , of which Cochrane 's work is a major part , separate from animal ethics . The literature to which these authors variously refer explores the relationships of humans and nonhuman animals from the perspective of normative political theory .
Cochrane has himself — writing with Garner and Siobhan O 'Sullivan — explored the nature of the political turn . Cochrane , Garner and O 'Sullivan argue both that the new literature is importantly unified and that it is distinct from more traditional approaches to animal ethics , presenting the focus on justice as the key feature . They write that " the crucial unifing and distinctive feature of these contributions – and what can properly be said to mark them out as a ' political turn ' – is the way in which they imagine how political institutions , structures and processes might be transformed so as to secure justice for both human and nonhuman animals " .
= = = Interest @-@ based rights approach = = =
Cochrane advocates the " interest @-@ based rights approach " to animal rights , which he distinguishes from the intrinsic value approach of Tom Regan and the relational account of Donaldson and Kymlicka . Rights set limits on what can be done , even in the pursuit of aggregative well @-@ being . Cochrane suggests that rights should be grounded in interests , and follows Joseph Raz 's formulation that
'X has a right ' if and only if X can have rights and , other things being equal , an aspect of X 's well @-@ being ( his interest ) is a sufficient reason for holding some other person ( s ) to be under a duty .
Cochrane draws out several aspects of this account , which serves as the basis of the analysis in his Animal Rights Without Liberation and elsewhere . First , interests must be " sufficient to give grounds for holding another to be under a duty " . Judging this entails considering the strength of an interest as well as " all other considerations " ; so , for example , individuals may have a very strong interest in free expression , but , " all things considered " , this fact does not necessitate the protection of slander . The greater interest of the victim of slander can outweigh the interest in free expression , and so context is important . This is the difference between prima facie rights and concrete rights . The former exist on an abstract level outside of particular circumstances . Prima facie rights can translate into concrete rights when considered in particular situations , but they do not always , as the free expression example illustrates . The account is for moral rights , and Cochrane 's normative claims are intended to form part of a " democratic underlaboring " , informing and persuading political communities .
The strength of an interest is determined by a consideration of the value of something to an individual ( though this is not understood purely subjectively ) and the relationship between the individual at this time and the individual when he or she has the interest satisfied ( see personal identity ) . Sentient animals , Cochrane argues , possess significant interests in not being made to suffer and in not being killed , and so have a prima facie right not to be made to suffer and a prima facie right not to be killed . Whether these prima facie rights translate into concrete rights depends on the situation in question . Cochrane explores the consequences of the account in his Animal Rights Without Liberation , arguing that , with very few exceptions , nonhuman animals have a concrete rights not to be killed or made to suffer in animal testing , animal agriculture , in entertainment , for environmental purposes and in cultural practices . Despite this , because Cochrane does not posit a right against use for nonhuman animals , his account is highly permissive when contrasted with other animal rights accounts .
In his interest @-@ based rights approach , Cochrane draws upon a number of normative theories , but most particularly utilitarianism and liberalism , and the framework has been presented by commentators as a possible middle @-@ ground between the rights theory of Regan and the utilitarian account offered by Peter Singer . Cochrane is not the first theorist to advocate an interest @-@ based account of animal rights . Garner identifies Joel Feinberg , James Rachels and Steve Sapontzis as three philosophers who have previously used the language of interest rights , while Cochrane identifies R. G. Frey and Regan as two others who have addressed the possibility . Interest @-@ based approaches to animal ethics have become significant in recent academic literature ; Milligan identifies " a strong emphasis upon animal interests but in the context of a rights theory rather than a Singer @-@ style consequentialism " as one of the key components of the political turn .
= = = Liberty thesis = = =
Cochrane 's " liberty thesis " is that nonhuman animals — with the possible exception of some great apes and cetaceans — do not have an intrinsic interest in freedom . Nonetheless , Cochrane claims , nonhuman animals may often have an extrinsic interest in freedom . This is because restricting a nonhuman animal 's freedom may result in its suffering , and , regardless of their interest in freedom , sentient animals possess an interest in not suffering . Schmidt summarises Cochrane 's argument as the following :
P1 : To have a moral right to freedom , one needs to have a sufficient intrinsic interest in freedom .
P2 : To have a sufficient and intrinsic interest in freedom implies that freedom by itself contributes to a person 's wellbeing .
P3 : Only in case of autonomous persons does freedom contribute by itself to their wellbeing ( because only for autonomous persons does unfreedom undermine the ability to ' frame and pursue their own conception of the good ' ) .
P4 : Non @-@ human animals are not autonomous persons .
C1 : Therefore , freedom does not by itself contribute to the wellbeing of non @-@ human animals .
C2 : Therefore , non @-@ human animals do not have an intrinsic interest in freedom .
C3 : Therefore , non @-@ human animals do not have a moral right to freedom .
Though Cochrane argues that nonhuman animals are not the victim of an injustice simply because they are owned , he claims that ownership of an animal must be understood as not entailing absolute control over said animal . He conceptualises owned animals as " individual sentient creatures with interests of their own " . In understanding owned animals in this way , he challenges alternative accounts which frame owned animals variously as living artifacts , slaves , co @-@ citizens or beings who have strategically situated themselves alongside humans . In Animal Rights Without Liberation , Cochrane argues that there is nothing intrinsically wrong with using or owning animals , and so , as long as their interests are respected , there is nothing intrinsically wrong with using them , for example , in scientific tests , or for agricultural purposes . Ahlhaus and Niesen characterise the book as a whole as a critique of Singer 's Animal Liberation , saying that the former explores the latter 's " undeclared premise that liberation is what animals want or need " .
Schmidt criticises Cochrane 's liberty thesis on the grounds that nonhuman animals may have a non @-@ specific instrumental interest in freedom , meaning that although freedom is not intrinsically valuable for these animals , it may be that they can achieve other things which are intrinsically valuable only through possessing freedom . Thus , Cochrane 's thesis underestimates the value that freedom could have for nonhuman animals . Hadley criticises Cochrane 's non @-@ pragmatic approach , arguing that Cochrane , as an animal advocate , is wrong to deny that nonhuman animals possess an " intrinsic " interest in freedom . Hadley links freedom to the value of nonhuman animals , arguing that the latter can be undermined by arguing against the former . Garner criticises Cochrane 's thesis on the grounds that Cochrane has , Garner claims , underestimated the weight of the argument from marginal cases . To the extent that Cochrane 's argument works for nonhuman animals , Garner suggests , it will also work for many humans , leading to counter @-@ intuitive consequences . Garner ties autonomy not merely to liberty , but also life , which means that Cochrane 's argument would imply that some humans have less of an interest in life than others . Nonetheless , Garner argues that Cochrane 's liberty thesis is not destructive of animal rights , and that animal rights positions can still make claims of significance without endorsing the claim that nonhuman animal use is , in itself , problematic . Indeed , merely a right against suffering , Garner suggests , could go a long way towards achieving the abolitionist goal of the end of animal industry . All three authors praise Cochrane for drawing attention to the previously under @-@ examined issue .
The abolitionist theorist Jason Wyckoff draws attention to Cochrane 's argument that nonhuman animals do not have an interest in not being owned . He formalises Cochrane 's argument as follows :
1 . Possession ( understood as restriction of freedom ) is something to which we do not object across the board even in the case of human children , so there is no across @-@ the @-@ board objection to possession when the case involves animals .
2 . Non @-@ lethal use of animals that does not cause suffering is consistent with full respect for the interests of those animals , provided that those animals are not treated exclusively as means to human ends .
3 . At least some transferals of animals ( including sales ) are consistent with full respect for those animals ’ interests , provided that the transfer does not cause suffering .
4 . The rights to possess , use , and transfer items are at the core of our concept of property .
5 . Therefore , the property status of animals is compatible with full respect for the interests of animals .
He claims that Cochrane 's argument is invalid because it assumes that nonhuman animals are harmed by being owned only if they are killed or have suffering inflicted on them and because it assumes that ownership is permissible when it does not compromise the interests of the particular owned animal . Both of these assumptions are false , claim Wyckoff , as though " instances of possession , use , and transfer may possibly not violate the interests of an individual , the systematic treatment of that individual as the kind of entity that can be possessed , used , and transferred constructs that entity and others like it ( or him , or her ) as an object , and when that entity is a moral patient with interests , that construction as an object subordinates the interests of that patient and similar patients to those who benefit from the objectification of the individual " .
= = = International animal rights = = =
Some of Cochrane 's research concerns animal rights from an international or cosmopolitan perspective . As an alternative to Donaldson and Kymlicka 's proposal for a " zoopolis " , Cochrane proposes a " cosmozoopolis " , drawing upon cosmopolitan theory . The zoopolis picture , Cochrane suggests , unfairly elevates the interests of nonhuman " citizens " over other nonhuman animals , even though these other animals may have comparable interests , and , in offering sovereignty to free @-@ living animals , denies the importance of nonhuman animal mobility . Ahlhaus and Niesen consider Cochrane 's criticism of Donaldson and Kymlicka valuable , but question the extent to which his " cosmozoopolis " picture is compatible with his liberty thesis . Donaldson and Kymlicka offer a defence of their zoopolis picture against Cochrane 's criticism , affirming the importance of nonhuman animals ' interests in their territory and the legitimacy of offering benefits to members of particular societies denied to non @-@ members . Despite this , they say that , citing Cochrane 's cosmozoopolis picture as an example , " one of [ their ] aims is to inspire people to develop ... alternative political theories of animal rights " to their own .
Cochrane is of the view that " a lack of a clear , focused and coherent set of international standards and policies for animal protection is an important contributing factor " to the gulf between the theoretical and legal valuation of nonhuman animals and their treatment around the world . With Steve Cooke , he argues that it is theoretically acceptable — drawing upon Simon Caney 's account of just war — for states to go to war to protect nonhuman animals . Nonetheless , the pair argue that it will almost never be acceptable in practice .
= = = Other research = = =
Cochrane is critical of the use of claims about dignity in debates about the genetic engineering of nonhuman animals , in questions about the use of nonhuman animals in human entertainment , and in the bioethics literature . He holds that nonhuman animals do not possess an interest against being treated in undignified ways , and endorses " undignified bioethics " — bioethics without the concept of dignity . Cochrane has sympathy for the standard criticisms of dignity in bioethics ( that the concept is indeterminate , reactionary and redundant ) , and , in a 2010 paper , defends these criticisms against counter @-@ claims from those who endorse various understandings of dignity . The bioethicist Inmaculada de Melo @-@ Martín responded to Cochrane 's article , claiming that the problems Cochrane identifies are problems with common understandings of the concepts of dignity , not with the concepts themselves , and arguing that Cochrane 's conclusion leads to a conception of bioethics almost devoid of ethics .
Recent literature exploring bioethical questions from a human rights perspective has been criticised on the grounds that human rights theory contains unresolved problems . Bioethicists have claimed that bioethical inquiry can contribute to resolving these problems . Cochrane claims that this contribution to human rights literature offers three insights , but that these are not entirely original . These insights are questions about institutional fairness , rights as trumps and rights as solely belonging to humans . Cochrane holds that human rights should be reconceptualised as sentient rights . The grounding of human rights , he claims , are not distinct from the grounding of human obligations to nonhuman animals , and attempts to distinguish human rights from the rights of other sentient beings ultimately fail .
Cochrane has also published work on environmental ethics and punishment . Concerning the latter , he argues , building upon Thomas Mathiesen 's claim that prison is not justified by classic theories of punishment , that the institution cannot be justified on the basis of Antony Duff 's " communicative " account of punishment .
= = Select bibliography = =
= = = Books = = =
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2012 ) . Animal Rights Without Liberation . New York : Columbia University Press .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2010 ) . An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory . Basingstoke , England : Palgrave Macmillan .
= = = Articles = = =
Cochrane , Alasdair , Siobhan O 'Sullivan and Robert Garner ( 2016 ) . " Animal ethics and the political " . Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy. doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 13698230 @.@ 2016 @.@ 1194583 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2016 ) . " Prison on appeal : The idea of communicative incarceration " . Criminal Law and Philosophy. doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s11572 @-@ 015 @-@ 9371 @-@ 4
Cochrane , Alasdair ; Cooke , Steve ( 2016 ) . " ' Humane intervention ' : The international protection of animal rights " . Journal of Global Ethics 12 ( 1 ) : 106 – 21 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 17449626 @.@ 2016 @.@ 1149090 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2013 ) . " Cosmozoopolis : The case against group @-@ differentiated animal rights " . Law , Ethics and Philosophy 1 : 127 – 41 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2013 ) . " From human rights to sentient rights " . Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 16 ( 5 ) : 655 – 75 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 13698230 @.@ 2012 @.@ 691235 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2012 ) . " Evaluating ' bioethical approaches ' to human rights " . Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 15 ( 3 ) : 309 – 322 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s10677 @-@ 012 @-@ 9345 @-@ 8 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2010 ) . " Undignified bioethics " . Bioethics 24 ( 5 ) : 234 – 241 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 8519.2009.01781.x. PMID 20002071 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2009 ) . " Do animals have an interest in liberty ? " . Political Studies 57 ( 3 ) : 660 – 679 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 9248.2008.00742.x.
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2009 ) . " Ownership and justice for animals " . Utilitas 21 ( 4 ) : 424 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0953820809990203 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2007 ) . " Animal rights and animal experiments : An interest @-@ based approach " . Res Publica 13 ( 3 ) : 293 – 318 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s11158 @-@ 007 @-@ 9037 @-@ 8 .
= = = Chapters = = =
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2016 ) . " Inter @-@ species solidarity : Labour rights for animals " . In Garner , Robert ; O 'Sullivan , Siobhan . The Political Turn in Animal Ethics . London : Rowman & Littlefield International .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2016 ) . " Life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness ? Specifying the rights of animals " . In Višak , Tatjana ; Garner , Robert . The Ethics of Killing Animals . Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 201 – 14 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199396078 @.@ 003 @.@ 0012 .
Cochrane , Alasdair ( 2014 ) . " Born in chains ? The ethics of animal domestication " . In Gruen , Lori . The Ethics of Captivity . Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 156 – 73 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199977994 @.@ 003 @.@ 0011 .
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= Acharya Institute of Technology =
Acharya Institute of Technology , or AIT , is a private co @-@ educational engineering and management college in Bangalore , India , affiliated with the Visvesvaraya Technological University ( VTU ) and accredited by the National Board of Accreditation ( NBA ) . Established in 2000 , it offers eleven undergraduate courses and eight postgraduate courses . AIT includes the NRV School of Architecture , which offers a five @-@ year undergraduate course in architecture and is accredited by the Council of Architecture ( COA ) . The college has links and collaborations with various industries and universities across the world .
It is one of the several institutes run by the JMJ Education Society and features in various ranking lists of top engineering colleges in India published by media agencies and publications like Outlook , Competition Success Review ( CSR ) , Dataquest , NASSCOM , The Week and Electronics For You . In 2009 , 2010 , 2011 and 2012 rankings , AIT was ranked among the top five Engineering colleges in Karnataka by the Global Human Resources Development Centre ( GHRDC ) . It features as an AA + institution in the rankings of the Careers 360 magazine . The CSR @-@ GHRDC survey , in 2009 rankings , listed the college as the most promising engineering college in India . The college received the South India 's Excellent Institution Award from A @-@ Plus TV Media Works . The AICTE- CII survey of industry linked engineering institutions , in 2012 , has ranked AIT as No. 2 in the South- Western region comprising the states of Karnataka and Kerela and No. 13 in India .
AIT organises the Acharya Habba , an annual 2 days long inter @-@ collegiate cultural festival that is one of the largest in Bangalore and Karnataka .
The Deccan Herald lists AIT as one of the " notable " colleges to apply the Karnataka Management Aptitude Test ( KMAT ) for admission to postgraduate management courses .
= = History = =
The Acharya Institute of Technology ( AIT ) was established in 2000 by Premnath Reddy , chairman of the Acharya Group of Institutions . The college is managed by the JMJ Education Society , headquartered in Bangalore . AIT offers thirteen Bachelor of Engineering ( BE ) courses , six Master of Technology ( MTech ) courses , Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) , Master of Computer Applications ( MCA ) and a PhD course in Mathematics . All courses are affiliated to the Visvesvaraya Technological University ( VTU ) . It was the first college under the VTU to start an undergraduate course in Mechatronics in Karnataka .
In 2009 the college constructed a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long road from its campus to the Hessarghatta Main Road . The road was inaugurated by Shivakumara Swamiji of Siddaganga Math in September 2010 . It is named Acharya Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Road after former Indian President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan .
In 2012 , the institute was granted " Technical Campus " status by the All India Council for Technical Education ( AICTE ) .
On 16 June 2012 , the college hosted India 's first Heavy metal music festival as a part of Bangalore Open Air 2012 backed by Germany 's Wacken Open Air at the college stadium . German Heavy metal bands and Teutonic thrash metal bands like the Kreator and the Suidakra along with an American Power metal band and Indian metal bands namely Kryptos , Eccentric Pendulum , Dying Embrace , 1833 AD , Bevar Sea and Albatross performed in the fest . Although Iced Earth were scheduled to perform at the fest , but backed out due to the denial of Visa by the Indian embassy .
= = Academic profile = =
= = = Admission criteria = = =
AIT admits 50 percent students on the basis of their rank in the Common Entrance Test ( CET ) conducted by the Government of Karnataka and 30 percent students through the Undergraduate Entrance Test of the Consortium of Medical , Engineering and Dental Colleges ( COMEDK ) of Karnataka . It also admits 20 percent students under a management quota without merit requirements and has admitted about 150 foreigners from 25 countries under " PIO Quota " .
There is a lateral entry scheme in place , by which students holding diploma degrees can enter directly into the second year of study in engineering . After completing their graduation , students receive a BE degree from the VTU . Students are admitted to postgraduate courses on the basis of their test scores in the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering , as well as on their Karnataka Postgraduate Common Entrance Test ( PGCET ) and KMAT scores .
= = = Departments and courses = = =
Undergraduate courses
The college offers four @-@ year BE courses in the following subjects . All are recognised by VTU .
Aeronautical Engineering
Automobile Engineering
Biotechnology
Civil Engineering
Computer Science
Construction technology
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Mechatronics Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Mining Engineering
Information Science & Engineering
Postgraduate courses
The college offers the following two @-@ year postgraduate courses , all recognised by the VTU .
MBA
MCA
MTech in Biotechnology
MTech in Computer Networking Engineering
MTech in Computer Science and Engineering
MTech in Digital Communication Engineering
MTech in Machine Design
MTech in Power Systems
Architecture
Acharya 's NRV School of Architecture offers a five @-@ year undergraduate course in architecture ( B.Arch ) , which is accredited by the Council of Architecture ( COA ) .
= = = Faculty = = =
AIT maintains a teacher @-@ student ratio of 1 : 10 . It is the first college in Karnataka to put in effect the Sixth Central Pay Commission recommendations for faculty pay scale .
= = = Research Centers = = =
The Institute receives a " Modernisation and Removal of Obsolescence " grant from the AICTE for research activities and upgraded state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art laboratory facilities . The Visvesvaraya Technological University recognises the college 's departments of Biotechnology , Electronics and Communication Engineering , Mathematics , and Mechanical Engineering as research centers :
= = = Accreditation and Rankings = = =
AIT is accredited by the National Board of Accreditation ( NBA ) . It was the first college of the Visvesvaraya Technological University to start an undergraduate course in Mechatronics in Karnataka . It is one of the seven colleges in Karnataka to be funded by the World Bank and receives endowments from the VTU to carry out research in both its undergraduate and postgraduate departments .
The college is ranked consistently among the top 50 engineering colleges in India by publications and organizations such as Outlook , Competition Success Review ( CSR ) , Dataquest , NASSCOM , The Week and Electronics For You . In 2009 , 2010 , 2011 and 2012 rankings , AIT was ranked among the top five engineering colleges in Karnataka by the Global Human Resources Development Centre ( GHRDC ) . It features as an AA + institution in the rankings of the Careers 360 magazine . The CSR @-@ GHRDC survey , in 2009 rankings , listed the college as the most promising engineering college in India . The college received the South India 's Excellent Institution Award from A @-@ Plus TV Media Works .
= = Administration = =
= = = Governing Council = = =
The Governing Council of the college consists of 11 members . The body comprises five members from the JMJ Education Society , one staff representative , one member of the Indian University Grants Commission , one AICTE nominee , one Government of Karnataka nominee , one Department of Technical Education nominee , one university nominee , and one Member Secretary , the Principal .
= = = Academic Council = = =
The Academic Council of the college is headed by the Principal . Student enrollments , academics , assessments and examinations are managed by the respective deans , the Controller of Examinations and appointed faculty members . The college administration is managed by the Director of Administration . The research department is headed by the Director of Research and Development . The placement department is managed by the Principal , the Human Resource Director and one expert in the subject . Each academic department is headed by a head of department .
= = = Proctorial system = = =
Faculty members are appointed as proctors for the students of their departments to monitor their attendance , performance in tests , extracurricular activities and personality development . Each proctor supervises 20 students per semester .
= = Campus = =
Educational facilities
The college has a Central Library with EDUSAT programmes , E @-@ learning facilities and an Online Public Access Catalog ( OPAC ) gateway . It has various collaborations with multinational corporations and has established learning facilities like the Vasundhara Industrial Automation Learning Center , the IBM Software Center of Excellence , the Microsoft IT Academy and the Novell Centre of Excellence . The International Academy for Competency Enhancement provides students and recent graduates with English language skills and technical training to equip them for work in industry .
Entrepreneur Incubation Cell
The college has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with IBM and has established the IBM Entrepreneur Incubation Center on the campus .
Infrastructure
The college provides all @-@ hours Wi @-@ Fi access on campus . It has an auditorium with a capacity of over 500 seats , board rooms , conference and seminar halls . The institute has its own multipurpose stadium , the Smt . Nagarathnama Stadium , with a capacity of over 10 @,@ 000 people . The college has a National Technical Manpower Information System ( NTMIS ) and an ATM outlet operated by Axis Bank . The college operates a campus clinic to provide medical facilities to the students . AIT has been awarded with " Technical Campus " status by AICTE . A striking feature of the architecture of every building is that it is made in the shape of the initials of every department when seen from the top . ( For ex . : M for Mechanical , E for Electrical ) . Have a look at the satellite view to believe us .
Environmental Initiatives
The campus has its own sewage treatment plant , has made use of rain water harvesting and has a four @-@ acre artificial lake .
Hostels and canteens
AIT provides hostel accommodation for both boys and girls . The hostel mess serves North Indian and South Indian . The college has a food court , a cafeteria and a canteen , which serve vegetarian food . The campus also houses a Coffee Day Xpress operated by Coffee Day .
Recreational facilities
The college 's Student Activity Center provides indoor games . The institute also organises horse riding and yoga learning camps on campus for the students .
= = Industry interaction = =
The college has industry collaborations and has signed memoranda of understanding with the Computer Society of India ( CSI ) , Environ Software Pvt Ltd , IBM , Infosys , the Indian Society for Technical Education ( ISTE ) , Keane , Microsoft , Novell , Oracle , SAP Labs , Sun Microsystems , United Technologies , Vasundhara Automation and Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd . , VMware , Wipro and many other leading companies to increase interaction with industry .
= = University twinning programs = =
AIT has twinning programs with foreign universities for student exchange and higher studies . Some of them are Jiujiang University , Shandong University , Ocean University of China and Hefei University in China ; Old Dominion University , Kent State University and Oklahoma State University in the United States ; Thames Valley University in the United Kingdom ; Andalusia Technology Park in Spain ; and Lübeck University of Applied Sciences in Germany . The college also has tie @-@ ups in India , with Mysore University and the Indian Institute of Technology , Bombay .
Indo @-@ German Youth University
The college is a partner of Indo @-@ German Youth university program .
= = Cultural activities = =
Acharya Habba
The college organises the Acharya Habba , an annual inter @-@ collegiate culfest that attracts a crowd of over 30 @,@ 000 students from over 300 colleges across Karnataka .
Ethnic day
Students dress up in their traditional clothes , highlighting the cultural importance of the region they come from .
Freshers ' day
The freshers are welcomed by the seniors of various college departments in an extravagant and cheerful way . The students organise various cultural , extra @-@ curricular and technical activities to greet and encourage the new freshers . Stalls are organised by different departments and clubs of the college to exhibit its facilities , rules and regulations , and achievements .
Bangalore Open Air 2012 - Heavy Metal festival
The college hosted India 's first heavy metal festival on 16 June 2012 as a part of Bangalore Open Air 2012 backed by Germany 's Wacken Open Air at the college stadium . German heavy metal bands and Teutonic thrash metal bands like the Kreator and the Suidakra along with an American Power metal band and Indian metal bands namely Kryptos , Eccentric Pendulum , Dying Embrace , 1833 AD , Bevar Sea and Albatross performed in the fest . Although Iced Earth were scheduled to perform at the fest but backed out due to the denial of Visa by the Indian embassy .
= = Technical activities = =
= = = Technical chapters = = =
Conferences , workshops and training programmes are organised in various technical chapters , including :
Associate Member of the Institution of Engineers ( AMIE ) Chapters
Computer Society of India ( CSI ) Chapters
Center for Social Service and Skill Promotion ( SKIP ) Chapters
Institution of Engineers ( IE ) Chapters
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) Chapters
Indian Society for Technical Education ( ISTE ) Chapters
Science and Technology Entrepreneurs Park ( STEP ) Chapters
= = = Departmental associations and forums = = =
The departments of the college conduct technical and extracurricular departmental forums for students and staff . Some of them are :
= = = Departmental publications = = =
The departments of the college have their own publications to provide broad knowledge and up @-@ to @-@ date information on technology . They include :
= = Student projects = =
Hovercraft
An one @-@ seater hovercraft was designed by a team of mechanical engineering students of AIT as their final year project work . It is 8 @.@ 5 feet long and runs on a Yezdi Roadking 250cc , 16 bhp , two @-@ stroke engine . The engine can accommodate high @-@ load operating conditions and has been designed for low @-@ speed operation . It can carry up to 260 kilograms . The hovercraft is equipped with GPS and the construction costs are lower than usual for this type of vehicle .
Other
A miniature car and a motor bike have been designed by the students of AIT . They are fuel efficient and can run on alternative sources of energy , avoiding the use of fossil fuels .
= = Student counselling and guidance = =
DH @-@ PV edu @-@ counselling
Every year , in collaboration with Indian newspapers Deccan Herald and Prajavani , AIT organises career counselling for students who have just passed their Higher Secondary and university and college admissions examinations .
Jnana Degula
The college co @-@ organises an annual educational fair known as the Jnana Degula in the grounds of Bangalore Palace to help the students make an informed career choice which corresponds to their undergraduate education . The fair attracts various institutions across Karnataka to set up stalls showcasing their colleges and their facilities .
= = Student clubs = =
Some of the student clubs at AIT are :
= = Placements = =
The Training and Placement Cell helps students to find jobs in Indian and multinational companies . It appoints student placement coordinators from every department to manage its activities . The coordinators are guided by placement directors . The placement cell also organises multiple @-@ campus placement drives for government and private colleges located in rural places of Karnataka .
Among the companies that have recruited from the college are ABB , Accenture , American Express , Amazon.com , Aricent , Biocon , BOOKMYSHOW , Bosch , Cisco , Cognizant Technologies , Dell , Dr. Reddy 's Laboratories , Essar , Ford Motors , Flipkart , General Electric , Google India , HCL , Harley Davidson , HP , Hashedin , Hyundai , IBM , Indian Air force , Indian Army , Indian Navy , Infosys , InsZoom , Mahindra & Mahindra , Mercedes Benz , Maruti Suzuki , Mcafee , Michelin , Microsoft , Myntra , Punj Lloyd , Reliance Industries , Rockwell Automation , Sasken , Siemens , Sasken , Snapdeal , Larsen & Toubro , Tata Elxsi , TCS , Tech Mahindra , Volante , Volvo , YAHOO and Wipro .
= = Rankings = =
= = = Ranking list = = =
+ RoI - Return on Investment
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= Pennsylvania Route 646 =
Pennsylvania Route 646 ( PA 646 ) is a 19 @.@ 15 miles ( 30 @.@ 82 km ) long state highway located in McKean county in Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at PA 59 in Keating Township . The northern terminus is the New York state line in Foster Township . The route continues as New York State Route 16 ( NY 16 ) in Cattaugarus County .
PA 646 was assigned in the 1928 mass numbering of state routes in Pennsylvania . At that time , it consisted entirely of the PA 346 – state line stretch in Foster Township . The rest of the stretch consisted of PA 59 , now realigned , and PA 746 , now decommissioned . PA 746 was decommissioned in 1946 , and PA 59 was realigned in 1952 , with PA 646 being extended onto its current alignment . The route has remained virtually unchanged since the change in 1952 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Ormsby to Rew = = =
PA 646 begins at an intersection with PA 59 in the small borough of Ormsby . The highway , situated around several oil wells , progresses to the northwest through a moderately populated region of residential homes . PA 646 continues on this progression for several miles , parallelling a pipeline running through the Kinzua Valley . After an intersection with a local dirt road , the highway leaves Ormsby and continues into the under @-@ populated forests in Keating Township . The route follows an old railroad grade , entering the small unincorporated place of McKean . When PA 646 turns to the north at a gradual bend , it crosses a second pipeline and enters the community of Cyclone .
Upon entering Cyclone , PA 646 intersects with Pithole Road , which heads to the northeast and into McQuen Hollow , a local mountain range . The route itself heads to the northwest still , passing several residential homes in the area . After an intersection with Boyland Road , the highway turns to the north and leaves Cyclone for the woodlands in Keating Township once again . After leaving Cyclone , PA 646 enters the Bradford Oil Field , which includes the community of Cyclone and runs about two miles east of the Lafayette Township line . The route continues northbound for a couple miles , entering the community of Gifford , situated near the Lafayette Township line . The community is moderately developed , with most of the region contained by residential homes and local dirt roads . The major intersection in Gifford along PA 646 is the one with Alley Gifford and Droney Road . At a fork in the highway with Fairground Road , the highway turns northeastward , looping around on a gradual bend of the Bradford Oil Field .
A short distance after the bend , PA 646 continues to the northeast , entering the community of Aiken , where at another fork in the road , PA 770 begins . PA 646 continues to the northeast through Aiken , an under @-@ developed community of residential homes . A short distance later , the highway crosses the township line into Bradford Township . The route continues for several miles , making a gradual bend in the woodlands into Foster Township . PA 646 continues , making an intersection with Wolf Run Road , which heads southward to the community of Middletown . At that intersection , PA 646 turns northeastward , entering the community of Rew . In Rew , the route becomes moderately developed once again , where it intersects with PA 46 . After intersecting with Rew – Bradford Road , a highway that becomes a dirt road up Pratt Hollow , PA 646 progresses to the north and exits Rew .
= = = Rew to Bells Camp = = =
PA 646 , after crossing out of Rew , enters the dense woodlands once again , where yet another pipeline is crossed . When the highway reaches this pipeline , the alignment of the highway turns , winding along Summit Road along the base of Pratt Hollow . The highway continues northward , winding around several mountains through the Bradford Oil Field , passing a large swamp before entering the small community of Summit . In Summit , PA 646 is partially developed , with most of the population situated at the intersection of PA 646 with PA 246 . The route intersects with a Schimp Lane , a local road , before turning to the north and out of Summit . The route heads northward for a short distance , paralleling a grade right @-@ of @-@ way road , which heads eastward to Walkertown . A short distance later , PA 646 enters a small developed area , where the route intersects with PA 346 .
At the intersection with PA 346 , PA 646 turns off its right @-@ of @-@ way , which continues along a pipeline as a dirt road , and onto a concurrency with the aforementioned touring route . PA 646 and PA 346 head eastward , intersecting with several dirt roads in a light woodland . The two highways continue eastward , entering the community of Red Rock . In Red Rock , most of the highway is unpopulated , until an intersection with Narrow Gauge Road , where most of the residential homes stand . When Narrow Gauge Road intersects with the two highways once again , PA 646 and PA 346 enter the community of Derrick City . In Derrick City , the highways pass along a stretch of residential houses before PA 646 turns off to the north on Olean Road . PA 346 continues ahead along Derrick Road towards Bradford .
After turning on Olean Road , PA 646 turns to the northeast , running along the Pennbrook Run for the entire stretch of highway . Along the highway several residential homes surround , while the road enters the community of Bells Camp . Bells Camp is moderately developed , and is the last designated community along PA 646 . The highway forks off from Bells Camp Road , continuing further to the northeast along Olean Road . When the route turns to the east , PA 646 intersects with a connector street back to Bells Camp Road , which parallels to the north . The highway is undeveloped from this point , intersecting with Fullerton Road , which terminates at Olean Road . The route continues northward , paralleling PA 546 and Knapp Creek , before crossing the state line into New York a distance northwest of Fullerton . The right @-@ of @-@ way continues northward as NY 16 towards Olean .
= = History = =
= = = Designation = = =
When the mass amount of state legislative routes were assigned in Pennsylvania in 1928 , PA 646 consisted of only the stretch from PA 346 in Derrick City to the New York state line . There was no concurrency with PA 346 at that time . The stretch from PA 59 to PA 346 was not state @-@ maintained . The rest of the current PA 646 was an alignment of PA 59 . The entire alignment of PA 646 was paved in 1930 . Also that year , the stretch from PA 59 in Aiken to PA 46 in Rew was designated as PA 746 , a spur off PA 46 .
This set of highways remained intact for over a decade , until 1946 , when PA 746 was decommissioned in favor of extending PA 646 over its alignment . Now PA 646 continued along a concurrency with PA 346 and east of Red Rock , it went southward ( away from PA 346 ) down to PA 59 in Aiken , where it ended . In 1952 , PA 59 was realigned off its Ormbsy – Aiken alignment , and PA 646 was extended to Ormsby , where it ended at PA 59 .
= = = Historic bridges = = =
There were three bridges constructed along PA 646 in 1930 , when the alignment was designated as PA 59 . The three bridges are in Gilmore , and all cross Pennbrook Run . The first one is 32 @.@ 15 feet ( 9 @.@ 80 m ) long , and is a concrete tee beam bridge that handles an average of 957 people daily ( 2004 ) . The bridge is structurally deficient and the cost to replace the bridge would amount to $ 591 @,@ 000 . The second bridge in Gilmore itself is a 40 @.@ 20 feet ( 12 @.@ 25 m ) long concrete slab bridge across Pennbrook Run . This bridge is structurally deficient and would cost $ 656 @,@ 000 to replace it completely .
The final bridge along PA 646 was constructed 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Gilmore over Pennbrook Run . Like the first bridge , it is a tee beam construction with a length of 32 @.@ 15 feet ( 9 @.@ 80 m ) . Like the previous two bridges , this one is also structurally deficient in its structure , having not been replaced since construction in 1930 . To replace the bridge , it would cost $ 408 @,@ 000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in McKean County .
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= Battlefield Germany =
Battlefield Germany is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed and published by Personal Software Services for the Commodore 64 released in April 1987 . It was also ported to the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum later that year . It is the eighth instalment to the Strategic Wargames series . The game is set during a fictional scenario in which the powers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact engage in a conventional war throughout Europe , mostly centring in West and East Germany .
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and focuses on the player building and training units that are used to attack the opposing side . The game was released for 8 @-@ bit consoles as well as 16 @-@ bit consoles . Battlefield Germany received mixed reviews upon release . Reviewers mainly criticised the tempo of the gameplay and lack of innovation from the original . Some critics , however , praised the graphics and viewed the hard difficulty favourably .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and revolves around a fictional conflict between the powers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact . The player has the choice of choosing to control either NATO or Warsaw Pact forces at the beginning of the game . The player will begin the game on either side of Europe depending on which side was chosen ; if NATO was picked , the player will start at western European countries ( France , West Germany , Denmark ) whereas if the player sides with the Warsaw Pact , the game will begin in eastern Europe . The map is hexagon @-@ shaped and allows the player to move their units in six directions . Each side has a variety of units ; infantry move at a slower pace than mechanised infantry however armoured units are able to withstand more damage than regular units . The game displays two maps on screen ; the larger , central map displays the current situation whereas a smaller map to the corner of the screen displays a mini @-@ map of Europe , which runs north from Denmark to southern France .
There are seven types of units in the game . Each unit has a set of statistics which is displayed in the interface once selected . The statistics range from combat strength , fatigue , efficiency , supply and movement points . During the game , both sides have the option to request air support that can be used to attack enemy units . If the other side uses their air support , the player will be given a warning of an oncoming air strike and will have the option to retreat . The game has two endings depending on the side chosen . If playing as NATO , the main objective is to stall Soviet forces long enough until American reinforcements arrive . However , if playing as the Warsaw Pact , the objective is to destroy all NATO forces .
= = Setting = =
The events leading up the stand @-@ off between NATO and the Warsaw Pact are detailed in a pre @-@ game text ; Iran declares war on Iraq and subsequently invades the latter nation , whilst Egypt succumbs to a civil war and establishes Islamic law over the country , culminating in an Egyptian invasion of Israel . The events in the Middle East prompt the superpowers of the United States and the British Empire to intervene , leading up to a conventional war in Europe against the Eastern bloc . The game is set in 1989 .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in 1981 . The company were known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Bismark and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique , and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles such as the ZX Spectrum lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pull @-@ out " from the Spectrum market by a video game journalist . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , in what Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Richard Blaine of Your Sinclair praised the graphics as " wonderful " and the gameplay as " tough " , adding that the game should be aimed at advanced players . Philippa Irving of Crash criticised the graphics as repetitively " dull " , despite admitting that they were " clear enough " visually . Gary Rook of Sinclair User heralded the graphics as " superb " , adding that the game was one of the " best looking " wargames he had ever seen at that time . A reviewer of Computer and Video Games criticised the presentation , stating that the screen was too small and the lack of visual understanding made the game " completely unplayable " . Mark Reed of Computer Gamer praised the graphics as being superior compared to Theatre Europe , heralding it as " much more detailed " . However , Reed criticised the originality of the game and the lack of manual for the ZX Spectrum version .
A reviewer of ZX Computing praised the game 's difficulty , suggesting that it was " recommended " for advanced gamers in the wargame genre . Irving criticised the game 's value for money and playability , stating that £ 12 @.@ 95 was " a lot " of money to spend on a game that the player would most likely dislike . However , Rook heralded the gameplay as " smooth " and " challenging " , contrary to other critics .
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= Wappocomo ( Romney , West Virginia ) =
Wappocomo is a late 18th @-@ century Georgian mansion and farm overlooking the South Branch Potomac River north of Romney , Hampshire County , West Virginia , USA . It is located along Cumberland Road ( West Virginia Route 28 ) and the South Branch Valley Railroad .
The original section of the mansion at Wappocomo was built in 1774 by Nicholas Casey ( 1745 – 1833 ) , using bricks that had been used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River . The Wappocomo property had been a part of the South Branch Survey of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron 's Northern Neck Proprietary . The Parsons family , prominent in Virginia and West Virginia politics in the 18th and 19th centuries , acquired Wappocomo and continue to maintain ownership of the property into the 21st century .
Wappocomo was involved in two slavery @-@ related disputes that caused friction between the governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia . In 1788 , Nicholas Casey purchased a freed slave by the name of John , who had been kidnapped in Pennsylvania and returned into slavery in Virginia . Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin demanded that the Governor of Virginia punish the three Virginia residents responsible for the abduction and re @-@ enslavement of a freedman , however , Virginia 's governor cited the absence of such a clause in the United States Constitution . In August 1855 , a fugitive slave named Jacob Green escaped from Wappocomo with several other slaves to Pennsylvania . Col. Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 62 ) and his nephews went north to pursue the escapees , resulting in the arrest of his nephew , James " Zip " Parsons III ( 1831 – 93 ) . Parsons ' trial caused a further dispute between the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania over the latter 's refusal to execute the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 .
The mansion at Wappocomo is unique among the historic residences along the South Branch Potomac River , in that its formal façade faces toward the road and the western flanks of South Branch Mountain rather than toward the river . The original 1774 portion of the mansion is a square two @-@ story Georgian @-@ style structure , an architectural style prevalent in Virginia at the time of Wappocomo 's construction . The bricks used to build the 1774 structure were manufactured in England , and used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River . The interior of the 1774 structure contains a grand stairway in the center hall and all the original handmade woodworking . A stone addition to the mansion with two stories of deep verandas was completed in 1861 . The principal passenger depot for the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad , Wappocomo Station , is located at the farm .
= = History = =
= = = Background and construction = = =
The land on which Wappocomo is located was originally part of the South Branch Survey of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron 's Northern Neck Proprietary . The South Branch Survey extended from the north end of The Trough to the confluence of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River . Lord Fairfax originally planned to maintain the South Branch Survey as his personal manor , but later commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale in 1748 , with land lots ranging in size from 300 acres ( 120 ha ) to 400 acres ( 160 ha ) .
Prominent Hampshire County pioneer Peter Casey ( 1715 – 87 ) received the Wappocomo parcel , known as Lot Number 21 of the South Branch Survey , from Lord Fairfax . Casey 's son , Nicholas Casey ( 1745 – 1833 ) , married Grace Foreman ( 1762 – 1796 ) , the daughter of another Hampshire County pioneer and colonial military officer William Foreman . Nicholas Casey inherited Lot Number 21 from his father , and in 1774 , Casey built the present mansion at Wappocomo .
The bricks used in the construction of Casey 's mansion were manufactured in England , and used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River . These bricks were then transported overland through the Blue Ridge Mountains and Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians in bullock carts . During this time , the mansion was named Wappocomo , which was derived from the Native American toponym " Wappatomaka " for the South Branch Potomac River .
In 1788 , while residing at his Wappocomo residence , Casey purchased a freed slave named John , who had been residing in Washington County , Pennsylvania . Virginia residents Francis McGuire , Baldwin Parsons , and Absalom Wells seized John and transported him to Virginia , where they sold him back into slavery to Casey . Such an act was illegal in Pennsylvania , and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society petitioned Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin to demand punishment of the three men by the Governor of Virginia . Virginia 's governor refused , citing the absence of a provision in the United States Constitution calling for such an action . Governor Mifflin petitioned the United States Congress , and a bill was introduced that provided against such an occurrence .
On December 4 , 1789 , Casey was appointed by an act of the Virginia General Assembly as a trustee of Romney . Casey served as a trustee alongside Isaac Parsons and Andrew Wodrow . Casey and his fellow trustees were given authority by the Virginia General Assembly to settle disputes regarding the town 's land lots and to " open and clear " the town 's " streets and lanes " in accordance with the original survey and plan for Romney .
= = = Parsons family acquisition = = =
Nicholas Casey 's daughter , Mary Catherine Casey ( 1773 – 1846 ) , married James Gregg Parsons ( 1773 – 1847 ) of Hampshire County in 1795 . Parsons was the eldest son of Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) and his wife Mary Ellender Gregg . The Parsons were a prominent family whose ancestors arrived at the Thirteen Colonies from England in 1635 , and relocated to Hampshire County around 1740 . Isaac Parsons represented Hampshire County as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1789 until his death on August 25 , 1796 . By 1778 , Parsons owned 161 acres ( 65 ha ) of Lot Number 16 and all of Lot Number 17 , which was adjacent to the Wappocomo property .
James Gregg Parsons and his wife Catherine inherited Wappocomo from her father , and they raised their 12 children there . Following his wife 's death , Parsons acquired sole ownership in Wappocomo plantation . After his death on January 25 , 1847 , his will , dated November 7 , 1846 and probated February 22 , 1847 , devised Lot Number 21 including Wappocomo ( referred to in the will as the Casey Tract ) to his son Colonel Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 62 ) . On May 18 , 1836 , Col. Parsons married Susan Blue ( 1817 – 89 ) , the daughter of Uriah Blue Jr. and his wife M. Elizabeth Donaldson Blue . Col. Parsons served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1854 to 1857 . James " Big Jim " Parsons , Jr . ( 1798 – 1858 ) inherited the Collins Tract ( Lot Number 20 ) , which later became Valley View , and his son David C. Parsons ( 1803 – 1860 ) inherited Lot Number 13 . James Gregg Parsons ' sons also inherited the nearby " Jake Sugar Rum Tract , the McGuire Tract , and five town lots in Romney . "
= = = Jacob Green affair = = =
In August 1855 , Jacob Green , a slave owned by Col. Parsons , escaped from Wappocomo farm with four other slaves from neighboring plantations . In October of that year , he returned to Col. Parsons ' plantation in Romney , and persuaded four or five slaves from neighboring farms owned by Parsons family relatives to escape with him to Pennsylvania .
A party of eight to ten men , including Col. Parsons and two of his nephews , James " Zip " Parsons III ( 1831 – 93 ) and a Mr. Stump , went north in pursuit of the escapees . In the course of the pursuit , they captured two of Stump 's escaped slaves , who were sent back to Hampshire County . With information obtained from the two recaptured slaves , Col. Parsons went to Johnstown , James Parsons III to Hollidaysburg , and Stump to Altoona , where they hoped to intercept Green as he headed west on the Allegheny Portage Railroad and Main Line Canal toward Pittsburgh . James Parsons III intercepted Green at Hollidaysburg , but local abolitionists thwarted his attempt to capture Green , and Parsons was arrested and arraigned for kidnapping .
Upon learning of the arrest of his nephew , Col. Parsons sought the assistance of Charles James Faulkner , a prominent Martinsburg lawyer and United States House Representative from Virginia 's 8th congressional district , and of James Murray Mason , a United States Senator from Virginia . Faulkner and Mason both offered their legal services for James Parsons III 's defense . The Virginia General Assembly pledged its support to Parsons and to Virginia 's slaveowners in defending their constitutional rights and to protect them from prosecution . Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise appointed John Randolph Tucker to attend Parsons ' trial as a " special commissioner " of Virginia . The dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania escalated , and on January 31 , 1856 , an article published in the New York Herald read " Threatened Civil War between Virginia and Pennsylvania . "
Col. Parsons , Faulkner , and Tucker traveled to Hollidaysburg for James Parsons III 's trial . Faulkner provided for Parsons ' legal defense , leading to his acquittal as having acted legally under the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 .
In September 1856 , Faulkner billed Col. Parsons $ 150 for his legal services . Parsons disputed the charge . In a series of articles in the Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser , he declared that Faulkner had originally offered his services at no cost ; that he had been lauded publicly for his generosity in doing so without ever denying that he had been working pro bono ; and that he was practicing " duplicity and deception " in trying to win a reputation in his district through " specious acts of munificence " .
Faulkner later served as United States Minister to France ; following the American Civil War , he again served as a member of the United States House of Representatives , from West Virginia 's 2nd congressional district . James Parsons III and his brother William Miller Parsons ( born 1835 ) were later proprietors of the Virginia Argus .
= = = Social events = = =
Following its construction by Col. Parsons in 1861 , the ballroom in the upper story of Wappocomo 's stone addition served as the scene of many events and parties . According to tradition , as many as 100 couples have danced on the ballroom 's wooden floor since its construction in 1861 . It was the custom of the Parsons family to allow guests who were visiting the mansion for the first time to write their names and the date of their visit on the mortar between the addition 's stone blocks ; many of these signatures are still legible .
= = = American Civil War = = =
During the American Civil War , Col. Parsons received permission from the Confederate States government to raise an independent company of mounted infantry to provide defense along the border . He set about enrolling volunteers and , within a short period of time , enlisted approximately 30 men . Following its organization , the company became known as the Huckleberry Rangers of the Confederate States Army 's 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment . Parsons traveled to Richmond with a supply of cattle , and returned to his company 's camp on the North River in Hampshire County around November 15 , 1861 . Throughout 1861 , Col. Parsons " gratuitously " provided Confederate soldiers with food at his table and horses from his stables at his Wappocomo plantation .
Parsons was anxious to learn about the condition of his family and property at Wappocomo ; he also needed an additional change of clothing and a blanket . Accompanied by Lieutenant Blue and Adam Parrish , he traveled west along the Northwestern Turnpike to around Pleasant Dale , then followed a series of roads and paths until nighttime , when they reached Sugar Hollow two miles north of Romney . Parsons stayed behind in the hollow , while Blue and Parrish started out for Wappocomo to retrieve a set of Parsons ' clothes . Knowing that the Union Army kept a 24 @-@ hour guard at the main house , Blue circled around to the rear of the mansion and knocked on the window of his uncle , Garrett W. Blue , who was residing with the Parsons family . Garrett Blue warned his nephew about the Union Army soldiers possibly stationed on the home 's front porch , and he subsequently fetched Parsons ' daughter , Kate , who provided Lt. Blue with a parcel for her father .
Lt. Blue and Parrish returned to Sugar Hollow where Parsons was awaiting them , and Parsons set about locating pine from which to make torches to light their way out of the hollow . Parsons carried with him a small hatchet , and began splitting pine in the darkness to fashion a torch . He accidentally struck himself in the knee with his hatchet , and Blue applied a handkerchief to his wound to stop its bleeding . The three men traveled through the dark and rain to the nearby home of Frank Carter , where they ate and dried their clothes by the fire . The following morning , they mounted their horses and traveled to Rev. Harris ' home , where Parsons and Blue parted with Parrish . Parsons and Blue continued east over Town Hill and reached George Thompson 's residence on the Little Cacapon River , which had risen due to the previous night 's rainfall . They remained with Thompson for two days until the river subsided , then traveled to Blue 's Gap , where they set up camp . There , Lt. Blue received orders from Col. Angus William McDonald to carry out an expedition for General Stonewall Jackson to ascertain the number of Union Army infantry , cavalry , and artillery present in and around Romney ; he was accompanied on this expedition by Col. Parsons ' son , Isaac Parsons , Jr . , and by W. V. Parsons .
= = = Post @-@ war ownership = = =
Col. Parsons died on 24 April 1862 , while the American Civil War was still in progress . On April 26 , 1862 , acting Quartermaster Lt. F. H. Morse of the Union Army completed his death certificate , in which he noted Parsons ' " very fine house near Romney . " Following his death , the plantation was inherited by Col. Parsons ' wife , Susan Blue Parsons , for the purpose of raising and educating their children .
In 1884 , the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's South Branch line , connecting Green Spring and Romney , was completed . The line bisected the Wappocomo property and traversed the mansion 's front lawn .
Susan Blue Parsons died on October 2 , 1889 . On December 20 , 1890 , Col. Parsons ' son , Garrett Williams Parsons ( 1852 – 1935 ) , acquired Wappocomo for $ 16 @,@ 885 @.@ 72 , which he paid to Col. Parsons 's other heirs for their shares in the property . On November 12 , 1878 , he married Mary Avery Covell ( 1852 – 1914 ) , the daughter of West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind principal John Collins Covell ( 1823 – 87 ) . After the death of Garrett Williams Parsons on September 29 , 1935 , Wappocomo was inherited by his son Charles Heber Parsons ( 1886 – 1952 ) , who resided on the farm with his wife Gertrude L. Parsons ( 1895 – 1968 ) and engaged in farming on the property . He subsequently bequeathed the mansion and farm to his only child , Charles Heber Parsons , Jr . ( 1932 – 2002 ) and his wife Kathryn Anne Cole Parsons ( 1935 – 2004 ) .
In 1972 , the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's South Branch line , located on the Wappocomo property , became part of the Chessie System . In 1978 , ownership of the line was transferred to the West Virginia State Rail Authority , after which the old Baltimore and Ohio Railroad South Branch line became known as the South Branch Valley Railroad .
In 1991 , the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad began operating on the South Branch Valley Railroad in 1991 , running between Wappocomo Station and Petersburg via The Trough . Its principal depot is Wappocomo Station , located on the Wappocomo farm ; the station consists of a ticket office housed in a red 1940 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad caboose , numbered C2507 ; the caboose is owned by the Chesapeake and Ohio Historical Society and leased by the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad .
Part of Wappocomo 's original land tract , located near the city limits of Romney , was sold for residential building lots and for the Fruit Growers Storage facility , a refrigerated storage plant for fruit stands along the South Branch Valley Railroad near the mansion . The Fruit Growers Storage facility also provided refrigerated storage for fruit that was to be shipped as freight on the South Branch Valley Railroad .
Charles Heber Parsons , Jr . ' s son , Charles " Chuck " Heber Parsons III ( 1955 – 2012 ) , inherited the farm at Wappocomo and carefully restored and maintained the property . Parsons was a prominent member of the Romney community and served as Assistant Chief of the Romney Volunteer Fire Department . He also served in the United States Air Force and worked as an engineer for Dyno Nobel , a manufacturer of explosives . Parsons was an avid bowler , and competed in local , state , and national bowling tournaments . In October 2013 , the first annual Chuck Parsons Memorial Bowling Tournament was held in his honor , with the proceeds benefitting the Hampshire County Parks and Recreation Department summer youth programs . Following Parsons ' passing in 2012 , Wappocomo was inherited by his children , Charles " Chip " Heber Parsons IV and Jillyn Marie Parsons .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The original 1774 portion of the mansion is a square two @-@ story Georgian @-@ style structure with a basement and attic , an architectural style prevalent in Virginia at the time of Wappocomo 's construction . This part of the mansion is built of large weighted ballast bricks , with walls that measure 1 foot 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) in depth , allowing for deep inset windows . It also features two inside chimneys on either side , which once stood higher above its steep roof . The mansion 's formal entrance is covered by a small portico supported with wooden columns and engaged columns at the wall .
Other historic homes located along the South Branch Potomac River face the river ; the mansion at Wappocomo is unique in that its formal façade faces toward Cumberland Road ( West Virginia Route 28 ) and the western flanks of South Branch Mountain . This may be due in part to the house 's distance from the river , approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . The house 's second @-@ floor rear windows offer a scenic view of the South Branch Potomac River .
= = = Interior = = =
The home 's wooden sill plates and joists were sawed by hand and the " rot nails " used for their construction were manufactured in the blacksmith shop on the Wappocomo plantation . The residence at Wappocomo also features unusually high fireplace mantelpieces , wide grooved window moldings and casings with base panels , solid paneled doors , and interior woodworking throughout , all of which were handmade . Every room of the main structure originally contained a corner fireplace .
Both of the mansion 's two floors consist of four large rooms with high ceilings , and each of these rooms is exactly the same size and shape . A grand stairway is located at the end of the mansion 's central hall , extending from the first floor to the attic . The stairway 's handrail is crafted of walnut , and it is connected to the stairway 's shallow steps by a balustrade consisting of three small balusters per step .
The basement rooms at Wappocomo are located almost entirely aboveground . The house 's foundation is constructed of large stone blocks , into which was crafted a large open fireplace that once exhibited a swinging iron chimney crane . The space around this large open fireplace within the mansion 's basement formerly served as a kitchen , where most of the cooking and food preparation took place . Entry into the home 's basement is accessible through a wide and heavy exterior door .
= = = Stone addition = = =
In 1861 , a stone addition to the original 1774 Georgian structure was built . The large stone blocks used for the construction of the addition were quarried from the plantation 's Mill Creek Mountain , a ridge located across the South Branch Potomac River to the west of the mansion . The stone blocks were hewed by sawyers , then transported across the river to the mansion , and lifted upon the addition 's scaffolding with wheelbarrows . A Mr. Ferrybe supervised and managed the stone addition 's construction .
The 1861 stone addition 's two floors consisted of two large rooms on each floor , with 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) ceilings . The two upstairs rooms were transformed into a large ballroom , while the two downstairs rooms were used as a dining room and kitchen .
The stone addition exhibits two stories of deep verandas extending across its eastern front façade . These verandas were once supported by tall columns rising from the addition 's ground @-@ level porch , to the roof of the second @-@ story porch . An exterior stairway once connected the lower porch to the upper porch .
= = Geography = =
Wappocomo farm is located within the relatively flat floodplain of the South Branch Potomac River valley , to the north of Romney . The farm 's property adjoins the Valley View farm and Romney corporate limits to the southwest , the South Branch Potomac River to the west and north , and the South Branch Valley Railroad line and Cumberland Road ( West Virginia Route 28 ) to the east . Mill Creek Mountain , a narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the west of the opposite riverbank of the South Branch Potomac River , and the western foothills of South Branch Mountain rise to the east . Mill Creek and South Branch Mountains contain Appalachian @-@ Blue Ridge forests of hardwoods and pine . Hanging Rocks , cliffs of stratified Oriskany sandstone and limestone layers , are located within a gap where the South Branch Potomac River cuts through Mill Creek Mountain approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Wappocomo farm . The unincorporated area at Hanging Rocks is known similarly as Wapocomo ( or Wappocomo ) .
Big Run , a tributary stream of the South Branch Potomac River , flows north bisecting the Wappocomo property , bordered by dense foliage . Shortly before it enters Wappocomo farm , Big Run flows alongside ledges of gray shale known to contain Chonetes and Camarotoechia fossils . A smaller unnamed stream flows through the front lawn of the house at Wappocomo before curving northwest toward its confluence with Big Run . Corn is the primary crop produced in Wappocomo 's agricultural fields along the South Branch Potomac River , which consist of rich alluvial soils .
= = = Washington Place = = =
On November 7 , 1874 , Col. Parsons ' widow , Susan Blue Parsons , conveyed 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) of Wappocomo 's land to freedman William Washington , his wife Ann , and their children . Washington had previously worked on Washington Bottom Farm , from which he took the surname of his owner , George William Washington . This deed enabled the Washington family to reside on that land lot as long as any of the individuals specified in the deed lived there . On September 17 , 1892 , Garrett Williams Parsons and his wife , Mary Avery Covell Parsons , conveyed to Washington an additional 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) of land . The old log house built by Washington on this former Wappocomo land lot is presently known as Washington Place , and it is thought to be one of the first residences built by freed slaves in Hampshire County .
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= The Big Four : Live from Sofia , Bulgaria =
The Big Four : Live from Sofia , Bulgaria is a DVD / Blu @-@ ray featuring live concert performances by Metallica , Slayer , Megadeth , and Anthrax , collectively known as " the big four " of thrash metal . The event took place on June 22 , 2010 at the Sonisphere Festival at Vasil Levski National Stadium , Sofia , Bulgaria . Before its DVD release , it was shown at 450 movie theaters in the United States and over 350 movie theaters across Europe , Canada , and Latin America on June 22 , 2010 .
Critical reviews of the DVD were mostly favorable . Websites such as AllMusic and About.com were positive , though Blogcritics gave the DVD a mixed review . The DVD peaked at number one on the United States , United Kingdom , Austrian , and Canadian charts , and also charted on three other charts . It was certified gold in Germany , and provided Slayer with its first platinum certification .
= = Background and release = =
On Wednesday , June 16 , 2010 at the Sonisphere Festival at Bemowo Airport in Warsaw , Poland , the " big four " — Metallica , Slayer , Megadeth , and Anthrax performed together for the first time . The members of the four bands ( except for Slayer 's Jeff Hanneman ) were first photographed together on the previous day . Their live concert , on June 22 , was for one night only . Directed by Nick Wickham , the event was filmed and transmitted via satellite to over 450 movie theaters in the United States and over 350 movie theaters across Europe , Canada , and Latin America , including London 's famed Leicester Square . Tickets were made available for around $ 20 at TheBigFourLive.com , which also listed the theaters where the concert was being screened . Delayed screenings took place in Australia , South Africa and New Zealand .
The film 's contents and artwork were revealed on August 25 , 2010 . A limited @-@ edition guitar pick was unveiled a day after the artwork was revealed . The European release was initially scheduled for October 11 , but Metallica later announced on their official site that the European release would be pushed back to October 15 , with an International release on October 18 , and a North American release on October 19 , 2010 . On September 15 , it was announced that a " super deluxe " limited edition box set would be released on the same date as the regular edition , and a 36 @-@ second video preview of the box set was released on September 17 . In mid September , publication was postponed further to a European release on October 29 , an International release on November 1 , and a North American release on November 2 , 2010 . Four teaser clips from the video were released on October 12 , and nine days later , Metallica 's performance of " Sad but True " , taken from the film , was released . A three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute trailer was released on September 21 , 2010 .
The Slayer title card before the band 's performance is the only one of the four bands that did not feature their official logo . In addition , all Slayer members ( except drummer Dave Lombardo ) did not participate in the ' Am I Evil ? ' performance due to lack of interest .
= = Event dates = =
= = Reception = =
The album was received positively by music critics . Thom Jurek gave it four out of five stars in his review for AllMusic , and stated that " each [ song ] is incredibly energetic , clearly riding the crowd excitement of the event , and the performances are stellar without a lapse . " He pointed to Anthrax 's " Madhouse " and " Antisocial " ; Megadeth 's " Head Crusher " and the " Peace Sells / Holy Wars Reprise " ; Slayer 's " Angel of Death " , " Seasons in the Abyss " , and " Raining Blood " ; and Metallica 's " Fade to Black " , " Creeping Death " , " Master of Puppets " , and " For Whom the Bell Tolls " as musical highlights , and described the encore performance of " Am I Evil ? " , in which members of all four bands perform , as " an historic high point . "
In a mixed review for Blogcritics , Chris Beaumont summed up that " Watching these promo DVDs makes me want the Blu @-@ ray that much more . The performances are great , the sets are great , and it is hard not to get excited about these guys taking the stage together . This is metal . "
Chad Bowar , writing for About.com , said that the concert was " one of the defining moments and biggest events in recent metal history " and commented that the bands " can still put on a great show " despite their age . He distinguished the styles of each band , writing : " Anthrax has a more lighthearted , fun approach , while Megadeth is 100 percent business with very little banter and focus on the music . Slayer has a more ominous vibe , although their evil mystique has lessened over the years . Metallica were very inclusive , with James Hetfield acting as everybody 's favorite uncle interacting with the crowd and taking time to soak it all in . "
= = Charts and certificates = =
= = Contents = =
The DVD 's contents can be verified by AllMusic and the DVD 's notes .
= = = Anthrax = = =
DVD 1 / BD 1 / CD 1
= = = Megadeth = = =
DVD 1 / BD 1 / CD 2
= = = Slayer = = =
DVD 1 / BD 1 / CD 3
= = = Metallica = = =
DVD 2 / BD 2 / CD 4 & 5
DVD Bonus Feature : DVD 2 / BD 2
Behind the scenes documentary backstage at Sonisphere , including interviews and " Am I Evil ? " rehearsal footage .
= = Personnel = =
A complete list can be found at AllMusic .
Production and assistance
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= The Rebel Flesh =
" The Rebel Flesh " is the fifth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast on 21 May 2011 on BBC One and on BBC America in the United States . It is the first episode of a two @-@ part story written by Matthew Graham and directed by Julian Simpson , concluded in " The Almost People " .
In the episode , the TARDIS is hit by a solar storm , sending the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) to a monastery on an island on Earth in the 22nd century , which has been converted into a factory to pump acid off the island . To prevent death from the acid , the workers have utilized a " programmable matter " called the Flesh , which creates a doppelgänger ( called " Ganger " ) controlled by the worker . As the solar storm hits , the Gangers become independent , and the Doctor , Amy and Rory must work to prevent the two groups from breaking into a war .
Showrunner Steven Moffat specifically asked Graham to write the episodes about " avatars that rebel " , although the Flesh and the monastery were Graham 's original ideas . The episode was filmed in the late months of 2010 with some location filming at Caerphilly Castle to represent the monastery . Prosthetics were used to create the Gangers ' facial features , while doubles of the actors were used for scenes in which a character and his or her Ganger were both in a scene , but did not both show their face .
The episode was seen by 7 @.@ 35 million viewers in the UK and achieved an Appreciation Index of 85 . Reviewers were generally positive about the episode ; some praised the setting and characters but others commented that the story had not developed enough even though it was only the first part . The computer @-@ generated effects used for one scene were also disapproved of by a couple of reviewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The TARDIS is caught in the first waves of a " solar tsunami " and materialises on Earth in the 22nd century . The Doctor , Amy , and Rory find themselves on a remote island , where a factory housed in a former castle monastery pumps a valuable , highly corrosive acid to the mainland . The skeleton crew of the factory uses a self @-@ replicating fluid called the Flesh from which they create doppelgängers of themselves , colloquially called " Gangers " . The crew control the Gangers from special harnesses , operating in the hazardous environment of the factory via the disposable bodies . The Doctor , initially posing as a weatherman , fears the worst part of the solar tsunami will strike the solar @-@ powered factory soon , threatening those still remaining , and offers to take the crew in his TARDIS . The foreman , Miranda Cleaves ( Raquel Cassidy ) , refuses to shut down the factory until she receives orders from the mainland . As the solar storm begins , the Doctor races to disconnect the solar collector , but an electrical strike hits the castle , throwing the Doctor off the tower and knocking everyone inside unconscious .
When the crew awaken , they find themselves out of the control beds with no sign of the Gangers . However , their own personal belongings have been gone through and the TARDIS has sunk into acid @-@ corroded ground . The Doctor explains that they have likely been unconscious for more than an hour and the Gangers have gained sentience . They soon discover that two of the Gangers are amongst them , posing as Cleaves and Jennifer ( Sarah Smart ) , when the two give themselves away by turning pale @-@ white . Jennifer also exhibits the ability to contort and stretch her body well beyond human limits . The Jennifer Ganger struggles with her new identity and befriends Rory who has begun to demonstrate an emotional attachment to her . The Cleaves Ganger works in secret with the other Gangers to try to kill the real humans , as the human Cleaves plans to kill the Gangers . The Doctor attempts to reunite the two sides but fails when the human Cleaves kills one of the Gangers with a high @-@ powered electrical charge . The Gangers plan an attack , and the Doctor accuses Cleaves of killing a living being which Cleaves refuses to acknowledge . The Ganger Jennifer hunts her human counterpart to kill her . The Doctor determines that in a monastery , the safest place to be is the chapel , and directs everyone there . The Gangers , in acid @-@ protection suits , bear down on the chapel . Rory responds to the sound of Jennifer screaming by deliberately separating from the group , against Amy 's wishes . In the chapel , Amy and the Doctor discover a Ganger version of the Doctor .
= = = Continuity = = =
" The Almost People " confirms that the Doctor came to the base to examine the Flesh in its early stage in order to humanely sever its connection to Amy , who was replaced by a Ganger avatar prior to the beginning of the series . He is once more seen performing a pregnancy scan on Amy which , as before , cannot come to a conclusion to whether she is pregnant . The " Eye Patch Lady " also makes another brief appearance to Amy , similar to those in " Day of the Moon " and " The Curse of the Black Spot " . Her identity is revealed in " The Almost People " and she plays a larger part in " A Good Man Goes to War " and " The Wedding of River Song " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Matthew Graham was originally to write a single episode for the previous series , but withdrew because he did not have enough time to write the script . He then received an e @-@ mail from showrunner Steven Moffat , who asked him to write for the next series ; Graham agreed . When the two met , Moffat said he would like the episodes to lead into the mid @-@ series finale and that it should deal with " avatars that rebel " . Initially worried this may seem too similar to the film Avatar , Graham went on to create the Flesh . Graham wanted the Gangers to be scary , but not monsters who wanted " to take over the world for the sake of it " . He wanted them to appear relatable to the audience as they were humans who deserved rights . Moffat suggested that the avatars work in a factory ; attempting to make it different from other factories featured in Doctor Who , Graham proposed to set the story in a monastery , an idea of which Moffat greatly approved . The monastery was inspired by the film The Name of the Rose , while the Gangers were influenced by The Thing ; Graham described it as " The Thing in the context of The Name of the Rose " .
In the early drafts of the script , there were " so many copies of people running around the place " which made the story too confusing , so Graham and the production crew worked to make it more rational . The episode also contains a subplot in which Rory helps and protects Jennifer as she is scared and affected by the Gangers , which proved a twist in Amy and Rory 's relationship . Karen Gillan enjoyed the twist . Amy had previously always had Rory " in the palm of her hand " and a different side of the character was shown as she experienced the same emotions Rory felt when she seemed interested in the Doctor . Arthur Darvill also thought it gave Rory a chance to " man up " and be a hero by protecting someone .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for " The Rebel Flesh " and " The Almost People " took place on 12 November 2010 . It was then filmed around late November and early December . The cold temperatures at the time were a challenge and caused discomfort . The crew were concerned that the cast , particularly the three lead actors , would fall ill as their costumes were not designed for such weather conditions . Even so , the cast remained healthy . Scenes outside and inside the monastery were filmed at Caerphilly Castle , previously used in Doctor Who in The End of Time and " The Vampires of Venice " .
The actors each played their respective Gangers , with prosthetics applied to their faces for when the duplicates ' faces reverted to the original material of the Flesh . Moffat wanted the Gangers to appear like " eyeball matter " : white with small capillaries running through them . For the scenes in which both the character and their respective Ganger was in the same shot , a double for each of the actors was used . Most of the shots showed either the character or their Ganger speaking over their counterpart 's shoulder , as only the backs of the doubles ' head were made to look similar to the actors .
The episode also contains several tracks of contemporary music . In the beginning when Amy and Rory are playing darts inside in the TARDIS and the Doctor runs a pregnancy scan on Amy , the song " Supermassive Black Hole " by Muse is playing in the background . The Gangers also play " You Don 't Have to Say You Love Me " by Dusty Springfield .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Rebel Flesh " was first broadcast on BBC One on 21 May 2011 and on the same date in the United States on BBC America . In the UK , the episode achieved an overnight rating of 5 @.@ 7 million with an audience share of 29 @.@ 3 % . When consolidated ratings were calculated , it was reported that 7 @.@ 35 million viewers had watched the episode , making it the sixth most @-@ watched episode on BBC One for the week . It received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered by the BBC to be " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Rebel Flesh " received generally positive reviews by critics . Dan Martin , writing for The Guardian , said that " The Rebel Flesh " " is particularly satisfying " though it seemed that not much had happened due to it being the first part of a two @-@ part story . He praised Graham 's " believable world " and " well @-@ drawn " characters of Cleaves , Buzzer , and Jennifer . He later rated it the seventh best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . The Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller called it " a very traditional @-@ style Doctor Who story " . He noted that Smith gave a more restrained performance that suited the feel of the episode , and also praised the advantage taken with the location filming for the monastery . Radio Times 's critic Patrick Mulkern considered the episode to be an improvement from Graham 's only other Doctor Who episode , " Fear Her " , though it had " failed to enthral " him . In contrast to Martin , Mulkern said that Graham 's characters were not " showing many life signs yet " with the exception of Jennifer , who was " marginally sympathetic " .
IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode 8 out of 10 , saying it delivered " a solid and traditional Whovian tale , albeit one at its best " , though it was " nothing groundbreaking " yet . He went on to praise the supporting cast that " managed to sell both their flawed human originals and their progressively bonkers ganger counterparts " as well as the setting . However , he questioned Rory 's willingness to protect Jennifer , as he thought Rory would have learned from his experiences with death to be more careful . Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy gave the episode four out of five stars , saying that " The Rebel Flesh " " strikes a satisfying balance between the humorous and the horrific " from the cold open . He commended Graham for handling the two @-@ part structure by using extra time to explore the characters and themes , and thought the highlight of the episode were Rory 's scenes with Jennifer . However , he criticised the CGI used in some scenes , although he called the prosthetics used for the Gangers " impressive " , as well as the episode for ending in " a damp squib of a cliffhanger " that was " clearly too telegraphed throughout the episode " .
SFX magazine reviewer Richard Edwards gave the episode four out of five stars , saying it " looks fantastic " and praised choice of the abbey as the factory , which blew " the cliché of a futuristic industrial setting apart immediately , and [ made ] you feel like you ’ re watching something new . " Like Jeffery , he said the visual effects were " generally pretty good " but criticised the CGI used for Jennifer 's special abilities . Keith Phipps on The A.V. Club graded it as a " B " and called it " just a pretty good episode " . His complaint was that it " truly [ felt ] like half a story in the way the best Doctor Who two @-@ parters don 't " , though he said it managed to plant intriguing strands for the conclusion .
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= James Joyce =
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce ( 2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941 ) was an Irish novelist and poet . He contributed to the modernist avant @-@ garde , and is regarded as one of the most influential and important authors of the twentieth century .
Joyce is best known for Ulysses ( 1922 ) , a landmark work in which the episodes of Homer 's Odyssey are paralleled in an array of contrasting literary styles , perhaps most prominent among these the stream of consciousness technique he utilized . Other well @-@ known works are the short @-@ story collection Dubliners ( 1914 ) , and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man ( 1916 ) and Finnegans Wake ( 1939 ) . His other writings include three books of poetry , a play , occasional journalism , and his published letters .
Joyce was born in 41 Brighton Square , Rathgar , Dublin — about half a mile from his mother 's birthplace in Terenure — into a middle @-@ class family on the way down . A brilliant student , he excelled at the Jesuit schools Clongowes and Belvedere , despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father 's alcoholism and unpredictable finances . He went on to attend University College Dublin .
In 1904 , in his early twenties , Joyce emigrated permanently to continental Europe with his partner ( and later wife ) Nora Barnacle . They lived in Trieste , Paris , and Zurich . Though most of his adult life was spent abroad , Joyce 's fictional universe centres on Dublin , and is populated largely by characters who closely resemble family members , enemies and friends from his time there . Ulysses in particular is set with precision in the streets and alleyways of the city . Shortly after the publication of Ulysses , he elucidated this preoccupation somewhat , saying , " For myself , I always write about Dublin , because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world . In the particular is contained the universal . "
= = Biography = =
= = = 1882 – 1904 : Dublin = = =
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane " May " Murray , in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar . He was baptized according to the Rites of the Catholic Church in the nearby St Joseph 's Church in Terenure on 5 February by Rev. John O 'Mulloy . His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann . He was the eldest of ten surviving children ; two of his siblings died of typhoid .
His father 's family , originally from Fermoy in Cork , had once owned a small salt and lime works . Joyce 's father and paternal grandfather both married into wealthy families , though the family 's purported ancestor , Seán Mór Seoighe ( fl . 1680 ) was a stonemason from Connemara . In 1887 , his father was appointed rate collector ( i.e. , a collector of local property taxes ) by Dublin Corporation ; the family subsequently moved to the fashionable adjacent small town of Bray 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Dublin . Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog , which engendered in him a lifelong cynophobia . He also suffered from astraphobia , as a superstitious aunt had described thunderstorms to him as a sign of God 's wrath .
In 1891 Joyce wrote a poem on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell . His father was angry at the treatment of Parnell by the Catholic church , the Irish Home Rule Party and the British Liberal Party and the resulting collaborative failure to secure Home Rule for Ireland . The Irish Party had dropped Parnell from leadership . But the Vatican 's role in allying with the British Conservative Party to prevent Home Rule left a lasting impression on the young Joyce . The elder Joyce had the poem printed and even sent a part to the Vatican Library . In November of that same year , John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette ( a publisher of bankruptcies ) and suspended from work . In 1893 , John Joyce was dismissed with a pension , beginning the family 's slide into poverty caused mainly by his drinking and general financial mismanagement .
Joyce had begun his education at Clongowes Wood College , a Jesuit boarding school near Clane , County Kildare , in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees . Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the Christian Brothers O 'Connell School on North Richmond Street , Dublin , before he was offered a place in the Jesuits ' Dublin school , Belvedere College , in 1893 . This came about because of a chance meeting his father had with a Jesuit priest who knew the family and Joyce was given a reduction in fees to attend Belvedere . In 1895 , Joyce , now aged 13 , was elected to join the Sodality of Our Lady by his peers at Belvedere . The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas continued to have a strong influence on him for most of his life .
Joyce enrolled at the recently established University College Dublin ( UCD ) in 1898 , studying English , French and Italian . He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in the city . In 1900 his laudatory review of Henrik Ibsen 's When We Dead Awaken was published in Fortnightly Review ; it was his first publication and , after learning basic Norwegian to send a fan letter to Ibsen , he received a letter of thanks from the dramatist . Joyce wrote a number of other articles and at least two plays ( since lost ) during this period . Many of the friends he made at University College Dublin appeared as characters in Joyce 's works . His closest colleagues included leading figures of the generation , most notably , Thomas Kettle , Francis Sheehy @-@ Skeffington and Oliver St. John Gogarty . Joyce was first introduced to the Irish public by Arthur Griffith in his newspaper , The United Irishman , in November 1901 . Joyce had written an article on the Irish Literary Theatre and his college magazine refused to print it . Joyce had it printed and distributed locally . Griffith himself wrote a piece decrying the censorship of the student James Joyce . In 1901 , the National Census of Ireland lists James Joyce ( 19 ) as an English- and Irish @-@ speaking scholar living with his mother and father , six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace ( now Inverness Road ) , Clontarf , Dublin .
After graduating from UCD in 1902 , Joyce left for Paris to study medicine , but he soon abandoned this . Richard Ellmann suggests that this may have been because he found the technical lectures in French too difficult . Joyce had already failed to pass chemistry in English in Dublin . But Joyce claimed ill health as the problem and wrote home that he was unwell and complained about the cold weather . He stayed on for a few months , appealing for finance his family could ill afford and reading late in the Bibliothèque Sainte @-@ Geneviève . When his mother was diagnosed with cancer , his father sent a telegram which read , " NOTHER [ sic ] DYING COME HOME FATHER " . Joyce returned to Ireland . Fearing for her son 's impiety , his mother tried unsuccessfully to get Joyce to make his confession and to take communion . She finally passed into a coma and died on 13 August , James and his brother Stanislaus having refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside . After her death he continued to drink heavily , and conditions at home grew quite appalling . He scraped a living reviewing books , teaching , and singing — he was an accomplished tenor , and won the bronze medal in the 1904 Feis Ceoil .
On 7 January 1904 Joyce attempted to publish A Portrait of the Artist , an essay @-@ story dealing with aesthetics , only to have it rejected by the free @-@ thinking magazine Dana . He decided , on his twenty @-@ second birthday , to revise the story into a novel he called Stephen Hero . It was a fictional rendering of Joyce 's youth , but he eventually grew frustrated with its direction and abandoned this work . It was never published in this form , but years later , in Trieste , Joyce completely rewrote it as A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man . The unfinished Stephen Hero was published after his death .
The same year he met Nora Barnacle , a young woman from Galway City who was working as a chambermaid . On 16 June 1904 , they first stepped out together , an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of Ulysses ( as " Bloomsday " ) .
Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer , drinking heavily . After one of these drinking binges , he got into a fight over a misunderstanding with a man in St Stephen 's Green ; he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father , Alfred H. Hunter , who took him into his home to tend to his injuries . Hunter was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife , and would serve as one of the models for Leopold Bloom , the protagonist of Ulysses . He took up with medical student Oliver St John Gogarty , who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in Ulysses . After staying for six nights in the Martello Tower that Gogarty was renting in Sandycove , he left in the middle of the night following an altercation which involved another student he lived with , the unstable Dermot Chenevix Trench ( Haines in Ulysses ) , who fired a pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce 's bed . Joyce walked the 8 miles ( 13 km ) back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night , and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his trunk . Shortly thereafter he left Ireland with Nora to live on the Continent .
= = = 1904 – 20 : Trieste and Zurich = = =
Joyce and Nora went into self @-@ imposed exile , moving first to Zurich in Switzerland , where he had supposedly acquired a post to teach English at the Berlitz Language School through an agent in England . It turned out that the agent had been swindled ; the director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste , which was then part of Austria @-@ Hungary ( until World War I ) , and is today part of Italy . Once again , he found there was no position for him , but with the help of Almidano Artifoni , director of the Trieste Berlitz school , he finally secured a teaching position in Pola , then also part of Austria @-@ Hungary ( today part of Croatia ) . He stayed there , teaching English mainly to Austro @-@ Hungarian naval officers stationed at the Pola base , from October 1904 until March 1905 , when the Austrians — having discovered an espionage ring in the city — expelled all aliens . With Artifoni 's help , he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English there . He remained in Trieste for most of the next ten years .
Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child , George , also known as Giorgio . Joyce then managed to talk his brother , Stanislaus , into joining him in Trieste , and secured him a position teaching at the school . Joyce 's ostensible reasons were desire for Stanislaus 's company and the hope of offering him a more interesting life than that of his simple clerking job in Dublin . Joyce also hoped to augment his family 's meagre income with his brother 's earnings . Stanislaus and Joyce had strained relations throughout the time they lived together in Trieste , with most arguments centring on Joyce 's drinking habits and frivolity with money .
Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to Rome in late 1906 , having secured employment as a letter @-@ writing clerk in a bank . He intensely disliked Rome , and moved back to Trieste in early 1907 . His daughter Lucia was born later that year .
Joyce returned to Dublin in mid @-@ 1909 with George , to visit his father and work on getting Dubliners published . He visited Nora 's family in Galway and liked Nora 's mother very much . While preparing to return to Trieste he decided to take one of his sisters , Eva , back with him to help Nora run the home . He spent only a month in Trieste before returning to Dublin , this time as a representative of some cinema owners and businessmen from Trieste . With their backing he launched Ireland 's first cinema , the Volta Cinematograph , which was well @-@ received , but fell apart after Joyce left . He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister , Eileen , in tow . Eva became homesick for Dublin and returned there a few years later , but Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent , eventually marrying Czech bank cashier Frantisek Schaurek .
Joyce returned to Dublin again briefly in mid @-@ 1912 during his years @-@ long fight with Dublin publisher George Roberts over the publication of Dubliners . His trip was once again fruitless , and on his return he wrote the poem " Gas from a Burner " , an invective against Roberts . After this trip , he never again came closer to Dublin than London , despite many pleas from his father and invitations from fellow Irish writer William Butler Yeats .
One of his students in Trieste was Ettore Schmitz , better known by the pseudonym Italo Svevo . They met in 1907 and became lasting friends and mutual critics . Schmitz was a Catholic of Jewish origin and became a primary model for Leopold Bloom ; most of the details about the Jewish faith in Ulysses came from Schmitz 's responses to queries from Joyce . While living in Trieste , Joyce was first beset with eye problems that ultimately required over a dozen surgical operations .
Joyce concocted a number of money @-@ making schemes during this period , including an attempt to become a cinema magnate in Dublin . He also frequently discussed but ultimately abandoned a plan to import Irish tweed to Trieste . Correspondence relating to that venture with the Irish Woollen Mills were for a long time displayed in the windows of their premises in Dublin . Joyce 's skill at borrowing money saved him from indigence . What income he had came partially from his position at the Berlitz school and partially from teaching private students .
In 1915 , after most of his students in Trieste were conscripted to fight in World War I , Joyce moved to Zurich . Two influential private students , Baron Ambrogio Ralli and Count Francesco Sordina , petitioned officials for an exit permit for the Joyces , who in turn agreed not to take any action against the emperor of Austria @-@ Hungary during the war . In Zurich , Joyce met one of his most enduring and important friends , the English socialist painter Frank Budgen , whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the writing of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake . It was also here that Ezra Pound brought him to the attention of English feminist and publisher Harriet Shaw Weaver , who would become Joyce 's patron , providing him with thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching to focus on his writing . While in Zurich he wrote Exiles , published A Portrait ... , and began serious work on Ulysses . Zurich during the war was home to exiles and artists from across Europe , and its bohemian , multilingual atmosphere suited him . Nevertheless , after four years he was restless , and after the war he returned to Trieste as he had originally planned . He found the city had changed , and some of his old friends noted his maturing from teacher to artist . His relations with his brother Stanislaus ( who had been interned in an Austrian prison camp for most of the war due to his pro @-@ Italian politics ) were more strained than ever . Joyce went to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound , supposedly for a week , but the family ended up living there for the next twenty years .
= = = 1920 – 41 : Paris and Zurich = = =
Joyce set himself to finishing Ulysses in Paris , delighted to find that he was gradually gaining fame as an avant @-@ garde writer . A further grant from Miss Shaw Weaver meant he could devote himself full @-@ time to writing again , as well as consort with other literary figures in the city . During this time , Joyce 's eyes began to give him more and more problems and he often wore an eyepatch . He was treated by Dr Louis Borsch in Paris , undergoing nine operations before Borsch 's death in 1929 . Throughout the 1930s he travelled frequently to Switzerland for eye surgeries and for treatments for his daughter Lucia , who , according to the Joyces , suffered from schizophrenia . Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung at the time , who after reading Ulysses , is said to have concluded that her father had schizophrenia . Jung said she and her father were two people heading to the bottom of a river , except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was sinking .
In Paris , Maria and Eugene Jolas nursed Joyce during his long years of writing Finnegans Wake . Were it not for their support ( along with Harriet Shaw Weaver 's constant financial support ) , there is a good possibility that his books might never have been finished or published . In their literary magazine " transition , " the Jolases published serially various sections of Finnegans Wake under the title Work in Progress . Joyce returned to Zurich in late 1940 , fleeing the Nazi occupation of France .
= = = Death = = =
On 11 January 1941 , he underwent surgery in Zurich for a perforated ulcer . While he at first improved , he relapsed the following day , and despite several transfusions , fell into a coma . He awoke at 2 a.m. on 13 January 1941 , and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son , before losing consciousness again . They were still on their way when he died 15 minutes later .
Joyce 's body was interred in the Fluntern Cemetery near Zurich Zoo . Buried originally in an ordinary grave , he was moved in 1966 to a more prominent " honor grave , " with a seated statue of Joyce by American artist Milton Hebald nearby . Swiss tenor Max Meili sang Addio terra , addio cielo from Monteverdi 's L 'Orfeo at the burial service . Although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time , neither attended Joyce 's funeral , and the Irish government later declined Nora 's offer to permit the repatriation of Joyce 's remains . Nora , who had married Joyce in London in 1931 , survived him by 10 years . She is buried by his side , as is their son Giorgio , who died in 1976 .
= = = Joyce and religion = = =
The issue of Joyce 's relationship with religion is somewhat controversial . Early in life , he lapsed from Catholicism , according to first @-@ hand testimonies coming from himself , his brother Stanislaus Joyce , and his wife :
My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity — home , the recognised virtues , classes of life , and religious doctrines . [ ... ] Six years ago I left the Catholic church , hating it most fervently . I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature . I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me . By doing this I made myself a beggar but I retained my pride . Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do .
My brother ’ s breakaway from Catholicism was due to other motives . He felt it was imperative that he should save his real spiritual life from being overlaid and crushed by a false one that he had outgrown . He believed that poets in the measure of their gifts and personality were the repositories of the genuine spiritual life of their race and the priests were usurpers . He detested falsity and believed in individual freedom more thoroughly than any man I have ever known . [ ... ] The interest that my brother always retained in the philosophy of the Catholic Church sprang from the fact that he considered Catholic philosophy to be the most coherent attempt to establish such an intellectual and material stability .
When the arrangements for Joyce 's burial were being made , a Catholic priest offered a religious service , which Joyce 's wife Nora declined , saying : " I couldn 't do that to him . "
However , L. A. G. Strong , William T. Noon , Robert Boyle and others have argued that Joyce , later in life , reconciled with the faith he rejected earlier in life and that his parting with the faith was succeeded by a not so obvious reunion , and that Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are essentially Catholic expressions . Likewise , Hugh Kenner and T. S. Eliot believed they saw between the lines of Joyce 's work the outlook of a serious Christian and that beneath the veneer of the work lies a remnant of Catholic belief and attitude . Kevin Sullivan maintains that , rather than reconciling with the faith , Joyce never left it . Critics holding this view insist that Stephen , the protagonist of the semi @-@ autobiographical A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man as well as Ulysses , is not Joyce . Somewhat cryptically , in an interview after completing Ulysses , in response to the question " When did you leave the Catholic Church " , Joyce answered , " That 's for the Church to say . " Eamonn Hughes maintains that Joyce takes a dialectic approach , both affirming and denying , saying that Stephen 's much noted non @-@ serviam is qualified — " I will not serve that which I no longer believe ... " , and that the non @-@ serviam will always be balanced by Stephen 's " I am a servant ... " and Molly 's " yes " . It is also known from first hand testimonies and his own writing that Joyce attended Catholic Mass and Orthodox Sacred Liturgy , especially during Holy Week , purportedly for aesthetic reasons . His sisters also noted his Holy Week attendance and that he did not seek to dissuade them . One friend witnessed him cry " secret tears " upon hearing Jesus ' words on the cross and another accused him of being a " believer at heart " because of his frequent attendance at church .
Umberto Eco compares Joyce to the ancient episcopi vagantes ( wandering bishops ) in the Middle Ages . They left a discipline , not a cultural heritage or a way of thinking . Like them , the writer retains the sense of blasphemy held as a liturgical ritual .
Some critics and biographers have opined along the lines of Andrew Gibson : " The modern James Joyce may have vigorously resisted the oppressive power of Catholic tradition . But there was another Joyce who asserted his allegiance to that tradition , and never left it , or wanted to leave it , behind him . " Gibson argues that Joyce " remained a Catholic intellectual if not a believer " since his thinking remained influenced by his cultural background , even though he dissented from that culture . His relationship with religion was complex and not easily understood , even perhaps by himself . He acknowledged the debt he owed to his early Jesuit training . Joyce told the sculptor August Suter , that from his Jesuit education , he had ' learnt to arrange things in such a way that they become easy to survey and to judge.'
= = = Joyce and music = = =
Music is central to Joyce 's biography and to the understanding of his writings . In turn , Joyce 's poetry and prose became an inspiration for composers and musicians . There are at least five aspects to consider :
1 . Joyce 's musicality : Joyce had considerable musical talent , which expressed itself in his singing , piano and guitar playing , as well as in a melody that he composed . His own musicality ( which once made him consider music as a profession ) is the root of his strong adoption of music as a major driving force in his fiction , in addition to his own experience of music in Ireland before he left in 1904 . Joyce had a light tenor voice ; he was taught by Vincent O 'Brien and Benedetto Palmieri ; in 1904 won a bronze medal at the competitive music festival Feis Ceoil . His only composition is a melody to his poem Bid adieu , to which a piano accompaniment was added in the 1920s in Paris by the American composer Edmund J. Pendleton ( 1899 – 1987 ) .
2 . The music Joyce knew : Music frequently found its way into Joyce 's poetry and prose . Often this happens in the form of allusions to ( or partial quotations from ) texts of Irish traditional songs , popular ballads , Roman Catholic chant and opera arias . His operatic references include works by Balfe , Wallace and Arthur Sullivan , in addition to Meyerbeer , Mozart , and Wagner ( among many others ) . Joyce also makes frequent use of the Irish Melodies of Thomas Moore and ballads such as George Barker 's Dublin Bay and J.L. Molloy 's Love 's Old Sweet Song .
3 . Opera as a genre : Joyce had a lifelong preoccupation with opera as a generic precedent for his own fiction . Although Joyce scholarship has long identified an explicit recourse to musical structures in Ulysses ( in particular the ' Sirens ' episode ) and Finnegans Wake , more recent criticism has established a decisive reliance on Wagner 's Ring in Finnegans Wake and an attempt to adapt the structures of opera and oratorio to the medium of fiction , notably in the ' Cyclops ' episode of Ulysses . George Antheil 's unfinished setting of ' Cyclops ' as an opera attests this attempt .
4 . Music to Joyce 's words : Music that uses Joyce 's texts most frequently appears as settings of his poems in songs , and occasionally as excerpts from prose works . Irish composers were among the first to set Joyce 's poetry , including Geoffrey Molyneux Palmer ( 1882 – 1957 ) , Herbert Hughes ( 1882 – 1937 ) and Brian Boydell ( 1917 – 2000 ) , but the musical qualities of Joyce 's verse also attracted European and North American composers , with early settings by Karol Szymanowski ( Songs to Words by James Joyce op . 54 , 1926 ) and Samuel Barber ( Three Songs op . 10 , 1936 ) in addition to settings by major exponents of the 1950s and ' 60s avant @-@ garde such as Elliott Carter ( String Quartet No. 1 , 1951 ) and Luciano Berio ( Chamber Music , 1953 ; Thema ( Ommagio a Joyce ) , 1958 ; etc . ) In 2015 Waywords and Meansigns presented an unabridged version of Finnegans Wake , collaboratively read and set to music , by contributors from around the globe .
5 . Music inspired by Joyce : Often , instrumental music was also inspired by Joyce 's writings , including works by Pierre Boulez , Klaus Huber , Rebecca Saunders , Toru Takemitsu and Gerard Victory . With Luciano Berio 's Thema ( Omaggio a Joyce ) ( 1958 ) there is also a key work in the development of electro @-@ acoustic music . In 2014 the English composer Stephen Crowe set Joyce 's explicit letters to Nora as a song @-@ cycle for tenor and ensemble .
Joyce himself took a keen interest in musical settings of his work , performed some of them himself , and corresponded with many of the composers . He was particularly fond of the early settings by Palmer .
= = Major works = =
= = = Dubliners = = =
Joyce 's Irish experiences constitute an essential element of his writings , and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of its subject matter . His early volume of short stories , Dubliners , is a penetrating analysis of the stagnation and paralysis of Dublin society . The stories incorporate epiphanies , a word used particularly by Joyce , by which he meant a sudden consciousness of the " soul " of a thing .
= = = A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man = = =
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a nearly complete rewrite of the abandoned novel Stephen Hero . Joyce attempted to burn the original manuscript in a fit of rage during an argument with Nora , though to his subsequent relief it was rescued by his sister . A Künstlerroman , Portrait is a heavily autobiographical coming @-@ of @-@ age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of protagonist Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self @-@ consciousness . Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works , such as stream of consciousness , interior monologue , and references to a character 's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings , are evident throughout this novel . Joseph Strick directed a film of the book in 1977 starring Luke Johnston , Bosco Hogan , T. P. McKenna and John Gielgud .
= = = Exiles and poetry = = =
Despite early interest in the theatre , Joyce published only one play , Exiles , begun shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914 and published in 1918 . A study of a husband and wife relationship , the play looks back to The Dead ( the final story in Dubliners ) and forward to Ulysses , which Joyce began around the time of the play 's composition .
Joyce also published a number of books of poetry . His first mature published work was the satirical broadside " The Holy Office " ( 1904 ) , in which he proclaimed himself to be the superior of many prominent members of the Celtic Revival . His first full @-@ length poetry collection Chamber Music ( 1907 ; referring , Joyce joked , to the sound of urine hitting the side of a chamber pot ) consisted of 36 short lyrics . This publication led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology , edited by Ezra Pound , who was a champion of Joyce 's work . Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes " Gas From A Burner " ( 1912 ) , Pomes Penyeach ( 1927 ) and " Ecce Puer " ( written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father ) . It was published by the Black Sun Press in Collected Poems ( 1936 ) .
= = = Ulysses = = =
As he was completing work on Dubliners in 1906 , Joyce considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertising canvasser called Leopold Bloom under the title Ulysses . Although he did not pursue the idea further at the time , he eventually commenced work on a novel using both the title and basic premise in 1914 . The writing was completed in October 1921 . Three more months were devoted to working on the proofs of the book before Joyce halted work shortly before his self @-@ imposed deadline , his 40th birthday ( 2 February 1922 ) .
Thanks to Ezra Pound , serial publication of the novel in the magazine The Little Review began in March 1918 . This magazine was edited by Margaret Anderson and Jane Heap , with the intermittent financial backing of John Quinn , a successful New York commercial lawyer with an interest in contemporary experimental art and literature . Unfortunately , this publication encountered problems with New York Postal Authorities ; serialisation ground to a halt in December 1920 ; the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity in February 1921 . Although the conviction was based on the " Nausicaä " episode of Ulysses , The Little Review had fuelled the fires of controversy with dada poet Elsa von Freytag @-@ Loringhoven 's defence of Ulysses in an essay " The Modest Woman . " Joyce 's novel was not published in the United States until 1933 .
Partly because of this controversy , Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book , but it was published in 1922 by Sylvia Beach from her well @-@ known Rive Gauche bookshop , Shakespeare and Company . An English edition published the same year by Joyce 's patron , Harriet Shaw Weaver , ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities , and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed . The following year , John Rodker produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies , but these were burned by English customs at Folkestone . A further consequence of the novel 's ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of " bootleg " versions appeared , most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher Samuel Roth . In 1928 , a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication .
With the appearance of both Ulysses and T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , 1922 was a key year in the history of English @-@ language literary modernism . In Ulysses , Joyce employs stream of consciousness , parody , jokes , and virtually every other established literary technique to present his characters . The action of the novel , which takes place in a single day , 16 June 1904 , sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin and represents Odysseus ( Ulysses ) , Penelope and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom , his wife Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus , parodically contrasted with their lofty models . Both Bloom and Dedalus represent Joyce in difference ages : youth and middle age . And both relate to each other symbolically in the novel as father and son . The key to this father / son relationship is revealed by Stephen on the Sandymount strand when he contemplates the Nicene Creed and the ' consubstantial ' relationship of God the Father to Son . The book explores various areas of Dublin life , dwelling on its squalor and monotony . Nevertheless , the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city , and Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe it could be rebuilt , brick by brick , using his work as a model . To achieve this level of accuracy , Joyce used the 1904 edition of Thom 's Directory — a work that listed the owners and / or tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city . He also bombarded friends still living there with requests for information and clarification . The book consists of 18 chapters , each covering roughly one hour of the day , beginning around 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning . Each chapter employs its own literary style , and parodies a specific episode in Homer 's Odyssey . Furthermore , each chapter is associated with a specific colour , art or science , and bodily organ . This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal schematic structure renders the book a major contribution to the development of 20th @-@ century modernist literature . The use of classical mythology as an organising framework , the near @-@ obsessive focus on external detail , and the occurrence of significant action within the minds of characters have also contributed to the development of literary modernism . Nevertheless , Joyce complained that , " I may have oversystematised Ulysses , " and played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from Homer . Joyce was reluctant to publish the chapter titles because he wanted his work to stand separately from the Greek form . It was only when Stuart Gilbert published his critical work on Ulysses in 1930 that the schema was supplied by Joyce to Gilbert . But as Terrence Killeen points out this schema was developed after the novel had been written and was not something that Joyce consulted as he wrote the novel . A first edition copy of Ulysses is on display at The Little Museum of Dublin .
= = = Finnegans Wake = = =
Having completed work on Ulysses , Joyce was so exhausted that he did not write a line of prose for a year . On 10 March 1923 he informed a patron , Harriet Weaver : " Yesterday I wrote two pages — the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses . Having found a pen , with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them . Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio , the Italians say . ' The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice ' or ' the leopard cannot change his spots . ' " Thus was born a text that became known , first , as Work in Progress and later Finnegans Wake .
By 1926 Joyce had completed the first two parts of the book . In that year , he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who offered to serialise the book in their magazine transition . For the next few years , Joyce worked rapidly on the new book , but in the 1930s , progress slowed considerably . This was due to a number of factors , including the death of his father in 1931 , concern over the mental health of his daughter Lucia , and his own health problems , including failing eyesight . Much of the work was done with the assistance of younger admirers , including Samuel Beckett . For some years , Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over the book to his friend James Stephens to complete , on the grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as Joyce exactly one week later , and shared the first name of both Joyce and of Joyce 's fictional alter @-@ ego , an example of Joyce 's superstitions .
Reaction to the work was mixed , including negative comment from early supporters of Joyce 's work , such as Pound and the author 's brother , Stanislaus Joyce . To counteract this hostile reception , a book of essays by supporters of the new work , including Beckett , William Carlos Williams and others was organised and published in 1929 under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress . At his 57th birthday party at the Jolases ' home , Joyce revealed the final title of the work and Finnegans Wake was published in book form on 4 May 1939 . Later , further negative comments surfaced from doctor and author Hervey Cleckley , who questioned the significance others had placed on the work . In his book , The Mask of Sanity , Cleckley refers to Finnegans Wake as " a 628 @-@ page collection of erudite gibberish indistinguishable to most people from the familiar word salad produced by hebephrenic patients on the back wards of any state hospital . "
Joyce 's method of stream of consciousness , literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in Finnegans Wake , which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure English , based mainly on complex multi @-@ level puns . This approach is similar to , but far more extensive than that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky . This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce 's oft @-@ quoted description in the Wake of Ulysses as his " usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles " to the Wake itself . However , readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot .
Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages . The role played by Beckett and other assistants included collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to use and , as Joyce 's eyesight worsened , of writing the text from the author 's dictation .
The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly influenced by Giambattista Vico , and the metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola are important to the interplay of the " characters . " Vico propounded a cyclical view of history , in which civilisation rose from chaos , passed through theocratic , aristocratic , and democratic phases , and then lapsed back into chaos . The most obvious example of the influence of Vico 's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening and closing words of the book . Finnegans Wake opens with the words " riverrun , past Eve and Adam 's , from swerve of shore to bend of bay , brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs . " ( " vicus " is a pun on Vico ) and ends " A way a lone a last a loved a long the . " In other words , the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence , turning the book into one great cycle . Indeed , Joyce said that the ideal reader of the Wake would suffer from " ideal insomnia " and , on completing the book , would turn to page one and start again , and so on in an endless cycle of reading .
= = Legacy = =
Joyce 's work has been an important influence on writers and scholars as diverse as Samuel Beckett , Seán Ó Ríordáin , Jorge Luis Borges , Flann O 'Brien , Salman Rushdie , Robert Anton Wilson , John Updike , David Lodge and Joseph Campbell . Ulysses has been called " a demonstration and summation of the entire [ Modernist ] movement " . French literary theorist Julia Kristéva characterised Joyce 's novel writing as " polyphonic " and a hallmark of postmodernity alongside poets Mallarmé and Rimbaud .
Some scholars , most notably Vladimir Nabokov , have mixed feelings on his work , often championing some of his fiction while condemning other works . In Nabokov 's opinion , Ulysses was brilliant , Finnegans Wake horrible — an attitude Jorge Luis Borges shared .
Joyce 's influence is also evident in fields other than literature . The sentence " Three quarks for Muster Mark ! " in Joyce 's Finnegans Wake is the source of the word " quark " , the name of one of the elementary particles proposed by the physicist Murray Gell @-@ Mann in 1963 . The French philosopher Jacques Derrida has written a book on the use of language in Ulysses , and the American philosopher Donald Davidson has written similarly on Finnegans Wake in comparison with Lewis Carroll . Psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan used Joyce 's writings to explain his concept of the sinthome . According to Lacan , Joyce 's writing is the supplementary cord which kept Joyce from psychosis .
In 1999 , Time magazine named Joyce one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century , and stated : " Joyce ... revolutionised 20th century fiction " . In 1998 , the Modern Library , US publisher of Joyce 's works , ranked Ulysses No. 1 , A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man No. 3 , and Finnegans Wake No. 77 , on its list of the 100 best English @-@ language novels of the 20th century .
The work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June , known as Bloomsday , in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide , and critical studies in scholarly publications , such as the James Joyce Quarterly , continue . Both popular and academic uses of Joyce 's work were hampered by restrictions placed by Stephen J. Joyce , Joyce 's grandson and executor of his literary estate . On 1 January 2012 , those restrictions were lessened by the expiry of copyright protection for much of the published work of James Joyce .
In April 2013 the Central Bank of Ireland issued a silver € 10 commemorative coin in honour of Joyce that misquoted a famous line from his masterwork Ulysses .
The Irish Naval Service named an offshore patrol vessel in Joyce 's honour . In a service attended by members of the Joyce family , the LÉ James Joyce ( P62 ) was commissioned on 1 September 2015 .
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= Nazi Germany =
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich ( German : Drittes Reich ) , was a period in German history from 1933 to 1945 , when the country was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . Under Hitler 's rule , Germany was transformed into a fascist totalitarian state which controlled nearly all aspects of life . The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich ( " German Reich " , " German Empire " or " German Realm " ) from 1933 to 1943 and Großdeutsches Reich ( Greater German Reich ) from 1943 to 1945 . Nazi Germany ceased to exist after the Allied Forces defeated Germany in May 1945 , ending World War II in Europe .
Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933 . The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all political opposition and consolidate its power . Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934 , and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery and Presidency . A national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer ( leader ) of Germany . All power was centralised in Hitler 's person , and his word became above all laws . The government was not a coordinated , co @-@ operating body , but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitler 's favour . In the midst of the Great Depression , the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy . Extensive public works were undertaken , including the construction of Autobahnen ( high speed highways ) . The return to economic stability boosted the regime 's popularity .
Racism , especially antisemitism , was a central feature of the regime . The Germanic peoples ( the Nordic race ) were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race , and were therefore viewed as the master race . Millions of Jews and others deemed undesirable were murdered in the Holocaust . Opposition to Hitler 's rule was ruthlessly suppressed . Members of the liberal , socialist , and communist opposition were killed , imprisoned , or exiled . The Christian churches were also oppressed , with many leaders imprisoned . Education focused on racial biology , population policy , and fitness for military service . Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed . Recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program , and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage . Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film , mass rallies , and Hitler 's hypnotising oratory to control public opinion . The government controlled artistic expression , promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others .
Beginning in the late 1930s , Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands , threatening war if they were not met . It seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939 . Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939 , launching World War II in Europe . In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers , Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940 and threatened Great Britain . Reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas , and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland . Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned , murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps , or shot . The regime 's racial policies turned genocidal , culminating in the mass murder of Jews and other minorities in the Holocaust . The plan to exterminate the Jews of Europe was formalized in the 1942 Wannsee Conference , replacing the previous policy of forced emigration of Jews from the Reich .
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 , the tide gradually turned against the Nazis , who suffered major military defeats in 1943 . Large @-@ scale aerial bombing of Germany escalated in 1944 , and the Axis powers were pushed back in Eastern and Southern Europe . Following the Allied invasion of France , Germany was conquered by the Soviet Union from the east and the other Allied powers from the west and capitulated within a year . Hitler 's refusal to admit defeat led to massive destruction of German infrastructure and additional war @-@ related deaths in the closing months of the war . The victorious Allies initiated a policy of denazification and put many of the surviving Nazi leadership on trial for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials .
= = Name = =
The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich ( German Reich ) from 1933 to 1943 , and Großdeutsches Reich ( Greater German Reich ) from 1943 to 1945 . The name Deutsches Reich is usually translated into English as " German Empire " or " German Reich " .
Common English terms are " Nazi Germany " and " Third Reich " . The latter , adopted by Nazi propaganda , was first used in a 1923 book by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck . The book counted the Holy Roman Empire ( 962 – 1806 ) as the first Reich and the German Empire ( 1871 – 1918 ) as the second . The Nazis used it to legitimize their regime as a successor state . After they seized power , Nazi propaganda retroactively referred to the Weimar Republic as the Zwischenreich ( " Interim Reich " ) .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The German economy suffered severe setbacks after the end of World War I , partly because of reparations payments required under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles . The government printed money to make the payments and to repay the country 's war debt ; the resulting hyperinflation led to inflated prices for consumer goods , economic chaos , and food riots . When the government failed to make the reparations payments in January 1923 , French troops occupied German industrial areas along the Ruhr . Widespread civil unrest followed .
The National Socialist German Workers ' Party ( NSDAP ; Nazi Party ) was the renamed successor of the German Workers ' Party founded in 1919 , one of several far @-@ right political parties active in Germany at the time . The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic , rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , radical antisemitism , and anti @-@ Bolshevism . They promised a strong central government , increased Lebensraum ( living space ) for Germanic peoples , formation of a national community based on race , and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews , who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights . The Nazis proposed national and cultural renewal based upon the Völkisch movement .
When the stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929 , the impact in Germany was dire . Millions were thrown out of work , and several major banks collapsed . Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party . They promised to strengthen the economy and provide jobs . Many voters decided the NSDAP was capable of restoring order , quelling civil unrest , and improving Germany 's international reputation . After the federal election of 1932 , the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag , holding 230 seats with 37 @.@ 4 percent of the popular vote .
= = = Nazi seizure of power = = =
Although the Nazis won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932 , they did not have a majority , so Hitler led a short @-@ lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and the German National People 's Party . Under pressure from politicians , industrialists , and the business community , President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933 . This event is known as the Machtergreifung ( seizure of power ) . In the following months , the NSDAP used a process termed Gleichschaltung ( co @-@ ordination ) to rapidly bring all aspects of life under control of the party . All civilian organisations , including agricultural groups , volunteer organisations , and sports clubs , had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members . By June 1933 , virtually the only organisations not in the control of the NSDAP were the army and the churches .
On the night of 27 February 1933 , the Reichstag building was set afire ; Marinus van der Lubbe , a Dutch communist , was found guilty of starting the blaze . Hitler proclaimed that the arson marked the start of a communist uprising . Violent suppression of communists by the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) was undertaken all over the country , and four thousand members of the Communist Party of Germany were arrested . The Reichstag Fire Decree , imposed on 28 February 1933 , rescinded most German civil liberties , including rights of assembly and freedom of the press . The decree also allowed the police to detain people indefinitely without charges or a court order . The legislation was accompanied by a propaganda blitz that led to public support for the measure .
In March 1933 , the Enabling Act , an amendment to the Weimar Constitution , passed in the Reichstag by a vote of 444 to 94 . This amendment allowed Hitler and his cabinet to pass laws — even laws that violated the constitution — without the consent of the president or the Reichstag . As the bill required a two @-@ thirds majority to pass , the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending ; the Communists had already been banned . On 10 May the government seized the assets of the Social Democrats ; they were banned in June . The remaining political parties were dissolved , and on 14 July 1933 , Germany became a de facto one @-@ party state when the founding of new parties was made illegal . Further elections in November 1933 , 1936 , and 1938 were entirely Nazi @-@ controlled and saw only the Nazis and a small number of independents elected . The regional state parliaments and the Reichsrat ( federal upper house ) were abolished in January 1934 .
The Nazi regime abolished the symbols of the Weimar Republic , including the black , red , and gold tricolour flag , and adopted reworked imperial symbolism . The previous imperial black , white , and red tricolour was restored as one of Germany 's two official flags ; the second was the swastika flag of the NSDAP , which became the sole national flag in 1935 . The NSDAP anthem " Horst @-@ Wessel @-@ Lied " ( " Horst Wessel Song " ) became a second national anthem .
In this period , Germany was still in a dire economic situation ; millions were unemployed and the balance of trade deficit was daunting . Hitler knew that reviving the economy was vital . In 1934 , using deficit spending , public works projects were undertaken . A total of 1 @.@ 7 million Germans were put to work on the projects in 1934 alone . Average wages both per hour and per week began to rise .
The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military , industrial , and political leaders . In response , Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives , which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934 . Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who , along with a number of Hitler 's political adversaries ( such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher ) , were rounded up , arrested , and shot .
On 2 August 1934 , President von Hindenburg died . The previous day , the cabinet had enacted the " Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich " , which stated that upon Hindenburg 's death , the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor . Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government . He was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler ( leader and chancellor ) . Germany was now a totalitarian state with Hitler at its head . As head of state , Hitler became Supreme Commander of the armed forces . The new law altered the traditional loyalty oath of servicemen so that they affirmed loyalty to Hitler personally rather than the office of supreme commander or the state . On 19 August , the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 percent of the electorate in a plebiscite .
Most Germans were relieved that the conflicts and street fighting of the Weimar era had ended . They were deluged with propaganda orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels , who promised peace and plenty for all in a united , Marxist @-@ free country without the constraints of the Versailles Treaty . The first Nazi concentration camp , initially for political prisoners , was opened at Dachau in 1933 . Hundreds of camps of varying size and function were created by the end of the war . Upon seizing power , the Nazis took repressive measures against their political opposition and rapidly began the comprehensive marginalisation of persons they considered socially undesirable . Under the guise of combating the Communist threat , the National Socialists secured immense power . Above all , their campaign against Jews living in Germany gained momentum .
Beginning in April 1933 , scores of measures defining the status of Jews and their rights were instituted at the regional and national level . Initiatives and legal mandates against the Jews reached their culmination with the establishment of the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 , stripping them of their basic rights . The Nazis would take from the Jews their wealth , their right to intermarry with non @-@ Jews , and their right to occupy many fields of labour ( such as practising law , medicine , or working as educators ) . They eventually declared them undesirable to remain among German citizens and society , which over time dehumanised the Jews ; arguably , these actions desensitised Germans to the extent that it resulted in the Holocaust . Ethnic Germans who refused to ostracise Jews or who showed any signs of resistance to Nazi propaganda were placed under surveillance by the Gestapo , had their rights removed , or were sent to concentration camps . Everyone and everything was monitored in Nazi Germany . Inaugurating and legitimising power for the Nazis was thus accomplished by their initial revolutionary activities , then through the improvisation and manipulation of the legal mechanisms available , through the use of police powers by the Nazi Party ( which allowed them to include and exclude from society whomever they chose ) , and finally by the expansion of authority for all state and federal institutions .
= = = Militaristic foreign policy = = =
As early as February 1933 , Hitler announced that rearmament must be undertaken , albeit clandestinely at first , as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty . A year later he told his military leaders that 1942 was the target date for going to war in the east . He pulled Germany out of the League of Nations in 1933 , claiming its disarmament clauses were unfair , as they applied only to Germany . The Saarland , which had been placed under League of Nations supervision for 15 years at the end of World War I , voted in January 1935 to become part of Germany . In March 1935 Hitler announced that the Reichswehr would be increased to 550 @,@ 000 men and that he was creating an air force . Britain agreed that the Germans would be allowed to build a naval fleet with the signing of the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement on 18 June 1935 .
When the Italian invasion of Ethiopia led to only mild protests by the British and French governments , on 7 March 1936 Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht Heer ground forces to march 3 @,@ 000 troops into the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in violation of the Versailles Treaty ; an additional 30 @,@ 000 troops were on standby . As the territory was part of Germany , the British and French governments did not feel that attempting to enforce the treaty was worth the risk of war . In the one @-@ party election held on 29 March , the NSDAP received 98 @.@ 9 percent support . In 1936 Hitler signed an Anti @-@ Comintern Pact with Japan and a non @-@ aggression agreement with the Fascist Italy of Benito Mussolini , who was soon referring to a " Rome @-@ Berlin Axis " .
Hitler sent air and armoured units to assist General Francisco Franco and his Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War , which broke out in July 1936 . The Soviet Union sent a smaller force to assist the Republican government . Franco 's Nationalists were victorious in 1939 and became an informal ally of Nazi Germany .
= = = Austria and Czechoslovakia = = =
In February 1938 , Hitler emphasised to Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg the need for Germany to secure its frontiers . Schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite regarding Austrian independence for 13 March , but Hitler demanded that it be cancelled . On 11 March , Hitler sent an ultimatum to Schuschnigg demanding that he hand over all power to the Austrian NSDAP or face an invasion . The Wehrmacht entered Austria the next day , to be greeted with enthusiasm by the populace .
The Republic of Czechoslovakia was home to a substantial minority of Germans , who lived mostly in the Sudetenland . Under pressure from separatist groups within the Sudeten German Party , the Czechoslovak government offered economic concessions to the region . Hitler decided to incorporate not just the Sudetenland but the whole of Czechoslovakia into the Reich . The Nazis undertook a propaganda campaign to try to drum up support for an invasion . Top leaders of the armed forces were not in favour of the plan , as Germany was not yet ready for war . The crisis led to war preparations by the British , the Czechoslovaks , and France ( Czechoslovakia 's ally ) . Attempting to avoid war , British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain arranged a series of meetings , the result of which was the Munich Agreement , signed on 29 September 1938 . The Czechoslovak government was forced to accept the Sudetenland 's annexation into Germany . Chamberlain was greeted with cheers when he landed in London bringing , he said , " peace for our time . " The agreement lasted six months before Hitler seized the rest of Czech territory in March 1939 . A puppet state was created in Slovakia .
Austrian and Czech foreign exchange reserves were soon seized by the Nazis , as were stockpiles of raw materials such as metals and completed goods such as weaponry and aircraft , which were shipped back to Germany . The Reichswerke Hermann Göring industrial conglomerate took control of steel and coal production facilities in both countries .
= = = Poland = = =
In March 1939 , Hitler demanded the return of the Free City of Danzig and the Polish Corridor , a strip of land that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany . The British announced they would come to the aid of Poland if it was attacked . Hitler , believing the British would not actually take action , ordered an invasion plan should be readied for a target date of September 1939 . On 23 May he described to his generals his overall plan of not only seizing the Polish Corridor but greatly expanding German territory eastward at the expense of Poland . He expected this time they would be met by force .
The Germans reaffirmed their alliance with Italy and signed non @-@ aggression pacts with Denmark , Estonia , and Latvia . Trade links were formalised with Romania , Norway , and Sweden . Hitler 's foreign minister , Joachim von Ribbentrop , arranged in negotiations with the Soviet Union a non @-@ aggression pact , the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , which was signed in August 1939 . The treaty also contained secret protocols dividing Poland and the Baltic states into German and Soviet spheres of influence .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Foreign policy = = = =
Germany 's foreign policy during the war involved the creation of allied governments under direct or indirect control from Berlin . A main goal was obtaining soldiers from the senior allies , such as Italy and Hungary , and millions of workers and ample food supplies from subservient allies such as Vichy France . By the fall of 1942 , there were 24 divisions from Romania on the Eastern Front , 10 from Italy , and 10 from Hungary . When a country was no longer dependable , Germany assumed full control , as it did with France in 1942 , Italy in 1943 , and Hungary in 1944 . Although Japan was an official powerful ally , the relationship was distant and there was little co @-@ ordination or co @-@ operation . For example , Germany refused to share their formula for synthetic oil from coal until late in the war .
= = = = Outbreak of war = = = =
Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 . Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later . World War II was under way . Poland fell quickly , as the Soviet Union attacked from the east on 17 September . Reinhard Heydrich , then head of the Gestapo , ordered on 21 September that Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links . Initially the intention was to deport the Jews to points further east , or possibly to Madagascar . Using lists prepared ahead of time , some 65 @,@ 000 Polish intelligentsia , noblemen , clergy , and teachers were killed by the end of 1939 in an attempt to destroy Poland 's identity as a nation . The Soviet forces continued to attack , advancing into Finland in the Winter War , and German forces were involved in action at sea . But little other activity occurred until May , so the period became known as the " Phoney War " .
From the start of the war , a British blockade on shipments to Germany had an impact on the Reich economy . The Germans were particularly dependent on foreign supplies of oil , coal , and grain . To safeguard Swedish iron ore shipments to Germany , Hitler ordered an attack on Norway , which took place on 9 April 1940 . Much of the country was occupied by German troops by the end of April . Also on 9 April , the Germans invaded and occupied Denmark .
= = = = Conquest of Europe = = = =
Against the judgement of many of his senior military officers , Hitler ordered an attack on France and the Low Countries , which began in May 1940 . They quickly conquered Luxembourg , the Netherlands , and Belgium , and France surrendered on 22 June . The unexpectedly swift defeat of France resulted in an upswing in Hitler 's popularity and a strong upsurge in war fever .
In spite of the provisions of the Hague Convention , industrial firms in the Netherlands , France , and Belgium were put to work producing war materiel for the occupying German military . Officials viewed this option as being preferable to their citizens being deported to the Reich as forced labour .
The Nazis seized from the French thousands of locomotives and rolling stock , stockpiles of weapons , and raw materials such as copper , tin , oil , and nickel . Financial demands were levied on the governments of the occupied countries as well ; payments for occupation costs were received from France , Belgium , and Norway . Barriers to trade led to hoarding , black markets , and uncertainty about the future . Food supplies were precarious ; production dropped in most areas of Europe , but not as much as during World War I. Greece experienced famine in the first year of occupation and the Netherlands in the last year of the war .
Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader , Winston Churchill , and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations . However , the German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain . By the end of October , Hitler realised the necessary air superiority for his planned invasion of Britain could not be achieved , and he ordered nightly air raids on British cities , including London , Plymouth , and Coventry .
In February 1941 , the German Afrika Korps arrived in Libya to aid the Italians in the North African Campaign and attempt to contain Commonwealth forces stationed in Egypt . On 6 April , Germany launched the invasion of Yugoslavia and the battle of Greece . German efforts to secure oil included negotiating a supply from their new ally , Romania , who signed the Tripartite Pact in November 1940 .
On 22 June 1941 , contravening the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , 5 @.@ 5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union . In addition to Hitler 's stated purpose of acquiring Lebensraum , this large @-@ scale offensive ( codenamed Operation Barbarossa ) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers . The reaction among Germans was one of surprise and trepidation . Many were concerned about how much longer the war would drag on or suspected that Germany could not win a war fought on two fronts .
The invasion conquered a huge area , including the Baltic republics , Belarus , and West Ukraine . After the successful Battle of Smolensk , Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev . This pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves . The Moscow offensive , which resumed in October 1941 , ended disastrously in December . On 7 December 1941 , Japan attacked Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . Four days later , Germany declared war on the United States .
Food was in short supply in the conquered areas of the Soviet Union and Poland , with rations inadequate to meet nutritional needs . The retreating armies had burned the crops , and much of the remainder was sent back to the Reich . In Germany itself , food rations had to be cut in 1942 . In his role as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan , Hermann Göring demanded increased shipments of grain from France and fish from Norway . The 1942 harvest was a good one , and food supplies remained adequate in Western Europe .
Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce was an organisation set up to loot artwork and cultural material from Jewish collections , libraries , and museums throughout Europe . Some 26 @,@ 000 railroad cars full of art treasures , furniture , and other looted items were sent back to Germany from France alone . In addition , soldiers looted or purchased goods such as produce and clothing — items which were becoming harder to obtain in Germany — for shipment back home .
= = = = Turning point and collapse = = = =
Germany , and Europe as a whole , was almost totally dependent on foreign oil imports . In an attempt to resolve the persistent shortage , Germany launched Fall Blau ( Case Blue ) , an offensive against the Caucasian oilfields , in June 1942 . The Red Army launched a counter @-@ offensive on 19 November and encircled the Axis forces , who were trapped in Stalingrad on 23 November . Göring assured Hitler that the 6th Army could be supplied by air , but this turned out to be infeasible . Hitler 's refusal to allow a retreat led to the deaths of 200 @,@ 000 German and Romanian soldiers ; of the 91 @,@ 000 men who surrendered in the city on 31 January 1943 , only 6 @,@ 000 survivors returned to Germany after the war . Soviet forces continued to push the invaders westward after the failed German offensive at the Battle of Kursk , and by the end of 1943 , the Germans had lost most of their territorial gains in the east .
In Egypt , Field Marshal Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps were defeated by British forces under Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery in October 1942 . Allied forces landed in Sicily in July 1943 , and in Italy in September . Meanwhile , American and British bomber fleets , based in Britain , began operations against Germany . In an effort to destroy German morale , many sorties were intentionally given civilian targets . Soon German aircraft production could not keep pace with losses , and without air cover , the Allied bombing campaign became even more devastating . By targeting oil refineries and factories , they crippled the German war effort by late 1944 .
On 6 June 1944 , American , British , and Canadian forces established a western front with the D @-@ Day landings in Normandy . On 20 July 1944 , Hitler narrowly survived a bomb attack . He ordered savage reprisals , resulting in 7 @,@ 000 arrests and the execution of more than 4 @,@ 900 people . The failed Ardennes Offensive ( 16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945 ) was the last major German campaign of the war . Soviet forces entered Germany on 27 January . Hitler 's refusal to admit defeat and his repeated insistence that the war be fought to the last man led to unnecessary death and destruction in the closing months of the war . Through his Justice Minister , Otto Georg Thierack , he ordered that anyone who was not prepared to fight should be summarily court @-@ martialed . Thousands of people were put to death . In many areas , people looked for ways to surrender to the approaching Allies , in spite of exhortations of local leaders to continue the struggle . Hitler also ordered the intentional destruction of transport , bridges , industries , and other infrastructure — a scorched earth decree — but Armaments Minister Albert Speer was able to keep this order from being fully carried out .
During the Battle of Berlin ( 16 April 1945 – 2 May 1945 ) , Hitler and his staff lived in the underground Führerbunker , while the Red Army approached . On 30 April , when Soviet troops were one or two blocks away from the Reich Chancellery , Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide in the Führerbunker . On 2 May General Helmuth Weidling unconditionally surrendered Berlin to Soviet General Vasily Chuikov . Hitler was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as Reich President and Goebbels as Reich Chancellor . Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide the next day , after murdering their six children . On 4 – 8 May 1945 most of the remaining German armed forces surrendered unconditionally . The German Instrument of Surrender was signed 7 May , marking the end of World War II in Europe .
Suicide rates in Germany increased as the war drew to a close , particularly in areas where the Red Army was advancing . More than a thousand people ( out of a population of around 16 @,@ 000 ) committed suicide in Demmin on and around 1 May 1945 as the 65th Army of 2nd Belorussian Front first broke into a distillery and then rampaged through the town , committing mass rapes , arbitrarily executing civilians , and setting fire to buildings . High numbers of suicides took place in many other locations , including Neubrandenburg ( 600 dead ) , Stolp in Pommern ( 1 @,@ 000 dead ) , and Berlin , where at least 7 @,@ 057 people committed suicide in 1945 .
= = = = German casualties = = = =
Estimates of the total German war dead range from 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 9 million persons . A study by German historian Rüdiger Overmans puts the number of German military dead and missing at 5 @.@ 3 million , including 900 @,@ 000 men conscripted from outside of Germany 's 1937 borders , in Austria , and in east @-@ central Europe . Overy estimated in 2014 that in all about 353 @,@ 000 civilians were killed by British and American bombing of German cities . An additional 20 @,@ 000 died in the land campaign . Some 22 @,@ 000 citizens died during the Battle of Berlin . Other civilian deaths include 300 @,@ 000 Germans ( including Jews ) who were victims of Nazi political , racial , and religious persecution , and 200 @,@ 000 who were murdered in the Nazi euthanasia program . Political courts called Sondergerichte sentenced some 12 @,@ 000 members of the German resistance to death , and civil courts sentenced an additional 40 @,@ 000 Germans . Mass rapes of German women also took place .
At the end of the war , Europe had more than 40 million refugees , its economy had collapsed , and 70 percent of its industrial infrastructure was destroyed . Between twelve and fourteen million ethnic Germans fled or were expelled from east @-@ central Europe to Germany . During the Cold War , the West German government estimated a death toll of 2 @.@ 2 million civilians due to the flight and expulsion of Germans and through forced labour in the Soviet Union . This figure remained unchallenged until the 1990s , when some historians put the death toll at 500 @,@ 000 – 600 @,@ 000 confirmed deaths . In 2006 the German government reaffirmed its position that 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 5 million deaths occurred .
= = Geography = =
= = = Territorial changes = = =
As a result of their defeat in World War I and the resulting Treaty of Versailles , Germany lost Alsace @-@ Lorraine , Northern Schleswig , and Memel . The Saarland temporarily became a protectorate of France , under the condition that its residents would later decide by referendum which country to join . Poland became a separate nation and was given access to the sea by the creation of the Polish Corridor , which separated Prussia from the rest of Germany . Danzig was made a free city .
Germany regained control of the Saarland via a referendum held in 1935 and annexed Austria in the Anschluss of 1938 . The Munich Agreement of 1938 gave Germany control of the Sudetenland , and they seized the remainder of Czechoslovakia six months later . Under threat of invasion by sea , Lithuania surrendered the Memel district in March 1939 .
Between 1939 and 1941 , German forces invaded Poland , France , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Belgium , and the Soviet Union . Trieste , South Tyrol , and Istria were ceded to Germany by Mussolini in 1943 . Two puppet districts were set up in the area , the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral and the Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills .
= = = Occupied territories = = =
Some of the conquered territories were immediately incorporated into Germany as part of Hitler 's long @-@ term goal of creating a Greater Germanic Reich . Several areas , such as Alsace @-@ Lorraine , were placed under the authority of an adjacent Gau ( regional district ) . Beyond the territories incorporated into Germany were the Reichskommissariate ( Reich Commissariats ) , quasi @-@ colonial regimes established in a number of occupied countries . Areas placed under German administration included the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia , Reichskommissariat Ostland ( encompassing the Baltic states and Belarus ) , and Reichskommissariat Ukraine . Conquered areas of Belgium and France were placed under control of the Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France . Belgian Eupen @-@ Malmedy , which had been part of German until 1919 , was annexed directly . Part of Poland was immediately incorporated into the Reich , and the General Government was established in occupied central Poland . Hitler intended to eventually incorporate many of these areas into the Reich .
The governments of Denmark , Norway ( Reichskommissariat Norwegen ) , and the Netherlands ( Reichskommissariat Niederlande ) were placed under civilian administrations staffed largely by natives .
= = = Post @-@ war changes = = =
With the issuance of the Berlin Declaration on 5 June 1945 and later creation of the Allied Control Council , the four Allied powers temporarily assumed governance of Germany . At the Potsdam Conference in August 1945 , the Allies arranged for the Allied occupation and denazification of the country . Germany was split into four zones , each occupied by one of the Allied powers , who drew reparations from their zone . Since most of the industrial areas were in the western zones , the Soviet Union was transferred additional reparations . The Allied Control Council disestablished Prussia on 20 May 1947 . Aid to Germany began arriving from the United States under the Marshall Plan in 1948 . The occupation lasted until 1949 , when the countries of East Germany and West Germany were created . Germany finalised her border with Poland by signing the Treaty of Warsaw ( 1970 ) . Germany remained divided until 1990 , when the Allies renounced all claims to German territory with the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany , under which Germany also renounced claims to territories lost during World War II .
= = Politics = =
= = = Ideology = = =
The NSDAP was a far @-@ right political party which came into its own during the social and financial upheavals that occurred with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929 . While in prison after the failed Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 , Hitler wrote Mein Kampf , which laid out his plan for transforming German society into one based on race . The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism , racial hygiene , and eugenics , and combined them with pan @-@ Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum for the Germanic people . The regime attempted to obtain this new territory by attacking Poland and the Soviet Union , intending to deport or kill the Jews and Slavs living there , who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race and part of a Jewish Bolshevik conspiracy . The Nazi regime believed that only Germany could defeat the forces of Bolshevism and save humanity from world domination by International Jewry . Others deemed life unworthy of life by the Nazis included the mentally and physically disabled , Romani people , homosexuals , Jehovah 's Witnesses , and social misfits .
Influenced by the Völkisch movement , the regime was against cultural modernism and supported the development of an extensive military at the expense of intellectualism . Creativity and art were stifled , except where they could serve as propaganda media . The party used symbols such as the Blood Flag and rituals such as the Nazi Party rallies to foster unity and bolster the regime 's popularity .
= = = Government = = =
A law promulgated 30 January 1934 abolished the existing Länder ( constituent states ) of Germany and replaced them with new administrative divisions of Nazi Germany , the Gaue , headed by NSDAP leaders ( Gauleiters ) , who effectively became the governor of their region . The change was never fully implemented , as the Länder were still used as administrative divisions for some government departments such as education . This led to a bureaucratic tangle of overlapping jurisdictions and responsibilities typical of the administrative style of the Nazi regime .
Jewish civil servants lost their jobs in 1933 , except for those who had seen military service in World War I. Members of the NSDAP or party supporters were appointed in their place . As part of the process of Gleichschaltung , the Reich Local Government Law of 1935 abolished local elections . From that point forward , mayors were appointed by the Ministry of the Interior .
Hitler ruled Germany autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ( leader principle ) , which called for absolute obedience of all subordinates . He viewed the government structure as a pyramid , with himself — the infallible leader — at the apex . Rank in the party was not determined by elections ; positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank . The party used propaganda to develop a cult of personality around Hitler . Historians such as Kershaw emphasise the psychological impact of Hitler 's skill as an orator . Kressel writes , " Overwhelmingly ... Germans speak with mystification of Hitler 's ' hypnotic ' appeal " . Roger Gill states , " His moving speeches captured the minds and hearts of a vast number of the German people : he virtually hypnotized his audiences . "
Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies , but they had considerable autonomy . Officials were expected to " work towards the Führer " – to take the initiative in promoting policies and actions in line with his wishes and the goals of the NSDAP , without Hitler having to be involved in the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the country . The government was not a coordinated , co @-@ operating body , but rather a disorganised collection of factions led by members of the party elite who struggled to amass power and gain the Führer 's favour . Hitler 's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them in positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped . In this way he fostered distrust , competition , and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power .
= = = Law = = =
On 20 August 1934 , civil servants were required to swear an oath of unconditional obedience to Hitler ; a similar oath had been required of members of the military several weeks prior . This law became the basis of the Führerprinzip , the concept that Hitler 's word overrode all existing laws . Any acts that were sanctioned by Hitler — even murder — thus became legal . All legislation proposed by cabinet ministers had to be approved by the office of Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess , who also had a veto over top civil service appointments .
Most of the judicial system and legal codes of the Weimar Republic remained in use during and after the Nazi era to deal with non @-@ political crimes . The courts issued and carried out far more death sentences than before the Nazis took power . People who were convicted of three or more offences — even petty ones — could be deemed habitual offenders and jailed indefinitely . People such as prostitutes and pickpockets were judged to be inherently criminal and a threat to the racial community . Thousands were arrested and confined indefinitely without trial .
Although the regular courts handled political cases and even issued death sentences for these cases , a new type of court , the Volksgerichtshof ( People 's Court ) , was established in 1934 to deal with politically important matters . This court handed out over 5 @,@ 000 death sentences until its dissolution in 1945 . The death penalty could be issued for offences such as being a communist , printing seditious leaflets , or even making jokes about Hitler or other top party officials . Nazi Germany employed three types of capital punishment ; hanging , decapitation , and death by shooting . The Gestapo was in charge of investigative policing to enforce National Socialist ideology . They located and confined political offenders , Jews , and others deemed undesirable . Political offenders who were released from prison were often immediately re @-@ arrested by the Gestapo and confined in a concentration camp .
In September 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted . These laws initially prohibited sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include " Gypsies , Negroes or their bastard offspring " . The law also forbade the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households . The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of " German or related blood " were eligible for citizenship . At the same time the Nazis used propaganda to promulgate the concept of Rassenschande ( race defilement ) to justify the need for a restrictive law . Thus Jews and other non @-@ Aryans were stripped of their German citizenship . The wording of the law also potentially allowed the Nazis to deny citizenship to anyone who was not supportive enough of the regime . A supplementary decree issued in November defined as Jewish anyone with three Jewish grandparents , or two grandparents if the Jewish faith was followed .
= = = Military and paramilitary = = =
= = = = Wehrmacht = = = =
The unified armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 were called the Wehrmacht . This included the Heer ( army ) , Kriegsmarine ( navy ) , and the Luftwaffe ( air force ) . From 2 August 1934 , members of the armed forces were required to pledge an oath of unconditional obedience to Hitler personally . In contrast to the previous oath , which required allegiance to the constitution of the country and its lawful establishments , this new oath required members of the military to obey Hitler even if they were being ordered to do something illegal . Hitler decreed that the army would have to tolerate and even offer logistical support to the Einsatzgruppen — the mobile death squads responsible for millions of deaths in Eastern Europe — when it was tactically possible to do so . Members of the Wehrmacht also participated directly in the Holocaust by shooting civilians or undertaking genocide under the guise of anti @-@ partisan operations . The party line was that the Jews were the instigators of the partisan struggle , and therefore needed to be eliminated . On 8 July 1941 , Heydrich announced that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans , and gave the order for all male Jews between the ages of 15 and 45 to be shot .
In spite of efforts to prepare the country militarily , the economy could not sustain a lengthy war of attrition such as had occurred in World War I. A strategy was developed based on the tactic of Blitzkrieg ( lightning war ) , which involved using quick coordinated assaults that avoided enemy strong points . Attacks began with artillery bombardment , followed by bombing and strafing runs . Next the tanks would attack and finally the infantry would move in to secure any ground that had been taken . Victories continued through mid @-@ 1940 , but the failure to defeat Britain was the first major turning point in the war . The decision to attack the Soviet Union and the decisive defeat at Stalingrad led to the retreat of the German armies and the eventual loss of the war . The total number of soldiers who served in the Wehrmacht from 1935 to 1945 was around 18 @.@ 2 million , of whom 5 @.@ 3 million died .
= = = = The SA and SS = = = =
The Sturmabteilung ( SA ; Storm Detachment ; Brownshirts ) , founded in 1921 , was the first paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party . Their initial assignment was to protect Nazi leaders at rallies and assemblies . They also took part in street battles against the forces of rival political parties and violent actions against Jews and others . By 1934 , under Ernst Röhm 's leadership , the SA had grown to over half a million members — 4 @.@ 5 million including reserves — at a time when the regular army was still limited to 100 @,@ 000 men by the Versailles Treaty .
Röhm hoped to assume command of the army and absorb it into the ranks of the SA . Hindenburg and Defence Minister Werner von Blomberg threatened to impose martial law if the alarming activities of the SA were not curtailed . Hitler also suspected that Röhm was plotting to depose him , so he ordered the deaths of Röhm and other political enemies . Up to 200 people were killed from 30 June to 2 July 1934 in an event that became known as the Night of the Long Knives . After this purge the SA was no longer a major force .
Initially a force of a dozen men under the auspices of the SA , the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) grew to become one of the largest and most powerful groups in Nazi Germany . Led by Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler from 1929 , the SS had over a quarter million members by 1938 and continued to grow . Himmler envisioned the SS as being an elite group of guards , Hitler 's last line of defence . The Waffen @-@ SS , the military branch of the SS , became a de facto fourth branch of the Wehrmacht .
In 1931 Himmler organised an SS intelligence service which became known as the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) under his deputy , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich . This organisation was tasked with locating and arresting communists and other political opponents . Himmler hoped it would eventually totally replace the existing police system . Himmler also established the beginnings of a parallel economy under the auspices of the SS Economy and Administration Head Office . This holding company owned housing corporations , factories , and publishing houses .
From 1935 forward the SS was heavily involved in the persecution of Jews , who were rounded up into ghettos and concentration camps . With the outbreak of World War II , SS units called Einsatzgruppen followed the army into Poland and the Soviet Union , where from 1941 to 1945 they killed more than two million people , including 1 @.@ 3 million Jews . The SS @-@ Totenkopfverbände ( death 's head units ) were in charge of the concentration camps and extermination camps , where millions more were killed .
= = Economy = =
= = = Reich economics = = =
The most pressing economic matter the Nazis initially faced was the 30 percent national unemployment rate . Economist Dr. Hjalmar Schacht , President of the Reichsbank and Minister of Economics , created in May 1933 a scheme for deficit financing . Capital projects were paid for with the issuance of promissory notes called Mefo bills . When the notes were presented for payment , the Reichsbank printed money to do so . While the national debt soared , Hitler and his economic team expected that the upcoming territorial expansion would provide the means of repaying the debt . Schacht 's administration achieved a rapid decline in the unemployment rate , the largest of any country during the Great Depression .
On 17 October 1933 , aviation pioneer Hugo Junkers , owner of the Junkers Aircraft Works , was arrested . Within a few days his company was expropriated by the regime . In concert with other aircraft manufacturers and under the direction of Aviation Minister Göring , production was immediately ramped up industry @-@ wide . From a workforce of 3 @,@ 200 people producing 100 units per year in 1932 , the industry grew to employ a quarter of a million workers manufacturing over 10 @,@ 000 technically advanced aircraft per year less than ten years later .
An elaborate bureaucracy was created to regulate German imports of raw materials and finished goods with the intention of eliminating foreign competition in the German marketplace and improving the nation 's balance of payments . The Nazis encouraged the development of synthetic replacements for materials such as oil and textiles . As the market was experiencing a glut and prices for petroleum were low , in 1933 the Nazi government made a profit @-@ sharing agreement with IG Farben , guaranteeing them a 5 percent return on capital invested in their synthetic oil plant at Leuna . Any profits in excess of that amount would be turned over to the Reich . By 1936 , Farben regretted making the deal , as the excess profits by then being generated had to be given to the government .
Major public works projects financed with deficit spending included the construction of a network of Autobahns and providing funding for programmes initiated by the previous government for housing and agricultural improvements . To stimulate the construction industry , credit was offered to private businesses and subsidies were made available for home purchases and repairs . On the condition that the wife would leave the workforce , a loan of up to 1 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks could be accessed by young couples of Aryan descent who intended to marry . The amount that had to be repaid was reduced by 25 percent for each child born . The caveat that the woman had to remain unemployed was dropped by 1937 due to a shortage of skilled labourers .
Hitler envisioned widespread car ownership as part of the new Germany . He arranged for designer Ferdinand Porsche to draw up plans for the KdF @-@ wagen ( Strength Through Joy car ) , intended to be an automobile that every German citizen could afford . A prototype was displayed at the International Motor Show in Berlin on 17 February 1939 . With the outbreak of World War II , the factory was converted to produce military vehicles . No production models were sold until after the war , when the vehicle was renamed the Volkswagen ( people 's car ) .
Six million people were unemployed when the Nazis took power in 1933 , and by 1937 there were fewer than a million . This was in part due to the removal of women from the workforce . Real wages dropped by 25 percent between 1933 and 1938 . Trade unions were abolished in May 1933 with the seizure of the funds and arrest of the leadership of the Social Democratic trade unions . A new organisation , the German Labour Front , was created and placed under NSDAP functionary Robert Ley . The average German worked 43 hours a week in 1933 , and by 1939 this increased to 47 hours a week .
By early 1934 the focus shifted away from funding work creation schemes and toward rearmament . By 1935 , military expenditures accounted for 73 percent of the government 's purchases of goods and services . On 18 October 1936 Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan , intended to speed up the rearmament programme . In addition to calling for the rapid construction of steel mills , synthetic rubber plants , and other factories , Göring instituted wage and price controls and restricted the issuance of stock dividends . Large expenditures were made on rearmament , in spite of growing deficits . With the introduction of compulsory military service in 1935 , the Reichswehr , which had been limited to 100 @,@ 000 by the terms of the Versailles Treaty , expanded to 750 @,@ 000 on active service at the start of World War II , with a million more in the reserve . By January 1939 , unemployment was down to 301 @,@ 800 , and it dropped to only 77 @,@ 500 by September .
= = = Wartime economy and forced labour = = =
The Nazi war economy was a mixed economy that combined a free market with central planning ; historian Richard Overy described it as being somewhere in between the command economy of the Soviet Union and the capitalist system of the United States .
In 1942 , after the death of Armaments Minister Fritz Todt , Hitler appointed Albert Speer as his replacement . Speer improved production via streamlined organisation , the use of single @-@ purpose machines operated by unskilled workers , rationalisation of production methods , and better co @-@ ordination between the many different firms that made tens of thousands of components . Factories were relocated away from rail yards , which were bombing targets . By 1944 , the war was consuming 75 percent of Germany 's gross domestic product , compared to 60 percent in the Soviet Union and 55 percent in Britain .
The wartime economy relied heavily upon the large @-@ scale employment of forced labourers . Germany imported and enslaved some 12 million people from 20 European countries to work in factories and on farms ; approximately 75 percent were Eastern European . Many were casualties of Allied bombing , as they received poor air raid protection . Poor living conditions led to high rates of sickness , injury , and death , as well as sabotage and criminal activity .
Foreign workers brought into Germany were put into four different classifications ; guest workers , military internees , civilian workers , and Eastern workers . Different regulations were placed upon the worker depending on their classification . To separate Germans and foreign workers , the Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign workers .
Women played an increasingly large role . By 1944 over a half million served as auxiliaries in the German armed forces , especially in anti @-@ aircraft units of the Luftwaffe ; a half million worked in civil aerial defence ; and 400 @,@ 000 were volunteer nurses . They also replaced men in the wartime economy , especially on farms and in small family @-@ owned shops .
Very heavy strategic bombing by the Allies targeted refineries producing synthetic oil and gasoline as well as the German transportation system , especially rail yards and canals . The armaments industry began to break down by September 1944 . By November fuel coal was no longer reaching its destinations , and the production of new armaments was no longer possible . Overy argues that the bombing strained the German war economy and forced it to divert up to one @-@ fourth of its manpower and industry into anti @-@ aircraft resources , which very likely shortened the war .
= = Racial policy = =
Racism and antisemitism were basic tenets of the NSDAP and the Nazi regime . Nazi Germany 's racial policy was based on their belief in the existence of a superior master race . The Nazis postulated the existence of a racial conflict between the Aryan master race and inferior races , particularly Jews , who were viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated society and were responsible for the exploitation and repression of the Aryan race .
= = = Persecution of Jews = = =
Discrimination against Jews began immediately after the seizure of power ; following a month @-@ long series of attacks by members of the SA on Jewish businesses , synagogues , and members of the legal profession , on 1 April 1933 Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses . The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on 7 April , forced all non @-@ Aryan civil servants to retire from the legal profession and civil service . Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practise . On 11 April a decree was promulgated that stated anyone who had even one Jewish parent or grandparent was considered non @-@ Aryan . As part of the drive to remove Jewish influence from cultural life , members of the National Socialist Student League removed from libraries any books considered un @-@ German , and a nationwide book burning was held on 10 May .
Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country . Jewish businesses were denied access to markets , forbidden to advertise in newspapers , and deprived of access to government contracts . Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks . Many towns posted signs forbidding entry to Jews .
In November 1938 , a young Jewish man requested an interview with the German ambassador in Paris . He met with a legation secretary , whom he shot and killed to protest his family 's treatment in Germany . This incident provided the pretext for a pogrom the NSDAP incited against the Jews on 9 November 1938 . Members of the SA damaged or destroyed synagogues and Jewish property throughout Germany . At least 91 German Jews were killed during this pogrom , later called Kristallnacht , the Night of Broken Glass . Further restrictions were imposed on Jews in the coming months – they were forbidden to own businesses or work in retail shops , drive cars , go to the cinema , visit the library , or own weapons . Jewish pupils were removed from schools . The Jewish community was fined one billion marks to pay for the damage caused by Kristallnacht and told that any money received via insurance claims would be confiscated . By 1939 around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated to the United States , Argentina , Great Britain , Palestine , and other countries . Many chose to stay in continental Europe . Emigrants to Palestine were allowed to transfer property there under the terms of the Haavara Agreement , but those moving to other countries had to leave virtually all their property behind , and it was seized by the government .
= = = Persecution of Roma and other groups = = =
Like the Jews , the Romani people were subjected to persecution from the early days of the regime . As a non @-@ Aryan race , they were forbidden to marry people of German extraction . Romani were shipped to concentration camps starting in 1935 and were killed in large numbers . Action T4 was a programme of systematic murder of the physically and mentally handicapped and patients in psychiatric hospitals that mainly took place from 1939 to 1941 and continued until the end of the war . Initially the victims were shot by the Einsatzgruppen and others ; in addition gas chambers and gas vans using carbon monoxide were used by early 1940 . Under the provisions of a law promulgated 14 July 1933 , the Nazi regime carried out the compulsory sterilisation of over 400 @,@ 000 individuals labelled as having hereditary defects . More than half the people sterilised were those considered mentally deficient , which included not only people who scored poorly on intelligence tests , but those who deviated from expected standards of behaviour regarding thrift , sexual behaviour , and cleanliness . Mentally and physically ill people were also targeted . The majority of the victims came from disadvantaged groups such as prostitutes , the poor , the homeless , and criminals . Other groups persecuted and killed included Jehovah 's Witnesses , homosexuals , social misfits , and members of the political and religious opposition .
= = = The Holocaust = = =
Germany 's war in the East was based on Hitler 's long @-@ standing view that Jews were the great enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany 's expansion . Hitler focused his attention on Eastern Europe , aiming to defeat Poland , the Soviet Union and remove or kill the resident Jews and Slavs in the process . After the occupation of Poland , all Jews living in the General Government were confined to ghettos , and those who were physically fit were required to perform compulsory labour . In 1941 Hitler decided to destroy the Polish nation completely . He planned that within 10 to 20 years the section of Poland under German occupation would be cleared of ethnic Poles and resettled by German colonists . About 3 @.@ 8 to 4 million Poles would remain as slaves , part of a slave labour force of 14 million the Nazis intended to create using citizens of conquered nations in the East .
The Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered . To determine who should be killed , Himmler created the Volksliste , a system of classification of people deemed to be of German blood . He ordered that those of Germanic descent who refused to be classified as ethnic Germans should be deported to concentration camps , have their children taken away , or be assigned to forced labour . The plan also included the kidnapping of children deemed to have Aryan @-@ Nordic traits , who were presumed to be of German descent . The goal was to implement Generalplan Ost after the conquest of the Soviet Union , but when the invasion failed , Hitler had to consider other options . One suggestion was a mass forced deportation of Jews to Poland , Palestine , or Madagascar .
Somewhere around the time of the failed offensive against Moscow in December 1941 , Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately . Plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe — eleven million people — were formalised at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942 . Some would be worked to death and the rest would be killed in the implementation of Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ( the Final Solution of the Jewish question ) . Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or by Einsatzgruppen firing squads , but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of this scale . By 1941 , killing centres at Auschwitz concentration camp , Sobibor , Treblinka , and other Nazi extermination camps replaced Einsatzgruppen as the primary method of mass killing . The total number of Jews murdered during the war is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to six million people , including over a million children . Twelve million people were put into forced labour .
German citizens ( despite much of the later denial ) had access to information about what was happening , as soldiers returning from the occupied territories would report on what they had seen and done . Evans states that most German citizens disapproved of the genocide . Some Polish citizens tried to rescue or hide the remaining Jews , and members of the Polish underground got word to their government in exile in London as to what was happening .
In addition to eliminating Jews , the Nazis also planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan . Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians . Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists . Together , the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union . These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war .
= = = Oppression of ethnic Poles = = =
During the German occupation of Poland , 2 @.@ 7 million ethnic Poles were killed by the Axis powers . Polish civilians were subject to forced labour in German industry , internment , wholesale expulsions to make way for German colonists and mass executions . The German authorities engaged in a systematic effort to destroy Polish culture and national identity . During operation AB @-@ Aktion , many university professors and members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps . During the war , Poland lost an estimated 39 to 45 percent of its physicians and dentists , 26 to 57 percent of its lawyers , 15 to 30 percent of its teachers , 30 to 40 percent of its scientists and university professors , and 18 to 28 percent of its clergy . Further , 43 percent of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 percent of its museums had been destroyed .
= = = Mistreatment of Soviet POWs = = =
During the war between June 1941 and January 1942 , the Axis powers killed an estimated 2 @.@ 8 million Soviet prisoners of war . Many starved to death while being held in open @-@ air pens at Auschwitz and elsewhere . The Soviet Union lost 27 million people during the war ; less than nine million of these were combat deaths . One in four of the population were killed or wounded .
= = Society = =
= = = Education = = =
Antisemitic legislation passed in 1933 led to the removal all of Jewish teachers , professors , and officials from the education system . Most teachers were required to belong to the Nationalsozialistischer Lehrerbund ( National Socialist Teachers League ; NSLB ) , and university professors were required to join the National Socialist German Lecturers . Teachers had to take an oath of loyalty and obedience to Hitler , and those who failed to show sufficient conformity to party ideals were often reported by students or fellow teachers and dismissed . Lack of funding for salaries led to many teachers leaving the profession . The average class size increased from 37 in 1927 to 43 in 1938 due to the resulting teacher shortage .
Frequent and often contradictory directives were issued by Reich Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick , Bernhard Rust of the Reichserziehungsministerium ( Ministry of Education ) , and various other agencies regarding content of lessons and acceptable textbooks for use in primary and secondary schools . Books deemed unacceptable to the regime were removed from school libraries . Indoctrination in National Socialist thought was made compulsory in January 1934 . Students selected as future members of the party elite were indoctrinated from the age of 12 at Adolf Hitler Schools for primary education and National Political Institutes of Education for secondary education . Detailed National Socialist indoctrination of future holders of elite military rank was undertaken at Order Castles .
Primary and secondary education focused on racial biology , population policy , culture , geography , and especially physical fitness . The curriculum in most subjects , including biology , geography , and even arithmetic , was altered to change the focus to race . Military education became the central component of physical education , and education in physics was oriented toward subjects with military applications , such as ballistics and aerodynamics . Students were required to watch all films prepared by the school division of the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda .
At universities , appointments to top posts were the subject of power struggles between the education ministry , the university boards , and the National Socialist German Students ' League . In spite of pressure from the League and various government ministries , most university professors did not make changes to their lectures or syllabus during the Nazi period . This was especially true of universities located in predominately Catholic regions . Enrolment at German universities declined from 104 @,@ 000 students in 1931 to 41 @,@ 000 in 1939 . But enrolment in medical schools rose sharply ; Jewish doctors had been forced to leave the profession , so medical graduates had good job prospects . From 1934 , university students were required to attend frequent and time @-@ consuming military training sessions run by the SA . First @-@ year students also had to serve six months in a labour camp for the Reichsarbeitsdienst ( National Labour Service ) ; an additional ten weeks service were required of second @-@ year students .
= = = Oppression of churches = = =
About 65 percent of the population of Germany was Protestant when the Nazis seized power in 1933 . Under the Gleichschaltung process , Hitler attempted to create a unified Protestant Reich Church from Germany 's 28 existing Protestant churches , with the ultimate goal of eradication of the churches in Germany . Ludwig Müller , a pro @-@ Nazi , was installed as Reich Bishop , and the German Christians , a pro @-@ Nazi pressure group , gained control of the new church . They objected to the Old Testament because of its Jewish origins , and demanded that converted Jews be barred from their church . Pastor Martin Niemöller responded with the formation of the Confessing Church , from which some clergymen opposed the Nazi regime . When in 1935 the Confessing Church synod protested the Nazi policy on religion , 700 of their pastors were arrested . Müller resigned and Hitler appointed Hanns Kerrl as Minister for Church Affairs , to continue efforts to control Protestantism . In 1936 , a Confessing Church envoy protested to Hitler against the religious persecutions and human rights abuses . Hundreds more pastors were arrested . The church continued to resist , and by early 1937 Hitler abandoned his hope of uniting the Protestant churches . The Confessing Church was banned on 1 July 1937 . Neimoller was arrested and confined , first in Sachsenhausen concentration camp and then at Dachau . Theological universities were closed and more pastors and theologians were arrested .
Persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany followed the Nazi takeover . Hitler moved quickly to eliminate political catholicism , rounding up functionaries of the Catholic @-@ aligned Bavarian People 's Party and Catholic Centre Party , which , along with all other non @-@ Nazi political parties , ceased to exist by July . The Reichskonkordat ( Reich Concordat ) treaty with the Vatican was signed in 1933 , amid continuing harassment of the church in Germany . The treaty required the regime to honour the independence of Catholic institutions and prohibited clergy from involvement in politics . Hitler routinely disregarded the Concordat , closing all Catholic institutions whose functions were not strictly religious . Clergy , nuns , and lay leaders were targeted , with thousands of arrests over the ensuing years , often on trumped @-@ up charges of currency smuggling or immorality . Several high profile Catholic lay leaders were targeted in the 1934 Night of the Long Knives assassinations . Most Catholic youth groups refused to dissolve themselves and Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach encouraged members to attack Catholic boys in the streets . Propaganda campaigns claimed the church was corrupt , restrictions were placed on public meetings , and Catholic publications faced censorship . Catholic schools were required to reduce religious instruction and crucifixes were removed from state buildings .
Pope Pius XI had the " Mit brennender Sorge " ( " With Burning Concern " ) Encyclical smuggled into Germany for Passion Sunday 1937 and read from every pulpit . It denounced the systematic hostility of the regime toward the church . In response , Goebbels renewed the regime 's crackdown and propaganda against Catholics . Enrolment in denominational schools dropped sharply , and by 1939 all such schools were disbanded or converted to public facilities . Later Catholic protests included the 22 March 1942 pastoral letter by the German bishops on " The Struggle against Christianity and the Church " . About 30 percent of Catholic priests were disciplined by police during the Nazi era . A vast security network spied on the activities of clergy , and priests were frequently denounced , arrested , or sent to concentration camps – many to the dedicated clergy barracks at Dachau . In the areas of Poland annexed in 1940 , the Nazis instigated a brutal suppression and systematic dismantling of the Catholic Church .
= = = Health = = =
Nazi Germany had a strong anti @-@ tobacco movement . Pioneering research by Franz H. Müller in 1939 demonstrated a causal link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer . The Reich Health Office took measures to try to limit smoking , including producing lectures and pamphlets . Smoking was banned in many workplaces , on trains , and among on @-@ duty members of the military . Government agencies also worked to control other carcinogenic substances such as asbestos and pesticides . As part of a general public health campaign , water supplies were cleaned up , lead and mercury were removed from consumer products , and women were urged to undergo regular screenings for breast cancer .
Government @-@ run health care insurance plans were available , but Jews were denied coverage starting in 1933 . That same year , Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat government @-@ insured patients . In 1937 Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat non @-@ Jewish patients , and in 1938 their right to practice medicine was removed entirely .
Medical experiments , many of them pseudoscientific , were performed on concentration camp inmates beginning in 1941 . The most notorious doctor to perform medical experiments was SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Dr Josef Mengele , camp doctor at Auschwitz . Many of his victims died or were intentionally killed . Concentration camp inmates were made available for purchase by pharmaceutical companies for drug testing and other experiments .
= = = Role of women and family = = =
Women were a cornerstone of Nazi social policy . The Nazis opposed the feminist movement , claiming that it was the creation of Jewish intellectuals , and instead advocated a patriarchal society in which the German woman would recognise that her " world is her husband , her family , her children , and her home . " Soon after the seizure of power , feminist groups were shut down or incorporated into the National Socialist Women 's League . This organisation coordinated groups throughout the country to promote motherhood and household activities . Courses were offered on childrearing , sewing , and cooking . The League published the NS @-@ Frauen @-@ Warte , the only NSDAP @-@ approved women 's magazine in Nazi Germany . Despite some propaganda aspects , it was predominantly an ordinary woman 's magazine .
Women were encouraged to leave the workforce , and the creation of large families by racially suitable women was promoted through a propaganda campaign . Women received a bronze award — known as the Ehrenkreuz der Deutschen Mutter ( Cross of Honour of the German Mother ) — for giving birth to four children , silver for six , and gold for eight or more . Large families received subsidies to help with their utilities , school fees , and household expenses . Though the measures led to increases in the birth rate , the number of families having four or more children declined by five percent between 1935 and 1940 . Removing women from the workforce did not have the intended effect of freeing up jobs for men . Women were for the most part employed as domestic servants , weavers , or in the food and drink industries — jobs that were not of interest to men . Nazi philosophy prevented large numbers of women from being hired to work in munitions factories in the build @-@ up to the war , so foreign labourers were brought in . After the war started , slave labourers were extensively used . In January 1943 Hitler signed a decree requiring all women under the age of fifty to report for work assignments to help the war effort . Thereafter , women were funnelled into agricultural and industrial jobs . By September 1944 , 14 @.@ 9 million women were working in munitions production .
The Nazi regime discouraged women from seeking higher education . Nazi leaders held conservative views about women and endorsed the idea that rational and theoretical work was alien to a woman 's nature since they were considered inherently emotional and instinctive – as such , engaging in academics and careerism would only " divert them from motherhood . " The number of women allowed to enrol in universities dropped drastically , as a law passed in April 1933 limited the number of females admitted to university to ten percent of the number of male attendees . Female enrolment in secondary schools dropped from 437 @,@ 000 in 1926 to 205 @,@ 000 in 1937 . The number of women enrolled in post @-@ secondary schools dropped from 128 @,@ 000 in 1933 to 51 @,@ 000 in 1938 . However , with the requirement that men be enlisted into the armed forces during the war , women comprised half of the enrolment in the post @-@ secondary system by 1944 .
Women were expected to be strong , healthy , and vital . The sturdy peasant woman who worked the land and bore strong children was considered ideal , and athletic women were praised for being tanned from working outdoors . Organisations were created for the indoctrination of Nazi values . From 25 March 1939 , membership in the Hitler Youth became compulsory for all children over the age of ten . The Jungmädelbund ( Young Girls League ) section of the Hitler Youth was for girls age 10 to 14 , and the Bund Deutscher Mädel ( BDM ; League of German Girls ) was for young women age 14 to 18 . The BDM 's activities focused on physical education , with activities such as running , long jumping , somersaulting , tightrope walking , marching , and swimming .
The Nazi regime promoted a liberal code of conduct regarding sexual matters , and was sympathetic to women who bore children out of wedlock . Promiscuity increased as the war progressed , with unmarried soldiers often intimately involved with several women simultaneously . The same was the case for married women , who liaised with soldiers , civilians , or slave labourers . Sex was sometimes used as a commodity to obtain , for example , better work from a foreign labourer . Pamphlets enjoined German women to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers as a danger to their blood .
With Hitler 's approval , Himmler intended that the new society of the Nazi regime should de @-@ stigmatise illegitimate births , particularly of children fathered by members of the SS , who were vetted for racial purity . His hope was that each SS family would have between four and six children . The Lebensborn ( Fountain of Life ) association , founded by Himmler in 1935 , created a series of maternity homes where single mothers could be accommodated during their pregnancies . Both parents were examined for racial suitability before acceptance . The resulting children were often adopted into SS families . The homes were also made available to the wives of SS and NSDAP members , who quickly filled over half the available spots .
Existing laws banning abortion except for medical reasons were strictly enforced by the Nazi regime . The number of abortions declined from 35 @,@ 000 per year at the start of the 1930s to fewer than 2 @,@ 000 per year at the end of the decade . In 1935 a law was passed allowing abortions for eugenics reasons .
= = = Environmentalism = = =
Nazi society had elements supportive of animal rights , and many people were fond of zoos and wildlife . The government took several measures to ensure the protection of animals and the environment . In 1933 , the Nazis enacted a stringent animal @-@ protection law that had an impact on what was allowed for medical research . But the law was only loosely enforced . In spite of a ban on vivisection , the Ministry of the Interior readily handed out permits for experiments on animals .
The Reich Forestry Office , under Göring , enforced regulations that required foresters to plant a wide variety of trees to ensure suitable habitat for wildlife . A new Reich Animal Protection Act became law in 1933 . The regime enacted the Reich Nature Protection Act in 1935 to protect the natural landscape from excessive economic development . The act allowed for the expropriation of privately owned land to create nature preserves and aided in long @-@ range planning . Perfunctory efforts were made to curb air pollution , but little enforcement of existing legislation was undertaken once the war began .
= = Culture = =
The regime promoted the concept of Volksgemeinschaft , a national German ethnic community . The goal was to build a classless society based on racial purity and the perceived need to prepare for warfare , conquest , and a struggle against Marxism . The German Labour Front founded the Kraft durch Freude ( KdF ; Strength Through Joy ) organisation in 1933 . In addition to taking control of tens of thousands of previously privately run recreational clubs , it offered highly regimented holidays and entertainment experiences such as cruises , vacation destinations , and concerts .
The Reichskulturkammer ( Reich Chamber of Culture ) was organised under the control of the Propaganda Ministry in September 1933 . Sub @-@ chambers were set up to control various aspects of cultural life , such as films , radio , newspapers , fine arts , music , theatre , and literature . All members of these professions were required to join their respective organisation . Jews and people considered politically unreliable were prevented from working in the arts , and many emigrated . Books and scripts had to be approved by the Propaganda Ministry prior to publication . Standards deteriorated as the regime sought to use cultural outlets exclusively as propaganda media .
Radio became very popular in Germany during the 1930s , with over 70 percent of households owning a receiver by 1939 , more than any other country . Radio station staffs were purged of leftists and others deemed undesirable by July 1933 . Propaganda and speeches were typical radio fare immediately after the seizure of power , but as time went on Goebbels insisted that more music be played so that people would not turn to foreign broadcasters for entertainment .
As with other media , newspapers were controlled by the state , with the Reich Press Chamber shutting down or buying newspapers and publishing houses . By 1939 over two @-@ thirds of the newspapers and magazines were directly owned by the Propaganda Ministry . The NSDAP daily newspaper , the Völkischer Beobachter ( Ethnic Observer ) , was edited by Alfred Rosenberg , author of The Myth of the Twentieth Century , a book of racial theories espousing Nordic superiority . Goebbels controlled the wire services and insisted that all newspapers in Germany should only publish content favourable to the regime . His propaganda ministry issued two dozen directives every week on exactly what news should be published and what angles to use ; the typical newspaper followed the directives very closely . Newspaper readership plummeted , partly because of the decreased quality of the content , and partly because of the surge in popularity of radio .
Authors of books left the country in droves , and some wrote material highly critical of the regime while in exile . Goebbels recommended that the remaining authors should concentrate on books themed on Germanic myths and the concept of blood and soil . By the end of 1933 over a thousand books , most of them by Jewish authors or featuring Jewish characters , had been banned by the Nazi regime .
Hitler took a personal interest in architecture , and worked closely with state architects Paul Troost and Albert Speer to create public buildings in a neoclassical style based on Roman architecture . Speer constructed imposing structures such as the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg and a new Reich Chancellery building in Berlin . Hitler 's plans for rebuilding Berlin included a gigantic dome based on the Pantheon in Rome and a triumphal arch more than double the height of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris . Neither of these structures were ever built .
Hitler felt that abstract , Dadaist , expressionist , and modern art were decadent , an opinion that became the basis for policy . Many art museum directors lost their posts in 1933 and were replaced by party members . Some 6 @,@ 500 modern works of art were removed from museums and replaced with works chosen by a Nazi jury . Exhibitions of the rejected pieces , under titles such as " Decadence in Art " , were launched in sixteen different cities by 1935 . The Degenerate Art Exhibition , organised by Goebbels , ran in Munich from July to November 1937 . The exhibition proved wildly popular , attracting over two million visitors .
Composer Richard Strauss was appointed president of the Reichsmusikkammer ( Reich Music Chamber ) on its founding in November 1933 . As was the case with other art forms , the Nazis ostracised musicians who were not deemed racially acceptable , and for the most part did not approve of music that was too modern or atonal . Jazz music was singled out as being especially inappropriate , and foreign musicians of this genre left the country or were expelled . Hitler favoured the music of Richard Wagner , especially pieces based on Germanic myths and heroic stories , and attended the Bayreuth Festival each year from 1933 .
Movies were popular in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s , with admissions of over a billion people in 1942 , 1943 , and 1944 . By 1934 German regulations restricting currency exports made it impossible for American film makers to take their profits back to America , so the major film studios closed their German branches . Exports of German films plummeted , as their heavily antisemitic content made them impossible to show in other countries . The two largest film companies , Universum Film AG and Tobis , were purchased by the Propaganda Ministry , which by 1939 was producing most German films . The productions were not always overtly propagandistic , but generally had a political subtext and followed party lines regarding themes and content . Scripts were pre @-@ censored .
Leni Riefenstahl 's Triumph of the Will ( 1935 ) , documenting the 1934 Nuremberg Rally , and Olympia ( 1938 ) , covering the 1936 Summer Olympics , pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that influenced later films . New techniques such as telephoto lenses and cameras mounted on tracks were employed . Both films remain controversial , as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandising of national socialist ideals .
= = Legacy = =
The Allied powers organised war crimes trials , beginning with the Nuremberg trials , held from November 1945 to October 1946 , of 23 top Nazi officials . They were charged with four counts — conspiracy to commit crimes , crimes against peace , war crimes , and crimes against humanity — in violation of international laws governing warfare . All but three of the defendants were found guilty ; twelve were sentenced to death . The victorious Allies outlawed the NSDAP and its subsidiary organisations . The display or use of Nazi symbolism such as flags , swastikas , or greetings , is illegal in Germany and Austria , and other restrictions , mainly on public display , apply in various countries . See Swastika § Post @-@ WWII stigmatization for details .
Nazi ideology and the actions taken by the regime are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral . Hitler , Nazism , and the Holocaust have become symbols of evil in the modern world . Interest in Nazi Germany continues in the media and the academic world . Historian Sir Richard J. Evans remarks that the era " exerts an almost universal appeal because its murderous racism stands as a warning to the whole of humanity . "
The Nazi era continues to inform how Germans view themselves and their country . Virtually every family suffered losses during the war or has a story to tell . For many years Germans kept quiet about their experiences and felt a sense of communal guilt , even if they were not directly involved in war crimes . Once study of Nazi Germany was introduced into the school curriculum starting in the 1970s , people began researching the experiences of their family members . Study of the era and a willingness to critically examine its mistakes has led to the development of a strong democracy in today 's Germany , but with lingering undercurrents of antisemitism and neo @-@ Nazi thought .
= = = Historiography and memory = = =
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Eley , Geoff . From Unification to Nazism : Reinterpreting the German Past . London : Allen & Unwin , 1986 .
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Fisher , Marc . After the Wall : Germany , the Germans , and the Burdens of History . New York : Simon & Schuster , 1995 .
Frei , Norbert . Adenauer 's Germany and the Nazi Past : The Politics of Amnesty and Integration . New York : Columbia University Press , 2002 .
Gregor , Neil . Haunted City : Nuremberg and the Nazi Past . New Haven : Yale University Press , 2008 .
Heilbronner , Oded . " The Role of Nazi Antisemitism in the Nazi Party 's Activity and Propaganda : A Regional Historiographical Study . " The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook ( 1990 ) 35 # 1 pp : 397 – 439 .
Herf , Jeffrey . Divided Memory : The Nazi Past in the Two Germanys . Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press , 1999 .
Hiden , John , and John E. Farquharson . Explaining Hitler 's Germany : Historians and the Third Reich ( Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd . , 1989 )
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Jarausch , Konrad H. After Hitler : Recivilizing Germans , 1945 – 1995 . New York : Oxford University Press , 2008 .
Johnson , Eric and Karl @-@ Heinz Reuband . What We Knew : Terror , Mass Murder , and Everyday Life in Nazi Germany . New York : Basic Books , 2006 .
Kershaw , Ian . The Nazi Dictatorship : Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation . New York & London : Bloomsbury Academic , 2000 .
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Liddell @-@ Hart , B.H. The German Generals Talk . New York : Quill , 1979 [ 1948 ] .
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= USS Delaware ( BB @-@ 28 ) =
USS Delaware ( BB @-@ 28 ) was a dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy , the lead ship of her class . She was laid down at Newport News Shipbuilding in November 1907 , launched in January 1909 , and completed in April 1910 . The sixth ship to be named for the First State , Delaware was armed with a main battery of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns all on the centerline , making her the most powerful battleship in the world at the time of her construction . She was also the first battleship of the US Navy to be capable of steaming at full speed for 24 continuous hours without suffering a breakdown .
Delaware served in the Atlantic Fleet throughout her career . During World War I , she sailed to Great Britain to reinforce the British Grand Fleet , in the 6th Battle Squadron . She saw no action during the war , however , as both the British and Germans had abandoned direct confrontation with each other . After the end of the war , she returned to her peacetime duties of fleet maneuvers , midshipmen cruises , and good @-@ will visits to foreign ports . Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , Delaware was retained until the new battleship USS Colorado was completed in 1924 , at which point she was broken up for scrap in accordance with the treaty .
= = Design = =
Delaware was 518 ft 9 in ( 158 m ) long overall and had a beam of 85 ft 3 in ( 26 m ) and a draft of 27 ft 3 in ( 8 m ) . She displaced 20 @,@ 380 long tons ( 20 @,@ 707 t ) as designed and up to 22 @,@ 400 long tons ( 22 @,@ 759 t ) at full combat load . Her bow had an early example of bulbous forefoot .
The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines rated at 25 @,@ 000 shp ( 18 @,@ 642 kW ) and fourteen coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 21 kn ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) . The ship had a cruising range of 6 @,@ 000 nmi ( 11 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . Also , because Delaware 's engine bearings were equipped with forced lubrication instead of a gravity @-@ fed system , she was the first American battleship capable of steaming at full speed for 24 hours without any need for engine repair . She had a crew of 933 officers and men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12 @-@ inch / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin Mark 7 gun turrets on the centerline , two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward . The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ one 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 6 guns mounted on Mark 9 and Mark 12 pedestal mounts in casemates along the side of the hull . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried a pair of 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . The main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , while the armored deck was 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick . The gun turrets had 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick faces and the conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick sides . At the time of her construction , Delaware was the largest and most powerful battleship then building in the world .
= = Service history = =
Delaware was built by Newport News Shipbuilding ; she was laid down on 11 November 1907 , and launched on 6 January 1909 . After completion of the fitting @-@ out work , the ship was commissioned into the US Navy on 4 April 1910 . On 3 October , she steamed to Wilmington , Delaware , where she received a set of silver service from her namesake state . The battleship then returned to Hampton Roads on the 9th , and remained there until she left to join the First Division , Atlantic Fleet , on 1 November . She and the rest of the division visited England and France , and then conducted maneuvers off Cuba in January 1911 . On 17 January , a boiler explosion aboard Delaware killed eight men and badly scalded another . On 31 January , the ship carried the remains of Anibal Cruz , the Chilean ambassador to the United States , back to Chile . She steamed by way of Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , around the tip of South America , to Punta Arenas , Chile . She returned to New York City on 5 May , and then left for Portsmouth on 4 June to participate in the coronation fleet review for King George V.
Throughout the next five years , Delaware participated in the normal peacetime routine of fleet and squadron maneuvers , gunnery drills , and torpedo practice in the Atlantic Fleet . During the summer months , she conducted training cruises for midshipmen from the Naval Academy . She was present in the Naval Review of 14 October 1912 , attended by President William Howard Taft and the Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer . In 1913 , she conducted a good @-@ will visit to Villefranche , France , along with the battleships Wyoming and Utah . She participated in the intervention in Mexico at Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution , to protect American citizens in the area .
= = = World War I = = =
Following the American entrance into World War I on 6 April 1917 , Delaware had recently returned to Hampton Roads from fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean Sea . There , she trained new armed guard crews and engine room personnel as the Atlantic Fleet prepared to go to war . On 25 November 1917 , she sailed with the rest of Battleship Division 9 , bound for Britain to reinforce the Grand Fleet in the North Sea . Once in Scapa Flow , the division joined the Grand Fleet as the 6th Battle Squadron . The 6th Battle Squadron was tasked with serving as the " fast wing " of the Grand Fleet . On 14 December , Delaware participated in joint Anglo @-@ American maneuvers to practice coordination of the Allied fleet .
Starting in late 1917 , the Germans had begun to use surface raiders to attack the British convoys to Scandinavia ; this forced the British to send squadrons from the Grand Fleet to escort the convoys . On 6 February 1918 , the 6th Battle Squadron and eight British destroyers escorted a convoy of merchant ships to Norway . While steaming off Stavanger on the 8th , Delaware was attacked twice by a German U @-@ boat , though evasive maneuvers allowed Delaware to escape undamaged . The squadron was back in Scapa Flow on 10 February ; Delaware escorted two more such convoys in March and April . On 22 – 24 April , the German High Seas Fleet sortied to intercept one of the convoys in the hope of cutting off and destroying the escorting battleship squadron . Delaware and the rest of the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow on 24 April in an attempt to intercept the Germans , but the High Seas Fleet had already broken off the operation and returned to port .
Starting on 30 June , the 6th Battle Squadron and a division of British destroyers covered a group of American minelayers as they laid the North Sea mine barrage ; the work lasted until 2 July . King George V inspected the Grand Fleet , including Delaware , at Rosyth . Thereafter , Delaware was relieved by the battleship Arkansas ; Delaware then sailed across the Atlantic , arriving in Hampton Roads on 12 August .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Delaware remained at York River until 12 November 1918 , the day after the Armistice with Germany was signed , effectively ending World War I. She then sailed to Boston Navy Yard for an overhaul . Delaware rejoined the fleet on 11 March 1919 for training maneuvers off Cuba . She returned to New York with her division on 14 April , where additional divisional , squadron , and fleet exercises were conducted . She was present for another Naval Review on 28 April 1921 in Hampton Roads . From 5 June to 31 August 1922 , Delaware conducted a training cruise for midshipmen to various ports in the Caribbean along with to Halifax , Nova Scotia . She went on another cruise to Europe from 9 July to 29 August 1923 , and visited Copenhagen , Greenock , Cádiz , and Gibraltar .
In the years immediately following the end of the war , the United States , Britain , and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs . All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill @-@ advised , and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations , which produced the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in February 1922 . Under the terms of Article II of the treaty , Delaware and her sister North Dakota were to be scrapped as soon as the new battleships Colorado and West Virginia , then under construction , were ready to join the fleet . On 30 August 1923 , Delaware accordingly entered dry dock in the Norfolk Navy Yard ; her crew was transferred to the recently commissioned Colorado , and the process of disposal began . Delaware was transferred to the Boston Navy Yard , decommissioned on 10 November , and disarmed . She was then sold on 5 February 1924 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= What More Can I Give =
" What More Can I Give " ( also " Todo Para Ti " in Spanish ) is a song written by American singer Michael Jackson and recorded by a supergroup of singers following the September 11 attacks . The inspiration for the song had initially come to Jackson after a meeting with the President of South Africa Nelson Mandela in the late 1990s . The song was to be premiered at a Jackson concert , but the singer failed to perform it . The song also failed to gain an official release , despite the pop singer having stated that it would be issued as a charity single for the refugees of the Kosovo War , which ended in 1999 .
Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 , Jackson rewrote " What More Can I Give " at the suggestion of Marc Schaffel . Schaffel , who produced and became the executive producer on the project , convinced Jackson to also do a Spanish version of the song as well , and handled the details of the production . Jackson and other artists recorded the new version of the song shortly afterward ; the other artists included Britney Spears , Reba McEntire , Anastacia , Nick Carter , Jennifer Lopez , 3LW , Beyoncé , NSYNC , Celine Dion , Christina Aguilera , Brian McKnight , Toni Braxton , Luther Vandross , Mariah Carey , Mary J. Blige and Usher . In addition , a Spanish language version of the song was recorded . Entitled " Todo Para Ti " , his lyrics were adapted into Spanish by the Panamanian musician Rubén Blades . Schaffel brought three @-@ time Grammy winner K. C. Porter on to the project to give the Spanish version a different sound from the English recording .
" What More Can I Give " was scheduled for release as a charity single in the hope that $ 50 million would be raised between downloads , sponsors , and donations to aid the survivors and the families of victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks . The plan , however , never came to fruition and the reasons why have varied between sources and the individuals involved . One newspaper stated that the release of the song was abandoned after part of a marketing ploy by Sony Music after Jackson started a public campaign against Sony and its USA music head .
" What More Can I Give " was played on the radio for the first time in late 2002 . The debut airing was made without permission by radio station WKTU @-@ FM in New York . The following year , on October 27 , 2003 , " What More Can I Give " was made available to the public by way of digital download for several days . Jackson had the song taken down on the eve of the raid on his Neverland Valley Ranch property by Santa Barbara Sheriffs . Proceeds from the short sale of the song went to children 's charities .
Schaffel enlisted friend and famed Brazilian artist Romero Britto to design , create , and paint an artwork to be used as the cover for the single . Britto created the " ribbon " piece in bright colors including yellow , blue and red . Britto created 250 of this piece as a special collector 's item and both Britto and Michael Jackson signed and numbered each of these pieces .
Michael Jackson recorded the song in both English and Spanish , and shot the video for Marc Schaffel . Even after his death it is believed to be the " last " actual completed song and video that Michael Jackson had done , and approved for release . It was also one of the only few tracks Michael Jackson ever performed in Spanish and is considered the last . Michael Jackson had told many people he felt that " What More Can I Give " was a definite contender for song of the year for both the English and Latin Grammys , and felt it would be a more successful as " We Are the World " . No official release date for either project has been given since the death of Jackson in June 2009 , by either Schaffel or Jackson 's estate .
= = Background and writing = =
Michael Jackson originally started writing the song , originally titled " Heal L.A. " , with Brad Buxer after the Rodney King verdict and following riots in 1992 . The song was worked on throughout the making of the HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I album and its subsequent world tour in 1996 to 1997 . In late 1997 , when work began on the Invincible album the song was put on hold , but its completion was always a passion of Michael 's . Jackson was inspired to finish " Heal L.A. " after a meeting with anti @-@ apartheid activist and President of South Africa Nelson Mandela in 1999 . The songwriter stated that during a conversation with the then @-@ President , the concept of giving was discussed by the pair . The singer revealed that it was during this interaction that the words " what more can I give " came into his mind and he began writing . With the first version of the song completed , Jackson intended to premiere it at his MJ & Friends concerts , staged in Munich , Germany and the South Korean capital Seoul in June 1999 . Ultimately , Jackson did not perform the song at the concerts and it remained unreleased .
" What More Can I Give " was also intended to be released as a charity single to aid the Kosovar refugees who had been forced out of their home during the Kosovo War ( 1998 – 1999 ) . Jackson revealed his intentions for the release in an interview with the British tabloid newspaper the Daily Mirror . The pop singer stated that television footage of the war upset him and that he wanted to go to Yugoslavia to hug every one of the suffering children . Like before , however , the song failed to gain a release as a single and was not considered good enough for inclusion on Jackson 's 2001 Invincible album .
In 2001 , two separate concerts were held on September 7 and September 10 in celebration of Michael Jackson 's thirtieth year as a solo entertainer ( his first solo single , " Got to Be There " , was released in 1971 ) . Held in New York City , the shows sold out within five hours of going on sale . The concerts featured performances by artists such as Usher , Whitney Houston , Mýa , Liza Minnelli , James Ingram , Gloria Estefan and Marc Anthony . They also contained solo performances by Jackson himself , and marked the onstage reunion of the pop singer and his brothers ( The Jacksons ) .
Hours following the second concert , the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City , the Pentagon outside of Washington , D.C. , and a crash near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , resulted in the loss of 2 @,@ 993 lives . Following the events of September 11 , Jackson rewrote " What More Can I Give " and expressed his views on the song , writing and music . " I 'm not one to sit back and say , ' Oh , I feel bad for what happened to them [ ... ] I want the whole world to sing [ " What More Can I Give " ] , to bring us together as a world , because a song is a mantra , something you repeat over and over . And we need peace , we need giving , we need love , we need unity . "
= = Recording = =
" What More Can I Give " was recorded in 2001 by a number of artists . The project had received an " overwhelming response from major artists all over the world " , with musicians such as Anastacia , Beyoncé , Nick Carter , Aaron Carter , NSYNC and Carlos Santana offering to lend their voices to the track . The recording process was held in Los Angeles , California and destinations reachable by Michael Jackson 's private plane and mobile production unit headed by Marc Schaffel , who traveled across the globe with a team to record the different artists . The all @-@ star benefit followed a similar Jackson @-@ effort , " We Are the World " , which raised millions of dollars for famine relief in Africa . The recording of " What More Can I Give " was completed in October 2001 .
In addition to the English @-@ language version of " What More Can I Give " , a Spanish version of the song was recorded . Entitled " Todo Para Ti " , the track features several of the musicians on the English version , as well as Latin artists such as Alejandro Sanz and Cristian Castro , who only appear on the Spanish @-@ language version . The title for " Todo Para Ti " translates to " Everything for You " in English . Producer and songwriter K. C. Porter had directly translated the title of " What More Can I Give " initially , but it was changed after Jackson expressed that he felt it was too clumsy .
= = = The All Stars = = =
= = Live performance = =
" What More Can I Give " was performed live at the 9 / 11 benefit concert United We Stand : What More Can I Give . Held at the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington , D.C. on October 21 , 2001 , the eight @-@ hour concert featured numerous artists performing to a sell @-@ out audience of 54 @,@ 000 people . Jackson performed his song " Man in the Mirror " , before he and other singers such as Rod Stewart , Al Green , James Brown , Sean Combs and Pink closed the show with " What More Can I Give . " Joe D 'Angelo of MTV later stated that the entire performance was held together by Jackson and Billy Gilman , who he claimed were the only two who looked like they knew the lyrics to the song . He concluded that the collective rendition of the song was altogether " choppy and disparate . " Jon Pareles also wrote negatively about the performance . He stated that it " became a shambles as [ a ] stageful of guests missed their cues or couldn 't be heard " .
Jackson 's appearance during the " What More Can I Give " performance was later edited out of American Broadcasting Company 's airing of the show . The company were forced to take the action after representatives of Jackson informed them that CBS had demanded that the singer not perform on a network show before a Jackson special being broadcast on their channel the following month . CBS executives , however , denied their insistence on Jackson 's removal from the footage . They stated that if the singer had appeared in the broadcast footage , they most probably would have been forced to delay Jackson 's show , so that it would not appear too soon after the airing of United We Stand : What More Can I Give .
= = Planned release as a physical single = =
" What More Can I Give " had been planned for release as a charity single to aid survivors and families of victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks . At the time of the attacks , Jackson stated that he hoped to raise $ 50 million for those affected . It was also proclaimed by Jackson 's spokesman that the recording would be released as soon as possible , with further reports revealing that it could be made available in music stores within that month .
After the song failed to gain an official release , differing allegations arose as to who was to blame . The Los Angeles Times reported that the " What More Can I Give " project was abandoned after it emerged that the song 's executive producer , Marc Schaffel , had directed and produced gay pornography . News of Schaffel 's background supposedly became known to an entertainment television show , whose staff threatened to expose the producer 's past in porn . Jackson 's legal and management team subsequently sought to end the musician 's business relationship with Schaffel , declaring their intentions in a letter sent to the producer 's lawyers in November 2001 .
= = Airplay = =
One year after the all @-@ star recording of " What More Can I Give " , it was played for the first time on radio . WKTU @-@ FM , a radio station based in New York , debuted the song without permission and played it in heavy rotation . WKTU @-@ FM 's Program Director Frankie Blue stated at the time , " This song is a gift to the world . Michael and everyone donated their time for it , and it deserves to be heard . The song is called " What More Can I Give " , and I can give the world a song they can cling onto and hopefully make them think about what they can give . " It is unknown how the station acquired a copy of the song ; both Jackson and Schaffel were uninvolved with it . Prior to the airing , at least 200 promo copies of the song were sent to the musicians who participated in the recording process , as well as to their representatives . Schaffel stated that he would hate to see the song not being used to raise money for charity , the intended purpose . WKTU @-@ FM received numerous telephone calls and emails from listeners following their unauthorized playing of the song , thanking the station and asking where they could buy a copy of " What More Can I Give " .
= = Release as a digital single = =
" What More Can I Give " was eventually made available as a digital download on October 27 , 2003 . The websites whatmorecanigive.com and musicforgiving.com sold the song at a price of $ 2 per download , with a portion of the proceeds from the fee going towards children 's charities such as Oneness , Mr. Holland 's Opus Foundation and the International Child Art Foundation . The charities support arts programs to eliminate racism , increase education and connect children throughout the world , respectively . The download project had been set up by Jackson with the American media company Clear Channel Communications .
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= Western jackdaw =
The western jackdaw ( Corvus monedula ) , also known as the Eurasian jackdaw , European jackdaw , or simply jackdaw , is a passerine bird in the crow family . Found across Europe , western Asia and North Africa , it is mostly resident , although northern and eastern populations migrate south in winter . Four subspecies are recognised , which mainly differ in the colouration of the plumage on the head and nape . Linnaeus first described it formally , giving it the name Corvus monedula . Later analysis of its DNA suggests that it , along with its closest relative , the Daurian jackdaw , is an early offshoot from the genus Corvus , and possibly distinct enough to warrant reclassification in a separate genus , Coloeus . The common name derives from the word " jack " , meaning " small " , and " daw " , the native English name for the bird .
Measuring 34 – 39 centimetres ( 13 – 15 in ) in length , the western jackdaw is a black @-@ plumaged bird with a grey nape and distinctive pale @-@ grey irises . It is gregarious and vocal , living in small groups with a complex social structure in farmland , open woodland , on coastal cliffs , and in urban settings . An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , it eats a wide variety of plant material and invertebrates , as well as food waste from urban areas . Western jackdaws are monogamous and build simple nests of sticks in cavities in trees , cliffs , or buildings . About five pale blue or blue @-@ green eggs with brown speckles are laid and incubated by the female . The young fledge in four to five weeks .
= = Systematics = =
= = = Etymology = = =
The western jackdaw was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae . Owing to its supposed fondness for picking up coins , Linnaeus gave it the binomial name Corvus monedula , choosing the specific name mǒnēdŭla , which is derived from moneta , the Latin stem of the word " money " . The genus Coloeus , from the Ancient Greek κολοιός ( koloios ) for jackdaw , was created by Peter Pallas in 1766 , though most subsequent works have retained the two jackdaw species in Corvus .
The original Old English word ċēo ( pronounced with initial ch ) gave modern English " chough " ; Chaucer sometimes used this word to refer to the western jackdaw , as did Shakespeare in Hamlet although there has been debate about which species he was referring to . This onomatopoeic name , based on the western jackdaw 's call , now refers to corvids of the genus Pyrrhocorax ; the red @-@ billed chough ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ) , formerly particularly common in Cornwall , became known initially as the " Cornish chough " and then just the " chough " , the name transferring from one species to the other .
The common name jackdaw first appeared in the 16th century , and is thought to be a compound of the forename Jack , used in animal names to signify a small form ( e.g. jack snipe ) , and the archaic native English word daw . Formerly , western jackdaws were simply called " daws " . The metallic chyak call may be the origin of the jack part of the common name , but this is not supported by the Oxford English Dictionary . Daw , first used for the bird in the 15th century , is held by the Oxford English Dictionary to be derived from the postulated Old English dawe , citing the cognates in Old High German tāha , Middle High German tāhe or tāchele , and modern German Dahle or Dohle , and dialectal Tach , Dähi , Däche and Dacha .
Names in English dialects are numerous . Scottish and north English dialects have included ka or kae since the 14th century . The Midlands form of this word was co or coo . Caddow is potentially a compound of ka and dow , a variant of daw . Other dialectal or obsolete names include caddesse , cawdaw , caddy , chauk , college @-@ bird , jackerdaw , jacko , ka @-@ wattie , chimney @-@ sweep bird ( from their nesting propensities ) , and sea @-@ crow ( from the frequency with which they are found on coasts ) . It was also frequently known quasi @-@ nominally as Jack .
An archaic collective noun for a group of jackdaws is a " clattering " . Another name for a flock is a " train " .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
A study in 2000 found that the genetic distance between jackdaws and the other members of Corvus was greater than that within the rest of the genus . This led Pamela Rasmussen to reinstate the genus name Coloeus in her Birds of South Asia ( 2005 ) , a treatment also used in a 1982 systematic list in German by Hans Edmund Wolters . A study of corvid phylogeny undertaken in 2007 compared DNA sequences in the mitochondrial control region of several corvids . It found that the western jackdaw , and the closely related Daurian jackdaw ( C. dauuricus ) of eastern Russia and China , were basal to the core Corvus clade . The names Coloeus monedula and Coloeus dauuricus have since been adopted by the International Ornithological Congress in their official list . The two species of jackdaw have been reported to hybridise in the Altai Mountains , southern Siberia , and Mongolia . Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of specimens of the two species from their core ranges show them to be genetically distinct .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are four recognised subspecies of the western jackdaw . All European subspecies intergrade where their populations meet . C. m. monedula intergrades into C. m. soemmerringii in a transition zone running from Finland south across the Baltic and eastern Poland to Romania and Croatia .
C. m. monedula ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) , the nominate subspecies , is found in eastern Europe . Its range extends across Scandinavia , from southern Finland south to Esbjerg and Haderslev in Denmark , through eastern Germany and Poland , and south across eastern central Europe to the Carpathian Mountains and north @-@ western Romania , Vojvodina in northern Serbia , and Slovenia . It breeds in south @-@ eastern Norway , southern Sweden , and northern and eastern Denmark , with occasional wintering in England and France . It has been recorded as a rare vagrant to Spain . It has a pale nape and sides of the neck , a dark throat , and a light grey partial collar of variable extent .
C. m. spermologus ( Vieillot , 1817 ) occurs in western and central Europe from the British Isles , Netherlands and the Rhineland in the north , through western Switzerland into Italy in the south @-@ east , and the Iberian peninsula and Morocco in the south . It winters in the canary Islands and Corsica . The name " spermologus " comes from the Greek σπερμολόγος , a picker up of seeds . It is darker in colour than the other subspecies and lacks the whitish border at the base of the grey nape .
C. m. soemmerringii ( Fischer , 1811 ) is found in north @-@ eastern Europe and north and central Asia , from the former Soviet Union to Lake Baikal and north @-@ west Mongolia , and south to Turkey , Israel and the eastern Himalayas . Its south @-@ western limits are Serbia and southern Romania . It winters in Iran and northern India ( Kashmir ) . Johann Fischer von Waldheim described this taxon as Corvus soemmerringii in 1811 , noting its differences from populations in western Europe . Its species name was given in honour of the German anatomist , Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring . It is distinguished by the nape and the sides of the neck being paler , creating a contrasting black crown and lighter grey part collar .
C. m. cirtensis ( Rothschild and Hartert , 1912 ) is found in Morocco and Algeria in north @-@ western Africa and was formerly found in Tunisia . The name " cirtensis " refers to the ancient city of Cirta in Numidia . The plumage is duller and more uniformly dark grey than the other subspecies , with the paler nape less distinct .
= = Description = =
Measuring 34 – 39 centimetres ( 13 – 15 in ) in length , the western jackdaw is the second smallest member of the genus Corvus . Most of the plumage is a shiny black , with a purple ( in subspecies monedula and spermologus ) or blue ( in subspecies cirtensis and soemmerringii ) sheen on the crown , forehead , and secondaries , and a green @-@ blue sheen on the throat , primaries , and tail . The cheeks , nape and neck are light grey to greyish @-@ silver , and the underparts are slate @-@ grey . The legs are black , as is the short stout bill , the length of which is about 75 % of the length of the rest of the head . There are rictal bristles covering around 40 % of the maxilla and 25 % of the lower mandible . The irises of adults are greyish or silvery white while those of juveniles are light blue , becoming brownish before whitening at around one year of age . The sexes look alike , though the head and neck plumage of male birds fades more with age and wear , particularly just before moulting . Western jackdaws undergo a complete moult from June to September in the western parts of their range , and a month later in the east . The purplish sheen of the cap is most prominent just after moulting .
Immature birds have duller and less demarcated plumage . The head is a sooty black , sometimes with a faint greenish sheen and brown feather bases visible ; the back and side of the neck are dark grey and the underparts greyish or sooty black . The tail has narrower feathers and a greenish sheen .
There is very little geographic variation in size . The main differences are the presence or absence of a whitish partial collar at the base of the nape , the variations in the shade of the nape and the tone of the underparts . Populations in central Asia have slightly larger wings and western populations have a slightly heavier bill . Body colour becomes darker further north , in mountain regions and humid climates , and paler elsewhere . However , individual variation , particularly in juveniles and also during the months before moulting , can often be greater than geographic differences .
A skilled flyer , the western jackdaw can manoeuvre tightly as well as tumble and glide . It has characteristic jerky wing beats when flying , though these are not evident when birds are migrating . Wind tunnel experiments show that the preferred gliding speed is between 6 and 11 metres ( 20 and 36 ft ) per second and that the wingspan decreases as the bird flies faster . On the ground , western jackdaws have an upright posture and strut briskly , their short legs giving them a rapid gait . They feed with their heads held down or horizontally .
Within its range , the western jackdaw is unmistakable ; its short bill and grey nape are distinguishing features . From a distance , it can be confused with a rook ( Corvus frugilegus ) , or when in flight , with a pigeon or chough . Flying western jackdaws are distinguishable from other corvids by their smaller size , faster and deeper wingbeats and proportionately narrower and less fingered wing tips . They also have shorter , thicker necks , much shorter bills and frequently fly in tighter flocks . They can be distinguished from choughs by their uniformly grey underwings and their black beaks and legs . The western jackdaw is very similar in morphology , behaviour , and calls to the Daurian jackdaw , with which its range overlaps in western Asia . Adults are readily distinguished , since the Daurian has a pied plumage , but immature birds are much more similar , both species having dark plumage and dark eyes . The Daurian tends to be darker , with a less contrasting nape than the Western .
= = = Voice = = =
Western jackdaws are voluble birds . The main call , frequently given in flight , is a metallic and squeaky chyak @-@ chyak or kak @-@ kak . This is a contact or greeting call . A feeding call made by adults to call young , or males when offering food to their mates , has been transcribed as kiaw or kyow . Females in return give a more drawn out version when begging for food from males , written as kyaay , tchaayk or giaaaa . Perched birds often chatter together , and before settling for the night , large roosting flocks make a cackling noise . Western jackdaws also have a hoarse , drawn @-@ out alarm call , arrrrr or kaaaarr , used when warning of predators or when mobbing them . Nestlings begin making a soft cheep at about a week of age . As they grow , their voice becomes louder until their call is a penetrating screech around day 18 . After this , the voice deepens and softens . From day 25 , the young cease calling and become silent if they hear an unfamiliar noise . The European jackdaw can be trained to speak , and whilst it can copy the human voice well , it is usually limited to just a few words or phrases .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The western jackdaw is found from north @-@ west Africa through all of Europe , except for the extreme north , and eastwards through central Asia to the eastern Himalayas and Lake Baikal . To the east , it occurs throughout Turkey , the Caucasus , Iran , Iraq , Afghanistan , Pakistan , and north @-@ west India . However , it is regionally extinct in Malta and Tunisia . The range is vast , with an estimated global extent of between 1 million and 10 million square kilometres ( 4 hundred thousand to 4 million square miles ) . It has a large global population , with an estimated 15 @.@ 6 to 45 million individuals in Europe alone . Censuses of bird populations in marginal uplands in Britain show that western jackdaws greatly increased in numbers between the 1970s and 2010 , although this increase may be related to recovery from previous periods when they were regarded as pests . The UK population was estimated at 2 @.@ 5 million individuals in 1998 , up from 780 @,@ 000 in 1970 .
Most populations are resident , but the northern and eastern populations are more migratory , relocating to wintering areas between September and November and returning between February and early May . Their range expands northwards into Russia to Siberia during summer , and retracts in winter . They are vagrants to the Faroe Islands , particularly in the winter and spring , and occasionally to Iceland . Elsewhere , western jackdaws congregate over winter in the Ural Valley in north @-@ western Kazakhstan , the north Caspian , and the Tian Shan region of western China . They are winter visitors to the Quetta Valley in western Pakistan , and are winter vagrants to Lebanon , where they were first recorded in 1962 . In Syria , they are winter vagrants and rare residents with some confirmed breeding taking place . The soemmerringii subspecies occurs in south @-@ central Siberia and extreme north @-@ west China and is accidental to Hokkaido , Japan . A small number of western jackdaws reached the north @-@ east of North America in the 1980s and have been found from Atlantic Canada to Pennsylvania . They have also occurred as vagrants in Gibraltar , Mauritania , and Saint Pierre and Miquelon , and one is reported to have been seen in Egypt .
Western jackdaws inhabit wooded steppes , pastures , cultivated land , coastal cliffs , and towns . They thrive when forested areas are cleared and converted to fields and open areas . Habitats with a mix of large trees , buildings , and open ground are preferred ; open fields are left to the rook , and more wooded areas to the Eurasian jay ( Garrulus glandarius ) . Along with other corvids such as the rook , common raven ( Corvus corax ) , and hooded crow ( C. cornix ) , some western jackdaws spend the winter in urban parks ; populations measured in three urban parks in Warsaw show increases from October to December , possibly due to western jackdaws migrating there from areas further north . The same data from Warsaw , collected from 1977 to 2003 , showed that the wintering western jackdaw population had increased four @-@ fold . The cause of the increase is unknown , but a reduction in the number of rooks may have benefited the species locally , or rooks overwintering in Belarus may have caused western jackdaws to relocate to Warsaw .
= = Behaviour = =
Generally wary of people in the forest or countryside , western jackdaws are much tamer in urban areas . Like magpies , they are known to show interest in shiny objects such as jewellery . John Gay , in his Beggar 's Opera , notes that " A covetous fellow , like a jackdaw , steals what he was never made to enjoy , for the sake of hiding it " . In Tobias Smollett 's The Expedition of Humphry Clinker , a scathing character assassination runs , " He is ungracious as a hog , greedy as a vulture , and thievish as a jackdaw . "
Highly gregarious , western jackdaws are generally seen in flocks of varying sizes , though males and females pair @-@ bond for life and pairs stay together within flocks . Flocks increase in size in autumn and birds congregate at dusk for communal roosting , with up to several thousand individuals gathering at one site . At Uppsala , Sweden , 40 @,@ 000 birds have been recorded at a single winter roost with mated pairs often settling together for the night . Western jackdaws frequently congregate with hooded crows or rooks , the latter particularly when migrating or roosting . They have been recorded foraging with the common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , Northern lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) , and common gull ( Larus canus ) in northwestern England . Flocks are targets of coordinated hunting by pairs of lanner falcons ( Falco biarmicus ) , although larger groups are more able to elude the predators . Western jackdaws sometimes mob and drive off larger birds such as European magpies , common ravens , or Egyptian vultures ( Neophron percnopterus ) ; one gives an alarm call which alerts its conspecifics to gather and attack as a group . Occasionally , a sick or injured western jackdaw is mobbed until it is killed .
In his book King Solomon 's Ring , Konrad Lorenz described and analysed the complex social interactions in a western jackdaw flock that lived around his house in Altenberg , Austria . He ringed them for identification and caged them in the winter to prevent their annual migration . He found that the birds have a linear hierarchical group structure , with higher @-@ ranked individuals dominating lower @-@ ranked birds , and pair @-@ bonded birds sharing the same rank . Young males establish their individual status before pairing with females . Upon pairing , the female assumes the same social position as her partner . Unmated females are the lowest members in the pecking order , and are the last to have access to food and shelter . Lorenz noted one case in which a male , absent during the dominance struggles and pair bondings , returned to the flock , became the dominant male , and chose one of two unpaired females for a mate . This female immediately assumed a dominant position in the social hierarchy and demonstrated this by pecking others . According to Lorenz , the most significant factor in social behaviour was the immediate and intuitive grasp of the new hierarchy by each of the western jackdaws in the flock .
= = = Social displays = = =
Social hierarchy in western jackdaw flocks is determined by supplanting , fighting , and threat displays — several of which have been described . In the bill @-@ up posture , the western jackdaw tilts its bill and head upwards and sleeks its plumage . Indicating both appeasement and assertiveness , the posture is used by birds intending to enter feeding flocks . A bill @-@ down posture is another commonly used agonistic behaviour . In this display , a bird lowers its bill and erects its nape and head feathers , and sometimes slightly lifts its wings . Western jackdaws often face off in this posture until one backs down or a fight ensues . In the forward @-@ threat posture , a bird holds its body horizontally and thrusts its head forwards . In intense versions , the bird ruffles its feathers and spreads or raises its tail and wings . This extreme is seen when facing off over nests or females . In the defensive @-@ threat posture , the bird lowers its head and bill , spreads its tail and ruffles its feathers . Supplanting is where one bird moves in and displaces another from a perch @-@ site . The second bird usually retreats without resorting to a fight . Western jackdaws fight by launching themselves at each other feet @-@ first and then wrestling with their feet intertwined and pecking at each other . Other individuals gather and call noisily .
Western jackdaws entreat their partners to preen them by showing their nape and ruffling their head feathers . Birds mainly preen each other 's head and neck . Known as allopreening , this behaviour is almost always done between birds of a mated pair .
= = = Feeding = = =
Foraging takes place mostly on the ground in open areas and to some extent in trees . Landfill sites , bins , streets , and gardens are also visited , more often early in the morning when there are fewer people about . Various feeding methods are employed , such as jumping , pecking , clod @-@ turning and scattering , probing the soil , and occasionally , digging . Flies around cow pats are caught by jumping from the ground or at times by dropping vertically from a few metres onto the cow pat . Earthworms are not usually extracted from the ground by western jackdaws but are eaten from freshly ploughed soil . Jackdaws will ride on the backs of sheep and other mammals , seeking ticks as well as actively gathering wool or hair for nests , and will catch flying ants in flight . Compared with other corvids , the western jackdaw spends more time exploring and turning over objects with its bill ; it also has a straighter and less downturned bill and increased binocular vision which are advantageous for this foraging strategy .
The western jackdaw tends to feed on small invertebrates up to 18 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) in length that are found above ground , including various species of beetle ( particularly cockchafers of the genus Melolontha , and weevil larvae and pupae . ) , Diptera , and Lepidoptera species , as well as snails and spiders . Also eaten are small rodents , bats , the eggs and chicks of birds , and carrion such as roadkill . Vegetable items consumed include farm grains ( barley , wheat and oats ) , weed seeds , elderberries , acorns , and various cultivated fruits . Examination of the gizzards of western jackdaws shot in Cyprus in spring and summer revealed a diet of cereals ( predominantly wheat ) and insects ( notably cicadas and beetles ) . The diet averages 84 % plant material except when breeding , when the main food source is insects . A study in southern Spain examining western jackdaw pellets found that they contained significant amounts of silicaceous and calcareous grit to aid digestion of vegetable food and supply dietary calcium .
Opportunistic and highly adaptable , the western jackdaw varies its diet markedly depending on available food sources . They have been recorded taking eggs and nestlings from the nests of the skylark ( Alauda arvensis ) , Manx shearwater ( Puffinus puffinus ) , razorbill ( Alca torda ) , common murre ( Uria aalge ) , grey heron ( Ardea cinerea ) , rock pigeon ( Columba livia ) , and Eurasian collared dove ( Streptopelia decaocto ) . A field study of a large city dump on the outskirts of León in northwestern Spain showed that western jackdaws forage there in the early morning and at dusk , and engage in some degree of kleptoparasitism . The saker falcon ( Falco cherrug ) has been reported stealing food from western jackdaws on powerlines in Vojvodina in Serbia .
Western jackdaws practice active food sharing – where the initiative for the transfer lies with the donor – with a number of individuals , regardless of sex or kinship . They also share more of a preferred food than a less preferred food . The active giving of food by most birds is found mainly in the context of parental care and courtship . Western jackdaws show much higher levels of active giving than has been documented for other species , including chimpanzees . The function of this behaviour is not fully understood , though it has been found to be detached from nutrition and compatible with hypotheses of mutualism , reciprocity and harassment avoidance . It has also been proposed that food sharing may be motivated by prestige enhancement .
= = = Breeding = = =
Western jackdaws become sexually mature in their second year . Genetic analysis of pairs and offspring shows no evidence of extra @-@ pair copulation and there is little evidence for couple separation even after multiple instances of reproductive failure . Some pairs do separate in the first few months , but almost all pairings of over six months ' duration are lifelong , ending only when a partner dies . Widowed or separated birds fare badly , often being ousted from nests or territories and unable to rear broods alone .
Western jackdaws usually breed in colonies with pairs collaborating to find a nest site , which they then defend from other pairs and predators during most of the year . They nest in cavities in trees or cliffs , in ruined or occupied buildings and in chimneys , the common feature being a sheltered site for the nest . The availability of suitable sites influences their presence in a locale . They may also use church steeples for nesting , a fact reported in verse by 18th century English poet William Cowper :
A great frequenter of the church , Where , bishoplike , he finds a perch , And dormitory too .
A mated pair usually constructs a nest by improving a crevice by dropping sticks into it ; it is then built on top of the platform formed . This behaviour has led to the blocking of chimneys and even resulted in nests crashing down into fireplaces , sometimes with birds still on them . Nest platforms can attain a great size . John Mason Neale notes that a " Clerk was allowed by the Churchwarden to have for his own use all that the caddows had brought into the Tower : and he took home , at one time , two cart @-@ loads of good firewood , besides a great quantity of rubbish which he threw away . " In his The Natural History of Selborne , Gilbert White notes that western jackdaws used to nest in crevices beneath the lintels of Stonehenge , and describes an example of the bird using a rabbit burrow for nesting . The species has been recorded outcompeting the tawny owl ( Strix aluco ) for nest sites in the Netherlands . They can take over old nest sites of the black woodpecker ( Dryocopus martius ) and stock dove ( Columba oenas ) . Breeding colonies may also edge out those of the red @-@ billed chough , but in turn be ousted by larger corvids such as the carrion crow , rook or magpie .
Nests are lined with hair , wool , dead grass and many other materials . The eggs are a lighter colour than those of other corvids , being smooth , a glossy pale blue or blue @-@ green with darker speckles ranging from dark brown to olive or grey @-@ violet . Egg size and weight varies slightly between subspecies ; those of subspecies monedula average 35 @.@ 0 by 24 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 38 in × 0 @.@ 97 in ) and 11 @.@ 1 g ( 0 @.@ 39 oz ) in weight , those of subspecies soemmerringii 34 @.@ 8 by 25 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 37 in × 0 @.@ 98 in ) in size and 11 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 40 oz ) in weight , and those of subspecies spermologus 35 @.@ 0 by 25 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 38 in × 0 @.@ 99 in ) in size and 11 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 41 oz ) in weight . Clutches usually contain 4 or 5 eggs , although a Slovakian study found clutch sizes ranging from 2 to 9 eggs . The eggs are incubated by the female for 17 – 18 days until hatching as naked altricial chicks , which are completely dependent on the adults for food . They fledge after 28 – 35 days , and the parents continue to feed them for another four weeks or so .
Western jackdaws hatch asynchronously and incubation begins before clutch completion , which often leads to the death of the last @-@ hatched young . If the supply of food is low , parental investment in the brood is kept to a minimum as little energy is wasted on feeding a chick that is unlikely to survive . Replacement clutches are very rarely laid in the event of clutch failure .
The great spotted cuckoo ( Clamator glandarius ) has been recorded as a brood parasite of the western jackdaw , depositing its eggs in their nests in Spain and Israel . Nest robbers include the common raven in Spain , tawny owl , and least weasel ( Mustela nivalis ) in England , and brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) in Finland . The European pine marten ( Martes martes ) raids isolated nests in Sweden but is less successful when nests are part of a colony .
= = Parasites and diseases = =
Western jackdaws have learned to peck open the foil caps of milk bottles left on the doorsteps after delivery by the milkman . The bacterium Campylobacter jejuni has been isolated from their beaks and cloacae so milk can become contaminated as they drink . This activity was linked to cases of Campylobacter gastroenteritis in Gateshead in northeast England and led the Department of Health to suggest that milk from bottles which had been pecked open should be discarded . It was recommended that steps be taken to prevent birds attacking bottles in future .
An outbreak of a gastrointestinal illness in Spain which was causing mortalities in humans has been linked to western jackdaws . During a post @-@ mortem on an affected bird , a polyomavirus was isolated from the spleen . The illness appeared to be a co @-@ infection of this with Salmonella and the virus has been provisionally named the crow polyomavirus ( CPyV ) . Segmented filamentous bacteria have been isolated from the small intestine of a western jackdaw , although their pathogenicity or role is unknown .
= = Pest control = =
The western jackdaw has been hunted as vermin , though not as heavily culled as other species of corvid . After a series of poor harvests in the early 1500s , Henry VIII introduced a Vermin Act in 1532 " ordeyned to dystroye Choughes ( i.e. jackdaws ) , Crowes and Rokes " to protect grain crops from their predations . Western jackdaws were notorious as they also favoured fruit , especially cherries . This act was taken up in a piecemeal fashion , but Elizabeth I passed the Act for the Preservation of Grayne in 1566 that was taken up with more vigour . The species was hunted for its threat to grain crops and for propensity for nesting in belfries until the mid @-@ 20th century . Particularly large numbers were culled in the county of Norfolk . Western jackdaws were also culled on game estates as they raid nests of other birds for eggs . In a 2003 dissertation on public opinion of corvids , Antonia Hereth notes that the German naturalist Alfred Brehm considered the western jackdaw to be a lovable bird , and did not describe any negative impacts of this species on agriculture .
The western jackdaw is one of a very small number of birds that it is legal to use as a decoy or to trap in a cage in the United Kingdom . The other pest species that can be controlled by trapping are the crow , jay , magpie and rook . An authorised person must comply with the requirements of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and does not need to show that the birds were a nuisance before trapping them . As of 2003 the western jackdaw was listed as a potential species for targeted hunting in the European Union Birds Directive , and hunting has been encouraged by German hunting associations . Permission to shoot western jackdaws in spring and summer exists in Cyprus as they are thought ( incorrectly ) to prey on gamebirds .
= = Cultural depictions and folklore = =
An ancient Greek and Roman adage runs " The swans will sing when the jackdaws are silent " , meaning that educated or wise people will speak only after the foolish have become quiet . In Ancient Greek folklore , a jackdaw can be caught with a dish of oil . A narcissistic creature , it falls in while looking at its own reflection . The mythical Princess Arne Sithonis was bribed with gold by King Minos of Crete , and was punished by the gods for her greed by being transformed into an equally avaricious jackdaw , who still seeks shiny things . The Roman poet Ovid described jackdaws as harbingers of rain in his poetic work Amores . Pliny notes how the Thessalians , Illyrians , and Lemnians cherished jackdaws for destroying grasshoppers ' eggs . The Veneti are fabled to have bribed the jackdaws to spare their crops .
In some cultures , a jackdaw on the roof is said to predict a new arrival ; alternatively , a jackdaw settling on the roof of a house or flying down a chimney is an omen of death , and coming across one is considered a bad omen . A jackdaw standing on the vanes of a cathedral tower is said to foretell rain . The 12th century historian William of Malmesbury records the story of a woman who , upon hearing a jackdaw chattering " more loudly than usual , " grew pale and became fearful of suffering a " dreadful calamity " , and that " while yet speaking , the messenger of her misfortunes arrived " . Czech superstition formerly held that if jackdaws are seen quarreling , war will follow , and that jackdaws will not build nests at Sázava after being banished by Saint Procopius .
The jackdaw was considered sacred in Welsh folklore as it nested in church steeples – it was shunned by the Devil because of its choice of residence . Nineteenth century belief in the Fens held that seeing a jackdaw on the way to a wedding was a good omen for a bride .
The jackdaw is featured on the Ukrainian town of Halych 's ancient coat of arms , the town 's name allegedly being derived from the East Slavic word for the bird . In The Book of Laughter and Forgetting ( 1979 ) , Milan Kundera notes that Franz Kafka 's father Hermann had a sign in front of his shop with a jackdaw painted next to his name , since " kavka " means jackdaw in Czech .
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= Claire Taylor =
Samantha Claire Taylor MBE ( born 25 September 1975 ) is a former cricketer who represented England more than 150 times between 1998 and 2011 . A top order batsman , Taylor was the first woman to be named a Wisden Cricketer of the Year . Along with Charlotte Edwards , she was the mainstay of England 's batting during the first decade of the 21st century , and played a key role in the team 's two world titles in 2009 .
Taylor did not play cricket until the age of 13 , but four years later made her county debut . Initially considered a wicket @-@ keeper with limited batting ability , Taylor struggled to break into the England team . She made her international debut in 1998 , and within two years was a regular in the team . After an unsuccessful World Cup in 2000 , Taylor left her job to become a full @-@ time cricketer . Over the subsequent five years , she developed into one of the leading batsmen in women 's cricket , but after another failure in the 2005 World Cup she resumed her career alongside cricket .
Despite her struggles at the World Cup , Taylor continued to improve as a batsman , and in 2006 , she scored 156 not out , the highest individual total in an ODI at Lord 's Cricket Ground . Her batting successes resulted in her being short @-@ listed for the ICC Women 's Cricketer of the Year in 2007 and 2008 , and she won the award in 2009 . After being the leading run @-@ scorer in the 2009 World Cup , and player of the tournament in the World Twenty20 later that year , she was less consistent from 2010 , though she performed well in the pair of quadrangular tournaments played in England during her final summer of cricket , and completed her career with batting averages in excess of 40 in both Test and ODI cricket .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Samantha Claire Taylor was born in Amersham , Buckinghamshire on 25 September 1975 , as part of a sporting family : her father played rugby , and her mother played hockey . She attended Dolphin School in Hurst , Berkshire , where she initially played softball , participating as the only girl in the school team . Taylor did not play cricket until a summer camp at the age of 13 , but thereafter improved to such a level that she captained the Dolphin School cricket team , playing alongside the boys . She subsequently moved to The Abbey School , Reading for a short time , and finally Kendrick School . Although she primarily played hockey as a teenager , at which she represented England at Under @-@ 17 and Under @-@ 19 as a forward , she began playing women 's county cricket for Thames Valley , making her debut for the side in May 1993 .
Taylor was awarded a place at The Queen 's College , Oxford to study Mathematics in 1994 . At Oxford , Taylor earned three blues for hockey , and three half blues for cricket . She also played for the college men 's cricket team , which included Iain Sutcliffe , who later played over three hundred county cricket matches . During her time at Oxford , Taylor continued to play for Thames Valley , and scored her maiden century in the women 's County Championship , scoring 109 runs against Lancashire and Cheshire in July 1996 . Her highest score prior to that innings had been 37 . The following year , having graduated from Oxford with a second @-@ class honours degree , Taylor scored successive half @-@ centuries for Thames Valley , reaching 97 against Sussex , 77 against Lancashire and Cheshire , and an unbeaten 62 against East Midlands . She had been making intermittent appearances for England at various age group levels for the previous five years , and in September 1997 , she scored 85 for England Under @-@ 21s against the touring South African side . Even so , she was not included in the team for the 1997 Women 's Cricket World Cup , but she was named as a non @-@ travelling reserve , something that Taylor said " confirmed to me my breakthrough into the senior squad . "
= = = International breakthrough = = =
In April 1998 , Taylor travelled to South Africa as part of the England Under @-@ 21 squad that competed in the women 's Inter @-@ Provincial Tournament , scoring two half @-@ centuries in the competition . Her full international debut occurred later that year , during the fourth One Day International ( ODI ) between England and Australia . Playing as a specialist batsman , Taylor scored one run during a heavy defeat for England . Taylor finished the 1998 women 's County Championship with two strong batting performances : she struck her second century , scoring 103 runs against West , followed by 65 runs against Surrey . Towards the end of the English season , she kept wicket for England in a match against England Under @-@ 21s , scoring an unbeaten 45 runs . She retained her place in the England squad for the series against the touring Indian team in 1999 . England struggled in the series , and Taylor was one of a number of inexperienced players in the squad who " failed to seize their chance " , according to the Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack report . Taylor 's highest score in the series was 12 runs , and she had batting averages of 11 @.@ 00 in the ODIs , and 5 @.@ 50 in the solitary Test match .
During the subsequent English winter of 1999 – 2000 , Taylor was part of the touring party that travelled to Australia and New Zealand for nine ODIs . The tour was a failure for the team : they lost all nine international matches , and their only win was a warm @-@ up match against Wellington , in which Taylor scored 83 runs . She secured another half @-@ century in the second ODI against New Zealand , scoring 56 runs after opening the innings . In a series in which England 's batting was described as dismal , her half @-@ century was one of only two in ODIs during the tour , and Wisden reported that giving Taylor an " overdue opportunity " was one saving grace of the trip . She struggled for runs in the series against the touring South Africans in 2000 , aggregating 68 runs from five innings , as once again the English batting – particularly the top order – was criticised . After the conclusion of the series , Taylor struck a century in a county match , scoring 115 runs for Berkshire against Surrey .
England 's " slide down the international ladder " continued during the 2000 Women 's Cricket World Cup , according to Wisden . The batting was once more culpable , but Taylor provided some relief . She scored 267 runs in the tournament at an average of 66 @.@ 75 , ranking her among the top ten batsmen . She struck her first century in international cricket ; scoring 137 not out against Sri Lanka . In doing so , she shared a partnership of 188 runs with Jane Cassar , which as of 2012 , is a record for the fifth wicket in women 's ODIs . England failed to qualify from the group stage of the competition .
= = = Full @-@ time cricketer = = =
After the 2000 World Cup , Taylor wanted to focus on her desire to become one of the best batsmen in the world . In order to achieve this , she decided to become a full @-@ time cricketer . After university , she had joined Procter & Gamble , and by 2001 she was earning £ 38 @,@ 000 as an IT assistant manager at the company . In contrast , her income from cricket totalled £ 7 @,@ 000 , and in order to afford to quit her IT job , she had to move back in with her parents . England 's next series was against the World Cup runners @-@ up , Australia , who toured in June and July 2001 . England 's batting remained unreliable , and Australia won all five matches between the sides : two Test matches and three ODIs . Taylor was praised as the only highlight of the English batting ; her innings of 50 not out was the highest score by her side in any of the ODIs . In the second Test , she significantly improved on her previous best Test score of 18 runs , batting for over four hours in a gritty performance to reach 137 runs . Taylor missed the tour of India in January 2002 after injuring her knee in a training session , but returned the following summer with a string of good performances in the Super Fours — a competition in which the England selectors place the 48 leading players into four teams — trailing only her England team mate Charlotte Edwards as the leading run @-@ scorer . In the four ODIs that season , against New Zealand and India , Taylor failed to make an impact , scoring just 43 runs in total .
Ahead of a tour by the England women to New Zealand and Australia , Taylor competed in the State League , a one @-@ day competition in New Zealand , for the Canterbury Magicians . She finished the tournament in the top @-@ five batsmen , scoring 252 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 00 . Unfortunately for England , her good form did not continue into the international matches : in her seven ODI matches , she scored 87 runs . She continued to struggle at the start of the 2003 English domestic season , prompting Wisden to report that she " had barely scraped a run " in the County Championship matches . Despite her struggles , she survived an overhaul of the England squad , in which seven of the players who had toured Australia and New Zealand had been dropped . She repaid the faith shown in her , striking centuries in both Test matches against South Africa . The first , a score of 177 runs , was the highest total she made in Test cricket , and was scored over six and a half hours , and was just twelve runs short of the highest by any England woman . Two weeks later , she became one of only five women , as of 2012 , to have scored centuries in consecutive Test matches , when she scored 131 runs at Taunton . Her performances in the ODI series were less eye @-@ catching , but a half @-@ century in the first match helped her finish second to Laura Newton as England 's leading run @-@ scorer .
Taylor competed in the State League for the second consecutive year in early 2004 , and finished with the second @-@ most runs in the competition , scoring 401 runs at an average of 44 @.@ 55 . From New Zealand , she travelled to South Africa to join up with the England team for five ODIs . After scoring 90 runs in a warm @-@ up contest against an Invitational XI , she finished as England 's second most prolific run @-@ scorer behind Edwards , though she only once reached a half @-@ century in the international matches . Back in England for the 2004 Super Fours competition , Taylor and Edwards once more headed the batting tables , Taylor narrowly trailing her international team mate in terms of runs scored , but ahead of her on batting average , having scored 351 runs at 87 @.@ 75 . In the subsequent series against New Zealand , Taylor was the top @-@ scorer in the first Twenty20 International match played by either gender . Despite the quicker @-@ scoring nature of the Twenty20 game , Taylor was praised for her measured batting and placement . In the ODIs , England possessed greater depth in their batting , making the team less reliant on Taylor and Edwards ' performances . That depth helped them to win the series 3 – 2 , despite a low @-@ scoring sequence of matches for Taylor in which she averaged below twenty .
In preparation for the 2005 Women 's Cricket World Cup in South Africa , Taylor played her third and final season in the State League , though her 229 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 16 were the lowest she achieved in any year of the competition . During a short warm @-@ up series against South Africa , she enjoyed batting success , scoring 94 and 47 in the two ODIs , and then an unbeaten 166 runs against a side from Gauteng and North West . After the first round of matches were all lost to rain , Taylor struck the highest score of the tournament in England 's second match , against Sri Lanka . She scored 136 runs from 128 balls , and shared century partnerships with both Edwards and Clare Connor to help England record a large victory . She made little impact against India in the next match , but then scored 55 not out against South Africa and 46 against New Zealand to help ensure England 's qualification for the semi @-@ finals . Cricinfo reported that Australia were " undoubted favourites " for their semi @-@ final clash with England , and that Taylor would be one of her side 's key players for the contest . After the early loss of Laura Newton , Taylor was dismissed for the third duck of her ODI career , and England subsided to a five @-@ wicket loss . She finished the tournament as one of the top @-@ three batsmen by both runs @-@ scored and average , aggregating 265 runs at 53 @.@ 00 .
= = = Further development = = =
After the World Cup , Taylor was disheartened by both her own , and England 's , lack of success . She bemoaned that the sacrifices she had made had come to nothing , and after talking to psychologists , she realised that she needed to readdress her work – life balance . An amateur violinist , she was accepted into the Reading Orchestra , and by early 2006 was working out of the University of Reading as a performance management consultant .
In the English summer of 2005 , England hosted Australia for two Test matches and six limited @-@ overs contests . The two Tests formed The Women 's Ashes , an accolade that England had not won since 1963 . In the first Test , Taylor scored a patient 35 runs in the first innings , and shared a partnership of 81 with Edwards , but the pair fell in quick succession , and England struggled thereafter . In the second innings , England required over 300 runs to win , but their top @-@ order collapsed , losing three wickets for just fourteen runs . Taylor suffered a duck in the match , and only a century by Arran Brindle rescued a draw for her side . In the second Test , which England won to secure the Ashes , Taylor scored 43 runs in the first innings to help England open up a 158 @-@ run lead . Taylor finished the five @-@ match ODI series as England 's leading run @-@ scorer , totalling 325 runs at an average of 65 @.@ 00 . After hitting half @-@ centuries in the first and the third matches , she was praised by The Daily Telegraph for the quality of her " on @-@ driving and cutting " as she scored 116 runs in the fourth match to level the series 2 – 2 .
Taylor , and England , had a difficult tour of Sri Lanka and India in late 2005 ; after winning the two ODIs against Sri Lanka , England drew the only Test against India and lost the ODI series 4 – 1 . Taylor only scored 76 runs in the seven ODI matches , and made scores of five and three in the Test . She re @-@ found her batting form at the start of the 2006 English cricket season , topping the batting averages in the 2006 Super Fours competition , scoring two centuries and two half @-@ centuries in six matches for the Sapphires .
Facing the touring Indians later that summer , Taylor made small totals in her first two appearances at the crease , scoring 10 in the only Twenty20 match , and 32 in the first innings of their solitary Test . She reached her fourth and final century in a Test match in the second innings , scoring 115 runs to put England into a potentially match winning position , though the match finished as a draw . The first game of the ODI series featured what the Marylebone Cricket Club describe as " Taylor 's finest hour in an England shirt " . Batting at number three , Taylor was called upon early , after opening batsman Edwards was run out in the third over . She was dropped twice in quick succession during her innings , but continued to reach her century from 110 balls . Having reached the milestone , she scored more rapidly and remained 156 not out at the end of the innings , hitting 9 fours in her 151 @-@ ball innings . The score was the highest of Taylor 's ODI career , and is the joint fourth @-@ highest total in women 's ODI cricket . It is also the highest score made in an ODI match at Lord 's by either gender , passing the 138 runs scored by Viv Richards in 1979 .
In the Women 's Quadrangular Series hosted by India in early 2007 , Taylor was England 's best performer with the bat . Despite her side losing all six of their group matches , she finished the tournament with the second @-@ most runs of any player , totalling 346 . She scored half @-@ centuries against each of the other three teams competing — Australia , India and New Zealand — and also scored an unbeaten 113 in the first match against Australia . She had a relatively quiet domestic season in 2007 , ranking sixth amongst run @-@ scorers in the Super Fours , having passed 50 runs just once , and despite ranking second by both runs scored and batting average in the County Championship , Taylor only scored two half @-@ centuries in her five appearances in that competition . England started the summer with four Twenty20 matches , one against South Africa and three against New Zealand , in which Taylor made three scores of 20 or more , but did not reach a half @-@ century . In the third ODI against New Zealand , she scored her sixth century in the format , but her 110 runs came from 133 deliveries , and the Wisden series report suggests that the scoring rate was too slow : New Zealand chased down the total in fewer than 36 overs . In the next match , Taylor scored 72 as England attempted to chase down 240 runs to win , but they were eventually bowled out 43 runs short . Though she only made small totals in the other three matches of the series , Taylor finished as the leading run @-@ scorer in the series , though New Zealand 's Aimee Watkins had a superior batting average . Her performances over the year from August 2006 resulted in Taylor being shortlisted for the ICC Women 's Cricketer of the Year award , alongside Australia 's Lisa Sthalekar and the eventual winner , India 's Jhulan Goswami . During the voting period , Taylor scored three centuries and three half @-@ centuries in international cricket .
= = = Leading batsman = = =
England travelled to Australia and New Zealand in early 2008 attempting to improve on their previous visits . In ten ODI matches in Australia against their hosts previously , England had only managed one win , while against New Zealand they had won just three of fifteen contests . England started badly , losing two of their warm @-@ up matches by significant margins , and then falling 21 runs short in the Twenty20 match which opened the series . Taylor top @-@ scored for England in their Twenty20 defeat with 34 runs from 32 balls . She made a similar score in the first ODI match against the hosts , but in the second match both Taylor and Edwards were out for ducks in a heavy defeat for England . After the third match of the series was abandoned without any play , Taylor scored her first half @-@ century of the tour , and shared a century partnership with Edwards to help England secure a 2 – 1 lead in the series , guaranteeing that they would at least draw the five @-@ match contest . After Australia won the last ODI to tie the series , the two sides met at the Bradman Oval to play the only Test of the tour . Taylor and Edwards again enjoyed a successful partnership in England 's first innings ; Taylor scored 79 runs as the pair put on 159 together . She scored an unbeaten half @-@ century in the second innings to help England to retain the Ashes .
Taylor carried her good form into the subsequent series against New Zealand , starting the second leg of their trip with a half @-@ century against New Zealand A in a warm @-@ up match in which she was acting captain . England struggled in the first ODI however : only Taylor and Edwards reached double figures for the tourists as they suffered a 123 @-@ run loss . In the following match , Taylor scored the seventh international century of her career , remaining 111 not out as England secured a nine @-@ wicket win over New Zealand . She scored a half @-@ century in the third ODI of the series , and 34 runs in the fifth to finish as England 's leading run @-@ scorer of the tour , scoring 342 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 85 from the nine ODI matches in Australia and New Zealand .
Playing in the first match of Berkshire 's County Championship campaign , Taylor scored 146 runs from 148 balls against Nottinghamshire , out of a team total of 212 : no other Berkshire batsman scored more than 10 runs , and Nottinghamshire won by six wickets . In a two match ODI series against the West Indies she made minimal impact , but was described by Cricinfo as being " at her dominant best " in the first match of the subsequent series against South Africa . She struck 7 fours during her 70 @-@ ball innings and scored 83 runs . In the three remaining matches of the series , she made modest totals , before missing the Twenty20 Internationals due to illness . Taylor reached a landmark during the third series of the summer , making her 100th ODI appearance , against India . In the five @-@ match series , which England won 4 – 0 , Taylor remained not out in each of her three innings , scoring 125 runs . Following that series , the ICC introduced player rankings for women 's ODI cricket , for which Taylor was top of the batsmen .
= = = Double world champions = = =
In 2009 , England participated in both the Women 's Cricket World Cup , and the inaugural Women 's World Twenty20 . Taylor was identified as one of England 's key players in a preview of the tournament , and she set up victory for England in their opening match against Sri Lanka with her eighth ODI century , her third in successive World Cup matches against Sri Lanka . She asserted her dominance once more in the second match , against India , scoring quicker than a run a ball for her 69 not out , to help England chase down a modest total in under 40 overs . Not required to bat against Pakistan , and dismissed for 19 against New Zealand , Taylor helped secure England 's place in the final with a rapid 65 runs , including 2 sixes and 6 fours , against the West Indies . In England 's final match of the group stages , Taylor top @-@ scored with 49 runs in a dead rubber loss against Australia : Australia could not qualify for the final , and England were already through . In the final , having restricted New Zealand to 166 , England were ahead of the required rate early . An early loss of wicket brought Taylor to the crease , and she played an attacking innings of 21 , including 4 fours , before being bowled . England won the match by four wickets , to become ODI world champions . Taylor finished the tournament as the leading run @-@ scorer , having made 324 runs , and her batting average was the highest amongst batsmen with over 100 runs . She was one of five England players to be named in the team of the tournament .
Taylor 's next international action came during the inaugural Women 's World Twenty20 tournament , held in England . Despite not being required to bat in England 's opening match against India , she was the second most prolific batsmen in the competition , finishing with 199 runs , just one less than New Zealand 's Aimee Watkins . In the group stage match against Sri Lanka , Taylor achieved her highest score in Twenty20 International cricket , making an unbeaten 75 . Just five days later , she improved on that score , reaching 76 not out against Australia in the semi @-@ finals . Batting with Beth Morgan , the pair maintained a run @-@ rate of almost 10 runs an over to secure England 's place in the final . Facing New Zealand in the final , England dismissed their opponents for 85 runs , but laboured to their total ; Taylor top @-@ scored for her side with 39 not out , and was the only England player to score a faster than a run a ball . Taylor was named as player of the tournament , and having only been dismissed once , finished with a batting average of 199 @.@ 00 . In England 's subsequent series against Australia , Taylor struggled for runs , scoring 79 runs across four ODI innings , and being dismissed for under 20 runs in each innings of the only Test match . She opted to miss the tour of the West Indies in late 2009 to focus on her work commitments .
= = = Later career = = =
Taylor returned to action for England in the 2010 Women 's World Twenty20 , hosted by the West Indies . England , and Taylor , struggled in the competition . Their only victory came against South Africa , after they had already been eliminated from the tournament . Taylor scored 24 runs in the tournament at an average of just 8 @.@ 00 . Later that summer , England hosted New Zealand . Taylor finished as England 's leading run @-@ scorer in the ODI series , scoring 166 runs at an average of 41 @.@ 50 , including half @-@ centuries in two of the matches . In their next series , a tour of Sri Lanka , Taylor started strongly ; scoring 73 runs in a narrow victory against their hosts , but failed to achieve double figures in an innings for the remainder of the tour . Taylor sustained a shoulder injury during the second warm @-@ up match of their subsequent tour of Australia , which ruled her out of the rest of the visit .
Her injury had healed by the start of the 2011 season , but Taylor failed to make a significant impact on England 's first two matches of the Twenty20 Quadrangular series , against New Zealand and Australia . In the third match however , ESPNcricinfo 's Liam Brickhill claimed that she " roared back into form " with 66 runs from 46 balls to help England to a big win over India . England won the tournament , which was closely followed by an equivalent ODI Quadrangular . Taylor made at least 30 runs in three of her four innings of the tournament to finish among the top run @-@ scorers in the series , which was also won by England . At the conclusion of the series , Taylor announced her retirement from international cricket . She finished her career with batting averages in excess of 40 in both Test and ODI cricket , and at the time of her retirement she trailed only Charlotte Edwards in ODI runs scored . She continued to represent Berkshire until the conclusion of the 2011 season .
= = Playing style = =
During her teenage years , Taylor was considered a better hockey player than cricketer . When she began playing for Thames Valley , she was considered a wicket @-@ keeper with no more than average batting ability . At university , she began to develop her batting , playing alongside the men for her college side . The different pace and strength required in the men 's game meant that she had to learn to play off the back foot , in contrast to women 's cricket , which is generally played off the front foot . After graduating from university in 1997 , she made her international debut for England in 1998 , but batted low in the order for England , having been picked as a wicket @-@ keeper . Intent on improving her batting , she began one @-@ on @-@ one coaching with Mark Lane . At the time , it was unusual for a member of the England women 's team to have individual coaching sessions , and Taylor had to pay for the meetings herself . When they began working together , Lane was critical of her batting ; " She was just average , I would say . " The sessions helped to improve Taylor 's mental approach towards batting as well as making technical changes , though Lane promoted the use of bottom @-@ handed hockey @-@ style shots which came more naturally to Taylor . At her peak , she used her intelligence to help manipulate the field ; in an interview she described that , " when I 'm batting at my best I have a 3D awareness of the shape of the field and where the spaces are . "
= = Recognition = =
Taylor was the first woman to be selected as Wisden 's Cricketer of the Year , in 2009 . The editor of that years almanack , Scyld Berry noted that " there is no element of political correctness or publicity @-@ seeking about her selection , " and that she had been " chosen on merit , for being pre @-@ eminent in her form of the game . " She was short @-@ listed for the ICC Women 's Cricketer of the Year in both 2007 and 2008 , and won the award in 2009 . She was also named as the England and Wales Cricket Board 's Women 's Player of the Year in May 2009 . Continuing on from her success in 2009 , Taylor was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) on the 2010 New Year Honours list . During her career she topped the ICC batting rankings for both ODI and Twenty20 International cricket , and upon her retirement , former Test cricketer Mike Selvey suggested in The Guardian that she was " perhaps the finest batsman the women 's game has seen . "
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= Snoring rail =
The snoring rail ( Aramidopsis plateni ) also known as the Celebes rail or Platen 's rail is a large flightless rail , the only member of the genus Aramidopsis . It is an Indonesian endemic found in dense vegetation in wet areas of Sulawesi and nearby Buton . The rail has grey underparts , a white chin , brown wings and a rufous patch on the hindneck . The sexes are similar , but the female has a brighter neck patch and a differently coloured bill and iris . The typical call is the snoring ee @-@ orrrr sound that gives the bird its English name .
Its inaccessible habitat and retiring nature mean that the snoring rail is rarely seen and little is known of its behaviour . Only the adult plumage has been described , and the breeding behaviour is unrecorded . It feeds on small crabs and probably other small prey such as lizards . Although protected under Indonesian law since 1972 , the rail is threatened by habitat loss ( even within nature reserves ) , hunting for food and predation by introduced species ; it is therefore evaluated as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rails are a large and very widespread family , with nearly 150 species . They are small to medium @-@ sized , terrestrial or wetland birds , and their short bodies are often flattened laterally to help them move through dense vegetation . Island species readily become flightless ; of 53 extant or recently extinct taxa restricted to islands , 32 have lost the ability to fly .
The snoring rail was first classified as Rallus plateni by German ornithologist August Wilhelm Heinrich Blasius in 1860 , but was moved to its current monotypic genus Aramidopsis by English zoologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1893 . Following Taylor ( 1998 ) , it was considered to be more similar to the Inaccessible Island and white @-@ throated rails than to members of the Rallus genus , but a 2012 mitochondrial gene study suggests that it should actually be placed in Gallirallus , with Lewin 's rail and the slaty @-@ breasted rail as its closest relatives .
Aramidopsis derives from the genus name of the limpkin , Aramus and the Greek suffix opsis , " resembling " . Although the rail shares the origin of its name with the South American Aramides species , its distinctive bill , thick legs and barred lower belly distinguish it from that group . The species name plateni commemorates Carl Constantin Platen , a German doctor who collected birds and butterflies in the Malay Archipelago and gave Blasius his specimen of the rail . The common name refers to the rail 's distinctive call , and was given to the bird as der Vogel Schnarch ( the snoring bird ) by German entomologist Gerd Heinrich when he rediscovered the species in 1932 .
= = Description = =
The snoring rail is 30 cm ( 12 in ) long and weighs 143 – 160 g ( 5 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 6 oz ) . It is flightless , with short wings , a very short tail and strong legs and feet . The back and the underparts from the forecrown to the breast are grey , apart from a white chin , and the sides and rear of the neck are deep orange @-@ red . Most of the rest of the upperparts are brown , and the belly , flanks and undertail have white barring . The male has black legs , a yellow iris and a brown and greenish down @-@ curved bill . The female is similar , but has a brighter hindneck colour , less white on the chin , a red iris , a cream and reddish bill and blue @-@ grey legs . Immature and juvenile plumages are undescribed . Visual confusion with sympatric rails is unlikely . The blue @-@ faced rail is similar in size , but is chestnut above and black below , and the buff @-@ banded rail has strongly marked upperparts , breast and head . The slaty @-@ breasted rail is smaller and has barred upperparts .
The call , given frequently , is a short wheez followed by a distinctive snoring ee @-@ orrrr . A deep hmmmm sound has also been recorded .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The snoring rail is an uncommon Indonesian endemic species of lowland and hill forests in northern , north central and southeastern Sulawesi . Another population was found on Buton island in 1995 .
The typical habitat of this species is dense vegetation in wet areas . This may include impenetrable bamboo and liana in forests , rattan in regrown forests , or elephant grass and bushes on the hillsides of the Minahassa Peninsula . Claims of the species occurring in rice fields are believed to be due to confusion with the buff @-@ banded rail . The snoring rail occurs from sea level to 1 @,@ 300 m ( 4 @,@ 300 ft )
= = Behaviour = =
Its inaccessible habitat and sparse distribution means that little is known about this species . A few birds were shot by Platen and another expedition led by Paul Sarasin and his second cousin , Fritz , between 1893 and 1898 , but the rail was then not seen for more than thirty years until Heinrich found it almost at the end of a two @-@ year survey of Sulawesi , then known as Celebes . He described it as " the most priceless catch that I have ever hunted or will hunt " . More than a decade later , Dutch ornithologist Louis Coomans de Ruiter also took a year to find the rail , despite concentrating on known suitable habitat . There were then no documented sightings until birds were observed in 1983 and 1989 . Sight records remain infrequent , and only about ten specimen corpses have been studied .
The snoring rail catches crabs in highland streams , and these crustaceans may be a major dietary item . It also forages in muddy areas , and has been recorded as consuming lizards . Nothing is known of its breeding behaviour other than a report of an adult seen feeding with two chicks in August 1983 , but the original report gives no details of the claimed sighting .
= = Status = =
The snoring rail is restricted to Sulawesi and Buton , and has an estimated population of 3 @,@ 500 – 15 @,@ 000 individuals . Its numbers are thought to be decreasing , and its restricted range and small population mean that the species is classified as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
It may always have been thinly spread , but there has been widespread deforestation within its range resulting in loss and fragmentation of suitable habitat . The rail has been protected under Indonesian law since 1972 , and the large Lore Lindu and Bogani Nani Wartabone National Parks are within its range , but logging and rattan cutting occurs even in these protected areas , and human encroachment is also a problem at Lore Lindu . The rail has been trapped for food in the past , and is sometimes killed by dogs , cats and other introduced predators . A 2007 survey of protected areas of Sulawesi failed to find the rail , suggesting that it is genuinely rare even in reserves .
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= Night shark =
The night shark ( Carcharhinus signatus ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , found in the temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean . An inhabitant of the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope , this shark most commonly occurs at depths of 50 – 600 m ( 160 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) and conducts a diel vertical migration , spending the day in deeper water and moving into shallower waters at night . Off northeastern Brazil , large numbers congregate around seamounts of varying depth . A slender , streamlined species , the night shark typically reaches a length of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . It can be identified by its long pointed snout and large green eyes ( when alive ) , and is dark grayish blue or brown above and white below .
Night sharks are quick , nocturnally active , schooling predators that feed mainly on small bony fishes and squid . Reproduction is viviparous as with the other members of its family ; females mate during the summer and give birth to litters of usually 12 – 18 pups after a gestation period of a year . This deepwater species is not known to pose a danger to humans . It is caught incidentally by commercial tuna and swordfish longline fisheries in the western Atlantic , and also by a targeted longline fishery operating off northeastern Brazil . The night shark is highly valued for its fins , and additionally as a source of meat , liver oil , and fishmeal . However , most sharks caught off northeastern Brazil have been found to contain unsafe concentrations of mercury .
Because of its low reproductive rate and historically documented declines in areas such as the Caribbean , the night shark has been assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and the American Fisheries Society ( AFS ) . A population assessment has indicated that this species is secure in the waters off the United States , but this may not be true elsewhere .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the night shark was published by Cuban zoologist Felipe Poey in 1868 , as part of a series of papers entitled Repertorio fisico @-@ natural de la isla de Cuba . He based his description on a single set of jaws and gave it the name Hypoprion signatus . In 1973 , Leonard Compagno synonymized the genus Hypoprion with Carcharhinus . No type specimen has been designated for this species . Its common name comes from the fact that it is mostly captured at night .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the night shark extends along the outer continental shelves and upper continental slopes of the Atlantic Ocean , from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Argentina in the west , including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea , and from Senegal to northern Namibia in the east . In United States waters , it is relatively common off North Carolina and Florida ( particularly the Florida Straits ) and rarer elsewhere . There are questionable reports of this species off the Pacific coast of Panama .
The night shark is a deepwater species that has been reported from as far down as 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , though it occasionally ventures to within 26 m ( 85 ft ) of the surface . Off the southeastern United States , it is usually caught at a depth range of 50 – 600 m ( 160 – 1 @,@ 970 ft ) . Off northeastern Brazil , the night shark is most commonly found near the summits of seamounts ranging from 38 m ( 125 ft ) to 370 m ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) deep . Off West Africa , it occurs at depths of 90 – 285 m ( 295 – 935 ft ) , where the temperature is 11 – 16 ° C ( 52 – 61 ° F ) , the salinity is 36 ppt , and the dissolved oxygen level is 1 @.@ 81 ml / l . Annual variation in Cuban catch rates may indicate a seasonal migration .
= = Description = =
The night shark has a slender build with an elongated , pointed snout . The nares are flanked by moderately developed flaps of skin . The eyes are large , circular , and green in life , with irregularly shaped pupils and a nictitating membrane ( protective third eyelid ) . The mouth lacks conspicuous furrows at the corners and usually bears 15 tooth rows on either side of both jaws , plus 1 – 2 upper and 1 lower symphysial ( jaw midline ) tooth rows . Each upper tooth has a smooth to serrated edge , a narrow cusp becoming more oblique towards the corner of the mouth , and 2 – 5 coarse serrations at the base of the trailing margin . The number and size of serrations on the leading margin of the tooth cusp increase relative to those on the trailing margin as the animal grows older . The lower teeth are upright and smooth @-@ edged . The five pairs of gill slits are rather short .
The pectoral fins are less than a fifth as long as the total body length and taper towards a somewhat rounded tip . The first dorsal fin is relatively small , triangular , and pointed , originating over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is much smaller than the first and originates over or slightly ahead of the anal fin . There is a ridge running between the dorsal fins . The dermal denticles are not tightly packed and overlap each other minimally . Each denticle is diamond @-@ shaped with horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth , the number increasing from 3 in juveniles to 5 – 7 in adults . The coloration is grayish blue or brown above and whitish below , without fin markings . There is a faint band on each side and sometimes small black spots scattered over the back . This species usually grows to 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long , but has been recorded reaching a length and weight of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) and 76 @.@ 7 kg ( 169 lb ) respectively .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Fast and energetic , the night shark feeds primarily on small , active bony fishes such as mullet , mackerel , butterfish , sea basses , and flyingfish . Squid and shrimp are also sometimes taken . Most feeding activity occurs at night , hence its common name , with peaks at dawn and dusk . Catch records indicate that this species is usually found in schools and conducts a diel vertical migration , spending the day at a depth of 275 – 366 m ( 902 – 1 @,@ 201 ft ) and moving up to shallower than 183 m ( 600 ft ) at night . Ovulating and gravid females are rarely ever caught , suggesting that during this period they may stop feeding or segregate themselves from others of their species . Potential predators of the night shark include larger sharks . Known parasites include the copepods Kroyeria caseyi , which attach to the gills , Pandarus bicolor and P. smithii , which infest the skin , and the tapeworms Heteronybelinia yamagutii , H. nipponica and Progrillotia dollfusi , which are found in the spiral valve intestine . Another parasite is an undescribed isopod similar to Aega webbii . The common remora ( Remora remora ) may be found attached to this species .
Like other members of its family , the night shark is viviparous : once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the depleted yolk sac is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Adult females have a single functional ovary ( on the right ) and two functional uteruses , which are divided into separate compartments for each embryo . Within the uterus the embryos lie lengthwise with their heads pointing the same direction as their mother . Most information known about the night shark 's life history comes from the subpopulation off northeastern Brazil , and may not hold true in other parts of the species range . Northeastern Brazilian sharks mate throughout the summer , with the males biting at the female 's body and fins as a prelude to copulation .
After a year @-@ long gestation period , females give birth to 4 – 18 ( usually 12 or more ) pups . Embryos at varying stages of development have been found in both February and June , suggesting that the parturition takes place over a span of several months . An important nursery area is believed to exist at the continental shelf break at 34 ° S latitude , near the southern extreme of this species ' range . The newborn young measure 50 – 72 cm ( 20 – 28 in ) long , and add around 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) or 38 % of their body length in their first year . This fast rate of growth serves to shorten the period immediately after birth when the small pups are most vulnerable to predators , a strategy similar to that employed by the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) . By the time the sharks reach adulthood , the growth rate slows to a more modest 8 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) per year . There is no difference in growth rate between sexes . Males mature sexually at a length of 1 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 9 m ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 2 ft ) , corresponding to an age of 8 years , and females at a length of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 9 ft ) , corresponding to an age of 10 years . The oldest known individuals are 17 years old ; based on growth curves the maximum lifespan has been estimated at 28 years for males and 30 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
Because of its deepwater habitat , the night shark is not known to pose a danger to humans . This species is prized for its large fins , which are exported for use in shark fin soup , and is also utilized as a source of meat , liver oil , and fishmeal . Traditionally it has comprised a part of the bycatch of pelagic longline fisheries targeting swordfish ( Xiphius gladius ) and tuna in the western Atlantic . Since 1991 , it has also been the focus of a longline fishery operating over seamounts off northeastern Brazil , where large numbers of sharks congregate and are easily captured . Some 90 % of the seamount shark and ray catch in this area now consists of night sharks ; of those approximately 89 % are juveniles . However , a study has found that night sharks from off northeastern Brazil accumulate high levels of mercury within their bodies , likely from their piscivorous diet . Some 92 % of sharks examined contained mercury levels higher than that allowed for marketed carnivorous fish set by the Brazilian legislature , and the average mercury concentration was 1 @.@ 742 mg / kg . Therefore , eating only 0 @.@ 1 kg ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) of night shark meat per day could result in the ingestion of several times the daily mercury content judged safe by the World Health Organization .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the night shark globally as Vulnerable , citing its slow reproductive rate and historical declines under fishing pressure . It has also been listed as Vulnerable by the American Fisheries Society ( AFS ) . This species was once a significant part of the Cuban artisanal shark fishery , comprising 60 – 75 % of the catch from 1937 to 1941 , before its numbers dropped substantially in the 1970s . Similarly , the proportion of night sharks in the shark catch of the southeastern U.S. pelagic longline fishery fell from 26 @.@ 1 % from 1981 to 1983 to 0 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 3 % in 1993 and 1994 ; a comparable decline was observed in catches by south Florida marlin tournaments since the 1970s . Currently , the intense Brazilian targeted fishery is of particular concern , although fishing pressure on the night shark may be relaxing as the fishery is beginning to shift towards swordfish and bigeye tuna ( Thunnus obesus ) . No fishery information on the night shark is available for the eastern Atlantic , leading to an IUCN assessment of Data Deficient for that region .
In 1997 , the U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) listed the night shark as a " Species of Concern " , meaning that it merits conservation concern but there is insufficient evidence for listing on the Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) . In 1999 , the NMFS Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) of the Atlantic tunas , swordfish , and sharks was revised to prohibit the retention of 19 species , including the night shark . The prohibition of this species was upheld by Amendment 1 of the FMP , added in 2003 . Night sharks suffer high bycatch mortality on longlines , and prohibited or not some are kept by fishers because of their value and the difficulty of identifying disembodied parts to species . Nevertheless , a 2003 – 2008 NMFS population assessment concluded that night shark population in United States waters has stabilized ( perhaps even increasing ) and no longer merits categorization as a " Species of Concern " , though recommended that the prohibition on retention be maintained as a precautionary measure . This species should also benefit from the imposition of time / area closures in the Florida Straits and on the Charleston Bump . Off Brazil and elsewhere , fishing continues largely unmanaged . IUCN members have urged that Brazil improve catch monitoring and enforcement of existing regulations , declare some critical habitat off @-@ limits , and implement the Brazilian National Plan of Action for Sharks ( NPOA @-@ Sharks ) under the FAO International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks ( IPOA @-@ Sharks ) .
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= Estoy Aquí =
" Estoy Aquí " ( English : " I 'm Here " ) is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , taken from her debut studio album Pies Descalzos . It was released in 1995 by Sony Music and Columbia Records as the lead single from the album . The song was written and produced by Shakira and Luis Fernando Ochoa . " Estoy Aquí " is a Latin pop song that lyrically discusses a willingness to correct a failed relationship .
Upon its release , " Estoy Aquí " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who recognized it as a stand @-@ out track from Pies Descalzos . Additionally , it became Shakira 's first recording to attain commercial success . The song peaked at numbers 1 and 2 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts . Its performance aided its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record , which eventually attained platinum certifications in Brazil , Colombia , and the United States . Its accompanying music video depicts Shakira performing the track , where she is often pictured with her guitar .
A Portuguese @-@ language translation of the track titled " Estou Aqui " appeared on Shakira 's first remix album The Remixes in 1997 . An English @-@ language version was leaked to the internet in 2011 . The song has additionally been performed during six of the seven concert tours Shakira has held to date .
= = Background and composition = =
Shakira released her first major @-@ label studio album Pies Descalzos in 1995 by Sony Music and Columbia Records . Assuming a prominent position in its production , she co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced each of the eleven tracks included on the record . Serviced as the lead single from the project in 1996 , " Estoy Aquí " saw additional songwriting and production from Luis Fernando Ochoa . The track is heavily influenced by Latin pop elements , and makes use of prominent guitar instrumentation . Lyrically , it states a desire to amend a failed relationship . In English , the lyrics " lo que nos pasó no repetirá jamás " and " Estoy aquí queriéndote , ahogándome " translate to " what happened to us will never be repeated " and " I 'm here wanting you , drowning " , respectively . After attaining success with the original Spanish @-@ language version , " Estoy Aquí " was re @-@ recorded in Portuguese as " Estou Aqui " for Shakira 's 1997 remix album The Remixes . An English @-@ language version " I 'm Here " was leaked in early @-@ 2011 , but was not made available for digital download .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Estoy Aquí " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who recognized it as a stand @-@ out track from Pies Descalzos . Carlos Quintana of About.com complimented the track for featuring a " vibrant dancing flavor " , and placed it among his personal favorites from the record . Similarly , Jose F. Promis from Allmusic praised it for serving as an " infectious and melodic " opening track , going on to select the song as an album highlight . The song received a nomination for Pop Song of the Year at the 1997 Lo Nuestro Awards , but lost to " Experiencia Religiosa " by Enrique Iglesias .
" Estoy Aquí " became Shakira 's first recording to attain commercial success . The song peaked at numbers 1 and 2 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts . Its commercial performance aided its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record , which eventually attained platinum certifications in Brazil , and the United States . Pies Descalzos was also awarded the " Diamond Prism " award in Colombia .
In 1996 , " Estoy Aquí " was included in the reissue of Pies Descalzos , titled Colección de Oro . In 2005 , it was featured as the opening track for Shakira 's first greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos .
= = Music video = =
" Estoy Aquí " became the first track by Shakira to receive an accompanying music video , which was directed by Simon Brand . The setting depicts a barn during the various weather seasons , and shows Shakira performing the song , accompanied with a guitar in most scenes . The clip was met with a favorable response from her label Sony Music , and was also met with commercial success . Consequentially , executives decided to place additional emphasis on promoting Pies Descalzos if it were to exceed sales of 50 @,@ 000 copies . John Lannert from Billboard positively noted that her voice and appearance " jumps out at you " . In Colombia , it was recognized as the " Best Video " at the Asociación Colombiana de Periodistas del Espectáculo ( ACPE ) Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Shakira has performed " Estoy Aquí " during six of her seven concert tours thus far . She first performed the track in Mexico City during her Tour Pies Descalzos , which ran from 1996 through 1997 . It was also included during the Tour Anfibio and Tour of the Mongoose , held in support of her second and third studio albums Dónde Están los Ladrones ? and Laundry Service , respectively . The song was additionally performed during the Oral Fixation Tour , which became her largest tour to date . In place of its inclusion in The Sun Comes Out World Tour , " Estoy Aquí " was performed in Rio de Janeiro as part of Rock in Rio in 2011 .
In August 1999 , Shakira sang " Estoy Aquí " during an episode of MTV Unplugged in New York City . In February 2000 , the performance was included in the live album of the event . At the 12th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony in 2011 , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Aleks Syntek performed a live cover of the song as part of the Latin Grammys tribute to Shakira , where she was honored Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year .
= = Track listings = =
CD single
" Estoy Aquí "
" Te Espero Sentada "
Remix EP
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Love & House Mix )
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Love & House Radio Edit )
" Estoy Aquí " ( Extended Club Mix )
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Radio Edit )
" Estoy Aquí " ( Meme 's Timbalero Dub )
" Estoy Aquí " ( The Love & Tears Mix )
= = Charts = =
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= Grilled Cheesus =
" Grilled Cheesus " is the third episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by Brad Falchuk , directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , and premiered on the Fox network on October 5 , 2010 . Prior to its broadcast , series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy predicted the episode would be Glee 's most controversial , as it focuses on religion and what God means to the members of the glee club . When Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) has a heart attack , the glee club rally around his son Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , attempting to support the Hummels through their various faiths . Meanwhile , club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) believes he has found the face of Jesus in a grilled cheese sandwich .
Murphy hoped to produce a balanced depiction of religion , and he , Falchuk and series co @-@ creator Ian Brennan worked to ensure that there was an equality between pro and anti @-@ religious sentiments expressed . The episode features seven cover versions of songs , each of which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , marking the series ' one @-@ week debut high in the US . Critics disagreed over the appropriateness of the musical performances , with some complaining of the tangential relationship between the numbers and religion , and others appreciating that the Glee versions brought new meaning to the songs .
" Grilled Cheesus " was watched by 11 @.@ 20 million US viewers , and was the second most watched scripted show of the week among adults aged 18 – 49 . It received mixed reviews , with Colfer and O 'Malley receiving critical acclaim , and several reviewers praising Glee for successfully balancing opposing viewpoints . However , other reviewers criticized the episode for its lack of subtlety , and Lisa Respers France of CNN denounced " Grilled Cheesus " as an Emmy @-@ submission showpiece for Colfer .
= = Plot = =
Glee club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) believes he has found the face of Jesus in a grilled cheese sandwich , he asks for three prayers to be granted : for the school football team to win a game , for his girlfriend Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) to let him touch her breasts , and for him to be reinstated as quarterback . When his first prayer comes true , he asks the glee club to join him in honoring Jesus through song .
Club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) is devastated when his father Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) suffers a heart attack . His best friend Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) sings Whitney Houston 's " I Look to You " to him , hoping he will find strength in faith . However , Kurt reveals that he is an atheist . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , also an atheist , takes umbrage at the glee club singing religious songs in a public school setting , and has Kurt make a formal complaint . When confronted by guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , Sue admits that as a child , she prayed that God would cure her sister Jean ( Robin Trocki ) , who has Down syndrome . Her prayers went unanswered , leading her to conclude that God simply does not exist .
Mercedes , Rachel and Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) pray for Burt , with Rachel singing " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " from Yentl at his bedside . Kurt is resistant , and later at glee club rehearsal sings The Beatles ' " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , stating that his faith takes the form of love for his father . He accepts an invitation from Mercedes to attend her church , where the choir sing " Bridge over Troubled Water " . At the church service , Mercedes asks the congregation to pray for the Hummels .
Finn 's remaining prayers also come true . Rachel comes to Finn 's house one evening , and in his bedroom she admits that she would prefer to raise her children in the Jewish faith ; she would not be able to have a future with him if he puts his faith in Jesus . Finn agrees that their children would be raised as she chooses , so to confirm her trust and appreciation of him , she allows him to touch the side of her breast as they make out . Later , Finn is also reinstated as quarterback , but it occurs because his replacement Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) is injured during a game , dislocating his shoulder . Finn feels responsible and confesses his guilt to Emma , who tells him it is unlikely God is communicating specifically with him through a grilled cheese sandwich . A despondent Finn doubts his new @-@ found faith , singing R.E.M. ' s " Losing My Religion " .
At Burt 's bedside , Kurt tells his still unconscious father that he feels he should have accepted his friends ' prayers . As Kurt cries , Burt begins to regain consciousness and is able to squeeze his son 's hand . Meanwhile , Sue visits Jean in her residential home and discusses God with her sister . Jean asks Sue if she may pray for her , and Sue accepts . Later , the glee club comes together to sing Joan Osborne 's " One of Us " . Sue watches the performance , but tells Will she will not report him for allowing a religious song . At home , Finn eats the remainder of the grilled cheese sandwich .
= = Production = =
" Grilled Cheesus " is intended to begin a season arc depicting the glee club members rallying around those who are subject to bullying and persecution . For Glee 's second season , Murphy confirmed plans to cast a Christian character on the show , expressing desires to keep Glee a " show about inclusiveness " . In an interview with TV Guide , Murphy said on Christianity , " If we 're trying to form a world of inclusiveness , we 've got to include that point of view as well . " He predicted " Grilled Cheesus " would be the most controversial episode of the series to date , as it depicts the spiritual and emotional importance of God to the characters . Murphy aimed to address religion in a " socially responsible " way , and compared " Grilled Cheesus " to topical Norman Lear shows of the 1970s . He hoped to produce a balanced depiction of the subject matter , and he , along with co @-@ writers Brennan and Falchuk , checked the script to ensure that for every anti @-@ religious sentiment conveyed , there was a pro @-@ religious one to counterbalance it . The episode references several religions apart from Christianity ; Puck and Rachel are both Jewish , Kurt hires an acupuncturist who is a Sikh , and makes a reference to the Flying Spaghetti Monster .
Sue 's philosophical argument with Emma about religion is the scene that Murphy is " most proud to have been involved with in [ his ] entire career . " Explaining Sue 's stance on religion , he stated : " Sue 's an atheist , but I love that she doesn 't want to be . She and [ Kurt ] are both saying to the world , ' Prove us wrong : If God is kindness and love , make me believe in God . ' " Murphy felt it would have been easy to have Kurt sing an anti @-@ religious song , but instead chose to have him sing about his faith in love .
O 'Malley was a recurring cast member throughout Glee 's first season , and was promoted to a series regular starting in season two . He commented that the episode would be an emotional one , developing the father @-@ son relationship further . Recurring characters who appear in this episode include glee club member Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , football player Sam Evans , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , Finn 's mother Carole Hudson ( Romy Rosemont ) , and Sue 's sister Jean Sylvester . An eight @-@ year @-@ old Kurt appears in a series of flashback scenes , including his mother 's funeral , played by child actor Adam Kolkin .
= = Music = =
The episode featured cover versions of Billy Joel 's " Only the Good Die Young " , Whitney Houston 's " I Look to You " , " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " as performed by Barbra Streisand in the musical film Yentl , The Beatles ' " I Want to Hold Your Hand " as covered by T. V. Carpio in the musical film Across the Universe , R.E.M. ' s " Losing My Religion " , Simon & Garfunkel 's " Bridge over Troubled Water " as covered by Aretha Franklin , and Joan Osborne 's " One of Us " . Monteith said he and series music producer Adam Anders " had a bit of a different idea " about how " Losing My Religion " should be performed . While Anders " always brings the songs in very positive , very upbeat " , he felt the song " was expressing a betrayal " , and with Finn feeling both betrayal and anger , Monteith wanted his performance to reflect that . All songs performed were released as singles , available for download , and " I Want to Hold Your Hand " and " One of Us " are included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . All singles charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 . With seven new entries , it marked the series ' one @-@ week debut high in the US . The best performing single was " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , which reached number 21 in Canada and 36 in the US . With 69 @,@ 000 copies sold in the US , it also reached number 15 on the Hot Digital Songs chart .
Zap2it 's Carina Adly MacKenzie commented positively on Michele 's " beautiful " rendition of " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " , however expressed displeasure that Rachel had cried during her solo in three consecutive episodes , suggesting the producers give her a more uplifting song . She praised Salling 's " Only the Good Die Young " , which was selected by Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post as the best performance of the episode , for being the most in @-@ keeping with Glee 's usual tone . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone praised " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , writing that , " the Beatles ' coy flirtation is replaced with a simple , wistful plea that hits just the right note . " She commended Riley 's vocals on " Bridge over Troubled Water " , commenting that Murphy should assign Mercedes more solo performances . Futterman criticized " Losing My Religion " , however , observing that Monteith struggled to reach the notes , resulting in a performance " more awkward than inspired . "
Anthony Benigno of the Daily News commented positively on the arrangement of Monteith 's song , grading the performance " A " . His lowest grade went to " Papa , Can You Hear Me ? " , which he gave a " C " . Benigno felt that both Michele and Colfer 's solos were damaged by the fact that the songs ' only link to the episode 's plot were their titles , finding it particularly jarring to hear Kurt singing " I wanna be your man " about his father . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff felt that the music was the worst aspect of the episode , similarly criticizing song selections based on their tangential relationship to religion . He felt that Kurt 's performance was the only number which worked even slightly , commenting , " it genuinely grows out of the moment , although the fact that Kurt is singing it to his dad never stops being kind of weird . " Both Jessica Derschowitz of CBS News and MTV 's Aly Semigran enjoyed that the performance of " I Want to Hold Your Hand " brought new meaning to the song , with Semigran naming it her favourite number of the episode . She felt that " I Look to You " was the episode 's weakest song , preferring Riley 's " more powerful " rendition of " Bridge over Troubled Water " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times expressed disappointment in both of Riley 's songs , which left her " strangely unmoved " . She suggested that , " Mercedes sang admirably , beautifully even , but she didn ’ t seem truly transported by the music ; so we weren 't . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
During its original broadcast , " Grilled Cheesus " was watched by 11 @.@ 20 million American viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Viewership and ratings both decreased from the previous episode , which was watched by 13 @.@ 51 million viewers and attained a 5 @.@ 9 / 17 rating / share . " Grilled Cheesus " was the most watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , and the twenty @-@ second most watched show among all viewers . In Canada , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 99 million viewers and was the eleventh most watched show of the week . It was again down on the previous episode , which was watched by 2 @.@ 46 million viewers , making it the sixth most watched programme of the week . In Australia , " Grilled Cheesus " drew 1 @.@ 029 million viewers , placing eleventh for the night . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 502 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 175 million on E4 , and 327 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly named it as one of his favorite episodes of the series , calling it " not only funny and moving , but incredibly important " , both for its religious element and message of tolerance . Stack praised the performances by Colfer and O 'Malley , as did USA Today 's Robert Bianco , who deemed the episode a " smart , moving , musical exploration of the power and limits of faith and religion in a democratic society " . Bianco commented positively on the way Colfer 's singing was used to " dig beneath the archness and anger in Kurt 's behavior " , calling it " a textbook example of what music can add to drama . " Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald went further in his praise , deeming " Grilled Cheesus " " the perfect blend of music , characterization and plot - and easily the most provocative scripted hour in prime @-@ time of the new season . " Perigard appreciated the fact there were no easy answers presented , with no characters undergoing religious conversions during the course of the episode . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal felt that " Grilled Cheesus " succeeded in balancing opposing viewpoints , resulting in " a nuanced , atypical episode of Glee that was both conflictingly emotional and confidently serious about the topic of religion " , and Semigran similarly commended the episode 's balance , writing that Falchuk " covered both sides of controversial debate with grace , humor , and most importantly , respect . " In an article discussing Glee 's increasingly inconsistent tone , characterizations , and weird moments in the second season , film and television critic Matt Zoller Seitz cited " Grilled Cheesus " as an exception : " an episode built around an earnest , Afterschool Special @-@ style contemplation of faith that improbably turned out to be one of the series ' boldest , silliest , maybe finest hours " .
Robert Canning of IGN felt that " Grilled Cheesus " was too varied tonally , failing to effectively bring together the " true anguish " of Kurt 's storyline and " lunacy " of Finn 's . He rated it 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , signifying a good episode , though his overall opinion was mixed . Canning commented that the Hummels ' relationship is " the most affecting " of the show , and praised O 'Malley 's " outstandingly nuanced " performance as Burt , yet felt that the religious element gave the episode an after school special vibe and almost became " over @-@ the @-@ top preachy and self @-@ important " . VanDerWerff graded the episode " B- " , commenting that he was uncertain whether he genuinely loved it , or was overlooking flaws because it handled the religious element acceptably . VanDerWerff stated that it would be easy to criticize Glee , but while television as a whole does not do earnestness well , Glee at its best , as in " Grilled Cheesus " , " revels in just how damn earnest it can be " . James Poniewozik of Time wrote that the episode 's premise was " absurdly ambitious " , yet felt it was largely successful in being respectful to both atheism and religion . He criticized the musical numbers for detracting from the plot , but appreciated the focus on Kurt and Burt , also naming theirs one of Glee 's " strongest and most nuanced relationships " .
Lisa Respers France of CNN was dismayed that the episode felt forced , like an Emmy submission showpiece for Colfer . She disliked Kurt 's angry , " overwrought " reaction to his friends ' prayers and the " silly " grilled cheese sandwich subplot , however wished there had been more focus on the " rich , barely tapped vein " of the Sue subplot . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon criticized the episode 's lack of subtlety , feeling that in its attempt to be controversial , Glee became a clichéd after school special . Fallon had been excited to see religion and homosexuality tackled on Glee , but was disappointed that the end result was " completely devoid of humor " , with dialogue " so stilted , wooden , and earnest that the treatment of the subject was largely ineffective and far too easy to make fun of . " Benigno also commented negatively on the lack of subtlety , deeming it Glee 's " biggest flaw " . He commended Lynch 's performance as Sue , however , writing : " It 's outrageous how good she is despite having only three scenes of screen time . "
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= North Road ( Manchester ) =
North Road was a football stadium and cricket field in Newton Heath , Manchester , England . It was the first home of Manchester United Football Club – then known as Newton Heath Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway Football Club – from its foundation in 1878 until 1893 , when the club moved to a new ground at Bank Street , Clayton .
Initially the ground consisted only of the pitch , around which an estimated 12 @,@ 000 spectators could congregate . The addition of stands in 1891 increased the capacity to about 15 @,@ 000 . The football club signed its first professional players in 1886 and began to break from its sponsoring railway company , but without the company 's financial support it was unable to afford the rent on the ground and was evicted .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Following the foundation of Newton Heath LYR F.C. , at the request of the employees of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( LYR ) company 's Carriage and Wagon Works , the club needed a pitch to play on . The chosen site was owned by the Manchester Cathedral authorities , but although conveniently sited next to the wagon works it was a " bumpy , stony patch in summer , [ and ] a muddy , heavy swamp in the rainy months " . The railway company agreed to pay a nominal rent to the authorities and to lease the ground to the football club . As it was next to the railway line operated by the LYR , the ground was often clouded in a thick mist of steam from passing trains . Players had to get changed in The Three Crowns public house , a few hundred yards away on Oldham Road , as there were no facilities nearby . There may have been some kind of refreshment offered to supporters at the eastern end of the site .
The first recorded matches at the ground took place in 1880 , two years after the club 's formation , most of them friendlies . The first competitive match held at North Road was a Lancashire Cup first round match against Blackburn Olympic 's reserve team , played on 27 October 1883 , which Newton Heath lost 7 – 2 . Details of the attendance have been lost , but it is assumed that the ground must have been enclosed by then , as an entry fee of 3d ( about £ 1 as of 2016 ) was charged for the match . Football became a professional sport in England in 1885 , and Newton Heath signed their first professional players in the summer of 1886 . The club 's income was insufficient to cover its wage bill , and so the 3d admission charge was extended to all matches played at North Road , later rising to 6d .
= = = Expansion and eviction = = =
The ground originally had a capacity of about 12 @,@ 000 , but club officials decided that was not enough to give them any hope of joining the Football League . Some expansion took place in 1887 , but in 1891 Newton Heath used what little financial reserves they had to purchase two grandstands , each able to hold 1 @,@ 000 spectators . However , this transaction put the club at odds with the railway company , who refused to contribute any finance to the deal . The two organisations began to drift apart from then onwards , and in 1892 the club attempted to raise £ 2 @,@ 000 in share capital to pay off the debts incurred by the expansion of the ground . The split also led the railway company to stop paying the rent due on the ground to the cathedral , who at about the same time decided to increase the rent . Under increasing financial pressure , especially as the cathedral authorities felt it inappropriate for the club to charge admission to the ground , an eviction notice was served on the club in June 1893 . The club 's management had been searching for a new stadium since the first eviction attempt in May the previous year , and they were able to move to a new ground on Bank Street , three miles away in Clayton . It proved impossible though to take the two grandstands to the new ground , and they were sold for £ 100 .
= = = Present = = =
The stadium no longer exists , and North Road has been renamed Northampton Road . After a spell serving as playing fields for locals , Moston Brook High School was opened on the site . A red plaque was attached to one of the school 's walls , marking the location of the old stadium , but it was stolen and not replaced . Following the school 's closure in August 2000 , the site was chosen by the Northwest Regional Development Agency ( NWDA ) as the location of the North Manchester Business Park in 2002 .
= = Other uses = =
Newton Heath LYR Football Club was also founded as a cricket club , and the North Road ground was used by both branches of the club . However , the cricket and football seasons often overlapped , causing conflicts between the two sports . The ground was barely adequate for football , despite the best efforts of groundsmen Charlie and Ned Massey , but its use in the winter made it even less suitable for cricket in the summer .
= = Records = =
Although attendance figures were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road , the highest recorded attendance at the ground was approximately 15 @,@ 000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893 . A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889 . A record @-@ low league attendance of approximately 1 @,@ 000 was recorded for Football Alliance matches against Walsall Town Swifts and Birmingham City on 21 April 1890 and 13 December 1890 respectively . However , an attendance of 400 was recorded for a Manchester Cup match against Eccles on 31 January 1885 .
The earliest recorded four @-@ figure attendance at the ground was 3 @,@ 000 for a friendly with West Gorton ( St. Mark 's ) on 12 November 1881 . This was the first recorded meeting of the two sides that eventually became Manchester United and Manchester City .
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= Curve @-@ shortening flow =
In mathematics , the curve @-@ shortening flow is a process that modifies a smooth curve in the Euclidean plane by moving its points perpendicularly to the curve at a speed proportional to the curvature . The curve @-@ shortening flow is an example of a geometric flow , and is the one @-@ dimensional case of the mean curvature flow . Other names for the same process include the Euclidean shortening flow , geometric heat flow , and arc length evolution .
As the points of any smooth simple closed curve move in this way , the curve remains simple and smooth . It loses area at a constant rate , and its perimeter decreases as quickly as possible for any continuous curve evolution . If the curve is non @-@ convex , its total absolute curvature decreases monotonically , until it becomes convex . Once convex , the isoperimetric ratio of the curve decreases as the curve converges to a circular shape , before collapsing to a single point of singularity . If two disjoint simple smooth closed curves evolve , they remain disjoint until one of them collapses to a point . The circle is the only simple closed curve that maintains its shape under the curve @-@ shortening flow , but some curves that cross themselves or have infinite length keep their shape , including the grim reaper curve , an infinite curve that translates upwards , and spirals that rotate while remaining the same size and shape .
An approximation to the curve @-@ shortening flow can be computed numerically , by approximating the curve as a polygon and using the finite difference method to calculate the motion of each polygon vertex . Alternative methods include computing a convolution of polygon vertices and then resampling vertices on the resulting curve , or repeatedly applying a median filter to a digital image whose black and white pixels represent the inside and outside of the curve .
The curve @-@ shortening flow was originally studied as a model for annealing of metal sheets . Later , it was applied in image analysis to give a multi @-@ scale representation of shapes . It can also model reaction – diffusion systems , and the behavior of cellular automata . In pure mathematics , the curve @-@ shortening flow can be used to find closed geodesics on Riemannian manifolds , and as a model for the behavior of higher @-@ dimensional flows .
= = Definitions = =
A flow is a process in which the points of a mathematical space continuously change their locations or properties over time . More specifically , in a one @-@ dimensional geometric flow such as the curve @-@ shortening flow , the points undergoing the flow belong to a curve , and what changes is the shape of the curve , its embedding into the Euclidean plane determined by the locations of each of its points . In the curve @-@ shortening flow , each point of a curve moves in the direction of a normal vector to the curve , at a rate proportional to the curvature . For an evolving curve represented by a two @-@ parameter function C ( s , t ) where s parameterizes the arc length along the curve and t parameterizes a time in the evolution of the curve , the curve @-@ shortening flow can be described by the parabolic partial differential equation
<formula>
a form of the heat equation , where κ is the curvature and n is the unit normal vector .
Because the ingredients of this equation , the arc length , curvature , and time , are all unaffected by translations and rotations of the Euclidean plane , it follows that the flow defined by this equation is invariant under translations and rotations ( or more precisely , equivariant ) . If the plane is scaled by a constant dilation factor , the flow remains essentially unchanged , but is slowed down or sped up by the same factor .
= = = Non @-@ smooth curves = = =
In order for the flow to be well defined , the given curve must be sufficiently smooth that it has a continuous curvature . However , once the flow starts , the curve becomes analytic , and remains so until reaching a singularity at which the curvature blows up . For a smooth curve without crossings , the only possible singularity happens when the curve collapses to a point , but immersed curves can have other types of singularity . In such cases , with some care it is possible to continue the flow past these singularities until the whole curve shrinks to a single point .
For a simple closed curve , using an extension of the flow to non @-@ smooth curves based on the level set method , there are only two possibilities . Curves with zero Lebesgue measure ( including all polygons and piecewise @-@ smooth curves ) instantly evolve into smooth curves , after which they evolve as any smooth curve would . However , Osgood curves with nonzero measure instead immediately evolve into a topological annulus with nonzero area and smooth boundaries . The topologist 's sine curve is an example that instantly becomes smooth , despite not even being locally connected ; examples such as this show that the reverse evolution of the curve @-@ shortening flow can take well @-@ behaved curves to complicated singularities in a finite amount of time .
= = = Non @-@ Euclidean surfaces = = =
The curve @-@ shortening flow , and many of the results about the curve @-@ shortening flow , can be generalized from the Euclidean plane to any two @-@ dimensional Riemannian manifold . In order to avoid additional types of singularity , it is important for the manifold to be convex at infinity ; this is defined to mean that every compact set has a compact convex hull , as defined using geodesic convexity . The curve @-@ shortening flow cannot cause a curve to depart from its convex hull , so this condition prevents parts of the curve from reaching the boundary of the manifold .
= = = Space curves = = =
The curve @-@ shortening flow has also been studied for curves in three @-@ dimensional Euclidean space . The normal vector in this case can be defined ( as in the plane ) as the derivative of the tangent vector with respect to arc length , normalized to be a unit vector ; it is one of the components of the Frenet – Serret frame . It is not well defined at points of zero curvature , but the product of the curvature and the normal vector remains well defined at those points , allowing the curve @-@ shortening flow to be defined . Curves in space may cross each other or themselves according to this flow , and the flow may lead to singularities in the curves ; every singularity is asymptotic to a plane . The curve shortening flow for space curves has been used as a way to define flow past singularities in plane curves .
= = = Beyond curves = = =
It is possible to extend the definition of the flow to more general inputs than curves , for instance by using rectifiable varifolds or the level set method . However , these extended definitions may allow parts of curves to vanish instantaneously or fatten into sets of nonzero area .
A commonly studied variation of the problem involves networks of interior @-@ disjoint smooth curves , with junctions where three or more of the curves meet . When the junctions all have exactly three curves meeting at angles of 2π / 3 ( the same conditions seen in an optimal Steiner tree or two @-@ dimensional foam of soap bubbles ) the flow is well @-@ defined for the short term . However , it may eventually reach a singular state with four or more curves meeting at a junction , and there may be more than one way to continue the flow past such a singularity .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Avoidance principle , radius , and stretch factor = = =
If two disjoint smooth simple closed curves undergo the curve @-@ shortening flow simultaneously , they remain disjoint as the flow progresses . The reason is that , if two smooth curves move in a way that creates a crossing , then at the time of first crossing the curves would necessarily be tangent to each other , without crossing . But , in such a situation , the two curves ' curvatures at the point of tangency would necessarily pull them apart rather than pushing them together into a crossing . For the same reason , a single simple closed curve can never evolve to cross itself .
The avoidance principle implies that any smooth curve eventually either reaches a singularity ( such as a point of infinite curvature ) or collapses to a point . For , if a given smooth curve C is surrounded by a circle , both will remain disjoint until one or the other collapses or reaches a singularity . But the enclosing circle shrinks under the curvature flow , remaining circular , until it collapses , and by the avoidance principle C must remain contained within it . By the same reasoning , the radius of the smallest circle that encloses C must decrease at a rate that is at least as fast as the decrease in radius of a circle undergoing the same flow .
Huisken ( 1998 ) quantifies the avoidance principle for a single curve in terms of the ratio between the arc length ( of the shorter of two arcs ) and Euclidean distance between pairs of points , sometimes called the stretch factor . He shows that the stretch factor is strictly decreasing at each of its local maxima , except for the case of the two ends of a diameter of a circle in which case the stretch factor is constant at π . This monotonicity property implies the avoidance principle , for if the curve would ever touch itself the stretch factor would become infinite at the two touching points .
= = = Length = = =
As a curve undergoes the curve @-@ shortening flow , its length L decreases at a rate given by the formula
<formula>
where the interval is taken over the curve , κ is the curvature , and s is arc length along the curve . The integrand is always non @-@ negative , and for any smooth closed curve there exist arcs within which it is strictly positive , so the length decreases monotonically . More generally , for any evolution of curves whose normal speed is f , the rate of change in length is
<formula>
which can be interpreted as a negated inner product between the given evolution and the curve @-@ shortening flow . Thus , the curve @-@ shortening flow can be described as the gradient flow for length , the flow that ( locally ) decreases the length of the curve as quickly as possible relative to the L2 norm of the flow . This property is the one that gives the curve @-@ shortening flow its name .
= = = Area = = =
For a simple closed curve , the area enclosed by the curve shrinks , at the constant rate of 2π units of area per unit of time , independent of the curve . Therefore , the total time for a curve to shrink to a point is proportional to its area , regardless of its initial shape . Because the area of a curve is reduced at a constant rate , and ( by the isoperimetric inequality ) a circle has the greatest possible area among simple closed curves of a given length , it follows that circles are the slowest curves to collapse to a point under the curve @-@ shortening flow . All other curves take less time to collapse than a circle of the same length .
The constant rate of area reduction is the only conservation law satisfied by the curve @-@ shortening flow . This implies that it is not possible to express the " vanishing point " where the curve eventually collapses as an integral over the curve of any function of its points and their derivatives , because such an expression would lead to a forbidden second conservation law . However , by combining the constant rate of area loss with the avoidance principle , it is possible to prove that the vanishing point always lies within a circle , concentric with the minimum enclosing circle , whose area is the difference in areas between the enclosing circle and the given curve .
= = = Total absolute curvature = = =
The total absolute curvature of a smooth curve is the integral of the absolute value of the curvature along the arc length of the curve ,
<formula>
It can also be expressed as a sum of the angles between the normal vectors at consecutive pairs of inflection points . It is 2π for convex curves and larger for non @-@ convex curves , serving as a measure of non @-@ convexity of a curve .
New inflection points cannot be created by the curve @-@ shortening flow . Each of the angles in the representation of the total absolute curvature as a sum decreases monotonically , except at the instants when two consecutive inflection points reach the same angle or position as each other and are both eliminated . Therefore , the total absolute curvature can never increase as the curve evolves . For convex curves it is constant at 2π and for non @-@ convex curves it decreases monotonically .
= = = Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem = = =
If a smooth simple closed curve undergoes the curve @-@ shortening flow , it remains smoothly embedded without self @-@ intersections . It will eventually become convex , and once it does so it will remain convex . After this time , all points of the curve will move inwards , and the shape of the curve will converge to a circle as the whole curve shrinks to a single point . This behavior is sometimes summarized by saying that every simple closed curve shrinks to a " round point " .
This result is due to Michael Gage , Richard Hamilton , and Matthew Grayson . Gage ( 1983 , 1984 ) proved convergence to a circle for convex curves that contract to a point . More specifically Gage showed that the isoperimetric ratio ( the ratio of squared curve length to area , a number that is 4π for a circle and larger for any other convex curve ) decreases monotonically and quickly . Gage & Hamilton ( 1986 ) proved that all smooth convex curves eventually contract to a point without forming any other singularities , and Grayson ( 1987 ) proved that every non @-@ convex curve will eventually become convex . Andrews & Bryan ( 2011 ) provide a simpler proof of Grayson 's result , based on the monotonicity of the stretch factor .
Similar results can be extended from closed curves to unbounded curves satisfying a local Lipschitz condition . For such curves , if both sides of the curve have infinite area , then the evolved curve remains smooth and singularity @-@ free for all time . However , if one side of an unbounded curve has finite area , and the curve has finite total absolute curvature , then its evolution reaches a singularity in time proportional to the area on the finite @-@ area side of the curve , with unbounded curvature near the singularity . For curves that are graphs of sufficiently well @-@ behaved functions , asymptotic to a ray in each direction , the solution converges in shape to a unique shape that is asymptotic to the same rays . For networks formed by two disjoint rays on the same line , together with two smooth curves connecting the endpoints of the two rays , an analogue of the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem holds , under which the region between the two curves becomes convex and then converges to a vesica piscis shape .
= = = Singularities of self @-@ crossing curves = = =
Curves that have self @-@ crossings may reach singularities before contracting to a point . For instance , if a lemniscate ( any smooth immersed curve with a single crossing , resembling a figure 8 or infinity symbol ) has unequal areas in its two lobes , then eventually the smaller lobe will collapse to a point . However , if the two lobes have equal areas , then they will remain equal throughout the evolution of the curve , and the isoperimetric ratio will diverge as the curve collapses to a singularity .
When a locally convex self @-@ crossing curve approaches a singularity as one of its loops shrinks , it either shrinks in a self @-@ similar way or asymptotically approaches the grim reaper curve ( described below ) as it shrinks . When a loop collapses to a singularity , the amount of total absolute curvature that is lost is either at least 2π or exactly π .
= = = On Riemannian manifolds = = =
On a Riemannian manifold , any smooth simple closed curve will remain smooth and simple as it evolves , just as in the Euclidean case . It will either collapse to a point in a finite amount of time , or remain smooth and simple forever . In the latter case , the curve necessarily converges to a closed geodesic of the surface .
Immersed curves on Riemannian manifolds , with finitely many self @-@ crossings , become self @-@ tangent only at a discrete set of times , at each of which they lose a crossing . As a consequence the number of self @-@ crossing points is non @-@ decreasing .
= = = Huisken 's monotonicity formula = = =
According to Huisken 's monotonicity formula , the convolution of an evolving curve with a time @-@ reversed heat kernel is non @-@ increasing . This result can be used to analyze the singularities of the evolution .
= = Specific curves = =
= = = Curves with self @-@ similar evolution = = =
Because every other simple closed curve converges to a circle , the circle is the only simple closed curve that keeps its shape under the curve @-@ shortening flow . However , there are many other examples of curves that are either non @-@ simple ( they include self @-@ crossings ) or non @-@ closed ( they extend to infinity ) and keep their shape . In particular ,
Every line stays unchanged by the curve @-@ shortening flow . Lines are the only curves that are unaffected by the curve @-@ shortening flow , although there exist more complex stable networks of curves , such as the hexagonal tiling of the plane .
The grim reaper curve y = − log cos x moves upwards without changing its shape . In the same way , any curve similar to the grim reaper is translated by the curve @-@ shortening flow , shifted in the direction of the symmetry axis of the curve without changing its shape or orientation . The grim reaper is the only curve with this property . It is also called the hairpin model in the physics literature .
A family of self @-@ crossing closed curves , derived from projections of torus knots , shrink homothetically but remain self @-@ similar under the curve @-@ shortening flow . These have come to be known as the Abresch – Langer curves , after the work of Abresch & Langer ( 1986 ) , although they were mentioned earlier by Mullins ( 1956 ) and rediscovered independently by Epstein & Weinstein ( 1987 ) . These curves are locally convex , and therefore can be described by their support functions . Suitably scaled versions of these support functions obey the differential equation
<formula>
which has positive periodic solutions ( corresponding to curves with self @-@ similar evolution ) for any period that is strictly between π and <formula> .
Other curves , including some infinite spirals , remain self @-@ similar with more complicated motions including rotation or combinations of rotation , shrinking or expansion , and translation .
For networks of smooth curves , meeting in threes at junctions with angles of 2π / 3 , the self @-@ similar shrinking solutions include a double bubble surrounding two equal areas , a lens shape ( vesica piscis ) bounded by two congruent arcs of circles together with two collinear rays having their apexes at the corners of the lens , and a " fish @-@ shaped " network bounded by a line segment , two rays , and a convex curve . Any other self @-@ similar shrinking networks involve a larger number of curves . Another family of networks grows homothetically and remains self @-@ similar ; these are tree @-@ like networks of curves , meeting at angles of 2π / 3 at triple junctions , asymptotic to a fan of two or more rays that meet at a common endpoint . The two @-@ ray case of these shapes is an unbounded smooth curve ; for three or more rays the evolution of these shapes may be defined using generalized variants of the curve @-@ shortening flow such as the one for varifolds . A given fan of four or more rays may be asymptotic to more than one different solution of this type , so these solutions do not provide a unique definition for the curve @-@ shortening flow starting from a fan of rays .
= = = Ancient solutions = = =
An ancient solution to a flow problem is a curve whose evolution can be extrapolated backwards for all time , without singularities . All of the self @-@ similar solutions that shrink or stay the same size rather than growing are ancient solutions in this sense ; they can be extrapolated backwards by reversing the self @-@ similarity transformation that they would undergo by the forwards curve @-@ shortening flow . Thus , for instance , the circle , grim reaper , and Abresch – Langer curves are all ancient solutions .
The only closed curves other than the circle and Abresch – Langer curves that form ancient solutions are a class of curves called the Angenent ovals after the work of Angenent ( 1992 ) . These curves may be parameterized by specifying their curvature as a function of the tangent angle using the formula
<formula>
and have as their limiting shape under reverse evolution a pair of grim reaper curves approaching each other from opposite directions . In the Cartesian coordinate system , they may be given by the implicit curve equation
<formula>
In the physics literature , the same shapes are known as the paperclip model .
For more general classes of curves , such as the graphs of functions , a more diverse collection of ancient solutions is known .
= = Numerical approximations = =
In order to compute the curve @-@ shortening flow efficiently , both a continuous curve and the continuous evolution of the curve need to be replaced by a discrete approximation .
= = = Front tracking = = =
Front tracking methods have long been used in fluid dynamics to model and track the motion of boundaries between different materials , of steep gradients in material properties such as weather fronts , or of shock waves within a single material . These methods involve deriving the equations of motion of the boundary , and using them to directly simulate the motion of the boundary , rather than simulating the underlying fluid and treating the boundary as an emergent property of the fluid . The same methods can also be used to simulate the curve @-@ shortening flow , even when the curve undergoing the flow is not a boundary or shock .
In front tracking methods for curve shortening , the curve undergoing the evolution is discretized as a polygon . The finite difference method is used to derive formulas for the approximate normal vector and curvature at each vertex of the polygon , and these values are used to determine how to move each vertex in each time step . In some cases the normal motion of the points is combined with a tangential motion to spread them more uniformly around the curve . Merriman , Bence & Osher ( 1992 ) write that these methods are fast and accurate but that it is much more complicated to extend them to versions of the curve @-@ shortening flow that apply to more complicated inputs than simple closed curves , where it is necessary to deal with singularities and changes of topology .
For most such methods , Cao ( 2003 ) warns that " The conditions of stability cannot be determined easily and the time step must be chosen ad hoc . " Another finite differencing method by Crandall & Lions ( 1996 ) modifies the formula for the curvature at each vertex by adding to it a small term based on the Laplace operator . This modification is called elliptic regularization , and it can be used to help prove the existence of generalized flows as well as in their numerical simulation . Using it , the method of Crandall and Lions can be proven to converge and is the only numerical method listed by Cao that is equipped with bounds on its convergence rate . For an empirical comparison of the forward Euler , backward Euler , and more accurate Crank – Nicolson finite difference methods , see Balažovjech & Mikula ( 2009 ) .
= = = Resampled convolution = = =
Mokhtarian & Mackworth ( 1992 ) suggest a numerical method for computing an approximation to the curve @-@ shortening flow that maintains a discrete approximation to the curve and alternates between two steps :
Resample the current curve by placing new sample points at a uniform spacing , as measured by normalized arc length .
Convolve the locations of the points with a Gaussian function with small standard deviation , in effect replacing each point 's location with a weighted average of the locations of nearby points along the curve , with Gaussian weights . The standard deviation of the Gaussian should be chosen to be small enough that , after this step , the sample points still have nearly @-@ uniform spacing .
As they show , this method converges to the curve @-@ shortening distribution in the limit as the number of sample points grows and the normalized arc length of the convolution radius shrinks .
= = = Median filtering = = =
Merriman , Bence & Osher ( 1992 ) describe a scheme operating on a two @-@ dimensonal square grid – effectively an array of pixels . The curve to be evolved is represented by assigning the value 0 ( black ) to pixels exterior to the curve , and 1 ( white ) to pixels interior to the curve , giving the indicator function for the interior of the curve . This representation is updated by alternating two steps :
Convolve the pixelated image with a heat kernel to simulate its evolution under the heat equation for a short time step . The result is a Gaussian blur of the image , or equivalently the Weierstrass transform of the indicator function , with radius proportional to the square root of the time step .
Set every pixel with numerical value less than 1 / 2 to 0 , and every pixel with numerical value greater than 1 / 2 to 1 , thresholding the image back to its original values in new positions .
In order for this scheme to be accurate , the time step must be large enough to cause the curve to move by at least one pixel even at points of low curvature , but small enough to cause the radius of blurring to be less than the minimum radius of curvature . Therefore , the size of a pixel must be O ( min κ / max κ2 ) , small enough to allow a suitable intermediate time step to be chosen .
The method can be generalized to the evolution of networks of curves , meeting at junctions and dividing the plane into more than three regions , by applying the same method simultaneously to each region . Instead of blurring and thresholding , this method can alternatively be described as applying a median filter with Gaussian weights to each pixel . It is possible to use kernels other than the heat kernel , or to adaptively refine the grid so that it has high resolution near the curve but does not waste time and memory on pixels far from the curve that do not contribute to the outcome . Instead of using only the two values in the pixelated image , a version of this method that uses an image whose pixel values represent the signed distance to the curve can achieve subpixel accuracy and require lower resolution .
= = Applications = =
= = = Annealing metal sheets = = =
An early reference to the curve @-@ shortening flow by William W. Mullins ( 1956 ) motivates it as a model for the physical process of annealing , in which heat treatment causes the boundaries between grains of crystallized metal to shift . Unlike soap films , which are forced by differences in air pressure to become surfaces of constant mean curvature , the grain boundaries in annealing are subject only to local effects , which cause them to move according to the mean curvature flow . The one @-@ dimensional case of this flow , the curve @-@ shortening flow , corresponds to annealing sheets of metal that are thin enough for the grains to become effectively two @-@ dimensional and their boundaries to become one @-@ dimensional .
= = = Shape analysis = = =
In image processing and computer vision , Mokhtarian & Mackworth ( 1992 ) suggest applying the curve @-@ shortening flow to the outline of a shape derived from a digital image , in order to remove noise from the shape and provide a scale space that provides a simplified description of the shape at different levels of resolution . The method of Mokhtarian and Mackworth involves computing the curve @-@ shortening flow , tracking the inflection points of the curve as they progress through the flow , and drawing a graph that plots the positions of the inflection points around the curve against the time parameter . The inflection points will typically be removed from the curve in pairs as the curve becomes convex ( according to the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem ) and the lifetime of a pair of points corresponds to the salience of a feature of the shape . Because of the resampled convolution method that they describe for computing a numerical approximation of the curve @-@ shortening flow , they call their method the resampled curvature scale space . They observe that this scale space is invariant under Euclidean transformations of the given shape , and assert that it uniquely determines the shape and is robust against small variations in the shape . They compare it experimentally against several related alternative definitions of a scale space for shapes , and find that the resampled curvature scale space is less computationally intensive , more robust against nonuniform noise , and less strongly influenced by small @-@ scale shape differences .
= = = Reaction @-@ diffusion = = =
In reaction – diffusion systems modeled by the Allen – Cahn equation , the limiting behavior for fast reaction , slow diffusion , and two or more local minima of energy with the same energy level as each other is for the system to settle into regions of different local minima , with the fronts delimiting boundaries between these regions evolving according to the curve @-@ shortening flow .
= = = Cellular automata = = =
In a cellular automaton , each cell in an infinite grid of cells may have one of a finite set of states , and all cells update their states simultaneously based only on the configuration of a small set of neighboring cells . A Life @-@ like cellular automaton rule is one in which the grid is the infinite square lattice , there are exactly two cell states , the set of neighbors of each cell are the eight neighbors of the Moore neighborhood , and the update rule depends only on the number of neighbors with each of the two states rather than on any more complicated function of those states . In one particular life @-@ like rule , introduced by Gerard Vichniac and called the twisted majority rule or annealing rule , the update rule sets the new value for each cell to be the majority among the nine cells given by it and its eight neighbors , except when these cells are split among four with one state and five with the other state , in which case the new value of the cell is the minority rather than the majority . The detailed dynamics of this rule are complicated , including the existence of small stable structures . However , in the aggregate ( when started with all cells in random states ) it tends to form large regions of cells that are all in the same state as each other , with the boundaries between these regions evolving according to the curve @-@ shortening flow .
= = = Construction of closed geodesics = = =
The curve @-@ shortening flow can be used to prove an isoperimetric inequality for surfaces whose Gaussian curvature is a non @-@ increasing function of the distance from the origin , such as the paraboloid . On such a surface , the smooth compact set that has any given area and minimum perimeter for that area is necessarily a circle centered at the origin . The proof applies the curve @-@ shortening flow to two curves , a metric circle and the boundary of any other compact set , and compares the change in perimeter of the two curves as they are both reduced to a point by the flow . The curve @-@ shortening flow can also be used to prove the theorem of the three geodesics , that every smooth Riemannian manifold topologically equivalent to a sphere has three geodesics that form simple closed curves .
= = Related flows = =
Other geometric flows related to the curve @-@ shortening flow include the following ones .
For simulating the behavior of crystals or other anisotropic materials , it is important to have variants of the curve @-@ shortening flow for which the speed of flow depends on the orientation of a curve as well as on its curvature . One way of doing this is to define the energy of a curve to be the integral of a smooth function γ of its normal vectors , and form the gradient flow of this energy , according to which the normal speed at which the curve flows is proportional to an anisotropic analog of the curvature . This flow can be simulated by discretizing the curve as a polygon . In numerical experiments , initial curves appear to converge to the Wulff shape for γ before shrinking to a point . Alternatively , one can let the curve flow with speed a ( θ ) κ + b ( θ ) where κ is the ( usual ) curvature and a and b are smooth functions of the orientation θ . When a ( θ + π ) |
= a ( θ ) and b ( θ + π ) =
− b ( θ ) ( so that the flow is invariant under point reflection ) , the resulting flow can be shown to obey the avoidance principle and an analog of the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem .
The affine curve @-@ shortening flow was first investigated by Alvarez et al . ( 1993 ) and Sapiro & Tannenbaum ( 1993 ) . In this flow , the normal speed of the curve is proportional to the cube root of the curvature . The resulting flow is invariant ( with a corresponding time scaling ) under the affine transformations of the Euclidean plane , a larger symmetry group than the similarity transformations under which the curve @-@ shortening flow is invariant . Under this flow , an analogue of the Gage – Hamilton – Grayson theorem applies , under which any simple closed curve eventually becomes convex and then converges to an ellipse as it collapses to a point .
Transforming a curve with equal normal speeds at all points has been called the grassfire transform . Curves evolved in this way will in general develop sharp corners , the trace of which forms the medial axis of the curve . A closely related curve evolution which moves straight segments of a polygonal curve at equal speeds but allows concave corners to move more quickly than unit speed instead forms a different type of topological skeleton of the given curve , its straight skeleton .
For surfaces in higher dimensions , there is more than one definition of curvature , including extrinsic ( embedding @-@ dependent ) measures such as the mean curvature and intrinsic measures such as the Gaussian curvature and Ricci curvature . Correspondingly , there are several ways of defining geometric flows based on curvature , including the mean curvature flow ( in which the normal speed of an embedded surface is its mean curvature ) , the Ricci flow ( an intrinsic flow on the metric of a space based on its Ricci curvature ) and the Willmore flow ( the gradient flow for an energy functional combining the mean curvature and Gaussian curvature ) . The curve @-@ shortening flow is a special case of the mean curvature flow for one @-@ dimensional curves .
Inspired by the curve @-@ shortening flow on smooth curves , researchers have studied methods for flowing polygons so that they stay polygonal , with applications including pattern formation and synchronization in distributed systems of robots . Length @-@ preserving polygonal flows can be used to solve the carpenter 's rule problem .
In computer vision , the active contour model for edge detection and image segmentation is based on curve shortening , and evolves curves based on a combination of their curvature and the features of an image .
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