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= Old Pine Church =
Old Pine Church ( also historically known as Mill Church , Nicholas Church , and Pine Church ) is a mid @-@ 19th century church near Purgitsville , West Virginia . It is among the earliest extant log churches in Hampshire County , along with Capon Chapel and Mount Bethel Church .
The church was constructed in 1838 to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's earliest settlers were of German descent , Old Pine Church may also have been built as a meeting place for Schwarzenau Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . The church is believed to have also been a meeting place for German Methodist settlers . By 1870 , the church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination , and in 1878 , the church 's congregation split into White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church congregations . Both congregations continued to use the church until 1907 .
Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to perform a restoration of the church . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , due to its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands . "
The church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building sheathed in brown @-@ painted wooden German siding . The original hewn log beams are visible beneath the church , with some bark remaining on the logs . The church 's interior ceiling measures approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 metres ) in height and is clad in pressed metal panels . Several of its pews date from 1857 . In the church 's adjoining cemetery , the earliest extant gravestone dates from 1834 , and several unmarked interment sites may exist from as early as 1759 . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , " Old Pine Church and cemetery is an excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes . "
= = Location = =
Old Pine Church and its cemetery are located along the steeply sloped Old Pine Church Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 220 / 15 ) , approximately 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 kilometres ) south of the unincorporated community of Purgitsville . The church and cemetery are situated on 2 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 93 hectares ) atop a bluff to the west of United States Route 220 , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 129 feet ( 344 metres ) . The property is surrounded by old @-@ growth forests .
The church is in a rural area of southwestern Hampshire County within the Mill Creek valley . Patterson Creek Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the west of Mill Creek valley , and the forested western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Mill Creek Mountain rise to the valley 's east . The Trough on the South Branch Potomac River is located across Mill Creek Mountain , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of the church .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Old Pine Church 's land tract was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .
The church is in the Mill Creek valley . As tensions with Native Americans were beginning to ease , Lord Fairfax sought to entice white settlers to the sparsely settled lands of his Northern Neck Proprietary . The valley was one of the first parts of present @-@ day Hampshire County to be settled by whites , beginning in the mid @-@ 18th century . Settlers were drawn by the valley 's fertility . As the valley 's population grew , the unincorporated community of Purgitsville developed along Mill Creek as a trading post village ; it was named for Henry Purgitt ( or Purgate ) , who acquired 400 acres ( 160 ha ) in the Mill Creek valley on January 7 , 1785 , and received a further land transfer of 137 acres ( 55 ha ) in 1794 . Purgitsville continued to develop throughout the course of the 19th century , during which time it grew to include a small store , a post office , and a blacksmith shop .
= = = Establishment = = =
The dates of the earliest church cannot be verified , but a church building may have been constructed at the site of Old Pine Church as early as around 1814 , and possibly as early as 1792 .
On September 24 , 1838 , William Pomkrotz and his wife , Milly , deeded a tract of land to a group of trustees , charged with constructing " a church or house for public worship for the use and convenience of Ministers and others of the Christians [ sic ] Denominations Whatsoever " . While the deed mentioned an existing meeting house on the site , there is no extant evidence of a prior structure . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , no particular Christian denomination received sole ownership of the edifice , which suggests that the church was intended to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . The church 's earliest resident minister was reportedly Nicholas Leatherman , whose wife , Elizabeth High , was the daughter of George High , one of the church 's original trustees .
= = = Brethren affiliation = = =
Few records of the church 's history exist , possibly because no single denomination or organization took ownership . Several Christian denominations held meetings at Old Pine Church , including the Schwarzenau Brethren ( or German Baptist Brethren ) , which began holding services at the church in the late 19th century . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's settlers were of German descent , the Old Pine Church structure may also have been built as a meeting place for Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . It is believed that Old Pine Church was also used by German Methodists . The Brethren was a Christian denomination of Anabaptist origin that practiced baptism by triune immersion and exercised nonresistance . Triune immersion consists of dipping a new believer into water three times , once for each of the entities of the Holy Trinity . Brethren adherents believed only in the New Testament , and professed no other creeds . The interior of Old Pine Church , which consists of a single common space for all worshippers , also illustrates the building 's connection with the Brethren and the denomination 's beliefs regarding slavery . According to the minutes from the 1782 meeting of the Brethren in Franklin County , Virginia , " It has been unanimously considered that it cannot be permitted in any way by the church that a member should purchase Negroes or keep them as Slaves . " While many residents in Hampshire County prior to the American Civil War were slaveholders , it is thought that Brethren adherents in the county did not own slaves or depend upon slave labor .
The Brethren denomination had been present in the South Branch Potomac River valley from as early as the 1750s although records of early Brethren congregations are not extant , possibly because they were served by itinerant ministers . As early as 1785 , two brothers with the surname of Powers led a Brethren congregation in the area . In Dr. Emmert F. Bittinger 's historical research on the Brethren Church in Hampshire County in his Allegheny Passage ( 1990 ) , it is noted that the Church of the Brethren denomination recognized Old Pine Church as belonging to the larger Beaver Run congregation , which was centered approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Old Pine Church . The Beaver Run congregation was the first organization of the Brethren in Hampshire County . Old Pine Church and its predecessor structures were probably utilized by members of the Beaver Run congregation because the distance between the northern region of the valley and the church on Beaver Run was too great to traverse easily . Thus , Old Pine Church began as a mission of the Beaver Run congregation . Because of its location in the vicinity of the Hardy County boundary line , the district served by the church spanned both counties .
By 1870 , Old Pine Church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination . Around 1870 , the Nicholas congregation of Brethren was worshiping at the church and was led by Dr. Leatherman . According to the Beaver Run Church Book , membership at Old Pine Church was 78 in 1879 and numbered 100 in 1881 . The Beaver Run congregation modified its district 's boundaries in 1879 , which may have resulted in a division of the congregation at Old Pine Church into two factions : White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church . Both churches continued to worship at Old Pine Church at different times . White Pine Church of the Brethren worshiped at the church from the 1870s until the construction of their own church building in 1907 . By 1897 , Old Pine Church remained under collective ownership by several Christian denominations although the Brethren were the church 's largest shareholders . White Pine Church of the Brethren remained listed in the Brethren Conference Minutes as " Pine Church " until 1912 , when members of the church petitioned the Brethren Conference to change their name from " Pine " to " White Pine " .
Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . A small one @-@ room addition to the church was constructed to the north façade of the building , which served as the boarding room for the school 's teacher . The Old Pine Church also continued to be used for funeral services and reunions .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to restore Old Pine Church : the church 's original windows were repaired and the unpainted weatherboards painted ; a new roof was installed and the original wood floor replaced . The boarding room addition was probably removed ( nothing of it now remains ) and the pressed metal ceiling may have been added .
= = = Current use = = =
As of 2012 , Old Pine Church is still used for community gatherings , funeral services , revival meetings , and an annual church service . Regular church services have not taken place in the church since the middle of the 20th century . The church 's adjacent cemetery also continues to be used for burials . Throughout its existence , Old Pine Church has been known by various names , including " Mill Church " , " Nicholas Church " , and simply " Pine Church " .
In 2008 , the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission embarked upon an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places following a series of surveys of historic properties throughout the county . The county received funding for the surveying and documentation of Hampshire County architecture and history from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Old Pine Church was one of the first eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register as a result of the county 's initiative . The other seven properties were : Capon Chapel , Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Springfield Brick House , and Valley View . According to Hampshire County Commission 's compliance officer , Charles Baker , places of worship were not typically selected for inclusion in the register ; Old Pine Church and Capon Chapel were exceptions because both " started out as meeting houses " . Old Pine Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , because of its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands " .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Church exterior = = =
Old Pine Church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building . Its symmetrical front façade faces west and encompasses a main entrance consisting of a double set of four @-@ paneled doors . The main entrance is reached by two concrete steps , on either side of which is a modern metal handrail . Above the entrance is a small wooden sign painted white reading " Old Pine Church " in black lettering . On either side of the doors are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows .
Placed symmetrically in the north and south sides of the church are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows . Between the two windows on the church 's north elevation is an exterior concrete block chimney . The layout of the east @-@ facing rear elevation of the church is also symmetrical , and features three nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows , with the center window placed above and between the other two windows . The church 's windows have been repaired using materials consistent with original construction .
At the base of each of the church 's four corners is a large uncut stone pier . Fieldstones span the church 's perimeter foundations , which were added at a later date to discourage intrusion by animals . The original hewn log beams , still retaining bark , can be seen under the church . The church is covered with brown @-@ painted wooden German siding and is crowned by a modern standing @-@ seam metal roof .
Architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi states that the simple form and construction of Old Pine Church are indicative of the early settlers ' access to materials and are an example of the log construction techniques used in the religious architecture of Hampshire County 's earliest settlers . She adds that Old Pine Church is representative of a " simple design and form common to the early ecclesiastical buildings " and an " excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes " .
= = = Church interior = = =
The church 's interior exhibits an open architectural plan . A plain wooden frame pulpit stands against the rear wall , underneath the middle window . The church 's floor consists of pine boards installed during the church 's 1968 restoration .
The church 's ceiling , measuring approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height , is clad in pressed metal panels . A small opening allows for access to the church 's attic . The unadorned window wells measure approximately 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . The interior walls are covered in plasterboard , which remains unfinished .
The church 's small wood @-@ burning stove originally occupied the center of the sanctuary but was moved to the church 's north wall in later years . It continues to serve as the church 's sole source of heat .
Several of the church 's pews date from 1857 and remain in use . The pews , quite simple in form , have a " minimalist appearance " . Each pew consists of a long wooden plank that serves as the seat , with a thin rail supported by three spindles as the backrest . The pews are supported by three arched supports joined to the seat by a mortise and tenon joint and reinforced with nails . The newer pews exhibit identical design elements but are constructed with modern nails and timber . Though most of the pews are arranged against the church 's west elevation with a center aisle , two are along the north elevation and four are along the south elevation . The pulpit is situated at the east elevation . There is an upright piano in the northeastern corner of the church .
= = Cemetery = =
Old Pine Church is surrounded on three sides by a cemetery containing approximately 200 interments , the oldest section of which is located to the immediate east and south of the church building . The earliest remaining gravestone dates from 1834 , but several unmarked interment sites in the surrounding cemetery may date from as early as 1759 . The church 's sign along U.S. Route 220 erroneously lists the date of the cemetery 's oldest interment sites as 1792 .
The cemetery 's headstones are oriented both to the east and to the west . The majority are simple in design , inscribed with birth and death dates , and consist of a combination of rounded , arched stones , rectangular stones , and pyramidal @-@ shaped obelisks that appear to be cut from limestone . In the cemetery 's southern section are several small rectangular stones that probably serve as footstones . Beginning around 1950 , the gravestones erected in the cemetery became more intricate with polished granite surfaces lying atop rough @-@ cut stone foundations .
Old Pine Church 's cemetery is surrounded by several mature trees , with a large oak tree overhanging the southwestern area of the cemetery . Outside of the National Register of Historic Places boundary to the northwest of Old Pine Church lies a second parcel of land acquired around 1950 for additional burials . The cemetery is enclosed by a chicken wire fence supported by wooden posts , with a large gate to the north of the church which allows machinery access into the cemetery .
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= Winter Olympic Games =
The Winter Olympic Games ( French : Jeux olympiques d 'hiver ) is a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years . Unlike the Summer Olympics , the Winter Olympics feature sports practiced on snow and ice . The first Winter Olympics , the 1924 Winter Olympics , was held in Chamonix , France . The original five sports ( broken into nine disciplines ) were bobsleigh , curling , ice hockey , Nordic skiing ( consisting of the disciplines military patrol , cross @-@ country skiing , Nordic combined , and ski jumping ) , and skating ( consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating ) . The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1936 , after which they were interrupted by World War II . The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was again held every four years . Until 1992 , the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years , but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four @-@ year cycles in alternating even @-@ numbered years , the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994 .
The Winter Games have evolved since its inception . Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them , such as Alpine skiing , luge , short track speed skating , freestyle skiing , skeleton , and snowboarding , have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic program . Others ( such as curling and bobsleigh ) have been discontinued and later reintroduced , or have been permanently discontinued ( such as military patrol , though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it ) . Still others , such as speed skiing , bandy and skijoring , were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports . The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games . It created an income stream , via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising , which has become lucrative for the IOC . This allowed outside interests , such as television companies and corporate sponsors , to exert influence . The IOC has had to address several criticisms , internal scandals , the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians , as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics . Nations have used the Winter Games to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems .
The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries . The United States has hosted the Games four times ( 1932 , 1960 , 1980 , 2002 ) ; France has been the host three times ( 1924 , 1968 , 1992 ) ; Austria ( 1964 , 1976 ) , Canada ( 1988 , 2010 ) , Japan ( 1972 , 1998 ) , Italy ( 1956 , 2006 ) , Norway ( 1952 , 1994 ) , and Switzerland ( 1928 , 1948 ) have hosted the Games twice . Germany ( 1936 ) , Yugoslavia ( 1984 ) , and Russia ( 2014 ) have hosted the Games once . The IOC has selected Pyeongchang , South Korea , to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing , China , to host the 2022 Winter Olympics . No country in the southern hemisphere has hosted or even been an applicant to host the Winter Olympics ; the major challenge preventing one hosting the games is the dependence on winter weather , and the traditional February timing of the games falls in the middle of the southern hemisphere summer .
Twelve countries – Austria , Canada , Finland , France , Great Britain , Hungary , Italy , Norway , Poland , Sweden , Switzerland and the United States – have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games . Six of those – Austria , Canada , Finland , Norway , Sweden and the United States – have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games , and only one – the United States – has earned gold at each Games . Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games .
= = Sports = =
The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to " those ... which are practised on snow or ice . " Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme ; which include short track speed skating , snowboarding , freestyle and moguls skiing . The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America . While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports , countries such as South Korea , Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports . The results are more parity in the national medal tables , more interest in the Winter Olympics and higher global television ratings .
= = = Current sport disciplines = = =
^ Note 1 . Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics . ^ Note 2 . A men 's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics . ^ Note 3 . The IOC 's website now treats Men 's Military Patrol at the 1924 games as an event within the sport of Biathlon .
= = = Demonstration events = = =
Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals . Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992 . Military patrol , a precursor to the biathlon , was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928 , 1936 and 1948 , becoming an official sport in 1960 . The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics . Bandy ( Russian hockey ) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia . In the latter it 's considered a national sport . It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games . Ice stock sport , a German variant of curling , was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria . The ski ballet event , later known as ski @-@ acro , was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992 . Skijöring , skiing behind dogs , was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928 . A sled @-@ dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932 . Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics . Winter pentathlon , a variant of the modern pentathlon , was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland . It was composed of cross @-@ country skiing , shooting , downhill skiing , fencing and horse riding .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
A predecessor , the Nordic Games , were organized by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926 . Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin . He attempted to have winter sports , specifically figure skating , added to the Olympic program but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London , United Kingdom . Four figure skating events were contested , at which Ulrich Salchow ( 10 @-@ time world champion ) and Madge Syers won the individual titles .
Three years later , Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d 'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm , Sweden . The organizers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports . The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games , which were to be held in Berlin , Germany . A winter sports week with speed skating , figure skating , ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned , but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.
The first Olympics after the war , the 1920 Summer Olympics , were held in Antwerp , Belgium , and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament . Germany , Austria , Hungary , Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games . At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics , France , would host a separate " International Winter Sports Week " under the patronage of the IOC . Chamonix was chosen to host this " week " ( actually 11 days ) of events . The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events . Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals , more than the rest of the participating nations combined . Germany remained banned until 1925 , and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele , starting with the Winter edition of 1922 ( which predated the first Winter Olympics ) . In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics .
St. Moritz , Switzerland , was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928 . Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts . The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games . Because of the weather the 10 @,@ 000 metre speed @-@ skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled . The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games : Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15 . She became the youngest Olympic champion in history , a distinction she would hold for 74 years .
The next Winter Olympics was the first to be hosted outside of Europe . Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated . This was less than in 1928 as the journey to Lake Placid , United States , was a long and expensive one for most competitors who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression . The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports . Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games , and it was not until mid @-@ January that there was enough snow to hold all the events . Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title and Eddie Eagan , who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920 , won the gold in the men 's bobsleigh event to become the first , and so far only , Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics .
The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games , held on 6 – 16 February . This would be the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year . Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut , but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals . Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games .
= = = World War II = = =
World War II interrupted the celebrations of the Winter Olympics . The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo , Japan , but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China . The Games were moved to Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , Germany , but the German invasion of Poland in 1939 forced the complete cancellation of the 1940 Games . Due to the ongoing war the 1944 Games , originally scheduled for Cortina D 'Ampezzo , Italy , were cancelled .
= = = 1948 to 1960 = = =
St. Moritz was selected to host the first post @-@ war Games in 1948 . Switzerland 's neutrality had protected the town during World War II and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games , which made St. Moritz a logical choice . It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice . Twenty @-@ eight countries competed in Switzerland , but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited . Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived , both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative . The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen , as was its replacement . There was unprecedented parity at these Games , during which 10 countries won gold medals — more than any Games to that point .
The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo , was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis . Bandy , a popular sport in the Nordic countries , was featured as a demonstration sport , though only Norway , Sweden and Finland fielded teams . Norwegian athletes won 17 medals , which outpaced all the other nations . They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition .
After not being able to host the Games in 1944 , Cortina d 'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics . At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer , Guido Caroli , entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates . As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell , nearly extinguishing the flame . He was able to recover and light the cauldron . These were the first Winter Games to be televised and the first Olympics ever broadcast nationwide , though no television rights would be sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome . The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events . The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact , winning more medals than any other nation . Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia , when he placed second in the slalom .
The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley , United States . Since the village was underdeveloped , there was a rush to construct infrastructure and sports facilities like an ice arena , speed @-@ skating track , and a ski @-@ jump hill . The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney . The Squaw Valley Olympics had a number of notable firsts : it was the first Olympics to have a dedicated athletes ' village , it was the first to use a computer ( courtesy of IBM ) to tabulate results , and the first to feature female speed skating events . The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time , because the organising committee found it too expensive to build the bobsleigh run .
= = = 1964 to 1980 = = =
The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964 . Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort , warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was asked to transport snow and ice to the sport venues . Soviet speed @-@ skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by sweeping all four speed @-@ skating events . Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes . Luge was first contested in 1964 , although the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre @-@ Olympic training run .
Held in the French town of Grenoble , the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour . There were 37 nations and 1 @,@ 158 athletes competing in 35 events . Frenchman Jean @-@ Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men 's alpine skiing events . The organising committee sold television rights for $ 2 million , which was more than double the price of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games . Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes ' villages . The organisers claimed this was required to accommodate technological advances . Critics disputed this , alleging that the layout was necessary to provide the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the expense of the athletes .
The 1972 Winter Games , held in Sapporo , Japan , were the first to be hosted outside North America or Europe . The issue of professionalism became contentious during the Sapporo Games . Three days before the Games IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar a number of alpine skiers from competing because they participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States . Brundage reasoned that the skiers had financially benefited from their status as athletes and were therefore no longer amateurs . Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz , who earned more than all the other skiers , was not allowed to compete . Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest of their inability to use players from professional leagues . Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first ( and only ) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal ; he triumphed in the slalom .
The 1976 Winter Olympics had been awarded in 1970 to Denver , United States , but in November 1972 the voters of the state of Colorado voted against public funding of the games by a 3 to 2 margin . The IOC turned to offer the Games to Vancouver @-@ Garibaldi , British Columbia , which had been a candidate for the 1976 Games . However , a change in provincial government brought in an administration which did not support the Olympic bid , so the offer was rejected . Salt Lake City , a candidate for the 1972 Games , offered itself , but the IOC opted to ask Innsbruck , which had maintained most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games . With half the time to prepare for the Games as intended , Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973 . Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time the Austrian town had hosted the Games . The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track , in neighbouring Igls . The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal .
In 1980 the Olympics returned to Lake Placid , which had hosted the 1932 Games . The first boycott of a Winter Olympics occurred in 1980 when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem . The IOC was attempting to accommodate China , who wished to compete using the same name and anthem that had been used by Taiwan . American speed @-@ skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or world record in each of the five events he competed in . Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country , Liechtenstein , became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist . In the " Miracle on Ice " the American hockey team beat the favoured Soviets , and then went on to win the gold medal .
= = = 1984 to 1998 = = =
Sapporo , Japan , and Gothenburg , Sweden , were front @-@ runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics . It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo , Yugoslavia , was selected as host . The Games were well @-@ organised and displayed no indication of the war that would engulf the country eight years later . A total of 49 nations and 1 @,@ 272 athletes participated in 39 events . Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won a silver in the giant slalom . Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean . Their performance to Ravel 's Boléro earned the pair the gold medal after achieving unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression .
In 1988 , the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span 16 days . New events were added in ski @-@ jumping and speed skating ; while future Olympic sports curling , short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their appearance as demonstration sports . For the first time the speed skating events were held indoors , on the Olympic Oval . Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records , beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race . Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen , who won all three events in his sport . Alberto Tomba , an Italian skier , made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom . East German Christa Rothenburger won the women 's 1 @,@ 000 metre speed skating event . Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul , to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year .
The 1992 Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games . They were hosted in the French Savoie region in the city of Albertville , though only 18 events were held in the city . The rest of the events were spread out over the Savoie . Political changes of the time were reflected in the Olympic teams appearing in France : this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall , and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games ; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations ; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team , but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II . At 16 years old , Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion . New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women 's slalom .
In 1986 the IOC had voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even @-@ numbered years . This change became effective for the 1994 Games , held in Lillehammer , Norway , which became the first Winter Olympics to be held separate from the Summer Games . After the division of Czechoslovakia in 1993 the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts . The women 's figure skating competition garnered media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994 , in an assault planned by the ex @-@ husband of opponent Tonya Harding . Both skaters competed in the Games , but the gold medal was won by Oksana Baiul . She became Ukraine 's first Olympic champion . Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals , coming first in all of the distance speed skating events .
The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2 @,@ 000 athletes . The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time . Canada and the United States , with their many NHL players , were favoured to win the tournament . Neither won any hockey medals however , as the Czech Republic prevailed . Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal . Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing . He became the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall . Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super @-@ g and the giant slalom . A wave of new world records were set in speed skating because of the introduction of the clap skate .
= = = 2002 to 2010 = = =
The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City , United States , hosting 77 nations and 2 @,@ 399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports . These games were the first to take place since 11 September 2001 , which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack . The opening ceremonies of the games saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day , including the flag that flew at Ground Zero , NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing " God Bless America " , and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members .
German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge , becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics . Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals . Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition . The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal . The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition , yet the Russians were awarded the gold . The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians . The only exception was the French judge , Marie @-@ Reine Le Gougne , who awarded the gold to the Russians . An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated ; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition . The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games . Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1 @,@ 000 metre short @-@ track speed skating event .
The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics . It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games . South Korean athletes won 10 medals , including 6 gold in the short @-@ track speed skating events . Sun @-@ Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun @-@ Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze . In the women 's Cross @-@ Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and , when he saw her dilemma , Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole . In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team , who finished fourth . Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals . In February 2009 Pechstein tested positive for " blood manipulation " and received a two @-@ year suspension , which she appealed . The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team . This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal , which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver .
In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver , thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics . With a population of more than 2 @.@ 5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games . Over 2 @,@ 500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events . The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds . Norwegian cross @-@ country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross @-@ country events on the women 's programme . She finished the Olympics with three golds , a silver and a bronze . The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes . From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 games , a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal @-@ winning nations . In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals . President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games . The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under @-@ performing Russian team , with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries . In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals , three of which were gold . In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty @-@ one , with eleven of them being gold . The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea , Japan and China .
= = = 2014 = = =
Sochi , Russia , was selected as the host city of the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg , Austria , and Pyeongchang , South Korea . This was the first time since the breakup of the Soviet Union that Russia hosted a Winter Olympics . Over 2800 athletes from 88 countries participated in 98 events . The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast . All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana .
The 2014 Winter Olympics , officially the XXII Olympic Winter Games , or the 22nd Winter Olympics , took place from 7 to 23 February 2014 .
= = = Future = = =
On 6 July 2011 , the IOC selected the city of Pyeongchang , South Korea to host the 2018 Winter Olympics .
The host city for the XXIV Olympic Winter Games , also known as the 2022 Winter Olympics , is Beijing , elected on 31 July 2015 , at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur . Beijing will be the first city to host both the summer and winter olympics .
= = Controversy = =
The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games . Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials . Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City 's bid . These gifts included medical treatment for relatives , a college scholarship for one member 's son and a land deal in Utah . Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $ 2 @,@ 000 . Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since , as president , he was a non @-@ voting member . The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games ( both summer and winter ) since 1988 . For example , the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano 's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as " astronomical " . Although nothing strictly illegal had been done , the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support . The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10 . New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership , and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee . Stricter rules for future bids were imposed , with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities .
= = = Host city legacy = = =
According to the IOC , the host city is responsible for , " ... establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games , such as sports planning , venues , finance , technology , accommodation , catering , media services etc . , as well as operations during the Games . " Due to the cost of hosting an Olympic Games , most host cities never realise a profit on their investment . For example , the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , cost $ 12 @.@ 5 billion . By comparison the Torino Games of 2006 cost $ 3 @.@ 6 billion to host . The organisers claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag . The organising committee hoped that the exposure of the Olympic Games , and the expedited access to Nagano from Tokyo , would be a boon to the local economy for years afterward . Nagano 's economy did experience a two @-@ year post @-@ Olympic spurt , but the long @-@ term effects have not materialised as planned . The possibility of heavy debt , coupled with unused sports venues and infrastructure that saddle the local community with upkeep costs and no practical post @-@ Olympic value , is a deterrent to prospective host cities .
To mitigate these concerns the IOC has enacted several initiatives . First it has agreed to fund part of the host city 's budget for staging the Games . Secondly , the IOC limits the qualifying host countries to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation . This eliminates a large portion of the developing world . Finally , cities bidding to host the Games are required to add a " legacy plan " to their proposal . This requires prospective host cities and the IOC , to plan with a view to the long @-@ term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region .
= = = Doping = = =
In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols . They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics . The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder , a West German hockey player , but his team was still allowed to compete . During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance @-@ enhancing drugs . The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures , which undermined the credibility of the tests . It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug @-@ testing protocols . The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( WADA ) in November 1999 .
The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping , the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin ( EPO ) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue . The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross @-@ country ski team 's residence during the Games where they seized blood @-@ doping specimens and equipment . This event followed the pre @-@ Olympics suspension of 12 cross @-@ country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of hemoglobin , which is evidence of blood doping .
= = = Commercialisation = = =
Avery Brundage , as president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interests as he felt that the Olympic movement should be completely separate from financial influence . The 1960 Winter Olympics marked the beginning of corporate sponsorship of the Games . Despite Brundage 's strenuous resistance the commercialisation of the Games continued during the 1960s , and revenue generated by corporate sponsorship swelled the IOC 's coffers . By the Grenoble Games , Brundage had become so concerned about the direction of the Winter Olympic Games towards commercialisation that , if it could not be corrected , he felt the Winter Olympics should be abolished . Brundage 's resistance to this revenue stream meant that the IOC was unable to gain a share of the financial windfall that was coming to host cities , and had no control over the structuring of sponsorship deals . When Brundage retired the IOC had $ 2 million in assets ; eight years later its accounts had swelled to $ 45 million . This was due to a shift in ideology among IOC members , towards expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights .
Brundage 's concerns proved prophetic . The IOC has charged more for television broadcast rights at each successive Games . At the 1998 Nagano Games American broadcaster CBS paid $ 375 million , whereas the 2006 Turin Games cost NBC $ 613 million to broadcast . The more television companies have paid to televise the Games , the greater their persuasive power has been with the IOC . For example , the television lobby has influenced the Olympic programme by dictating when event finals are held , so that they appear in prime time for television audiences . They have pressured the IOC to include new events , such as snowboarding , that appeal to broader television audiences . This has been done to boost ratings , which were slowly declining until the 2010 Games .
In 1986 the IOC decided to stagger the Summer and Winter Games . Instead of holding both in the same calendar year the committee decided to alternate them every two years , although both Games would still be held on four @-@ year cycles . It was decided that 1992 would be the last year to have both a Winter and Summer Olympic Games . There were two underlying reasons for this change : first was the television lobby 's desire to maximise advertising revenue as it was difficult to sell advertising time for two Games in the same year ; second was the IOC 's desire to gain more control over the revenue generated by the Games . It was decided that staggering the Games would make it easier for corporations to sponsor individual Olympic Games , which would maximise revenue potential . The IOC sought to directly negotiate sponsorship contracts so that they had more control over the Olympic " brand " . The first Winter Olympics to be hosted in this new format were the 1994 Games in Lillehammer .
= = Politics = =
= = = Cold War = = =
The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games . It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be . Soviet and American politicians used the Olympics as an opportunity to demonstrate the superiority of their respective political systems . The successful Soviet athlete was feted and honoured . Irina Rodnina , three @-@ time Olympic gold medallist in figure skating , was awarded the Order of Lenin after her victory at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck . Soviet athletes who won gold medals could expect to receive between $ 4 @,@ 000 and $ 8 @,@ 000 depending on the prestige of the sport . A world record was worth an additional $ 1 @,@ 500 . In 1978 the United States Congress responded to these measures by passing legislation that reorganised the United States Olympic Committee . It also approved financial rewards to medal @-@ winning athletes .
The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers . The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC . Because of its role in World War II , Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics . In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee , and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games . East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany . In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state , thereby giving more credibility to East Germany 's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics . The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team . The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes . The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host @-@ city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes .
= = = Boycott = = =
The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid . Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952 . China was given permission to compete as the " People 's Republic of China " ( PRC ) and to use the PRC flag and anthem . Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name " Republic of China " ( ROC ) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem . The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the " Republic of China " . The IOC renamed the island " Chinese Taipei " and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem , stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to . Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC 's decision stood . When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted . They subsequently left the Olympics in protest , just before the opening ceremonies . Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei . The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal . The agreement remains in place to this day .
= = All @-@ time medal table = =
With reference to the top ten nations and according to official data of the International Olympic Committee .
= = List of Winter Olympic Games = =
Unlike the Summer Olympics , the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games . While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads , the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves .
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= Presidio of Santa Barbara =
El Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara , also known as the Royal Presidio of Santa Barbara , is a former military installation in Santa Barbara , California , USA . The presidio was built by Spain in 1782 , with the mission of defending the Second Military District in California . In modern times , the Presidio serves as a significant tourist attraction , museum and an active archaeological site as part of El Presidio de Santa Barbara State Historic Park .
The park contains an original adobe structure called El Cuartel , which is the second oldest surviving building in California , only the chapel at Mission San Juan Capistrano , known as " Father Serra 's Church " , is older . The Presidio of Santa Barbara has the distinction of being the last military outpost built by Spain in the New World . The Presidio became a California Historical Landmark in 1958 and was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1973 .
= = Contemporary setting = =
The current El Presidio de Santa Barbara State Historic Park site sits between Anacapa and Garden Street on East Canon Perdido Street in downtown Santa Barbara . The main portion of the site is across the street from the Santa Barbara city Post Office , and is about two blocks from city hall , De la Guerra Plaza and two other museums , the Santa Barbara Historical Museum and the Casa de la Guerra .
Only two portions of the original presidio quadrangle survive to this day : the Cañedo Adobe , named for José María Cañedo , the Soldado de Cuera to whom it was deeded in lieu of back pay when the Presidio fell to inactivity , and the remnants of a two @-@ room soldiers quarters , called El Cuartel . The Cañedo Adobe is currently the visitor ’ s center for the state park , and El Cuartel is largely unmodified . The site ’ s operator , the Santa Barbara Trust for Historic Preservation ( SBTHP ) , reconstructed the rest of the site , with the most recent construction — two rooms in the northwest corner of the site — finished in May 2006 . The reconstruction is ongoing , with the construction of two more rooms in the northwest corner beginning in December 2007 .
= = History = =
The site of the Presidio was chosen by Felipe de Neve , the fourth governor of Las Californias . Perceiving that the coast at Santa Barbara was vulnerable to attack , he located a spot near a harbor which was sheltered from severe storms . In addition , there was an ample supply of both building materials and water nearby . Construction began on April 21 , 1782 , and Padre Junípero Serra blessed the site . By the next year , a temporary facility had been completed , and a wheat field planted by the local Chumash Indians of Chief Yanonalit . The early Presidio consisted of mud and brush walls around a quadrangle 330 feet on a side . The post had 61 officers and men in 1783 .
The first comandante , José Francisco Ortega , planned the fortifications and irrigation works . He obtained livestock for the presidio from Mission San Buenaventura , established orchards , and began large @-@ scale farming . In 1784 , Felipe de Goicoechea took over as comandante , supervising construction of the fortifications and living quarters for the soldiers and their families . Two years later , construction of the nearby Mission Santa Barbara began in 1786 . The pueblo or town of Santa Barbara developed around the Presidio , which offered protection for the residents . The chapel in the Presidio was the primary place of worship for the residents of early Santa Barbara , until its destruction by the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake . The mission , located a mile and a half inland , was mainly intended for use by the native Chumash ( Barbareño ) neophytes after their conversion to Catholicism .
The Presidio was built to standard plans for a Spanish colonial military headquarters , using locally available materials , so the buildings forming the outer square were constructed with thick , solid adobe outer walls . The main gate opened into an open parade ground / plaza in the center of the square . The chapel stood at the center of the back of the square , facing the gate across the plaza . While it was never attacked by a strong military force during its sixty years of operation , the Presidio was subject to the assaults of nature . Several devastating earthquakes in the early 19th century destroyed much of the structure .
In 1855 the Presidio Chapel grew into the Apostolic College of Our Lady of Sorrows , which soon became Our Lady of Sorrows Church at the corner of Figueroa and State Streets , and then at the corner of Anacapa and Sola streets in 1929 . However , both still stand separately as vibrant churches of a richly Catholic history .
= = Mexican @-@ American War = =
At the time of the Mexican @-@ American War in Alta California , very little of the fortress remained in usable condition , and on December 27 , 1846 , John C. Frémont ascended San Marcos Pass during rainy weather and came up on the Presidio and the town from behind . The Presidio surrendered without a fight , as the garrison was far south in the Pueblo de Los Angeles . Frémont had heard that the Mexican army was lying in ambush for him at Gaviota Pass , the only other sensible route over the mountains at that time , and had crossed the difficult muddy track on San Marcos Pass to outflank them , but this move turned out not to have been necessary . Mexican General Andrés Pico later surrendered his force to Frémont , recognizing that the war was lost .
= = Preservation = =
In 1963 , the Santa Barbara Trust for Historic Preservation ( SBTHP ) was founded , with the primary mission of restoring the Presidio . In 1966 , the land on which the Presidio is located became a State Historic Park . On December 27 , 2006 , the SBTHP renewed their ongoing agreement with the California State Parks Department to manage the Presidio . Work on the restoration is currently taking place . On November 26 , 1973 the Presidio of Santa Barbara was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places .
= = = Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail = = =
The Presidio of Santa Barbara is one of the designated tour sights of the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail , a National Park Service unit in the United States National Historic Trail and National Millennium Trail programs .
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= The Pointy End =
" The Pointy End " is the eighth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . First aired on June 5 , 2011 , the episode was directed by Daniel Minahan and written by George R. R. Martin , the author of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels on which the show is based .
The plot covers the aftermath of Eddard Stark 's capture . While the Lannisters seek to capture his daughters , his son and heir , Robb , raises an army in the North . Meanwhile , Daenerys witnesses a Dothraki raid on a peaceful village , and Jon Snow faces a new threat at the Wall . The episode 's title refers to the sword fighting lesson that Jon gave to Arya before their farewell : " Stick them with the pointy end . "
This episode attracted 3 @.@ 6 million viewers for the night , a series high . It was well received by critics , who praised Martin 's adaptation of his own work as well as the actors ' performances . It was dedicated to Ralph Vicinanza , an executive producer who died of natural causes . The episode garnered an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Costumes for a Series , but lost to The Borgias .
= = Plot = =
Like previous episodes , " The Pointy End " interweaves action in multiple separate locations in and around the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros .
= = = In the Mountains of the Moon = = =
As Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) and Bronn ( Jerome Flynn ) head towards Tywin Lannister 's camp , they are surrounded by one of the barbarian hill tribes of the Vale . Tyrion convinces them to serve as his escorts by promising them gold , weapons and an army to help them seize the Vale of Arryn . Tywin is displeased , but agrees to keep Tyrion 's promises if the hill tribes join the fight against the Starks . The tribesmen agree , but want Tyrion to follow them as insurance , much to Tyrion 's discomfort .
= = = In the Eyrie = = =
Catelyn ( Michelle Fairley ) confronts her sister Lysa ( Kate Dickie ) about the letter Catelyn received regarding events at King 's Landing . Lysa refuses to send troops to help the Starks against the Lannisters because she only cares for the safety of her son Robin ( Lino Facioli ) . A disgusted Catelyn leaves the Eyrie .
= = = In the North = = =
After receiving his sister 's letter ( see below ) , Robb ( Richard Madden ) decides that Cersei is manipulating Sansa . He calls his family 's bannermen to war against the Lannisters , much to Theon Greyjoy 's ( Alfie Allen ) pleasure . After gaining the respect of Stark bannerman Lord " Greatjon " Umber ( Clive Mantle ) and leaving Bran in charge of Winterfell , Robb and his army march south .
= = = In the Riverlands = = =
The Stark forces , having made camp in the Riverlands , are joined by Catelyn . During a council of war at which Robb ponders whether to attack Tywin 's or Jaime 's forces , his men present him with a captured Lannister scout . Robb decides to let him go with a message to Tywin that " winter is coming " for him , but tricks him into thinking Robb is sending his entire army of 20 @,@ 000 men to attack Tywin .
= = = At the Wall = = =
Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) , Sam ( John Bradley ) and their party return to the Wall after finding two frozen corpses . Lord Commander Mormont ( James Cosmo ) recognizes them as Benjen Stark 's fellow rangers and orders their bodies examined . Sam points out that there is no sign of decay on their corpses , even though they have apparently been dead for weeks . Later , Mormont informs Jon about events in the south and warns him to keep his commitment to the Night 's Watch . Jon loses his temper after Ser Alliser Thorne ( Owen Teale ) mocks Eddard Stark 's treason . Enraged , Jon charges at Thorne with a knife but is held back by his companions and confined to his quarters by Mormont .
Later that night , Jon 's direwolf Ghost behaves strangely , prompting Jon to investigate Mormont 's quarters . As Jon enters , he is attacked by one of the dead rangers , returned to life as a wight . The undead monster is immune to Jon 's sword , continuing to attack even after being run through and losing an arm . As Mormont enters , Jon throws a lantern at the wight , setting the wight ablaze and finally destroying it . The next morning , Mormont and the Night 's Watch burn the two bodies , and Sam tells them that he read that corpses touched by the White Walkers are reanimated and can only be killed by fire .
= = = In Lhazar = = =
Khal Drogo 's ( Jason Momoa ) khalasar sacks a Lhazareen village in order to gather funds for the ships they need to invade the Seven Kingdoms . Daenerys Targaryen ( Emilia Clarke ) is dismayed by their brutality , and after seeing Dothraki raiders gather several village women for use as sex slaves , she orders Ser Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) and her bodyguards to claim the women as hers . Challenged in front of Drogo , she defends her actions as her right as khaleesi , and demands that the raiders marry rather than enslave the women they desire . Impressed , Drogo sides with his wife , but the leading raider , Mago , is unimpressed and challenges the Khal to a duel . Mago is swiftly killed by Drogo , but not before inflicting a deep wound . Daenerys worries about the wound , and the Khal reluctantly allows one of the spared villagers , a healer by the name of Mirri Maz Duur ( Mia Soteriou ) , to treat his wounds . This attracts further ire from the Dothraki , who derisively call the woman " maegi " , a witch .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
After Ned Stark ( Sean Bean ) is imprisoned following his failed attempt to arrest Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) and Cersei Lannister ( Lena Headey ) , the Lannisters move against the rest of the Stark household . While Ned 's eldest daughter Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) is detained , Arya ( Maisie Williams ) is able to escape after her fencing teacher Syrio Forel ( Miltos Yerolemou ) holds off the Lannister men . As Arya runs outside looking for her sword , a stable boy tries to detain her for the Queen , but she fatally stabs him before fleeing the castle .
Cersei convinces Sansa that to save her father 's life , she must write a letter to her brother Robb imploring him to come to King 's Landing and swear fealty to Joffrey . Later , Joffrey and Cersei hold court , where they reward Janos Slynt , the Captain of the City Watch , with a lordship , while Tywin Lannister ( Charles Dance ) is named the new Hand of the King . Joffrey also relieves Ser Barristan Selmy ( Ian McElhinney ) as Lord Commander of the Kingsguard and gives his post to Jaime Lannister . Selmy is offered a castle and land in recognition of his service , but a furious Selmy , regarding the offer as an insult , throws his sword at Joffrey 's feet and storms out in disgust . Sansa takes the opportunity to publicly plead for her father 's life , and Joffrey agrees to show mercy if Ned will confess to treason and accept him as the rightful king .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by George R. R. Martin , the author of the book A Game of Thrones on which the series is based . Content from this episode also appears in chapters Tyrion VI , Arya IV , Sansa IV , Jon VII , Bran VI , Catelyn VIII , Tyrion VII , Sansa V , the early part of Eddard XV , and Daenerys VII of the novel . Martin has extensive experience in television writing , but it had been a decade since he had produced a teleplay . He said that he found writing this episode very easy because of his familiarity with the characters and the story , and that the hardest part was " getting used to the new screenwriting software that [ he ] had to use . "
Martin delivered the first draft of the script to the show 's executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss on May 1 , 2010 , admitting that it was probably " too long and too expensive . " In fact , one scene that Martin wrote – Robb Stark calling his father 's Northern bannermen , with a montage of eight different castles receiving the summons and riding out – was deemed impossible to film .
The first scenes depicting Tyrion descending with Bronn from the Mountains of the Moon and encountering the clansmen were not written by Martin . Since they were originally intended to be part of episode seven , they were written by that episode 's authors , David Benioff and D. B. Weiss . As often happens in TV production , the scene was moved from one episode to another during editing .
= = = Casting = = =
" The Pointy End " includes the first appearance of two significant recurring characters in the book series : Clive Mantle as the Northern bannerman Lord Jon Umber , known as the Greatjon due to his size , and Ian Gelder as Lord Tywin 's brother and right @-@ hand man Ser Kevan Lannister .
= = = Filming locations = = =
Interior scenes were filmed at The Paint Hall studio , in Belfast , including all the scenes set in the Red Keep and Winterfell . The exterior of the Stark and Lannister war camps were shot on location in the Castle Ward estate , near the village of Strangford . Audley 's Castle in the estate doubled as the ruined remains of one of Moat Cailin 's towers , seen when Catelyn and Rodrik join Robb 's army .
The scenes at the village of the Lamb Men that is sacked by the Dothraki were filmed towards the end of October 2010 in Malta , at the farming town of Manikata . For the exterior of the Red Keep where Arya recovers her sword Needle , San Anton Palace was used .
= = = Dedication = = =
The episode was dedicated to the memory of Ralph Vicinanza . He had been one of the co @-@ executive producers attached to Game of Thrones , and died in his sleep from a cerebral aneurysm on September 25 , 2010 . Vicinanza was the literary agent who handled George R. R. Martin 's foreign language rights , and ( with Vince Gerardis ) one of the co @-@ founders of the management company Created By which aimed at developing feature films and television shows based on the works of Vicinanza 's clients . He was instrumental in bringing Martin 's work to the screen , recommending the books to David Benioff and D.B. Weiss , and leading the negotiations with HBO . He died a few days after HBO greenlighted the series .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 7 million viewers for the first airing , a season high , and by another additional 900 @,@ 000 for the repeat . It therefore obtained a total audience of 3 @.@ 6 million for the night .
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Pointy End " was well received by critics . Among the most enthusiastic was Maureen Ryan from AOL TV , who called it " the best episode yet , " and wrote that she was " extremely impressed with how many moving parts were deployed smoothly and how the hour just flowed . " IGN 's Matt Fowler remarked that this mostly Ned @-@ less episode was very busy ; he enjoyed that Robb got to share the spotlight as viewers witnessed part of his " maturation . "
The episode 's multiple perspectives were commented on : James Hibberd wrote for Entertainment Weekly that " for a show that can often seem disjointed due by having so many storylines unfolding in different locations , this was the most cohesive episode we 've seen yet , as the entire realm was impacted by Ned Stark being arrested for treason . " At HitFix , Alan Sepinwall called it " by far the busiest episode of the series to date , " remarking that it not only moved " pieces around the chess board to set things up for the season 's final two episodes , " but also included " some crackling dialogue , a few good character moments and some of the best action the show has featured to date . " David Sims from the A.V. Club wrote that the episode " masterfully kept us abreast of everything going on , while sticking to the point @-@ of @-@ view style the show has held from the start . " On his blog Cultural Learnings , reviewer Myles McNutt found the episode " filled with moments where much is done with very little . We don 't really spend a sustained period in any one location , with only brief scenes possible to establish some pretty substantial story developments . "
Many critics considered that a great part of the episode 's merits were due to George R. R. Martin 's script . Sepinwall felt that " Martin didn 't get the easiest draw when he wound up having to dramatize the events depicted in ' The Pointy End , ' " but still loved the results . Mo Ryan concluded that anyone who was doubting whether Martin had forgotten about writing television scripts should now put their doubts to rest . The " expert " review from the A.V. Club by Todd VanDerWerff noted " a definite sense of Martin 's hand at work here . Characters that have never quite worked onscreen — like Sansa — suddenly feel much more alive . Characters that have been working — like Tyrion and Arya — get lots of fun stuff to play that never once feels labored . "
were also noted . According to Elio Garcia from westeros.org , " Sophie Turner really shines in her scenes . There are a lot of people out there who judge Sansa very harshly , but you would have to have a heart of stone not to sympathize with her plight in this episode . " Many reviewers agreed with this sentiment , commenting on the transition from a " spoiled brat " to a young , confused , but courageous teenager were noted by several reviewers positively . Time 's reviewer James Poniewozik emphasized the growth of Robb Stark 's character , praising both Martin 's writing and Richard Madden 's acting . Maureen Ryan highlighted the scene where Syrio Forel confronts the Lannister men to allow Arya 's escape , which she considered masterfully staged .
= = = Emmy nomination = = =
Michele Clapton ( costume designer ) and Rachael Webb @-@ Crozier ( costume supervisor ) were nominated for the 2011 Emmy Award for Outstanding Costumes for a Series for " The Pointy End " , but lost to The Borgias .
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= Grace Sherwood =
Grace White Sherwood ( c . 1660 – c . 1740 ) , known as the Witch of Pungo , is the last person known to have been convicted of witchcraft in Virginia . A farmer , healer , and midwife , she was accused by her neighbors of transforming herself into a cat , damaging crops and causing the death of livestock . She was charged with witchcraft several times ; at her eventual trial in 1706 , Sherwood was accused of bewitching Elizabeth Hill , causing Hill to miscarry . The court ordered that Sherwood 's guilt or innocence be determined by ducking her in water . If she sank , she was innocent ; if she did not , she was guilty . Sherwood floated to the surface and may have subsequently spent up to eight years in jail before being released .
Sherwood lived in Pungo , Princess Anne County ( today part of Virginia Beach ) , and married James Sherwood , a planter , in 1680 . The couple had three sons : John , James , and Richard . The elder James died in 1701 ; Grace Sherwood inherited his property and never remarried .
Sherwood 's first case was in 1697 ; she was accused of casting a spell on a bull , resulting in its death , but the matter was dismissed by the agreement of both parties . The following year she was accused of witchcraft by two neighbors ; she supposedly bewitched the hogs and cotton crop of one of them . Sherwood sued for slander after each accusation but her lawsuits were unsuccessful and her husband had to pay court costs . In 1706 she was convicted of witchcraft and was incarcerated . Freed from prison by 1714 , she recovered her property from Princess Anne County , after which she lived on her farm until her death in 1740 at the age of about 80 .
On July 10 , 2006 , the 300th anniversary of Sherwood 's conviction , Governor Tim Kaine restored her good name , recognizing that her case was a miscarriage of justice . A statue depicting her was erected near Sentara Bayside Hospital on Independence Boulevard in Virginia Beach , close to the site of the colonial courthouse where she was tried . She is sculpted alongside a raccoon , representing her love of animals , and carrying a basket containing garlic and rosemary , in recognition of her knowledge of herbal healing .
= = Family background = =
Sherwood was born in 1660 to John and Susan White . John White was a carpenter and farmer of Scottish descent ; it is uncertain whether he was born in America . Susan was English by birth ; their daughter Grace was born in Virginia , probably in Pungo .
Grace White married a respected small @-@ farm landowner , James Sherwood , in April 1680 , and they were wed in the Lynnhaven Parish Church . The couple had three sons : John , James , and Richard . John White gave the Sherwoods 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land when they married , and on his death in 1681 left them the remainder of his 145 acres ( 59 ha ) farm . The Sherwood family was poor , and lived in an area inhabited by small landowners or those with no land at all . In addition to farming , Grace Sherwood grew her own herbs , which she used to heal both people and animals . She also acted as a midwife . When James died in 1701 , Grace inherited his property . She did not remarry .
No drawings or paintings of Sherwood exist , but contemporary accounts describe her as attractive and tall and possessing a sense of humor . Sherwood grew medicinal herbs and wore trousers instead of a dress while working on her farm ; both traits were atypical of ladies of that era . This combination of clothing and good looks was said to attract men and upset their wives . Sherwood biographer and advocate Belinda Nash suggests that Sherwood 's neighbors may have been jealous of Sherwood and that the witchcraft tales may have been conjured up in an effort to remove her from , and subsequently to gain , her property . Sherwood was a party to at least a dozen lawsuits , in which she either had to defend against accusations of witchcraft , or in which she filed suits for slander , against her accusers .
= = Witchcraft and Virginia = =
The existence of witches and demonic forces was taken for granted by the American colonists — witchcraft was considered the work of the Devil . Strange behaviors supposedly identified witches to the colonists . As early as 1626 , nineteen years after the founding of the Jamestown colony , a grand jury sat to consider whether Goodwife Joan Wright was a witch — she had supposedly predicted the deaths of three women and had caused illness as revenge for not hiring her as midwife . No record of the outcome is extant . Nevertheless , Virginia did not experience the type of mass hysteria evidenced by the Salem , Massachusetts witch trials in 1692 – 1693 , where 19 people were executed on allegations of sorcery , several years before the first accusations against Sherwood . Ecclesiastical influence in Virginian courts was much less than in those of New England — Virginia 's clergy participated little in witchcraft accusations and trials , unlike their New England counterparts . New England 's Puritans had settled in towns , and community pressure helped contribute to witchcraft convictions . There were few such towns in Virginia , where the population mostly lived on farms and plantations , scattered over a large area .
Virginia 's lay and religious leaders sought to prosecute offenses such as gossip , slander , and fornication , which they felt were a threat to social stability in the new colony . They wished to avoid witchcraft prosecutions , which were divisive . Virginia courts were reluctant to hear accusations of witchcraft and were even more reluctant to convict . Unlike the Salem witch trial courts , where the accused had to prove her innocence , in Virginia courts the accuser carried the burden of proof . Further , Virginia courts generally ignored evidence said to have been obtained by supernatural means , whereas the New England courts were known to convict people based solely on it . Virginia required proof of guilt through either searches for witch 's marks or ducking . Judges and magistrates would dismiss unsubstantiated cases of witchcraft and allow the accusers , who found themselves " under an ill tongue " , to be sued for slander . Frances Pollard of the Virginia Historical Society states : " It was pretty clear that Virginia early on tried to discourage these charges being brought of witchcraft because they were so troublesome . " People 's fears of witchcraft in Virginia were not based on their religious beliefs as much as they were rooted in folklore , although the two often intermingled . The southeastern corner of Virginia around present @-@ day Norfolk and Virginia Beach ( where Pungo is located ) , saw more accusations of witchcraft than other areas . According to Leslie M. Newman , this may have been due to local poverty as there was no cultural elite to restrain such prosecutions .
Although few Virginia records survive from that era , 19 known witchcraft cases were brought there during the 17th century , all but one of which ended in acquittal . The one conviction was a 1656 case of a man convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to 10 stripes and banishment from the county . There were no executions for witchcraft in Virginia . Nonetheless , as late as in 1736 , Virginia 's justices of the peace were reminded that witchcraft was still a crime , and that first offenders could expect to be pilloried and jailed for up to a year . In 1745 , John Craig , a Presbyterian minister in Augusta County , Virginia , made assertions of witchcraft after his child and several of his animals died , and was in response accused of using evil arts to divine who was responsible . Neither he nor those who accused him brought their claims to court to face " unsympathetic magistrates " , though prosecution for witchcraft was still possible in Virginia . The last Virginia witchcraft trial took place in 1802 in Brooke County , which is now in West Virginia . In that case , a couple claimed that a woman was a witch , an accusation ruled slanderous .
The trial by ducking ( immersing the accused , bound , in water , to see if she would float ) appears to have been used only once in Virginia , to try Sherwood . It was believed that , as water was considered pure , it would reject witches , causing them to float , whereas the innocent would sink .
= = Accusations against Sherwood = =
= = = Initial claims of witchcraft = = =
Sherwood was first charged with witchcraft in a court case held in early 1697 , in which Richard Capps alleged that she had used a spell to cause the death of his bull . The court made no decision on this charge ; the Sherwoods then filed a defamation suit against Capps that was discontinued when the parties came to an agreement . In 1698 , Sherwood was accused by her neighbor John Gisburne of enchanting his pigs and cotton crop . No court action followed this accusation , and another action for defamation by the Sherwoods also failed . In the same year Elizabeth Barnes alleged that Sherwood had assumed the form of a black cat , entered Barnes ' home , jumped over her bed , drove and whipped her , and left via the keyhole . Again the allegation was unresolved , and again the subsequent defamation action was lost . For each of the failed actions Sherwood and her husband had to pay court related costs .
According to Richard Beale Davis in his journal article on witchcraft in Virginia , by this time " Princess Anne County had obviously grown tired of Mrs. Sherwood as a general nuisance " . In 1705 , Sherwood was involved in a fight with her neighbor , Elizabeth Hill . Sherwood sued Hill and her husband for assault and battery , and on December 7 , 1705 , was awarded damages of twenty shillings ( 1 pound sterling ) . On January 3 , 1706 , the Hills accused Grace Sherwood of witchcraft , although she failed to answer the charge in court . On February 7 , 1706 , the court ordered her to appear on a charge of having bewitched Elizabeth Hill , causing a miscarriage .
= = = Trial by water = = =
Proceedings resumed in March 1706 ; the Princess Anne County justices sought to empanel two juries , both made up of women . The first was ordered to search Sherwood 's home for waxen or baked figures that might indicate she was a witch . The second was ordered to look for " demon suckling teats " by examining her . In both instances , reluctance on the part of the local residents made it difficult to form a jury and both juries refused to carry out the search . On March 7 , 1706 , Sherwood was examined by a jury of 12 " ancient and knowing women " appointed to look for markings on her body that might be brands of the Devil . They discovered two " marks not like theirs or like those of any other woman " . The forewoman of this jury was the same Elizabeth Barnes who had previously accused Sherwood of witchcraft .
Neither the colonial authorities in Williamsburg nor the local court in Princess Anne were willing to declare Sherwood a witch . Those in Williamsburg considered the charge overly vague , and on April 16 instructed the local court to examine the case more fully . For each court appearance , Sherwood had to travel 16 miles ( 26 km ) from her farm in Pungo to where the court was sitting .
On May 2 , 1706 , the county justices noted that while no particular act of maleficium had been alleged against Sherwood , there was " great cause of suspicion " . Consequently , the Sheriff of Princess Anne County took Sherwood into custody , though Sherwood could give bond for her appearance and good behavior . Maximilian Boush , a warden of Lynnhaven Parish Church , was the prosecutor in Sherwood 's case . On July 5 , 1706 , the justices ordered a trial by ducking to take place , with Sherwood 's consent , but heavy rains caused a postponement until July 10 , as they feared the wet weather might harm her health . Sherwood was taken inside Lynnhaven Parish Church , placed on a stool and ordered to ask for forgiveness for her witchery . She replied , " I be not a witch , I be a healer . "
At about 10 a.m. on July 10 , 1706 , Sherwood was taken down a dirt lane now known as Witchduck Road , to a plantation near the mouth of the Lynnhaven River . News had spread , and the event attracted people from all over the colony , who began to shout " Duck the witch ! " According to the principles of trial by water , if Sherwood floated she would be deemed guilty of witchcraft ; if she did not , she would be innocent . It was not intended that Sherwood drown ; the court had ordered that care be taken to preserve her life .
Five women of Lynnhaven Parish Church examined Sherwood 's naked body on the shoreline for any devices she might have to free herself , and then covered her with a sack . Six of the justices that had ordered the ducking rowed in one boat 200 yards ( 180 m ) out in the river , and in another were the sheriff , the magistrate , and Sherwood . Just before she was pushed off the boat Sherwood is said to have stated , under clear skies , " Before this day be through you will all get a worse ducking than I. " Bound across the body – her right thumb to her left big toe and her left thumb to her right big toe – she was " cast into the river " , and quickly floated to the surface . The sheriff then tied a 13 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) Bible around her neck . This caused her to sink , but she untied herself , and returned to the surface , convincing many spectators she was a witch . As Sherwood was pulled out of the water a downpour reportedly started , drenching the onlookers . Several women who subsequently examined her for additional proof found " two things like titts on her private parts of a black coller [ color ] " . She was jailed pending further proceedings .
= = = Aftermath = = =
What happened to Sherwood after her ducking is unclear as many court records have been lost . She served an unknown time in the jail next to Lynnhaven Parish Church , perhaps as long as seven years and nine months . She was ordered to be detained " to be brought to a future trial " , but no record of another trial exists , so it is possible the charge was dismissed at some point . On September 1 , 1708 , she was ordered to pay Christopher Cocke 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) of tobacco for a reason not indicated in surviving records , but there is no mention of the payment . She appears to have been released some time in or before 1714 , since in that year she paid back taxes on her 145 @-@ acre ( 59 ha ) property — which Virginia Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood helped her to recover from Princess Anne County- on the banks of Muddy Creek off what is now Muddy Creek Road . She lived the remainder of her life quietly until her death in 1740 , aged about 80 . She is believed to have died in August or September 1740 . Her will was proved on October 1 , 1740 ; it noted that she was a widow . She left five shillings each to her sons James and Richard and everything else to her eldest son John .
According to legend , Sherwood 's sons put her body near the fireplace and a wind came down the chimney . Her body disappeared amid the embers , with the only clue being a cloven hoofprint . Sherwood lies in an unmarked grave under some trees in a field close to the intersection of Pungo Ferry Road and Princess Anne Road in Virginia Beach . Stories about the Devil taking her body , unnatural storms , and loitering black cats quickly arose after her death , and local men killed every feline they could find ; this widespread killing of cats might have caused the infestation of rats and mice recorded in Princess Anne County in 1743 . Her home on Muddy Creek stood for over 200 years until burning in the 1990s . The property is now owned by the Federal Government as part of Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge .
= = Legacy = =
Grace Sherwood 's case was little known until Virginia Beach historian and author Louisa Venable Kyle wrote a children 's book about her in 1973 . Called The Witch of Pungo , it is a collection of seven local folk tales written as fiction , although based on historical events . Sherwood 's story was adapted for Cry Witch , a courtroom drama at Colonial Williamsburg , the restored early capital of Virginia .
A statue by California sculptor Robert Cunningham depicting Sherwood with a raccoon and a basket of rosemary was unveiled on April 21 , 2007 , on the site of the present @-@ day Sentara Bayside Hospital , close to the sites of both the colonial courthouse and the ducking point . The raccoon represents Sherwood 's love of animals and the rosemary her knowledge of herbal healing . A Virginia Department of Historic Resources marker ( K @-@ 276 ) was erected in 2002 , about 25 yards ( 23 m ) from Sherwood 's statue . The place of her watery test and the adjacent land are named Witch Duck Bay and Witch Duck Point . A portion of Virginia State Route 190 in Virginia Beach , a north – south thoroughfare on its western side which traverses Interstate 264 at exit numbers 14 – 16 , has been named " Witchduck Road " . Other commemorations in Virginia Beach include Sherwood Lane and Witch Point Trail . A local legend in Virginia Beach states that all of the rosemary growing there came from a single plant Sherwood carried in an eggshell from England .
Belinda Nash , in addition to writing a biography of Sherwood , worked tirelessly to get her pardoned . Governor Tim Kaine officially restored Sherwood 's good name on July 10 , 2006 , the 300th anniversary of her conviction . Annual reenactments of the ducking have taken place since 2006 . No one is actually ducked in these events , which embark from a spot across from Ferry Plantation House along Cheswick Lane , which is very close to Witch Duck Bay . According to local residents , a strange moving light , said to be Sherwood 's restless spirit , still appears each July over the spot in Witch Duck Bay where Sherwood was thrown into the water .
In 2014 , a memorial marker was placed at a herb garden of the Old Donation Episcopal Church , Sherwood 's former parish church .
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= Mark Satin =
Mark Ivor Satin ( born November 16 , 1946 ) is an American political theorist , author , and newsletter publisher . He is best known for contributing to the development and dissemination of three political perspectives – neopacifism in the 1960s , New Age politics in the 1970s and 1980s , and radical centrism in the 1990s and 2000s . Satin 's work is sometimes seen as building toward a new political ideology , and then it is often labeled " transformational " , " post @-@ liberal " , or " post @-@ Marxist " . One historian calls Satin 's writing " post @-@ hip " .
After emigrating to Canada at the age of 20 to avoid serving in the Vietnam War , Satin co @-@ founded the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme , which helped bring American war resisters to Canada . He also wrote the Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada ( 1968 ) , which sold nearly 100 @,@ 000 copies . After a period that author Marilyn Ferguson describes as Satin 's " anti @-@ ambition experiment " , Satin wrote New Age Politics ( 1978 ) , which identifies an emergent " third force " in North America pursuing such goals as simple living , decentralism , and global responsibility . Satin spread his ideas by co @-@ founding an American political organization , the New World Alliance , and by publishing an international political newsletter , New Options . He also co @-@ drafted the foundational statement of the U.S. Green Party , " Ten Key Values " .
Following a period of political disillusion , spent mainly in law school and practicing business law , Satin launched a new political newsletter and wrote a book , Radical Middle ( 2004 ) . Both projects criticized political partisanship and sought to promote mutual learning and innovative policy syntheses across social and cultural divides . In an interview , Satin contrasts the old radical slogan " Dare to struggle , dare to win " with his radical @-@ middle version , " Dare to synthesize , dare to take it all in " .
Satin has been described as " colorful " and " intense " , and all his initiatives have been controversial . Bringing war resisters to Canada was opposed by many in the anti @-@ Vietnam War movement . New Age Politics was not welcomed by many on the traditional left or right , and Radical Middle dismayed an even broader segment of the American political community . Even Satin 's personal life has generated controversy .
= = Early years = =
Many mid @-@ 1960s American radicals came from small cities in the Midwest and Southwest , as did Satin : he grew up in Moorhead , Minnesota , and Wichita Falls , Texas . His father , who saw combat in World War II , was a college professor and author of a Cold War @-@ era textbook on Western civilization . His mother was a homemaker .
As a youth , Satin was restless and rebellious , and his behavior did not change after leaving for university . In early 1965 , at age 18 , he dropped out of the University of Illinois to work with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in Holly Springs , Mississippi . Later that year , he was told to leave Midwestern State University , in Texas , for refusing to sign a loyalty oath to the United States Constitution . In 1966 he became president of a Students for a Democratic Society chapter at the State University of New York at Binghamton , and helped recruit nearly 20 % of the student body to join . One term later he dropped out , then emigrated to Canada to avoid serving in the Vietnam War .
Just before Satin left for Canada , his father told him he was trying to destroy himself . His mother told the Ladies ' Home Journal she could not condone her son 's actions . Satin says he arrived in Canada feeling bewildered and unsupported . According to press accounts , many Vietnam War resisters arrived feeling much the same way .
= = Neopacifism , 1960s = =
= = = Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme = = =
As 1967 began , many American pacifists and radicals did not look favorably on emigration to Canada as a means of resisting the Vietnam War . For some this reflected a core conviction that effective war resistance requires self @-@ sacrifice . For others it was a matter of strategy – emigration was said to be less useful than going to jail or deserting the military , or was said to abet the war by siphoning off the opposition . At first , Students for a Democratic Society and many Quaker draft counselors opposed promoting the Canadian alternative , and Canada 's largest counseling group , the Anti @-@ Draft Programme of the Student Union for Peace Action ( SUPA ) – whose board consisted largely of Quakers and radicals – was sympathetic to such calls for prudence . In January 1967 its spokesman warned an American audience that immigration was difficult and that the Programme was not willing to act as " baby sitters " for Americans after they arrived . He added that he was tired of talking to the press .
When Mark Satin was hired as director of the Programme in April 1967 , he attempted to change its culture . He also tried to change the attitude of the war resistance movement toward emigration . His efforts continued after SUPA collapsed and he co @-@ founded the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme , with largely the same board of directors , in October 1967 . Instead of praising self @-@ sacrifice , he emphasized the importance of self @-@ preservation and self @-@ development to social change . Rather than sympathizing with pacifists ' and radicals ' strategic concerns , he rebutted them , telling The New York Times that massive emigration of draft @-@ age Americans could help end the war , and telling another reporter that going to jail was bad public relations .
Where the Programme once publicized the difficulties of immigration , Satin emphasized the competence of his draft counseling operation , and even told of giving cash to immigrants who were without funds . Instead of refusing to " baby sit " Americans after they arrived , Satin made post @-@ emigration assistance a top priority . The office soon sported comfortable furniture , a hot plate , and free food ; within a few months , 200 Torontonians had opened their homes to war resisters and a job @-@ finding service had been established . Finally , rather than expressing indifference to reporters , Satin courted them , and many responded , beginning with a May 1967 article in The New York Times Magazine that included a large picture of Satin counseling Vietnam War resisters in the refurbished office . Some of the publicity focused on Satin as much as on his cause . According to historian Pierre Berton , Satin was so visible that he became the unofficial spokesman for war resisters in Canada .
Satin defined himself as a neopacifist or quasi @-@ pacifist – flexible , media @-@ savvy , and entrepreneurial . He told one journalist he might have fought against Hitler . He was not necessarily opposed to the draft , telling reporters he would support it for a defensive army or to help eliminate poverty , illiteracy , and racial discrimination . He avoided the intellectual framework of traditional pacifism and socialism . Sometimes he spoke with emotion , as when he described the United States to The New York Times Magazine as " [ t ] hat godawful sick , foul country ; could anything be worse ? " Sometimes he spoke poetically , as when he told author Jules Witcover , " It 's colder here , but you feel warm because you know you 're not trying to kill people . " Instead of identifying with older pacifists , he identified with a 17 @-@ year @-@ old character from the pen of J. D. Salinger : " I was Holden Caulfield " , he said in 2008 , " just standing and catching in the rye . "
The results of Satin 's approach were noticeable : the Programme went from averaging fewer than three visitors , letters , and phone calls per day just before he arrived , to averaging 50 per day nine months later . In addition , the American anti @-@ war movement became more accepting of emigration to Canada – for example , author Myra MacPherson reports that Satin 's Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada could be obtained at every draft counseling office in the U.S. However , Satin 's approach was distressing to the traditional pacifists and socialists on the Programme 's board . The board clashed with Satin over at least 10 political , strategic , and performance issues . The most intractable may have been over the extent of the publicity . There were also concerns about Satin 's personal issues ; for example , one war resister claims to have heard him say , " Anonymity would kill me " . In May 1968 , the board finally fired him .
= = = Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada = = =
Before Satin was fired , he conceived and wrote , and edited guest chapters for , the Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada , published in January 1968 by the House of Anansi Press in partnership with the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme . The Programme had issued brochures on emigration before – including a 12 @-@ page version under Satin 's watch – but the Manual was different , a comprehensive , 45 @,@ 000 @-@ word book , and it quickly turned into an " underground bestseller " . Many years later , Toronto newspapers reported that nearly 100 @,@ 000 copies of the Manual had been sold . One journalist calls it the " first entirely Canadian @-@ published bestseller in the United States " .
The Programme was initially hesitant about producing the Manual , which promised to draw even more war resisters and publicity to it . " The [ board ] didn 't even want me to write it " , Satin says . " I wrote it at night , in the SUPA office , three or four nights a week after counseling guys and gals 8 to 10 hours a day – pounded it out in several drafts over several months on SUPA 's ancient Underwood typewriter . " When it finally appeared , some leading periodicals helped put it on the map . For example , The New York Review of Books called it " useful " , and The New York Times said it contains advice about everything from how to qualify as an immigrant to jobs , housing , schools , politics , culture , and even the snow . After the war , sociologist John Hagan found that more than a third of young American emigrants to Canada had read the Manual while still in the United States , and nearly another quarter obtained it after they arrived .
The Manual reflected Satin 's neopacifist politics . Commentators routinely characterized it as caustic , responsible , and supportive . The first part of the Manual , on emigration , suggests that self @-@ preservation is more important than sacrifice to a dubious cause . The second half , on Canada , spotlights opportunities for self @-@ development and social innovation . According to Canadian social historian David Churchill , the Manual helped some Canadians begin to see Toronto as socially inclusive , politically progressive , and counter @-@ cultural .
Inevitably , the Manual became a lightning rod for controversy . Some observers took issue with its perspective on Canada ; most notably , The Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature criticizes its " condescending tone " in describing Canada 's resources . Elements in the U.S. and Canadian governments may have been upset by the Manual . According to journalist Lynn Coady , the FBI and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) attempted to wiretap the House of Anansi Press 's offices . In addition , Anansi co @-@ founder Dave Godfrey is convinced a 10 @-@ day government audit of the press was generated by FBI – RCMP concerns . Many people did not want the Programme to encourage draft @-@ eligible Americans to emigrate to Canada , and Satin routinely denied that the Manual encouraged emigration . But few observers believed him , then or later . The first sentence of an article in The New York Times from 1968 describes the Manual as " a major bid to encourage Americans to evade military conscription " . Canadian essayist Robert Fulford remembers the Manual as offering an enthusiastic welcome to draft dodgers . Even a House of Anansi Press anthology from 2007 concedes that the Manual is " coyly titled " .
Satin was fired from the Programme soon after the appearance of the second edition of the Manual , which had a print run of 20 @,@ 000 . His name was removed from the title page of most subsequent editions . According to a study of the Manual by critic Joseph Jones in Canadian Notes & Queries , a literary journal , some later editions experienced a falloff in quality . Nevertheless , Jones says the Manual stands as an icon of its age . It has made significant appearances in at least five novels , including John Irving 's A Prayer for Owen Meany , and it continues to be pored over by historians , social scientists , and graduate students .
= = = Confessions of a Young Exile = = =
Until the 1990s , literary critic William Zinsser says , memoir writers tended to conceal their most personal and embarrassing memories . In the 1970s Satin wrote a memoir revealing many such memories as a neopacifist activist during the years 1964 – 66 , Confessions of a Young Exile , published by Gage , a Toronto publishing house soon to merge with Macmillan of Canada . Confessions is " a remarkable exercise in self @-@ exposure " , playwright John Lazarus says in a review . " The insights into the hero 's motives and fears are so honest , and so mortifyingly true , that it soon becomes evident that the [ naive ] tone is deliberate . "
To some reviewers , Satin appears to have had a political goal – encouraging activists to establish common ground with ordinary North Americans on the basis of their shared confusion and humanity . For example , Jackie Hooper , writing in The Province , argues that the purity of motives projected by many pacifist activists is unconvincing , and recommends Satin 's more complex view : " Satin 's emigration wasn 't dictated totally by his idealism . More often than not , he talked himself into radical positions ... as a result of trying to impress his peers or his girlfriend , or rebelling against middle @-@ class parental authority " .
Some reviewers were unenthusiastic . For example , Dennis Duffy , writing in The Globe and Mail , describes Satin 's memoir as a " story about a young man who doesn 't grow up " . In addition , Satin 's publisher began having reservations about him . Many years later , the Toronto Star reported that the publisher decided not to let Satin do any publicity for the book , because of his potentially offensive views .
= = New Age politics , 1970s – 1980s = =
= = = New Age Politics , the book = = =
As the 1970s began , the New Left faded away , and many movements arose in its wake – among them the feminist , men 's liberation , spiritual , human potential , ecology , appropriate technology , intentional community , and holistic health movements . After graduating from the University of British Columbia in 1972 , Satin immersed himself in all these movements , either directly or as a reporter for Canada 's underground press . He also took up residence in a free @-@ love commune . " One fierce winter 's day " , he says , " ... it dawned on me that the ideas and energies from the various ' fringe ' movements [ were ] beginning to generate a coherent new politics . But I looked in vain for the people and groups that were expressing that new politics ( instead of merely bits and pieces of it ) " . Satin set out to write a book that would express the new politics in all its dimensions . He wrote , designed , typeset , and printed the first edition of New Age Politics himself , in 1976 . A 240 @-@ page edition was published by Vancouver 's Whitecap Books in 1978 , and a 349 @-@ page edition by Dell Publishing Company in New York in 1979 . It is now widely regarded as the " first " , " most ambitious " , or " most adequate " attempt to offer a systemic overview of the new post @-@ socialist politics arising in the wake of the New Left . Some academics say it offers a new ideology .
At the heart of New Age Politics is a critique of the consciousness we all supposedly share , a " six @-@ sided prison " that has kept us all trapped for hundreds of years . The six sides of the " prison " are said to be : patriarchal attitudes , egocentricity , scientific single vision , the bureaucratic mentality , nationalism ( xenophobia ) , and the " big city outlook " ( fear of nature ) . Since consciousness , according to Satin , ultimately determines our institutions , prison consciousness is said to be ultimately responsible for " monolithic " institutions that offer us little in the way of freedom of choice or connection with others . Some representative monolithic institutions are : bureaucratic government , automobile @-@ centered transportation systems , attorney @-@ centered law , doctor @-@ centered health care , and church @-@ centered spirituality .
To explain how to break free of the prison and its institutions , Satin develops a " psychocultural " class analysis that reveals the existence of " life- " , " thing- " , and " death @-@ oriented " classes . According to Satin , life @-@ oriented individuals constitute an emerging " third force " in post @-@ industrial nations . The third force is generating a " prison @-@ free " consciousness consisting of androgynous attitudes , spirituality , multiple perspectives , a cooperative mentality , local @-@ and @-@ global identities , and an ecological outlook . To transform prison society , Satin argues , the third force is going to have to launch an " evolutionary movement " to replace – or at least supplement – monolithic institutions with life @-@ affirming , " biolithic " ones . Some representative biolithic institutions are : deliberative democracy as an alternative to bureaucratic government , bicycles and mass transit as an alternative to the private automobile , and mediation as an alternative to attorney @-@ centered law . According to Satin , the third force will not have to overthrow capitalism , since Western civilization – not capitalism – is said to be responsible for the prison . But the third force will want to foster a prison @-@ free New Age capitalism through intelligent regulation and elimination of all subsidies .
The reaction to New Age Politics was , and continues to be , highly polarized . Many of the movements Satin drew upon to construct his synthesis received it favorably , though some took exception to the title . Some maverick liberals and libertarians are drawn to the book . It was eventually published in Sweden and Germany , and European New Age political thinkers came to see it as a precursor of their own work . Others see it as proto @-@ Green . Ever since its first appearance , though , and continuing into the 21st century , New Age Politics has been a target of criticism for two groups in the United States : conservative Christians and left @-@ wing intellectuals .
Among conservative Christians , there are cultural , political , and moral objections . Attorney Constance Cumbey warns that the book can be " seductive " to those who lack an adequate Biblical education . Theologians Tim LaHaye and Ron Rhodes are convinced Satin wants a centralized and coercive world government . Moral philosopher Douglas Groothuis says Satin 's vision is unsound because it lacks an absolute standard of good and evil . Among left @-@ leaning academics , criticism focuses on Satin 's theoretical underpinnings . Political scientist Michael Cummings takes issue with the idea that consciousness is ultimately determining . Science @-@ and @-@ society professor David Hess rejects the idea that economic class analysis should give way to psychocultural class analysis . A lengthy , systemic critique of New Age Politics , by communication studies professor Dana L. Cloud , accuses it of employing a " therapeutic rhetoric [ ] generated to console activists after the failure of post @-@ 1968 revolutionary movements and to legitimate participation in liberal politics " .
= = = Organizing the New World Alliance = = =
After U.S. President Jimmy Carter pardoned Vietnam War resisters in 1977 , Satin began giving talks on New Age Politics in the United States . His first talk received a standing ovation , and he wept . Every talk seemed to lead to two or three more , and " the response at New Age gatherings , community events , fairs , bookstores , living rooms , and college campuses " kept Satin going for two years . By the second year he began laying the groundwork for the New World Alliance , a national political organization based in Washington , D.C. " I went systematically to 24 cities and regions from coast to coast " , he told the authors of the book Networking . " I stopped when I found 500 [ accomplished ] people who said they 'd answer a questionnaire … on what a New Age @-@ oriented political organization should be like – what its politics should be , what its projects should be , and how its first directors should be chosen . " .
The New World Alliance convened its first " governing council " meeting in New York City in 1979 . The 39 @-@ member council was chosen by the questionnaire @-@ answerers themselves , out of 89 who volunteered to be on the ballot . Political scientist Arthur Stein describes the council as an eclectic collection of educators , feminists , businesspeople , futurists , think @-@ tank fellows , and activists . One of the council 's announced goals was to break down the division between left and right . Another was to help facilitate a thorough transformation of society . Satin was named staff member of the Alliance .
Expectations ran high among supporters of a post @-@ liberal , post @-@ Marxist politics , and the governing council did initiate several projects . For example , a series of " Political Awareness Seminars " attempted to help participants understand and learn to work with their political opponents . In addition , a " Transformation Platform " attempted to synthesize left- and right @-@ wing approaches to dozens of public policy issues . But within three years the Alliance fell apart , unable to establish stable chapters in any major cities . Author Jerome Clark suggests the cause was the Alliance 's commitment to consensus @-@ building in all its groups and projects ; within months , he notes , one member was complaining that the Alliance had turned into a " diddler 's cult " . Another explanation focuses on the failure – or inability – of the hyper @-@ democratic questionnaire process to select an appropriate governing council .
Satin was devastated by the decline of the Alliance , and engaged in unhappy bouts of public criticism and self @-@ criticism . " We would rather be good than do good " , he told editor Kevin Kelly . " We would rather be pure than mature . We are the Beautiful Losers . " As time went on , though , the Alliance came to be regarded positively by many observers . For example , author Corinne McLaughlin sees it as one of the first groups to offer an agenda for the new transformational politics . In an academic text , political scientist Stephen Woolpert acknowledges it as a precursor of North American Green parties .
= = = New Options Newsletter = = =
After four or five New World Alliance governing council meetings , Satin became tired of what he saw as empty rhetoric , and decided to do something practical – start a political newsletter . He raised $ 91 @,@ 000 to launch the venture , from 517 people he had met on his travels , and within a few years had built it into what think @-@ tank scholar George Weigel described as " one of the hottest political newsletters in Washington [ , D.C. ] . ... [ It ] has gotten a fair amount of [ national ] attention , and perhaps even some influence , because it self @-@ consciously styles itself ' post @-@ liberal ' . " Satin published 75 issues of New Options from 1984 to 1992 , virtually half a million words . He wrote nearly all the articles . In 1989 New Options received Utne Reader 's first " Alternative Press Award for General Excellence : Best Publication from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 Circulation " . In 1990 The Washington Post identified New Options as one of 10 periodicals spearheading " The Ideology Shuffle " . Twenty @-@ five of its articles were published as a book by a university press .
Satin wanted New Options to make the visionary perspective of New Age Politics seem pragmatic and realizable . He also wanted New Options to spread the New Age political ideology more effectively than the New World Alliance had done . To those ends , he challenged traditional views across the political spectrum , and he expanded the scope of politics to include subjects like love and relationships . In her book Do You Believe in Magic ? , culture critic Annie Gottlieb says New Options offered :
an explosive short course in political possibility . ... What are the best books and groups in the consumer empowerment ( not " protection " ) and neighborhood self @-@ reliance movements ? Who is working on practical , compassionate , populist alternatives to the welfare state and the big @-@ business state ? What is the best way to cut the budget deficit ? What can we learn from the Sri Lankan Sarvodaya ( local self @-@ help ) and Polish Solidarity movements ? Each issue presents ideas , names and addresses , and a crossfire of reader debate .
" I think the reason New Options works is it has a particular tone " , Satin told one reporter . " It 's as idealistic as many of us were in the 1960s , but ... without the childishness " .
New Options owed its rise to more than just content and tone , however . Positioning was also a factor . The New Age political movement was cresting in the 1980s , and it needed a political periodical . Satin 's book New Age Politics had helped define the movement , and the New Options advisory board – a collection of prominent post @-@ liberal thinkers – gave the newsletter further credibility . At the outset it included Lester R. Brown , Ernest Callenbach , Fritjof Capra , Vincent Harding , Willis Harman , Hazel Henderson , Petra Kelly , Amory Lovins , Joanna Macy , Robin Morgan , John Naisbitt , Jeremy Rifkin , Carl Rogers , Theodore Roszak , Kirkpatrick Sale , Charlene Spretnak , and Robert Theobald , and over the years it added such figures as Herman Daly , Marilyn Ferguson , Jane Jacobs , Winona LaDuke , and Robert Rodale .
New Options did not succeed in all quarters . Jules Feiffer , for example , often seen as being on the liberal @-@ left , called it " irritating " and " neo @-@ yuppie " . Jason McQuinn , often seen as a radical , objected to what he perceived as its relentless American optimism . George Weigel , often seen as a conservative , said it consisted largely of a cleverly repackaged leftism . Satin himself turned out to be one of the newsletter 's critics . " I could have edited New Options forever " , he wrote in 2004 . " But , increasingly , I was becoming dissatisfied with my hyper @-@ idealistic politics " . His experiences in the U.S. Green politics movement contributed to that dissatisfaction .
= = = " Ten Key Values " of the U.S. Green Party = = =
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Green parties were making inroads all over the world . A slogan of the West German Greens was , " We are neither left nor right ; we are in front " . Some observers , notably British Green Party liaison Sara Parkin , saw the New World Alliance and New Options Newsletter as Green entities . Others saw the early Greens as one expression of New Age politics . In 1984 , Satin was invited to the founding meeting of the U.S. Green politics movement , and he became a founding member . The meeting chose him , along with political theorist Charlene Spretnak , to draft its foundational political statement , " Ten Key Values " . Some accounts recognize futurist and activist Eleanor LeCain as a co @-@ equal drafter . The drafters drew on suggestions recorded on a flip chart during a marathon plenary brainstorming session , as well as on suggestions received by Satin and Spretnak during the meeting and for many weeks afterward .
The original " Ten Key Values " statement was approved by the Greens ' national steering committee and released in late 1984 . The values in the original statement are : Ecological Wisdom , Grassroots Democracy , Personal and Social Responsibility , Nonviolence , Decentralization , Community @-@ based Economics , Postpatriarchal Values , Respect for Diversity , Global Responsibility , and Future Focus . One unusual aspect , say many observers , is the way the values are described ; instead of declaratory statements full of " shoulds " and " musts " , each value is followed by a series of open @-@ ended questions . " That idea ... came from Mark Satin " , Spretnak told scholar Greta Gaard in 1997 . Its effect , says sociologist Paul Lichterman , was to promote dialogue and creative thinking in local Green groups across the U.S.
The original values statement was , and remains , controversial . U.S. Green Party co @-@ founder John Rensenbrink credits it with helping to unify the often contentious Greens . However , party co @-@ founder Howie Hawkins sees it as just a watered @-@ down , " spiritual " , and " New Age " version of the German Greens ' Four Pillars statement . Greta Gaard says it fails to call for the elimination of capitalism or racism . Looking back after 20 years , Green activist Brian Tokar said that " the voice of the original [ values ] questions is distinctly personal … and aims to avoid fundamental conflicts with elite social and cultural norms . " A " modified " list of the Ten Key Values became part of the U.S. Greens ' political platform . However , all the open @-@ ended questions were replaced by declaratory sentences , and the U.S. Greens have come to be regarded as a party of the left , rather than one seeking to be neither left nor right .
Satin himself quit the Greens in 1990 . He gave a featured speech at the U.S. Green gathering in 1987 urging them to avoid hyper @-@ detailed platform writing and other projects and specialize in one thing – running people for office who endorse the Ten Key Values . But the speech failed to persuade . After the Green gathering in 1989 , he urged them to abandon hippie @-@ era fears of money , authority , and leadership . After the 1990 gathering he complained " I 've been Pure before , " an allusion to his time in the New World Alliance . According to Greta Gaard , he then bid farewell to the Greens , but recognized it as a loss : " Whatever I may think of their internal battles and political prospects , the Greens are My People . Their life choices are my life choices ; their failings mirror my own . " Within a year of voicing those words , he stopped New Options Newsletter and applied to law school .
= = Radical centrist politics , 1990s – 2000s = =
= = = Radical Middle Newsletter = = =
The 1990s are remembered , by many in the West , as a time of relative prosperity and satisfaction . According to some historians , visionary politics appeared to be on the decline . However , even after Satin entered New York University School of Law in 1992 , he expressed no desire to abandon his project of helping to construct a post @-@ liberal , post @-@ Marxist ideology . He did admit to being disillusioned with his approach . " I knew my views ( and I personally ) would benefit from engagement with the real world of commerce and professional ambition " , he wrote .
After graduating in 1995 , Satin worked for a Manhattan law firm focusing on complex business litigation . He also wrote about financial and legal issues . He did not dislike his work , but felt he was " sleepwalking " because he was not doing what he loved , writing about visionary politics . With six former law school classmates , he began planning a political newsletter that could accommodate all he was learning about business and law . In 1998 he returned to Washington , D.C. , to launch Radical Middle Newsletter .
As the title indicates , it sought to distance itself from New Age politics . If the term " New Age " suggests utopianism , the term " radical middle " suggests , for Satin and others , keeping at least one foot firmly on the ground . Satin attempted to embrace the promise but also the balance implied by the term . One feature story is entitled " Tough on Terrorism , and Tough on the Causes of Terrorism " . Another feature story attempts to go beyond polarized positions on biotechnology . Another argues that corporate activity abroad can best be seen as neither inherently moral nor inherently imperialistic , but as a " chance for mutual learning " . The board of advisors of Radical Middle Newsletter signaled Satin 's new direction . It was politically diverse , and many of its members sought to promote dialogue or collaboration across ideological divides . By the end of 2004 it included John Avlon , Don Edward Beck , Jerry H. Bentley , Esther Dyson , Mark P. Painter , Shelley Alpern of the Social Investment Forum , James Fallows of the New America Foundation , Jane Mansbridge of the Harvard Kennedy School , John D. Marks and Susan Collin Marks of Search for Common Ground , and William Ury , co @-@ author of Getting to Yes .
Radical Middle Newsletter proved controversial . Many responded positively to Satin 's new direction . A professor of management , for example , wrote that unlike Satin 's former newsletter , Radical Middle spoke about " reality " . Scholarly books began citing the newsletter . In a book on globalization , Walter Truett Anderson said Radical Middle " carries the encouraging news of an emerging group with a different voice , one that is ' nuanced , hopeful , adult ' . ... It is essentially a willingness to listen to both sides of the argument . " But three objections were often heard . Some critics accused Satin of misguided policy proposals , as when peace studies scholar Michael N. Nagler wrote that the article " praising humanitarian military intervention as the ' peace movement ' of our time , is nothing short of an insult ... to the real peace movement " [ emphasis in original ] . Other critics accused Satin of abandoning his old constituency , as when author and former New Options advisor David Korten chided him for consciously choosing pragmatism over idealism . There were also accusations of elitism , as when the executive editor of Yes ! magazine said Satin favored globalization because it appealed to his interests and those of his " law school buddies " .
New Options Newsletter was based on the theories set forth in New Age Politics . But Satin 's approach to his radical middle project was eclectic and experimental . His contribution to radical centrist political theory , the book Radical Middle , was not published until 2004 , the newsletter 's sixth year . Until then , the only glimpse Satin gave of his larger vision appeared in an article he wrote for an academic journal .
= = = Radical Middle , the book = = =
Satin 's book Radical Middle : The Politics We Need Now , published by Westview Press and Basic Books in 2004 , attempts to present radical centrism as a political ideology . It is considered one of the two or three " most persuasive " or most representative books on the subject , and it received the " Best Book Award " for 2003 and 2004 from the Section on Ecological and Transformational Politics of the American Political Science Association . It also generated – like all of Satin 's works – criticism and controversy .
Satin presents Radical Middle as a revised and evolved version of his New Age Politics book , rather than as a rejection of it . Some observers had always seen him as a radical centrist . As early as 1980 , author Marilyn Ferguson identified him as part of what she called the " Radical Center " . In 1987 , culture critic Annie Gottlieb said Satin was trying to prompt the New Age and New Left to evolve into a " New Center " . But the revisions Satin introduces are substantial . Instead of defining politics as a means for creating the ideal society , as he did in New Age Politics , he defines radical middle politics as " idealism without illusions " – more creative and future @-@ oriented than politics @-@ as @-@ usual , but willing to face " the hard facts on the ground " . Rather than arguing that change will be brought about by a third force , he says most Americans are already radical middle – " we 're very practical folks , and we 're very idealistic and visionary as well . "
Although Satin argues in New Age Politics that Americans need to change their consciousness and decentralize their institutions , in Radical Middle he says they can build a good society if they adopt and live by Four Key Values : maximize choices for all Americans , give every American a fair start , maximize every American 's human potential , and help the peoples of the developing world . Instead of finding those values in the writings of contemporary theorists , Satin says they are just new versions of the values that inspired 18th @-@ century American revolutionaries : liberty , equality , pursuit @-@ of @-@ happiness , and fraternity , respectively . He calls Benjamin Franklin the radical middle 's favorite Founding Father , and says Franklin " wanted us to invent a uniquely American politics that served ordinary people by creatively borrowing from all points of view . "
In New Age Politics , Satin chooses not to focus on the details of public policy . In Radical Middle , however , Satin develops a raft of policy proposals rooted in the Four Key Values . ( Among them : universal access to private , preventive health insurance , class @-@ based rather than race @-@ based affirmative action , mandatory national service , and opening U.S. markets to more products from poor nations . ) In New Age Politics , Satin calls on " life @-@ oriented " people to become radical activists for a New Age society . In Radical Middle , Satin calls on people of every political stripe to work from within for social change congruent with the Four Key Values .
Satin 's mandatory national service proposal drew significant media coverage , in part because of his status as a draft refuser . Satin argues that a draft could work in the United States if it applied to all young people , without exception , and if it gave everyone a choice in how they would serve . He proposes three service options : military ( with generous benefits ) , homeland security ( at prevailing wages ) , and community care ( at subsistence wages ) . On Voice of America radio , Satin presented his proposal as one drawing equally from the best of the left and the right . On National Public Radio , he emphasized its fairness .
Radical Middle provokes three kinds of responses : skeptical , pragmatic , and visionary . Skeptical respondents tend to find Satin 's beyond @-@ left @-@ and @-@ right policy proposals to be unrealistic and arrogant . For example , political writer Charles R. Morris says " Satin 's nostrums " echo the " glibness and overweening self @-@ confidence ... in Roosevelt 's brain trust , or in John F. Kennedy 's . " Similarly , the policy director of the Democratic Leadership Council says Satin 's book " ultimately places him in the sturdy tradition of ' idealistic ' American reformers who think smart and principled people unencumbered by political constraints can change everything . "
Pragmatic observers tend to applaud Satin 's willingness to borrow good ideas from the left and the right . But these respondents are typically more drawn to Satin as a policy advocate – or as a counterweight to partisan militants like Ann Coulter – than they are to him as a political theorist . For example , Robert Olson of the World Future Society warns Satin against presenting the radical middle as a new ideology .
Visionary respondents typically appreciate Satin 's work as a policy advocate . But they also see him as attempting something rarer and , according to spiritual writer Carter Phipps , richer – raising politics to a higher level by synthesizing truths from all the political ideologies . Author Corinne McLaughlin identifies Satin as one of those creating an ideology about ideologies . She quotes him :
Coming up with a solution is not a matter of adopting correct political beliefs . It is , rather , a matter of learning to listen – really , listen – to everyone in the circle of humanity , and to take their insights into account . For everyone has a true and unique perspective on the whole . [ Many ] years ago the burning question was , How radical are you ? Hopefully someday soon the question will be , How much can you synthesize ? How much do you dare to take in ?
= = Later life = =
Life changed for Satin after writing and publicizing his Radical Middle book . In 2006 , at the age of 60 , he moved from Washington , D.C. , to the San Francisco Bay Area to reconcile with his father , from whom he had been estranged for 40 years . " With the perspective of time and experience , " Satin told one reporter , " I can see [ my father ] was not altogether out to lunch . " Later that year Satin discovered his only life partner . He describes it as " no accident " .
In 2009 Satin revealed he was losing his eyesight as a result of macular edema and diabetic retinopathy . He stopped producing Radical Middle Newsletter but expressed a desire to write a final political book . From 2009 to 2011 he presented occasional guest lectures on " life and political ideologies " in peace studies classes at the University of California , Berkeley . In 2015 he produced a " 40th Anniversary Edition " of his book New Age Politics .
= = Assessment = =
Satin has been a controversial public figure since the age of 20 . Assessments of his significance vary widely .
Some observers see him as an exemplary figure . David Armstrong , for example , in his study of independent American journalism , presents Satin as an embodiment of the " do @-@ it @-@ yourself spirit " that makes an independent press possible . Futurists Jessica Lipnack and Jeffrey Stamps portray Satin as a pioneer " networker " who spent two years riding the bus across the U.S. in an attempt to connect like @-@ minded thinkers and activists . Marilyn Ferguson , author of The Aquarian Conspiracy , says that by engaging in a lifelong series of personal and political experiments with few resources , Satin is playing the role of the holy " Fool " for his time .
Other observers stress the freshness of Satin 's political vision . Social scientists Paul Ray and Sherry Anderson , for example , argue that Satin anticipated the perspectives of 21st century social movements better than nearly anyone . Humanistic psychologist John Amodeo says Satin is one of the few political theorists to grasp the connection between personal growth and constructive political change . Ecofeminist Greta Gaard claims that Satin " played a significant role in facilitating the articulation of Green political thought " . Peace researcher Hanna Newcombe finds a spiritual dimension in Satin 's politics . Political scientist Christa Slaton 's short list of " nonacademic " transformationalists consists of Alvin and Heidi Toffler , Fritjof Capra , Marilyn Ferguson , Hazel Henderson , Betty Friedan , E. F. Schumacher , John Naisbitt , and Mark Satin .
Some see Satin as a classic example of the perpetual rebel and trace the cause back to his early years . For example , author Roger Neville Williams focuses on the harshness and " paternalistic rectitude " of Satin 's parents . Novelist Dan Wakefield , writing in The Atlantic , says Satin grew up in a small city in northern Minnesota like Bob Dylan but did not have a guitar to express himself with . According to historian Frank Kusch , the seeds for rebellion were planted when Satin 's parents moved him at age 16 from liberal Minnesota to still @-@ segregated Texas .
Although many observers praise or are intrigued by Satin , many find him dismaying . Memoirist George Fetherling , for example , remembers him as a publicity hound . Literary critic Dennis Duffy calls him incapable of learning from his experiences . Green Party activist Howie Hawkins sees him as a political opportunist . The Washington Monthly portrayed him in his 50s as a former New Age " guru " , and Commonweal compares reading him to listening to glass shards grate against a blackboard .
Other observers see Satin as an emotionally wounded figure . For example , historian Pierre Berton calls him a " footloose wanderer " and says that he hitchhiked across Canada 16 times . Culture critic Annie Gottlieb , who attributes Satin 's wounds to his struggle against the Vietnam War , points out that even as a successful newsletter publisher in Washington , DC , he paid himself the salary of a monk .
The major substantive criticisms of Satin 's work have remained constant over time . His ideas are sometimes said to be superficial ; they were characterized as childish in the 1960s , naive in the 1970s , poorly reasoned in the 1980s and 1990s , and overly simple in the 2000s . His ideas have also occasionally been seen as not politically serious , or as non @-@ political in the sense of not being capable of challenging existing power structures . His work is sometimes said to be largely borrowed from others , a charge that first surfaced with regard to his draft dodger manual , and was repeated to varying degree by critics of his books on New Age politics and radical centrism .
Satin has long been faulted for mixing views from different parts of his political odyssey . In the 1970s , for example , Toronto Star editor Robert Nielsen argued that Satin 's leftist pacifism warps his New Age vision . Three decades later , public @-@ policy analyst Gadi Dechter argued that Satin 's New Age emotionalism and impracticality blunt his radical @-@ centrist message . At 58 , Satin suggested his message could not be understood without appreciating all the strands of his personal and political journey :
From my New Left years I took a love of political struggle . From my New Age years I took a conviction that politics needs to be about more than endless struggle – that responsible human beings need to search for reconciliation and healing and mutually acceptable solutions . From my time in the legal profession I took an understanding ( and it is no small understanding ) that sincerity and passion are not enough – that to be truly effective in the world one needs to be credible and expert . …
Many Americans are living complicated lives now – few of us have moved through life in a straight line . I think many of us would benefit from trying to gather and synthesize the difficult political lessons we 've learned over the course of our lives .
= = Publications = =
= = = Books = = =
Radical Middle : The Politics We Need Now , Basic Books , 2004 , orig . Westview Press , 2004 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8133 @-@ 4190 @-@ 3 . Radical @-@ centrist ideas presented as an integrated political ideology .
New Options for America : The Second American Experiment Has Begun , foreword by Marilyn Ferguson , The Press at California State University / Southern Illinois University Press , 1991 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8093 @-@ 1794 @-@ 3 . Twenty @-@ five cover stories from Satin 's New Options Newsletter .
New Age Politics : Healing Self and Society , Delta Books / Dell Publishing Co . , 1979 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 440 @-@ 55700 @-@ 5 . New Age political ideas presented as an integrated political ideology .
Confessions of a Young Exile , Gage Publishing Co . / Macmillan of Canada , 1976 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7715 @-@ 9954 @-@ 5 . Memoir covering the years 1964 – 66 .
Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada , House of Anansi Press , 1968 . [ ISBN unspecified ] . OCLC 467238 . Preserve oneself and change the world . Satin wrote Part One ( " Applying " ) and solicited and edited the materials in Part Two ( " Canada " ) . OCLC retrieved December 13 , 2013 .
= = = Newsletters = = =
Radical Middle Newsletter , 120 issues , 1999 – 2009 . ISSN 1535 @-@ 3583 . Originally hard @-@ copy only , now largely online . Newsletter retrieved April 17 , 2011 , ISSN retrieved September 28 , 2011 .
New Options Newsletter , 75 issues , 1984 – 1992 . ISSN 0890 @-@ 1619 . Originally hard @-@ copy only , now partially online . Newsletter retrieved October 18 , 2014 , ISSN retrieved September 28 , 2011 .
= = = Selected articles and interviews = = =
" The New Age 40 Years Later " , The Huffington Post , April 25 , 2016 . Interview by Rick Heller of the Humanist Community at Harvard . Retrieved July 16 , 2016 .
" The Three Committees " , Civil Rights Movement Veterans website , " Our Stories " section , 2015 . Semi @-@ autobiographical short story about being an estranged Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee volunteer in Mississippi in 1965 . Retrieved December 9 , 2015 .
" Mark Satin on the Politics of the Radical Middle " , National Public Radio audiotape , July 9 , 2004 . Interview by Tony Cox for The Tavis Smiley Show . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
" Where 's the Juice ? " , The Responsive Community , vol . 12 , no . 4 ( 2002 ) , pp. 70 – 75 . Critical review of Ted Halstead and Michael Lind 's book The Radical Center . Retrieved April 17 , 2011
" Law and Psychology : A Movement Whose Time Has Come " , Annual Survey of American Law , vol . 51 , no . 4 ( 1994 ) , pp. 583 – 631 . Early argument for what is now called " therapeutic jurisprudence " .
" 20th Anniversary Rendezvous : Mark Satin " , Whole Earth Review , issue no . 61 , winter 1988 , p . 107 . Interview by Kevin Kelly .
" Do @-@ It @-@ Yourself Government " , Esquire , April 1983 , pp. 126 – 28 . Early attempt to present New Age political ideas as pragmatic and centrist .
= = = Satin and neopacifism = = =
Vietnam War Resisters in Canada . Essays , memoirs , and documents . Includes material on Satin 's Manual for Draft @-@ Age Immigrants to Canada . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme . History site . Includes excerpts from news articles about TADP , excerpts from letters to TADP , and an essay by Satin from 2014 . Retrieved June 29 , 2014 .
Civil Rights Movement Veterans . Essays , " testimony , " and documents . Satin 's contribution is here [ 1 ] . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
Mark Satin Papers , in the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library at University of Toronto . Correspondence , documents , and other materials related to Satin 's time at the Toronto Anti @-@ Draft Programme and his subsequent activities in Canada , through 1978 . Retrieved October 17 , 2012 .
= = = Satin and New Age politics = = =
New World Alliance . History page . Includes media excerpts and links to brochure and " Transformation Platform " . Retrieved April 30 , 2014 .
Context Institute : Introduction to In Context . Satin was a founding advisor to editor Robert Gilman 's In Context quarterly from 1983 – 1992 . Retrieved December 30 , 2014 .
The Other Economic Summit – USA . Satin was an advisor to the U.S. board of this U.K.-based activist group from 1987 – 1992 . Retrieved January 5 , 2013 .
Green Party of California . Green politics with the original Spretnak @-@ Satin " Ten Key Values " statement largely intact . Retrieved January 7 , 2012 .
New World Alliance and New Options : Correspondence Files , 1977 – 1992 , in the Contemporary Culture Collection at Temple University Libraries . Includes over 4 @,@ 000 letters to Satin 's New Options Newsletter . Retrieved January 4 , 2012 .
Mark Satin Papers , 1973 – 1992 , in the Joseph A. Labadie Collection at Hatcher Library , University of Michigan . Correspondence , personal memoir , and other materials pertaining to New Age Politics and the New Age portion of Satin 's life . Retrieved January 4 , 2013 .
= = = Satin and radical centrism = = =
Mark Satin 's website . Features selected Radical Middle Newsletter articles from 1999 – 2009 . Retrieved April 17 , 2011 .
The Future 500 . Satin was a senior fellow here from 2010 – 2011 . Retrieved September 5 , 2011 .
We the People Declaration : A Call for Dialogue . Created by Satin and 21 politically diverse others ( including Tom Atlee , Bob Barr , David Keene , Joseph F. McCormick , and Vicki Robin ) in 2004 . Reproduced on the National Coalition for Dialogue & Deliberation website . Retrieved January 22 , 2015 .
John Vasconcellos obituary . Satin was a founding advisor to California politician John Vasconcellos 's " Politics of Trust Network " from 2002 – 2009 . Retrieved January 3 , 2016 .
Mark Satin Papers , 1993 – 2009 , in the Joseph A. Labadie Collection at Hatcher Library , University of Michigan . Correspondence and documents , public and private , covering the " radical middle " portion of Satin 's life . Retrieved January 4 , 2013 .
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= Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben =
Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( 1551 – 1637 ) was Countess of Mansfeld and the daughter of Johann ( Hans ) Georg I , of Mansfeld Eisleben . She converted Gebhard , Seneschal of Waldburg , the Prince @-@ Elector of Electorate of Cologne and archbishop of the Diocese of Cologne to the Protestant faith , leading to the Cologne War ( 1583 – 1588 ) .
After a multiple year odyssey in which she and her husband sought refuge in several parts of northern Germany , Gebhard relinquished his claim on the Electorate . They settled in Strassbourg , where he had retained a position in the Cathedral chapter . After his death in 1601 , she came under the protection of the Duke of Wūrttemberg , who had himself been chased from his duchy . She died in 1637 .
= = Affair = =
Agnes was the daughter of Johann ( Hans ) Georg I , of Mansfeld Eisleben ( 1515 – 14 August 1579 ) , and his wife , Katharina of Mansfeld @-@ Hinterort ( 1521 / 1525 – 1580 / 1583 ) . Although born and raised in the town of Mansfeld , in Saxony , as an adult , Agnes von Mansfeld Eisleben became a Protestant canoness at a cloister in Gerresheim , today a district of Düsseldorf . Agnes ' sister Sibilla lived in the city of Cologne , having married to the Freiherr ( baron ) Peter von Kriechingen ; although a member of the cloister , Agnes was not bound to it and was free during her days to move about the city . She visited Sibilla one day , and was noticed by the Elector of Cologne , Gebhard , Truchsess von Waldburg . Reportedly a beautiful woman ( she was also known as the lovely Mansfeld girl ) he sought her out , and they started a liaison . Two of her brothers , Hoyer and Ernst , visited Gebhard at the archbishop 's palace in the electoral capital of Bonn , and convinced him to marry her .
She insisted Gebhard first convert to Calvinism . The difficulties of a conversion by a Catholic Archbishop and Prince @-@ elector of the Holy Roman Empire had been faced before : Hermann von Wied had also converted to Protestantism , and had resigned from his office . Similarly , Gebhard 's immediate predecessor , Salentin IX of Isenburg @-@ Grenzau had resigned to marry when it appeared his family line would become extinct . Initially , it appeared that Gebhard would resign . However , several of his associates in the Cathedral chapter convinced him that he could have the lady and the Electorate . Before Christmas in 1582 , he proclaimed the Reformation from the pulpit in Cologne , establishing Protestantism on parity with Catholicism in the archdiocese .
This declaration of parity between Protestantism and Catholics in an electoral territory contravened the Religious Peace of Augsburg established in 1555 . In this document , to which the all the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire agreed , confirmed the co @-@ existence of Lutheranism and Catholicism in select polities were both religious were already established ; in all other regions , the principle of Cuius regio , eius religio ( loosely translated from Latin as " Whose realm , his religion " ) confirmed the religion of the reigning sovereign to be the religion of his subjects . Any other Christian religious practice , such as Calvinism , was considered heresy .
= = = Unlikely match = = =
Gebhard 's conversion under the influence of Agnes caused more than a ripple of scandal in the aristocratic circles of the Holy Roman Empire . Descended as he was from the hereditary seneschals of Waldburg , Gebhard came from a line of stalwart Catholic defenders of what was considered the universal faith . One of his uncles was the bishop of Augsburg ; his grandfather 's brother had been a general in the German Peasants ' War of 1525 and instrumental in the destruction of the German Peasant army . The family had been long @-@ time supporters of Habsburg dynastic aspirations and policies , and key advisers for in the often @-@ troubled Imperial relationships with the Swabian Imperial circle ( Kreis ) . Gebhard himself had been raised in a Catholic tradition , and strongly influenced by the Jesuits in his education . His career had been solely focused on obtaining a preferential position in the ecclesiastical hierarchy , and his election as the archbishop of Cologne , in a close contest with the equally @-@ qualified Wittelsbach candidate , attested not to the diligence and application of his personal faith , but his family 's Imperial influence .
On the other side of the relationship , Agnes came from a family of dedicated Lutherans ; the town in which she was born and raised , and whose name she bore , Eisleben , was also Martin Luther 's home town . Her father and her uncles had been signatories of the Book of Concord , established in 1580 as the doctrinal standard of the Lutheran faith . Luther himself had negotiated a settlement to a disagreement between her uncles and her brothers over inheritance and succession issues . Her placement in the religious community at Gerresheim was a factor of her nobility and her family 's connections ; although she came from the impoverished side of the old Mansfeld house , her family continued to wield influence in Imperial , Saxon , and religious circles , although it is unclear why she was placed in a Calvinist convent .
The marriage of this seeming unlikely pair caused a scandal throughout the Empire . At 27 @-@ years @-@ of @-@ age , Gebhard had apparently abjured the matrimonial life in his acceptance of the church career often reserved for a second or third son of noble families . If he had converted to Lutheranism and resigned from his electoral and episcopal responsibilities , the marriage might have made a ripple in social circles , but his refusal to give up his electoral and episcopal responsibilities , his declaration of the electorate as henceforth a dynastic property , however , made his marriage of utmost political importance . Furthermore , his conversion to Calvinism was heresy , because Calvinism was not one of the two legal professions of faith accepted by the Peace of Augsburg in 1556 .
= = War = =
News of the pending marriage became public in late November 1582 , but it was still unclear what Gebhard would do . Precedent suggested he would resign prior to his marriage , but rumors abounded that he would convert the Electorate to Protestantism , perhaps forcibly . Throughout the Electorate , and on its borders , his supporters and opponents gathered their troops , armed their garrisons , stockpiled food , and prepared for war . On 19 December 1582 , Gebhard announced his conversion , from , as he phrased it , the " darkness of the papacy to the Light " of the Word of God . His proclamation of the Reformation from the Cathedral pulpit in the Imperial City of Cologne established Calvinism as a religious option in the Electorate . He also intended to convert the electorate into a dynastic property generated an uproar among the other Prince @-@ electors . The transformation of an important ecclesiastical territory into a secular , dynastic duchy would then bring the principle of cuius regio , eius religio into play in the Electorate . Under this principle , all of Gebhard 's subjects would be required to convert to his faith : his rule , his religion .
The conversion of the Archbishop of Cologne to Protestantism also triggered religious and political repercussions throughout the Holy Roman Empire . Gebhard 's conversion had widespread implications for the future of the Holy Roman Empire 's electoral process , established by the Golden Bull of 1356 . The council continued for more than a year , and eventually moved to other cities ; although several times they seemed close to negotiating a conclusion to the crisis , a successful agreement remained beyond their reach . They also offered Gebhard a sum of money to relinquish his claim , which he refused on the high moral grounds of religious principle .
Agnes and Gebhard married on 2 February 1583 in Bonn and retired to the Elector 's country seat in Poppelsdorf to celebrate their nuptials . Within weeks , the Cathedral chapter had deposed Gebhard , electing in his place an old opponent , Ernst of Bavaria , the brother of Wilhelm V , Duke of Bavaria , who immediately set about raising an army with the help of his brother the duke , and his second brother , Ferdinand of Bavaria . In the spring and summer , Agnes and Gebhard did likewise , traveling to different parts of the electorate , raising an army , and extending the Protestant cause . By October , Ernst 's brother Ferdinand entered the electorate from the south , near Koblenz . In their northward progress , they left a path of fire and destruction . Agnes and Gebhard fled , as Poppelsdorf , then Godesberg , and later the capital city of the electorate , Bonn , were over @-@ run and destroyed .
Initially , the couple fled to Vest Recklinghausen , a fiefdom of the Electorate . There , Agnes and Gebhard encouraged an outbreak of iconoclasm that destroyed many well @-@ known and beloved religious sites ; the Reformation had already been wrought in Vest and Recklinghausen , and many of the inhabitants had converted to the new faith . The burst of iconoclastic energy , indulged predominantly by Gebhard 's troops and not by the inhabitants themselves , alienated the residents from Gebhard , his wife , and their cause . With local support , Catholic armies chased the couple from Vest Recklinghausen later in the year . Gebhard and Agnes escaped with approximately 1000 cavalry and some infantry .
A multiple year odyssey followed , as Agnes and her husband sought refuge in the northern territories of the Electorate at the castle Arensberg , and later at the city of Delft , with William I of Orange . Living in the Netherlands , they became acquainted with Elizabeth 's envoy , Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester , and entered into lengthy negotiations with Elizabeth 's Court to obtain support for Gebhard 's cause ; these efforts failed to garner assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen or in any other quarter . In 1585 , Agnes reportedly traveled to England in a futile effort to seek assistance from Elizabeth I , but this claim has been refuted by modern scholars .
After his once prosperous electorate was ruined by war , Gebhard relinquished his claim on it in 1588 . Ernst of Bavaria , had recruited the assistance of Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma . By some twist of fate , her first cousin , Karl von Mansfeld , was in the service of the Duke of Parma at the Destruction of Neuss , a critical battle that turned the tide of war against her husband .
= = Peace in Strassbourg = =
In 1589 , they could not return to the Electorate territories , which her husband had relinquished , nor could she , a married lady , return to the convent at Gerresheim . They sought refuge in Strassbourg , a stronghold of Calvinism . Gebhard had been a member of the Cathedral Chapter there since 1576 . Three other canons from Cologne had also taken refuge in Strassbourg after 1583 . Shortly after their marriage in 1583 , Gebhard had written his Testament in which he left his estate to his brother , Karl , and a life @-@ time annuity to Agnes , and charged Karl with her safety and protection . Karl died on 18 June 1593 , and was buried in the Strasbourg cathedral ; Gebhard wrote a codicil leaving Agnes to the care and protection of the Dukes of Württemberg . Gebhard died on 21 May 1601 . Until her death in 1637 , she lived under the protection of the Dukes , first Friedrich I , later Johann Friedrich and then his son Eberhard . She was buried in Sulzbach .
= = = Literature = = =
Rafaela Matzigkeit , Schön , fromm , sittsam , tugendhaft ... Agnes von Mansfeld im Spiegel der Geschichte und Literatur ( Beautiful , pious , modest and chaste , Agnes von Mansfeld in the history and literature ) . In : Rund um den Quadenhof ( Düsseldorf @-@ Gerresheim ) 47 ( 1996 ) , S. 9 – 17 und S. 17 – 23
Johann Baptist Durach , Gebhard der Zweite , Kurfürst von Köln , und Agnes von Mannsfeld , Kanonissinn von Girrisheim . Eine Bischofslegende aus dem sechszehnten Jahrhundert ( Gebhard the 2nd , Prince of Cologne , and Agnes of Mansfeld , Cannoness of Gerresheim , A bishop 's legend from the 16th century ) . Geb . Hochleiter und Komp . , Wien und Leipzig 1791 .
Christoph Sigismund Grüner , Gebhard , Churfürst von Cöln , und seine schöne Agnes ( Gebhard , Prince of Cologne , and his beautiful Agnes ) Ursache und Veranlassung des gestörten Religionsfriedens , der Union und des dreißigjährigen Krieges . Eine historisch @-@ romantische Ausstellung , frei , nach geschichtlichen Quellen , Goebbels und Unzer , Königsberg 1806 .
Carl August Gottlieb Seidel , Die unglückliche Constellation oder Gräfin Agnes von Mannsfeld . Eine Sage aus der zweiten Hälfte des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts , ( The Unfortunate Constellation , or the Countess of Mansfeld , a story of the second half of the 16th century . ) Supprian , Leipzig 1796 .
Eugenie Tafel : Gräfin Agnes aus dem Hause Mansfeld . Erzählung aus dem 16 . Jahrhundert , ( Countess Agnes of the House of Mansfeld , Tales of the 16th century ) , Schloeßmann , Gotha 1897 .
= = Genealogy = =
Father : Johann Georg I of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben
Mother : Katharina of Mansfeld @-@ Hinterort
Children :
Count Ernst IV of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.13 January 1544 )
Princess Maria of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.3 / 12 / 1545 )
Count Hoyer of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1546 )
Count Peter of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1548 )
Count Philipp of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1550 )
Princess Agnes of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1551 )
Princess Anna of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1552 )
Princess Catharina of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1554 )
Princess Dorothea of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1555 )
Princess Esther of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1556 )
Princess Sibilla of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.1557 )
Count Jobst of Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( b.14 April 1558 )
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= Stuart Tomlinson =
Stuart Charles Tomlinson ( born 22 May 1985 ) is an English professional wrestler and retired professional football goalkeeper . He is signed to WWE , where he performs under the ring name Hugo Knox .
As a footballer , Tomlinson progressed from the Crewe Alexandra youth team to turn professional in 2003 . He spent the next six years with the club , spending part of 2004 on loan at Stafford Rangers , and playing once on loan for Burton Albion in 2008 . He spent the 2009 – 10 campaign at Conference club Barrow , where he shared goalkeeping responsibilities with Tim Deasy . He then signed with Port Vale , and was favoured ahead of Chris Martin for the 2010 – 11 and 2011 – 12 campaigns , before choosing to leave the club in July 2012 . He signed with Burton Albion in September 2012 , but retired through injury in July 2013 .
In December 2013 , Tomlinson began training as a professional wrestler on a developmental contract with WWE , making his debut at a WWE NXT live event on 8 November 2014 .
= = Football career = =
= = = Crewe Alexandra = = =
Having graduated through the club 's youth academy , Tomlinson made his senior debut for Crewe Alexandra in a Second Division clash with Oldham Athletic on 25 January 2003 , replacing Danny Milosevic on 51 minutes after the Australian suffered an injury . He conceded a goal to Chris Armstrong after his view was obscured by a group of players , though Crewe ran out 3 – 1 winners at Boundary Park . At the end of the season he signed his first professional contract , and Crewe were promoted into the First Division as runners up in the Second Division .
His second game came on 17 March 2004 at the Boleyn Ground ; he replaced Clayton Ince after 86 minutes with the score 4 – 2 to West Ham United , after Ince was stretchered off with a knee injury . The eighteen @-@ year @-@ old held his nerve in front of over 30 @,@ 000 spectators and no goals were scored in the brief period he was on the pitch . Later in the year he had a loan spell at local non @-@ league side Stafford Rangers .
After recovering from a twisted ankle , Tomlinson 's next senior game was at Sincil Bank on 23 August 2005 , where he replaced loanee Ben Williams at half @-@ time . Lincoln City knocked the " Railwaymen " out of the League Cup , putting two past Williams and three past Tomlinson for a 5 – 2 victory . His first start came in the FA Cup Third Round clash at Deepdale on 7 January 2006 , the home side coming out 2 – 1 winners . He played his first Championship game on 28 January , replacing Ross Turnbull at half @-@ time ; Watford put two past each men for a 4 – 1 win . After signing a one @-@ year contract extension in March , Tomlinson got his first league start on 30 April , as Crewe beat Millwall 4 – 2 , Ben May scoring both of the " Lions " goals .
In May 2006 , Burton Albion put in a request to sign Tomlinson to a season long loan . The move was delayed after Tomlinson picked up a calf injury , before he managed to join Burton in time for a pre @-@ season friendly with Sheffield Wednesday . However Crewe reconsidered the loan deal and so Nigel Clough instead signed aged veteran Kevin Poole . Clough was still keen to sign Tomlinson , with the saga continuing well into the season , though no deal was made . Tomlinson picked up his first senior clean sheet on 22 August 2006 , during a 3 – 0 win at Grimsby Town 's Blundell Park in the League Cup First Round . The Crewe website described a " heroic effort " from Tomlinson in the Football League Trophy tie with Rochdale on 31 October , as he managed to three of Rochdale 's four penalties ( the penalty he did not save was a miss ) . Dario Gradi said : " Stuart is outstanding on penalties because he is positive and doesn 't flop over " . He went on to play seven League One games , and also made one appearance in the FA Cup . However he did not play in the 2007 end of the season , partly due to a torn groin that kept him out of action for a number of weeks . In the summer there was once again talk of a possible loan move to Burton .
He was only used by Steve Holland once throughout the 2007 – 08 season , playing in a 1 – 1 draw with Chester City in the Football League Trophy on 4 September ; Chester won the game 4 – 3 on penalties . Not long after this he was on the sidelines with a broken thumb . In February , Tomlinson finally joined Conference club Burton Albion on a one @-@ month loan . He played 90 minutes for " Brewers " in a 3 – 1 defeat to Histon on 1 March , and was forced to make numerous saves . He played no further part of Burton 's season after he sustained an injury to his cruciate ligaments .
After six months of rehab he recovered earlier than expected . His 2008 – 09 season started on 25 November , as Gradi gave him a start at the Walkers Stadium , where Leicester City won 2 – 1 . The next month he played six games , keeping four clean sheets ( against Carlisle United , Cheltenham Town , Swindon Town and Millwall ) . However he attracted criticism from his manager at the end of January following heavy defeats to Northampton Town and Peterborough United , and was subsequently dropped . New manager Gudjon Thordarson told him that he would not be offered a new contract at the end of the season , thus ending Tomlinson 's long association with the club .
= = = Barrow = = =
In July 2009 he joined Port Vale for pre @-@ season training , playing 45 minutes of a pre @-@ season friendly . Micky Adams considered signing Tomlinson up whilst first choice keeper Joe Anyon was out injured . He impressed on his trial and would have been signed to a contract if the cash @-@ strapped club could find the finance , instead Adams considered offering Tomlinson non @-@ contract terms . However , Tomlinson left the club to search for a more permanent offer elsewhere . In August 2009 he joined Barrow of the Conference , just two days before the start of their season . Sharing first team duties with Tim Deasy , he appeared 27 times for Barrow in the 2009 – 10 campaign . He also won the FA Trophy with the club , appearing in the final at Wembley Stadium , where the " Bluebirds " beat Stevenage Borough 2 – 1 .
= = = Port Vale = = =
Tomlinson chose not to renew his Barrow contract at the end of the season , and instead signed a one @-@ year contract at Port Vale in May 2010 . Anyon had at by this time left Vale Park for Lincoln City , and Tomlinson was brought into provide competition for teenager Chris Martin . This required him to accept a lower wage than he would have got at Barrow .
– Micky Adams on Tomlinson .
Adams surprised many by selecting Tomlinson as the goalkeeper in the opening game of the season , and Tomlinson rewarded his manager by keeping a clean sheet . Tomlinson praised his defence for his solid start to the season . With five clean sheets in his first ten games , Tomlinson was offered a one @-@ year contract extension in September 2010 . Two months later he was reported in the Daily Star and the Daily Mirror to be a £ 250 @,@ 000 transfer target for Sheffield United and Queens Park Rangers . Adams dismissed such speculation with the comment " that amount of money wouldn 't buy Stuart 's left hand " . Sent off on New Year 's Day after a collision with Rotherham United 's Marcus Marshall , Tomlinson lost his place in the first eleven due to injury and suspension , but then won back his place after Martin conceded a comical own goal in a 3 – 1 defeat to Stevenage on 22 February . It was an eventful return for Tomlinson , who broke the story of Jim Gannon and Geoff Horsfield 's bust @-@ up on the pre @-@ match coach trip to Aldershot via Twitter . The game itself was also eventful , as Tomlinson gave away a penalty , which he then saved , only to leave the pitch due to a hip injury . Martin regained his first team place after the game , only to be replaced by Tomlinson at half @-@ time during a 2 – 1 loss at home to Oxford United on 12 March , after Martin committed another blunder .
Following the return of Micky Adams as Port Vale manager , Tomlinson held on to his first team place at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , though Martin was used in cup games . Neither Tomlinson or Martin could find the consistency to secure their first team place though ; Tomlinson conceded twelve goals in his first seven games of the season , whilst Martin conceded ten times in his first five games . Assistant manager Mark Grew told the media that " they 've both been disappointing " . On 29 October , Tomlinson was embarrassed to be caught off his line by Oxford United 's Peter Leven , who found the net with a ' sensational 45 @-@ yard strike ' . Adams said " ... in the division , he 's the only player who would have scored that ... [ but ] you have to question the keeper 's starting position . " He was still preferred to Martin though , and only a thigh injury kept him out of two league games in January . He returned to the first team , and was heading for a third consecutive clean sheet on 14 February when he committed an " injury @-@ time howler " to allow Bradford City a share of the points at Valley Parade . On 10 March he spilled a cross to hand Barnet striker Ben May an easy winner at Vale Park . He vowed to improve his consistency , saying " I 'm a pretty confident person and it will take a lot to stop me bouncing back . " At the end of the season he rejected the club 's offer of a new contract , and his departure was announced on 3 July . He said that he was " not particularly worried " about his free agent status , and that he would turn down similar offers from other clubs and wait until as late as the start of the following season until the " right opportunity " came about .
= = = Burton Albion = = =
In September 2012 , Tomlinson signed a four @-@ month contract with Burton Albion , having previously been on trial at Preston North End . He joined the " Brewers " after manager Gary Rowett was dissatisfied with the performances of Ross Atkins and Dean Lyness . After keeping a clean sheet on his debut , in a 1 – 0 win over Rochdale at Spotland on 8 September , assistant manager Kevin Summerfield said that " the biggest difference for me was that we were playing the game in their half and they were defending corners because he [ Tomlinson ] can kick the ball so far up the pitch " . He was aiming for a longer stay at the Pirelli Stadium , but a knee injury sustained in a home draw with former club Port Vale left him sidelined for up to six months . He recovered to full fitness in half that time , and signed a new contract in February to extend his stay at Burton until summer 2014 . Burton reached the play @-@ offs at the end of the 2012 – 13 season , but were defeated 5 – 4 by Bradford City at the semi @-@ final stage . Tomlinson retired in July 2013 after surgeons advised him that scar tissue damage and a tear in his anterior cruciate ligament meant that his left knee was in poor shape and was vulnerable to further damage .
= = = Style of play = = =
A goalkeeper with a flair for shot @-@ stopping , Tomlinson could kick the ball with either foot . Due to his muscular physique , he was given the nickname " the Tank " .
– Barrow manager David Bayliss upon losing Tomlinson to Port Vale in June 2010 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = WWE = = =
= = = = NXT ( 2014 – present ) = = = =
In December 2013 , Tomlinson travelled to the United States to be trained as a professional wrestler on a developmental contract by WWE . He was assigned to the WWE Performance Center , where he took the ring name Hugo Knox . He stated that " Hugo Knox is a lively , high @-@ energy and bubbly guy " with " the smallest polka dot pants possible ! " . He made his in @-@ ring debut for WWE 's developmental territory , NXT , at a live event on 8 November 2014 .
= = Modeling = =
Tomlinson has worked as a professional model , appearing on the front cover of Men 's Health .
= = Career statistics = =
Notes
Stafford Rangers statistics unavailable .
= = Honours = =
with Crewe Alexandra
Football League Second Division runner @-@ up : 2002 – 03
with Barrow
FA Trophy winner : 2010
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= USS Wichita ( CA @-@ 45 ) =
USS Wichita ( CA @-@ 45 ) was a unique heavy cruiser of the United States Navy built in the 1930s . The last American cruiser designed to meet the limits of London Naval Treaty , she was originally intended to be a New Orleans @-@ class heavy cruiser , accordingly with the maximum main armament of three triple 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) gun turrets . These were instead placed on an improved hull derived from the Brooklyn @-@ class light cruisers , with increased armoring . This design would go on to form the basis for the later World War II @-@ era heavy cruisers such as the Baltimore @-@ class cruisers . The ship was authorized by the 1929 Cruiser Act , laid down at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in October 1935 , launched in November 1937 , and commissioned into the US Navy in February 1939 .
Following her commissioning , Wichita was assigned to neutrality patrols in the Atlantic . After the United States entered World War II , the ship saw heavy service throughout the conflict . She was first assigned to convoy escort duty on the Murmansk Run in early 1942 , and supported amphibious landings during Operation Torch in November 1942 . During the Naval Battle of Casablanca , Wichita engaged several French coastal batteries and warships , including the battleship Jean Bart. In 1943 , Wichita was transferred to the Pacific Theater , where she remained for the rest of the war . She frequently provided antiaircraft defense for the Fast Carrier Task Force during operations in the central Pacific , including the Battles of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf in 1944 . During the latter engagement , Wichita assisted in the sinking of the Japanese aircraft carrier Chiyoda .
Wichita was heavily engaged during the invasion of Okinawa , where she provided heavy gunfire support to ground troops ashore . After the Japanese surrender , the ship served as part of the occupation force in Japan and assisted in the repatriation of American military personnel under Operation Magic Carpet . After returning to the United States , she was decommissioned and placed in the mothball fleet in 1946 . She remained in reserve until 1959 , when she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and sold for scrapping in August 1959 .
= = Design = =
In the early 1930s , the Secretary of the Navy , Curtis D. Wilbur , pushed for a new construction program for light and heavy cruisers . Wilbur succeeded in passing the Cruiser Act in 1929 , which authorized several new cruisers . Five heavy cruisers , the last of which was Wichita , were ordered between 1931 and 1934 . Wichita was the last heavy cruiser permitted under the terms of the London Naval Treaty in 1930 , which limited the US to 18 heavy cruisers with a maximum standard displacement of 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 160 t ) . The ship was originally intended to be built to the design of the New Orleans class , but the design was reworked before construction began . Instead , the design for Wichita was based on the Brooklyn class of light cruisers . The Brooklyn design was modified heavily , to give the new ship higher freeboard and better stability , and an increased cruising radius . The secondary battery of eight 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns was identical in number to the light cruisers , but was arranged to give better fields of fire . The main battery of nine 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns was mounted in a new gun turret design that rectified problems discovered in earlier cruisers .
Wichita was laid down at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 28 October 1935 , and launched on 16 November 1937 . By the time she was completed , in February 1938 , Wichita was nearly over the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit ; as a result , she was completed with only two of the eight 5 @-@ inch guns to keep her under the displacement restriction . When the rest of the 5 @-@ inch guns were installed , it was found that the ship was too top @-@ heavy , and so 200 long tons ( 200 t ) of pig iron had to be added to her bottom to balance the cruiser . Wichita was commissioned into the US Navy on 16 February 1939 . Her first commander was Captain Thaddeus A. Thomson .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Wichita was 600 feet ( 180 m ) long at the waterline and 608 ft 4 in ( 185 @.@ 42 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 61 ft 9 in ( 18 @.@ 82 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in ( 7 @.@ 24 m ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 589 long tons ( 10 @,@ 759 t ) at standard displacement and 13 @,@ 015 long tons ( 13 @,@ 224 t ) at full combat load . The ship had a crew of 929 officers and enlisted men . She was equipped with four seaplanes and a pair of aircraft catapults and a crane for handling the aircraft which were mounted on the stern . Wichita was powered by four Parsons steam turbines and eight Babcock & Wilcox oil @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . The propulsion system was rated at 100 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 75 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . She carried 1 @,@ 323 to 1 @,@ 984 long tons ( 1 @,@ 344 to 2 @,@ 016 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a maximum cruising range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 15 kn ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
The hull was protected by a waterline armored belt composed of Class A armor that was 6 @.@ 4 in ( 160 mm ) thick amidships . It was reduced to 4 in ( 100 mm ) thick on either end . The belt was backed with .63 in ( 16 mm ) of special treatment steel . The Class A steel was significantly more effective than the Class B armor used in earlier cruisers ; 8 @-@ inch guns had to be within 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) to penetrate the belt , as opposed to 16 @,@ 400 yd ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) for the earlier armor . Wichita had a 2 @.@ 25 in ( 57 mm ) thick deck , which was immune to 8 @-@ inch fire inside 22 @,@ 000 yd ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) . The conning tower had 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick sides and a 2 @.@ 25 in thick roof . The ship 's main battery turrets had 8 in ( 200 mm ) thick faces , 3 @.@ 75 in ( 95 mm ) thick sides , 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick rears , and 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick roofs . The turrets were mounted on armored barbettes protected with 7 in ( 180 mm ) of armor plating .
= = = Armament = = =
Wichita was armed with a main battery of nine 8 @-@ inch / 55 Mark 12 guns mounted in three 3 @-@ gun turrets . The guns fired a 335 @-@ pound ( 152 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 760 m / s ) . Maximum elevation of the guns was 41 degrees ; this provided a maximum range of 30 @,@ 050 yd ( 27 @,@ 480 m ) . Rate of fire was approximately one shot every fifteen seconds . The turrets allowed each gun to elevate and fire individually . Her secondary battery consisted of eight 5 @-@ inch / 38 Mark 12 dual @-@ purpose guns , four in single , enclosed Mark 30 high @-@ angle mounts , and four in open mounts . These guns fired 55 lb ( 25 kg ) projectiles at a rate of 20 rounds per minute . Muzzle velocity was 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) ; against aerial targets , the guns had a ceiling of 37 @,@ 200 ft ( 11 @,@ 300 m ) at 85 degrees . At 45 degrees , the guns could engage surface targets at a range of 18 @,@ 200 yd ( 16 @,@ 600 m ) . Wichita was the first cruiser in the US Navy to be equipped with the new 5 @-@ inch / 38 gun .
By August 1945 , the ship had been equipped with numerous smaller guns for close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft defense . Sixteen Bofors 40 mm guns were placed in quadruple mounts , and another eight were in dual mounts . She also carried eighteen Oerlikon 20 mm guns in single mountings . The 40 mm guns had a ceiling of 22 @,@ 800 ft ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at 90 degrees elevation and a maximum rate of fire of 160 rounds per minute . The 20 mm gun had a rate of fire of 465 – 480 rounds per minute ; they had a ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . By the end of the war , the ship was armed with a variety of fire control systems for her guns , including Mark 34 fire control gear and Mark 13 and Mark 28 fire control radars .
= = Service history = =
Wichita departed Philadelphia after her commissioning , bound for Houston , Texas . She arrived on 20 April 1939 and took part in the dedicatory and memorial service at the San Jacinto Battle Monument and War Relic Museum . The ship left Houston on 1 May for her shakedown cruise , during which she visited the Virgin Islands , Cuba , and the Bahamas before she returned to Philadelphia for post @-@ shakedown repairs . On 25 September , a few weeks after the outbreak of World War II in Europe , Wichita was assigned to Cruiser Division 7 in the Atlantic Squadron , based in the Hampton Roads . She conducted her first neutrality patrol on 4 – 9 October . After returning to port , she went into dock at the Norfolk Navy Yard for maintenance , which lasted until 1 December . On 4 December , Wichita steamed to Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , arriving on the 8th . There , Thomson assumed command of the newly formed Caribbean Patrol , which included Wichita and the cruiser Vincennes , and the destroyers Borie , Broome , Lawrence , King , and Truxtun , and Navy patrol squadrons VP @-@ 33 and VP @-@ 51 . Over the course of the next three months , the force conducted a series of training maneuvers in the Caribbean . At the end of February , Wichita returned to Norfolk via Philadelphia , where she participated in further training through May .
Starting in June , Wichita and Quincy conducted a goodwill cruise to South America ; Wichita carried Rear Admiral Andrew C. Pickens , the commander of Cruiser Division 7 . Included in the ports of call were Rio de Janeiro and Santos in Brazil , Buenos Aires , Argentina , and Montevideo , Uruguay . The cruise ended in late September ; the two cruisers arrived in Norfolk on the 24th . Over the next three months , Wichita served as a training ship for Naval Reserve midshipmen and conducted gunnery practices off the Virginia capes . On 7 January 1941 , Wichita departed Hampton Roads for Guantanamo , arriving four days later . She participated in fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean through March and took part in practice amphibious landings at Puerto Rico . She returned to the United States , docking at the New York Navy Yard , on 23 March . Wichita went to sea again on 6 April , bound for Bermuda ; she reached her destination two days later . She then joined the aircraft carrier Ranger and the heavy cruiser Tuscaloosa for a patrol in the North Atlantic , during which the ships sailed to within 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) of Ireland .
Wichita then returned to the New York Navy Yard on 17 May and went into drydock on 21 June . Repairs were completed on 2 July , after which Wichita was transferred to Newport , Rhode Island . She sortied again on 27 July bound for Iceland as part of Task Force 16 under Operation Indigo II , the occupation of Iceland . Wichita arrived in Reykjavík on 6 August , along with the carrier Wasp and the battleship Mississippi . The task force landed a contingent of US Army troops and fighter aircraft to provide air support . The cruiser returned to the United States by 20 August . Wichita returned to Iceland in September , arriving in Reykjavík on 28 September . Two days prior to Wichita 's arrival , the US Navy ordered the units of the Atlantic Fleet to protect all ships engaged in commerce in United States defensive waters . The orders authorized the Navy to patrol , escort merchantmen , and attack any German or Italian naval forces encountered . Wichita was assigned to Task Group 7 @.@ 5 , which was engaged in patrolling Icelandic waters through the end 1941 . On 7 December 1941 , the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , bringing the United States into World War II ; on the day of the attack , Wichita lay at anchor at Hvalfjörður , Iceland .
= = = Atlantic theater = = =
Wichita left port on 5 January 1942 for training and a patrol in the Denmark Strait ; she returned to Hvalfjörður on 10 January . On the 15th , a powerful storm , with sustained winds of 80 knots ( 150 km / h ; 92 mph ) and gusts up to 100 kn ( 190 km / h ; 120 mph ) , hit Iceland . Wichita was damaged by the storm , including a collision with the freighter West Nohno and the British trawler Ebor Wyke . She then ran aground off Hrafneyri Light . The following day , the ship 's crew evaluated her condition ; she had suffered minor damage from the collisions , including some leaks , and damage to the hull from the grounding . Temporary repairs were effected in Iceland to allow Wichita to return to the New York Navy Yard for more thorough repairs . She arrived on 9 February , and repairs lasted until 26 February , when she left port for training maneuvers off Maine in early March .
On 26 March , Wichita , assigned to Task Force 39 , departed the United States to reinforce the British Home Fleet based in Scapa Flow . Task Force 39 , commanded by Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox , Jr . , included Wasp , the battleship Washington , the cruiser Tuscaloosa , and eight destroyers . While en route , Wilcox was swept overboard in a heavy sea and lost . Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen , who flew his flag in Wichita , took command of the task force . After arriving in Scapa Flow , Wichita and the other American ships spent several weeks training with their British counterparts . On 28 April , Wichita departed on her first major operation with the British . She was assigned to the Allied escort for the Arctic convoys QP 11 and PQ 15 . The American component , organized as Task Force 99 , comprised Washington , Wichita , Tuscaloosa , and four destroyers . The British assigned the carrier Victorious , the battleship King George V , a light cruiser , and five destroyers . After successfully escorting the convoys , Wichita returned to Hvalfjörður , arriving on 6 May .
Wichita sortied on 12 May to relieve Tuscaloosa , which was patrolling the Denmark Strait . Wichita returned to Hvalfjörður a week later , before putting to sea as part of another Allied convoy escort protecting one leg of the movement of Murmansk @-@ bound convoy PQ 16 and eastbound QP 12 . She put in to Scapa Flow on 29 May after completing the mission . While in Scapa Flow , King George VI inspected Wichita on 7 June . Wichita left Scapa Flow on 12 June , bound for Hvalfjörður , and arrived 14 June . She then relieved the British cruiser Cumberland on patrol in the Denmark Strait . While on patrol on 17 June , Wichita spotted a German Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 reconnaissance bomber and opened fire , though without result . Three days later , she engaged another Fw 200 , again without success .
After returning to Hvalfjörður , Wichita steamed to Seidisfjord at the end of June , where she joined Tuscaloosa and three destroyers . They were assigned to the escort for the convoy PQ 17 . The convoy escort also included Washington , Victorious , and the battleship Duke of York . The Germans organized a powerful task force , centered on the battleship Tirpitz and three heavy cruisers , to attack the convoy ; the operation was codenamed Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) . Swedish intelligence had meanwhile reported the German departures to the British Admiralty , which ordered the convoy to disperse . Aware that they had been detected , the Germans aborted the operation and turned over the attack to U @-@ boats and the Luftwaffe . The scattered vessels could no longer be protected by the convoy escorts , and the Germans sank 21 of the 34 isolated transports . The next day , while south of Spitzbergen , the ships were spotted and shadowed by a pair of Fw 200s . Both Wichita and Tuscaloosa opened fire with their antiaircraft guns , but the Fw 200s escaped without damage .
In late July , Wichita went into drydock at the Royal Navy base in Rosyth , Scotland . Repairs , which included correcting a propeller shaft vibration , lasted from 24 July until 9 August . The repairs to the propeller shaft were ineffective , however , which necessitated a return to the United States . She reached the New York Navy Yard on 22 August for repairs , which lasted until 5 September . She completed a round of post @-@ repair sea trials before conducting gunnery exercises in the Chesapeake Bay . Wichita conducted training off the Virginia Capes for the rest of the month , after which she steamed to Casco Bay in Maine for further maneuvers .
= = = = Operation Torch = = = =
At the end of October , Wichita was assigned to Task Group 34 @.@ 1 , under the command of Rear Admiral H. Kent Hewitt , who flew his flag in Augusta . The Task Group also included the battleship Massachusetts and Tuscaloosa . The ships were assigned to provide gunfire support for Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa . Wichita participated in the Naval Battle of Casablanca , which began early on the morning of 8 November . The ships were tasked with neutralizing the primary French defenses , which included coastal guns on El Hank , several submarines , and the incomplete battleship Jean Bart which lay at anchor in the harbor . Wichita and Tuscaloosa initially engaged the French batteries on El Hank and the French submarine pens , while Massachusetts attacked Jean Bart. French naval forces , led by the cruiser Primauguet , put up a stubborn defense .
In response , the French launched a pair of attacks to break up the American landings . During the first French attack , either Wichita or Tuscaloosa damaged the French destroyer Milan and forced it aground . A second French attack was also defeated ; one of the two cruisers sank the destroyer Fougueux and damaged Frondeur . Wichita , Tuscaloosa , and Massachusetts also engaged Jean Bart. At 11 : 28 , Wichita was hit by a 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) shell , fired by a gun on El Hank . The shell penetrated her deck and exploded below , injuring fourteen men . Hewitt broke off the attack temporarily , but by 13 : 12 , several American warships began firing on French vessels exiting the harbor . Wichita and Tuscaloosa closed on the port to engage the cruisers Primauguet and Gloire , still in the harbor . Heavy fire from El Hank forced the American cruisers to retreat shortly after 15 : 00 . For the remainder of the operations off North Africa , Wichita patrolled between Casablanca and Fedhala . Her part in the amphibious assault complete , Wichita departed the area on 12 November , bound for New York for repairs ; she arrived on 19 November .
= = = Pacific theater = = =
Shortly after repairs were completed , Wichita was transferred to the Pacific theater . She was assigned to Task Force 18 , commanded by Rear Admiral Giffen , and tasked with operations off Guadalcanal . She was joined by the heavy cruisers Louisville and Chicago , the light cruisers Montpelier , Cleveland , and Columbia . In addition , the escort carriers Chenango and Suwannee , and eight destroyers were present in the task group . On the night of 29 January 1943 , the Task Force was steaming off Rennell Island ; wary of the threat from Japanese submarines , which Allied intelligence indicated were likely in the area , Giffen arranged his cruisers and destroyers for anti @-@ submarine defense , not expecting an air attack . The cruisers were aligned in two columns , spaced 2 @,@ 500 yd ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) apart . Wichita , Chicago , and Louisville , in that order , were to starboard , and Montpelier , Cleveland , and Columbia were to port . The six destroyers were in a semicircle 2 mi ( 1 @.@ 7 nmi ; 3 @.@ 2 km ) ahead of the cruiser columns . That evening , the ships came under attack from Japanese torpedo bombers . In the ensuing Battle of Rennell Island , Chicago was hit by several torpedoes and sunk ; Wichita was hit by one torpedo , though it failed to explode .
Wichita then steamed to Efate in the New Hebrides for a training period . She then departed on 7 April , bound for Pearl Harbor and arriving there a week later . On 18 April , she steamed out of Pearl Harbor for Adak , Alaska , again flying Giffen 's flag , for Task Group 52 @.@ 10 . In early May , Wichita was assigned to the amphibious force tasked with liberating the Aleutian Islands from Japanese control . She served as the flagship of the northern covering force , along with the cruisers Louisville and San Francisco and four destroyers . On 6 July , Wichita , three other cruisers , and four destroyers bombarded Japanese positions on the island of Kiska . The bombardment convinced the Japanese that the Americans intended to invade the island in the near future ; they therefore planned an evacuation by July .
On 19 July , a powerful American fleet , including the battleships New Mexico , Idaho , and Mississippi joined Wichita to conduct another attack on Kiska three days later . Five days later , malfunctioning radar equipment led to a battle with radar phantoms ( the " Battle of the Pips " ) ; Wichita , two battleships , and two other cruisers expended over a thousand rounds of ammunition from their main batteries on the empty sea . That same day , the Japanese successfully evacuated the island , which was invaded by American troops two weeks later . The morning after the assumed engagement , Wichita launched a seaplane to reconnoiter the area , but found no evidence of Japanese forces .
Wichita participated in exercises off Hawaii for the remainder of the year . On 16 January 1944 , she departed to take part in the invasion of the Marshall Islands . She was assigned to Task Group 58 @.@ 3 , under the command of Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman . The Task Group included the fleet carrier Bunker Hill , the light carriers Cowpens and Monterey , the fast battleships North Carolina , Massachusetts , Alabama , and South Dakota , and several destroyers . Wichita provided anti @-@ aircraft support for the carriers while they conducted air strikes on Kwajalein and Eniwetok on 29 – 31 January . On 4 February , Wichita arrived at Majuro ; she was transferred to Task Group 58 @.@ 2 . The force departed Majuro on 12 February and conducted Operation Hailstone , a major air strike on the Japanese base at Truk , four days later .
On the night of 16 February , Japanese aircraft launched an attack on the Task Group and torpedoed the carrier Intrepid . Task Unit 58 @.@ 2 @.@ 4 , which included Wichita , was detached to escort Intrepid back to safety and repairs . The ships reached Majuro on 20 February , and departed for Hawaii eight days later . The ships arrived in port on 4 March , and on the 9th , Wichita became the flagship of Cruiser Division 6 . On 15 March , Cruiser Division 6 departed Hawaii to return to Majuro , arriving on 20 March . After arriving , she joined the screen for the Fast Carrier Task Force , which struck Japanese bases on Yap , Woleali , and in the Palaus . Wichita supported strikes on Hollandia in New Guinea on 13 – 22 April . The task force returned to the seas off Truk on 29 April for a second round of airstrikes on the port . While the carriers were striking Truk , Wichita and several cruisers and destroyers shelled Japanese targets on Satawan Island in the Nomol group of the Caroline Islands .
On 4 May , Wichita returned to Majuro for a month of training . In June , she returned to the fleet , which was gathering at Kwajalein in preparations for operations against the Mariana Islands . Wichita was assigned to Task Unit 53 @.@ 10 @.@ 8 , which shelled Saipan on 13 June . The next day , Wichita bombarded Japanese gun positions on Guam , before returning to Saipan later that day . On 17 June , she joined Task Group 58 @.@ 7 ; the force patrolled to the west of the Marianas over the next three days in an attempt to intercept the large Japanese carrier force known to be approaching . On 19 June , the Japanese carriers struck at the American fleet , starting the Battle of the Philippine Sea . Wichita contributed to the antiaircraft screen ; her gunners claimed to have assisted in the destruction of two Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers . The ship was detached to cover troop transports and escort carriers off Saipan on 25 June . This duty lasted through the first week of July . Now part of Task Unit 53 @.@ 18 @.@ 1 , Wichita bombarded Japanese positions on Guam on 8 – 12 July , and again starting on 18 July .
Wichita departed Guam on 10 August , bound for Eniwetok . She arrived three days later and remained there until 29 July , when she put to sea to join Task Group 38 @.@ 1 . She screened for the fast carrier task group while they launched airstrikes on Japanese targets in Palau , the Carolines , the Philippines , and Dutch East Indies . On 28 August , TG 38 @.@ 1 raided targets in Palau and Morotai . By mid @-@ September , TG 38 @.@ 1 provided air support for the assault on Morotai ; the operation lasted until 21 September . The following day , the carriers launched an airstrike on Manila in the Philippines . Early on 22 September , Japanese aircraft launched a counterattack . At 07 : 34 , Wichita shot down a bomber approximately 50 yards from her . She shot down another bomber at 07 : 45 . She continued to provide antiaircraft defense for the carriers while they struck Japanese installations on Cebu , Negros , and Coron .
= = = = Operations off the Philippines = = = =
Wichita got underway to support a raid on Okinawa on 2 October . On 10 October , the fleet reached the waters off Okinawa and launched the strike . The following day , the fleet struck Aparri on Luzon . The fleet then raided Formosa , where they targeted Japanese airfields to prepare for the upcoming assault against the Philippines . On 13 October , Japanese bombers attacked the fleet and badly damaged the cruiser Canberra . Wichita took Canberra under tow , though she was relieved by the ocean @-@ going tug Munsee on 15 October . Wichita joined the screen for Canberra ; the squadron was joined by the badly damaged cruiser Houston . The ships were attacked again the following day , and Houston was torpedoed again . Wichita left the damaged ships on 21 October , after they had successfully reached safer waters . Wichita then rejoined the fleet off Luzon , assigned to Task Force 34 under Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee .
Wichita was present during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , which started on 23 October . On 25 October , the Fast Carrier Strike Force had steamed north , to attack the Northern Force commanded by Jisaburō Ozawa . Wichita again screened for the carriers , which sank or damaged several Japanese carriers . Task Force 34 was detached to finish off several of the crippled Japanese ships with gunfire ; Wichita and three other cruisers sank the light carrier Chiyoda and the destroyer Hatsuzuki . Wichita expended twenty @-@ two percent of her armor @-@ piercing rounds at the two ships , which amounted to 148 rounds at Chiyoda and 173 against Hatsuzuki . In the aftermath of the battle , Wichita returned to screening for the carriers off Samar . On 28 October , she provided gunfire support to troops ashore on Leyte . Two days later , she defended against a Japanese airstrike on the fleet .
On 31 October , Wichita left the area , bound for Ulithi , reaching her destination on 2 November . After replenishing her ammunition and stores , she returned to Leyte for several days , until the middle of November . Her crew detected severe vibrations in her No. 4 engine ; the propeller shaft had broken and the propeller was trailing . She was therefore detached on 18 November for repairs in California , via Ulithi . While in Ulithi , divers discovered cracks in a strut for No. 3 propeller shaft ; now only two screws were operational . She reached San Pedro in California on 15 December . She entered the Terminal Island Navy Yard shortly after reaching port . Repairs lasted until 8 February 1945 , and by 28 February , she departed for Pearl Harbor . Wichita arrived in Hawaii on 6 March , before departing five days later for Ulithi .
= = = = Invasion of Okinawa = = = =
Wichita arrived in Ulithi on 20 March , and was assigned to Task Force 54 the next day . She put to sea to take part in the invasion of Okinawa . The ship was placed in Task Unit 54 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 to cover minesweepers off Okinawa on 25 March . On the afternoon of the following day , Wichita bombarded Japanese positions on the island , from 13 : 50 to 16 : 30 . Japanese aircraft attacked the ships early the next morning ; Wichita 's gunners shot down one of the aircraft . Later that day , the ship resumed bombardment duties in preparation for the amphibious invasion . She continued to shell the island through 28 March . The next day , she retired to Kerama Retto to replenish her ammunition . The ship then returned to Okinawa later that day to cover underwater demolition teams as they cleared beach obstacles . Wichita continued to support the demolition teams the next day , as well as shelling targets ashore . On 31 March , Wichita bombarded the sea wall to create a breach in preparation for the landings .
The invasion began on 1 April , and Wichita provided gunfire support to the landing troops on the southern beaches . At around 12 : 00 , she left the firing line to replenish her ammunition . She resumed bombardment the following day and resupplied again on 3 April before covering minesweepers on 4 April . During the night of 4 – 5 April , Wichita shelled the Japanese defenders on Okinawa . The ship was assigned to join Task Group 51 @.@ 19 the next day to bombard Tsugen Shima in company with Tuscaloosa and the battleships Maryland and Arkansas . Japanese aircraft appeared , which forced the cancellation of the mission . Nevertheless , Wichita shelled Japanese shore batteries at Chiyama Shima that evening .
Late on 6 April , an A6M Zero attempted to attack Wichita . The fighter came down through a break in the clouds on Wichita 's port side . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners immediately opened fire ; a burst from one of the 20 mm guns shot away the Zero 's tail . The plane veered away , out of control , and dropped its 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb , which fell approximately 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the ship . The Zero 's wing clipped the deck before the plane crashed into the sea . Eleven men were wounded in the attack , though the ship remained undamaged . The following day , Wichita steamed into Nakagusuku Bay to shell a coastal battery . Shells from the Japanese guns landed close to the ship , but no hits were scored before Wichita neutralized the battery . Over the next two days , the ship continued to bombard Japanese defenses on the island , until she retired to replenish ammunition on 10 April .
Wichita continued to provide gunfire support throughout the rest of the month . On 27 April , a small caliber shell penetrated a fuel oil tank five feet below the waterline . After temporary repairs while still off Okinawa proved unsuccessful , Wichita returned to Kerama Retto where the damage was repaired on 29 – 30 April . Wichita then returned to the gun line . On 12 May , the ship was damaged by friendly fire . A 5 inch round struck the port aircraft catapult ; shell fragments hit the shield of an antiaircraft director , killing one man and injuring eleven others . She departed the area to rest and refit at Leyte , returning to Okinawa on 18 June . Wichita continued to provide gunfire support to the troops on Okinawa through July , as part of Task Unit 2 . On 15 August , the ship 's crew received word that the war with Japan was over . Wichita was awarded 13 battle stars for her service during World War II .
= = = Post @-@ War = = =
Wichita was assigned to the occupying force shortly after the end of the war . She departed Okinawa on 10 September for Nagasaki , arriving the following day as part of Task Group 55 @.@ 7 . Wichita was one of the first major warships to reach Japan ; she was escorted by a destroyer , a pair of destroyer escorts , two minesweepers , and the hospital ship Haven . Wichita was transferred to Sasebo on 25 September for four days before she returned to Nagasaki on 29 September . She returned to Sasebo shortly thereafter , and while she was there , a severe typhoon struck the area on 9 – 11 October . Wichita was not damaged during the storms . While at Sasebo , Wichita 's crew inspected the Japanese ships and harbor installations to ensure Japanese compliance with the terms of surrender .
On 5 November , Wichita was assigned to Operation Magic Carpet , the repatriation of American military personnel . She refueled in Tokyo before departing for San Francisco . The ship reached San Francisco on 24 November , where she went into drydock at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard two days later . Repairs and modifications for further Magic Carpet duty were completed by 1 December . Wichita departed for Hawaii on 6 December , reaching Pearl Harbor on 12 December before proceeding to the Marianas . There , the ship loaded servicemen from Saipan and steamed back to San Francisco , arriving on 12 January 1946 . She left port on 27 January bound for the east coast of the United States ; she transited the Panama Canal on 5 – 9 February and reached Philadelphia on 14 February . There , she was assigned to the Sixteenth Fleet and was placed in reserve on 15 July . Wichita was decommissioned on 3 February 1947 and laid up at Philadelphia . In the late 1940s , the Navy considered converting Wichita into a guided @-@ missile cruiser , but Boston and Canberra were chosen instead . On 1 March 1959 , the ship was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register and sold on 14 August to the Union Minerals and Alloys Corp.
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= Contra la Corriente ( Marc Anthony album ) =
Contra la Corriente ( Against the Current ) is the third studio album released by American singer Marc Anthony on October 21 , 1997 by RMM Records . The album was produced by Puerto Rican musician Angel " Cucco " Peña , with most of the songs written by Panamanian composer Omar Alfanno . The album was well received by critics who praised the vocals of Anthony as well as the songs . The album produced six singles , four of which peaked on the top ten on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . Promoted by a sold @-@ out concert in Madison Square Garden , Contra la Corriente became the first salsa album reach number one on the Top Latin Albums chart and to chart on the Billboard 200 .
Contra la Corriente received a Grammy Award and a Latin Billboard Award , and was named the eighth best album of 1997 by Time magazine . It has sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies as of 2000 . The album received a gold certification for shipping of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . This was the last album that Marc Anthony recorded under RMM Records before switching over to Columbia Records to record his first self @-@ titled English album .
= = Background = =
Since Anthony 's signing on with RMM Records , his first @-@ two albums had been successful , selling over 600 @,@ 000 copies combined . His second album , Todo a Su Tiempo , was certified gold in the United States and received a Grammy Award nomination . Record producer Sergio George , who was credited for the success Anthony 's earlier albums , was not involved in the production of Contra La Corriente . Angel " Cucco " Peña , who has worked with salsa veterans such as Gilberto Santa Rosa and Willie Colón , took up the position as producer for the album . Contra la Corriente , the third studio album by Anthony , was released in October 1997 . The album was distributed by MCA Records and was promoted at a sold @-@ out concert in Madison Square Garden days before the release of the album .
= = Recording and production = =
For the album , Anthony built a studio near his home . Around that time , he was involved in the production of Paul Simon 's musical play The Capeman and had to record the album in three weeks . Anthony chose nine songs out of 1 @,@ 300 samples . He sent tapes to co @-@ producer Peña at the Altamar Music Studios in San Juan , Puerto Rico to get feedback . He made routine flights between New York and Puerto Rico to record the album hours and to rehearse for the play . Panamanian composer Omar Alfanno , who wrote three songs on the last album , had composed five songs for the album . Fernando Arias composed the boleros " No Me Conoces " and " Suceden " . " Si Te Vas " is a cover of the Pedro Fernández song . Manny Benito wrote the last track , " Un Mal Sueño " .
= = Commercial release = =
= = = Album = = =
During the Madison Square Garden concert , RMM executive producer Ralph Mercado presented an award to Anthony for selling over 350 @,@ 000 copies just before release . Contra la Corriente was the released on October 21 , 1997 in the United States . The album debuted at number @-@ one on the Top Latin Albums chart on the week of November 22 , 1997 , and stayed at number @-@ one for three consecutive weeks . The album debuted at number @-@ one on the Tropical Albums chart and remained on top for ten non @-@ consecutive weeks . Contra la Corriente was the first album Anthony to chart on the Billboard 200 , peaking at number seventy @-@ four . The album was the fourth best selling Latin album of 1998 and was the second best selling tropical album after Buena Vista Social Club . The album was certified gold in the United States for shipping of 500 @,@ 000 units . A remastered edition of the album was released on September 9 , 2003 by Universal Music Latino . Contra la Corriente has sold over 400 @,@ 000 units as of 2000 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Y Hubo Alguien " ( And There Was Somebody ) was the lead single from the album . Released in the same month as the album , the single reached number @-@ one on the Hot Latin Tracks . It was his first number one single on the chart and the first single by a salsa musician to reach number one . " Me Voy a Regalar " ( I Am Going to Give ) followed later in the year . " Si Te Vas " ( If You Go ) was the third single from the album , released in 1998 ; it reached number @-@ eight on Hot Latin Tracks . " Contra la Corriente " ( Against the Current ) and " No Me Conoces " ( You Do Not Know Me ) both reached number @-@ two on Hot Latin Tracks . , " No Sabes Como Duele " ( You Do Not Know How It Hurts ) was the last single to be released from the album in 1999 and reached number @-@ eighteen on the Hot Latin Tracks . Three of the six singles , " Y Hubo Alguien " , " Si Te Vas " , and " Contra la Corriente " , reached number @-@ one on the Latin Tropical Airplay charts . Two songs from the album were made into music videos . The first music video was the lead single " Y Hubo Alguien " which was filmed in New York City . The second music video was " No Me Conoces " which was directed by Bennny Coral . Filming took place in México and featured Jennifer Lopez as the supporting actress .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
Contra la Corriente received mostly positive reviews from critics , who praised Marc Anthony 's singing . Terry Jenkins of Allmusic gave the album a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 and praised Anthony 's vocals as being " sexy " and " near @-@ flawless " though he felt that it " doesn 't quite match the dizzying heights of his breakthrough Todo a Su Tiempo " . David Wilson of Wilson & Alroy 's Record Reviews called the tunes " solid " and praised Anthony 's voice but criticized Peña 's production as being " slavishly " similar to the previous album . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune names Contra la Corriente as Anthony 's best album and felt that the influence of Cuban music was prominent " in the rhythms and harmonies " in comparison to Los Van Van . Ernesto Lechner of the Los Angeles Times , who was more critical of the album , gave it two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ four stars criticizing the arrangements as " unbearably soapy " and called the album a " flawed masterpiece in the saccharine genre of salsa romantica . " An editor for Billboard magazine felt Anthony should " build on his towering reputation with another radio @-@ appropriate package " . Contra la Corriente was named the eighth best album of 1997 by Time magazine stating that " ... whether you habla espanol or not , Anthony 's talent comes through , no translation needed " .
At the 41st Grammy Awards , Contra la Corriente was given a Grammy Award for Best Tropical Latin Performance . Billboard awarded the album " Tropical Album of the Year by a Male Artist " , citing that the album became the highest selling salsa album when it charted the Billboard 200 . It also received a nomination for a 10th Lo Nuestro Awards for " Tropical Album of the Year " . The single " Y Hubo Alguien " received a Billboard Latin Music Award and a Lo Nuestro award for " Tropical Song of the Year " .
This would be the last time that Anthony worked with the RMM label . After disputes with Ralph Mercado over business practices , he left the record label and later signed on with Columbia Records to record his first self titled English album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic .
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Certifications = = =
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= Soeprapto ( prosecutor ) =
Mr. Raden Soeprapto ( 27 March 1894 – 2 December 1964 ) was the fourth Attorney General of Indonesia . Born in Trenggalek , East Java , Soeprapto studied law in Jakarta , finding work in the legal system soon after graduating in 1920 . After transferring often , in the early 1940s he had reached Pekalongan and become the head of the court for Native Indonesians . Escaping Pekalongan during Operatie Product with the help of a prisoner he had just sentenced , Soeprapto made his way to Yogyakarta and began to work as a prosecutor . When the government moved to Jakarta in 1950 , Soeprapto went with it . In January 1951 , he was selected to be Prosecutor General of Indonesia , serving until 1 April 1959 .
As prosecutor general , Soeprapto was noted for trying state ministers and generals despite them outranking him , a quality which Amir Hasan Ketaren of the Prosecutors ' Commission finds lacking from subsequent officeholders . He was declared " Father of the Prosecutor 's Office " on 22 July 1967 , with a bust of him erected outside the Prosecutor General 's Office .
= = Early life and career = =
Soeprapto was born in Trenggalek , East Java , Dutch East Indies on 27 March 1894 to Hadiwiloyo , a tax collector , and his wife . He took his elementary studies at a Europesche Lagere School , then considered better than schools for Native Indonesians , eventually graduating in 1914 . He then moved to Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) , where he studied at Rechtschool with future state minister Wongsonegoro .
After graduating from the Rechtschool in 1920 , Soeprapto went directly to working at the Landraad ( court for Native Indonesians ) in his hometown . For fifteen years he worked at Landraad in various locations , including in Surabaya , Semarang , Bandung , and Denpasar . He eventually rose to Head of the Landraad in Cirebon and Kuningan , serving from 1937 to 1941 . From there , he transferred to the Landraad for Salatiga and Boyolali , then to Besuki , before settling as head of the landraad in Pekalongan .
Although Soeprapto was able to lead the court peacefully during the Japanese occupation , after the start of the Indonesian National Revolution the situation in Pekalongan became unstable . Although the nascent army was able to hold the peace during riots at the end of 1945 , when the Dutch began a major assault on Java , Soeprapto was forced to flee south to Indonesian @-@ held areas with his family . In this , Soeprapto was assisted by Kutil , a man whom he had only recently sentenced to death , and Kutil 's other captive accomplices . Soeprapto 's wife later remembered that Kutil and his men had " carried briefcases containing paperwork related to their cases ... and even [ Soeprapto 's ] children , without showing any vengeance . " Although Kutil and his men escaped after evacuating , they were later recaptured , with Soeprapto serving as a witness against them .
After his escape from Pekalongan , Soeprapto and his family first went to Cirebon . They then went to Yogyakarta , where Soeprapto became a judge at the high court . He later began work as a prosecutor , rising quickly through the ranks ; several of his coworkers attributed it to the Kutil case , where Soeprapto demonstrated that he believed in the supremacy of law .
= = Prosecutor general and later career = =
In 1950 , Soeprapto returned to Jakarta and continued his work as a prosecutor . In January 1951 , he was chosen to replace Tirtawinata as Prosecutor General of Indonesia . At the time , the prosecutor general 's office was a division of the Ministry of Justice , and as such Soeprapto was under the Minister of Justice .
During his time as prosecutor general , Soeprapto handled several high @-@ profile cases , going after ministers and generals that outranked him politically . In 1953 , he brought Sultan Hamid II , then a minister without portfolio , to trial for his involvement in the APRA Coup d 'état ; Hamid was sentenced to 10 years in prison by Supreme Court Justice Wirjono Prodjodikoro on 8 April 1953 . Soeprapto also investigated Head of the Armed Forces Abdul Haris Nasution for his involvement in the affair . Other cases included the trials of revolutionary groups and foreigners accused of undermining the Indonesian government . He also oversaw an increasing number of prosecutors , drawn from Indonesian law schools .
However , Soeprapto also came into conflict with Minister of Justice Moeljatno over the role of the prosecution . Moeljatno took the traditional view that the prosecutor general 's office , under the control of the Ministry of Justice during the Dutch colonial period , was in a similar station after independence ; on the other hand , Soeprapto believed that the function of the prosecutor general was half executive and half judicial and as such demanded to be accountable only to the cabinet . This conflict climaxed with Moeljatno drafting a bill to explicitly make the prosecutor general subservient to the Minister of Justice , which passed in October 1956 over heavy opposition from prosecutors and police officers . However , the bill fell through when the reigning cabinet collapsed in March 1957 .
After eight years , Soeprapto was honourably dismissed on 1 April 1959 @.@ the dismissal has been reported in several sources to be related to the acquittal of / dropping of charges against two foreigners , Junschlager and Schmidt , who had been accused of undermining the government ; Junschlager died in prison , and Schmidt was freed on basis of time served in a high court decision which the prosecution did not appeal . As he had not been given prior warning he was unable to go to Merdeka Palace for the related formalities ; at the time he was visiting his parents in Yogyakarta . His wife later noted that this led to him becoming disillusioned in President Sukarno 's regime .
Soeprapto married three times . He first married Soeratinah of Purworejo , with whom he had a son . He then married Djenab Oetari of Bogor , with whom he had a daughter . His last marriage was to Soekarti , with whom he had two sons and two daughters . He died on 2 December 1964 , and was buried at Kalibata Heroes Cemetery in Jakarta .
= = Legacy = =
Soeprapto was posthumously declared the " Father of the Prosecutor 's Office " on 22 July 1967 by Prosecutor General Soegiharto , which was formally recognized by Letter of Recommendation Number KEP @-@ 061 / D.A / 1967 . That same year , a bust of him was placed in front of the prosecutor general 's office in Jakarta . Several streets are named after Soeprapto , including in Gresik , Malang , and Surabaya .
Amir Hasan Ketaren of the Prosecutors ' Commission stated in 2010 that Soeprapto was an example of what a prosecutor general should be : firm , knowledgeable , and unwilling to allow outside intervention in his investigations – even from the president . This quality , he said , was lacking in subsequent officeholders . The following year , Asvi Warman Adam of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences stated that there had yet to be another prosecutor general like Soeprapto , for – rather than investigating cases of corruption and keeping politics out of the position – subsequent holders of the office had often been corrupt themselves .
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= Midnight Sun ( horse ) =
Midnight Sun ( 1940 – 65 ) was one of the leading sires of the Tennessee Walking Horse breed , and a two @-@ time World Grand Champion in 1945 and 1946 . He was trained by Fred Walker and lived almost all his life at Harlinsdale Farm in Franklin , Tennessee .
Midnight Sun sired approximately 2 @,@ 600 foals in his life , one of which became the three @-@ time World Grand Champion The Talk of the Town . Of the horses that have won the annual Tennessee Walking Horse World Grand Championship since 1949 , only four were not of Midnight Sun 's bloodline .
= = Life and winnings = =
Midnight Sun was foaled on June 8 , 1940 , out of a mostly Standardbred mare named Ramsey 's Rena , and sired by the stallion Wilson 's Allen . He was a solid black stallion who matured to just under 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) and weighed 1 @,@ 350 pounds ( 610 kg ) , unusually stout for his breed . His original name was Joe Lewis Wilson .
Through his sire Midnight Sun was a great @-@ grandson of Black Allan , also known as Allan F @-@ 1 , who was the foundation sire of the Tennessee Walking Horse breed . Midnight Sun 's half @-@ brother on his sire 's side , Strolling Jim , became the first ever National Champion in 1939 , and three of his other siblings were early champions as well . In 1944 Midnight Sun was bought by Wirt and Alex Harlin for $ 4 @,@ 400 and taken to their Harlinsdale Farm .
Midnight Sun was trained by Fred Walker . He became the first Tennessee Walking Horse to win the World Grand Championship title when it was first awarded in 1945 , and he followed up that win with another World Grand Championship the next year , in 1946 , making him the second repeat winner after Haynes Peacock , his half @-@ brother . At the time , the stake carried a purse of $ 1 @,@ 000 .
Midnight Sun was known for his calm disposition ; it wasn 't uncommon for stablehands at his home , Harlinsdale Farm near Franklin , Tennessee , to let visiting children ride him bareback , so they could say they rode a two @-@ time world grand champion . In 1956 he was bought by Eleanor and Geraldine Livingston at the Harlinsdale Farm dispersal sale , for $ 50 @,@ 000 . The Livingstons stipulated that Midnight Sun be kept at Harlinsdale under the same routine he had had for most of his life . He continued to stand at stud on the farm until his death , and was handled and groomed nearly all his life by Red Laws , who died within a year of the horse 's death . Midnight Sun was never turned out , and Laws once said , " Somebody had hold of him all his life . " In all , he lived at Harlinsdale Farm for 21 years . Midnight Sun died of colic on November 7 , 1965 , and was buried at Harlinsdale Farm , where his grave is still visible today .
= = Legacy = =
Midnight Sun has been described as the single most influential Tennessee Walking Horse sire and a sire of sires . Since 1949 , only four horses not of Midnight Sun 's line have won the Tennessee Walking Horse World Grand Championship , the breed 's highest honor . Midnight Sun sired five horses who won the World Grand Championship : Midnight Merry in 1949 ; The Talk of the Town in 1951 , 1952 , and 1953 ; Sun 's Jet Parade in 1957 ; Setting Sun in 1958 ; and Sun 's Delight D. in 1963 . One of these , The Talk of the Town , was the first three @-@ time World Grand Champion . Midnight Sun was also great @-@ grandsire of I Am Jose , the second three @-@ time winner . Most of the leading Tennessee Walker sires in recent years have themselves been descendants of Midnight Sun . Midnight Sun sired approximately 2 @,@ 600 foals in his lifetime , and during his stud career earned his owners close to $ 100 @,@ 000 a year , mostly through the then @-@ new use of artificial insemination ( AI ) . Through his offspring , he has also influenced the Racking Horse and Spotted Saddle Horse breeds . For many years , a life @-@ size statue of Midnight Sun , commissioned after his death by his former owner Geraldine Livingston , stood at the TWHBEA headquarters in Lewisburg , Tennessee .
= = Pedigree = =
† Denotes inbreeding
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= Cabbage =
Cabbage or headed cabbage ( comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea ) is a leafy green or purple biennial plant , grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense @-@ leaved heads . It is descended from the wild cabbage , B. oleracea var. oleracea , and is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower ( var. botrytis ) , brussels sprouts ( var. gemmmifera ) and savoy cabbage ( var. sabauda ) . Cabbage heads generally range from 0 @.@ 5 to 4 kilograms ( 1 to 9 lb ) , and can be green , purple and white . Smooth @-@ leafed firm @-@ headed green cabbages are the most common , with smooth @-@ leafed red and crinkle @-@ leafed savoy cabbages of both colors seen more rarely . It is a multi @-@ layered vegetable . Under conditions of long sunlit days such as are found at high northern latitudes in summer , cabbages can grow much larger . Some records are discussed at the end of the history section .
It is difficult to trace the exact history of cabbage , but it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC , although savoys were not developed until the 16th century . By the Middle Ages , it had become a prominent part of European cuisine . Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant 's life cycle , but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year , and must be kept separated from other cole crops to prevent cross @-@ pollination . Cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies , as well as to multiple pests , and bacterial and fungal diseases .
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) reports that world production of cabbage and other brassicas for 2011 was almost 69 million metric tons ( 68 million long tons ; 75 million short tons ) . Almost half of these crops were grown in China , where Chinese cabbage is the most popular Brassica vegetable . Cabbages are prepared in many different ways for eating . They can be pickled , fermented for dishes such as sauerkraut , steamed , stewed , sautéed , braised , or eaten raw . Cabbage is a good source of vitamin K , vitamin C and dietary fiber . Contaminated cabbage has been linked to cases of food @-@ borne illness in humans .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea or B. oleracea var. capitata , var. tuba , var. sabauda or var. acephala ) is a member of the genus Brassica and the mustard family , Brassicaceae . Several other cruciferous vegetables ( sometimes known as cole crops ) are considered cultivars of B. oleracea , including broccoli , collard greens , brussels sprouts , kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli . All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea , also called colewort or field cabbage . This original species evolved over thousands of years into those seen today , as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics , such as large heads for cabbage , large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli . The varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for " having a head " . B. oleracea and its derivatives have hundreds of common names throughout the world .
" Cabbage " was originally used to refer to multiple forms of B. oleracea , including those with loose or non @-@ existent heads . A related species , Brassica rapa , is commonly named Chinese , napa or celery cabbage , and has many of the same uses . It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species . These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree ( a member of the genus Andira ) and cabbage palms , which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia , Roystonea oleracea , Acrocomia and Euterpe oenocarpus .
The original family name of brassicas was Cruciferae , which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix . The word brassica derives from bresic , a Celtic word for cabbage . Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto @-@ Slavic root cap or kap , meaning " head " . The late Middle English word cabbage derives from the word caboche ( " head " ) , from the Picard dialect of Old French . This in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce . Through the centuries , " cabbage " and its derivatives have been used as slang for numerous items , occupations and activities . Cash and tobacco have both been described by the slang " cabbage " , while " cabbage @-@ head " means a fool or stupid person and " cabbaged " means to be exhausted or , vulgarly , in a vegetative state .
= = Description = =
Cabbage seedlings have a thin taproot and cordate ( heart @-@ shaped ) cotyledon . The first leaves produced are ovate ( egg @-@ shaped ) with a lobed petiole . Plants are 40 – 60 cm ( 16 – 24 in ) tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage , and 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall when flowering in the second year . Heads average between 1 and 8 pounds ( 0 @.@ 5 and 4 kg ) , with fast @-@ growing , earlier @-@ maturing varieties producing smaller heads . Most cabbages have thick , alternating leaves , with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected ; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves . Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow . About 90 percent of the root mass is in the upper 20 – 30 cm ( 8 – 12 in ) of soil ; some lateral roots can penetrate up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) deep .
The inflorescence is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal raceme measuring 50 – 100 cm ( 20 – 40 in ) tall , with flowers that are yellow or white . Each flower has four petals set in a perpendicular pattern , as well as four sepals , six stamens , and a superior ovary that is two @-@ celled and contains a single stigma and style . Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments . The fruit is a silique that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape . Self @-@ pollination is impossible , and plants are cross @-@ pollinated by insects . The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves , each measuring 25 – 35 cm ( 10 – 14 in ) by 20 – 30 cm ( 8 – 12 in ) ; after this , leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward .
Many shapes , colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage . Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled @-@ leaf , loose @-@ head savoys and smooth @-@ leaf firm @-@ head cabbages , while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples . Oblate , round and pointed shapes are found .
Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics , frost hardiness , fast growth and storage ability . The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding , with varieties being chosen for shape , color , firmness and other physical characteristics . Breeding objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage . Scientific research into the genetic modification of B. oleracea crops , including cabbage , has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance . Genetically modified B. oleracea crops are not currently used in commercial agriculture .
= = History = =
Although cabbage has an extensive history , it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as " brassicas " . The wild ancestor of cabbage , Brassica oleracea , originally found in Britain and continental Europe , is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats , retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened , turgid leaves . According to the triangle of U theory of the evolution and relationships between Brassica species , B. oleracea and other closely related kale vegetables ( cabbages , kale , broccoli , Brussels sprouts , and cauliflower ) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated .
Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than Near Eastern crops such as lentils and summer wheat . Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild B. oleracea , multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe . Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated , before 1000 BC , by the Celts of central and western Europe .
Unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging Mesopotamian garden repertory .
It is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage , which is not native to the Nile valley , though a word shaw 't in Papyrus Harris of the time of Ramesses III , has been interpreted as " cabbage " . Ptolemaic Egyptians knew the cole crops as gramb , under the influence of Greek krambe , which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies ; By early Roman times Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and turnips among a wide variety of other pulses and vegetables .
The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage , as mentioned by Theophrastus , although whether they were more closely related to today 's cabbage or to one of the other Brassica crops is unknown . The headed cabbage variety was known to Greeks as krambe and to Romans as brassica or olus ; the open , leafy variety ( kale ) was known in Greek as raphanos and in Latin as caulis .
Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage , which Pliny knew , but it has not survived . The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevines were inimical , and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes ; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today .
Brassica was considered by some Romans a table luxury , although Lucullus considered it unfit for the senatorial table . The more traditionalist Cato the Elder , espousing a simple , Republican life , ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar ; he said it surpassed all other vegetables , and approvingly distinguished three varieties ; he also gave directions for its medicinal use , which extended to the cabbage @-@ eater 's urine , in which infants might be rinsed . Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties , including Pompeii cabbage , Cumae cabbage and Sabellian cabbage . According to Pliny , the Pompeii cabbage , which could not stand cold , is " taller , and has a thick stock near the root , but grows thicker between the leaves , these being scantier and narrower , but their tenderness is a valuable quality " . The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in De Re Rustica . Apicius gives several recipes for cauliculi , tender cabbage shoots . The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout , headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion . The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would avoid drunkenness . Cabbage continued to figure in the materia medica of antiquity as well as at table : in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses , the cultivated and the wild , and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through the 17th century .
At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in De observatione ciborum ( " On the Observance of Foods " ) of Anthemis , a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great , and cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the Capitulare de villis , composed c . 771 @-@ 800 that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne .
In Britain the Anglo @-@ Saxon cultivated cawel . When round @-@ headed cabbages appeared in 14th @-@ century England they were called cabaches and caboches , words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves , the contemporaneous recipe that commences " Take cabbages and quarter them , and seethe them in good broth " , also suggests the tightly headed cabbage .
Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages , and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of King John II of France when captive in England in 1360 , but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor : in the lean year of 1420 the " Bourgeois of Paris " noted that " poor people ate no bread , nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes , without any bread or salt " . French naturalist Jean Ruel made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise De Natura Stirpium , referring to it as capucos coles ( " head @-@ coles " ) , Sir Anthony Ashley , 1st Baronet , did not disdain to have a cabbage at the foot of his monument in Wimborne St Giles .
In Istanbul Sultan Selim III penned a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek ode to cabbage : without cabbage the halva feast was not complete . Cabbages spread from Europe into Mesopotamia and Egypt as a winter vegetable , and later followed trade routes throughout Asia and the Americas . The absence of Sanskrit or other ancient Eastern language names for cabbage suggests that it was introduced to South Asia relatively recently . In India , cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal , who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries . Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775 .
Many cabbage varieties — including some still commonly grown — were introduced in Germany , France , and the Low Countries . During the 16th century , German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage . During the 17th and 18th centuries , cabbage was a food staple in such countries as Germany , England , Ireland and Russia , and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten . Sauerkraut was used by Dutch , Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages .
Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541 – 42 , and it was probably planted by the early English colonists , despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid @-@ 17th century . By the 18th century , it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians . Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet , and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island . It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets .
There are several Guinness Book of World Records entries related to cabbage . These include the heaviest cabbage , at 57 @.@ 61 kilograms ( 127 @.@ 0 lb ) , heaviest red cabbage , at 19 @.@ 05 kilograms ( 42 @.@ 0 lb ) , longest cabbage roll , at 15 @.@ 37 meters ( 50 @.@ 4 ft ) , and the largest cabbage dish , at 925 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 040 lb ) . In 2012 , Scott Robb of Palmer , Alaska , broke the world record for heaviest cabbage at 62 @.@ 71 kilograms ( 138 @.@ 25 lb ) .
= = Cultivation = =
Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads , produced during the first year of its biennial cycle . Plants perform best when grown in well @-@ drained soil in a location that receives full sun . Different varieties prefer different soil types , ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay , but all prefer fertile ground with a pH between 6 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 8 . For optimal growth , there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil , especially during the early head formation stage , and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves . Temperatures between 4 and 24 ° C ( 39 and 75 ° F ) prompt the best growth , and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting ( flowering ) . Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures ( a process called vernalization ) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period . The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) . Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering . In certain climates , cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower , a practice that was common in the eastern US .
Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanted outside , although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested . Seedlings typically emerge in about 4 – 6 days from seeds planted 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) deep at a soil temperature between 20 and 30 ° C ( 68 and 86 ° F ) . Growers normally place plants 30 to 61 cm ( 12 to 24 in ) apart . Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant ( especially the amount of light ) and increases the time taken to reach maturity . Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use ; these are generally called " flowering cabbage " . They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white , red , or pink . Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity , while late varieties take about 120 days . Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch . They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade . The outer leaves are trimmed , and any diseased , damaged , or necrotic leaves are removed . Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth . Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include : growth in the compacted soils that result from no @-@ till farming practices , drought , waterlogging , insect and disease incidence , and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds .
When being grown for seed , cabbages must be isolated from other B. oleracea subspecies , including the wild varieties , by 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mi ) to prevent cross @-@ pollination . Other Brassica species , such as B. rapa , B. juncea , B. nigra , B. napus and Raphanus sativus , do not readily cross @-@ pollinate .
= = = Cultivars = = =
There are several cultivar groups of cabbage , each including many cultivars :
Savoy – Characterized by crimped or curly leaves , mild flavor and tender texture
Spring Greens – Loose @-@ headed , commonly sliced and steamed
Green – Light to dark green , slightly pointed heads . This is the most commonly grown cultivar .
Red – Smooth red leaves , often used for pickling or stewing
White , also called Dutch – Smooth , pale green leaves
Some sources only delineate three cultivars : savoy , red and white , with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed into the latter .
= = = Cultivation problems = = =
Due to its high level of nutrient requirements , cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies , including boron , calcium , phosphorus and potassium . There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage . Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown , but the outer leaves look normal . Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib . In pepper spot , tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins , which can increase during storage .
Fungal diseases include wirestem , which causes weak or dying transplants ; Fusarium yellows , which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves ; and blackleg ( see Leptosphaeria maculans ) , which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray @-@ brown spotted leaves . The fungi Alternaria brassicae and A. brassicicola cause dark leaf spots in affected plants . They are both seedborne and airborne , and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest . Rhizoctonia solani causes the post @-@ emergence disease wirestem , resulting in killed seedlings ( " damping @-@ off " ) , root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads .
One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot , caused by Xanthomonas campestris , which causes chlorotic and necrotic lesions that start at the leaf margins , and wilting of plants . Clubroot , caused by the soilborne slime mold @-@ like organism Plasmodiophora brassicae , results in swollen , club @-@ like roots . Downy mildew , a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete Peronospora parasitica , produces pale leaves with white , brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces ; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew .
Pests include root @-@ knot nematodes and cabbage maggots , which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves ; aphids , which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves ; harlequin bugs , which cause white and yellow leaves ; thrips , which lead to leaves with white @-@ bronze spots ; striped flea beetles , which riddle leaves with small holes ; and caterpillars , which leave behind large , ragged holes in leaves . The caterpillar stage of the " small cabbage white butterfly " ( Pieris rapae ) , commonly known in the United States as the " imported cabbage worm " , is a major cabbage pest in most countries . The large white butterfly ( Pieris brassicae ) is prevalent in eastern European countries . The diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella ) and the cabbage moth ( Mamestra brassicae ) thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe , where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops . In India , the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide . Destructive soil insects include the cabbage root fly ( Delia radicum ) and the cabbage maggot ( Hylemya brassicae ) , whose larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans .
Planting near other members of the cabbage family , or where these plants have been placed in previous years , can prompt the spread of pests and disease . Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems .
= = Production = =
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) combines cabbage and other brassicas for reporting purposes . Total world production of all brassicas for calendar year 2012 was 70 @,@ 104 @,@ 972 metric tons ( 68 @,@ 997 @,@ 771 long tons ; 77 @,@ 277 @,@ 504 short tons ) . The nations with the largest production were China , which produced 47 percent of the world total , and India , which produced 12 percent . China and India used a surface area of 980 @,@ 000 hectares ( 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 acres ) and 375 @,@ 000 hectares ( 930 @,@ 000 acres ) , respectively , to grow these crops ; the total global surface area used for cabbage and related Brassica crops in 2012 was 2 @,@ 391 @,@ 747 hectares ( 5 @,@ 910 @,@ 140 acres ) . The largest yields were from South Korea , which harvested 71 @,@ 188 @.@ 6 kilograms per hectare , Ireland ( 68 @,@ 888 @.@ 9 kg / ha ) , and Japan ( 67 @,@ 647 @.@ 1 kg / ha ) .
Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller , and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale . Those used for processing , especially sauerkraut , are larger and have a lower percentage of water . Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used , with hand @-@ harvesting generally used for cabbages destined for market sales . In commercial @-@ scale operations , hand @-@ harvested cabbages are trimmed , sorted , and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency . Vacuum cooling rapidly refrigerates the vegetable , allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product . Cabbage can be stored the longest at − 1 to 2 ° C ( 30 to 36 ° F ) with a humidity of 90 – 100 percent ; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity . When stored under less ideal conditions , cabbage can still last up to four months .
= = Culinary use = =
Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world : Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) , followed by Belgium at 4 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 10 lb ) , the Netherlands at 4 @.@ 0 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) , and Spain at 1 @.@ 9 kilograms ( 4 @.@ 2 lb ) . Americans consume 3 @.@ 9 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 6 lb ) annually per capita .
Cabbage is prepared and consumed in many ways . The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw or steaming it , though many cuisines pickle , stew , sautée or braise cabbage . Pickling is one of the most popular ways of preserving cabbage , creating dishes such as sauerkraut and kimchi , although kimchi is more often made from Chinese cabbage ( B. rapa ) . Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads , while smooth @-@ leaf types are utilized for both market sales and processing . Bean curd and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking , while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover potato and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat . In Poland , cabbage is one of the main food crops , and it features prominently in Polish cuisine . It is frequently eaten , either fresh or as sauerkraut , as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as gołąbki ( stuffed cabbage ) and pierogi ( filled pasta ) . Other eastern European countries , such as Hungary and Romania , also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient . In India and Ethiopia , cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises . In the United States , cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw , followed by market use and sauerkraut production .
The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by glucosinolates , a class of sulfur @-@ containing glucosides . Although found throughout the plant , these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds ; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue , and they decrease as the tissue ages . Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent , unpleasant odor and taste . These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced .
= = Nutrients and phytochemicals = =
Cabbage is an excellent source of vitamin C and vitamin K , containing more than 20 % of the Daily Value ( DV ) for each of these nutrients per serving ( right table of USDA nutrient values ) . Cabbage is also a good source ( 10 – 19 % DV ) of vitamin B6 and folate , with no other nutrients having significant content per 100 gram serving ( table ) .
Basic research on cabbage phytochemicals is ongoing to discern if certain cabbage compounds may affect health or have anti @-@ disease effects . Such compounds include sulforaphane and other glucosinolates which may stimulate the production of detoxifying enzymes during metabolism . Studies suggest that cruciferous vegetables , including cabbage , may have protective effects against colon cancer .
Purple cabbage contains anthocyanins which are under preliminary research for potential anti @-@ carcinogenic properties . Cabbage is also a source of indole @-@ 3 @-@ carbinol , a chemical under basic research for its possible properties .
= = = Herbal medicine = = =
In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable , cabbage has been used historically as a medicinal herb for a variety of purported health benefits . The Ancient Greeks recommended consuming the vegetable as a laxative , and used cabbage juice as an antidote for mushroom poisoning , for eye salves , and for liniments used to help bruises heal . In Cato the Elder 's work De Agri Cultura ( " On Agriculture " ) , he suggested that women could prevent diseases by bathing in urine obtained from those who had frequently eaten cabbage . The ancient Roman nobleman Pliny the Elder described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable , recommending it for drunkenness — both preventatively to counter the effects of alcohol , and to cure hangovers . Similarly , the Ancient Egyptians ate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine . This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid @-@ 20th century .
The cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for trench foot in World War I , and as compresses for ulcers and breast abscesses . Accumulated scientific evidence corroborates that cabbage leaf treatment can reduce the pain and hardness of engorged breasts , and increase the duration of breast feeding . Other medicinal uses recorded in Europe folk medicine include treatments for rheumatism , sore throat , hoarseness , colic , and melancholy . In the United States , cabbage has been used as a hangover cure , to treat abscesses , to prevent sunstroke , or to cool body parts affected by fevers . The leaves have also been used to soothe sore feet and , when tied around the neck of children , to relieve croup . Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in poultices to remove boils and treat warts , pneumonia , appendicitis , and ulcers .
= = = Disadvantages = = =
= = = = Bloating = = = =
Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose , which the human small intestine cannot digest .
= = = = Food @-@ borne illness = = = =
Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food @-@ borne illnesses , including Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum . The latter toxin has been traced to pre @-@ made , packaged coleslaw mixes , while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance . Shigella species are able to survive in shredded cabbage . Two outbreaks of E. coli in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption . Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage , due to contamination at many stages of the growing , harvesting and packaging processes . Contaminants from water , humans , animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage , and from there to the end consumer .
= = = = Goiter and iodine intake = = = =
Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate , a compound associated with goiter formation when iodine intake is deficient .
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= Iron Duke @-@ class battleship =
The Iron Duke class was a group of four dreadnought battleships built for the British Royal Navy before the First World War . The class comprised four ships : Iron Duke , Marlborough , Benbow , and Emperor of India . Launched from October 1912 to November 1913 , this was the third class of Royal Navy super @-@ dreadnoughts . The ships were essentially repeats of the King George V @-@ class battleships ; they retained the same ten 13 @.@ 5 inch ( 34 @.@ 3 cm ) guns in five twin gun turrets on the centreline . However , the Iron Dukes had improved armour and a more powerful secondary armament of 6 @-@ inch weapons instead of the 4 @-@ inch mounted on the earlier ships .
The four ships were the most advanced battleships in the Royal Navy at the outbreak of the First World War , though they were soon surpassed by the five ships of the Queen Elizabeth class . They all saw extensive service during the war with the Grand Fleet , where Iron Duke acted as the flagship for the fleet commander , Admiral John Jellicoe . Three of the ships , Iron Duke , Benbow , and Marlborough , were present at the Battle of Jutland ; the Emperor of India missed the battle by being in dock for periodic refit . The four Iron Duke @-@ class battleships saw limited active duty following the end of the war ; they were all demilitarised under the terms of the London Naval Treaty signed in 1930 . Iron Duke was reduced to a training and depot ship and lasted in that role until 1946 when she was scrapped . Benbow was scrapped in 1931 and Marlborough followed in 1932 . Emperor of India was sunk as a gunnery target in 1931 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Iron Duke @-@ class ships were 622 feet 9 inches ( 189 @.@ 9 metres ) long overall , and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 29 ft ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) . This was an increase of 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 7 m ) in length and 1 ft ( .3 m ) in width over the preceding King George V @-@ class ships . The Iron Dukes displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 400 tonnes ) . This was some 2 @,@ 000 tons ( 2 @,@ 032 tonnes ) heavier than the preceding King George Vs , and was primarily due to the increase in calibre of the secondary battery .
The ships were powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons turbines . Steam was provided to the turbines by 18 Babcock & Wilcox or Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower and delivered a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . Iron Duke and her sisters had a fuel storage capacity of 3 @,@ 200 long tons ( 3 @,@ 300 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 030 long tons ( 1 @,@ 050 t ) of oil . This enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 410 km ; 8 @,@ 950 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Primary battery = = = =
The Iron Duke @-@ class ships mounted a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 inch ( 34 @.@ 3 cm ) Mk V ( H ) guns in five twin gun turrets , all mounted on the centreline . Two turrets were placed in a superfiring pair forward ( " A " and " B " turrets ) , one turret amidships — the " Q " turret — directly after the two funnels , and two in a superfiring pair aft of the rear superstructure ( " X " and " Y " turrets ) . The gun houses used were Mk II turrets that weighed 600 tons ( 610 tonnes ) and allowed for depression to − 5 ° and elevation to 20 ° . Despite this , the range dials on the gunsights at the time of construction were graduated to 15 degrees ; super @-@ elevating cams and prisms to allow the full elevation of the guns to be used were issued some time after the Battle of Jutland . The forward and aft gun turrets could train 150 ° in either direction from the centreline , while the " Q " had a much more limited range . It could engage targets on an arc from between 30 ° to 150 ° from the centerline on either beam of the ship .
The guns had a rate of fire of between 1 @.@ 5 – 2 rounds per minute . The Mk V " Heavy " gun fired a variety of shells , including high explosive and armour @-@ piercing rounds ; they all weighed 1 @,@ 400 lb ( 635 kg ) . The guns were loaded with MD45 propellant charges that weighed 297 lb ( 135 kg ) ; these were stored in silk bags . This provided a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 491 fps ( 759 meters per second ) . At maximum elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 23 @,@ 740 yards ( 21 @,@ 710 m ) , though at the maximum effective elevation of 15 ° , the range was somewhat shorter , at approximately 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 18 @,@ 290 m ) . At a range of 10 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 144 m ) , the gun could penetrate up to 12 @.@ 5 in ( 318 mm ) of Krupp cemented steel armour , the type used on contemporary German dreadnoughts .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The secondary battery consisted of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) Mk VII guns mounted in casemates in the hull around the forward superstructure . These guns were chosen because the 4 @-@ inch ( 10 @.@ 2 cm ) guns on earlier battleships were deemed to be too weak and have too short a range to effectively combat torpedo boats with newer , more powerful torpedoes . Admiral Jackie Fisher had opposed the idea of increasing the secondary battery , though he retired from the post of First Sea Lord in 1910 . As a result , the Iron Dukes , which were designed in 1911 , received the larger 6 inch gun .
These guns fired 100 lb ( 45 @.@ 4 kg ) shells at a rate of between 5 – 7 per minute . The shells were fired with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 775 fps ( 846 mps ) , though the guns were capable of higher velocities . It was reduced in order to standardize the performance of all the 6 inch guns in Royal Navy service , which would simplify range calculations for guns of the calibre . The guns could elevate to 20 ° , which enabled a maximum range of 15 @,@ 800 yd ( 14 @,@ 450 m ) .
There were some significant problems with the casemate guns early on , however . They were equipped with hinged plates that were designed to close off the casemate opening in heavy seas . The plates were easily washed away , though , and without them , water easily entered the ship and caused significant flooding . This problem was compounded by the fact that they had been mounted too low in the hull , which subjected them to heavier pounding from rough seas . The problem was eventually corrected by the addition of dwarf bulkheads in the gun houses and rubber seals to the hinged plates .
= = = = Other armament = = = =
Iron Duke was the first British battleship to be mounted with anti @-@ aircraft weaponry . In 1914 , two 3 in ( 7 @.@ 62 cm ) QF guns were fitted to the aft superstructure , primarily to defend against German airships . The guns fired between 12 – 14 rounds per minute , and were expected to fire approximately 1 @,@ 250 shells before replacement or repair was necessary . The shells fired were 12 @.@ 5 lb ( 5 @.@ 67 kg ) with a high @-@ explosive warhead . They were manually operated , and had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 160 m ) .
As was customary for capital ships of the period , the Iron Duke @-@ class ships were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes . The ships carried four 21 in ( 53 @.@ 3 cm ) tubes , two on each beam . These launched Mk II torpedoes that carried a 515 lb ( 234 kg ) TNT warhead . They had two speed settings ; 31 kn ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) and 45 kn ( 83 km / h ; 52 mph ) . At 31 knots , the range was 10 @,@ 750 yd ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) , though at 45 kn the range was considerably reduced , to 4 @,@ 500 yd ( 4 @,@ 110 m ) .
= = = Armour = = =
The Iron Duke @-@ class battleships had an armour belt that was 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick in the central area of the ship , where the ammunition magazines , machinery spaces , and other vital parts of the ship were located . The belt tapered down to 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) towards the bow and stern . The barbettes that contained the main gun turrets were 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) on the sides and 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) on the rear , where shells were less likely to hit . The turrets themselves were 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick on the sides . The ships ' armoured deck was between 25 – 65 mm ( 1 – 2 @.@ 5 in ) thick . After the battle of Jutland in May 1916 , some 820 tonnes of armour was added to the ships , primarily to thicken the deck around the main battery turrets , as well as to increase the bulkheads in the ammunition magazines .
= = Construction = =
Iron Duke was laid down on 12 January 1912 in the Portsmouth Dockyard . She was launched exactly 10 months later , on 12 October 1912 ; fitting out work commenced thereafter , and was finished by March 1914 . She was then commissioned into the British Home Fleet , as the flagship of Admiral George Callaghan . Marlborough was the second ship of the class to be built . She followed Iron Duke by nearly two weeks ; Marlborough was laid down at the Devonport Dockyard on 25 January 1912 and launched on 24 October 1912 . Fitting out work proceeded somewhat slower on the ship , which wasn 't finished until June 1914 .
Benbow was laid down at Beardmore on 30 May 1912 , more than 5 months after her older sisters . She was launched on 12 November 1913 and completed by October 1914 . Emperor of India , the last of the four battleships , was originally ordered under the name Delhi . She was laid down at Vickers the day after Benbow , on 31 May 1912 . She was launched on 27 November 1913 , and completed by November 1914 .
= = Ships = =
= = = Iron Duke = = =
Upon commissioning , Iron Duke was assigned to the Home Fleet as the fleet flagship . After the outbreak of the First World War , the Royal Navy was reorganized ; the Home Fleet and the Atlantic Fleet were combined to form the Grand Fleet ; Iron Duke retained her position as fleet flagship , under John Jellicoe . The ship took part in all of the major fleet actions , though only one of them ended in combat — the sortie on 31 May that resulted in the Battle of Jutland . At Jutland , Iron Duke was assigned to the 3rd Division of the 4th Battle Squadron , and was stationed in the centre of the British line .
Following the end of the war , Iron Duke was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . During 1919 – 20 , the ship operated in the Black Sea in support of the White Russians during the Russian Civil War . The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 mandated that Iron Duke be removed from the active roster . However , she remained with the fleet for a short time , having been transferred to the Atlantic Fleet in 1926 . This duty assignment lasted 3 years , after which she was removed from active service . She was demilitarised , to be used as a training ship . Two of her gun turrets and a good deal of her armour were removed , and her speed was reduced to 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) through the removal of some of her boilers . She was later used as a depot ship in Scapa Flow , starting in 1939 . After the outbreak of the Second World War that year , her remaining guns were removed to be used in shore defences . Luftwaffe bombers attacked her on 17 October 1939 ; while they scored no direct hits , several near misses caused significant damage . After repairs were effected , the ship resumed her duties as a depot vessel until the end of the war . She was finally sold for scrapping in 1946 .
= = = Marlborough = = =
Marlborough was the most heavily engaged ship of the class during the battle of Jutland ; she fired a total of 162 heavy @-@ calibre shells , out of a total of 292 for the entire class . She was assigned to the 6th Division of the 1st Battle Squadron , towards the rear of the British line . She served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Cecil Burney . During the battle , she was hit by a torpedo amidships ; the torpedo tore a hole that was 21 m by 6 m ( 70 ft by 20 ft ) . Despite the damage , she was able to keep her position in the line , though her speed was reduced to 17 kn ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Marlborough continued to fire her main guns until the list increased to the point that prevented her guns from being effectively employed . The ship eventually withdrew to the Humber , where she undertook 3 months of repairs .
Post @-@ war , Marlborough joined Iron Duke in the Mediterranean , where she remained until 1926 . She was then transferred to the Atlantic Fleet ; her tour of duty there lasted until 1929 , at which point she was withdrawn from active duty . The ship was sold for scrapping in 1932 .
= = = Benbow = = =
Like her sisters , Benbow was assigned to the Grand Fleet for the duration of the First World War . She was assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron on 10 December 1914 . Benbow was the flagship of Admiral Doveton Sturdee , the commander of the 4th Division of the 4th Battle Squadron , during the battle of Jutland . The 4th Division was directly ahead of the 3rd Division , where Admiral Jellicoe commanded the fleet from Benbow 's sister Iron Duke . Throughout the battle the ship remained undamaged . Like Iron Duke and Marlborough , Benbow was transferred to the Mediterranean in 1919 , and she provided artillery support to White Russian forces in the Black Sea . She followed Marlborough to the Atlantic Fleet in 1926 ; she too was stricken in 1929 and sold for scrap .
= = = Emperor of India = = =
Emperor of India was also assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron , in December 1914 . She missed Jutland because she was in dock for a periodic refit . After the end of the war , she was transferred to the Mediterranean along with the other three ships of the class . Emperor of India returned to England in 1922 for a refit , after which she resumed her duties in the Mediterranean . She likewise joined the Atlantic Fleet in 1926 , alongside her sisters , and stricken in 1929 . Instead of being scrapped , however , she was used as a gunnery target , and sunk in 1931 . She was raised shortly thereafter and sold to ship breakers on 6 February 1932 .
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= USS New Ironsides =
USS New Ironsides was a wooden @-@ hulled broadside ironclad built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War . The ship spent most of her career blockading the Confederate ports of Charleston , South Carolina , and Wilmington , North Carolina , in 1863 – 65 . New Ironsides bombarded the fortifications defending Charleston in 1863 during the First and Second Battles of Charleston Harbor . At the end of 1864 and the beginning of 1865 she bombarded the defenses of Wilmington in the First and Second Battles of Fort Fisher .
Although she was struck many times by Confederate shells , gunfire never significantly damaged the ship or injured the crew . Her only casualty in combat occurred when she was struck by a spar torpedo carried by the CSS David . Eight crewmen were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in 1865 . The ship was destroyed by fire in 1865 after she was placed in reserve .
= = Design and description = =
After the United States received word of the construction of the Confederate casemate ironclad , CSS Virginia , Congress appropriated $ 1 @.@ 5 million on 3 August to build one or more armored steamships . It also ordered the creation of a board to inquire into armored ships . The U.S. Navy advertised for proposals for " iron @-@ clad steam vessels of war " on 7 August and Gideon Welles , the Secretary of the Navy , appointed the three members of the Ironclad Board the following day . Their task was to " examine plans for the completion of iron @-@ clad vessels " . They evaluated 17 different designs , but recommended only three on 16 September .
The three ironclad ships differed substantially in design and degree of risk . The USS Monitor was the most innovative design by virtue of its low freeboard , shallow @-@ draft iron hull , and total dependence on steam power . The riskiest element of its design was its rotating gun turret , something that had not previously been tested by any navy . Its designer John Ericsson 's guarantee of delivery in 100 days proved to be decisive in choosing his design despite the risk involved . The wooden @-@ hulled USS Galena 's most novel feature was her armor of interlocking iron rails . The New Ironsides was much influenced by the French ironclad Gloire and was the most conservative design of the three , which copied many of the features of the French ship . The well @-@ known Philadelphia engine @-@ building firm of Merrick & Sons made the proposal for New Ironsides , but they did not have a slipway so they subcontracted the ship to William Cramp and Sons . William Cramp claimed credit for the detailed design of the ship 's hull , but the general design work was done by Merrick & Sons .
New Ironsides was 230 feet ( 70 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and 249 feet 6 inches ( 76 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 57 feet 6 inches ( 17 @.@ 5 m ) and a draft of 15 feet 8 inches ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship displaced 4 @,@ 120 long tons ( 4 @,@ 190 t ) , 495 long tons ( 503 t ) more than her designed displacement . To minimize her draft , New Ironsides was given a wide beam and a flat bottom . She had a rectangular ram that projected 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) forward from her bow . The ship 's crew consisted of 449 officers and men .
A two @-@ piece articulated rudder was fitted to New Ironsides , but it proved unsatisfactory in service as the ship became more unmanageable as her speed increased . The rudder was blamed at the time , but the very full shape of the ship 's hull aft was the most likely cause as it screened the rudder from the flow of water behind the hull . The ship 's hull was coppered to reduce fouling .
= = = Propulsion = = =
New Ironsides had two simple horizontal two @-@ cylinder direct @-@ acting steam engines driving a single brass 13 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by four horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers at a working pressure of 20 – 25 psi ( 138 – 172 kPa ; 1 – 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced 1 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 300 kW ) which gave the ship a maximum speed around 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . New Ironsides carried 350 long tons ( 360 t ) of coal and her propeller could be disengaged to reduce drag while under sail alone . The ship was barque @-@ rigged with three masts that were used only for long @-@ distance voyages , and were removed , with their rigging , once on station . The best speed under sail and steam together was only about 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship 's main armament was originally going to consist of 16 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted on the gun deck . However , the navy was less than impressed by the performance of 9 @-@ inch Dahlgrens during the Battle of Hampton Roads and wanted more powerful 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) guns . Accordingly , the design changed while the ship was under construction to accommodate fourteen 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns and two muzzle @-@ loading 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , 150 @-@ pounder Parrott rifles . Two 5 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) , 50 @-@ pound Dahlgren rifles were fitted on the upper deck as chase guns . They were replaced by 60 @-@ pound Dahlgren rifles by October 1864 .
Each 11 @-@ inch gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) . They could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of 15 ° . The muzzle @-@ loading Parrott rifles fired a 152 @-@ pound ( 68 @.@ 9 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 200 ft / s ( 370 m / s ) . The 17 @-@ caliber guns weighed 16 @,@ 300 pounds ( 7 @,@ 400 kg ) each . The 50 @-@ pounder Dahlgren rifles weighed approximately 5 @,@ 600 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) . The small size of the gun ports limited the guns , however , to a maximum elevation of 4 @.@ 5 ° which reduced their range to less than 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
The existing wooden carriages for 11 @-@ inch guns were too long to fit in New Ironsides 's cramped battery . A new iron carriage was built where the gun rode in a cradle that slid on iron rails . The new carriages pivoted at the gun ports to minimize the size of the ports . Two compressors , or clamps , were fitted to squeeze the rails and increase friction between the rails and the cradle , but these were not strong enough to handle the recoil force when the gun was fired . Two more compressors were fitted as well as rope breechings to restrain the guns , but neither was entirely satisfactory . The problem was not resolved until December 1862 when strips of ash wood were placed underneath the compressors ; the friction of iron on wood was double that of iron on iron and the increased friction solved the problem .
= = = Armor = = =
New Ironsides had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick . Below the waterline it was reduced to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . It reached 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below . Above the belt the 170 @-@ foot ( 51 @.@ 8 m ) battery was protected by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armor , but the bow and stern were left unprotected . Although not initially part of the design , transverse bulkheads were added during construction to protect the ends of the battery . They consisted of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) of wrought iron backed by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of white oak . The deck was three inches of yellow pine beneath 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of wrought iron . Mirroring French practice , the armor plates were secured to the ship 's hull and deck by countersunk screws . The armor plates were cut with a groove on each side and an iron bar was inserted between each plate to better distribute the shock of impact . The side armor was backed by 21 inches ( 533 mm ) of wood . A conning tower with three @-@ inch sides was also added during construction . It was placed behind the funnel and the mainmast , and had no visibility directly forward . It was small and could only fit three people .
Each of the ship 's gun ports was protected by two armored shutters , each 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick . Each shutter rotated on an axle at its top operated from inside the battery . In combat these shutters frequently cracked or broke when hit ; rarely was a shutter jammed in either the open or closed position .
= = Construction = =
New Ironsides was named in honor of USS Constitution , which earned the nickname " Old Ironsides " during her engagement with HMS Guerrière in the War of 1812 . As Constitution herself was still in commission , the name was unavailable for a new ship .
Merrick & Sons was awarded a $ 780 @,@ 000 contract for the ship on 15 October 1861 for delivery in nine months . A $ 500 penalty was imposed for each day past 15 July 1862 that the ship was delayed . Commodore Charles Stewart sponsored the ship as she was launched on 10 May 1862 . She was commissioned on 21 August , but the navy did not invoke the penalty for late delivery . On 27 September the navy paid Merrick & Sons $ 34 @,@ 322 @.@ 06 for " extras " , presumably the armored bulkheads , shutters , and conning tower not included in the original specifications .
= = Service = =
The day after New Ironsides was commissioned , she sailed for Hampton Roads where Rear Admiral Goldsborough had been requesting her since July . He feared a Confederate sortie down the James River to attack his ships and did not believe that his armored sloop Galena and the prototype ironclad Monitor would be enough . On 31 August , Secretary Welles ordered New Ironsides back to Philadelphia for post @-@ trial repairs . Her voyage to Hampton Roads had revealed problems with her steering , gun recoil , and lack of speed . A start was made on the gun recoil problem when she was ordered to return to Hampton Roads on 23 September , but the other two problems proved to be intractable . She was kept ready to respond to a Confederate attack with steam up while mechanics were sent to fix the recoil problems and the crew was training .
New Ironsides joined the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron at Port Royal , South Carolina , on 17 January 1863 . When she first arrived , the ship exchanged her masts and rigging for poles suitable for signaling . Rear Admiral Du Pont ordered that the ship 's funnel be cut down to improve the visibility from the conning tower , but the fumes from the funnel nearly asphyxiated the men in the conning tower and on the gun deck , and the funnel had to be restored . He also attempted to move the 18 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 18 t ) conning tower to a better position , but it was too heavy for the equipment available .
The day after the Confederate casemate ironclads CSS Chicora and CSS Palmetto State sortied and briefly captured two Union ships on 31 January , New Ironsides was ordered to patrol off Charleston Harbor . The ship remained at Charleston for the rest of the year except for brief intervals at Port Royal . She participated in the First Battle of Charleston Harbor on 7 April 1863 , when nine Union ironclads entered the harbor and conducted a prolonged , but inconclusive , bombardment of Fort Sumter . New Ironsides served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Du Pont during the battle . He and his staff occupied the conning tower during the engagement , which forced the ship 's captain to command the ship from the gun deck . Admiral Du Pont 's pilot was unfamiliar with New Ironsides ' quirks , and the channel used during the attack was shallower in places than her deep draft ; she maneuvered erratically and had to anchor several times to avoid going aground . The monitors Catskill and Nantucket collided with New Ironsides as they attempted to move past her , but no damage was suffered by any of the ships . As the ship was withdrawing she anchored directly over a Confederate " torpedo " ( mine ) that was filled with 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 360 kg ) of gunpowder that failed to detonate . During the bombardment New Ironsides fired only a single broadside , but she was hit over 50 times in return without significant damage or casualties .
New Ironsides repeatedly bombarded Confederate positions in the successful campaign to take Fort Wagner on Morris Island beginning with the Second Battle of Fort Wagner on 18 July through the next two months and the Second Battle of Charleston Harbor . During this time the ship was the target of a failed spar torpedo boat attack on 21 August . While resupplying ammunition on 8 September , New Ironsides was called to provide cover for the monitor Weehawken which had grounded between Fort Sumter and Cummings Point . New Ironsides anchored 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) in front of Fort Moultrie and forced the Confederate gunners to seek cover ; she fired 483 shells and was struck at least 70 times . The ship also contributed crewmen for the landing party that unsuccessfully attempted to seize Fort Sumter on the night of 8 – 9 September . Between July and October New Ironsides fired 4439 rounds and was hit by at least 150 heavy projectiles , none of which inflicted any significant damage or casualties .
Another spar torpedo attack was made by the semi @-@ submersible CSS David on the night of 5 October 1863 . The attack was successful , but the damage was minor , and only one man later died of his wounds . New Ironsides remained on station until 6 June 1864 when she returned to Port Royal preparatory to a return to Philadelphia for repairs and a general overhaul . Her masts and rigging were replaced and most of the ship 's crew with time remaining on their enlistments were transferred to other ships in the squadron . The ship arrived at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 24 June and was decommissioned six days later to begin her refit .
New Ironsides completed her overhaul in late August 1864 , now under the command of Commodore William Radford , but did not join the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron in Hampton Roads until October when her crew finished gunnery training . She participated in a major assault in December on Fort Fisher , North Carolina , in an effort to stop blockade running into the port of Wilmington . Though this attack was called off on Christmas Day after an extensive bombardment , the Union fleet returned to resume the operation on 13 January 1865 . New Ironsides was one of several warships that heavily shelled Fort Fisher , preparing the way for a ground assault that captured the position on 15 January . Afterward and for the next few months , New Ironsides supported Union activities on the James River . She was decommissioned on 6 April 1865 and was laid up at League Island , Philadelphia , where , on the night of 16 December 1865 , New Ironsides was destroyed by a fire . The ship was towed to shallow water where she burned and sank . Her wreck was salvaged and her boilers were offered for sale in 1869 .
= = Medals of Honor = =
The following crewmen of the New Ironsides were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the Second Battle of Fort Fisher :
James Barnum , Boatswain 's Mate , U.S. Navy
John Dempster , Coxswain , U.S. Navy
Thomas English , Signal Quartermaster , U.S. Navy
Edmund Haffee , Quarter Gunner , U.S. Navy
Nicholas Lear , Quartermaster , U.S. Navy
Daniel Milliken , Quarter Gunner , U.S. Navy
Joseph White , Coxswain , U.S. Navy
Richard Willis , Coxswain , U.S. Navy
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= Mass Effect 2 : Arrival =
Mass Effect 2 : Arrival is a downloadable content pack developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts for the action role @-@ playing video game Mass Effect 2 . It was released on March 29 , 2011 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . The pack introduces a new mission where the player assumes the role of Commander Shepard , an elite human soldier who must stop an imminent invasion of a highly advanced machine race of synthetic @-@ organic starships . The pack also includes three in @-@ game upgrades and three new achievements that are awarded for completing specific tasks .
Mass Effect 2 : Arrival was formally confirmed to be in development on March 14 , 2011 and acts as a bridge for Mass Effect 3 . The pack received generally mixed reviews from critics , with an aggregate score of 65 % for the Xbox 360 at GameRankings . Reviewers mainly criticized its weak story and strong emphasis on linear combat sequences , though some found the atmospheric environments praiseworthy .
= = Gameplay = =
Mass Effect 2 is an action role @-@ playing game where the player assumes the role of Commander Shepard . Shepard 's gender , appearance , history and combat @-@ training are determined by the player before the game begins . The game features a variety of missions that the player must complete to progress . During the missions , Shepard is usually assisted by two AI squad members that the player can indirectly control through orders . Combat takes place in real @-@ time , but the player can pause the game at any time to calmly target enemies and select different powers for the squad members to use . Unlike most of the missions , Arrival introduces a new assignment that involves Shepard to fight solo almost the entire time , even though there is a short section where the player is assisted by a character . The mission also contains three in @-@ game upgrades that the player can research to enhance aspects of the game 's weapons and armor , as well as three new achievements . The first achievement requires the player to complete the first part of the mission without being detected by enemies ; the second achievement involves the player to survive all the waves in a specific battle ; and the third one is unlocked by completing Arrival . Upon completing the mission , the player is awarded with experience points . If a sufficient amount of experience is obtained , the player can upgrade powers of the entire squad .
= = Plot = =
Mass Effect 2 : Arrival is set within the Milky Way galaxy during the 22nd century , where interstellar travel is possible through the use of mass transit devices called Mass Relays . Commander Shepard is sent on a mission to rescue Dr. Amanda Kenson , an allied agent who claimed to have found evidence of an imminent invasion of Reapers , a highly advanced machine race of synthetic @-@ organic starships encountered in the first Mass Effect game . Shepard successfully rescues Kenson , who explains that she discovered a Reaper artifact which gave her visions of the imminent invasion . Shepard asks to see the proof and is taken to the artifact , which is located inside a complex on the surface of a large asteroid . Upon arriving at the artifact , Shepard has a vision of the Reaper fleet approaching a Relay . Just as Shepard starts to get up from the experience , Kenson detains and imprisons him / her in a medical lab . It is then revealed that despite her stated precautions , Kenson and her entire team became indoctrinated from having spent too much time studying the artifact .
Shepard eventually manages to escape the medical lab and reach the control room , where he / she sets the asteroid on course to hit the Relay from where the Reapers will soon be coming . In retaliation , Kenson plans to destroy the asteroid by overloading the reactor core of the facility , but Shepard ultimately stops her . Shepard then contacts his / her starship and escapes shortly before the asteroid hits the Relay , resulting in the destruction of an entire system . Shepard is later met by Admiral Steven Hackett , their superior officer , who explains that he / she has to go to Earth and face the consequences , setting the stage for Mass Effect 3 .
= = Development and release = =
Mass Effect 2 : Arrival was developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts . During development of Mass Effect 2 , Bioware stated that downloadable content was becoming a fundamental part of the company 's overall philosophy . The pack was accidentally revealed on February 21 , 2011 by the addition of three new achievements in a patch for the PlayStation 3 version of Mass Effect 2 . BioWare later stated that the addition of the achievements was intentional , but assumed they would be " invisible " . On March 14 , 2011 , the pack was formally confirmed to be in development via a brand new screenshot . BioWare explained that its purpose is to act as a bridge for Mass Effect 3 . Although the base where most of the pack 's events take place is located on an asteroid , early plans suggested that it would be set on an ocean planet . The base would be underwater and Shepard would reach the main level by submarine . Each section of the base would be in different " containers " , and would have a similar sense to James Cameron 's 1989 film The Abyss . The pack was released on March 29 , 2011 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . The soundtrack was composed by Sonic Mayhem duo Sascha Dikiciyan and Cris Velasco , the same composers that penned the music from Mass Effect 2 's earlier downloadable content Kasumi - Stolen Memory .
= = Reception = =
Mass Effect 2 : Arrival received generally mixed reviews from critics . GameSpot Senior Editor Kevin VanOrd called Arrival " a disappointing conclusion to a beloved series ' second chapter . " He stated that the pack lacks elements of choice and character development , which are core features of the Mass Effect series . He nonetheless found the atmospheric environments still praiseworthy , especially the final battleground , which " seems to break the laws of physics but nonetheless gives the shooting excellent visual context . " Kristine Steimer of IGN enjoyed the challenge of fighting alone , as it " never bordered on frustrating " , but also admitted the pack fundamentally consisted of linear combat sequences .
Game Revolution 's Eduardo Reboucas mainly criticized the story . He felt that " characters don 't offer a lot of explanation and the little that is given seems more like a hastily put @-@ together excuse to shoot up some fools and push some buttons on the way . " He also pointed out that none of the conversation paths influence the game , and " [ give ] no sense of closure or importance . " Despite the criticism , he praised BioWare 's talent for the pack 's great atmosphere , stating " you 'll never be bored by the visuals in The Arrival . "
Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer highlighted positively the first part of the mission . He remarked the game " [ does ] a decent job of allowing you to feel like you 're being stealthy as you negotiate your way past guards , usually by looking around for not @-@ very @-@ hidden alternate routes . " He however criticized the final two thirds for being very linear and repetitive , and also reacted negatively to the game 's insistence on having to fight solo almost the entire time . He explained that Mass Effect 2 is a squad game , where players " [ use ] fluid team strategy to cope with different situations " , but fighting solo means that players " have to deal with every encounter in the exact same way . " Brad Gallaway , reviewer of GameCritics , concluded that the relatively short mission and included extras were not enough to justify the pack 's $ 7 USD price tag . Mass Effect 2 : Arrival was nominated for Best DLC ( downloadable content ) at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards , but lost to Portal 2 : Peer Review .
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= French ironclad Atalante =
The French ironclad Atalante was a wooden @-@ hulled armored corvette built for the French Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . She played a minor role in the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 , bombarded Vietnamese forts during the Battle of Thuan An in 1884 and participated in the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . Atalante was reduced to reserve in Saigon in 1885 and sank there two years later after having been condemned .
= = Design and description = =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were designed as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse suitable for foreign deployments . Unlike their predecessor the Alma @-@ class ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
Atalante measured 68 @.@ 78 meters ( 225 ft 8 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 2 meters ( 46 ft 7 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 56 meters ( 21 ft 6 in ) and displaced 3 @,@ 825 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 765 long tons ) . Her crew numbered 316 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller . Her engine was powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 1 @,@ 640 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 220 kW ) and the ship reached 11 @.@ 56 knots ( 21 @.@ 41 km / h ; 13 @.@ 30 mph ) . Atalante carried 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1 @,@ 460 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ; 1 @,@ 680 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 1 @,@ 338 square meters ( 14 @,@ 400 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Atalante mounted her four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) Modèle 1864 breech @-@ loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 194 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship . The four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were also mounted on the upper deck . She may have exchanged her Mle 1864 guns for Mle 1870 guns . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 20 @-@ caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165 @.@ 3 pounds ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 7 @.@ 83 long tons ( 7 @.@ 96 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 739 ft / s ( 530 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
Atalante had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , backed by 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of wood . The unarmored portions of her sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates .
= = Service = =
Atalante was laid down at Cherbourg in June 1865 and launched on 12 April 1867 . Her sea trials began on 1 April 1869 and she joined the reserve at Brest on 11 July 1869 . Atalante was commissioned on 23 February 1870 and was initially assigned to the Evolutionary Squadron before transferring to the Northern Squadron in July 1870 at the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War . The squadron was ordered to lift its blockade of the Prussian North Sea ports on 16 September and return to Cherbourg . Atalante went back into reserve in November 1870 , but she was recommissioned the following year .
She was named as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron on 1 July 1872 under command of Rear Admiral Baron Roussin . On 14 August Atalante sailed from Lorient for the Pacific and did not return until 27 February 1874 . She was placed into reserve upon her arrival , but was recommissioned on 28 December 1875 as the flagship of the China Squadron under Rear Admiral Veron . She departed Lorient on 10 January 1876 , but returned on 16 May 1878 . The ship spent the next four years in reserve before being recommissioned on 3 July 1882 for service with the Cochinchina Division ( French : division navale de Cochinchine ) .
Atalante was transferred to the new Tonkin Coast Division ( French : division navale des côtes du Tonkin ) when it was formed in 1883 . During 18 – 21 August 1883 she participated in the Battle of Thuan An . This was an attack by the French on the forts defending the mouth of the Perfume River , leading to the Vietnamese capital of Huế in an attempt to intimidate the Vietnamese government . Atalante was assigned to bombard the North Fort by the French commander , Vice Admiral Amédée Courbet . After two days of bombardment a landing party from the ship captured the fort . Ensign ( French : Enseigne de vaisseau ) Louis @-@ Marie @-@ Julien Viaud , who was aboard the Atalante during the battle and participated in the landing , wrote several articles graphically describing his experiences that were published in the newspaper Le Figaro under the pen @-@ name of Pierre Loti .
The ship was assigned to the Far East Squadron ( French : escadre de l 'Extrême @-@ Orient ) under Admiral Courbet when it was formed by the amalgamation of the Tonkin Coast and Far Eastern Divisions in June 1884 in preparation for the Sino @-@ French War of 1884 – 85 . In early September 1884 Atalante was in Huế , but she carried Admiral Courbet to Keelung on 23 September . The ship was paid off into reserve in Saigon in 1885 and condemned two years later . She fell into such a state of disrepair that " she foundered one night and gradually sank into the mud . "
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= Santa Santita =
Santa Santita , or Magdalena , The Unholy Saint , is a 2004 Filipino film starring Angelica Panganiban and Jericho Rosales , directed by Laurice Guillen . The film follows Malen , the daughter of an intercessor , her love affair with a hustler and gigolo , and her confrontation of the evil within her life . Based on a script by Jerry Gracio , the film was picked up by Guillen in 2000 but did not start production because an appropriate actress for Malen could not be found . After picking Panganiban , Guillen began work , and the eventual film was released on November 17 , 2004 , in the Philippines and March 11 , 2005 , internationally . Receiving good reviews from Variety and the Philippine Daily Inquirer , Santa Santita was one of only two films to be rated as Grade A by the Cinema Evaluation Board of the Philippines , and represented the Philippines at the Asiaticafilmediale festival in Italy and the Bangkok International Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Malen ( Angelica Panganiban ) is the daughter of Chayong ( Hilda Koronel ) , a widowed intercessor at Quiapo Church in Manila . Selling religious charms as a way of meeting men , Malen falls for Mike ( Jericho Rosales ) , a gigolo and hustler . Mike hustles both for his own survival and that of his son , but also because " he knows essentially he 's just strong enough and unscrupulous enough " to do so . After her mother takes umbrage at Malen 's assumed promiscuity , she moves out of Chayong 's house and stays with Mike . When her mother then dies of a heart attack , Malen feels guilt and becomes an intercessor despite having previously sworn the profession off .
Initially met with mistrust by her colleagues , one of whom exclaims that " She is defiling prayer " , Malen heals a child with a hole in its heart through her prayers , despite not even praying seriously . This meets with additional hostility , both from the other intercessors and the clergy , and when Malen dreams of having stigmata , she is forced to confront the problems with her own life , something which comes to a climax when she is asked to bring Mike 's dead son back to life . A side plot involves Father Tony ( Johnny Delgado ) , an alcoholic priest who lives with Mike . Initially his drinking partner , Mike begins to taunt the priest about his failures as the film goes on . At the end of the film , Mike is sent to prison for killing a man after a traffic accident , while Tony 's interactions with Malen convince him that he is addicted to alcohol , prompting him to return to his parish and continue serving as a priest .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The script was written by Jerry Gracio , influenced by the poem The Hound of Heaven , and won first prize at the scriptwriting competition hosted by the Film Development Council of the Philippines in 2000 . This attracted the attention of Laurice Guillen , who bought the script ( the first time in her career that she had done so ) and signed on to direct the eventual film . The script was brought to Star Cinema , who became interested in producing it , but production stalled due to difficulties finding an appropriate actress to play Malen . Guillen stated that " Since she was a Magdalene , she had to be sexy but she also had to be much more than that .... I was shown many sexy actresses , some of them name stars , but I couldn 't find my Santa @-@ Santita . I felt that the role should go to someone relatively new , who had no fixed image , so that there would be no expectations " . An additional problem was over the religious content of the film , which met with controversy . Guillen eventually found Angelica Panganiban to play Malen , and after five years without production , work on the film began for Unitel Pictures International , whose CEO stated that " the majority of Filipinos , the so @-@ called masses , are not the targets of this movie . Those who frequent the cineplexes and look for fresh material in the movies are " . The title , Santa Santita , translates as " saint who is not really a saint " .
The scenes were primarily shot in Quiapo , Manila , church scenes were recorded in Iguig and dream sequences in Currimao , Ilocos Norte . Guillen noted the stress of recording in Quiapo , due to the large number of extras , the already crowded nature of the area and the small size of the time periods during which they were allowed to film in the church itself .
= = Release = =
The film was previewed to good reviews , and after an initial release in the Philippines on November 17 , 2004 , opened in cinemas in Manhattan , San Diego and Honolulu on March 11 , 2005 , as Magdalena , The Unholy Saint . It was given good reviews by both Filipino and American magazines and newspapers ; Variety magazine 's reviewer noted that " Performances are solid , and former child actress Panganiban is impressive as a young woman who finds herself with a vocation she never asked for .... Guillen 's helming is slick and confident , and the HD @-@ sourced photography and other technical credits are of good quality " , and the Philippine Daily Inquirer reported that " Gorgeously crafted , ' Santa Santita 's ' strength lies in its illuminating take on man 's neverending search for meaning , and in the thoughtful , truthful characterization of its leads " .
Other reviewers were more cautionary ; the New York Times wrote that " the aim of the filmmaker seems unclear , with Magdalena at first celebrated for her humanness and then exalted for her sudden saintliness " and describing the story as " wearyingly eventful " . The Manila Bulletin noted that while the film is about belief ( or lack thereof ) in miracles , " the effort to explore this issue is not brought into fulfilling fruition . We keep on hoping something else more significant would happen later in the film to invoke the viewers own feelings about faith and an all @-@ seeing , all @-@ merciful God , but this never comes " . Although Rosales and Panganiban were praised for their acting , the reviewer felt that there was " just no combustible chemistry between the two of them " .
The Cinema Evaluation Board of the Philippines gave the film a Grade A rating , making it one of only two films to qualify into that category at that point , and the only film to qualify in 2004 . This rating gave Santa Santita a 100 percent rebate on amusement taxes , and is only awarded to films that the Board feels can " revitalize the moribund industry " . The movie represented the Philippines at the Asiaticafilmediale festival in Italy , and was also shown at the Sine ! Sine ! Film Fest in San Francisco . It was a finalist in the Catholic Mass Media Awards , and represented the Philippines at the Bangkok International Film Festival .
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= Ismet Popovac =
Dr. Ismet Popovac ( died 21 August 1943 ) was a Bosnian Muslim ( Bosniak ) military commander who led a Muslim Chetnik militia known as the Muslim People 's Military Organization ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Muslimanska nacionalna vojna organizacija , MNVO ) in Bosnia and Herzegovina during World War II . A physician and lawyer by profession , he was a member of a cultural society known as Gajret prior to the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941 . He was also the mayor of the town of Konjic prior to the invasion and was allegedly a candidate for Vladko Maček 's electoral list , but was left without a job in the Yugoslav state government after the creation of the Banovina of Croatia in 1939 .
In 1941 , Popovac joined the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović . As a proponent of Bosnian Muslim collaboration with the Chetniks , he suggested that the Chetniks recruit Muslims into their ranks . In October 1942 , he enlisted Italian aid in fighting the Yugoslav Partisans , and later visited Prozor to discourage further bloodshed after a Chetnik massacre took the lives of 543 – 2 @,@ 500 Muslim and Croat civilians . In early 1943 he led an attack against a Muslim village , before being killed by either the Partisans , Chetniks , or an assassin in the vicinity of the town of Trebinje later that year .
= = Early life = =
From the Herzegovinian town of Nevesinje , Ismet Popovac was a physician and lawyer by profession . He finished medical school in Belgrade and was a vocal supporter of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during this time . Prior to the outbreak of World War II he was a member of the pro @-@ Serb and pro @-@ monarchy cultural society known as Gajret , whose members were often persecuted by non @-@ Serbs because of their political inclinations . Popovac was also the mayor of the Bosnian town of Konjic , and allegedly a candidate for Vladko Maček 's electoral list , but was left without a job in the state government after the creation of the Banovina of Croatia in 1939 .
= = Joining the Chetniks = =
On 6 April 1941 , Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia . Poorly equipped and poorly trained , the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated . Afterwards , Yugoslavia was dismembered , with Serbia being reduced to its pre @-@ 1912 borders and placed under a government of German military occupation . Milan Nedić , a pre @-@ war politician who was known to have pro @-@ Axis leanings , was then selected by the Germans to lead the collaborationist Government of National Salvation in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . Meanwhile , the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( leader ) of an Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate . " NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše militia , subsequently implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani population living within the borders of the new state . As a result , two resistance movements emerged – the royalist and Serb Chetniks , led by Colonel Draža Mihailović , and the multi @-@ ethnic , Communist Yugoslav Partisans , led by Josip Broz Tito .
That year , Popovac and fellow Muslim leader Mustafa Pašić joined the Chetniks . Popovac hoped to achieve independence for Bosnia and Herzegovina through his cooperation and , according to one Serb Chetnik , his " main goal was to protect the Muslims , rather than to struggle for the Serb nation and Serb affairs . " He later wrote to Mihailović , suggesting that Bosnian Muslims be recruited into the Chetnik ranks . This proposal was met with support from pro @-@ Serb , anti @-@ Communist Muslim leaders in several Bosnian towns . However , as more Muslims began joining the Partisans , the Chetniks increasingly began considering Muslims to be their enemies . Chetnik atrocities against Muslim civilians subsequently increased in the late spring of 1941 . Due to these actions , and due to Muslims , especially those in eastern Bosnia , being branded by the Chetniks as " Turks " and " Ustaše cronies , " the Chetniks found few Muslim recruits .
= = Muslim People 's Military Organization = =
In late 1942 , a Muslim Chetnik militia known as the Muslim People 's Military Organization ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Muslimanska nacionalna vojna organizacija , MNVO ) was formed in Herzegovina following a meeting between Popovac and Bosnian Serb Chetnik leaders Dobroslav Jevđević and Petar Baćović . The militia was placed under the control of Popovac , Fehim Musakadić and Mustafa Pašić . It was part of a greater Muslim autonomist circle and in September 1942 an assembly of Herzegovinian Muslim notables in Mostar declared : " We Herzegovinians and Bosnians are nobody 's property and we recognize the right of nobody to persecute us ; so , insofar as our brothers in Zagreb do not wish to accede to our demands , we shall seek protection of our interests from other big powers from the ranks of our allies . " In October of that year , Popovac enlisted Italian aid in fighting the Yugoslav Partisans . This resulted in the establishment of a Bosnian Muslim quisling force that operated as part of the Anti @-@ Communist Volunteer Militia . It was reported that Popovac had " won the majority of the Muslims to his purpose " in the Mostar , Konjic , Nevesinje and Gacko districts . Eventually , he came to be seen as one of " the principal representatives of the pro @-@ Chetnik Muslim current " in Bosnia .
That October , during Operation Alfa , a joint Chetnik – Italian attack against the Partisans , the Chetniks massacred 543 – 2 @,@ 500 Muslim and Croat civilians in Prozor . Several days later , Popovac arrived in the town to console the Bosnian Muslim population and to advise the Chetniks there against committing further atrocities . While there , he also attempted to convince local Muslims to join the Chetnik ranks , but was unsuccessful due to the extent of Chetnik atrocities against the Muslim population . On 31 December , in face of widespread Muslim opposition to the Chetniks ' genocidal nature , Popovac and his MNVO declared a resolution in Kalinovik , vowing allegiance to King Petar II and Mihailović , and claiming Bosnian Muslims as " an integral part of Serbdom " and the MNVO as " part of the Chetnik movement led by Draža Mihailović , Minister of the Army , Navy and Air Forces . "
In January 1943 , Popovac led an attack which resulted in the capture of a Muslim village that was guarded by a large force of Muslim volunteers . That same month more Chetnik massacres against Bosnian Muslims were carried out , especially in east Bosnia in the areas of Koraj , Bijeljina , Srebrenica , Višegrad , Foča , Goražde , Vlasenica , and around the Drina river . His militia cooperated with Chetnik units in fighting the Partisans during the Axis @-@ led Case White operation in January to March 1943 , but did not distinguish itself . During the operation itself Chetniks continued their efforts to exterminate the Muslims . Nonetheless , Popovac and Pašić continued seeking Muslim recruits . They declared in their " Address to the Brethren Muslims of Čajniče and Other Nearby Districts " that the main goal of the Chetniks was " the intelligent and honest protection of Muslim interests " and " securing a safe future for our people with the highest principles of Islam : freedom of religion , holiness of the family , respect for private property , social justice , and democratic political freedom . " Furthermore , they dismissed the claim that Muslims were collectively responsible for Ustaše crimes and said " Muslims are bound to the brethren of the Orthodox religion by blood and land . "
= = Death and legacy = =
Popovac was killed on 21 August 1943 . Sources vary on the circumstances of his death . Historian Marko Attila Hoare states that he was killed by members of the Partisan 10th Herzegovinian Brigade , Professor Jozo Tomasevich writes that he was killed by an assassin and Zdravko Dizdar and Mihael Sobolevski claim that he was killed by the Chetniks in the vicinity of Trebinje after objecting to the killing of Muslims .
By December 1943 , it is estimated that 4 @,@ 000 of Mihailović 's Chetniks were Bosnian Muslims . This number accounted for eight percent of all of Mihailović 's soldiers . In 1944 , Mihailović appealed to the Muslims to fight against the Communists , citing the example of Popovac and other Muslim Chetniks .
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= Paavo Nurmi =
Paavo Johannes Nurmi ( Finnish pronunciation : [ ˈpɑːʋo ˈnurmi ] ; 13 June 1897 – 2 October 1973 ) was a Finnish middle- and long @-@ distance runner . He was nicknamed the " Flying Finn " as he dominated distance running in the early 20th century . Nurmi set 22 official world records at distances between 1500 metres and 20 kilometres , and won nine gold and three silver medals in his twelve events in the Olympic Games . At his peak , Nurmi was undefeated at distances from 800 m upwards for 121 races . Throughout his 14 @-@ year career , he remained unbeaten in cross country events and the 10 @,@ 000 m .
Born into a working @-@ class family , Nurmi left school at 12 to provide for his family . In 1912 , he was inspired by the Olympic feats of Hannes Kolehmainen and began developing a strict training program . Nurmi started to flourish during his military service , setting national records en route to his international debut at the 1920 Summer Olympics . After a silver medal in the 5000 m , he took gold in the 10 @,@ 000 m and the cross country events . In 1923 , Nurmi became the first , and so far only , runner to hold the world record in the mile , the 5000 m and the 10 @,@ 000 m races at the same time . He went on to set new world records for the 1500 m and the 5000 m with just an hour between the races , and take gold medals in the distances in less than two hours at the 1924 Olympics . Seemingly untouched by the Paris heat wave , Nurmi won all his races and returned home with five gold medals , but embittered , as Finnish officials had refused to enter him for the 10 @,@ 000 m .
Struggling with injuries and motivation issues after his exhaustive U.S. tour in 1925 , Nurmi found his long @-@ time rivals Ville Ritola and Edvin Wide ever more serious challengers . At the 1928 Summer Olympics , Nurmi recaptured the 10 @,@ 000 m title but was beaten for the gold in the 5000 m and the 3000 m steeplechase . He then turned his attention to longer distances , breaking the world records for events such as the one hour run and the 25 @-@ mile marathon . Nurmi intended to end his career with a marathon gold medal , as his idol Kolehmainen had done . In a controversial case that strained Finland – Sweden relations and sparked an inter @-@ IAAF battle , Nurmi was suspended before the 1932 Games by an IAAF council that questioned his amateur status . Two days before the opening ceremonies , the council rejected his entries . Although he was never declared a professional , Nurmi 's suspension became definite in 1934 and he retired from running .
Nurmi later coached Finnish runners , raised funds for Finland during the Winter War , and worked as a haberdasher , building contractor , and share trader , eventually becoming one of Finland 's richest people . In 1952 , he was the lighter of the Olympic Flame at the Summer Olympics in Helsinki . Nurmi 's speed and elusive personality spawned nicknames such as the " Phantom Finn " , while his achievements , training methods and running style influenced future generations of middle and long distance runners . Nurmi , who rarely ran without a stopwatch in his hand , has been credited for introducing the " even pace " strategy and analytic approach to running , and for making running a major international sport .
= = Early life = =
Nurmi was born in Turku , Finland , to carpenter Johan Fredrik Nurmi and his wife Matilda Wilhelmiina Laine . Nurmi 's siblings , Siiri , Saara , Martti and Lahja , were born in 1898 , 1902 , 1905 and 1908 , respectively . In 1903 , the Nurmi family moved from Raunistula into a 40 @-@ square @-@ meter apartment in central Turku , where Paavo Nurmi would live until 1932 . The young Nurmi and his friends were inspired by the English long @-@ distance runner Alfred Shrubb . They regularly ran or walked six kilometres ( four miles ) to swim in Ruissalo , and back , sometimes twice a day . By the age of eleven , Nurmi ran the 1500 metres in 5 : 02 . Nurmi 's father Johan died in 1910 and his sister Lahja a year later . The family struggled financially , renting out their kitchen to another family and living in a single room . Nurmi , a talented student , left school to work as an errand boy for a bakery . Although he stopped running actively , he got plenty of exercise pushing heavy carts up the steep slopes in Turku . He later credited these climbs for strengthening his back and leg muscles .
At 15 , Nurmi rekindled his interest in athletics after being inspired by the performances of Hannes Kolehmainen , who was said to " have run Finland onto the map of the world " at the 1912 Summer Olympics . He bought his first pair of sneakers a few days later . Nurmi trained primarily by doing cross country running in the summers and cross country skiing in the winters . In 1914 , Nurmi joined the sports club Turun Urheiluliitto and won his first race on the 3000 metres . Two years later , he revised his training program to include walking , sprints and calisthenics . He continued to provide for his family through his new job at the Ab . H. Ahlberg & Co workshop in Turku , where he worked until he started his military service at a machine gun company in the Pori Brigade in April 1919 . During the Finnish Civil War in 1918 , Nurmi remained politically passive and concentrated on his work and his Olympic ambitions . After the war , he decided not to join the newly founded Finnish Workers ' Sports Federation , but wrote articles for the federation 's chief organ and criticized the discrimination against many of his fellow workers and athletes .
In the army , Nurmi quickly impressed in the athletic competitions : While others marched , Nurmi ran the whole distances with a rifle on his shoulder and a backpack full of sand . Nurmi 's stubbornness caused him difficulties with his non @-@ commissioned officers , but he was favoured by the superior officers , despite his refusal to take the soldier 's oath . As the unit commander Hugo Österman was a known sports aficionado , Nurmi and few other athletes were given free time to practice . Nurmi improvised new training methods in the army barracks ; he ran behind trains , holding on to the rear bumper , to stretch his stride , and used heavy iron @-@ clad army boots to strengthen his legs . Nurmi soon began setting personal bests and got close for the Olympic selection . In March 1920 , he was promoted to corporal ( alikersantti ) . On 29 May 1920 , he set his first national record on the 3000 m and went on to win the 1500 m and the 5000 m at the Olympic trials in July .
= = Olympic career = =
= = = 1920 – 1924 Olympics = = =
Nurmi made his international debut in August at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium . He took his first medal by finishing second to Frenchman Joseph Guillemot in the 5000 m . This would remain the only time that Nurmi lost to a non @-@ Finnish runner in the Olympics . He went on to win gold medals in his other three events : the 10 @,@ 000 m , sprinting past Guillemot on the final curve and improving his personal best by over a minute , the cross country race , beating Sweden 's Eric Backman , and the cross country team event where he helped Heikki Liimatainen and Teodor Koskenniemi defeat the British and Swedish teams . Nurmi 's success brought electric lighting and running water for his family in Turku . Nurmi , however , was given a scholarship to study at the Teollisuuskoulu industrial school in Helsinki .
Buoyed by his defeat to Guillemot , Nurmi 's races became a series of experiments which he analyzed meticulously . Previously known for his blistering pace on the first few laps , Nurmi started to carry a stopwatch and spread his efforts more uniformly over the distance . He aimed to perfect his technique and tactics to a point where the performances of his rivals would be rendered meaningless . Nurmi set his first world record on the 10 @,@ 000 m in Stockholm in 1921 . In 1922 , he broke the world records for the 2000 m , the 3000 m and the 5000 m . A year later , Nurmi added the records for the 1500 m and the mile . His feat of holding the world records for the mile , the 5000 m and the 10 @,@ 000 m at the same time has not been matched by any other athlete before or since . Nurmi also tested his speed in the 800 m , winning the 1923 Finnish Championships with a new national record . After excelling in mathematics , Nurmi graduated as an engineer in 1923 and returned home to prepare for the upcoming Olympic Games .
Nurmi 's trip to the 1924 Summer Olympics was endangered by a knee injury in the spring of 1924 , but he recovered and resumed training twice a day . On 19 June , Nurmi tried out the 1924 Olympic schedule at the Eläintarha Stadium in Helsinki by running the 1500 m and the 5000 m inside an hour , setting new world records for both distances . In the 1500 m final at the Olympics in Paris , Nurmi ran the first 800 m almost three seconds faster . His only challenger , Ray Watson of the United States , gave up before the last lap and Nurmi was able to slow down and coast to victory ahead of Willy Schärer , Henry Stallard and Douglas Lowe , still breaking the Olympic record by three seconds . The 5000 m final started in less than two hours , and Nurmi faced a tough challenge from countryman Ville Ritola , who had already won the 3000 m steeplechase and the 10 @,@ 000 m . Ritola and Edvin Wide figured that Nurmi must be tired and tried to burn him off by running at world @-@ record pace . Realizing that he was now racing the two men and not the clock , Nurmi tossed his stopwatch onto the grass . The Finns later passed the Swede as his pace faded and continued their duel . On the home straight , Ritola sprinted from the outside but Nurmi increased his pace to keep his rival a metre behind .
In the cross country events , the heat of 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) , caused all but 15 of the 38 competitors to abandon the race . Eight finishers were taken away on stretchers . One athlete began to run in tiny circles after reaching the stadium , until setting off into the stands and knocking himself unconscious . Early leader Wide was among those who blacked out along the course , and was incorrectly reported to have died at the hospital . Nurmi exhibited only slight signs of exhaustion after beating Ritola to the win by nearly a minute and a half . As Finland looked to have lost the team medal , the disoriented Liimatainen staggered into the stadium , but was barely moving forward . An athlete ahead of him fainted 50 metres from the finish , and Liimatainen stopped and tried to find his way off the track , thinking he had reached the finish line . After having ignored shouts and kept the spectators in suspense for a while , he turned into the right direction , realised his situation and reached the finish in 12th place and secured team gold . Those present at the stadium were shocked by what they had witnessed , and Olympic officials decided to ban cross country running from future Games .
In the 3000 m team race on the next day , Nurmi and Ritola again finished first and second , and Elias Katz secured the gold medal for the Finnish team by finishing fifth . Nurmi had won five gold medals in five events , but he left the Games embittered as the Finnish officials had allocated races between their star runners and prevented him from defending his title in the 10 @,@ 000 m , the distance that was dearest to him . After returning to Finland , Nurmi set a 10 @,@ 000 m world record that would last for almost 13 years . He now held the 1500 m , the mile , the 3000 m , the 5000 m and the 10 @,@ 000 m world records simultaneously .
= = = U.S. tour and 1928 Olympics = = =
In early 1925 , Nurmi embarked on a widely publicised tour of the United States . He competed in 55 events ( 45 indoors ) during a five @-@ month period , starting at a sold @-@ out Madison Square Garden on 6 January . His debut was a copy of his feats in Helsinki and Paris . Nurmi defeated Joie Ray and Lloyd Hahn to win the mile and Ritola to win the 5000 m , again setting new world records for both distances . Nurmi broke ten more indoor world records in regular events and set several new best times for rarer distances . He won 51 of the events , abandoned one race and lost two handicap races along with his final event ; a half @-@ mile race at the Yankee Stadium , where he finished second to American track star Alan Helffrich . Helffrich 's victory ended Nurmi 's 121 @-@ race , four @-@ year win streak in individual scratch races at distances from 800 m upwards . Although he hated losing more than anything , Nurmi was the first to congratulate Helffrich . The tour made Nurmi extremely popular in the United States , and the Finn agreed to meet President Calvin Coolidge at the White House . Nurmi left America fearing that he had competed too often and burned himself out .
Nurmi struggled to maintain motivation for running , heightened by his rheumatism and Achilles tendon problems . He quit his job as a machinery draughtsman in 1926 and began studying business intensively . As Nurmi started a new career as a share dealer , his financial advisors included Risto Ryti , director of the Bank of Finland . In 1926 , Nurmi broke Wide 's world record for the 3000 m in Berlin and then improved the record in Stockholm , despite Nils Eklöf repeatedly trying to slow his pace down in an effort to aid Wide . Nurmi was furious at the Swedes and vowed never to race Eklöf again . In October 1926 , he lost a 1500 m race along with his world record to Germany 's Otto Peltzer . This marked the first time in over five years and 133 races that Nurmi had been defeated at a distance over 1000 m . In 1927 , Finnish officials barred him from international competition for refusing to run against Eklöf at the Finland @-@ Sweden international , cancelling the Peltzer rematch scheduled for Vienna . Nurmi ended his season and threatened , until late November , to withdraw from the 1928 Summer Olympics . At the 1928 Olympic trials , Nurmi was left third in the 1500 m by eventual gold and bronze medalists Harri Larva and Eino Purje , and he decided to concentrate on the longer distances . He added steeplechase to his program , although he had only tried the event twice before , the latest being a two @-@ mile steeplechase victory at the 1922 British Championships .
At the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam , Nurmi competed in three events . He won the 10 @,@ 000 m by staying right behind Ritola until sprinting past him on the home straight . Before the 5000 m final , Nurmi injured himself in his qualifying heat for the 3000 m steeplechase . He fell on his back at the water jump , spraining his hip and foot . Lucien Duquesne stopped to help him up , and Nurmi thanked the Frenchman by pacing him past the field and offered him the heat win , which Duquesne gracefully refused . In the 5000 m , Nurmi tried to repeat his move on Ritola but had to watch his teammate pull away instead . Nurmi , looking more exhausted than ever before , only barely managed to keep Wide behind and take silver . Nurmi had little time to rest or nurse his injuries as the 3000 m steeplechase started the next day . Struggling with the hurdles , Nurmi let Finland 's steeplechase specialist Toivo Loukola escape into the distance . On the final lap , he sprinted clear of the others and finished nine seconds behind the world @-@ record setting Loukola ; Nurmi 's time also bettered the previous record . Although Ritola did not finish , Ove Andersen completed a Finnish sweep of the medals .
= = = Move to longer distances = = =
Nurmi stated to a Swedish newspaper that " this is absolutely my last season on the track . I am beginning to get old . I have raced for fifteen years and have had enough of it . " However , Nurmi continued running , turning his attention to longer distances . In October , he broke the world records for the 15 km , the 10 miles and the one hour run in Berlin . Nurmi 's one @-@ hour record stood for 17 years , until Viljo Heino ran 129 metres further in 1945 . In January 1929 , Nurmi started his second U.S. tour from Brooklyn . He suffered his first @-@ ever defeat in the mile to Ray Conger at the indoor Wanamaker Mile . Nurmi was seven seconds slower than in his world record run in 1925 , and it was immediately speculated if the mile had become too short a distance for him . In 1930 , he set a new world record for the 20 km . In July 1931 , Nurmi showed he still had pace for the shorter distances by beating Lauri Lehtinen , Lauri Virtanen and Volmari Iso @-@ Hollo , and breaking the world record on the now @-@ rare two miles . He was the first runner to complete the distance in less than nine minutes . Nurmi planned to compete only in the 10 @,@ 000 m and the marathon in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , stating that he " won 't enter the 5000 metres for Finland has at least three excellent men for that event . "
In April 1932 , the executive council of the International Amateur Athletics Federation ( IAAF ) suspended Nurmi from international athletics events pending an investigation into his amateur status by the Finnish Athletics Federation . The Finnish authorities criticized the IAAF for acting without a hearing , but agreed to launch an investigation . It was customary of the IAAF to accept the final decision of its national branch , and the Associated Press wrote that " there is little doubt that if the Finnish federation clears Nurmi the international body will accept its decision without question . " A week later , the Finnish Ahletics Federation ruled in favor of Nurmi , finding no evidence for the allegations of professionalism . Nurmi was hopeful that his suspension would be lifted in time for the Games .
On 26 June 1932 Nurmi started his first marathon at the Olympic trials . Not drinking a drop of liquid , he ran the old @-@ style ' short marathon ' of 40 @.@ 2 km ( 25 miles ) in 2 : 22 : 03 @.@ 8 — on the pace to finish in about 2 : 29 : 00 , just under Albert Michelsen 's marathon world record of 2 : 29 : 01 @.@ 8 . At the time , he led Armas Toivonen , the eventual Olympic bronze medalist , by six minutes . Nurmi 's time was the new unofficial world record for the short marathon . Confident that he had done enough , Nurmi stopped and retired from the race owing to problems with his Achilles tendon . The Finnish Olympic Committee entered Nurmi for both the 10 @,@ 000 m and the marathon . The Guardian reported that " some of his trial times were almost unbelievable , " and Nurmi went on to train at the Olympic Village in Los Angeles despite his injury . Nurmi had set his heart on ending his career with a marathon gold medal , as Kolehmainen had done shortly after the First World War .
= = = 1932 Olympics and later career = = =
Less than three days before the 10 @,@ 000 m , a special commission of the IAAF , consisting of the same seven members that had suspended Nurmi , rejected the Finn 's entries and barred him from competing in Los Angeles . Sigfrid Edström , president of the IAAF and chairman of its executive council , stated that the full congress of the IAAF , which was scheduled to start the next day , could not reinstate Nurmi for the Olympics but merely review the phases and political angles related to the case . The AP called this " one of the slickest political maneuvers in international athletic history " , and wrote that the Games would now be " like Hamlet without the celebrated Dane in the cast . " Thousands protested against the action in Helsinki . Details of the case were not released to the press , but the evidence against Nurmi was believed be the sworn statements from German race promoters that Nurmi had received $ 250 – 500 per race when running in Germany in autumn 1931 . The statements were produced by Karl Ritter von Halt after Edström had sent him increasingly threatening letters , warning that if evidence against Nurmi is not provided , he " will unfortunately have to take stringent action against the German Athletics Association . "
On the eve of the marathon , all the entrants of the race except for the Finns , whose positions were known , filed a petition asking Nurmi 's entry to be accepted . Edström 's right @-@ hand man Bo Ekelund , secretary general of the IAAF and head of the Swedish Athletics Federation , approached the Finnish officials and stated that he might be able to arrange for Nurmi to participate in the marathon outside the competition . However , Finland maintained that as long as the athlete is not declared a professional , he must have the right to participate in the race officially . Although he had been diagnosed with a pulled Achilles tendon two weeks earlier , Nurmi stated he would have won the event by five minutes . The congress concluded without Nurmi being declared a professional , but the council 's authority to disbar an athlete was upheld on a 13 – 12 vote . However , due to the close vote , the matter was postponed until the 1934 meet in Stockholm . Finns charged that the Swedish officials had used devious tricks in their campaign against Nurmi 's amateur status , and ceased all athletic relations with Sweden . A year earlier , controversies on the track and in the press had led Finland to withdraw from the Finland @-@ Sweden athletics international . After Nurmi 's suspension , Finland did not agree to return to the event until 1939 .
Nurmi refused to turn professional , and continued running as amateur in Finland . In 1933 , he ran his first 1500 m in three years and won the national title with his best time since 1926 . At the IAAF meet in August 1934 , Finland launched two proposals that lost . The council then brought forward its resolution empowering it to suspend athletes that it finds in violation of the IAAF amateur code . With a 12 – 5 vote , with many not voting , Nurmi 's suspension from international amateur athletics became definite . Less than three weeks later , Nurmi retired from running with a 10 @,@ 000 m victory in Viipuri on 16 September 1934 . Nurmi remained undefeated in the distance throughout his 14 @-@ year top @-@ level career . In cross country running , his win streak lasted 19 years .
= = Later life = =
While active as a runner , Nurmi was known to be secretive about his training methods . Always running alone , he upped his pace and quickly exhausted anyone who was bold enough to join him . Even his club mate Harri Larva had learned little from him . After ending his career , Nurmi became a coach for the Finnish Athletics Federation and trained runners for the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin . In 1935 , Nurmi along with the entire board of directors quit the federation after a heated 40 – 38 vote to resume athletic relations with Sweden . However , Nurmi returned to coaching three months later and the Finnish distance runners went on to take three gold medals , three silvers and a bronze at the Games . In 1936 , Nurmi also opened a men 's clothing store ( haberdashery ) in Helsinki . It became a popular tourist attraction , and Emil Zátopek was among those who visited the store trying to meet Nurmi . The Finn spent his time in the back room , running another new business venture ; construction . As a contractor , Nurmi built forty apartment buildings in Helsinki with about a hundred flats in each . Within five years , he was rated a millionaire . His fiercest rival Ritola ended up living in one of Nurmi 's flats , at half price . Nurmi also made money on the stock market , eventually becoming one of Finland 's richest people .
In February 1940 , during the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union , Nurmi returned to the United States with his protégé Taisto Mäki , who had become the first man to run the 10 @,@ 000 m under 30 minutes , to raise funds and rally support to the Finnish cause . The relief drive , directed by former president Herbert Hoover , included a coast @-@ to @-@ coast tour by Nurmi and Mäki . Hoover welcomed the two as " ambassadors of the greatest sporting nation in the world . " While in San Francisco , Nurmi received news that one of his apprentices , 1936 Olympic champion Gunnar Höckert , had been killed in action . Nurmi left for Finland in late April , and later served in the Continuation War in a delivery company and as a trainer in the military staff . Before he was discharged in January 1942 , Nurmi was promoted first to a staff sergeant ( ylikersantti ) and later to a sergeant first class ( vääpeli ) .
In 1952 , Nurmi was persuaded by Urho Kekkonen , Prime Minister of Finland and former chairman of the Finnish Athletics Federation , to carry the Olympic torch into the Olympic Stadium at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki . His appearance astonished the spectators , and Sports Illustrated wrote that " his celebrated stride was unmistakable to the crowd . When he came into view , waves of sound began to build throughout the stadium , rising to a roar , then to a thunder . When the national teams , assembled in formation on the infield , saw the flowing figure of Nurmi , they broke ranks like excited schoolchildren , dashing toward the edge of the track . " After lighting the flame in the Olympic Cauldron , Nurmi passed the torch to his idol Kolehmainen , who lighted the beacon in the tower . In the cancelled 1940 Summer Olympics , Nurmi had been planned to lead a group of fifty Finnish gold medal winners .
Nurmi felt that he got too much credit as an athlete and too little as a businessman , but his interest in running never died . He even returned to the track himself a few times . In 1946 , he faced his old rival Edvin Wide in Stockholm in a benefit for the victims of the Greek Civil War . Nurmi ran for the last time on 18 February 1966 at the Madison Square Garden , invited by the New York Athletic Club . In 1962 , Nurmi predicted that welfare countries would start to struggle in the distance events : " The higher the standard of living in a country , the weaker the results often are in the events which call for work and trouble . I would like to warn this new generation : ' Do not let this comfortable life make you lazy . Do not let the new means of transport kill your instinct for physical exercise . Too many young people get used to driving in a car even for small distances . ' " In 1966 , he took the microphone in front of 300 sports club guests and criticised the state of distance running in Finland , reproaching the sports executives as publicity seekers and tourists , and demanding athletes sacrifice everything to accomplish something . Nurmi lived to see the renaissance of Finnish running in the 1970s , led by athletes such as the 1972 Olympic gold medalists Lasse Virén and Pekka Vasala . He had complimented the running style of Virén , and advised Vasala to concentrate on Kipchoge Keino .
Although he accepted an invitation from President Lyndon B. Johnson to revisit the White House in 1964 , Nurmi lived a very secluded life until the late 1960s when he began granting some press interviews . On his 70th birthday , Nurmi agreed to an interview for Yle , Finland 's national public @-@ broadcasting company , only after learning that President Kekkonen would act as the interviewer . Suffering from health problems , with at least one heart attack , a stroke and failing eyesight , Nurmi at times spoke bitterly about sports , calling it a waste of time compared to science and art . He died in 1973 in Helsinki and was given a state funeral . Kekkonen attended the funeral and praised Nurmi : " People explore the horizons for a successor . But none comes and none will , for his class is extinguished with him . " At the request of Nurmi , who enjoyed classical music and played the violin , Konsta Jylhä 's Vaiennut viulu ( The Silenced Violin ) was played during the ceremony . Nurmi 's last record fell in 1996 ; his 1925 world record for the indoor 2000 m lasted as the Finnish national record for 71 years .
= = Personal life and public image = =
Nurmi was married to socialite Sylvi Laaksonen from 1932 to 1935 . Laaksonen , who was not interested in athletics , opposed Nurmi raising their newborn son Matti to be a runner and stated to the Associated Press in 1933 , " [ H ] is concentration on athletics at last forced me to go to the judge for a divorce . " Matti Nurmi did become a middle @-@ distance runner , and later a " self @-@ made " businessman . Nurmi 's relationship with his son was termed " uneasy " . Matti admired his father more as a businessman than as an athlete , and the two never discussed his running career . As a runner , Matti was at his best in the 3000 m , where he equaled his father 's time . In the famous race on 11 July 1957 when the " three Olavis " ( Salsola , Salonen and Vuorisalo ) broke the world record for the 1500 m , Matti Nurmi finished a distant ninth with his personal best , 2 @.@ 2 seconds slower than his father 's world record from 1924 . Hollywood actress Maila Nurmi , best known as the horror icon " Vampira " , was often referred to as Paavo Nurmi 's niece . However , the kinship is not supported by official documents .
Nurmi enjoyed the Finnish sports massage and sauna @-@ bathing traditions , crediting the Finnish sauna for his performances during the Paris heat wave in 1924 . He had a versatile diet , although he had practiced vegetarianism between the ages of 15 and 21 . Nurmi , who identified as neurasthenic , was known to be " taciturn " , " stony @-@ faced " and " stubborn " . He was not believed to have had any close friends , but he had occasionally socialized and showed his " sarcastic sense of humour " among the small circles he knew . Acclaimed the biggest sporting figure in the world at his peak , Nurmi was averse to publicity and the media , stating later on his 75th birthday , " [ W ] orldly fame and reputation are worth less than a rotten lingonberry . " French journalist Gabriel Hanot questioned Nurmi 's intensive approach to sports and wrote in 1924 that Nurmi " is ever more serious , reserved , concentrated , pessimistic , fanatic . There is such coldness in him and his self @-@ control is so great that never for a moment does he show his feelings . " Some contemporary Finns nicknamed him Suuri vaikenija ( The Great Silent One ) , and Ron Clarke noted that Nurmi 's persona remained a mystery even to Finnish runners and journalists : " Even to them , he was never quite real . He was enigmatic , sphinx @-@ like , a god in a cloud . It was as if he was all the time playing a role in a drama . "
Nurmi was more responsive to his fellow athletes than to the media . He exchanged ideas with sprinter Charley Paddock and even trained with his rival Otto Peltzer . Nurmi told Peltzer to forget his opponents : " Conquering yourself is the greatest challenge of an athlete . " Nurmi was known to emphasize the importance of psychological strength : " Mind is everything ; muscle , pieces of rubber . All that I am , I am because of my mind . " Regarding Nurmi 's track antics , Peltzer found that " in his impenetrability he was a Buddha gliding on the track . Stopwatch in hand , lap after lap , he ran towards the tape , subject only to the laws of a mathematical table . " Marathoner Johnny Kelley , who first met his idol at the 1936 Olympics , said that while Nurmi appeared cold to him at first , the two chatted for quite a while after Nurmi had asked for his name : " He grabbed ahold of me — he was so excited . I couldn 't believe it ! "
Nurmi 's speed and elusive personality led to nicknames such as the " Phantom Finn " , the " King of Runners " and " Peerless Paavo " , while his mathematical prowess and use of a stopwatch led the press to characterize him as a running machine . One newspaperman dubbed Nurmi " a mechanical Frankenstein created to annihilate time . " Phil Cousineau noted that " his own innovation — the tactic of pacing himself with a stopwatch — both inspired and troubled people in an era when the robot was becoming symbolic of the modern soulless human being . " Among the popular newspaper rumours about Nurmi was that he had a " freakish heart " with a very low pulse rate . During the debate over his amateur status , Nurmi was joked to have " the lowest heartbeat and the highest asking price of any athlete in the world . "
= = Legacy = =
Nurmi broke 22 official world records on distances between 1500 m and 20 km ; a record in running . He also set several more unofficial ones for a total of 58 . His indoor world records were all unofficial as the IAAF did not ratify indoor records until the 1980s . Nurmi 's record for most Olympic gold medals was matched by gymnast Larisa Latynina in 1964 , swimmer Mark Spitz in 1972 and fellow track and field athlete Carl Lewis in 1996 , and broken by swimmer Michael Phelps in 2008 . Nurmi 's record for most medals in the Olympic Games stood until Edoardo Mangiarotti won his 13th medal in fencing in 1960 . Time selected Nurmi as the greatest Olympian of all time in 1996 , and IAAF named him among the first twelve athletes to be inducted into the IAAF Hall of Fame in 2012 .
Nurmi introduced the " even pace " strategy to running , pacing himself with a stopwatch and spreading his energy uniformly over the race . He reasoned that " when you race against time , you don 't have to sprint . Others can 't hold the pace if it is steady and hard all through to the tape . " Archie Macpherson stated that " with the stopwatch always in his hand , he elevated athletics to a new plane of intelligent application of effort and was the harbinger of the modern scientifically prepared athlete . " Nurmi was considered a pioneer also in regards to training ; he developed a systematic all @-@ year @-@ round training program that included both long @-@ distance work and interval running . Peter Lovesey wrote in The Kings of Distance : A Study of Five Great Runners that Nurmi " accelerated the progress of world records ; developed and actually came to personify the analytic approach to running ; and he was a profound influence not only in Finland , but throughout the world of athletics . Nurmi , his style , technique and tactics were held to be infallible , and really seemed so , as successive imitators in Finland steadily improved the records . " Cordner Nelson , founder of Track & Field News , credited Nurmi for popularizing running as a spectator sport : " His imprint on the track world was greater than any man ’ s before or after . He , more than any man , raised track to the glory of a major sport in the eyes of international fans , and they honored him as one of the truly great athletes of all sports .
Nurmi 's achievements and training methods inspired future track stars of many generations . Emil Zátopek chanted " I am Nurmi ! I am Nurmi ! " when he trained as a child , and based his training system on what he was able to find out about Nurmi 's methods . Lasse Virén idolized Nurmi and was scheduled to meet him for the first time on the day that Nurmi died . Hicham El Guerrouj was inspired to become a runner so that he could " repeat the achievements of the great man of whom his grandfather spoke . " He became the first man after Nurmi to win the 1500 m and the 5000 m at the same Games . Nurmi 's influence stretched further than running on the Olympic arena . At the 1928 Olympics , Kazimierz Wierzyński won the lyric gold medal with his poem Olympic Laurel that included a verse on Nurmi . In 1936 , Ludwig Stubbendorf and his horse Nurmi won the individual and team gold medals in eventing .
A bronze statue of Nurmi was sculpted by Wäinö Aaltonen in 1925 . The original is held at the art museum Ateneum , but copies cast from the original mould exist in Turku , in Jyväskylä , in front of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium and at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne , Switzerland . In a widely publicized prank by the students of the Helsinki University of Technology , a miniature copy of the statue was discovered from the 300 @-@ year @-@ old wreck of the Swedish war ship Vasa when it was lifted from the bottom of the sea in 1961 . Statues of Nurmi were also sculpted by Renée Sintenis in 1926 and by Carl Eldh , whose 1937 work Löpare ( Runners ) depicts a battle between Nurmi and Edvin Wide . Boken om Nurmi ( The Book about Nurmi ) , released in Sweden in 1925 , was the first biographical book on a Finnish sportsman . Finnish astronomer Yrjö Väisälä named the main belt asteroid 1740 Paavo Nurmi after Nurmi in 1939 , while Finnair named its first DC @-@ 8 Paavo Nurmi in 1969 . Nurmi 's former rival Ville Ritola boarded the plane when he moved back to Finland in 1970 .
Paavo Nurmi Marathon , held annually since 1969 , is the oldest marathon in Wisconsin and the second @-@ oldest in the American Midwest . In Finland , another marathon bearing the name has been held in Nurmi 's hometown of Turku since 1992 , along with the athletics competition Paavo Nurmi Games that was started in 1957 . Finlandia University , an American college with Finnish roots , named their athletic center after Nurmi . A ten @-@ mark bill featuring a portrait of Nurmi was issued by the Bank of Finland in 1987 . The other revised bills honored architect Alvar Aalto , composer Jean Sibelius , Enlightenment thinker Anders Chydenius and author Elias Lönnrot , respectively . The Nurmi bill was replaced by a new 20 @-@ mark note featuring Väinö Linna in 1993 . In 1997 , a historic stadium in Turku was renamed the Paavo Nurmi Stadium . Twenty world records have been set at the stadium , including John Landy 's records on the 1500 m and the mile , Nurmi 's record on the 3000 m and Zátopek 's record on the 10 @,@ 000 m . In fiction , Nurmi appears in William Goldman 's 1974 novel Marathon Man as the idol of the protagonist , who aims to become a greater runner than Nurmi . The opera on Nurmi , Paavo the Great . Great Race . Great Dream . , written by Paavo Haavikko and composed by Tuomas Kantelinen , debuted at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium in 2000 . In a 2005 episode of The Simpsons , Mr. Burns brags that he once outraced Nurmi in his antique motorcar .
= = Career summary ( 1920 – 34 ) = =
= = = Seasons = = =
= = = Events = = =
= = = Olympics = = =
= = World records = =
= = = IAAF @-@ ratified = = =
= = = Unofficial = = =
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= Anjem Choudary =
Anjem Choudary ( Urdu : انجم چودهرى ; born 1967 ) is a British Muslim social and political activist . He was previously a solicitor and served as the chairman of the Society of Muslim Lawyers , and , until it was proscribed , the spokesman for Islam4UK .
With Omar Bakri Muhammad , he helped form an Islamist organisation , al @-@ Muhajiroun . The group organised several anti @-@ Western demonstrations , including a banned protest march in London for which Choudary was summonsed to appear in court . The UK government banned Al @-@ Muhajiroun and Choudary was present at the launch of its intended successor , Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah . He later helped form Al Ghurabaa , which was also banned . Choudary then became the spokesman for Islam4UK . He receives little support from mainstream UK Muslims and has been largely criticised in the country 's media .
A critic of the UK 's involvement in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan , Choudary praised those responsible for the 11 September 2001 and 7 July 2005 attacks . He supports the implementation of Sharia law throughout the UK and marched in protest at the Jyllands @-@ Posten cartoons controversy , following which he was prosecuted for organising an unlawful demonstration . He was investigated , but not charged , for his comments in 2006 regarding Pope Benedict XVI . Choudary is currently on trial for allegedly inviting support of a proscribed organisation , namely the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant .
= = Early life = =
Born in the UK on 18 January 1967 , Anjem Choudary is the son of a Welling market trader and is of Pakistani descent . He attended Mulgrave Primary School , in Woolwich . He enrolled as a medical student at the University of Southampton , where he was known as Andy , but failed his first @-@ year exams . Responding to claims that he was a " party animal " who joined his friends in " getting stoned " , in 2014 Choudary commented " I admit that I wasn 't always practising ... I committed many mistakes in my life . " He switched to law and spent his final year as a legal student ( 1990 – 1991 ) at Guildford , before moving to London to teach English as a second language . He found work at a legal firm and completed his legal qualifications to become a lawyer . Choudary became the chairman of the Society of Muslim Lawyers , but was removed from the roll of solicitors ( the official register of legal practitioners ) in 2002 .
Choudary first came to public attention in 1999 , when The Sunday Telegraph identified him as having been involved in the recruitment of Muslim trainees leaving Britain to fight abroad . He told the newspaper " before they go abroad to fight for organisations like the IIF , the volunteers are trained in Britain . Some of the training does involve guns and live ammunition . "
= = Organisations = =
= = = Al @-@ Muhajiroun = = =
Choudary embraced Islamism and , with the Islamist militant leader Omar Bakri Muhammed , co @-@ founded al @-@ Muhajiroun a Salafi Wahabi organization . The two men had met at a local mosque , where Bakri was giving a tafsir ( an interpretation of the Qur 'an ) . In 2002 , following a bazaar organised by al @-@ Muhajiroun ( advertised by leaflet and word of mouth ) , Choudary gave a talk on education at Slough . His lecture outlined his ideas for a parallel system of Islamic education in the UK and included elements of the group 's ideology . In the same year , although they were refused a permit by the then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone , on 25 August the group held a rally in London . Choudary was summonsed to Bow Street Magistrates ' Court in January 2003 , on charges which included " exhibiting a notice , advertisement or any other written or pictorial matter " , " using apparatus for the amplification of sound " , " making a public speech or address " and " organising an assembly " .
In 2003 or 2004 he organised an Islamic @-@ themed camping trip , at which Bakri lectured , on the 54 @-@ acre ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) grounds of the Jameah Islamiyah School in East Sussex . Advertised by word @-@ of @-@ mouth , the trip was attended by 50 Muslim men , most of whom were members of al @-@ Muhajiroun . Bakri later claimed the camp 's activities included lectures on Islam , football and paintballing . In September 2006 , following allegations that it was used in the training and recruitment of terrorists , police searched the school . According to testimony from Al Qaeda suspects held at the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp , in 1997 and 1998 Abu Hamza and groups of around 30 of his followers held training camps at the school , which included training with AK47 rifles and handguns , and a mock rocket launcher . No arrests were made , and students and faculty were allowed to return on 23 September 2006 , the first day of Ramadan .
The UK government had investigated expelling Bakri even before the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 , and in July 2003 the headquarters of al @-@ Muhajiroun , and the homes of Bakri and Choudary , were raided by the police . The following year , under new anti @-@ terrorist legislation , the government announced that it wanted to ban al @-@ Muhajiroun . In 2005 Bakri learned that he was at risk of prosecution for his support of the 7 July 2005 London bombers , and in August left the UK for Lebanon , where he claimed that he was on holiday . After leaving a television station where he said " I will not return to Britain unless I want to go there as a visitor or as a tourist " , he was detained by Lebanon 's general security department and held in a Beirut prison . Several days later , Bakri was excluded from returning to Britain by the Home Secretary , Charles Clarke , on the grounds that his presence in Britain was " not conducive to the public good . " Choudary condemned the decision and demanded to know what Bakri had done to justify the ban . He claimed that ministers were inventing rules to ensure that Bakri could not return . In November Choudary and three other followers of Bakri were deported from Lebanon , and returned to the UK . Choudary blamed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office for orchestrating their deportations , claiming that the four were there to help Bakri set up a madrasah .
Following his deportation , Choudary attended the launch in London of Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah , the intended successor organisation to al @-@ Muhajiroun . Choudary said that Bakri was not on the committee of the new group , but that " we would love for the sheikh to have a role . " The organisation operates mainly through an invitation @-@ only internet forum , to which Choudary contributes under the screen name Abou Luqman . A reporter visiting the site found calls for holy war , and recordings by Osama Bin Laden , Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , and Omar Bakri Mohammed .
Al @-@ Muhajiroun attempted a relaunch in June 2009 at Conway Hall , in Holborn . Several speakers were invited to share a platform with Choudary , but some later claimed that they had been invited under false pretences . When the group refused to allow women into the meeting , the chairman of the society which runs the hall cancelled the event . He was heckled by many of those in the audience . Choudary took the microphone from the chairman and led chants of " sharia for UK " , saying in reference to the exclusion of women : " Jews and Christians will never make peace with you until you either become like them or adopt their ways . " Outside the hall , Choudary criticised British society , and predicted that Muslims would make up the majority within one or two decades . When asked why , if society was so bad , he lived here , he replied : " We come here to civilise people , get them to come out of the darkness and injustice into the beauty of Islam . "
= = = Al Ghurabaa = = =
Choudary was also a spokesman for Al Ghurabaa , believed to have been an offshoot of al @-@ Muhajiroun . It was proscribed in 2006 by the then Home Secretary John Reid . Choudary was outraged : " The easy option when one is losing an argument is to ban the opposition voice . ... We [ al @-@ Ghurabaa ] are not a military organisation ; we have only been vociferous in our views — views concerning everything from the government 's foreign policy in Iraq and Afghanistan to the host of draconian laws , which they ’ ve introduced against us in this country . "
= = = Islam4UK = = =
In November 2008 , Choudary organised a meeting of the then recently formed Islam4UK , which , according to its website , was " established by sincere Muslims as a platform to propagate the supreme Islamic ideology within the United Kingdom as a divine alternative to man @-@ made law " , and to " convince the British public about the superiority of Islam ... thereby changing public opinion in favour of Islam in order to transfer the authority and power ... to the Muslims in order to implement the Sharee ’ ah ( here in Britain ) " . According to Ed Husain , co @-@ founder of the counter @-@ terrorism think @-@ tank the Quilliam Foundation , Islam4UK was a " splinter group of al @-@ Muhajiroun and Hizb ut @-@ Tahrir , the originators of extremism in Britain . " The meeting , advertised as a conference to " rise to defend the honour of the Muslims " , was held at the Brady Arts and Community Centre in Tower Hamlets . Choudary then announced that Bakri would be speaking , via a video @-@ conference link , although technical problems meant that his address was instead given over a telephone line . When asked by a Muslim woman how the comments of one of the event 's speakers could be justified , with regards to Islam being a religion of peace , Choudary stated , " Islam is not a religion of peace ... It is a religion of submission . We need to submit to the will of Allah . "
With the announcement by Islam4UK that it planned to hold a protest march through Wootton Bassett ( known for the military funeral repatriations of dead British soldiers returning from the war in Afghanistan ) , Choudary said " You may see one or two coffins being returned to the UK every other day , but when you think about the people of Afghanistan its a huge number [ being killed ] in comparison [ ... ] I intend to write a letter to the parents of British soldiers telling them the reality of what they died for . " Choudary 's open letter was published on 3 January 2010 . It explained his reasons for proposing the march , endorsed his religious beliefs , and claimed that UK politicians had been lying about the war . Choudary wrote that the proposed march was to " engage the British public 's minds on the real reasons why their soldiers are returning home in body bags and the real cost of the war . " In an interview with Sky News , he stated that the location was chosen to effect a level of media attention which " it would not have gained anywhere else " . The proposal was condemned by the British Prime Minister , Gordon Brown , who said that to offend the families of dead or wounded troops would be " completely inappropriate " . The Minhaj @-@ ul @-@ Quran International UK centre in Forest Gate also condemned the proposal , as did the Muslim Council of Britain , which stated that it " condemns the call by the fringe extremist group Islam4UK for their proposed march in Wootton Bassett . " The planned march was cancelled by the group , on 10 January 2010 .
From 14 January 2010 , Islam4UK was proscribed under the Terrorism Act 2000 , making membership illegal and punishable by imprisonment . Choudary condemned the order . In an interview on BBC Radio he said " we are now being targeted as an extremist or terrorist organisation and even banned for merely expressing that " and " I feel this is a failure of the concept of democracy and freedom . " Following his arrest and subsequent release in September 2014 on suspicion of encouraging terrorism , Choudary claimed he was questioned about his membership of or support for proscribed groups including Islam4UK and Need4Khalifah , both of which the government believes are successors to al @-@ Muhajiroun .
= = Views = =
Choudary referred to the 11 September 2001 terrorists as " magnificent martyrs " . In 2003 he said that al @-@ Muhajiroun would " encourage people to fulfil their Islamic duties and responsibilities " , although he also said that the group was a political movement and not responsible for individual actions . In 2004 he said that a terror attack on British soil was " a matter of time " . He refused to condemn the 7 July 2005 London bombings , but accused the Muslim Council of Britain ( who had ) of " selling their souls to the devil " . He blamed the 2013 murder of Lee Rigby , an off @-@ duty British soldier , on British foreign policy .
Choudary has voiced support for the Muslim community in Somalia , who , he claims , have been " violated " by Christian @-@ backed Ethiopians , and has also called for other members to fight jihad .
The Wall Street Journal describes Choudary as a supporter of " the fundamentalist strain of Islamic teaching known as Salafism " . He believes in the primacy of Islam over all other faiths , and the implementation of Sharia Law , in its entirety , in the UK . In 2001 he stated that his allegiance is to Islam , and not a country . He believes that , for a true Muslim , " a British passport is no more than a travel document . " In October 2006 he addressed an audience at Trinity College , Dublin to oppose the motion that " This house believes that Islamist violence can never be justified " . In February 2008 the Archbishop of Canterbury , Rowan Williams , commented that " as a matter of fact certain provisions of sharia are already recognised in our society and under our law " . Choudary responded by saying that Sharia " has to be adopted wholesale " , and that " it will come either by embracing Islam because it is the fastest growing religion in the country , or by an Islamic country conquering Britain or by elements embracing Islam and imposing it . "
In 2008 he spoke of the " flag of Sharia " flying over Downing Street by 2020 , claimed that some Muslim families in east London were having " 10 or 12 children each " , and that hundreds were converting to Islam each day . Choudary has spoken against elements of the Christian faith . In December 2008 he posted a sermon on an Islamic website , in which he stated : " Every Muslim has a responsibility to protect his family from the misguidance of Christmas , because its observance will lead to hellfire . Protect your Paradise from being taken away – protect yourself and your family from Christmas " .
In an interview with Iran 's Press TV ( which was subsequently posted online on 11 April 2013 ) , Choudary stated " As Muslims , we reject democracy , we reject secularism , and freedom , and human rights . We reject all of the things that you espouse as being ideals ... There is nothing called a republic in Islam . When we talk about the shari 'a , we are talking about only the shari 'a . We are talking about rejecting the U.N. , the IMF , and the World Bank . "
In 2013 the British pressure group Hope not Hate presented a report which identified Choudary as " a serious player on the international Islamist scene " , saying that although there was no evidence that he was directly responsible for instigating any terrorist plots , " he helped shape the mindset of many of those behind them " and " through his networks linked them up to terror groups and supporters across the world . " Choudary dismissed the claims as " fanciful " , that if they were true , UK security services would have arrested him .
In September 2014 , Choudary described Abu Bakr al @-@ Baghdadi , leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant , as " the caliph of all Muslims and the prince of the believers " .
On 5 August 2015 , Choudary was charged with one offence under section 12 of the Terrorism Act 2000 for inviting support of a proscribed organisation , namely Islamic State , between June 2014 and March 2015 . An expected trial date until 7 March 2016 has been given . His trial was postponed to 27 June 2016 , and is expected to last no more than four weeks .
= = Activism = =
Choudary has regularly attended public marches and , following a protest march outside the Danish Embassy in London on 3 February 2006 , held in response to the Jyllands @-@ Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy , he was a member of a panel of interviewees on the BBC news programme Newsnight . He defended Muslims in Britain , saying that " we live in peace with the host community , we are not allowed to target people here " , and claimed that the police had inspected and allowed the controversial placards used in the demonstration . Choudary was criticised by his fellow panellists , who included Ann Cryer , then MP for Keighley , Humera Khan , of the al @-@ Nisa Muslim Women 's Group ( who accused him of demonising Islam ) , Sayeeda Warsi , the vice @-@ chair of the Conservative Party , Professor Tariq Ramadan ( who claimed that Choudary 's actions were designed to evoke a strong response from the media ) , and Roger Knapman , the leader of the UK Independence Party . On 15 March 2006 he was among five men arrested in connection with the demonstration , which had been organised by al Ghurabaa . He was arrested again on 4 May at Stansted Airport for an alleged breach of bail , and charged with organising the protest without notifying police . He was bailed to appear before Bow Street Magistrates Court on 11 May . On 4 July 2006 he was convicted and fined £ 500 with £ 300 court costs .
The following day , at an Al Ghurabaa press conference at the Al Badr centre in Leyton , Choudary claimed that the blame for the London bombings lay with the British government , and said that the then Prime Minister , Tony Blair , had " blood on his hands " . He also urged Muslims to defend themselves against perceived attacks by " whatever means they have at their disposal " , and referred to the 2 June 2006 Forest Gate raid in which Mohammed Abdul Kahar was shot in the shoulder . He encouraged Muslims not to co @-@ operate with the police under any circumstances . Local council leader Clyde Loakes criticised Choudary 's comments , stating " I am sure the vast majority of Waltham Forest residents do not support these views . " Several days later , on 9 June 2006 , Choudary organised a demonstration outside the Forest Gate police station in London , to protest against the arrest of the two Forest Gate men . The men 's families said that an extremist protest would " only give another opportunity for our community to be portrayed in a negative light " and sent a statement to more than twenty mosques ( read to worshippers during prayers ) urging them to disassociate themselves from the event . About 35 men and 15 women attended the demonstration .
In September 2006 Pope Benedict XVI gave a speech on the question of the " reasonableness " of the Christian faith , to the University of Regensburg in Germany . In the Regensburg lecture he spoke about rationality in faith , and cited comments by the fourteenth @-@ century Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos , who , as the Pope put it , said " show me just what Mohamed brought that was new , and there you will find things only evil and inhuman , such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached . " The citation attracted severe criticism from Muslims around the world , including the parliament of Pakistan which condemned the Pope for his comments , and which sought an apology from him . Following the speech , on 17 September Choudary led a protest outside Westminster Cathedral , where he told reporters " Whoever insults the message of Mohammed is going to be subject to capital punishment . " The Daily Mail reported him as saying : " I am here [ to ] have a peaceful demonstration , but there may be people in Italy and other parts that would carry that out . " The Metropolitan Police investigated his comments , but concluded that " no substantive offences " were committed during the demonstration . The Shadow Home Secretary , David Davis , who had called for action to be taken against Choudary , said : " It is quite disgraceful . It sends out a message to Muslim extremists that we , as a country , do not have the moral courage to stand up to them . "
He attempted to enter France to demonstrate against the French government 's decision to ban the burka , but was stopped at the port of Calais . His passport was seized and he was issued documents banning him from France indefinitely .
On 13 December 2013 Choudary led a march in Brick Lane , organised by the east London @-@ based Sharia Project , demanding a ban on alcohol being sold by Muslim establishments . An East London Mosque official , speaking of the patrols , identified The Shariah Project as " strongly linked " to Anjem Choudary 's banned group Al @-@ Muhajiroun . Abu Rumaysah of The Shariah Project had predicted " hundreds " would join the demonstration , claiming that groups of Muslims would come from as far away as the Midlands to take part . In the event , only a few dozen protesters took part in the march . Choudary afterwards explained its purpose : “ What we did is we posted a notice to the shop owners saying that under Sharia and under the Koran the sale of alcohol is prohibited and if one were to also drink alcohol , that would be 40 lashes . We were there to teach them that just because they are living among non @-@ Muslims is no excuse because Sharia law will be implemented in Britain , and so they should be aware that just because it is not Sharia today , they can ’ t just do whatever they like . ” Choudary said that the Shariah Project group would be arranging many more such rallies .
= = Public reception = =
Choudary has been largely criticised by most UK newspapers , some of whom describe him as an extremist , or radical cleric or preacher . In January 2010 , Guardian contributor Mehdi Hasan wrote : " Is Choudary an Islamic scholar whose views merit attention or consideration ? No . Has he studied under leading Islamic scholars ? Nope . Does he have any Islamic qualifications or credentials ? None whatsoever . So what gives him the right to pontificate on Islam , British Muslims or ' the hellfire ' ? Or proclaim himself a ' sharia judge ' ? " , and claimed that Choudary was " as unrepresentative of British Muslim opinion , as he is of British anti @-@ war opinion . "
The Conservative Party leader David Cameron said that Choudary " is one of those people who needs to be looked at seriously in terms of the legality of what he 's saying because he strays , I think , extremely close to the line of encouraging hatred , extremism and violence . "
Salma Yaqoob , then leader of the Respect Party , said in 2010 of Choudary : " He is a bigot whose goal in life is to provoke division . He engages in these provocations because he is deeply hostile to any coming together of Muslims and non @-@ Muslims . For him , the fact that a majority of the British people – Muslim and non @-@ Muslim – oppose the war in Afghanistan is not something to be celebrated , but is something to be feared . " Rod Liddle , writing in The Spectator , said : " Anjem Choudray ... is one of those thick @-@ as @-@ mince gobby little chancers who could only possibly come from Britain . " Conservatives in the United States have also been critical of Choudary . Fox News host Sean Hannity called Choudary " one sick , miserable , evil S.O.B. " during a segment on his show discussing the 2011 Egyptian protests .
Choudary has received little support from the mainstream Muslim community . However , in January 2010 Jamie Bartlett , a writer for the Telegraph , speculated that he might have " some " support among the minority of Muslims in the UK who could be considered to hold conservative views . The following year , Peter Oborne , defending Baroness Warsi 's criticism of how British Muslims have been treated , singled out Choudary as an exception to the majority that were " decent people " .
Tabloid criticism of Islam4UK and Choudary since news of the proposed march first became public has , generally , been vitriolic , calling him a " hate preacher " . In January 2010 , appearing on the BBC 's The Daily Politics , he was asked by its presenter , Andrew Neil , for his opinions on the banning of Islam4UK , before being asked to comment on his financial status , claiming that it was " relevant to our viewers " . Choudary told Neil that his finances were a personal matter , and that he was " doing something , and I don 't want to discuss that with you . I 'm not on Jobseeker 's allowance , but at the same time I have family allowance , I have very firmly held views which I 'm propagating at the same time . " Responding to the media 's criticism of him , Choudary said " I do believe that people have been whipped up into an anti @-@ Islam anti @-@ Muslim frenzy . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1996 , Choudary married Rubana Akhtar , or Akhgar , who was then 22 years old and had recently joined al @-@ Muhajiroun , which he led at the time . She later became the group 's head of women . The couple have four children .
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= Thorne and Hatfield Moors =
Thorne and Hatfield Moors form the largest area of lowland raised peat bog in the United Kingdom . They are situated in South Yorkshire , to the north @-@ east and east of Doncaster near the town of Thorne , and are part of Hatfield Chase . They had been used for small @-@ scale extraction of peat for fuel from medieval times , and probably much earlier , but commercial extraction of the peat for animal bedding began in the 1880s . The peat was cut on the moors and , once it had dried , transported to several works on 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge tramways , always called trams locally . The wagons were pulled by horses to works at Creyke 's Siding , Moorends , Medge Hall , Swinefleet and Hatfield . There was also a network of canals supplying the Moorends Works .
The industry suffered a downturn between the two world wars , as working horses were replaced by lorries and peat demand dropped , but after the Second World War peat was used by the horticultural industry in increasing volumes , and harvesting expanded again . From 1947 , experiments were made with locomotives on the tramways , and they soon replaced horses . A total of 23 had worked on the system by the time it was closed down . The extraction process was mechanised in the 1960s , with the introduction of machines that could cut and stack the peat turves . In 1981 mechanical loading of the turves into the trains was introduced . Surface milling of the peat was introduced in 1985 , which completely stripped the surface of large areas of the moors .
Some environmental bodies considered the moors to be worthless , but tireless campaigning by William Bunting after the Second World War , culminating in direct action by a group known as Bunting 's Beavers in 1972 , resulted in a change of policy . The nature of the moor habitat has gradually been recognised as an ecological resource . From 1971 the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust has managed a small area of Crowle Moor for conservation , and the Nature Conservancy Council bought another small area in 1985 . A major change occurred in 1994 , when Fisons company gave English Nature 2 @,@ 340 acres ( 946 ha ) of moorland , although they retained the right to continue extracting peat on some of it . By 2002 , Scotts owned the cutting rights but most cutting of peat effectively ended in 2001 , since the government buy @-@ out in 2002 of the extraction rights from Scotts occurred before the cutting season had begun . Removal of peat stockpiled on the moors continued into 2006 . Since then the moors have been managed as a National Nature Reserve by Natural England . Scotts still have a works at Hatfield , which processes imported peat .
= = Location = =
Thorne Moors and Hatfield Moors together cover an area of some 8 @,@ 201 acres ( 3 @,@ 319 ha ) , and are a small remnant of a much larger wetland system that once covered around 770 square miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) known as the Humberhead Levels . The moors lie to the east of the town of Thorne and the M18 motorway . Thorne Moors are situated to the north of the M180 motorway , while Hatfield Moors lie to the south of that road . Although much reduced in size , they are still the largest area of lowland raised peat bog in the United Kingdom .
Thorne Moors are also called Swinefleet Moors , and both terms describe Crowle Moor , Goole Moor , Rawcliffe Moor , Snaith and Cowick Moor , and Thorne Waste collectively .
= = History = =
The moors had been used as a source for domestic fuel , in the form of peat , since at least the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries , and probably as early as the Roman or pre @-@ Roman periods . In the early 1800s , peat was still being formed : William Harrison reported that a short time after moving to Thorne , a rise in the surface of the moors has obscured Crowle Church , previously visible from his home .
The area saw major changes in its hydrology in the 1630s , as a result of the drainage works of Cornelius Vermuyden . The River Don was routed northwards from Stainforth , passing to the west of the moors ; the River Idle routed along the southern edge of Hatfield Chase , and a new channel was cut for the River Torne , which was isolated from the surrounding land by new flood banks . These works had less effect on Thorne Moors , which became isolated from Hatfield Moors with the completion of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1802 , running in an east @-@ west direction between them . The moors were " warped " during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , a process by which silt @-@ laden floodwater from the River Trent and the River Ouse was allowed to cover the land , resulting in silt building up on the surface . The Swinefleet Warping Drain can still be seen , running along the eastern edge of the moors , and connecting to the Ouse below Goole . It was last used for this purpose just before the First World War , in connection with land reclamation near Medge Hall , Crowle . This was the last known occasion on which warping was used in the moors to the south of the Humber .
The Thorne Moors Improvement Company was set up in 1848 , authorised by the Thorne Moor Drainage and Improvement Act . They were charged with improving parts of the bog . Their activities increased in the 1880s , when they began to lease areas to companies who extracted the peat commercially for use as animal bedding . In order to do this , ditches had to be cut to begin the process of drainage . As the extent of the workings increased , a Dutch company cut canals in the peat . Horses pulled barges from canal paths alongside in order to remove the peat from the moors . Subsequently , a network of small railways were constructed along the canals to transport the peat .
Until the mid @-@ twentieth century , all peat was cut by hand . Although the effects of the industry on the ecology of the moors were serious , hand cutting mainly affected the surface of the moors . It left behind trenches and ditches , which soon became waterlogged , and were re @-@ colonised to become part of the diverse habitat . Once the cutting process was mechanised , peat could be cut from a greater depth , and at a faster rate , resulting in less ability for the moors to recover . Mechanical peat cutting was introduced to the moors in the early 1960s , and the process was similar to hand cutting , in that the peat was extracted over a small area but to a considerable depth . More destructive to the ultimate regeneration of the moors was the introduction of peat milling in 1985 , where a thin layer of peat was stripped from a wider area . Thus in 1910 , around 56 tonnes per acre were extracted from 1 @,@ 240 acres ( 500 ha ) of the moors , whereas in 1985 the yield was 10 tonnes per acre over double that area . As early as the late 1960s , academics and conservation agencies expressed concerns that the moors had been so badly damaged by peat extraction and farming that they were not worth saving .
= = = Environmental campaigning = = =
A scheme to cover the moors with ash from coal @-@ fired power stations , and possibly municipal rubbish , was proposed in 1962 , and again in 1969 . Another plan of the 1960s was to build a regional airport on the moors ; this proposal was revived in 1971 . Further ash @-@ tipping schemes were voiced in 1974 , as was a third plan for an airport in 1976 . There were also plans to use the moor as a dump for colliery waste in 1978 , when Thorne Colliery was upgraded and reopened .
= = = = William Bunting = = = =
Although official attitudes did not place much value on the moors , William Bunting moved to Thorne after the Second World War and became an advocate for moor preservation . Thought to be rude and irascible , he began a campaign to recognise the ecological importance of the moors . He asserted that the enclosures of the 1800s , when common rights were replaced by private ownership , had been illegal , as was much of the commercial exploitation of his time . He seemed to have a good deal of evidence to support his claims , and took several major utilities to court over acts which he felt were illegal . He won a series of high @-@ profile cases , which he used as publicity to advance the case for conserving the moors . In 1972 , Bunting began direct action , aided by local residents , local naturalists , and students . During the week , the peat extraction company Fisons would cut drains to begin the process of lowering the water table . During the weekends , Bunting 's Beavers , as his team became known , would walk onto the moors and construct dams across the new ditches , to retain the water levels . By the summer , the Beavers appeared to be winning the battle , and their activities were featured on BBC television . Fisons dynamited eighteen of the dams , but the activists were undeterred and began rebuilding them . Finally , Fisons conceded defeat , and negotiated with the Nature Conservancy Council on the future management of the moors in 1974 . The government granted some 4 @,@ 560 acres ( 1 @,@ 845 ha ) Site of Special Scientific Interest status in 1981 . Although this had little immediate effect , it has contributed to subsequent appreciation of the area and its importance as an ecological resource .
= = = Conservation = = =
The first small step towards conservation of the moors occurred in 1971 , when an agreement was reached between the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust and Fisons on the management of 144 acres ( 58 ha ) on Crowle Moor . In 1985 , the Nature Conservancy Council bought 180 acres ( 73 ha ) of Thorne Waste , which had been part of the area worked by a canal network . The Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust purchased a total of 290 acres ( 118 ha ) in 1987 , which included the area they had been managing since 1971 . The first large @-@ scale transfer of land occurred in 1994 , when Fisons gave 2 @,@ 340 acres ( 946 ha ) to English Nature , the successor to the Nature Conservancy Council . The agreement allowed Fisons to lease back the active peat fields from English Nature , and to continue to extract peat until 2025 . However , they agreed to leave a minimum of 20 inches ( 50 cm ) of peat , so that the moors could recover once extraction ceased . Areas that were not being worked were managed for conservation . At this time , English Nature also took control of parts of Hatfield Moors . The areas they managed were designated as the Humberhead Peatlands National Nature Reserve in 1995 , and were extended by another 370 acres ( 150 ha ) in the following year .
Most extraction of peat from the moors had ended by 2004 , after the peat extraction rights , then owned by Scotts , had been bought by the government for £ 17 million . A small @-@ scale operation was still active in 2005 .
Environmentalists continued to campaign for recognition of the ecological value of the moors . In 2002 the government agreed to buy the peat extraction rights from The Scotts Company ( now trading as The Scotts Miracle @-@ Gro Company ) . The agreement was signed in April , before the cutting season began , and no cutting occurred on Thorne Moors after 2001 . Stockpiles of cut peat continued to be removed from the moors until 2005 . Scotts worked with English Nature to return worked areas to a condition where they could start to regenerate , until their involvement with this contract on Thorne Moors ended in March 2006 . Since 2005 , 4 @,@ 020 acres ( 1 @,@ 625 ha ) of Thorne Moors have been designated as a National Nature Reserve . This includes the area bought by the Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust , which now manage most of Crowle Moor on behalf of Natural England , the successor to English Nature .
Limbert and Roworth have commented that , unlike other peat areas , such as the Somerset Levels , where recording of the industrial heritage has been systematic , the recording of the industrial archaeology of Thorne and Hatfield Moors has been notably scarce . A guide to the industrial history of South Yorkshire published in 1995 made no mention of peat at all . The canals dug by the Dutch and operated until the 1920s have been mentioned by canal historians such as Charles Hadfield , but have never been investigated systematically . The railways have received a little more attention in the specialist press , and some of the locomotives have been preserved . The history of the workers has been partially recorded through the Thorne and Hatfield Moors Oral History Project . In contrast , the ecology of the moors has been better documented , through the publication of the Thorne and Hatfield Moors Papers , first published by the Doncaster Naturalists Society in 1987 . Since 1989 , the Thorne and Hatfield Moors Conservation Forum have taken over this responsibility . These papers now run to eight volumes , and the forum has also published technical papers on many aspects of the moors .
= = Peat industry = =
By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , there was a small but established peat industry on the moors . George Stovin recorded that labourers dug peat turves in the summer , which were dressed by their wives and children , before being exported by boat through Thorne sluice and the River Don . The product was transported to Gainsborough , Leeds , Lincoln and York . The boats used were double @-@ ended , about 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long , and traveled by canals dug into the peat , the chief of which was called Boating Dyke . Up to forty boats were operating in the 1790s , but competition from coal , which was a more efficient fuel , resulted in a decline , and only eight or nine boats were still operating in the 1820s . Internal canals on the moors had ceased to be used by the 1830s , with turves being transported by cart to Thorne or to the Stainforth and Keadby Canal .
There followed a period when improvement of the moors for agriculture was considered the way to proceed . An entrepreneur named John Gossip bought 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) of moor near Lindholme , and set about warping it with silt from an old river bed near Lindholme Lake . The cost proved excessive , and he installed a stationary steam engine and narrow gauge railway tracks , on which small wagons were pushed by hand , to aid the work . He ran into financial difficulties , however , and the land was repossessed by his backers . The main emphasis of the Thorne Moor Improvement Company , set up in 1848 , was the " draining , warping and otherwise improving " of Thorne Waste , but the railway across the moors proposed by the Great Northern Railway Company , which was to provide transport for the products of the improved land , did not materialise , and little was achieved .
Two drains were built , of which the most successful was the Swinefleet Warping Drain , pioneered by Ralph Creyke and T.H.S. Sotheron , and authorised by an Act of Parliament . Opened in 1821 , poor @-@ quality land was reclaimed for around forty years . The other scheme was Durham 's Warping Drain , to the north of Thorne , which ran westwards to a sluice on the River Don . The drain was completed in 1856 by Makin Durham , but he failed to achieve much reclamation of the peat moors . He died in 1882 , just as ideas to use the peat commercially began to replace the concept of attempting to make the moors suitable for agriculture . The change was brought about by an agricultural depression and the high price of straw for animal bedding .
Peat was more absorbent than straw , and as there were huge numbers of working horses at the time , it was promoted as a replacement for straw . It could also be used for packing of fruit , as a replacement for sandbags , for fertiliser and as potting compost , as well as the manufacture of paraffin , creosote and tar . The owners of Thorne and Hatfield Moors leased their lands to peat companies , whose workers would dig drains , cut the turves , and stack them up to allow them to dry , so that they were ready for sale . The product was in competition with imports from the Netherlands , and the Dutch Griendtsveen Company set up the Griendtsveen Moss Litter Company in 1893 , a holding company which would buy up companies operating in the Netherlands and in the United Kingdom . The works at Moorends kept its ledgers in Dutch and English , and a number of Dutch workers relocated to Thorne . By 1899 , there were some 120 Dutch workers , forming a community of 300 with their wives and children , and there was concern among local people that they would lose their own jobs . Dutch tools and working practices were introduced , and the immigrants cut around 14 miles ( 23 km ) of canals to transport peat to the mill at Moorends . The iron barges used on the canals were 40 feet ( 12 m ) long , and were double ended , as they could not be turned round . A total of twelve were built in the Netherlands , and remained in use until 1922 , when Moorends Mill burnt down . The barges were cut up , and the mill was not rebuilt , although some of the other buildings were used as workhops until 1956 .
= = = Amalgamation = = =
In 1896 , the British Moss Litter Company was formed , from an amalgamation of the Hatfield Chase Peat Moss Litter Company , the Griendtsveen Moss Litter Company , and most of the other companies working on the moors . They gained control of works at Creyke 's Siding and Moorends to the west , Medge Hall to the south , Swinefleet to the east , and Old Goole in the north , together with the mill on Hatfield Moors . Old Goole mill closed in 1902 , although peat was stored there for another twelve years . The new company did not have complete control of the moors , as there were several small independent peat works on Crowle Moor . The company was restructured in 1899 , by winding up the original company and creating a new one with the same name but additional working capital . At the same time , Swinefleet Works was formally purchased , whereas it had been leased by the old company . Sales of peat rose steadily from 39 @,@ 444 tons in 1893 to 74 @,@ 948 tons in 1898 .
Following the end of the First World War , sales of peat began to decline , as working horses were replaced by motor lorries and tractors . The British Moss Litter Company bought up two other companies who were extracting peat in Crowle Moor in 1935 . Most peat was sold as bales , with ' fine ' peat being used by gardeners and the growing of mushrooms and ' litter ' being used for animal bedding , while ' tailings ' were used for floor covering at show @-@ jumping events and for bulking up feed for cows . Around one @-@ fifth was not baled , and was used for various purposes , including the production of firelighters , for health cures at Harrogate baths , and the purifying of gas by gas companies , for which it was mixed with iron ore at Creyke 's Siding . By the late 1940s , it was finding a new market as litter for battery hen houses , and by then around 90 per cent was baled .
The works at Creyke 's Siding was closed in the early 1960s , after fire destroyed much of it , Swinefleet Works was damaged by fire in 1962 , and a fire on the moors at Hatfield destroyed huge stocks of dried peat . Despite this , the agricultural supplies company Fisons bought the operation in February 1963 , and began upgrading the works at Swinefleet and Hatfield . Medge Hall works was in need of new machinery , and did not have good access for lorries , and so was closed in 1966 . By the time a management buyout occurred in July 1994 , Fisons was making £ 3 @.@ 8 million profit annually on a turnover of £ 47 million . The new owners traded as Levington Horticulture , but on 1 January 1998 , were taken over by the American garden products company Scotts .
= = = Transport = = =
Creyke 's Siding and Moorends Works were both located close to the main railway line from Doncaster to Goole ( Hull and Doncaster Branch ) , and were served by sidings . Medge Hall Works was similarly close to the line from Doncaster to Grimsby , and was also served by a siding . Swinefleet Works had their own 3 ft 7 in ( 1 @,@ 093 mm ) gauge tramway , which ran northwards to a wharf on the River Ouse near Swinefleet Clough . The line was around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long , and had a single steam engine , built by Webster , Jackson & Co. of Goole . The Goole and Marshland Light Railway and the Isle of Axholme Light Railway were authorised by Light Railway Orders in 1898 and 1899 , and became the Axholme Joint Railway after a takeover by two larger companies in 1901 . Following discussions , to try to alleviate a level crossing of the tramway and the new railway , a siding was constructed to Swinefleet Works , and the tramway was lifted in 1903 . The railway company also built a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) branch from Epworth in 1909 , in the hope of gaining the peat traffic from Hatfield Works , but they continued to cart their output north to Maud 's Bridge , on the Doncaster to Scunthorpe line . The railway built a loading dock in 1911 , and still did not gain the traffic , but finally in 1913 , agreed to build a siding into the works in exchange for all the peat traffic . Thus all of the British Moss Litter Company 's works could export their produce by rail .
A system of horse @-@ drawn tramways was used to move the peat across the moor from at least the 1890s , since the lines are marked on the 1890 Ordnance Survey maps , and Booth includes a picture of Moorends Works taken in the 1890s , showing both 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) wagons and the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) gauge wooden peat wagons used internally . Rotherham includes an engraving of a peat wagon in his book , consisting of a farm cart , still with its road wheels attached , but with a four @-@ wheeled bogie under each of the axles to allow it to be pulled along the rails by two horses . However , no indication of a date is given . The rails were quite light , at 9 or 12 pounds per yard ( 4 @.@ 5 or 6 @.@ 0 kg / m ) , but were gradually increased to 18 pounds per yard ( 8 @.@ 9 kg / m ) , and by the 1980s , when locomotives were in use , rails of 30 pounds per yard ( 15 kg / m ) were installed . The flat @-@ bottomed rails were initially made of iron , but were later replaced by steel rails . The tracks were referred to locally as trams , rather than tramways .
= = = Locomotives = = =
The first use of powered vehicles on the tramways occurred in 1947 , when one of the fitters at Moorends Works built a machine from a wooden wagon frame and parts from an Austin Swallow car . Although trials were carried out in which peat wagons were towed , it was mainly used to transport personnel around the moors . It had an 8 @-@ horsepower ( 6 @.@ 0 kW ) engine , was later based at Swinefleet Works , and was derelict by 1960 . The first purpose @-@ built locomotive was also based at Swinefleet , and was bought in 1955 . It was probably built by James & Frederick Howard of Bedford , and was a four @-@ wheeled machine , fitted with a petrol engine , which was replaced by a Dorman diesel engine within a year as petrol was rationed at the time , due to the Suez Canal crisis . It was sufficiently successful that two horses were retired , and the company soon realised that the cost of owning locomotives was much less than the cost of owning horses , since they did not need to be fed and watered when not actually working .
The company ordered two new locomotives from the Lincoln @-@ based firm of Ruston and Hornsby in 1959 . They were described as class LBT locomotives by the manufacturer , and were fitted with 31 @.@ 5 hp ( 23 @.@ 5 kW ) two @-@ cylinder engines . One went to Swinefleet , after which the Howard machine was scrapped , and the other went to Medge Hall . A third locomotive of the same type was then ordered for Hatfield Works , allowing the horses there to be retired . The Medge Hall engine was transferred to Swinefleet when the works closed in 1966 .
The next acquisition of locomotives took place after the British Moss Peat Company was acquired by Fisons in 1963 . They ordered three 8 @.@ 5 hp ( 6 @.@ 3 kW ) machines from R A Lister and Company , who were based in Dursley , Gloucestershire . They consisted of little more than an engine and driver 's seat mounted on a chassis , and were used on the moors where the peat was loaded into wagons , only returning to the works for maintenance . Two were delivered to Swinefleet in 1964 , and one went to Hatfield . A second machine for the Hatfield operation was ordered in 1967 . Wooden peat trucks were gradually phased out following the purchase of 100 steel wagons in 1963 and 1964 . They were manufactured in Leeds by Robert Hudson ( Raletrux ) Ltd , and were subsequently fitted with a fine inner mesh , to enable them to carry fragmented peat rather than turves . The new wagons had a side @-@ opening door , and a tippler was installed to allow them to be emptied automatically .
= = = Mechanisation = = =
On the moors , when dried turves were ready to be collected , temporary track sections were laid at right angles to the main line , and a portable turntable was installed . A rake of twelve wagons could then be moved onto the temporary track , one at a time , to be filled by a ' filling gang ' . Each wagon held about a ton , and once all twelve had been manoeuvred over the turntable back onto the main line , they would be pulled to the works by horses . With the advent of the small Lister engines , a new system was used , where three curved sections of track were used , the end one being clipped onto the top of the main line track . The engines could then push a line of forty or fifty wagons onto the temporary track . Cutting of the peat was mechanised from 1963 , with the introduction of German peat @-@ cutting machines , and by 1970 , all hand cutting had ceased . Loading of the turves into wagons was also initially by hand , but gradually ' sod collectors ' were introduced , which at Swinefleet had a 25 @-@ yard ( 23 m ) conveyor and at Hatfield a 44 @-@ yard ( 40 m ) one . These enabled a single side track to serve a much wider section of moor , without having to move the track . Loading turves onto the start of the conveyor was still done manually , but it became difficult to find people who wanted to do the work , and so Hymac loaders were used to load peat directly into the wagons . The success of this process at Hatfield in 1981 lead to it being used at Swinefleet as well .
The next development was the introduction of surface milling , which began at Hatfield in 1986 and at Swinefleet in the following year . Once an area had been drained , all vegetation was removed from the surface , and a thin layer of peat was removed by a mechanical harvester . It was stockpiled on the moors , and later loaded into wagons by a Hymec loader , to be bagged at the works . Most peat by this time was used for compost or in growbags . The milled peat was much finer than the previous peat sods , and the mesh @-@ sided wagons were unsuitable for transporting it . A programme of fitting wooden boards to the insides of the wagons was begun , but by 1989 , solid steel wagons were being fabricated , reusing the frames from the original wagons . All the wagons at Hatfield had been upgraded by May 1990 , with those at Swinefleet completed afterwards . Trains of the new wagons were much heavier , particularly when loaded with milled peat , and the existing locomotives were inadequate . Tenders were invited for some more powerful locomotives , and three machines were ordered from Schöma of Germany . Two were delivered to Hatfield in 1990 , and the third went to Swinefleet in 1991 . Each consisted of a CHL @-@ 60G master unit , rated at 65 kilowatts ( 87 hp ) with a bonnet and cab , and a CHL @-@ 60T slave unit , looking more like a flat @-@ bed truck , with a second hydraulic motor . They were much more powerful than the engines they replaced , with the four @-@ axle arrangement ensuring that the axle loading was low enough for the existing track , and they were very popular with their operators . By the late 1990s , they were wearing out , and enquiries were made , with a view to purchasing replacements . Alan Keef designed a Bo @-@ Bo locomotive for use of the moors , but the cost was too great , and the company rebuilt two of the Schoma locomotive and slave units . The work included replacing the original 5 @-@ cylinder engines with 6 @-@ cylinder models , improving the sanding gear and driver 's seating arrangements , and fitting a more reliable air @-@ conditioning system for the cab . Lack of funds prevented the third Schoma being upgraded . They worked on Thorne Moors removing stockpiled peat until 21 October 2005 , and on Hatfield Moors until 2006 . They were stored at Hatfield once rail operation had ceased , and were still there in 2008 .
In 1935 , there were 20 miles ( 32 km ) of tracks on Thorne Moors , with 150 peat wagons and 18 flat wagons . There was an additional 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of temporary track . 50 peat wagons and six flat wagons ran on 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of permanent track on Hatfield Moors , where there were 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of temporary track . By 1989 , there were about 8 miles ( 13 km ) of permanent track on Hatfield Moors , and double that on Thorne Moors . Following the arrival of the Dutch workers in the 1890s , the community continued to expand with the arrival of workers from the Netherlands until about 1912 , but most had returned to their country of origin by 1914 . In the 1930s , the British Moss Litter Company employed around 160 people , and haulage was achieved by twelve horses . During the Second World War , the Ministry of Supply ran the works , and the workforce dropped to 138 , although there were still twelve horses . After the war , several of the men were assisted by their wives , who helped with the stacking of the peat , but did not get paid for their labour . Numbers had dropped to 118 by the 1960s , although a number of unpaid wives were still working on the moors . With the increasing sales of peat for gardeners , the workforce increased to 185 by the mid @-@ 1970s , swelled by up to 90 contract workers during busy periods . The total annual output of dried peat at this time was around 45 @,@ 000 tonnes , produced from 400 @,@ 000 tonnes of wet peat , all of it going to the horticultural industry . Swinefleet Works stopped production in July 2000 , and was fully decommissioned by September . Subsequently , peat from Thorne Moors was transferred to Hatfield for processing .
= = = Locomotive details = = =
Several redundant locomotives were bought for preservation by Cliff Lawson of Tring . The group included three machines made by Ruston and Hornsby , two made by Hunslet , and two made by Lister . The eighth engine bought was the Diema , which was a hybrid made from the frames of two machines . Restoration involved splitting the components apart , and using them to rebuild both of the original locomotives , resulting in nine locomotives being preserved . Lawson re @-@ gauged all of them to 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) , and they have all been restored to working order . Lister 53977 was loaned to the Doncaster Museum and Art Gallery in 2007 .
The Crowle Peatland Railway is hoping to relay a stretch of track near Crowle , and run some of the original locomotives on it . The Society has obtained one of the original Simplex locomotives and two of the Schomas , including all three slave units .
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= OS MX3000 =
MX3000 is an electric train used on Oslo Metro in Oslo , Norway . The multiple units are produced by Siemens , who started serial delivery in 2007 . Seventy @-@ eight three @-@ car units have been ordered by Kollektivtransportproduksjon , and five by Akershus County Municipality . They replaced the older T1000 and T1300 stock that was used on the Oslo Metro since 1966 . By 2010 , the last T1000 and T1300 trains have been retired and replaced by 83 three @-@ car units . 32 additional sets were ordered , and the final train set was delivered in 2014 , increasing the fleet to 115 units .
The trains are built as units of three cars , though they are often operated as double units . Empty 12 wagons ( four unit ) trains are seen every night , going from the main service area at Ryen to Stortinget metro station , where they are ready to be decoupled into shorter trains for the next day . The units are 54 @.@ 14 meters ( 177 ft 7 in ) long , and weigh 98 tonnes ( 96 long tons ; 108 short tons ) empty . They have a power output of 1 @,@ 680 kilowatts ( 2 @,@ 250 hp ) , allowing speeds of 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) . Seated capacity is 138 seats , and total capacity is 493 passengers . New features for the Oslo Metro introduced with the MX3000 include air conditioning ( only in the driver 's cab ) , air suspension , regenerative brakes and batteries for operating at the depot . The first series of 33 units were ordered in 2003 , followed by an additional order for 30 in 2005 , 15 in 2008 , and 32 in December 2010 . The trains have been financed by Oslo Package 2 , and each unit costs about NOK 45 million .
= = History = =
In 1966 , the Oslo Metro opened as an upgrade of two existing suburban tramways , the Østensjø- and Lambertseter Lines . By 1970 , the system was supplemented by the Grorud- and Furuset Lines . They only operated to the eastern suburbs . In 1987 , the system was expanded to connect to the western network , that remained a suburban tramway with overhead wires , two @-@ car platforms and an inferior signaling system . In 1993 , the Sognsvann Line was converted to metro standard , with the Røa Line following two years later . When the order for the MX3000 trains was placed , the Kolsås- and Holmenkoll Lines still used overhead wires , and would not be able to use the new stock . Both systems were at the time being considered for conversion to light rail systems , that would connect to the Lilleaker- and Ullevål Hageby Line , respectively .
The old fleet of T1000 and T1300 consisted of 195 cars in eight series . The T1000 was the original series delivered between 1966 and 1978 , while the T1300 was a later adoption built until 1987 . The T1000 series has only a third rail shoe , while the T1300 also has a pantograph , and could be used on the Kolsås- and Holmenkoll Lines . In 1995 , six two @-@ car T2000 units were delivered for the Holmenkoll Line . They were , at the time , proposed as a possible replacement for all the T1000 and T1300 stock , but were prone to technical problems . They featured both third rail shoes and pantographs .
In 1996 , the work to establish a financing package for new investments in public transport in Akershus and Oslo started . It was passed , in 2001 , by the city and county councils , as well as the Norwegian Parliament . Oslo Package 2 allowed municipal and state grants to be supplemented by increased fare and toll road revenue to finance , among other things , new trains for the metro . The initial order by Oslo Sporveier was for 33 units ( or 99 cars ) , and was approved by the board on 28 June 2003 . The initial order cost NOK 1 @.@ 6 billion , and included options for further orders . Five other manufactures had been rejected during the procurement process . Combined with other investments in the network , the new trains will allow faster travel times on the metro .
In 2005 , the city council voted to replace all existing T1000 and T1300 stock with the MX3000 , increasing the quantity by another 30 units . With the second order , the price had increased to NOK 2 @.@ 5 billion . Two test units were delivered in October 2005 , and the serial production started in April 2006 , with the first deliveries in April 2007 . With the delivery of the new trains , Oslo Sporveier received criticism that they had been disloyal to the old red color of the metro , and that they did not follow up on their former design concept from the 1960s through the 80s . During the first 30 days , there occurred two errors : one in the closing mechanism of the doors , and one with a switch in the cab that was not water tight . However , it turned out that Oslo Sporveier had not been accurate enough in specifying the energy consumption of the trains , and the rectifiers on parts of the line needed to be upgraded to supply sufficient power to the trains . During 2007 , there were four incidents where the trains were not able to brake at stations . The worst incident occurred when a train slid the 1 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) from Blindern to Majorstuen .
Following the 2006 decision to convert the Kolsås Line to metro standard , Akershus County Council announced they would order five units . In November 2006 , the city government proposed that the maintenance of the new trains be privatized . This resulted in protests from the employees , who campaigned by refusing to work overtime . As a result , after a few weeks , the company lacked 57 trains to provide adequate service . The issue was solved when the socialist opposition parties along with the Liberal Party agreed to postpone the matter until after all the new trains were delivered in 2009 . As part of the agreement , a new limited company , Oslo Vognselskap , wholly owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon , would take ownership of all metro trains and trams used by the operating companies Oslo T @-@ banedrift and Oslo Sporvognsdrift , the latter being the operator of the tramway . Responsibility for the debt accumulated for buying the trains is to be managed by Oslo Vognselskap , while operation and management of the maintenance contracts was transferred to Oslo T @-@ banedrift .
In January 2008 , an addition 15 units were ordered by Oslo , with an option for further orders later . This will allow all the eastern lines to have a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ minute headway on their services into the city center , instead of the current 15 @-@ minute headway . Trains would start using the balloon loop located at Stortinget , and the western lines will continue to have a 15 @-@ minute headway . At the same time , the trains serving the Ring Line will be extended to six cars . The order cost NOK 675 million . In addition , Akershus finalized their order for five units , costing NOK 240 million . Unlike the Oslo @-@ owned units , Akershus ' five units will be owned by the transit authority Ruter . The same year , the city council in Oslo decided to upgrade the Holmenkoll Line to metro standard , to allow six @-@ car MX3000 trains to be the main mode of transport to Holmenkollen during the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011 . This allowed 9 @,@ 000 people per hour to be transported to the sports venue . In 2009 , the T2000 units were taken out of service , and on 22 April 2010 the last T1300 was taken out of service , making the MX3000 the only units to be used on the Oslo Metro . The city council was considering ordering 15 additional MX3000 to replace the T2000 , as an alternative for a NOK 50 @-@ million renovation .
In November 2010 , the Accident Investigation Board Norway criticized the braking system of the trains . During 2009 , there were 83 incidents where trains with locked wheels slid down steep sections of track . The Accident Investigation Board found that the metro had conducted insufficient testing of the braking system on steep slippery lines , had not adjusted the brakes satisfactorily , and had not maintained the trains and tracks sufficiently . In December 2010 , Oslo Vognselskap ordered another 32 three @-@ car units , bringing the total order up to 115 three @-@ car units . The last trains will be delivered in 2012 . There was political disagreement regarding the final purchase , with the Liberal Party and socialist opposition securing a majority for the purchase , while the right @-@ winged parties voted to order 19 units . The extra trains will make it possible to run all lines except the Holmenkollen Line ( Line 1 ) with six @-@ car lines , compared to a situation with only three @-@ car trains on the Lambertseter Line , the Ring Line and the Kolsås Line ( lines 4 and 6 ) would only use three @-@ car trains .
= = Specifications = =
The MX3000 is a three @-@ car electric multiple unit built exclusively for the Oslo Metro by Siemens in Vienna , Austria . It is a modification of trains used on the Vienna U @-@ Bahn . The units are designed by Porsche Design Studio . Unlike the red predecessors , the trains are painted white with black and grey detailing . The chassis is in aluminum . A three @-@ car train is 54 @.@ 14 meters ( 177 @.@ 6 ft ) long ; the end cars are 18 @.@ 11 meters ( 59 @.@ 4 ft ) long each , while the center car is 17 @.@ 92 meters ( 58 @.@ 8 ft ) long . The cars are 3 @.@ 16 meters ( 10 @.@ 4 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 68 meters ( 12 @.@ 1 ft ) tall . An empty three @-@ car unit weighs 98 tonnes ( 96 long tons ; 108 short tons ) , while it with full payload weighs 147 tonnes ( 145 long tons ; 162 short tons ) . This gives a maximum axle load of 12 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 12 @.@ 3 long tons ; 13 @.@ 8 short tons ) .
Each three @-@ car unit has 138 seats , and a total capacity of 493 passengers . The height of the floor is 1 @.@ 12 meters ( 3 ft 8 in ) above the track , allowing step @-@ free access to the platforms . There are three doors on each side of each car , measuring 1 @,@ 300 millimeters ( 51 in ) wide and 1 @,@ 900 millimeters ( 75 in ) high . Unlike the older T1000 trains , the triple @-@ car configuration allows passengers to walk between the cars . Combined with a better spatial design , it reduces the feeling of crowding . The MX3000 also introduced air conditioning in the driver 's cab . The units run either in single configuration ( with three cars ) or in multiple ( with six cars ) .
Each car is equipped with four three @-@ phase asynchronous 140 @-@ kilowatt ( 190 hp ) motors , giving each three @-@ car unit a power output of 1 @,@ 680 kilowatts ( 2 @,@ 250 hp ) . In each car , the four motors are fed by the car 's own insulated @-@ gate bipolar transistor . They transform the 750 volt direct current collected from the third rail shoe to the three @-@ phase alternating current used in the motors . The frequency and amplitude of the current fed to the engines varies depending on the train 's speed . The MX3000 introduced regenerative brakes , that allow the electromagnetic brakes to feed power back to the power supply when braking . In addition , there is a back @-@ up disc brake on each axle . Acceleration in the range 0 to 40 kilometers per hour ( 0 to 25 mph ) is limited to 1 @.@ 3 meters per second squared ( 4 @.@ 3 ft / s2 ) . In this phase , the fully loaded train uses 5 @.@ 0 kiloampere . For use in areas without a third rail , such as at depots , the trains are equipped with a 110 V battery . This removes the need for shunting at the depots , and makes maintenance more cost efficient . Energy usage is reduced by 30 % , estimated to save the operating company NOK 13 million per year , compared to using the old stocks .
There are two bogies per car , each with two axles . The wheel diameter is 850 millimeters ( 33 in ) for new wheels , and 770 millimeters ( 30 in ) when fully worn @-@ down . The center distance between the bogies is 11 @.@ 00 meters ( 36 @.@ 09 ft ) . The primary suspension is steel coil spring between the axles and the bogies , with a secondary air suspension between the frame and the bogies . The latter , which the MX3000 was the first to use on the metro , gives reduced noise , better comfort and makes it possible to adjust the height with changed passenger weight .
The units are controlled by a distributed system connected by a double multifunction vehicle bus . It has two vehicle control units , that monitor and control all main functions of the train ; in addition , there are systems for controlling the brakes , traction , doors , ventilation , passenger information system and compressor . Like the older stock , the train 's speed is controlled by an automatic train protection ( ATP ) system . The speed codes are transferred from the ATP points in the infrastructure , using 75 hertz pulses in the tracks . The trains pick up the signals via antennas . The speed codes are 15 km / h ( 9 @.@ 3 mph ) , 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) , 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) and 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) . They are informed to the engineer via signals in the driver 's cab ; in addition , the system will automatically reduce the speed , should the limit be exceeded . The driver can put the trains in an automatic mode , where the train itself adjusts the trains speed to the speed limit . The driver is always responsible for starting and halting the train at stations . The driver 's cabs are more ergonomic than in the T1000 , and the mirrors to monitor the platforms have been replaced with cameras and screens .
= = Numbering = =
The first 99 train sets were numbered 3001 to 3099 . When the 100th set was delivered the numbering continued with 30100 and will continue with 30101 and so on . Many of the train sets have also been given a girls ' name .
The three individual cars that make up a train set are distinguished by the second digit . For example , train set 3001 consists of the cars 3101 , 3201 , and 3301 .
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= SMS Kaiser Karl VI =
SMS Kaiser Karl VI ( " His Majesty 's Ship Kaiser Karl VI " ) was the second of three armored cruisers built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . She was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino in Trieste between June 1896 and May 1900 , when she was commissioned into the fleet . Kaiser Karl VI represented a significant improvement over the preceding design — Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia — being faster and more heavily armed and armored . She provided the basis for the third design , Sankt Georg , which featured further incremental improvements . Having no overseas colonies to patrol , Austria @-@ Hungary built the ship solely to reinforce its battle fleet .
Kaiser Karl VI spent the first decade in service rotating between the training and reserve squadrons , alternating with Sankt Georg . In 1910 , Kaiser Karl VI went on a major overseas cruise to South America , visiting Brazil , Uruguay , and Argentina ; this was the last trans @-@ Atlantic voyage of an Austro @-@ Hungarian warship . After the outbreak of war , she was mobilized into the Cruiser Flotilla , which spent the majority of the war moored at Cattaro . The lengthy inactivity eventually led to the Cattaro Mutiny in February 1918 , which the crew of Kaiser Karl VI joined . After the mutiny collapsed , Kaiser Karl VI and several other warships were decommissioned to reduce the number of idle sailors . After the war , she was allocated as a war prize to Britain and was sold to ship @-@ breakers in Italy , where she was scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design = =
In the 1890s , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy began to build armored cruisers to support the battle fleet and to perform some of the roles then reserved only for battleships . The first vessel , Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia , was built as an enlarged version of the protected cruiser Kaiserin Elisabeth , with a more powerful armament and heavier armor . Maria Theresia was followed by an improved cruiser , Kaiser Karl VI , which was about 800 metric tons ( 790 long tons ; 880 short tons ) heavier , about 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 km / h ; 1 @.@ 7 mph ) faster , with much heavier armor . Kaiser Karl VI in turn provided the basis for an even larger ship , which was named Sankt Georg .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Kaiser Karl VI was 117 @.@ 9 meters ( 387 ft ) long at the waterline and was 118 @.@ 96 m ( 390 @.@ 3 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 17 @.@ 27 m ( 56 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 75 m ( 22 @.@ 1 ft ) . She displaced 6 @,@ 166 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 069 long tons ; 6 @,@ 797 short tons ) as designed and up to 6 @,@ 864 t ( 6 @,@ 756 long tons ; 7 @,@ 566 short tons ) at full load . Her crew numbered 535 officers and men . Kaiser Karl VI was fitted with two pole masts for observation .
The ship 's propulsion system consisted of two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines that drove a pair of screw propellers . The engines were built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) shipyard in Trieste that built the ship . Steam was provided by water @-@ tube boilers manufactured by Maudslay , Sons and Field of Britain . The engines were rated at 12 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 900 kW ) and produced a top speed of 20 @.@ 83 knots ( 38 @.@ 58 km / h ; 23 @.@ 97 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Kaiser Karl VI was armed with a main battery of two large @-@ caliber guns and several medium @-@ caliber pieces . She carried two 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 40 C / 94 guns manufactured by Krupp in single gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and one aft . Eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted individually in casemates rounded out her offensive armament . She was armed with sixteen 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 44 guns built by Škoda and two 4 @.@ 7 cm L / 33 Hotchkiss guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . She carried several smaller weapons , including a pair of 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns and two 7 cm landing guns . Kaiser Karl VI was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central portion that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces , and reduced to 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) on either end . She had an armored deck that was 40 to 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . Her two gun turrets had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick faces , and the 15 cm guns had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick casemates . The conning tower had 200 mm thick sides and a 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick roof .
= = Service history = =
Named for the 18th @-@ century Holy Roman Emperor , Karl VI , Kaiser Karl VI was built at the STT shipyard in Trieste . Her keel was laid on 1 June 1896 and her completed hull was launched on 4 October 1898 . Fitting @-@ out work then commenced , which lasted until 23 May 1900 when the ship was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet . Starting from her commissioning , Kaiser Karl VI frequently served in the training squadron , along with the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships , though she alternated in the squadron with the armored cruiser Sankt Georg . Once the summer training schedule was completed each year , the ships of the training squadron were demobilized in the reserve squadron , which was held in a state of partial readiness . In 1900 , she served as the flagship of then @-@ Rear Admiral Rudolf Montecuccoli in the training squadron , along with Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia . During the summer maneuvers of June 1901 , she served as the flagship of Rear Admiral G. Ritter von Brosch , commander of the reserve squadron . The other major ships in the squadron included the old ironclad Tegetthoff and the cruiser SMS Kaiser Franz Joseph I.
In mid @-@ 1910 , Kaiser Karl VI conducted the last trans @-@ Atlantic cruise of an Austrian vessel , when she visited Brazil , Uruguay and Argentina . On 25 May , she represented Austria @-@ Hungary at the centennial of Argentina 's May Revolution , which won the country 's independence from Spain .
= = = World War I = = =
On 28 June 1914 , Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , was assassinated in Sarajevo ; the assassination sparked the July Crisis and ultimately the First World War , which broke out a month later on 28 July . The German battlecruiser SMS Goeben , which had been assigned to the Mediterranean Division , sought the protection of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , and so Admiral Anton Haus sent the fleet , including Kaiser Karl VI , south on 7 August to assist his German ally . Goeben 's commander , Admiral Wilhelm Souchon , intended to use the Austro @-@ Hungarian move as a feint to distract the British Mediterranean Fleet which was pursuing Goeben ; Souchon instead took his ship to Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire . Their decoy mission complete , Kaiser Karl VI and the rest of the fleet returned to port without engaging any British forces .
On 8 August , Montenegrin gun batteries on Mount Lovćen began shelling the Austro @-@ Hungarian at Cattaro . At the time , Kaiser Karl VI was the only large warship in the harbor , and so she assisted the local army artillery in attempting to suppress the hostile guns . The Austro @-@ Hungarian gunners were aided by navy seaplanes that could spot the fall of their shots . On 13 September , the three Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ships arrived to strengthen the Austro @-@ Hungarian force . Five days later , a French artillery battery was landed in Montenegro to reinforce the guns on Lovćen with the aim of eventually capturing the port , which prompted the Austro @-@ Hungarians to send the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Radetzky with its 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns . By 27 October , the French and Montenegrin gun batteries had been silenced , and the French abandoned its attempt to seize Cattaro .
By the end of August , the mobilization of the fleet was complete ; Kaiser Karl VI was assigned to the Cruiser Flotilla , which was commanded by Vice Admiral Paul Fiedler . For most of the war , the Cruiser Flotilla and based at Cattaro , though the armored cruisers were too slow to operate with the newer Novara @-@ class cruisers that carried out the bulk of offensive operations . In May 1915 , Italy declared war on the Central Powers . The Austro @-@ Hungarians continued their strategy of serving as a fleet in being , which would tie down the now further numerically superior Allied naval forces . Haus hoped that torpedo boats and mines could be used to reduce the numerical superiority of the Italian fleet before a decisive battle could be fought .
By early 1918 , the long periods of inactivity had begun to wear on the crews of several warships at Cattaro , including Kaiser Karl VI . On 1 February , the Cattaro Mutiny broke out , starting aboard Sankt Georg and quickly spreading to Kaiser Karl VI . Officers were confined to their quarters while a committee of sailors met to formulate a list of demands , which ranged from longer periods of leave and better rations to an end to the war , based on the United States President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . The following day , shore batteries loyal to the government fired on the old ironclad Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , which prompted many of the mutinous ships to abandon the effort . Late in the day on 2 February , the red flags were struck from Kaiser Karl VI and she rejoined the loyalist ships in the harbor . The next morning , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships of the III Division arrived in Cattaro , which convinced the last holdouts to surrender . Trials on the ringleaders commenced quickly and four men were executed .
= = = Fate = = =
In the aftermath of the Cattaro Mutiny , most of the obsolete warships of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , including Kaiser Karl VI , were decommissioned to reduce the number of idle warships . On 3 November 1918 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian government signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy , ending their participation in the conflict . After the end of the war , Kaiser Karl VI was ceded as a war prize to Great Britain , under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . She was then sold to ship breakers in Italy and broken up for scrap after 1920 .
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= Myrrha =
Myrrha ( Greek : Μύρρα ) , also known as Smyrna ( Greek : Σμύρνα ) , is the mother of Adonis in Greek mythology . She was transformed into a myrrh tree after having had intercourse with her father and gave birth to Adonis as a tree . Although the tale of Adonis has Semitic roots , it is uncertain from where the myth of Myrrha emerged , though it was likely from Cyprus .
The myth details the incestuous relationship between Myrrha and her father , Cinyras . Myrrha falls in love with her father and tricks him into sexual intercourse . After discovering her identity , Cinyras draws his sword and pursues Myrrha . She flees across Arabia and , after nine months , turns to the gods for help . They take pity on her and transform her into a myrrh @-@ tree . While in plant form , Myrrha gives birth to Adonis . According to legend , the aromatic exudings of the myrrh @-@ tree are Myrrha 's tears .
The most familiar form of the myth was recounted in the Metamorphoses of Ovid , and the story was the subject of the most famous work ( now lost ) of the poet Helvius Cinna . Several alternate versions appeared in the Bibliotheca , the Fabulae of Hyginus , and the Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis , with major variations depicting Myrrha 's father as the Assyrian king Theias or depicting Aphrodite as having engineered the tragic liaison . Critical interpretation of the myth has considered Myrrha 's refusal of conventional sexual relations to have provoked her incest , with the ensuing transformation to tree as a silencing punishment . It has been suggested that the taboo of incest marks the difference between culture and nature and that Ovid 's version of Myrrha showed this . A translation of Ovid 's Myrrha , done by English poet John Dryden in 1700 , has been interpreted as a critique of the society of that day linking Myrrha to Mary II and Cinyras to James II .
In post @-@ classical times , Myrrha has had widespread influence in Western culture . She was mentioned in the Divine Comedy by Dante , was an inspiration for Mirra by Vittorio Alfieri , and was alluded to in Mathilda by Mary Shelley . In the play Sardanapalus by Byron , a character named Myrrha appeared , whom critics interpreted as a symbol of Byron 's dream of romantic love . The myth of Myrrha was one of 24 tales retold in Tales from Ovid by English poet Ted Hughes . In art , Myrrha 's seduction of her father has been illustrated by German engraver Virgil Solis , her tree @-@ metamorphosis by French engraver Bernard Picart and Italian painter Marcantonio Franceschini , while French engraver Gustave Doré chose to depict Myrrha in Hell as a part of his series of engravings for Dante 's Divine Comedy . In music , she has appeared in pieces by Sousa and Ravel . She was also the inspiration for several species ' scientific names and an asteroid .
= = Origin and etymology = =
The myth of Myrrha is closely linked to that of her son , Adonis , which has been easier to trace . Adonis is the Hellenized form of the Phoenician word " adoni " , meaning " my lord " . It is believed that the cult of Adonis was known to the Greeks from around the sixth century B.C. , but it is unquestionable that they came to know it through contact with Cyprus . Around this time , the cult of Adonis is noted in the Book of Ezekiel in Jerusalem , though under the Babylonian name Tammuz .
Adonis originally was a Phoenician god of fertility representing the spirit of vegetation . It is further speculated that he was an avatar of the version of Ba 'al , worshipped in Ugarit . It is likely that lack of clarity concerning whether Myrrha was called Smyrna , and who her father was , originated in Cyprus before the Greeks first encountered the myth . However , it is clear that the Greeks added much to the Adonis @-@ Myrrha story , before it was first recorded by classical scholars .
Over the centuries Myrrha , the girl , and myrrh , the fragrance , have been linked etymologically . Myrrh was precious in the ancient world , and was used for embalming , medicine , perfume , and incense . The Modern English word myrrh ( Old English : myrra ) derives from the Latin Myrrha ( or murrha or murra , all are synonymous Latin words for the tree substance ) . The Latin Myrrha originated from the Ancient Greek múrrā , but , ultimately , the word is of Semitic origin , with roots in the Arabic murr , the Hebrew mōr , and the Aramaic mūrā , all meaning " bitter " as well as referring to the plant . Regarding smyrna , the word is a Greek dialectic form of myrrha .
Myrrh in the Bible is referenced as one of the most desirable fragrances , and though mentioned alongside frankincense it is usually more expensive . Several Old Testament passages refer to myrrh . In the Song of Solomon , which according to scholars dates to either the tenth century B.C. as a Hebrew oral tradition or to the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century B.C. , myrrh is referenced seven times making the Song of Solomon the passage in the Old Testament referring to myrrh the most , often with erotic overtones . In the New Testament the substance is famously associated with the birth of Christ when the magi presented their gifts of " gold , frankincense , and myrrh " .
= = Myth = =
= = = Ovid 's version = = =
Published in 8 A.D. the Metamorphoses of Ovid has become one of the most influential poems by the Latin writers . The Metamorphoses showed that Ovid was more interested in questioning how the laws interfered with people 's lives than in writing epic tales like Virgil 's Aeneid and Homer 's Odyssey . The Metamorphoses is not narrated by Ovid , but rather by the characters inside the stories . The myth of Myrrha and Cinyras is sung by Orpheus in the tenth book of Metamorphoses after he has told the myth of Pygmalion and before he turns to the tale of Venus and Adonis . As the myth of Myrrha is also the longest tale sung by Orpheus ( 205 lines ) and the only story that corresponds to his announced theme of girls punished for forbidden desire , it is considered the centerpiece of the song . Ovid opens the myth with a warning to the audience that this is a myth of great horror , especially to fathers and daughters :
The story I am going to tell is a horrible one : I beg that daughters and fathers should hold themselves aloof , while I sing , or if they find my songs enchanting , let them refuse to believe this part of my tale , and suppose that it never happened : or else , if they believe that it did happen , they must believe also in the punishment that followed .
According to Ovid , Myrrha was the daughter of King Cinyras and Queen Cenchreis of Cyprus . It is stated that Cupid was not to blame for Myrrha 's incestuous love for her father , Cinyras . Ovid further comments that hating one 's father is a crime , but Myrrha 's love was a greater crime . Ovid therefore blamed it on the Furies .
Over several verses , Ovid depicts the psychic struggle Myrrha faces between her sexual desire for her father and the social shame she would face for acting thereon . Sleepless , and losing all hope , she attempted suicide ; but was discovered by her nurse , in whom she confided . The nurse tried to make Myrrha suppress the infatuation , but later agreed to help Myrrha into her father 's bed if she promised that she would not again try to kill herself .
During the Ceres ' festival , the worshiping women ( including Cenchreis , Myrrha 's mother ) were not to be touched by men for nine nights ; wherefore the nurse told Cinyras of a girl deeply in love with him , giving a false name . The affair lasted several nights in complete darkness to conceal Myrrha 's identity , until Cinyras wanted to know the identity of his paramour . Upon bringing in a lamp , and seeing his daughter , the king attempted to kill her on the spot , but Myrrha escaped .
Thereafter Myrrha walked in exile for nine months , past the palms of Arabia and the fields of Panchaea , until she reached Sabaea . Afraid of death and tired of life , and pregnant as well , she begged the gods for a solution , and was transformed into the myrrh tree , with the sap thereof representing her tears . Later , Lucina freed the newborn Adonis from the tree .
= = = Other versions = = =
The myth of Myrrha has been chronicled in several other works than Ovid 's Metamorphoses . Among the scholars who recounted it are Apollodorus , Hyginus , and Antoninus Liberalis . All three versions differ .
In his Bibliotheca , written around the 1st century B.C. Apollodorus tells of three possible parentages for Adonis . In the first he states that Cinyras arrived in Cyprus with a few followers and founded Paphos , and that he married Metharme , eventually becoming king of Cyprus through her family . Cinyras had five children by Metharme : the two boys , Oxyporos and Adonis , and three daughters , Orsedice , Laogore , and Braisia . The daughters at some point became victims of Aphrodite 's wrath and had intercourse with foreigners , ultimately dying in Egypt .
For the second possible parentage of Adonis , Apollodorus quotes Hesiod , who postulates that Adonis could be the child of Phoenix and Alphesiboia . He elaborates no further on this statement .
For the third option , he quotes Panyasis , who states that King Theias of Assyria had a daughter called Smyrna . Smyrna failed to honor Aphrodite , incurring the wrath of the goddess , by whom was made to fall in love with her father ; and with the aid of her nurse she deceived him for twelve nights until her identity was discovered . Smyrna fled , but her father later caught up with her . Smyrna then prayed that the gods would make her invisible , prompting them to turn her into a tree , which was named the Smyrna . Ten months later the tree cracked and Adonis was born from it .
In his Fabulae , written around 1 A.D. Hyginus states that King Cinyras of Assyria had a daughter by his wife , Cenchreis . The daughter was named Smyrna and the mother boasted that her child excelled even Venus in beauty . Angered , Venus punished the mother by cursing Smyrna to fall in love with her father . After the nurse had prevented Smyrna from committing suicide , she helped her engage her father in sexual intercourse . When Smyrna became pregnant , she hid in the woods from shame . Venus pitied the girl 's fate , changing her into a myrrh tree , from which was born Adonis .
In the Metamorphoses by Antoninus Liberalis , written somewhere in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. , the myth is set in Phoenicia , near Mount Lebanon . Here King Thias , son of Belus and Orithyia , had a daughter named Smyrna . Being of great beauty , she was sought by men from far and wide . She had devised many tricks in order to delay her parents and defer the day they would choose a husband for her . Smyrna had been driven mad by desire for her father and did not want anybody else . At first she hid her desires , eventually telling her nurse , Hippolyte , the secret of her true feelings . Hippolyte told the king that a girl of exalted parentage wanted to lie with him , but in secret . The affair lasted for an extended period of time , and Smyrna became pregnant . At this point , Thias desired to know who she was so he hid a light , illuminating the room and discovering Smyrna 's identity when she entered . In shock , Smyrna gave birth prematurely to her child . She then raised her hands and said a prayer , which was heard by Zeus who took pity on her and turned her into a tree . Thias killed himself , and it was on the wish of Zeus that the child was brought up and named Adonis .
= = Interpretation = =
The myth of Myrrha has been interpreted in various ways . The transformation of Myrrha in Ovid 's version has been interpreted as a punishment for her breaking the social rules through her incestuous relationship with her father . Like Byblis who fell in love with her brother , Myrrha is transformed and rendered voiceless making her unable to break the taboo of incest .
Myrrha has also been thematically linked to the story of Lot 's daughters . They live with their father in an isolated cave and because their mother is dead they decide to befuddle Lot 's mind with wine and seduce him in order to keep the family alive through him . Nancy Miller comments on the two myths :
[ Lot 's daughters ' ] incest is sanctioned by reproductive necessity ; because it lacks consequences , this story is not a socially recognized narrative paradigm for incest . [ ... ] In the cases of both Lot 's daughters and Myrrha , the daughter 's seduction of the father has to be covert . While other incest configurations - mother @-@ son , sibling - permit consensual agency , father @-@ daughter incest does not ; when the daughter displays transgressive sexual desire , the prohibitive father appears .
Myrrha has been interpreted as developing from a girl into a woman in the course of the story : in the beginning she is a virgin refusing her suitors , in that way denying the part of herself that is normally dedicated to Aphrodite . The goddess then strikes her with desire to make love with her father and Myrrha is then made into a woman in the grip of an uncontrollable lust . The marriage between her father and mother is then set as an obstacle for her love along with incest being forbidden by the laws , profane as well as divine . The way the daughter seduces her father illustrates the most extreme version a seduction can take : the union between two persons who by social norms and laws are strictly held apart .
James Richard Ellis has argued that the incest taboo is fundamental to a civilized society . Building on Sigmund Freud 's theories and psychoanalysis this is shown in Ovid 's version of the myth of Myrrha . When the girl has been gripped by desire , she laments her humanity , for if she and her father were animals , there would be no bar to their union .
That Myrrha is transformed into a myrrh tree has also been interpreted to have influenced the character of Adonis . Being the child of both a woman and a tree he is a split person . In Ancient Greece the word Adonis could mean both " perfume " and " lover " and likewise Adonis is both the perfume made from the aromatic drops of myrrh as well as the human lover who seduces two goddesses .
In her essay " What Nature Allows the Jealous Laws Forbid " literary critic Mary Aswell Doll compares the love between the two male protagonists of Annie Proulx ' book Brokeback Mountain ( 1997 ) with the love Myrrha has for her father in Ovid 's Metamorphoses . Doll suggests that both Ovid 's and Proulx ' main concerns are civilization and its discontents and that their use of images of nature uncovers similar understandings of what is " natural " when it comes to who and how one should love . On the subject of Ovid ’ s writing about love Doll states :
In Ovid ’ s work no love is " taboo " unless it arises out of a need for power and control . A widespread instance for the latter during the Roman Empire was the practice by the elite to take nubile young girls as lovers or mistresses , girls who could be as young as daughters . Such a practice was considered normal , natural .
Cinyras ' relationship with a girl on his daughter 's age was therefore not unnatural , but Myrrha 's being in love with her own father was . Doll elaborates further on this stating that Myrrha 's lamenting that animals can mate father and daughter without problems is a way for Ovid to express a paradox : in nature a father @-@ daughter relationship is not unnatural , but it is in human society . On this Doll concludes that " Nature follows no laws . There is no such thing as " natural law " " . Still , Ovid distances himself in three steps from the horrifying story :
First he does not tell the story himself , but has one of his in @-@ story characters , Orpheus , sing it ; second , Ovid tells his audience not even to believe the story ( cf. quote in " Ovid 's version " ) ; third , he has Orpheus congratulate Rome , Ovid 's home town , for its being far away from the land where this story took place ( Cyprus ) . By distancing himself , Doll writes , Ovid lures his audience to keep listening . First then does Ovid begin telling the story describing Myrrha , her father and their relationship , which Doll compares to the mating of Cupid and Psyche : here the lovemaking occurs in complete darkness and only the initiator ( Cupid ) knows the identity of the other as well . Myrrha 's metamorphosing into a tree is read by Doll as a metaphor where the tree incarnates the secret . As a side effect , Doll notes , the metamorphosis also alters the idea of incest into something natural for the imagination to think about . Commenting on a Freudian analysis of the myth stating that Ovid " disconcertingly suggests that [ father @-@ lust ] might be an unspoken universal of human experience " Doll notes that Ovid 's stories work like metaphors : they are meant to give insight into the human psyche . Doll states that the moments when people experience moments like those of father @-@ lust are repressed and unconscious , which means that they are a natural part of growing and that most grow out of it sometime . She concludes about Ovid and his version of Myrrha that : " What is perverted , for Ovid , is the use of sex as a power tool and the blind acceptance of sexual male power as a cultural norm . "
In 2008 the newspaper The Guardian named Myrrha 's relationship with her father as depicted in Metamorphoses by Ovid as one of the top ten stories of incestuous love ever . It complimented the myth for being more disturbing than any of the other incestuous relationships depicted in the Metamorphoses .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Literature = = =
One of the earliest recordings of a play inspired by the myth of Myrrha is in the Antiquities of the Jews , written in 93 A.D. by the Roman @-@ Jewish historian Flavius Josephus . A tragedy entitled Cinyras is mentioned , wherein the main character , Cinyras , is to be slain along with his daughter Myrrha , and " a great deal of fictitious blood was shed " . No further details are given about the plot of this play .
Myrrha appears in the Divine Comedy poem Inferno by Dante Alighieri , where Dante sees her soul being punished in the eighth circle of Hell , in the tenth bolgia ( ditch ) . Here she and other falsifiers such as the alchemists and the counterfeiters suffer dreadful diseases , Myrrha 's being madness . Myrrha 's suffering in the tenth bolgia indicates her most serious sin was not incest but deceit . Diana Glenn interprets the symbolism in Myrrha 's contrapasso as being that her sin is so unnatural and unlawful that she is forced to abandon human society and simultaneously she loses her identity . Her madness in Hell prevents even basic communication which attests to her being contemptuous of the social order in life .
Dante had already shown his familiarity with the myth of Myrrha in a prior letter to Emperor Henry VII , which he wrote on 17 April 1311 . Here he compares Florence with " Myrrha , wicked and ungodly , yearning for the embrace of her father , Cinyras " ; a metaphor , Claire Honess interprets as referring to the way Florence tries to " seduce " Pope Clement V away from Henry VII . It is incestuous because the Pope is the father of all and it is also implied that the city in that way rejects her true husband , the Emperor .
In the poem Venus and Adonis , written by William Shakespeare in 1593 Venus refers to Adonis ' mother . In the 34th stanza Venus is lamenting because Adonis is ignoring her approaches and in her heart @-@ ache she says " O , had thy mother borne so hard a mind , She had not brought forth thee , but died unkind . " Shakespeare makes a subtle reference to Myrrha later when Venus picks a flower : " She crops the stalk , and in the breach appears , Green dropping sap , which she compares to tears . " It has been suggested that these plant juices being compared to tears are a parallel to Myrrha 's tears being the drops of myrrh exuding from the myrrh @-@ tree .
In another work of Shakespeare , Othello ( 1603 ) , it has been suggested that he has made another reference . In act 5 , scene 2 the main character Othello compares himself to a myrrh tree with its constant stream of tears ( Myrrha 's tears ) . The reference is justified in the way that it draws inspiration from Book X of Ovid 's Metamorphoses , just like his previously written poem , Venus and Adonis , did .
The tragedy Mirra by Vittorio Alfieri ( written in 1786 ) is inspired by the story of Myrrha . In the play , Mirra falls in love with her father , Cinyras . Mirra is to be married to Prince Pyrrhus , but decides against it , and leaves him at the altar . In the ending , Mirra has a mental breakdown in front of her father who is infuriated because the prince has killed himself . Owning that she loves Cinyras , Mirra grabs his sword , while he recoils in horror , and kills herself .
The novella Mathilda , written by Mary Shelley in 1820 , contains similarities to the myth and mentions Myrrha . Mathilda is left by her father as a baby after her birth causes the death of her mother , and she does not meet her father until he returns sixteen years later . Then he tells her that he is in love with her , and , when she refuses him , he commits suicide . In chapter 4 , Mathilda makes a direct allusion : " I chanced to say that I thought Myrrha the best of Alfieri 's tragedies . " Audra Dibert Himes , in an essay entitled " Knew shame , and knew desire " , notes a more subtle reference to Myrrha : Mathilda spends the last night before her father ’ s arrival in the woods , but as she returns home the next morning the trees seemingly attempt to encompass her . Himes suggests that the trees can be seen as a parallel to Ovid ’ s metamorphosed Myrrha .
The tragedy Sardanapalus by George Gordon Byron published in 1821 and produced in 1834 is set in Assyria , 640 B.C. , under King Sardanapalus . The play deals with the revolt against the extravagant king and his relationship to his favourite slave Myrrha . Myrrha made Sardanapalus appear at the head of his armies , but after winning three successive battles in this way he was eventually defeated . A beaten man , Myrrha persuaded Sardanapalus to place himself on a funeral pyre which she would ignite and subsequently leap onto - burning them both alive . The play has been interpreted as an autobiography , with Sardanapalus as Byron 's alter ego , Zarina as Byron 's wife Anne Isabella , and Myrrha as his mistress Teresa . At a more abstract level Myrrha is the desire for freedom driving those who feel trapped or bound , as well as being the incarnation of Byron 's dream of romantic love . Byron knew the story of the mythical Myrrha , if not directly through Ovid 's Metamorphoses , then at least through Alfieri 's Mirra , which he was familiar with . In her essay " A Problem Few Dare Imitate " , Susan J. Wolfson phrases and interprets the relation of the play Sardanapalus and the myth of Myrrha :
Although [ Byron 's ] own play evades the full import of this complicated association , Myrrha 's name means that it [ the name 's referring to incest , red . ] cannot be escaped entirely - especially since Ovid 's story of Myrrha 's incest poses a potential reciprocal to the nightmare Byron invents for Sardanapalus , of sympathy with the son who is the object of his mother 's ' incest ' .
In 1997 the myth of Myrrha and Cinyras was one of 24 tales from Ovid 's Metamorphoses that were retold by English poet Ted Hughes in his poetical work Tales from Ovid . The work was praised for not directly translating , but instead retelling the story in a language which was as fresh and new for the audience today as Ovid 's texts were to his contemporary audience . Hughes was also complimented on his achievements in using humour or horror when describing Myrrha or a flood , respectively . The work received critical acclaim winning the Whitbread Book Of The Year Award 1997 and being adapted to the stage in 1999 , starring Sirine Saba as Myrrha .
In 1997 American poet Frank Bidart wrote Desire , which was another retelling of the myth of Myrrha as it was presented in the Metamorphoses by Ovid . The case of Myrrha , critic Langdon Hammer notes , is the worst possible made against desire , because the story of Myrrha shows how sex can lead people to destroy others as well as themselves . He comments that " the " precious bitter resin " into which Myrrha 's tears are changed tastes bitter and sweet , like Desire as a whole " . He further writes : " The inescapability of desire makes Bidart 's long story of submission to it a kind of affirmation . Rather than aberrant , the Ovidian characters come to feel exemplary " .
= = = = John Dryden 's translation = = = =
In 1700 English poet John Dryden published his translations of myths by Ovid , Homer , and Boccaccio in the volume Fables , Ancient and Modern . Literary critic Anthony W. Lee notes in his essay " Dryden 's Cinyras and Myrrha " that this translation , along with several others , can be interpreted as a subtle comment on the political scene of the late seventeenth @-@ century England .
The translation of the myth of Myrrha as it appeared in Ovid 's Metamorphoses is suggested as being a critique of the political settlement that followed the Glorious Revolution . The wife of the leader of this revolution , William of Orange , was Mary , daughter of James II . Mary and William were crowned king and queen of England in 1689 , and because Dryden was deeply sympathetic to James he lost his public offices and fell into political disfavor under the new reign . Dryden turned to translation and infused these translations with political satire in response - the myth of Myrrha being one of these translations .
In the opening lines of the poem Dryden describes King Cinyras just as Ovid did as a man who had been happier if he had not become a father . Lee suggests that this is a direct parallel to James who could have been counted as happier if he had not had his daughter , Mary , who betrayed him and usurped his monarchical position . When describing the act of incest Dryden uses a monster metaphor . Those lines are suggested as aimed at William III who invaded England from the Netherlands and whose presence Dryden describes as a curse or a punishment , according to Lee . A little further on the Convention Parliament is indicted . Lee suggests that Dryden critiques the intrusiveness of the Convention Parliament , because it acted without constituted legal authority . Finally the daughter , Mary as Myrrha , is described as an impious outcast from civilization , whose greatest sin was her disrupting the natural line of succession thereby breaking both natural as well as divine statutes which resulted in fundamental social confusion . When Myrrha craves and achieves her father 's ( Cinyras ' ) bed , Lee sees a parallel to Mary 's ascending James ' throne : both daughters incestuously occupied the place which belonged to their fathers .
Reading the translation of the myth of Myrrha by Dryden as a comment on the political scene , states Lee , is partly justified by the characterization done by the historian Julian Hoppit on the events of the revolution of 1688 :
To most a monarch was God 's earthly representative , chosen by Him for the benefit of His people . For men to meddle in that choice was to tamper with the divine order , the inevitable price of which was chaos .
= = = Music = = =
In music , Myrrha was the subject of an 1876 band piece by John Philip Sousa , Myrrha Gavotte and in 1901 , Maurice Ravel and Andre Caplet each wrote cantatas titled Myrrha . Caplet finished first over Ravel who was third in the Prix de Rome competition . The competition required that the candidates jumped through a series of academic hoops before entering the final where they were to compose a cantata on a prescribed text . Though it was not the best musical piece , the jury praised Ravel 's work for its " melodic charm " and " sincerity of dramatic sentiment " . Musical critic Andrew Clements writing for The Guardian commented on Ravel 's failures at winning the competition : " Ravel 's repeated failure to win the Prix de Rome , the most coveted prize for young composers in France at the turn of the 20th century , has become part of musical folklore . "
Italian composer Domenico Alaleona 's only opera , premiering in 1920 , was entitled Mirra . The libretto drew on the legend of Myrrha while the music was inspired by Claude Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande ( 1902 ) as well as Richard Strauss ' Elektra ( 1909 ) . Suffering from being monotonic , the final showdown between father and daughter , the critics commented , was the only part really making an impact . Mirra remains Alaleona 's most ambitious composition and though the music tended to be " eclectic and uneven " , it showed " technical enterprise " .
More recently , Kristen Kuster created a choral orchestration , Myrrha , written in 2004 and first performed at Carnegie Hall in 2006 . Kuster stated that the idea for Myrrha came when she was asked by the American Composers Orchestra to write a love @-@ and @-@ erotica themed concert . The concert was inspired by the myth of Myrrha in Ovid 's Metamorphoses and includes excerpts from the volume that " move in and out of the music as though in a dream , or perhaps Myrrha ’ s memory of the events that shaped her fate , " as described by Kuster .
= = = Art = = =
The Metamorphoses of Ovid has been illustrated by several artists through time . In 1563 in Frankfurt , a German bilingual translation by Johann Posthius was published , featuring the woodcuts of renowned German engraver Virgil Solis . The illustration of Myrrha depicts Myrrha 's deceiving her father as well as her fleeing from him . In 1717 in London , a Latin @-@ English edition of Metamorphoses was published , translated by Samuel Garth and with plates of French engraver Bernard Picart . The illustration of Myrrha was entitled The Birth of Adonis and featured Myrrha as a tree delivering Adonis while surrounded by women . In 1857 French engraver Gustave Doré made a series of illustrations to Dante 's Divine Comedy , the depiction of Myrrha showing her in the eighth circle of Hell .
In 1690 , Italian Baroque painter Marcantonio Franceschini depicted Myrrha as a tree while delivering Adonis in The Birth of Adonis . The painting was included in the art exhibition " Captured Emotions : Baroque Painting in Bologna , 1575 @-@ 1725 " at the J. Paul Getty Museum at the Getty Center in Los Angeles , California which lasted from December 16 , 2008 through May 3 , 2009 . Normally the painting is exhibited in the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden ( English : Dresden State Art Collections ) in Germany as a part of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister ( English : Old Masters Picture Gallery ) .
In 1984 , artist Mel Chin created a sculpture based on Doré 's illustration of Myrrha for the Divine Comedy . The sculpture was titled " Myrrha of the Post Industrial World " and depicted a nude woman sitting on a rectangular pedestal . It was an outdoor project in Bryant Park , and the skin of the sculpture was made of perforated steel . Inside was a visible skeleton of polystyrene . When finished , the sculpture was 29 feet tall .
= = = Science = = =
Several metamorphosing insects ' scientific names reference the myth . Myrrha is a genus of ladybug beetles , such as the 18 @-@ spot ladybird ( Myrrha octodecimguttata ) Libythea myrrha , the club beak , is a butterfly native to India . Cupido myrrha is a rare species of butterfly named by Herrich @-@ Schäffer found on Mount Erciyes in south @-@ eastern Turkey . Catocala myrrha is a synonym for a species of moth known as married underwing . In total the United Kingdom 's Natural History Museum lists eight Lepidoptera ( moths and butterflies ) with the myrrha name .
Myrrh is a bitter @-@ tasting , aromatic , yellow to reddish brown gum . It is obtained from small thorny flowering trees of the Commiphora genus , which is a part of the incense @-@ tree family ( Latin : Burseraceae ) . There are two main varieties of myrrh : bisabol and herabol . Bisabol is produced by C. erythraea , an Arabian species similar to the C. myrrha , which produces the herabol myrrh . C. myrrha grows in Ethiopia , Arabia , and Somalia .
A large asteroid , measuring 124 kilometres ( 77 mi ) is named 381 Myrrha . It was discovered and named at January 10 , 1894 by A. Charlois at Nice . The mythical Myrrha inspired the name and her son , Adonis , is the name given to another asteroid , 2101 Adonis . Using classical names like Myrrha , Juno , and Vesta when naming minor planets was standard custom at the time when Myrrha was discovered . It was the general opinion that using numbers instead might lead to unnecessary confusion .
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= Atlanta Flames =
The Atlanta Flames were a professional ice hockey team based in Atlanta , Georgia from 1972 until 1980 . They played out of the Omni Coliseum and were members of the West and later Patrick divisions of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Along with the New York Islanders , the Flames were created in 1971 as part of the NHL 's conflict with the rival World Hockey Association ( WHA ) . The team enjoyed modest success on the ice , qualifying for the post @-@ season in six of its eight seasons , but failed to win a playoff series and won only two post @-@ season games total . The franchise struggled to draw fans , and after averaging only 10 @,@ 000 per game in 1979 – 80 , was sold and relocated to Alberta to become the Calgary Flames .
Eric Vail was the Flames ' top goal scorer with 174 while Tom Lysiak led with 431 points . Guy Chouinard was the lone player to score 50 goals in one season . Goaltender Dan Bouchard led the team in wins ( 166 ) and shutouts ( 20 ) . Two Flames players won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's top rookie : Vail in 1974 – 75 and Willi Plett in 1975 – 76 . Bob MacMillan won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the most gentlemanly player in 1978 – 79 . General Manager Cliff Fletcher is the lone member of the Atlanta team to be named to the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The National Hockey League ( NHL ) , which had grown from six teams in 1966 to fourteen in 1970 , had not planned further expansion until at least 1973 . The formation of a rival major league ( the World Hockey Association ( WHA ) in 1971 ) altered the NHL 's plans and resulted in the two leagues battling for players and markets . The NHL sought to keep the WHA out of the newly constructed Nassau Coliseum in Long Island , New York . The league also opted to place a team in the American south . The NHL announced on November 9 , 1971 , that it was expanding to Long Island and Atlanta . The Atlanta franchise was awarded to Tom Cousins , who also owned the Atlanta Hawks basketball team , and would play out of the Omni Coliseum . The team cost $ 6 million . Cousins named the franchise the Flames in homage to the burning of Atlanta by U.S. Army general William Sherman during the American Civil War .
The Flames hired Cliff Fletcher , formerly of the St. Louis Blues , to serve as the team 's general manager . Former Montreal Canadiens player Bernie Geoffrion was hired as the team 's head coach . The team stocked its roster via an expansion draft held on June 6 , 1972 . Fletcher focused on goaltending , choosing Phil Myre with his first selection and rookie Dan Bouchard with his second . Fletcher drafted a competent roster , but one that was young and inexperienced . Two days later , the Flames selected Jacques Richard as the second overall pick in the 1972 NHL Amateur Draft .
= = = 1972 – 1975 = = =
The Flames made their NHL debut in Long Island against their expansion cousins , the New York Islanders , on October 7 , 1972 . They won the game 3 – 2 ; Morris Stefaniw scored the first goal in franchise history and the first NHL goal in Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum . The team made its home debut one week later on October 14 . Hosting the first event in Omni Coliseum history , the Flames tied the Buffalo Sabres , 1 – 1 , before a sellout crowd of 14 @,@ 568 . The team was respectable through much of the season on the strength of Bouchard and Myre 's goaltending performances , and by mid @-@ January , had a 20 – 19 – 8 win @-@ loss @-@ tie record . The Flames won only five more games through the rest of the season , finishing at 25 – 38 – 15 . Atlanta finished in seventh place in the West Division and missed the playoffs . The team was reasonably successful at the gate : it sold nearly 7 @,@ 000 season tickets by the start of the season , and averaged 12 @,@ 516 fans per game .
Tom Lysiak , selected second overall at the 1973 NHL Amateur Draft , joined the Flames for the 1973 – 74 season and made an immediate impact . Lysiak led the Flames in scoring with 64 points and finished second to the Islanders ' Denis Potvin in voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's top rookie . Improving to 30 – 34 – 14 , the Flames finished fourth in the West and qualified for the 1974 Stanley Cup playoffs . They made their post @-@ season debut against the division @-@ winning Philadelphia Flyers . The first game , played April 9 , 1974 , was a 4 – 1 victory for the Flyers . Philadelphia went on to defeat the Flames in their best @-@ of @-@ seven series with four consecutive wins . Geoffrion was praised for his coaching of the club and finished second in voting for the Jack Adams Award as top coach .
The NHL 's expansion to 18 teams in 1974 – 75 resulted in realignment . The league moved to a four division format , placing the Flames in the Patrick Division . Lysiak repeated as the Flames ' top scorer with 77 points while Eric Vail , playing his first full season , led with 39 goals . Vail 's total led all rookies and earned him the Calder Trophy . The team overcame an eight @-@ game losing streak in December and injuries to several key players to post their first winning season with a 34 – 31 – 15 record . However , they finished fourth in the Patrick Division and failed to qualify for the post @-@ season . Citing personal reasons , Geoffrion resigned as head coach late in the season . He was replaced with Fred Creighton , who had been coaching the Flames ' minor league affiliate , the Omaha Knights . Fletcher later credited Geoffrion 's outgoing personality as being the primary reason why people in Atlanta followed the Flames in the franchise 's first seasons while the team 's players later stated an appreciation for Creighton 's more technical coaching and teaching style .
= = = 1975 – 1980 = = =
Creighton produced a consistent , but not outstanding team , as the Flames finished third in the Patrick for the following three seasons and typically won a few games more than they lost each year . The team qualified for the playoffs all three years , but lost in the preliminary round each time . In 1975 – 76 , they were defeated by the Los Angeles Kings in a best of three series 2 games to 0 . The Kings again eliminated the Flames in 1976 – 77 , but Atlanta earned its first playoff victory in franchise history in the second game of the series . Vail scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 2 victory over the Kings on April 7 , 1977 , but the Flames were eliminated in the third game . 1975 draft pick Willi Plett emerged as a young star for the Flames . He scored 33 goals in his rookie season of 1976 – 77 and won the Calder Trophy .
Seeking to improve his team 's fortunes , Fletcher made several moves over the following seasons to rework the Flames roster . His goaltending tandem of Bouchard and Myre had begun to feud with each other by the 1977 – 78 season as both sought more playing time . Fletcher responded by naming Bouchard his number one goaltender and trading Myre to the St. Louis Blues for three players . They made it into the playoffs again but were the only team to fall to a team with fewer points than them , the Detroit Red Wings , in a best @-@ of @-@ three series , 2 games to 0 . In March 1979 , Fletcher completed an eight player trade that sent franchise @-@ leading scorer Tom Lysiak and four players to the Chicago Black Hawks for three players , led by defenseman Phil Russell . Fletcher hoped that the addition of Russell would help his team achieve playoff success .
Buoyed by a franchise record ten @-@ game winning streak in October 1978 , the 1978 – 79 Flames posted the best record in their Atlanta years at 41 – 31 – 8 . Bob MacMillan , acquired in the Myre deal , became the first Flame other than Lysiak to lead the team in scoring in six years and , along with Guy Chouinard , was one of the first two Flames ' players to score 100 points in one season . Chouinard also became the team 's first 50 @-@ goal scorer . MacMillan won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy that season as the NHL 's most gentlemanly player . In the playoffs against the Toronto Maple Leafs , Atlanta again failed to win a game as they lost a best of three series 2 games to 0 .
Fletcher continued to alter his team 's make @-@ up throughout the 1979 – 80 . Al MacNeil replaced Creighton as head coach prior to the season , and the team acquired Swedish star Kent Nilsson following the demise of the WHA . Nilsson led Atlanta in scoring with 40 goals and 53 assists . At the 1979 NHL Entry Draft , Fletcher selected four players – Paul Reinhart , Jim Peplinski , Pat Riggin and Tim Hunter – who would ultimately become regulars in the Flames line up . However , while the Flames again qualified for the playoffs in 1980 , they again lost in the first round , losing a best @-@ of @-@ five series to the New York Rangers three games to one .
= = = Relocation = = =
As the team stagnated on the ice , the Flames struggled at the gate . They peaked at an average of 14 @,@ 161 fans per game in their second season , 1973 – 74 , but fell to 12 @,@ 258 three years later and then 10 @,@ 500 in 1977 – 78 . Concerns that low attendance could result in the relocation of the team surfaced by 1976 , prompting politicians and the players themselves to purchase tickets in a bid to stabilize the franchise . The Flames attempted to boost attendance in 1980 by signing Jim Craig , goaltender of the American Olympic team that had won the Olympic gold medal following its " Miracle on Ice " victory over the Soviet Union . It was not successful as attendance fell to an average of 10 @,@ 024 . Adding to the Flames ' financial woes was the fact that the Omni Coliseum was built without revenue @-@ generating luxury suites , among the last major arenas in North America to be built without them , which led Fletcher to describe the facility as being " out @-@ of @-@ date when it opened " .
Cousins announced that he was seeking to sell the club following the Flames ' exit from the playoffs ; Their final game , a 5 – 2 loss , was played in Atlanta on April 12 , 1980 . He claimed to have suffered significant financial losses on the team while low viewership hampered his ability to sign a television contract for the team . The team , estimated to have lost $ 12 million in its eight years , had been rumored for months to be moving to Calgary , though Dallas and Houston were also mentioned as possible destinations .
The Seaman brothers , Daryl and Byron , had made an offer of $ 14 million while the City of Calgary prepared to build a new arena for the team . However , Canadian businessman Nelson Skalbania emerged as a rival bidder for the team before joining the Calgary consortium . The group agreed to purchase the Flames for $ 16 million , at the time the highest price ever paid for a National Hockey League team . The sale was announced on May 21 , 1980 , and the franchise relocated to Canada where it became the Calgary Flames . The Flames have since used the Atlanta logo for both its alternate captains , and the team 's former affiliate that played in the American Hockey League , the Adirondack Flames .
The last active Atlanta Flames player in the NHL was Kent Nilsson , who played his final game in 1995 . Several former players of the team returned to Atlanta once their careers ended . Among them , Tom Lysiak operated a horse farm outside the city , Eric Vail returned to operate a nightclub , and Willi Plett operated a sporting theme park and golf course .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = =
Note : GP |
= Games played , W =
Wins , L |
= Losses , T =
Ties , Pts |
= Points , GF =
Goals for , GA |
= Goals against , PIM =
Penalties in minutes
= = Notable personnel = =
= = = Team captains = = =
Keith McCreary 1972 – 75
Pat Quinn 1975 – 77
Tom Lysiak 1977 – 79
Jean Pronovost 1979 – 80
= = = Award winners = = =
Three members of the Flames were named recipients of NHL awards during the team 's tenure in Atlanta . Eric Vail was the first , as he won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the top rookie in 1974 – 75 after scoring 39 goals and finishing with 60 points . Paraguayan @-@ born Willi Plett won the award two years later after scoring 33 goals and 23 assists in his first full NHL season . Bob MacMillan was named the league 's most gentlemanly player in 1978 – 79 , which earned him the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy . He finished fifth overall in league scoring with 104 points while accruing only 14 penalty minutes throughout the season .
Seven players represented the Flames at the NHL All @-@ Star Game . Randy Manery became the team 's first all @-@ star when he played in the 1973 contest . He was subsequently joined by Al McDonough ( 1974 ) , Tom Lysiak ( 1975 , 1976 and 1977 ) , Curt Bennett ( 1975 and 1976 ) , Eric Vail ( 1977 ) , Bill Clement ( 1978 ) and Kent Nilsson ( 1980 ) .
= = = Hockey Hall of Fame = = =
There are three members of the Atlanta Flames organization to be enshrined in the Hockey Hall of Fame . Cliff Fletcher . A native of Montreal , Fletcher began his career in hockey management as a scout for the Montreal Canadiens in 1956 and rose to the position of assistant general manager with the St. Louis Blues before being hired in 1972 as the inaugural and lone general manager of the Atlanta Flames . Fletcher remained with the organization for another 11 years following its transition to Calgary and was the architect of the franchise 's lone Stanley Cup championship , in 1989 . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2004 as a builder .
Patt Quinn played with the Atlanta Flames from 1972 to 1977 was inducted as a builder for coaching various teams around the league . The Flames first coach Bernie Geoffrion was also inducted into the player category in 1972 , the same year he joined the Flames organization .
= = Scoring leaders = =
These are the top ten scorers for the franchise during its time in Atlanta .
Note : GP |
= Games played , G =
Goals , A |
= Assists , Pts =
Points , PIM = Penalties in minutes
= = Individual records = =
= = = Single @-@ season = = =
Most goals : Guy Chouinard , 50 ( 1978 – 79 )
Most assists : Bob MacMillan , 71 ( 1978 – 79 )
Most points : Bob MacMillan , 108 ( 1978 – 79 )
Most penalty minutes : Willi Plett , 231 ( 1979 – 80 )
Most points , defenseman : Paul Reinhart , 47 ( 1979 – 80 )
Most points , rookie : Tom Lysiak , 64 ( 1973 – 74 )
Most wins : Dan Bouchard , 32 ( 1978 – 79 )
= = = Career = = =
Games : Eric Vail , 469
Goals : Eric Vail , 174
Assists : Tom Lysiak , 276
Points : Tom Lysiak , 431
Penalty minutes : Willi Plett , 738
Goaltender games : Dan Bouchard , 384
Goaltender wins : Dan Bouchard , 164
Shutouts : Dan Bouchard , 20
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= Sour Milk Sea =
" Sour Milk Sea " is a song by the English rock singer Jackie Lomax that was released as his debut single on the Beatles ' Apple record label in August 1968 . It was written by George Harrison during the Beatles ' stay in Rishikesh , India , and given to Lomax to help launch Apple Records . The song 's recording was the first of many extracurricular musical projects undertaken by Harrison , who produced the track , and a rarity among non @-@ Beatles songs since it features contributions from three members of the band . Along with Harrison , Ringo Starr and Paul McCartney , the musicians on the track were Eric Clapton and session pianist Nicky Hopkins .
Harrison wrote " Sour Milk Sea " to promote Transcendental Meditation , which the Beatles had been studying in Rishikesh with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . The group recorded a demo of the song while considering material for their 1968 double album , The Beatles . On release , Lomax 's single was overshadowed in Apple 's " Our First Four " promotional campaign by the Beatles ' " Hey Jude " and Mary Hopkin 's " Those Were the Days " ; it enjoyed only minor success internationally , becoming a top 30 hit in Canada . Together with its B @-@ side , the Lomax @-@ written " The Eagle Laughs at You " , the song was included on the singer 's only Apple album , Is This What You Want ? , released in March 1969 .
" Sour Milk Sea " has received praise from many music critics . Writing for Mojo shortly after Lomax 's death in 2013 , Danny Eccleston described it as " a brilliantly excitable recording " , although he attributed the single 's lack of commercial success to an " accusatory tone " in Harrison 's lyrics . The track also appears on the 2010 multi @-@ artist compilation Come and Get It : The Best of Apple Records .
= = Background and inspiration = =
" Sour Milk Sea " was one of several songs that George Harrison wrote while staying at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's ashram in Rishikesh , India , from February to April 1968 . Having first visited India in September 1966 , following the Beatles ' final concert tour , Harrison became enamoured with the teachings of the Maharishi and led his Beatles bandmates to Rishikesh to study Transcendental Meditation two years later . With Life magazine labelling 1968 " the Year of the Guru " , the Beatles ' visit generated wide interest in Transcendental Meditation , and Eastern spirituality generally , among Western youth . Author Simon Leng writes that with " Sour Milk Sea " , Harrison adopted " the role of advertising executive " to further promote meditation . Leng views it as a follow @-@ up to " Within You Without You " , in which Harrison had first channelled the teachings of the Hindu Vedas into a song .
In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison says that " Sour Milk Sea " espouses meditation as a means to improve the quality of one 's life , as well as advocating a proactive approach when faced with difficulty . He says he named the composition after a picture titled Kalladadi Samudra , which reflects the theme of Vishvasara Tantra in sacred Hindu texts , particularly regarding " the geological theory of the evolution of organic life on earth " . Singer Jackie Lomax , whose debut solo album Harrison had agreed to produce before the Beatles departed for India , said that the Sour Milk Sea symbolises " a fallow period " during each of the Earth 's 26 @,@ 000 @-@ year evolutionary cycles , before the planet begins its process of regeneration .
= = Composition = =
As with the other songs he wrote in Rishikesh , " Sour Milk Sea " marked the start of Harrison 's return to the guitar as his main instrument , coinciding with a gradual relinquishing of his attempts to master the Indian sitar . Referring to the compositional draft for " Sour Milk Sea " , musicologist Walter Everett states that together the various chords suggest " a pentatonic minor scale on A , allowing B ♭ as a tritone @-@ related ornament to E7 " . The song makes limited use of the expected A major chord , however , instead centring on E over the verses and D in the choruses , with the latter representing what Everett terms " the Mixolydian ♭ VII area " . Described by author and critic Richie Unterberger as a melody filled with " tense chord ascensions " , the composition shares its melodic characteristics with " Savoy Truffle " , another Harrison song from 1968 .
In the lyrics to the verses , Harrison focuses on the benefits of Transcendental Meditation rather than detailing the way to achieve these results . While Leng likens Harrison 's approach to that of an advertiser selling anti @-@ dandruff shampoo , author Joshua Greene describes the lyrical thrust of the song as : " Is life getting you down ? Not getting the breaks you want ? Try illumination . " Harrison proffers greater awareness and a release from earthly limitations as the other benefits brought about by the meditation experience .
According to theologian Dale Allison , through its promise of a quick solution , the song pre @-@ empts the concept espoused by John Lennon two years later in " Instant Karma ! " Harrison urges the listener to follow a " very simple process " and to " do it soon " , in order to leave the Sour Milk Sea state of mind and " Get back to where you should be " . Author Ian Inglis views the chorus lyrics as particularly forthright ; he paraphrases the message as " admit your shortcomings , pull yourself together , look for a solution " .
Although it originated as an acoustic guitar song , the official recording of " Sour Milk Sea " is in the heavy rock style typical of the late 1960s . Greene comments on the appropriateness of this " hard @-@ driving , blues guitar medium " as a way for Harrison to directly convey " a simple rule of thumb " regarding the human condition .
= = The Beatles ' demo = =
The Beatles recorded a demo of " Sour Milk Sea " at Harrison 's Esher home , Kinfauns , in May 1968 , while preparing material for their self @-@ titled double album , also known as " the White Album " . The demo was taped on Harrison 's Ampex four @-@ track recorder . The performance features Harrison singing falsetto throughout , and a musical backing that includes guitars and percussion . Although the subsequent album sessions were marked by disharmony and a lack of cooperation among the band members , author and critic Kenneth Womack notes that the Kinfauns demos " witness the Beatles working in unison and exalting in the pure joy of their music " . Leng similarly describes the group 's performance of " Sour Milk Sea " as an " exciting " version " [ p ] layed with real enthusiasm " . The recording has appeared on bootleg albums , including Acoustic Masterpieces ( The Esher Demos ) .
As with several of the songs previewed at Kinfauns , the Beatles did not revisit " Sour Milk Sea " during the White Album sessions . Harrison decided to give the song to former Undertakers singer Jackie Lomax – a fellow Liverpudlian and one of the first artists signed to the Beatles ' record label , Apple Records , in early 1968 . In a 2004 interview , Lomax said that he was fortunate to have Harrison 's help , adding : " even on a big project like The White Album he only had four songs . I think he was feeling held back [ in the Beatles ] . "
= = Recording = =
WIth Harrison as his producer , Lomax recorded " Sour Milk Sea " for release as a single . The sessions for the song began at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London on 24 June 1968 , before moving to Trident Studios , to use that facility 's superior , eight @-@ track recording equipment . Speaking to Melody Maker in September that year , Harrison described the recording as a " glorified jam session " . The line @-@ up consisted of Lomax on vocals , Harrison and Eric Clapton on guitars , Nicky Hopkins on piano , Paul McCartney on bass , and Ringo Starr on drums . McCartney was absent from the initial session , however , only returning on 25 June from an Apple @-@ related business trip to California . While Apple projects typically featured one member of the Beatles , " Sour Milk Sea " is the only track where more than two members of the band appeared on another artist 's recording .
Clapton 's electric guitar playing gave the song a riff @-@ based quality that was absent from the Beatles ' version . Lomax later said that he thought the track " worked as an instrumental " , and he recalled his nervousness when it came to overdubbing the vocal part , with " three Beatles in the control room watching me " . In addition to supplying acoustic rhythm guitar on the song , Harrison played an electric guitar solo , which appears shortly after the two @-@ minute mark on the recording , following Clapton 's lead guitar break . Hammond organ was also added over this instrumental passage , although the part is uncredited . Recording was completed on 26 June . Like Clapton and Hopkins , Lomax went on to contribute to the sessions for The Beatles , singing backing vocals on " Dear Prudence " .
Leng identifies " Sour Milk Sea " as marking three important " firsts " in Harrison 's career . It was the first song Harrison " gave away " to another artist , a sign that his output as a songwriter had outgrown the quota of tracks typically allocated to him on Beatles releases . The Lomax album project also marked the first time that Harrison served as producer for another artist , after he had produced sessions in London and Bombay for his own debut solo album , Wonderwall Music . In addition , although Clapton had contributed to Wonderwall Music earlier in the year , " Sour Milk Sea " is the first example of him and Harrison sharing the lead guitarist 's role on a recording . Later in 1968 , the pair co @-@ wrote Cream 's final hit single , " Badge " , while their guitar combination would be a feature through much of Harrison 's solo career , as well as on Derek and the Dominos ' first single , " Tell the Truth " .
= = = " The Eagle Laughs at You " = = =
For the single 's B @-@ side , Lomax recorded his composition " The Eagle Laughs at You " . Produced by Harrison , the song was also recorded between 24 and 26 June . According to Apple Records historian Andy Davis , the musicians on the track comprised an " ad hoc power trio " of Lomax on bass and rhythm guitar , Harrison on lead guitar and " a couple of overdubs " , and drummer Tony Newman from Sounds Incorporated . Lomax recalled that he and Harrison overdubbed a cornet part ( played by a studio cleaner ) and then manipulated the recording to make it sound like the call of an elephant .
= = Release = =
The " Sour Milk Sea " single was issued on 26 August 1968 in America ( as Apple 1802 ) and 6 September in Britain ( as Apple 3 ) . Along with " Hey Jude " by the Beatles , Mary Hopkin 's " Those Were the Days " and the Black Dyke Mills Band 's " Thingumybob " , it was one of Apple 's " Our First Four " singles , marking the official launch of the label . The four releases took place on the same day in the United States but were spread out over two weeks in the UK . Apple staged a lavish promotional campaign for the launch , led by Derek Taylor , whom Harrison had invited to help run the Beatles ' new enterprise . In advance of the release date , the company declared 11 – 18 August to be " National Apple Week " and sent gift @-@ wrapped boxes of the four records to Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the royal family , and to the British prime minister .
Although Lomax 's single received considerable promotion , it was a surprising commercial failure . " Sour Milk Sea " did not chart in Britain . In America , the song reached number 117 during a two @-@ week run on the Bubbling Under listings of Billboard 's Hot 100 chart , and " The Eagle Laughs at You " placed at number 125 . " Sour Milk Sea " was a hit in Canada , however , peaking at number 29 on the RPM 100 in November 1968 . In a 1974 feature on his career in ZigZag magazine , Lomax said that the song 's release in tandem with " obvious " hits like " Hey Jude " and " Those Were the Days " jinxed its commercial performance , since radio stations were reluctant to risk alienating other record labels by featuring all four Apple singles too heavily on their playlists . Lomax added : " So they kind of lost me in the shuffle . "
Both sides of the single were included on Lomax 's only album for Apple , Is This What You Want ? , released in March 1969 . The album similarly failed to achieve commercial success , a result that perplexed the Beatles , who continued to believe in Lomax 's talents . Due to the song 's strong association with the Beatles and Eric Clapton , " Sour Milk Sea " retained a degree of renown among rock music fans ; Danny Eccleston of Mojo magazine later described it as a " cult rendering " . In 1970 , Sour Milk Sea , one of singer Freddie Mercury 's pre @-@ Queen bands , was named after the track . In June the following year , Apple re @-@ released " Sour Milk Sea " with " Fall Inside Your Eyes " on the B @-@ side , but this single also failed to chart .
In 2010 , Apple reissued Is This What You Want ? as both an individual release and as part of the seventeen @-@ disc box set titled The Apple Box . " Sour Milk Sea " also appeared on the accompanying two @-@ CD compilation , Come and Get It : The Best of Apple Records . In conjunction with these releases , a mono mix of the song was made available for digital download .
= = Critical reception and legacy = =
On release in 1968 , the single received favourable reviews from music critics . Writing for Rolling Stone in 1971 , Ben Edmonds described " Sour Milk Sea " as " excellent " but suggested that Lomax " seemed to get lost among the superstars " accompanying him . Three years later , Andy Childs of ZigZag admired it as " a classic single – a really dynamic rock song with Lomax in great voice " .
Among Beatles biographers , Bruce Spizer attributes the commercial failure of Lomax 's " great rock single " to the simultaneous release of " Hey Jude " and " Those Were the Days " , while John Winn describes it as an " excellent debut " and " an inexplicable flop " . Simon Leng opines that the song " just wasn 't catchy enough " in Lomax 's reading and views the Beatles ' " garage rendition " as superior . Although he finds the musical arrangement and Lomax 's singing slightly incongruous beside Harrison 's philosophical lyrics , Ian Inglis recognises the track as " an early prototype of heavy metal , particularly in the interplay between drums and lead guitar and its relentless sequence of musical climaxes " .
Writing in Goldmine magazine in 2002 , Dave Thompson included " Sour Milk Sea " and " Badge " in his list of the Harrison @-@ written songs that " rank among the finest Beatles compositions of the group 's final years " , and he concluded : " the only regret is that neither of the latter two ever made it into a Beatles recording session . " In his book on the making of the White Album , Uncut critic David Quantick describes the song as " excellent " and rues how , together with Harrison 's " Not Guilty " , it was passed over in favour of " old toot such as ' Rocky Raccoon ' and ' Bungalow Bill ' " . Less impressed with the track , Richie Unterberger finds the lyrics " a blend of encouragement and mild scolding " , while rating it " a serviceable hard @-@ rock number with a bluesy boogie feel " next to the " considerably superior " " Savoy Truffle " . In his online article for Mojo published shortly after Lomax 's death in September 2013 , Danny Eccleston described " Sour Milk Sea " as " a brilliantly excitable recording " , although he attributed the song 's lack of success to an " accusatory tone " in Harrison 's lyrics .
In his preview of Apple 's 2010 reissues , for Rolling Stone , David Fricke listed Is This What You Want ? third among the label 's top five non @-@ Beatle album releases and praised " Sour Milk Sea " as , variously , a " get @-@ off @-@ your @-@ ass rocker " and " dynamite " . Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot considered it to be " a knockout version " . Among reviews of the Come and Get It compilation , Douglas Wolk of Pitchfork Media opined that " Sour Milk Sea " " would 've been one of the best songs on [ the White Album ] if George had kept it for himself " , while Uncut 's David Cavanagh described the track as " sensational " . AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine calls the song " a dense , brilliant , and soulful psychedelic rocker " . In his liner notes to the compilation , Andy Davis , formerly the editor of Record Collector magazine , highlights " Sour Milk Sea " as " the greatest record The Beatles never made " .
= = Personnel = =
According to John Winn :
Jackie Lomax – vocals
George Harrison – acoustic guitar , lead guitar ( solo )
Eric Clapton – lead guitar
Nicky Hopkins – piano
Paul McCartney – bass
Ringo Starr – drums
uncredited – Hammond organ
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= Chlamys hastata =
Chlamys hastata , the spear scallop , spiny scallop or swimming scallop , is a species of bivalve mollusc in the family Pectinidae found on the west coast of North America from the Gulf of Alaska to San Diego , California . A limited number of these scallops are harvested by divers or by narrow trawls off the west coast of Canada .
The spiny scallop lives on the seabed in the sublittoral zone between low tide mark and a depth of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) , on soft sediment or on rock , particularly in areas with a strong current . It is a filter feeder , sieving microscopic algae from water that passes though its gills . It is preyed on by starfish , octopuses and sea otters . It can detect predators by smell and by sight and can swim away from them by opening and closing its valves . Other organisms often grow on the exterior of its shell and it often forms a symbiotic relationship with an encrusting sponge which grows on the upper valve and helps protect it from predators .
= = Etymology = =
The scientific name is derived from chlamys , the Latin word for a Greek cloak or short cape made of wool and worn by a soldier , and hastata meaning " spear @-@ like " from the Latin hasta , a spear or javelin .
= = Description = =
The shell of the spiny scallop is slightly shaped like a fan and is able to grow to a height of about 9 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) though a more normal adult size is 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The shell is composed of two valves , each of which is convex and has a small number of broad ribs covered with blunt spines . These radiate from the umbone , the rounded protuberance near the hinge , and between them are fine etched striations . The background colour is white with radial bands of pale purple and the right valve , which is usually underneath , is paler than the left . The annual growth rings are visible , often as concentric bands of a different hue . Beside the hinge are two irregular shell flaps or auricles with the anterior one normally being much larger than the other . This provides an attachment for the single strong adductor muscle that closes the shell . On either side of the long hinge there are some little ridges and grooves known as teeth . Their function is to prevent the valves moving sideways with regard to each other . Some bivalve shells have large " cardinal " teeth on the hinge immediately below the umbone , but the spiny scallop does not . Instead it has 5 or 6 lateral teeth lying on either side of the hinge . Lining the inside of the valves is the mantle , a membrane that covers the gut and other internal organs . It can be seen round the margins of the valves as a thick layer like a sandwich filling . It is fringed with numerous short tentacles and there is a row of tiny simple eyes close to each of the valves . The animal usually lies on its right valve and its exposed , left valve often has a colonial sponge growing on it .
The spiny scallop can be distinguished from its close relative the Pacific pink scallop ( Chlamys rubida ) by the valves being less rounded and by the small curved spines on the ribs which give it a rough texture whereas the Pacific pink feels smooth . The glossy white interior of the spiny scallop 's shell often has a purplish blotch near the umbone , not present in the Pacific pink .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The spiny scallop occurs naturally on the west coast of North America . Its range extends from the Gulf of Alaska to San Diego in southern California . It is found on the seabed in areas of sand , gravel or crushed shell and among boulders to a depth of about 150 metres ( 490 ft ) . It is also known from seagrass meadows and rocky shores and favours locations with high currents .
= = Biology = =
The spiny scallop anchors itself to the substrate with a few byssus threads . It is unclear what the purpose of these is but they may serve to help orient the scallop with regard to the current for optimal feeding . Another possibility is that they may angle the scallop ready for a quick getaway . They are easily broken when the scallop starts to swim . It is a filter feeder . It exposes its mantle by separating its valves and passes water through its gills by ciliary action . A large scallop can process about 4 litres of water an hour per gram of its weight . Phytoplankton are sieved from the water by the gills and moved to the mouth in ciliated grooves . Here they are sorted by a pair of labial palps ( mouth appendages ) , before being ingested . Rejected particles are formed into mucous @-@ wrapped blobs . These are ejected from the mantle cavity at intervals along with the faeces by a rapid clapping of the valves . When the gonads are ripening , a raised level of microalgae in the diet has been found to increase gonadal development . At this time , glycogen storage in the main adductor muscle is depleted as energy is transferred from there to the gonads .
When the spiny scallop 's valves are parted for feeding and respiration , many tentacles protrude from each edge of the mantle . The longer ones have sensitive chemoreceptor cells at their tip which can taste the water and allow the mollusc to react appropriately to , for example , the " smell " of a starfish , by taking evasive action . The shorter ones , forming a ring all the way round the edge of the mantle , have simple eyes at their tips . Each eye contains a lens , two retinas and a concave spherical mirror . The eyes cannot see objects but can detect the difference between light and darkness , enabling the valves to be snapped shut if some large , threatening object looms nearby . They also seem to be able to detect the size and speed of particles moving past the bivalve in the current , enabling it to open its valves wide to feed when conditions are suitable .
Spiny scallops are dioecious , individuals being either male or female . They become mature at about 2 years old and usually live for about 4 years . Breeding takes place in the summer . Gametes are released into the water column and fertilisation is external . Veliger larvae begin to develop from the eggs in about 2 days and drift with the plankton for 40 days , growing to a maximum valve length of 240μ ( 0 @.@ 01 inch ) . The larvae have a tuft of broad , compound cilia near the mouth . The velum , the locomotory and feeding organ , has bands of cilia running down it . The simple eyes and rudimentary gills start developing on about the 25th day . The foot becomes visible on the 15th day and the propodium ( the projecting front end of the foot ) develops on about the 28th . By the 34rd day , the larva is crawling about using its foot and its cilia . Metamorphosis takes place on about the 40th day . Over the course of 48 hours , the internal organs undergo a 90 ° rotation , the valves , hinge and ligament appear and the gills lengthen . A swimming veliger larva has become a benthic juvenile scallop .
= = Ecology = =
Animals that feed on the spiny scallop include starfish , particularly the ochre star ( Pisaster ochraceus ) and the sunflower star ( Pycnopodia helianthoides ) , octopuses and sea otters . The scallop can swim and does so to escape from predators , repeatedly opening and shutting its valves in a clapping action . Each time the valves close , water is expelled through a gap in the mantle on the dorsal side of the hinge and the animal moves margin first , a form of jet propulsion . It has chemoreceptors on the mantle margins which detect the approach of a starfish and enable it to take evasive action . It also responds in this way to predators that feed on sponges , such as nudibranchs of the genus Archidoris spp ..
The spiny scallop usually has a symbiotic relationship with an encrusting sponge which grows on its left valve . This is most often the orange Myxilla incrustans but is sometimes the purple or brown Mycale adherens . The sponge provides camouflage for the scallop and may deter predators from attacking it as sponges often produce a repulsive odour and tend to be distasteful . It also makes it more difficult for a starfish to get the strong grip with its tube feet that it needs to force the two valves of the scallop apart . The sponge benefits from the fact that living on the scallop prevents it from being buried in sediment . In the wild it has been found that the scallops and their encrusting sponges both grow to a larger size in areas of high turbidity . A laboratory study showed that , in conditions where the sediment was frequently stirred up , sponges on empty scallop shells all died while those on living shells flourished . However , another study showed that growth rates in scallops heavily encrusted by sponges were significantly lower than in unencumbered ones .
Other organisms also grow on the scallop 's shell . The boring sponge Cliona celata is a parasitic species which makes holes up to 1 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 059 in ) diameter in the valve . Other common epibionts living on the surface of the valve include tube worms , barnacles and bryozoans . In a survey undertaken off San Juan Islands , Washington , 144 scallops , C. hastata and C. rubida were dredged up , mostly from a depth of 90 metres ( 300 ft ) . The right valve was much more heavily colonised than the left with 76 % clad with epibionts as against 17 % of the left valves . The encrusting sponges ( mostly Mycale adhaerens ) were common as were the barnacle ( Balanus rostratus ) and the tube worms Neosabellaria cementarium , Serpula vermicularis and Spirorbis sp . Also encountered were other bivalves , bryozoans , brachiopods and tunicates . Many of the tubes made by the worms were unoccupied and other organisms overgrew living and dead calcareous tubes . On the lower , left valve , cyclostome and cheilostome bryozoans predominated . Starfish seem equally able to force open the valves of a scallop with barnacles on it as one with none .
Barnacles are normally sessile animals unable to evade predators . When they are attached to a scallop they benefit from the defence response of the mollusc to threats which enables it to avoid predation . The scallop is disadvantaged because the presence of barnacles may reduce its ability to swim . It has been found that encrusting sponges emit chemicals that discourage barnacle larvae from settling nearby . The larvae preferentially settle on shells that are not encrusted with sponges . This is another way in which encrusting sponges are of advantage to the scallops which are less impeded in their ability to swim by sponges than they are by barnacles .
= = Fishery = =
Some harvesting of scallops under exploratory fishing licences is done off the west coast of Canada , though a previous commercial scallop fishery has been discontinued . Methods used are diving and small trawls with a maximum width of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) . Minimum size limits are set for the height of the shells , 80 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) for the spiny scallop and 71 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) for the pink scallop . A framework research document was published by Fisheries and Oceans Canada in 2000 which made recommendations on the development of the dive and trawl fisheries .
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= Cynicism ( philosophy ) =
Cynicism ( Greek : κυνισμός ) is a school of Ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics ( Greek : Κυνικοί , Latin : Cynici ) . For the Cynics , the purpose of life was to live in virtue , in agreement with nature . As reasoning creatures , people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which was natural for themselves , rejecting all conventional desires for wealth , power , sex and fame . Instead , they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions .
The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes , who had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC . He was followed by Diogenes of Sinope , who lived in a tub on the streets of Athens . Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes , and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher . He was followed by Crates of Thebes who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens . Cynicism spread with the rise of Imperial Rome in the 1st century , and Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire . It finally disappeared in the late 5th century , although similar ascetic and rhetorical ideas appear in early Christianity .
By the 19th century , emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the modern understanding of cynicism to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions .
= = Origin of the Cynic name = =
The name Cynic derives from Ancient Greek κυνικός ( kynikos ) , meaning " dog @-@ like " , and κύων ( kyôn ) , meaning " dog " ( genitive : kynos ) . One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called " dogs " was because the first Cynic , Antisthenes , taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens . The word cynosarges means the " place of the white dog " . It seems certain , however , that the word dog was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners , and their decision to live on the streets . Diogenes , in particular , was referred to as the " Dog " , a distinction he seems to have revelled in , stating that " other dogs bite their enemies , I bite my friends to save them . " Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage , as a later commentator explained :
There are four reasons why the Cynics are so named . First because of the indifference of their way of life , for they make a cult of indifference and , like dogs , eat and make love in public , go barefoot , and sleep in tubs and at crossroads . The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal , and they make a cult of shamelessness , not as being beneath modesty , but as superior to it . The third reason is that the dog is a good guard , and they guard the tenets of their philosophy . The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies . So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy , and receive them kindly , while those unfitted they drive away , like dogs , by barking at them .
= = Philosophy = =
Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies . It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty . Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine , the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarised as follows :
The goal of life is eudaimonia and mental clarity or lucidity ( ἁτυφια ) - freedom from smoke ( τύφος ) which signified ignorance , mindlessness , folly , and conceit .
Eudaimonia is achieved by living in accord with Nature as understood by human reason .
Arrogance ( τύφος ) is caused by false judgments of value , which cause negative emotions , unnatural desires , and a vicious character .
Eudaimonia , or human flourishing , depends on self @-@ sufficiency ( αὐτάρκεια ) , equanimity , arete , love of humanity , parrhesia and indifference to the vicissitudes of life ( ἁδιαφορία ) .
One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices ( ἄσκησις ) which help one become free from influences – such as wealth , fame , and power – that have no value in Nature . Examples include Diogenes ' practice of living in a tub and walking barefoot in winter .
A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence ( Αναιδεια ) and defaces the nomos of society ; the laws , customs , and social conventions which people take for granted .
Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money , fame , power and reputation . A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence , and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention . The Cynics adopted Heracles as their hero , as epitomizing the ideal Cynic . Heracles " was he who brought Cerberus , the hound of Hades , from the underworld , a point of special appeal to the dog @-@ man , Diogenes . " According to Lucian , " Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog . "
The Cynic way of life required continuous training , not just in exercising judgments and mental impressions , but a physical training as well :
[ Diogenes ] used to say , that there were two kinds of exercise : that , namely , of the mind and that of the body ; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance , as very much facilitated the practice of virtue ; but that one was imperfect without the other , since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good , depend equally on both mind and body .
None of this meant that a Cynic would retreat from society . Cynics were in fact to live in the full glare of the public 's gaze and be quite indifferent in the face of any insults which might result from their unconventional behaviour . The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of cosmopolitanism : when he was asked where he came from , Diogenes replied that he was " a citizen of the world , ( kosmopolitês ) . "
The ideal Cynic would evangelise ; as the watchdog of humanity , they thought it their duty to hound people about the error of their ways . The example of the Cynic 's life ( and the use of the Cynic 's biting satire ) would dig up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions .
Although Cynicism concentrated solely on ethics , Cynic philosophy had a major impact on the Hellenistic world , ultimately becoming an important influence for Stoicism . The Stoic Apollodorus writing in the 2nd century BC stated that " Cynicism is the short path to virtue . "
= = History of Cynicism = =
The classical Greek and Roman Cynics regarded virtue as the only necessity for happiness , and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining it . Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness , thus , the title of Cynic , derived from the Greek word κύων ( meaning " dog " ) because they allegedly neglected society , hygiene , family , money , etc . , in a manner reminiscent of dogs . They sought to free themselves from conventions ; become self @-@ sufficient ; and live only in accordance with nature . They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money , power , and fame , to lead entirely virtuous , and thus happy , lives .
The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values , and would criticise the types of behaviours , such as greed , which they viewed as causing suffering . Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led , in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , to the modern understanding of cynicism as " an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity , especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others . " This modern definition of cynicism is in marked contrast to the ancient philosophy , which emphasized " virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire . "
= = = Influences = = =
Various philosophers , such as the Pythagoreans , had advocated simple living in the centuries preceding the Cynics . In the early 6th century BC , Anacharsis , a Scythian sage , had combined plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become standard among the Cynics . Perhaps of importance were tales of Indian philosophers , known to later Greeks as the gymnosophists , who had adopted a strict asceticism together with a disrespect for established laws and customs . By the 5th century BC , the sophists had begun a process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as religion , law and ethics . However , the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was Socrates . Although he was not an ascetic , he did profess a love of virtue and an indifference to wealth , together with a disdain for general opinion . These aspects of Socrates ' thought , which formed only a minor part of Plato 's philosophy , became the central inspiration for another of Socrates ' pupils , Antisthenes .
= = = Symbolisms = = =
Cynics were often recognized in the ancient world by their apparel - an old cloak and a staff . The cloak came as an allusion to Socrates and his manner of dress , while the staff was to the club of Heracles . These items became so symbolic of the Cynic vocation that ancient writers accosted those who thought that donning the Cynic garb would make them suited to the philosophy .
In the social evolution from the archaic age to the classical , the public ceased carrying weapons into the poleis . Originally it was expected that one carried a sword while in the city ; However , a transition to spears , and then to staffs occurred until wearing any weapon in the city became a foolish old custom . Thus , the very act of carrying a staff was slightly taboo itself . According to modern theorists , the symbol of the staff was one which both functions as a tool to signal the user ’ s dissociation from physical labour , that is , as a display of conspicuous leisure , and at the same time it also has an association with sport and typically plays a part in hunting and sports clothing . Thus , it displays active and warlike qualities , rather than being a symbol of a weak man ’ s need to support himself . The staff itself became a message of how the Cynic was free through its possible interpretation as an item of leisure , but , just as equivalent , was its message of strength - a virtue held in abundance by the Cynic philosopher .
= = = Antisthenes = = =
The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes ( c . 445 – 365 BC ) , who was an older contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates . At about 25 years his junior , Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates ' disciples . Although later classical authors had little doubt about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism , his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism . In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by Diogenes Laërtius , writings on language , dialogue and literature far outnumber those on ethics or politics , although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with time . It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of poverty :
I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed , to drink till my thirst is sated ; to clothe myself as well ; and out of doors not [ even ] Callias there , with all his riches , is more safe than I from shivering ; and when I find myself indoors , what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls ?
= = = Diogenes of Sinope = = =
Diogenes of Sinope ( c . 412 – 323 BC ) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure . He originally went to Athens , fleeing his home city , after he and his father , who was in charge of the mint at Sinope , got into trouble for falsifying the coinage . ( The phrase " defacing the currency " later became proverbial in describing Diogenes ' rejection of conventional values . ) Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes , but it is by no means certain that they ever met . Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes ' teachings and the ascetic way of life , pursuing a life of self @-@ sufficiency ( autarkeia ) , austerity ( askēsis ) , and shamelessness ( anaideia ) . There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism ( sleeping in a tub ) , his shameless behaviour ( eating raw meat ) , and his criticism of conventional society ( " bad people obey their lusts as servants obey their masters " ) , and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are true , they do illustrate the broad character of the man , including an ethical seriousness .
= = = Crates of Thebes = = =
Crates of Thebes ( c . 365 – c . 285 BC ) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history . He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens . He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes , but again this is uncertain . Crates married Hipparchia of Maroneia after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens , where Crates was treated with respect . Crates ' later fame ( apart from his unconventional lifestyle ) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of Zeno of Citium , the founder of Stoicism . The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism ( such as Zeno 's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his Republic ) can be ascribed to Crates ' influence .
= = = Other Cynics = = =
There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC , including Onesicritus ( who sailed with Alexander the Great to India ) , and the moral satirists Bion of Borysthenes and Menippus of Gadara . However , with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC , Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline , and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival .
= = Cynicism in the Roman world = =
There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC ; Cicero ( c . 50 BC ) , who was much interested in Greek philosophy , had little to say about Cynicism , except that " it is to be shunned ; for it is opposed to modesty , without which there can be neither right nor honor . " However , by the 1st century AD , Cynicism reappeared with full force . The rise of Imperial Rome , like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier , may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people , which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self @-@ sufficiency and inner @-@ happiness to flourish once again . Cynics could be found throughout the empire , standing on street corners , preaching about virtue . Lucian complained that " every city is filled with such upstarts , particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes , Antisthenes , and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog , " and Aelius Aristides observed that " they frequent the doorways , talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters , making up for their lowly condition by using impudence . " The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius , whom Seneca praised as " a man of consummate wisdom , though he himself denied it , constant to the principles which he professed , of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects . " Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker . In the 2nd century AD , Lucian , whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus , nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher , Demonax , in a dialogue .
Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism , a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse . According to Epictetus , the ideal Cynic " must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things , to show them that they have wandered . " Unfortunately for Epictetus , many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal : " consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables , and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind . "
Unlike Stoicism , which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD , Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century . The emperor , Julian ( ruled 361 – 363 ) , like Epictetus , praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism .
The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century . A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria , he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism .
= = Cynicism and Christianity = =
= = = Jesus as a Jewish Cynic = = =
Some historians have noted the similarities between the teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics . Some scholars have argued that the Q document , a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke , has strong similarities to the teachings of the Cynics . Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus , such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar , have argued that 1st century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions . The city of Gadara , only a day 's walk from Nazareth , was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy , and Mack has described Jesus as a " rather normal Cynic @-@ type figure . " For Crossan , Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from a Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel . Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics , and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance .
= = = Cynic influences on early Christianity = = =
Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians , and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the cynics . Some cynics were martyred for speaking out against the authorities . One cynic , Peregrinus Proteus , lived for a time as a Christian before converting to cynicism , whereas in the 4th century , Maximus of Alexandria , although a Christian , was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle . Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty , although they scorned Cynic shamelessness : Augustine stating that they had , " in violation of the modest instincts of men , boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion , worthy indeed of dogs . " The ascetic orders of Christianity also had direct connection with the Cynics , as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church who in outward appearance , and in many of their practices differed little from the Cynics of an earlier age .
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= Underwater camouflage =
Underwater camouflage is the set of methods of achieving crypsis — avoidance of observation — that allows otherwise visible aquatic organisms to remain unnoticed by other organisms such as predators or prey .
Camouflage in large bodies of water differs markedly from camouflage on land . The environment is essentially the same on all sides . Light always falls from above , and there is generally no variable background to compare with trees and bushes . Three main camouflage methods predominate in water : transparency , reflection , and counter @-@ illumination . Transparency and reflectivity are most important in the top 100 metres of the ocean ; counter @-@ illumination is the main method from 100 metres down to 1000 metres ; while camouflage becomes less important in the dark waters below 1000 metres .
Camouflage in relatively shallow waters is more like terrestrial camouflage , where additional methods are used by many animals . For example , self @-@ decoration is employed by decorator crabs ; mimesis by animals such as the leafy sea dragon ; countershading by many fish including sharks ; distraction with eyespots by many fish ; active camouflage through ability to change colour rapidly in fish such as the flounder , and cephalopods including octopus , cuttlefish , and squid .
= = Context = =
The ability to camouflage oneself provides a survival advantage in the constant struggle between predators and prey . Natural selection has produced a wide variety of methods of survival in the oceans .
In Ancient Greece , Aristotle commented on the color @-@ changing abilities , both for camouflage and for signalling , of cephalopods including the octopus , in his Historia animalium :
The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it ; it does so also when alarmed .
= = Methods = =
Three main camouflage methods predominate in the oceans : transparency , reflection , and counterillumination . Transparency and reflectivity are most important in the top 100 metres of the ocean ; counterillumination is the main method from 100 metres down to 1000 metres ; while camouflage becomes less important in the dark waters below 1000 metres . Most animals of the open sea use at least one of these methods to camouflage themselves . Camouflage in relatively shallow waters is more like terrestrial camouflage , where additional methods are used by animals in many different groups . These methods of camouflage are described in turn below .
= = = Transparency = = =
Transparency is common , even dominant , in animals of the open sea , especially those that live in relatively shallow waters . It is found in plankton of many species , as well as larger animals such as jellyfish , salps ( floating tunicates ) , and comb jellies . Many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent , giving them almost perfect camouflage . However , transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater . Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies , composed mainly of water ; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent . This conveniently makes them buoyant , but it also makes them large for their muscle mass , so they cannot swim fast . Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 per cent transparent . A transparency of 50 per cent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) ; better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water , where the light is brighter and predators can see better . For example , a cod can see prey that are 98 per cent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water . Therefore , transparency is most effective in deeper waters .
Some tissues such as muscles can be made transparent , provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light . Familiar examples of transparent body parts are the lens and cornea of the vertebrate eye . The lens is made of the protein crystallin ; the cornea is made of the protein collagen . Other structures cannot be made transparent , notably the retinas or equivalent light @-@ absorbing structures of eyes — they must absorb light to be able to function . The camera @-@ type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque . Finally , some structures are visible for a reason , such as to lure prey . For example , the nematocysts ( stinging cells ) of the transparent siphonophore Agalma okenii resemble small copepods . Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae , including coelenterates , siphonophores , salps ( floating tunicates ) , gastropod molluscs , polychaete worms , many shrimplike crustaceans , and fish ; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented , resembling the seabed or shores where they live . Adult comb jellies and jellyfish are mainly transparent , like their watery background . The small Amazon river fish Microphilypnus amazonicus and the shrimps it associates with , Pseudopalaemon gouldingi , are so transparent as to be " almost invisible " ; further , these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled ( disruptively patterned ) according to the local background in the environment .
= = = Reflection = = =
Many fish are covered with highly reflective scales , giving the appearance of silvered mirror glass . Reflection through silvering is widespread or dominant in fish of the open sea , especially those that live in the top 100 metres . Where transparency cannot be achieved , it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal 's body highly reflective . At medium depths at sea , light comes from above , so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side . Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering .
The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally ( side to side ) , leaving the body just millimetres thick , and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil . The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration : stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about ¼ of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection . In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in , only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected , so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage .
In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water , the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths , and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings . A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross @-@ section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin , as they would fail to reflect horizontally . The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors , all oriented vertically . Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish . The cephalopods , including squid , octopus and cuttlefish , have multi @-@ layer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine .
= = = Counter @-@ illumination = = =
Counter @-@ illumination through bioluminescence on the underside ( ventral region ) of the body is found in many species that live in the open ocean down to about 1000 metres . The generated light increases an animal 's brightness when seen from below to match the brightness of the ocean surface ; it is an effective form of active camouflage . It is notably used by some species of squid , such as the midwater squid , Abralia veranyi . These have light @-@ producing organs ( photophores ) scattered all over their undersides , creating a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below . Counter @-@ illumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms , though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling .
= = = Countershading = = =
Top / bottom countershading is common in fish including sharks , marlin , and mackerel , and animals in other groups such as dolphins , turtles and penguins . These animals have dark upper sides to match the ocean depths , and light undersides to avoid appearing dark against the bright sea surface .
= = = Mimesis = = =
Mimesis is practised by animals such as the leafy sea dragon , Phycodurus eques , and the leaf scorpionfish , Taenianotus triacanthus , which resemble parts of plants , and gently rock their bodies as if swayed by a current . In the fish species Novaculichthys taeniourus , the rockmover or dragon wrasse , there is a striking difference in appearance between the adults and the juveniles . A juvenile Rockmover resembles a loose piece of sea weed . It swims in a vertical position with its head pointing downwards , and behaves in a way that perfectly resembles the movement of a piece of seaweed : moving back and forth in the surge , as if it was inanimate .
= = = Self @-@ decoration = = =
Self @-@ decoration is employed by animals in different groups , including decorator crabs , which attach materials from their environment , as well as living organisms , to camouflage themselves . For example , the Japanese hermit crab , Eupagurus constans , has the hydroid Hydractinia sodalis growing all over the shell that it lives in . Another hermit crab , Eupagurus cuanensis , has the aposematic orange sponge Suberites domuncula which is bitter @-@ tasting and not eaten by fish .
Similarly , sea urchins use their tube feet to pick up debris from the bottom and attach it to their upper surfaces . They use shells , rocks , algae and sometimes sea anemones .
= = = Distraction = = =
Many fish have eyespots near their tails to distract attacks away from the vulnerable head and eye . For example , Chaetodon capistratus has both a ( disruptive ) eyestripe to conceal the eye , and a large eyespot near its tail , giving the impression that the head is at the tail end of the body .
= = = Disruption of outlines = = =
Fish such as Dascyllus aruanus have bold disruptive patterns on their sides , breaking up their outlines with strong contrasts . Fish like Heniochus macrolepidotus have similar bands of colour that extend into fins projecting far from the body , distracting attention from the true shape of the fish .
Some fish which mimic seaweeds such as the frogfishes Antennarius marmoratus and Pterophryne tumida have elaborate projections and spines which are combined with complex disruptive coloration . These have the effect of destroying the signature " fish " outline of these animals , as well as helping them to appear as pieces of algae .
= = = Adaptive coloration = = =
A variety of marine animals possess active camouflage through their ability to change colour rapidly . Several bottom @-@ living fish such as the flounder can hide themselves effectively against a variety of backgrounds . Many cephalopods including octopus , cuttlefish , and squid similarly use colour change , in their case both for camouflage and signalling . For example , the big blue octopus , Octopus cyanea , hunts during the day , and can match itself to the colours and textures of its surroundings , both to avoid predators and to enable it to approach prey . It can perfectly resemble a rock or a coral it is hiding beside . When necessary , in order to scare away a potential predator , it can display markings which resemble eyes .
Like all flounders , Peacock flounders , Bothus mancus , have excellent adaptive camouflage . They use cryptic coloration to avoid being detected by both prey and predators . Whenever possible rather than swim , they crawl on their fins along the bottom while constantly changing colours and patterns to match their background . In a study , some flounders demonstrated the ability to change pattern in eight seconds . They were able to match the pattern of checkerboards that they were placed on . Changing pattern is an extremely complex process involving the flounder 's vision and hormones . If one of the fish 's eyes is damaged , or covered by the sand , the flounder has difficulties in matching its pattern to its surroundings . Whenever the fish is hunting or hiding from predators , it buries itself into the sand , leaving only the eyes protruding .
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= Sophiatown =
Sophiatown / soʊˈfaɪətaʊn / , also known as Sof 'town or Kofifi , is a suburb of Johannesburg , South Africa . Sophiatown was a legendary black cultural hub that was destroyed under apartheid , rebuilt under the name of Triomf , and in 2006 officially returned to its original name . Sophiatown was one of the oldest black areas in Johannesburg and its destruction represents some of the excesses of South Africa under apartheid . Despite the violence and poverty , it was the epicentre of politics , jazz and blues during the 1940s and 1950s . It produced some of South Africa 's most famous writers , musicians , politicians and artists .
= = History = =
Sophiatown was originally part of the Waterfall farm . Over time it included the neighbouring areas of Martindale and Newclare . It was purchased by a speculator , Hermann Tobiansky , in 1897 . He acquired 237 acres four miles or so west of the centre of Johannesburg . The private leasehold township was surveyed in 1903 and divided into almost 1700 small stands . The township was named after Tobiansky 's wife , Sophia , and some of the streets were named after his children Toby , Gerty , Bertha and Victoria . Before the enactment of the Natives Land Act , 1913 , black South Africans had freehold rights , and they bought properties in the suburb . The distance from the city centre was seen as disadvantageous and after the City of Johannesburg built a sewage plant nearby , the area seemed even less attractive . Because of these and other reasons most of the whites had moved out by 1920 , leaving behind a vibrant multi @-@ racial community . By the late 1940s Sophiatown had a population of nearly 54 000 Black Africans , 3 000 Coloureds , 1 500 Indians and 686 Chinese .
= = = Forced removals = = =
As neighbouring white working @-@ class areas , such as Westdene and Newlands , developed adjacent to Sophiatown , the perception arose that the suburb was too close to white suburbia . From 1944 onwards , the Johannesburg City Council planned to move the black population out of the Western Areas , including Sophiatown . After the election victory of the National Party in 1948 , relocation plans were debated at the level of national politics . Under the Immorality Amendment Act , No 21 of 1950 , people of mixed races could not reside together , which made it possible for the government to segregate the different races .
When the removals scheme was promulgated , Sophiatown residents united to protest against the forced removals , creating the slogan " Ons dak nie , ons phola hier " ( we won 't move ) . Father Trevor Huddleston , Nelson Mandela , Helen Joseph and Ruth First played an important role by becoming involved in the resistance . On 9 February 1955 , 2 000 policemen , armed with handguns , rifles and clubs known as knobkierries , forcefully moved the black families of Sophiatown to Meadowlands , Soweto . Other ethnic groups were also moved : Coloured people moved to Eldorado Park in the south of Johannesburg ; the Indian community moved to Lenasia ; and the Chinese people moved to central Johannesburg . Over the next eight years Sophiatown was flattened and removed from the maps of Johannesburg .
= = = Triomf = = =
After the forced removals and demolition , carried out under the Natives Resettlement Act of 1954 , the area was rezoned for whites only and renamed ' Triomf — Afrikaans for Triumph — by the government . The social engineers of apartheid tried to create a suburb for the white working class . In the end it turned out that Triomf became a suburb mainly for poor white Afrikaners . This just showed how apartheid failed even those it was ideologically designed to benefit .
= = = Restoration of the name Sophiatown = = =
The Johannesburg City Council took the decision in 1997 to re @-@ instate the old name Sophiatown for the suburb . On Saturday , 11 February 2006 , the process finally came to fruition when Mayor Amos Mosondo reverted the name of Triomf back to Sophiatown .
= = Geography and geology = =
Sophiatown is located on one of Johannesburg 's ridges called Melville Koppies . Melville Koppies lies on the Kaapvaal craton , which dates from three billion years ago . The Koppies lie at the base of lithified sediments in the form of conglomerate , quartzite , shale , and siltstone . It represents the first sea shores and shallow beds of an ancient sea . It also forms part of the lowest level of one of the world 's most well known geological features , the Witwatersrand Supergroup . Several fairly narrow layers of gravel , deposited quite late in the sequence , and bearing heavy elements , made the Witwatersrand Supergroup famous . These are the gold @-@ bearing conglomerates of the main reefs . Melville Koppies represents in microcosm most of the features of the Witwatersrand Supergroup . What it does not have is gold @-@ bearing rock . The gold occurs millions of years later , and several kilometres higher up , in the sequence .
The Melville Koppies Nature Reserve is a Johannesburg City Heritage Site . In the last 1 000 years , Iron Age immigrants arrived and remains of their kraal walls can be found in the area .
= = Culture = =
= = = Early life in Sophiatown = = =
Sophiatown , unlike other townships in South Africa , was a freehold township , which meant that it was one of the rare places in South African urban areas where blacks were allowed to own land . This was land that never belonged to the Johannesburg municipality , and so it never developed the form of municipal " matchbox " houses , built row upon row , with the same uniformity and lack of character . The houses were built according to people 's ability to pay , tastes , and cultural background . Some houses were built of brick and had four or more rooms ; some were much smaller . Others were built like homes in the rural areas ; others still were single room shacks put together with corrugated iron and scrap sheet metal . The majority of the families living in Sophiatown were tenants and sub @-@ tenants . Eight or nine people lived in a single room and the houses hid backyards full of shanties built of cardboard and flattened kerosene cans , since many Black property owners in Sophiatown were poor . In order to pay back the mortgages on their properties , they had to take in paying tenants .
Sophiatown residents had a determination to construct a respectable lifestyle in the shadow of a state that was actively hostile to such ambitions . A respectable lifestyle rested on the three pillars of religious devotion , reverence for formal education and a desire for law and order .
People struggled to survive together , and a rich culture based on shebeens ( informal and mostly illegal pubs ) , mbaqanga music and beer @-@ brewing developed . The shebeens were one of the main forms of entertainment . People came to the shebeens not only for skokiaan or baberton ( illegally self @-@ made alcoholic beverages ) , but to talk about their daily worries , their political ideas and their fears and hopes . In these shebeens the politicians tried to influence others and get them to conform to their form of thinking . If one disagreed he immediately became suspect and was classified as a police informer .
These two conflicting images of Sophiatown stand side by side - the romantic vision of a unique community juxtaposed with a seedy and violent township with dangers lurking at every corner .
= = = Arts and literature = = =
The cultural process was somehow intensified in Sophiatown , as in Soho , the Greenwich Village , the Quartier Latin or Kreuzberg . It was akin to what Harlem was to New York in the 1920s Harlem Renaissance and is sometimes referred to as the Sophiatown renaissance .
The musical King Kong , sponsored by the Union of South African Artists , is described as the ultimate achievement and final flowering of Sophiatown multi @-@ racial cultural exploits in the 1950s . King Kong was a Sophiatown legend who gained popularity as a famous boxer , notorious extrovert , a bum and a brawler . The King Kong musical depicted the street life , the illicit shebeens , the violence , and something approximating the music of the township : jazz , penny whistles and the work songs of the black miners . When King Kong premiered in Johannesburg , Miriam Makeba the vocalist of the Manhattan Brothers , played in the female lead role . The musical later went to London 's West End for two years .
One of the boys , Hugh Masekela at St Peter 's School , told Father Huddleston of his discovery of the music of Louis Armstrong . Huddleston found a trumpet for him and as the interest in making music caught on among the other boys , the Huddleston Jazz Band was formed . Hugh Masekela did not stay very long in Sophiatown . He was in the orchestra of King Kong and then made his own international reputation .
Images of Sophiatown were initially built up in literature by a generation of South African writers : Can Themba , Bloke Modisane , Es 'kia Mphahlele , Arthur Maimane , Todd Matshikiza , Nat Nakasa , Casey Motsisi and Lewis Nkosi who all lived in Sophiatown at various stages during the 1950s . They all shared certain elements of a common experience : education at St Peter 's School and Fort Hare University , living in Sophiatown , working for Drum magazine , exile , banning under the Suppression of Communism Act and for many the writing of an autobiography .
Later , images of Sophiatown could be found in Nadine Gordimer 's novels , Miriam Makeba 's ghostwritten autobiography and Trevor Huddleston 's Naught for your comfort .
Marlene van Niekerk 's novel Triomf focuses on the suburb Triomf and recounts the monotonous daily lives of a family of poor white Afrikaners . The book has been turned into a movie also called " Triomf " , which won the Best South African Movie award in 2008 .
= = = Crime and gangsterism = = =
Crime and violence were a reality of urban life and culture in Sophiatown . The poverty , misery , violence and lawlessness of the city led to the growth of many gangs . Sections of society frowned on gangsterism as anti @-@ social behaviour and gangsters like Kortboy and Don Mattera were despised by many as " anti social " .
After the Second World War , there was a large increase in the number of gangs in Sophiatown . Part of the reason for this was that there were about 20 000 African teenagers in the city who were not at school and did not have jobs . Township youths were unable to find jobs easily . Employers were reluctant to employ teenagers as they did not have any work experience , and many of them were not able to read or write . They also considered them to be undisciplined and weak .
In Johannesburg in the 1950s , crime was a day @-@ to @-@ day reality , and Sophiatown was the nucleus of all reef crimes . Gangsters were city @-@ bred and spoke a mixture of Afrikaans and English , known as tsotsitaal . Some of the more well @-@ known gangs in Sophiatown were the Russians , the Americans , the Gestapo , the Berliners and the Vultures . The names the Gestapo and the Berliners reflect their admiration for Hitler , whom they saw as some kind of hero , for taking on the whites of Europe . The best known gang from this period , and also best studied , was the Russians . They were a group of Basotho migrant workers who banded together in the absence of any effective law enforcement by either mine owners or the state . The primary goal of this gang was to protect members from the tsotsis and from other gangs of migrant workers , and to acquire and defend resources they found desirable - most notably women , jobs and the urban space necessary for the parties and staged fights that formed the bulk of their weekend entertainment .
One of the more successful community campaigns emerged in the early 1950s when informal policing initiatives known as the Civic Guards were mobilized to combat rising crime . This attempt to restore law and order attracted widespread support prior to a series of bloody clashes with the migrant criminal society from the poorer enclave of Newclare . This provided the state with an excuse to ban the Guard groups which they eyed with suspicion because of their ANC and Communist Party connections . These supposed arbiters of law and order engaged in a series of brutal street battles with members of the " Russians " gang in the early 1950s .
The representation of gangsters in the literature ( Drum magazine ) went through very different stages during the 1950s and early 1960s . The first representation is characterized by consistent condemnations of crime as an urban phenomenon that threatens the rural identity of tribal blacks . The second is almost a complete turn @-@ around from the first , as gangsters are portrayed as urban survivors who are able to achieve a standard of living normally denied to blacks . The final period is an extended period of nostalgia for the shebeen culture that all but disappeared with the destruction of Sophiatown .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = The Church of Christ the King = = =
One of the few tangible reminders of the old Sophiatown is the Anglican Church of Christ the King in Ray Street . The architect was Frank Flemming , who designed 85 churches throughout South Africa . The church was constructed in 1933 . The bell tower was added in 1936 . So little money was made available for the construction that the architect called it a " Holy Barn " . The church 's distinctive feature was a mural that is no longer visible . It was painted between 1939 and 1941 by Sister Margaret . The church was an icon of the liberation struggle in South Africa . In 1940 Trevor Huddleston was appointed Rector . He was an outspoken opponent of apartheid . In 1955 during the forced removals , Huddleston was recalled to England . His ashes reside next to his former church . On the north @-@ eastern side of the church there is a mural depicting Huddleston walking the dusty streets of Sophiatown . This mural was painted by 12 apprentice students under patronage of the Gerard Sekoto Foundation . It shows two children tugging at his cassock as well as Sekoto 's famous yellow houses . The entire Sophiatown community was removed by the end of 1963 ; the church was deconsecrated in 1964 and sold to the Department of Community Development in 1967 . In the 1970s it was bought by the Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk , which used it for Sunday School . The church changed hands again and the Pinkster Protestantse Kerk bought the building and altered it significantly . The nave was enclosed , a large font was built and wooden panelling and false organ pipes changed the look of the interior . In 1997 the Anglicans bought the church back and it was reconsecrated ; the changes were reversed and the building was largely restored to its former self . However , the hall and gallery the Pinkster Protestantse Kerk had built were retained .
= = = Dr A.B. Xuma 's house = = =
Dr A.B. Xuma was a medical doctor who had trained in the United States and the United Kingdom . He was a local celebrity , President of the African National Congress and Chairperson of the Western Areas Anti @-@ Expropriation and Proper Housing Committee . His house was a landmark in Sophiatown ( 73 Toby Street ) and was declared a National Heritage Monument on 11 February 2006 . Currently the house is the location of the Sophiatown Heritage and Cultural Centre . This is one of two houses to escape the destruction of Sophiatown by the government in the late 1950s . It was built in 1935 and named Empilweni . Xuma and his second wife Madie Hall Xuma lived there until 1959 . The writer , actor and journalist Bloke Modisane , reminisces that among all those modest rundown buildings , could stand the palatial home of Dr A.B. Xuma with its two garages . Modisane remembers how he and his widowed mother , who ran a shebeen , had looked to Xuma and his house for a model of the good life , i.e. separate bedrooms , a room for sitting , another for eating , and a room to be alone , for reading or thinking , to shut out South Africa and not be black .
= = = Good Street = = =
Good Street was significant in the life of Sophiatown . It was described as a " Street of Shebeens " . The writer Can Themba 's house , called the House of Truth , was on Good Street , as well as Fatty Phyllis Peterson 's 39 Steps . To get to the 39 Steps , one had to walk up a flight of steps , which looked by all accounts very dingy . One was then met by Fatty who sold about every type of drink : whisky , brandy , gin , beer , wine , etc . Sometimes she even supplied cigars . Good Street was also renowned for its Indian , Chinese and Jewish shops , and for being a street of criminals and gangsters .
= = = St Joseph 's Home for Children = = =
The Home opened its doors in 1923 . It was built as a diocesan memorial to the Coloured men who paid the ultimate sacrifice for their country . It was run by the Anglican Nuns , the Order of St Margaret , East Grinstead who remained in charge until 1978 when they left South Africa in protest against apartheid . The Main Block , Boys ' House and Priests ' House were designed by the diocesan architect F.L.H. Flemming . The Church successfully opposed removal of the Home because the property was on farm land and not part of a proclaimed township .
= = = The Odin Cinema = = =
There were two cinemas in Sophiatown . The larger was the Odin which at the time was also the largest in Africa and could seat 1 200 people . The other cinema , Balansky 's , was the lower class , rougher movie @-@ house while the Odin Cinema was more up @-@ market . The Odin was the pride of Sophiatown . It was owned by a white couple , the Egnoses , who were known as Mr and Mrs Odin . Not only did they provide much loved entertainment , but also made the Odin available for political meetings , parties and stage performances . Some international acts played to multi @-@ racial audiences at the Odin . It was also the site of a series of " Jazz at the Odin " jam sessions featuring white and black musicians . Also at a meeting at the Odin , the ultimately unsuccessful resistance to the destruction of Sophiatown began to coalesce .
= = = Freedom Square = = =
Freedom Square was located on the corner of Victoria and Morris Streets . It was famous in the 1950s for the political meetings held there . It was utilised by the African National Congress ( ANC ) and the Transvaal Congress Party . Many of the meetings were chaired by Trevor Huddleston . Freedom Square facilitated the cooperation between the aforementioned political parties . Here parties worked together against the apartheid regime . Freedom Square in Sophiatown should not be confused with Freedom Square in Kliptown , Soweto , where the Freedom Charter was adopted by the ANC in 1955 . It was in this Freedom Square in Sophiatown that Nelson Mandela made his first public allusion to violence and armed resistance as a legitimate tool for change . This earned him a reprimand from Albert Luthuli who by then replaced Dr A.B. Xuma as president of the ANC . Current remnants of Freedom Square may be found beneath a school playing field alongside the Christ the King Church .
= = = St Cyprian 's Missions School = = =
This primary school was the site of religious and educational significance in Sophiatown . It was an Anglican Mission school located in Meyer Street and was established in 1928 . St Cyprian 's was the largest primary school in Sophiatown . Oliver Tambo and Trevor Huddleston taught here , as both were passionate about education . It was also the St Cyprian 's School boys who a dug out the pool behind the house of the Community of the Resurrection in order to have a swimming pool . The school boys of St Cyprian 's later went to Father Ross or Father Raynes or Father Huddleston who tried to get them bursaries to go to St Peter 's School , then Fort Hare University and later even the University of the Witwatersrand . The idea was that they should come back as doctors .
= = = Oak tree in Bertha Street = = =
The tree gained a sinister reputation as the " Hanging Tree " when two people hanged themselves from its branches , both due to being subjected to the forced removals . The tree was designated as of the first Champion Tree of South Africa . Champion trees are trees in South Africa that are of exceptional importance , and deserve national protection .
= = Notable residents = =
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= Show Me the Monkey =
" Show Me the Monkey " is the tenth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ fourth episode overall . Written by John Enbom and Robert Hull and directed by Nick Marck , the episode premiered on The CW on January 23 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica is hired by researchers in the disappearance of a Capuchin monkey being used for animal testing on non @-@ human primates . However , she has a change of heart after infiltrating an animal rights group as part of the case . Meanwhile , Piz ( Chris Lowell ) becomes increasingly friendly and gives her advice , but after a heartfelt talk about love , Veronica decides to start dating Logan again . In addition , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) starts investigating Dean O 'Dell 's ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) mysterious death .
" Show Me the Monkey " was initially scheduled to have a cameo appearance by Ted Nugent , but when they writers could not schedule him , they changed the name of the character to Ed Argent . The eponymous monkey is played by live animal actor Katie , known for her role on Friends . In its original airing , the episode received 3 @.@ 23 million viewers and positive reviews from television critics . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club called " Show Me the Monkey " one of the best of the season , while Eric Goldman of IGN lauded Mac 's new love interest . However , Keith McDuffee of AOL TV did not like the development of the love triangle between Logan , Piz , and Veronica .
= = Plot synopsis = =
Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) is visited by Mindy O ’ Dell ( Jamie Ray Newman ) , who tells him to investigate Dean O ’ Dell ’ s ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) death . Mac ( Tina Majorino ) is called in for tech support when an animal research lab is raided and a valuable monkey is stolen , and Mac asks Veronica for help . The researchers believe that a PETA @-@ like organization , named PHAT , is responsible . At the PHAT meeting , Mac flirts with the group leader , Bronson , but there is no reason to think that they ’ re guilty . Weevil invites Keith to investigate Dean O ’ Dell ’ s office , and he finds a 40 @-@ year @-@ old bottle of scotch unopened . At the next PHAT meeting , Veronica is asked to take action for animal rights in any way she sees fit . Keith presents the bottle of scotch as evidence of a murder of Dean O ’ Dell . Back at the lab , Veronica notices a coworker being mean to the monkey researchers . After a slight hazing ritual , Veronica and Mac are accepted into the group . In order to impress the leader of the group , Veronica , Mac , and Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) participate in a party .
Mac leaves the party early , but the leader of the group appears at her room . When he tries to kiss her , she pulls away . Logan ( Jason Dohring ) and Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) go surfing . When Mac , Parker , and Veronica go to the leader ’ s house , they find a woman , but he invites them in anyway . Veronica finds cages of rats in Bronson ’ s house , but he says that they showed up on his doorstep one day . Logan has sex with a surfer woman , and when the police show up at Bronson ’ s house to inquire after the stolen rats , they were gone . While investigating the hard drive of the lab ’ s computer , Mac finds leaves , which Veronica discovers are green tea . She shows them to the coworker , Emi , and discovers that Emi stole one of the monkey ’ s toys .
After doing some more searching , Veronica discovers that one of the lab members actually stole the monkey after developing a special bond with it . The lab member knew he could blame it on PHAT . Veronica decides to tell the other lab members that she was unable to find the monkey , although she is surprised to learn that they will quickly get another monkey . Veronica has a heartfelt conversation with Piz , although soon afterward , she goes back to Logan . Keith decides to take the case of Dean O ’ Dell ’ s death . The next morning , Piz walks up to Veronica excitedly , but Logan appears , making things awkward and causing Piz to leave sadly .
= = Production = =
" Show Me the Monkey " was co @-@ written by John Enbom and Robert Hull and directed by Nick Marck , marking Enbom 's thirteenth writing credit and Hull 's first writing credit for the show . As a joke in the episode 's script , Enbom and Hull added the name of the lab worker who stole the monkey as " Gil Thomas Pardy " , although his name is not mentioned directly in the episode . A condensed version of this name , Gil T. Pardy , is an intentional pun on " guilty party " . The character of rock star Ed Argent was initially supposed to be a cameo appearance from musician Ted Nugent , but when he did not appear on the show due to scheduling conflicts , the writers changed the character 's name in order to make it a reference to the band Argent , best known for their song " Hold Your Head Up " .
The stolen capuchin monkey named Oscar is played by live animal actor Katie , best known for playing Marcel , Ross Geller 's pet monkey , on the sitcom Friends . Near the time of the episode 's airing , she had also appeared in Bruce Almighty and an episode of 30 Rock . When the episode 's editor first received one take of the scene in which Veronica and Mac sarcastically dance in response to accusations of doing a poor job on a school project , the editor called the writing staff into the editing room ; they proceeded to view the scene fifteen times because of its humorous nature . They immediately included the take in the final cut of the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original United States broadcast , " Show Me the Monkey " received 3 @.@ 23 million viewers , marking a decrease in viewers from " Spit & Eggs " and ranking 92nd of 103 in the weekly rankings .
The episode received positive reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . Writing that it was entertaining and developed the plot well , he also lauded Mac 's reappearance and her new love interest , opining that it created some interesting character moments for Mac . He was also pleased that the episode " ultimately ended on an optimistic note for Mac and her potential new guy . " However , he thought that the episode , as well as the show in general , could not handle controversial issues such as animal testing delicately . Keith McDuffee of AOL TV gave mixed opinions on the development of the show 's romantic relationships in the episode ; he commented , " And as for Piz trying to woo Veronica a bit , I actually found myself saying " thank God " when [ Veronica ] was at Logan 's door later in the episode . " He compared Piz negatively to Logan at the beginning of the first season , and stated that " alas , Piz will have his chance again soon . " Television Without Pity graded the episode an " A " .
Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , praised the episode , arguing that " this is one of the few episodes so far that is both satisfying on its own and uses the higher education setting as a strength , instead of fighting it as a weakness . " He praised the episode 's treatment of the animal rights group as well as Mac 's prominent role . He also lauded Keith 's investigation into the dean 's death , particularly the scene in which he encounters Veronica 's criminology professor in a bar , which Kaiser described as " Keith discovering someone who may well be a match for him intellectually . " Reviewer Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , enjoyed the episode , calling the main plot the " Best Mystery of the Week in quite some time . " In addition , he enjoyed the contrast between Veronica and Keith 's methods of undercover work , writing that Veronica is less subtle in this area . In addition , he praised the more humorous aspects of the episode , particularly the performances in this regard by Bell and Majorino .
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= Duets ( Glee ) =
" Duets " is the fourth episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ sixth episode overall . It was written by series creator Ian Brennan , directed by Eric Stoltz , and premiered on Fox on October 12 , 2010 . The episode featured seven cover versions , including a mash @-@ up of " Happy Days Are Here Again " and " Get Happy " by Barbra Streisand and Judy Garland , respectively .
In the episode , transfer student Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) joins the glee club . Director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) assigns the members to perform a duet with another classmate , and offers a prize for the best performance . The students form their duos and begin practicing , testing several relationships and initiating others ; after first being recruited by Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , Sam ultimately finds himself partnered with Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) .
" Duets " received generally positive reviews from critics , and many praised the show for its character development and varied song choices . The episode also featured a neck @-@ nuzzle between Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , which was a subject of interest to many critics and led Christie Keith of AfterEllen.com to refer to the episode as " queerest episode of any series that 's ever been on television " . In its original broadcast , " Duets " was watched by 11 @.@ 36 million American viewers . It was the top @-@ rated program of the night in the 18 – 49 demographic , attaining a 4 @.@ 7 / 13 Nielsen rating / share . Both viewership and ratings rose from the previous episode , " Grilled Cheesus " .
= = Plot = =
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) announces a duets assignment and competition ; the prize for the winning duo is dinner at Breadstix . He tells them that club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) has been sent to juvenile detention for stealing an ATM , and introduces a new member , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) . Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) suspects that Sam is gay and asks him to be his duet partner ; Sam agrees . Club co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) separately attempts to convince them not to be partners , as he fears that Sam will be bullied to the point of quitting if he sings a duet with another guy , but Sam insists on honoring his given word to Kurt , and Kurt is still angry at Finn for some homophobic comments he made when they were roommates . After his father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) points out that just as Kurt had a crush on Finn the year before , he may now be taking advantage of Sam , Kurt releases Sam from their partnership , and as his competition entry sings " Le Jazz Hot ! " from Victor Victoria in a " duet " with himself . Kurt comes away from this feeling lonelier than ever and wonders if he will ever truly be accepted for who he is by his peers and family .
Cheerleaders Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) make out , but when Brittany suggests they sing Melissa Etheridge 's " Come to My Window " together , Santana refuses and trivializes their relationship . Santana believes her best chance of winning is by partnering with Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , and together they sing " River Deep – Mountain High " . Brittany pairs up with Artie ( Kevin McHale ) , and they start dating . Artie loses his virginity to Brittany , but before they compete Santana tells him that Brittany only wanted him for his voice so she could win the competition . He is deeply upset that his first sexual experience was the consequence of such petty motivations , so he breaks up with Brittany and dissolves their partnership . Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) and her boyfriend Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) argue about whether they should duet at all , but he ultimately agrees to join her on " Sing ! " from A Chorus Line , his first solo performance for glee club ; their duet draws praise from Will .
Finn and his girlfriend Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) initially practice singing " Don 't Go Breaking My Heart " , but Rachel suggests they should throw the competition so Sam can win , to make him more likely to stay in the glee club . When Sam has a slushee thrown in his face by bullies , Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) helps him to clean up . They subsequently become duet partners , and during a rehearsal he attempts to kiss her . Quinn is upset and tells him they cannot sing together , but she is later convinced to reconsider by Rachel . Rachel and Finn , dressed as a schoolgirl and a priest in an intentionally offensive move to damage their chances of victory , perform " With You I 'm Born Again " by Billy Preston and Syreeta Wright . Sam and Quinn sing " Lucky " by Jason Mraz and Colbie Caillat . The club members all vote for themselves except Finn and Rachel , who vote for the winners , Sam and Quinn . Over the victory dinner at Breadstix they form a bond , and Quinn tells Sam that she considers the meal their first date .
Noticing that Kurt is lonely , Rachel tells him how much the club members value him and asks him to duet with her for fun now that the competition is over in an act of solidarity . The episode ends with them singing the Judy Garland / Barbra Streisand mash @-@ up of " Happy Days Are Here Again " and " Get Happy " for the glee club .
= = Production = =
In " Duets " , Brittany and Santana are shown together in bed . A physical relationship between the two was first alluded to in the season one episode " Sectionals " . Rivera sought clarification on the nature of their relationship from " Sectionals " director Brad Falchuk , who informed her that the two characters had been intimate in the past . Series creator Ryan Murphy told Morris that as Glee is a primetime series , he did not want to show them making out . Interviewed by Brett Berk of Vanity Fair in May 2010 , Morris stated that Brittany and Santana were simply best friends , and the show would not be taking them in a " friends with benefits " direction . However , at the Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour in August 2010 , Murphy stated that the characters would in fact kiss on screen in an upcoming episode . Falchuk later explained that the Brittany / Santana storyline had begun " almost as a goof at first " , however " then we realised this show is so inclusive , and then there were people we weren 't representative of . This whole lesbian @-@ bisexual female community . We 're fortunate the network wasn 't resistant of it and let us try it out , then it became something much deeper . " In " Duets " , Brittany also had a brief relationship with Artie . Morris told Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post that she is a fan of McHale 's , and had been pressing Murphy to give their characters a storyline together since the beginning of the season .
Series regular Mark Salling did not appear in " Duets " , which prompted media speculation that he would not return to the show due to a breach of contract . However , his absence was for creative reasons , as it allowed Sam to establish himself within the glee club and begin a relationship with Puck 's ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn . Overstreet stated that Sam was initially created as a romantic interest for Kurt , but his storyline was adjusted to pair him with Quinn as a result of the chemistry the producers detected between himself and Agron .
The episode featured cover versions of seven songs : Ike & Tina Turner 's " River Deep – Mountain High " , Jason Mraz and Colbie Caillat 's " Lucky " , Elton John and Kiki Dee 's " Don 't Go Breaking My Heart " , " Le Jazz Hot ! " from Victor Victoria , " Sing ! " from A Chorus Line — which was Shum , Jr . ' s first lead vocal performance on the series , Billy Preston and Syreeta Wright 's " With You I 'm Born Again " , and a mash @-@ up of " Happy Days Are Here Again " and " Get Happy " as performed by Judy Garland and Barbra Streisand . Colfer and Michele 's costumes and positions in the latter number matched those in the Garland and Streisand original . Although it was not performed , Melissa Etheridge 's " Come to My Window " was suggested as a performance piece by Brittany ; five months prior to the episode 's broadcast , Etheridge had jested that her songs were not " gay enough " for use on Glee . All of the songs except " With You I 'm Born Again " were released as singles , available for download . " River Deep – Mountain High " and " Lucky " were also featured on the fifth soundtrack album of the series , Glee : The Music , Volume 4 , while " Don 't Go Breaking My Heart " was included on the fourth extended play , Glee : The Music , Love Songs .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Duets " was watched by 11 @.@ 36 million American viewers . It was the top @-@ rated program of the night in the 18 – 49 demographic , as it attained a 4 @.@ 7 / 13 Nielsen rating / share . Both viewership and ratings rose from the previous episode , " Grilled Cheesus " , which was watched by 11 @.@ 20 million viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 rating / share among adults 18 – 49 . In the weekly program rankings , Glee was the fourth most @-@ viewed show among adults 18 – 49 , and the second scripted show behind only Modern Family . In overall viewers , it placed nineteenth for the week . In Canada , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 25 million viewers , which placed it at seventh for the week . Viewership again rose from the previous episode , which was watched by 1 @.@ 99 million viewers and ranked eleventh . In Australia , " Duets " drew 1 @.@ 04 million viewers , making Glee the ninth most @-@ viewed show of the night and twenty @-@ eighth of the week . It was also up from " Grilled Cheesus " , which attracted 1 @.@ 02 million viewers and ranked eleventh on the night , and thirty @-@ second for the week . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 51 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 11 million on E4 , and 397 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , which made it the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the second most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Duets " was generally well received by critics , many of whom contrasted it favorably with the preceding season two episodes . The New York Times 's Rebecca Milzoff called it the best of the season to that point " in terms of old @-@ school Glee " , and indeed , both Lisa Respers France of CNN and Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post found it a reminder of why they originally loved the show . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal summarized : " This was a return to that honeymoon feeling , when Glee first surprised , scandalized and satisfied you . " TV Guide 's Damian Holbrook and the Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson appreciated the lack of gimmicks ; the former explained " No Britney numbers . No forced guest stars . No reasons to check out . It 's amazing how satisfying a show can be when the characters we invested in a year ago get to do something more than set @-@ dress a stunt . " James Poniewozik of Time labelled it " easily the strongest character episode so far this season " . While The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon opined that the series finally achieved the correct " tonal balance of comedy and drama " , his colleague Meghan Brown provided one of few dissenting reviews ; she called it a lazy , nonsensical episode which contributed to a building " sophomore slump " . MTV 's Aly Semigran found it lackluster after " Grilled Cheesus " , and although Anthony Benigno of the Daily News deemed it an improvement on the previous episode , he concluded that it was not one of the season 's best .
Several themes ran through the reviews , one of which was the lack of focus on adult characters . IGN 's Robert Canning — who rated " Duets " 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , signifying a great episode — felt that this contributed to its success , as it " allowed for small but interesting character development to take place , even with some of the minor characters . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was surprised that he did not miss the presence of cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester , but Hankinson , Semigran and Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman all lamented her absence . The gay @-@ centered storylines also attracted much commentary . Christie Keith of lesbian and bisexual media website AfterEllen.com suggested that " Duets " was " the queerest episode of any series that 's ever been on television " . Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack wrote that Kurt " stole the show in terms of pure emotional power " and called him " the most important character on television right now " . USA Today 's Ann Oldenburg questioned whether Glee had gone " too far " by depicting a physical relationship between Santana and Brittany . Several reviewers appreciated the resultant development of Brittany 's character : Poniewozik enjoyed the exploration of her " basic loneliness " , E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins was pleased to see more than her usual " deadpanning and one @-@ liners " , and Wieselman called it a " wonderful moment " when she and Artie broke up , which led to the depiction of " real feelings " in Brittany for the first time . Canning found Brittany and Artie 's coupling " uneven " and preferred her with Santana , as their development made them " uniquely interesting and a blast to watch . " VanDerWerff conversely deemed Brittany 's pairing with Artie " one of the most resonant things the show 's ever done " .
The storylines that involved Rachel received mixed commentary . Both Poniewozik and Stack appreciated the pairing of Rachel and Kurt : the former called them " probably the strongest pairing " of the episode due to similarities in their characterization , and the latter lauded Rachel 's line " I know you 're lonely ... but you 're not alone " as " an incredibly powerful statement coming in the midst of all these gay youth suicides [ , which ] further illuminates the relevance and importance of a show like Glee . " Fallon said that the episode " added some flavor " to the relationship between Rachel and Finn , which was " in danger of going stale " , and Berk noted that " Duets " was the first time he had ever been " marginally compelled " by a storyline which involved the pair . Benigno was far less favorable : he called Rachel a lunatic , and a " self @-@ absorbed crazy woman who will do anything short of black @-@ ops assassination to secure the [ Nationals ] trophy . "
Sam and Quinn 's burgeoning relationship met with a fairly positive response . Canning would have preferred for them to become friends first , and Benigno deemed their sexual tension unrealistic , based on Sam 's success at charming Quinn in Na 'vi , the fictional language of Avatar . However , while Berk declared himself " fully exhausted with the flimsy cheerleader / quarterback paradigm " , Sam 's Na 'vi and Matthew McConaughey impression led him to concede that they are " cute together " . Stack and Mullins shared this sentiment , and VanDerWerff called their flirtation " exceptionally well @-@ handled " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances — deemed " among the most varied and terrific in the show 's history " by VanDerWerff — were also generally well received . Futterman found it refreshing for the main characters to receive equal performance time . Although Poniewozik opined that some numbers were included based on iTunes sales potential rather than how well they served the plot , Holbrook was pleased that the songs " drove the story instead of drowning out the characters " , and both Hankinson and Dave Itzkoff of the New York Times welcomed the contextually appropriate song selection . Opinions were divided over the best performance . Both Futterman and VanDerWerff felt that Mercedes and Santana should have won the duet competition with their performance of " River Deep – Mountain High " . The former called it " one of the series ' best " duets , and the latter further praised it as potentially " the best musical number the show 's ever done from a pure performance standpoint . " Wieselman wrote that it was the best song of the episode , and that he " didn 't want it to ever end " . However , Hankinson highlighted its lack of " emotional punch " , and Semigran deemed it her least favorite performance . She and Benigno named " Sing ! " as their favorite routine , though Benigno gave it only a " B " grade , as its appeal hinged on Mike 's dancing , rather than his vocal performance . Berk gave it four stars out of five , his highest rating of the episode , tied with " River Deep – Mountain High " . Though Flandez and Hankinson also commented positively on the song , the former thought that Tina 's sung interjections became annoying and the latter called it " far from the best of the evening " .
Burns chose " Lucky " as " the most impressive number of the evening " , and Respers France called it the most adorable . Semigran and the Los Angeles Times 's Amy Reiter agreed that it was cute , and Flandez praised its " charm and simplicity " . Stack and Benigno gave it an " A " ; Stack eagerly anticipated more duets between Quinn and Sam , and Benigno called it " absolutely fantastic " , with particular praise for Agron , who he opined is often overlooked . Though Futterman also noted its charm , she did not think it was a worthy winner of the duets competition . Berk gave it just two stars out of five , as he found it " kind of boring " . The mash @-@ up of " Happy Days Are Here Again " and " Get Happy " was widely acclaimed . Respers France , Reiter and Hankinson named it the musical highlight of the episode ; Fallon and Stack went further and hailed it as a highlight of the entire series . Poniewozik commented that the number was " so appropriate that , had it not existed , Glee probably would have had to invent it " . Wieselman suggested that Colfer and Michele " redefined show @-@ stopper " with their performance , and Itzkoff lauded it as " a powerful reminder of why it 's worth sticking with Glee through what has quickly proved a polarizing season . "
Of the remaining songs , Rachel and Finn 's performance of " Don 't Go Breaking My Heart " attracted praise for Monteith 's vocals , which Stack and Yahr commented " sounded better than ever " . " Le Jazz Hot ! " received a split response . Burns wrote that Kurt " pulled it off flawlessly " , and Fallon called the performance " far more moving and rousing " than any of the songs in " Grilled Cheesus " . Stack and Benigno both graded it " B + " ; the latter deemed it " very good " but " not transcendent " . Reiter felt that the costumes and choreography overpowered the emotion of the piece , and Futterman found the number " too self @-@ indulgent and reminiscent of previous performances like ' Rose 's Turn ' . " Berk rated it two stars out of five , and commented , " I get the idea , and the execution is commendable , but it still kind of sucked . " Rachel and Finn 's deliberately offensive version of " With You I 'm Born Again " received a " C " and " C + " from Benigno and Stack respectively . Both conceded that it was acceptable vocally , but as Stack acknowledged , " the point of this song was to hate it , and I gotta say , Glee : you played me like a fiddle . " In December 2012 , TV Guide named their rendition one of Glee 's worst performances . Regardless of being a send @-@ up , Respers France found the number " oddly endearing " .
= = = Chart history = = =
All six of the cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and appeared on other musical charts . On the Hot 100 , the show 's rendition of " Lucky " debuted at number twenty @-@ seven ; it was at number seventeen on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . The other five songs on the Hot 100 were " River Deep – Mountain High " at number forty @-@ one , which also made number thirty @-@ six on the Canadian Hot 100 ; " Happy Days Are Here Again / Get Happy " at number forty @-@ eight , which also made number fifty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 ; " Don 't Go Breaking My Heart " at number fifty , which also made number thirty @-@ one on the Canadian Hot 100 ; " Sing ! " at number eighty @-@ seven , which also made number sixty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 ; and " Le Jazz Hot ! " at number ninety @-@ four , which also made number eighty @-@ eight on the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = Cultural references = =
" Viewing Party " , a November 2010 episode of The Office , centers around the entire Dunder @-@ Mifflin staff gathering at a co @-@ worker 's apartment to watch this episode .
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= Ancient Egypt =
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa , concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt . It is one of six civilizations to arise independently . Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC ( according to conventional Egyptian chronology ) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer ( commonly referred to as Menes ) . The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms , separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods : the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age , the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age .
Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom , during the Ramesside period , where it rivalled the Hittite Empire , Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire , after which it entered a period of slow decline . Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers , such as the Canaanites / Hyksos , Libyans , the Nubians , the Assyrians , Babylonians , the Achaemenid Persians , and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt . In the aftermath of Alexander the Great 's death , one of his generals , Ptolemy Soter , established himself as the new ruler of Egypt . This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC , when , under Cleopatra , it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province .
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture . The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops , which supported a more dense population , and social development and culture . With resources to spare , the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions , the early development of an independent writing system , the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects , trade with surrounding regions , and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance . Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes , religious leaders , and administrators under the control of a pharaoh , who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs .
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying , surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids , temples , and obelisks ; a system of mathematics , a practical and effective system of medicine , irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques , the first known planked boats , Egyptian faience and glass technology , new forms of literature , and the earliest known peace treaty , made with the Hittites . Egypt left a lasting legacy . Its art and architecture were widely copied , and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world . Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries . A new @-@ found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy .
= = History = =
The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history . The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated , centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization . Nomadic modern human hunter @-@ gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120 @,@ 000 years ago . By the late Paleolithic period , the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry , forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region .
= = = Predynastic period = = =
In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times , the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today . Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates . Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl . Hunting would have been common for Egyptians , and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated .
By about 5500 BC , small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry , and identifiable by their pottery and personal items , such as combs , bracelets , and beads . The largest of these early cultures in upper ( Southern ) Egypt was the Badari , which probably originated in the Western Desert ; it was known for its high quality ceramics , stone tools , and its use of copper .
The Badari was followed by the Amratian ( Naqada I ) and Gerzeh ( Naqada II ) cultures , which brought a number of technological improvements . As early as the Naqada I Period , predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia , used to shape blades and other objects from flakes . In Naqada II times , early evidence exists of contact with the Near East , particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast . Over a period of about 1 @,@ 000 years , the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley . Establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis , and later at Abydos , Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile . They also traded with Nubia to the south , the oases of the western desert to the west , and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east . Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest @-@ known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols , such as the white crown of Egypt and falcon .
The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods , reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite , as well as societal personal @-@ use items , which included combs , small statuary , painted pottery , high quality decorative stone vases , cosmetic palettes , and jewelry made of gold , lapis , and ivory . They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience , which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups , amulets , and figurines . During the last predynastic phase , the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language .
= = = Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3050 – 2686 BC ) = = =
The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian @-@ Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam . The third @-@ century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties , a system still used today . He chose to begin his official history with the king named " Meni " ( or Menes in Greek ) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt ( around 3100 BC ) .
The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented , and there is no contemporary record of Menes . Some scholars now believe , however , that the mythical Menes may have been the pharaoh Narmer , who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette , in a symbolic act of unification . In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 BC , the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis , from which he could control the labour force and agriculture of the fertile delta region , as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant . The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos , which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death . The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land , labour , and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization .
= = = Old Kingdom ( 2686 – 2181 BC ) = = =
Major advances in architecture , art , and technology were made during the Old Kingdom , fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population , made possible by a well @-@ developed central administration . Some of ancient Egypt 's crowning achievements , the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx , were constructed during the Old Kingdom . Under the direction of the vizier , state officials collected taxes , coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield , drafted peasants to work on construction projects , and established a justice system to maintain peace and order .
Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services . Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples , to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death . Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh , and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration . As the power of the pharaoh diminished , regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh . This , coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC , is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140 @-@ year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period .
= = = First Intermediate Period ( 2181 – 1991 BC ) = = =
After Egypt 's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom , the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country 's economy . Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis , and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small @-@ scale civil wars . Yet despite difficult problems , local leaders , owing no tribute to the pharaoh , used their new @-@ found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces . Once in control of their own resources , the provinces became economically richer — which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes . In bursts of creativity , provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom , and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period .
Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh , local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power . By 2160 BC , rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north , while a rival clan based in Thebes , the Intef family , took control of Upper Egypt in the south . As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward , a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable . Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers , reuniting the Two Lands . They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom .
= = = Middle Kingdom ( 2134 – 1690 BC ) = = =
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country 's prosperity and stability , thereby stimulating a resurgence of art , literature , and monumental building projects . Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes , but the vizier Amenemhat I , upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC , shifted the nation 's capital to the city of Itjtawy , located in Faiyum . From Itjtawy , the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far @-@ sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region . Moreover , the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines , while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta , called the " Walls @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Ruler " , to defend against foreign attack .
With the pharaohs ' having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth , the nation 's population , arts , and religion flourished . In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods , the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife , in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death . Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident , eloquent style . The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle , individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection .
The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom , Amenemhat III , allowed Semitic @-@ speaking Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the delta region to provide a sufficient labour force for his especially active mining and building campaigns . These ambitious building and mining activities , however , combined with severe Nile floods later in his reign , strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties . During this decline , the Canaanite settlers began to seize control of the delta region , eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos .
= = = Second Intermediate Period ( 1674 – 1549 BC ) and the Hyksos = = =
Around 1785 BC , as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened , a Western Asian people called the Hyksos had already settled in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris , seized control of Egypt , and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes . The pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute . The Hyksos ( " foreign rulers " ) retained Egyptian models of government and identified as pharaohs , thus integrating Egyptian elements into their culture . They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt , most notably the composite bow and the horse @-@ drawn chariot .
After their retreat , the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos ' Nubian allies , the Kushites , to the south of Egypt . After years of vassalage , Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years , until 1555 BC . The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt , but failed to defeat the Hyksos . That task fell to Kamose 's successor , Ahmose I , who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos ' presence in Egypt . He established a new dynasty . In the New Kingdom that followed , the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt 's borders and attempting to gain mastery of the Near East .
= = = New Kingdom ( 1549 – 1069 BC ) = = =
The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours , including the Mitanni Empire , Assyria , and Canaan . Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen . Between their reigns , Hatshepsut generally promoted peace and restored trade routes lost during the Hyksos occupation , as well as expanding to new regions . When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC , Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in Nubia , cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood .
The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large @-@ scale building campaign to promote the god Amun , whose growing cult was based in Karnak . They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements , both real and imagined . The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built . The pharaoh Hatshepsut used such hyperbole and grandeur during her reign of almost twenty @-@ two years . Her reign was very successful , marked by an extended period of peace and wealth @-@ building , trading expeditions to Punt , restoration of foreign trade networks , and great building projects , including an elegant mortuary temple that rivaled the Greek architecture of a thousand years later , a colossal pair of obelisks , and a chapel at Karnak . Despite her achievements , Amenhotep II , the heir to Hatshepsut 's nephew @-@ stepson Tuthmosis III , sought to erase her legacy near the end of his father 's reign and throughout his , touting many of her accomplishments as his . He also tried to change many established traditions that had developed over the centuries , which some suggest was a futile attempt to prevent other women from becoming pharaoh and to curb their influence in the kingdom .
Around 1350 BC , the stability of the New Kingdom seemed threatened further when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms . Changing his name to Akhenaten , he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity , suppressed the worship of most other deities , and attacked the power of the temple that had become dominated by the priests of Amun in Thebes , whom he saw as corrupt . Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten ( modern @-@ day Amarna ) , Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to events in the Near East ( where the Hittites , Mitanni , and Assyrians were vying for control ) . He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style . After his death , the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned , the priests of Amun soon regained power and returned the capital to Thebes . Under their influence the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun , Ay , and Horemheb worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten 's heresy , now known as the Amarna Period .
Around 1279 BC , Ramesses II , also known as Ramesses the Great , ascended the throne , and went on to build more temples , erect more statues and obelisks , and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history . A bold military leader , Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh ( in modern Syria ) and , after fighting to a stalemate , finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty , around 1258 BC . With both the Egyptians and Hittite Empire proving unable to gain the upper hand over one another , and both powers also fearful of the expanding Middle Assyrian Empire , Egypt withdrew from much of the Near East . The Hittites were thus left to compete unsuccessfully with the powerful Assyrians and the newly arrived Phrygians .
Egypt 's wealth , however , made it a tempting target for invasion , particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west , and the Sea Peoples , a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea . Initially , the military was able to repel these invasions , but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Caanan , much of it falling to the Assyrians . The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption , tomb robbery , and civil unrest . After regaining their power , the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth , and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period .
= = = Third Intermediate Period ( 1069 – 653 BC ) = = =
Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC , Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt , ruling from the city of Tanis . The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes , who recognized Smendes in name only . During this time , Berber tribes from what was later to be called Libya had been settling in the western delta , and the chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy . Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945 BC , founding the Libyan Berber , or Bubastite , dynasty that ruled for some 200 years . Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions .
In the mid @-@ ninth century BC , Egypt made a failed attempt to once more gain a foothold in Western Asia . Osorkon II of Egypt , along with a large alliance of nations and peoples , including Persia , Israel , Hamath , Phoenicia / Caanan , the Arabs , Arameans , and neo Hittites among others , engaged in the Battle of Karkar against the powerful Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC . However , this coalition of powers failed and the Neo Assyrian Empire continued to dominate Western Asia .
Libyan Berber control began to erode as a rival native dynasty in the delta arose under Leontopolis . Also , the Nubians of the Kushites threatened Egypt from the lands to the south .
Drawing on millennia of interaction ( trade , acculturation , occupation , assimilation , and war ) with Egypt , the Kushite king Piye left his Nubian capital of Napata and invaded Egypt around 727 BC . Piye easily seized control of Thebes and eventually the Nile Delta . He recorded the episode on his stela of victory . Piye set the stage for subsequent Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty pharaohs , such as Taharqa , to reunite the " Two lands " of Northern and Southern Egypt . The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom .
The Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty ushered in a renaissance period for ancient Egypt . Religion , the arts , and architecture were restored to their glorious Old , Middle , and New Kingdom forms . Pharaohs , such as Taharqa , built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley , including at Memphis , Karnak , Kawa , Jebel Barkal , etc . It was during the Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty that there was the first widespread construction of pyramids ( many in modern Sudan ) in the Nile Valley since the Middle Kingdom .
Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East , then controlled by Assyria . In 720 BC , he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria , which was taking place in Philistia and Gaza . However , Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the rebellion failed . In 711 BC , Piye again supported a revolt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II . Subsequently , Piye was forced from the Near East .
From the 10th century BC onwards , Assyria fought for control of the southern Levant . Frequently , cities and kingdoms of the southern Levant appealed to Egypt for aid in their struggles against the powerful Assyrian army . Taharqa enjoyed some initial success in his attempts to regain a foothold in the Near East . Taharqa aided the Judean King Hezekiah when Hezekiah and Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king , Sennacherib . Scholars disagree on the primary reason for Assyria 's abandonment of their siege on Jerusalem . Reasons for the Assyrian withdrawal range from conflict with the Egyptian / Kushite army to divine intervention to surrender to disease . Henry Aubin argues that the Kushite / Egyptian army saved Jerusalem from the Assyrians and prevented the Assyrians from returning to capture Jerusalem for the remainder of Sennacherib 's life ( 20 years ) . Some argue that disease was the primary reason for failing to actually take the city ; however , Senacherib 's annals claim Judah was forced into tribute regardless .
Sennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for destroying the rebellious city of Babylon , a city sacred to all Mesopotamians , the Assyrians included . In 674 BC Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt ; however , this attempt was repelled by Taharqa . However , in 671 BC , Esarhaddon launched a full @-@ scale invasion . Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebellions in Phoenicia , and Israel . The remainder went south to Rapihu , then crossed the Sinai , and entered Egypt . Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa , took Memphis , Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt , and Taharqa was chased back to his Nubian homeland . Esarhaddon now called himself " king of Egypt , Patros , and Kush " , and returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta ; he erected a victory stele at this time , and paraded the captive Prince Ushankhuru , the son of Taharqa in Nineveh . Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how " All Ethiopians ( read Nubians / Kushites ) I deported from Egypt , leaving not one left to do homage to me " . He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf . The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire .
However , the native Egyptian rulers installed by Esarhaddon were unable to retain full control of the whole country for long . Two years later , Taharqa returned from Nubia and seized control of a section of southern Egypt as far north as Memphis . Esarhaddon prepared to return to Egypt and once more eject Taharqa ; however , he fell ill and died in his capital , Nineveh , before he left Assyria . His successor , Ashurbanipal , sent an Assyrian general named Sha @-@ Nabu @-@ shu with a small , but well trained army , which conclusively defeated Taharqa at Memphis and once more drove him from Egypt . Taharqa died in Nubia two years later .
His successor , Tanutamun , also made a failed attempt to regain Egypt for Nubia . He successfully defeated Necho , the native Egyptian puppet ruler installed by Ashurbanipal , taking Thebes in the process . The Assyrians then sent a large army southwards . Tantamani ( Tanutamun ) was heavily routed and fled back to Nubia . The Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered . A native ruler , Psammetichus I was placed on the throne , as a vassal of Ashurbanipal , and the Nubians were never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt .
= = = Late Period ( 672 – 332 BC ) = = =
With no permanent plans for conquest , the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty @-@ sixth Dynasty . By 653 BC , the Saite king Psamtik I ( taking advantage of the fact that Assyria was involved in a fierce war conquering Elam and that few Assyrian troops were stationed in Egypt ) was able to free Egypt relatively peacefully from Assyrian vassalage with the help of Lydian and Greek mercenaries , the latter of whom were recruited to form Egypt 's first navy . Psamtik and his successors however were careful to maintain peaceful relations with Assyria . Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta .
In 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia , the Chaldeans , the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria , which after a brutal civil war was being overrun by this coalition of powers . However , the attempt to save Egypt 's former masters failed . The Egyptians delayed intervening too long , and Nineveh had already fallen and King Sin @-@ shar @-@ ishkun was dead by the time Necho II sent his armies northwards . However , Necho easily brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the Babylonians , Medes and Scythians . Necho II and Ashur @-@ uballit II of Assyria were finally defeated at Carchemish in Aramea ( modern Syria ) in 605 BC . The Egyptians remained in the area for some decades , struggling with the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in The Levant . However , they were eventually driven back into Egypt , and Nebuchadnezzar II even briefly invaded Egypt itself in 567 BC . The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture , but in 525 BC , the powerful Persians , led by Cambyses II , began their conquest of Egypt , eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium . Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh , but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia ( modern Iran ) , leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy . A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC , but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians .
Following its annexation by Persia , Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia ( modern Lebanon ) in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire . This first period of Persian rule over Egypt , also known as the Twenty @-@ seventh dynasty , ended after more than one @-@ hundred years in 402 BC , and from 380 – 343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt , which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II . A brief restoration of Persian rule , sometimes known as the Thirty @-@ first Dynasty , began in 343 BC , but shortly after , in 332 BC , the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great without a fight .
= = = Ptolemaic Period = = =
In 332 BC , Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer . The administration established by Alexander 's successors , the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom , was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria . The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule , and became a seat of learning and culture , centered at the famous Library of Alexandria . The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city — as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue @-@ generating enterprises , such as papyrus manufacturing , their top priority .
Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture , as the Ptolemies supported time @-@ honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace . They built new temples in Egyptian style , supported traditional cults , and portrayed themselves as pharaohs . Some traditions merged , as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities , such as Serapis , and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs . Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians , the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion , bitter family rivalries , and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV . In addition , as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt , the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country . Continued Egyptian revolts , ambitious politicians , and powerful Syriac opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable , leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire .
= = = Roman Period = = =
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC , following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian ( later Emperor Augustus ) in the Battle of Actium . The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt , and the Roman army , under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor , quelled rebellions , strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes , and prevented attacks by bandits , which had become a notorious problem during the period . Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient , as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome .
Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians , some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued . The art of mummy portraiture flourished , and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs , though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had . The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship . Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians .
From the mid @-@ first century AD , Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted . However , it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco @-@ Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions . This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity , culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303 , but eventually Christianity won out . In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples . Alexandria became the scene of great anti @-@ pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed . As a consequence , Egypt 's native religious culture was continually in decline . While the native population certainly continued to speak their language , the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished . The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert .
= = Government and economy = =
= = = Administration and commerce = = =
The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and , at least in theory , wielded complete control of the land and its resources . The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government , who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs . In charge of the administration was his second in command , the vizier , who acted as the king 's representative and coordinated land surveys , the treasury , building projects , the legal system , and the archives . At a regional level , the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch , who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction . The temples formed the backbone of the economy . Not only were they houses of worship , but were also responsible for collecting and storing the nation 's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers , who redistributed grain and goods .
Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled . Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period , they did use a type of money @-@ barter system , with standard sacks of grain and the deben , a weight of roughly 91 grams ( 3 oz ) of copper or silver , forming a common denominator . Workers were paid in grain ; a simple laborer might earn 5 ½ sacks ( 200 kg or 400 lb ) of grain per month , while a foreman might earn 7 ½ sacks ( 250 kg or 550 lb ) . Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading ; for example a shirt cost five copper deben , while a cow cost 140 deben . Grain could be traded for other goods , according to the fixed price list . During the fifth century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad . At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money , but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage .
= = = Social status = = =
Egyptian society was highly stratified , and social status was expressly displayed . Farmers made up the bulk of the population , but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state , temple , or noble family that owned the land . Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system . Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers , but they were also under state control , working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury . Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt , known as the " white kilt class " in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank . The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature . Below the nobility were the priests , physicians , and engineers with specialized training in their field . Slavery was known in ancient Egypt , but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear .
The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women , including people from all social classes except slaves , as essentially equal under the law , and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress . Although , slaves were mostly used as indentured servants . They were able to buy and sell , or work their way to freedom or nobility , and usually were treated by doctors in the workplace . Both men and women had the right to own and sell property , make contracts , marry and divorce , receive inheritance , and pursue legal disputes in court . Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts , which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end . Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece , Rome , and even more modern places around the world , ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement . Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VI even became pharaohs , while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun . Despite these freedoms , ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration , served only secondary roles in the temples , and were not as likely to be as educated as men .
= = = Legal system = = =
The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh , who was responsible for enacting laws , delivering justice , and maintaining law and order , a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma 'at . Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive , court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common @-@ sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes . Local councils of elders , known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom , were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes . More serious cases involving murder , major land transactions , and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet , over which the vizier or pharaoh presided . Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth . In some cases , the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge , and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co @-@ conspirators . Whether the charges were trivial or serious , court scribes documented the complaint , testimony , and verdict of the case for future reference .
Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines , beatings , facial mutilation , or exile , depending on the severity of the offense . Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution , carried out by decapitation , drowning , or impaling the criminal on a stake . Punishment could also be extended to the criminal 's family . Beginning in the New Kingdom , oracles played a major role in the legal system , dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases . The procedure was to ask the god a " yes " or " no " question concerning the right or wrong of an issue . The god , carried by a number of priests , rendered judgment by choosing one or the other , moving forward or backward , or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon .
= = = Agriculture = = =
A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture , the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River . The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food , allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural , technological , and artistic pursuits . Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned .
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River . The Egyptians recognized three seasons : Akhet ( flooding ) , Peret ( planting ) , and Shemu ( harvesting ) . The flooding season lasted from June to September , depositing on the river 's banks a layer of mineral @-@ rich silt ideal for growing crops . After the floodwaters had receded , the growing season lasted from October to February . Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields , which were irrigated with ditches and canals . Egypt received little rainfall , so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops . From March to May , farmers used sickles to harvest their crops , which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain . Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain , and the grain was then ground into flour , brewed to make beer , or stored for later use .
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley , and several other cereal grains , all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer . Flax plants , uprooted before they started flowering , were grown for the fibers of their stems . These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread , which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing . Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper . Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots , close to habitations and on higher ground , and had to be watered by hand . Vegetables included leeks , garlic , melons , squashes , pulses , lettuce , and other crops , in addition to grapes that were made into wine .
= = = = Animals = = = =
The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order ; thus humans , animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole . Animals , both domesticated and wild , were therefore a critical source of spirituality , companionship , and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians . Cattle were the most important livestock ; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses , and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them . In addition to cattle , the ancient Egyptians kept sheep , goats , and pigs . Poultry such as ducks , geese , and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms , where they were force @-@ fed with dough to fatten them . The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish . Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom , and they provided both honey and wax .
The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden , and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil . The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual . Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period , and the camel , although known from the New Kingdom , was not used as a beast of burden until the Late Period . There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period , but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land . Dogs , cats and monkeys were common family pets , while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa , such as lions , were reserved for royalty . Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses . During the Predynastic and Late periods , the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular , such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth , and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice .
= = = Natural resources = = =
Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone , copper and lead ores , gold , and semiprecious stones . These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments , sculpt statues , make tools , and fashion jewelry . Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification , which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster . Ore @-@ bearing rock formations were found in distant , inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai , requiring large , state @-@ controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there . There were extensive gold mines in Nubia , and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region . The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite , greywacke , and gold . Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools , and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley . Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose . Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as cosmetic substances .
The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers , plumb bobs , and small figurines . Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai . Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits , or by the more labor @-@ intensive process of grinding and washing gold @-@ bearing quartzite . Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period . High @-@ quality building stones were abundant in Egypt ; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley , granite from Aswan , and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert . Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry , greywacke , alabaster , and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty . In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods , miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el @-@ Hudi .
= = = Trade = = =
The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare , exotic goods not found in Egypt . In the Predynastic Period , they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense . They also established trade with Palestine , as evidenced by Palestinian @-@ style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs . An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty . Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt .
By the Second Dynasty at latest , ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt . By the Fifth Dynasty , trade with Punt provided gold , aromatic resins , ebony , ivory , and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons . Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper , both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze . The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli , which had to be imported from far @-@ away Afghanistan . Egypt 's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete , which provided , among other goods , supplies of olive oil . In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials , Egypt mainly exported grain , gold , linen , and papyrus , in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects .
= = Language = =
= = = Historical development = = =
The Egyptian language is a northern Afro @-@ Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages . It has the second longest history of any language ( after Sumerian ) , having been written from c . 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer . The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian , Middle Egyptian ( Classical Egyptian ) , Late Egyptian , Demotic and Coptic . Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic , but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes .
Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language , but it became more analytic later on . Late Egyptian develops prefixal definite and indefinite articles , which replace the older inflectional suffixes . There is a change from the older verb – subject – object word order to subject – verb – object . The Egyptian hieroglyphic , hieratic , and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet . Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church , and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic .
= = = Sounds and grammar = = =
Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro @-@ Asiatic languages . These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants , voiced and voiceless stops , voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates . It has three long and three short vowels , which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine . The basic word in Egyptian , similar to Semitic and Berber , is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants . Suffixes are added to form words . The verb conjugation corresponds to the person . For example , the triconsonantal skeleton S @-@ Ḏ @-@ M is the semantic core of the word ' hear ' ; its basic conjugation is sḏm , ' he hears ' . If the subject is a noun , suffixes are not added to the verb : sḏm ḥmt , ' the woman hears ' .
Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic . The word order is predicate – subject in verbal and adjectival sentences , and subject – predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences . The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun . Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n , but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences . Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable , which can be open ( CV ) or closed ( CVC ) .
= = = Writing = = =
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c . 3000 BC , and is composed of hundreds of symbols . A hieroglyph can represent a word , a sound , or a silent determinative ; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts . Hieroglyphs were a formal script , used on stone monuments and in tombs , that could be as detailed as individual works of art . In day @-@ to @-@ day writing , scribes used a cursive form of writing , called hieratic , which was quicker and easier . While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction ( though typically written from right to left ) , hieratic was always written from right to left , usually in horizontal rows . A new form of writing , Demotic , became the prevalent writing style , and it is this form of writing — along with formal hieroglyphs — that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone .
Around the first century AD , the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script . Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs . Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century , towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them . As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded , knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost . Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt , but only in 1822 , after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean @-@ François Champollion , were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered .
= = = Literature = = =
Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs . It was primarily an occupation of the scribes , who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life . The latter comprised offices , libraries ( called House of Books ) , laboratories and observatories . Some of the best @-@ known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature , such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts , were written in Classical Egyptian , which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC . Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents , love poetry and tales , as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts . During this period , the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography , such as those of Harkhuf and Weni . The genre known as Sebayt ( " instructions " ) was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles ; the Ipuwer papyrus , a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval , is a famous example .
The Story of Sinuhe , written in Middle Egyptian , might be the classic of Egyptian literature . Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus , a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests . The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near @-@ eastern literature . Towards the end of the New Kingdom , the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any . The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt . From about 700 BC , narrative stories and instructions , such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy , as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian . Many stories written in demotic during the Greco @-@ Roman period were set in previous historical eras , when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II .
= = Culture = =
= = = Daily life = = =
Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land . Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members , and were constructed of mud @-@ brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day . Each home had a kitchen with an open roof , which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread . Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings . Floors were covered with reed mats , while wooden stools , beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture .
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance . Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk . Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness ; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin . Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white , and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs , jewelry , and cosmetics . Children went without clothing until maturity , at about age 12 , and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved . Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children , while the father provided the family 's income .
Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them . Early instruments included flutes and harps , while instruments similar to trumpets , oboes , and pipes developed later and became popular . In the New Kingdom , the Egyptians played on bells , cymbals , tambourines , drums , and imported lutes and lyres from Asia . The sistrum was a rattle @-@ like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies .
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities , including games and music . Senet , a board game where pieces moved according to random chance , was particularly popular from the earliest times ; another similar game was mehen , which had a circular gaming board . Juggling and ball games were popular with children , and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan . The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well .
The excavation of the workers ' village of Deir el @-@ Madinah has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years . There is no comparable site in which the organisation , social interactions , working and living conditions of a community were studied in such detail .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time ; indeed , the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients . The staple diet consisted of bread and beer , supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic , and fruit such as dates and figs . Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis . Fish , meat , and fowl could be salted or dried , and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill .
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world : the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes . Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes , but also to reinforce the power of the pharaoh . The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders ; using simple but effective tools and sighting instruments , architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision .
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood , and have not survived . Peasants lived in simple homes , while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures . A few surviving New Kingdom palaces , such as those in Malkata and Amarna , show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people , birds , water pools , deities and geometric designs . Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of bricks . The architectural elements used in the world 's first large @-@ scale stone building , Djoser 's mortuary complex , include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif .
The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples , such as those at Giza , consist of single , enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns . In the New Kingdom , architects added the pylon , the open courtyard , and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple 's sanctuary , a style that was standard until the Greco @-@ Roman period . The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba , a flat @-@ roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber . The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other . Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms , but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock @-@ cut tombs . The Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty was a notable exception , as all Twenty @-@ fifth dynasty pharaohs constructed pyramids .
= = = Art = = =
The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes . For over 3500 years , artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom , following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change . These artistic standards — simple lines , shapes , and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth — created a sense of order and balance within a composition . Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls , coffins , stelae , and even statues . The Narmer Palette , for example , displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs . Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance , ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity .
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs , but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute . Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores ( red and yellow ochres ) , copper ores ( blue and green ) , soot or charcoal ( black ) , and limestone ( white ) . Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes , which could be moistened with water when needed .
Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle , royal decrees , and religious scenes . Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art , such as shabti statues and books of the dead , which they believed would protect them in the afterlife . During the Middle Kingdom , wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb . In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife , these models show laborers , houses , boats , and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife .
Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art , the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes . After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period , Minoan @-@ style frescoes were found in Avaris . The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period , where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten 's revolutionary religious ideas . This style , known as Amarna art , was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten 's death and replaced by the traditional forms .
= = = Religious beliefs = = =
Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception ; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings . The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection . However , the gods were not always viewed as benevolent , and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers . The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy , but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system . These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality .
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king 's behalf . At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine . Temples were not places of public worship or congregation , and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship . Normally , the god 's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials . Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes , and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos . After the New Kingdom , the pharaoh 's role as a spiritual intermediary was de @-@ emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods . As a result , priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people .
The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects . In addition to the body , each person had a šwt ( shadow ) , a ba ( personality or soul ) , a ka ( life @-@ force ) , and a name . The heart , rather than the brain , was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions . After death , the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will , but they required the physical remains ( or a substitute , such as a statue ) as a permanent home . The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the " blessed dead " , living on as an akh , or " effective one " . For this to happen , the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial , in which the heart was weighed against a " feather of truth " . If deemed worthy , the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form .
= = = Burial customs = = =
The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death . These customs involved preserving the body by mummification , performing burial ceremonies , and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife . Before the Old Kingdom , bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation . The arid , desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor , who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite . Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification , which involved removing the internal organs , wrapping the body in linen , and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin . Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty , some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars .
By the New Kingdom , the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification ; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs , removing the brain through the nose , and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron . The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin . Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases . Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras , while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy , which was decorated .
Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items , but all burials , regardless of social status , included goods for the deceased . Beginning in the New Kingdom , books of the dead were included in the grave , along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife . Rituals in which the deceased was magically re @-@ animated accompanied burials . After burial , living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased .
= = Military = =
The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion , and for maintaining Egypt 's domination in the ancient Near East . The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods . The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes , such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia . Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases , such as the fortress at Sile , which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant . In the New Kingdom , a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant .
Typical military equipment included bows and arrows , spears , and round @-@ topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame . In the New Kingdom , the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders . Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze : shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle , spears were tipped with a bronze point , and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers . The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army ; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs , such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons , did do so . However , it has also been argued that " kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders , fighting alongside their troops . " Soldiers were recruited from the general population , but during , and especially after , the New Kingdom , mercenaries from Nubia , Kush , and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt .
= = Technology , medicine , and mathematics = =
= = = Technology = = =
In technology , medicine and mathematics , ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication . Traditional empiricism , as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri ( c . 1600 BC ) , is first credited to Egypt . The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system .
= = = Faience and glass = = =
Even before the Old Kingdom , the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience , which they treated as a type of artificial semi @-@ precious stone . Faience is a non @-@ clay ceramic made of silica , small amounts of lime and soda , and a colorant , typically copper . The material was used to make beads , tiles , figurines , and small wares . Several methods can be used to create faience , but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core , which was then fired . By a related technique , the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue , also called blue frit , which is produced by fusing ( or sintering ) silica , copper , lime , and an alkali such as natron . The product can be ground up and used as a pigment .
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill , but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently . It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre @-@ made ingots , which they melted and finished . However , they did have technical expertise in making objects , as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass . A range of colors could be produced , including yellow , red , green , blue , purple , and white , and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque .
= = = Medicine = = =
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment . Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites , which caused liver and intestinal damage . Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat . The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints , and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body . The grit and sand from stone @-@ ground flour abraded teeth , leaving them susceptible to abscesses ( though caries were rare ) .
The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars , which promoted periodontal disease . Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls , the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence . Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women , but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one @-@ third of the population died in infancy .
Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills , and some , such as Imhotep , remained famous long after their deaths . Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians , with some treating only the head or the stomach , while others were eye @-@ doctors and dentists . Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or " House of Life " institution , most notably those headquartered in Per @-@ Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period . Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy , injuries , and practical treatments .
Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat , white linen , sutures , nets , pads , and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection , while opium thyme and belladona were used to relieve pain . The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies . Prayers were made to the goddess Isis . Moldy bread , honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns . Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms . Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds , set broken bones , and amputated diseased limbs , but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred .
= = = Maritime technology = = =
Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC . The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats . A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks " sewn " together . Discovered by Egyptologist David O 'Connor of New York University , woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together , and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams . Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy , originally they were all thought to have belonged to him , but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC , and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating . The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet ( 23 m ) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh . According to professor O 'Connor , the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha .
Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together , using pitch for caulking the seams . The " Khufu ship " , a 43 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 143 ft ) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC , is a full @-@ size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque . Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints .
Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean , especially Byblos ( on the coast of modern @-@ day Lebanon ) , and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt . In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a " Byblos Ship " , which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run ; however , by the end of the Old Kingdom , the term had come to include large seagoing ships , whatever their destination .
In 2011 archaeologists from Italy , the United States , and Egypt excavating a dried @-@ up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut 's Punt expedition onto the open ocean . Some of the site 's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians ' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes , made from papyrus , coiled in huge bundles . And in 2013 a team of Franco @-@ Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world 's oldest port , dating back about 4500 years , from the time of King Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el @-@ Jarf ( about 110 miles south of Suez ) .
In 1977 , an ancient north @-@ south canal dating to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes . It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course .
= = = Mathematics = = =
The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period , and show a fully developed numeral system . The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land , labor , and grain . Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations — addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division — use fractions , compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids , and calculate the surface areas of rectangles , triangles , and circles . They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry , and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations .
Mathematical notation was decimal , and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million . Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number ; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred , the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively . Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one , they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions . For example , they resolved the fraction two @-@ fifths into the sum of one @-@ third + one @-@ fifteenth . Standard tables of values facilitated this . Some common fractions , however , were written with a special glyph — the equivalent of the modern two @-@ thirds is shown on the right .
Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem , knowing , for example , that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3 – 4 – 5 ratio . They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one @-@ ninth from its diameter and squaring the result :
Area ≈ [ ( 8 ⁄ 9 ) D ] 2 = ( 256 ⁄ 81 ) r 2 ≈ 3.16r 2 @,@
a reasonable approximation of the formula πr 2 .
The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions , including the pyramids , but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony .
= = Population = =
= = Legacy = =
The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world . The cult of the goddess Isis , for example , became popular in the Roman Empire , as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome . The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian @-@ style structures . Early historians such as Herodotus , Strabo , and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land , which Romans came to view as a place of mystery .
During the Middle Ages and The Renaissance , Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam , but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul @-@ Nun al @-@ Misri and al @-@ Maqrizi . In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys , leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe . This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt , who took , purchased , or were given many important antiquities .
Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country 's historical legacy , some foreigners left more positive marks . Napoleon , for example , arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt 's natural history , which was published in the Description de l 'Égypte .
In the 20th century , the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations . The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations , which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure . The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt .
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= Æthelberht of Kent =
Æthelberht ( also Æthelbert , Aethelberht , Aethelbert , or Ethelbert , Old English Æðelberht / ˈæðelberxt / ) / English pronunciation : / ˈæθəlbərt / / ( c . 560 – 24 February 616 ) was King of Kent from about 589 until his death . The eighth @-@ century monk Bede , in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , lists him as the third king to hold imperium over other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . In the late ninth century Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle he is referred to as a bretwalda , or " Britain @-@ ruler " . He was the first English king to convert to Christianity .
Æthelberht was the son of Eormenric , succeeding him as king , according to the Chronicle . He married Bertha , the Christian daughter of Charibert , king of the Franks , thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in contemporary Western Europe ; the marriage probably took place before he came to the throne . Bertha 's influence may have led to Pope Gregory I 's decision to send Augustine as a missionary from Rome . Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet in east Kent in 597 . Shortly thereafter , Æthelberht converted to Christianity , churches were established , and wider @-@ scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom . He provided the new church with land in Canterbury , thus establishing one of the foundation stones of what ultimately became the Anglican Communion .
Æthelberht 's law for Kent , the earliest written code in any Germanic language , instituted a complex system of fines ; the law code is preserved in the Textus Roffensis . Kent was rich , with strong trade ties to the continent , and he may have instituted royal control over trade . Coinage probably began circulating in Kent during his reign for the first time since the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion . He later came to be regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo @-@ Saxons . His feast day was originally 24 February , but was changed to 25 February .
= = Historical context = =
In the fifth century , raids on Britain by continental peoples had developed into full @-@ scale migrations . The newcomers are known to have included Angles , Saxons , Jutes , and Frisians , and there is evidence of other groups as well . These groups captured territory in the east and south of England , but at about the end of the fifth century , a British victory at the battle of Mount Badon ( Mons Badonicus ) halted the Anglo @-@ Saxon advance for fifty years . From about 550 , however , the British began to lose ground once more , and within twenty @-@ five years it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders .
Anglo @-@ Saxons probably conquered Kent before Mons Badonicus . There is both documentary and archaeological evidence that Kent was primarily colonized by Jutes , from the southern part of the Jutland peninsula . According to legend , the brothers Hengist and Horsa landed in 449 as mercenaries for a British king , Vortigern . After a rebellion over pay and Horsa 's death in battle , Hengist established the Kingdom of Kent . Some historians now think the underlying story of a rebelling mercenary force may be accurate ; most now date the founding of the kingdom of Kent to the middle of the fifth @-@ century , which is consistent with the legend . This early date , only a few decades after the departure of the Romans , also suggests that more of Roman civilization may have survived into Anglo @-@ Saxon rule in Kent than in other areas .
Overlordship was a central feature of Anglo @-@ Saxon politics which began before Æthelberht 's time ; kings were described as overlords as late as the ninth century . The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion may have involved military coordination of different groups within the invaders , with a leader who had authority over many different groups ; Ælle of Sussex may have been such a leader . Once the new states began to form , conflicts among them began . Tribute from dependents could lead to wealth . A weaker state also might ask or pay for the protection of a stronger neighbour against a warlike third state .
Sources for this period in Kentish history include the Ecclesiastical History of the English People , written in 731 by Bede , a Northumbrian monk . Bede was interested primarily in England 's Christianization . Since Æthelberht was the first Anglo @-@ Saxon king to convert to Christianity , Bede provides more substantial information about him than about any earlier king . One of Bede 's correspondents was Albinus , abbot of the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul ( subsequently renamed St. Augustine 's ) in Canterbury . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , a collection of annals assembled c . 890 in the kingdom of Wessex , mentions several events in Kent during Æthelberht 's reign . Further mention of events in Kent occurs in the late sixth century history of the Franks by Gregory of Tours . This is the earliest surviving source to mention any Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom . Some of Pope Gregory the Great 's letters concern the mission of St. Augustine to Kent in 597 ; these letters also mention the state of Kent and its relationships with neighbours . Other sources include regnal lists of the kings of Kent and early charters ( land grants by kings to their followers or to the church ) . Although no originals survive from Æthelberht 's reign , later copies exist . A law code from Æthelberht 's reign also survives .
= = Ancestry , accession and chronology = =
According to Bede , Æthelberht was descended directly from Hengist . Bede gives the line of descent as follows : " Ethelbert was son of Irminric , son of Octa , and after his grandfather Oeric , surnamed Oisc , the kings of the Kentish folk are commonly known as Oiscings . The father of Oeric was Hengist . " An alternative form of this genealogy , found in the Historia Brittonum among other places , reverses the position of Octa and Oisc in the lineage . The first of these names that can be placed historically with reasonable confidence is Æthelberht 's father , whose name now usually is spelled Eormenric . The only direct written reference to Eormenric is in Kentish genealogies , but Gregory of Tours does mention that Æthelberht 's father was the king of Kent , though Gregory gives no date . Eormenric 's name provides a hint of connections to the kingdom of the Franks , across the English channel ; the element " Eormen " was rare in names of the Anglo @-@ Saxon aristocracy , but much more common among Frankish nobles . One other member of Æthelberht 's family is known : his sister , Ricole , who is recorded by both Bede and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as the mother of Sæberht , king of the East Saxons ( i.e. Essex ) .
The dates of Æthelberht 's birth and accession to the throne of Kent are both matters of debate . Bede , the earliest source to give dates , is thought to have drawn his information from correspondence with Albinus . Bede states that when Æthelberht died in 616 he had reigned for fifty @-@ six years , placing his accession in 560 . Bede also says that Æthelberht died twenty @-@ one years after his baptism . Augustine ’ s mission from Rome is known to have arrived in 597 , and according to Bede , it was this mission that converted Æthelberht . Hence Bede ’ s dates are inconsistent . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , an important source for early dates , is inconsistent with Bede and also has inconsistencies among different manuscript versions . Putting together the different dates in the Chronicle for birth , death , and length of reign , it appears that Æthelberht 's reign was thought to have been either 560 – 616 , or 565 – 618 , but that the surviving sources have confused the two traditions .
It is possible that Æthelberht was converted to Christianity before Augustine 's arrival . Æthelberht 's wife was a Christian and brought a Frankish bishop with her , to attend her at court , so Æthelberht would have had knowledge of Christianity before the mission reached Kent . It also is possible that Bede had the date of Æthelberht 's death wrong ; if , in fact , Æthelberht died in 618 , this would be consistent with his baptism in 597 , which is in accord with the tradition that Augustine converted the king within a year of his arrival .
Gregory of Tours , in his Historia Francorum , writes that Bertha , daughter of Charibert , king of the Franks , married the son of the king of Kent . Bede says that Æthelberht received Bertha " from her parents " . If Bede is interpreted literally , the marriage would have had to take place before 567 , when Charibert died . The traditions for Æthelberht 's reign , then , would imply that Æthelberht married Bertha before either 560 or 565 .
The extreme length of Æthelberht 's reign also has been regarded with skepticism by historians ; it has been suggested that he died in the fifty @-@ sixth year of his life , rather than the fifty @-@ sixth year of his reign . This would place the year of his birth approximately at 560 , and he would not then have been able to marry until the mid 570s . According to Gregory of Tours , Charibert was king when he married Ingoberg , Bertha 's mother , which places that marriage no earlier than 561 . It therefore is unlikely that Bertha was married much before about 580 . These later dates for Bertha and Æthelberht also solve another possible problem : Æthelberht 's daughter , Æthelburh , seems likely to have been Bertha 's child , but the earlier dates would have Bertha aged sixty or so at Æthelburh 's likely birthdate using the early dates .
Gregory , however , also says that he thinks that Ingoberg was seventy years old in 589 ; and this would make her about forty when she married Charibert . This is possible , but seems unlikely , especially as Charibert seems to have had a preference for younger women , again according to Gregory 's account . This would imply an earlier birth date for Bertha . On the other hand , Gregory refers to Æthelberht at the time of his marriage to Bertha simply as " a man of Kent " , and in the 589 passage concerning Ingoberg 's death , which was written in about 590 or 591 , he refers to Æthelberht as " the son of the king of Kent " . If this does not simply reflect Gregory 's ignorance of Kentish affairs , which seems unlikely given the close ties between Kent and the Franks , then some assert that Æthelberht 's reign cannot have begun before 589 .
While all of the contradictions above cannot be reconciled , the most probable dates that may be drawn from available data place Æthelberht 's birth at approximately 560 and , perhaps , his marriage to Bertha at 580 . His reign is most likely to have begun in 589 or 590 .
= = Kingship of Kent = =
The later history of Kent shows clear evidence of a system of joint kingship , with the kingdom being divided into east Kent and west Kent , although it appears that there generally was a dominant king . This evidence is less clear for the earlier period , but there are early charters , known to be forged , which nevertheless imply that Æthelberht ruled as joint king with his son , Eadbald . It may be that Æthelberht was king of east Kent and Eadbald became king of west Kent ; the east Kent king seems generally to have been the dominant ruler later in Kentish history . Whether or not Eadbald became a joint king with Æthelberht , there is no question that Æthelberht had authority throughout the kingdom .
The division into two kingdoms is most likely to date back to the sixth century ; east Kent may have conquered west Kent and preserved the institutions of kingship as a subkingdom . This was a common pattern in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , as the more powerful kingdoms absorbed their weaker neighbours . An unusual feature of the Kentish system was that only sons of kings appeared to be legitimate claimants to the throne , although this did not eliminate all strife over the succession .
The main towns of the two kingdoms were Rochester , for west Kent , and Canterbury , for east Kent . Bede does not state that Æthelberht had a palace in Canterbury , but he does refer to Canterbury as Æthelberht 's " metropolis " , and it is clear that it is Æthelberht 's seat .
= = Relations with the Franks = =
There are many indications of close relations between Kent and the Franks . Æthelberht 's marriage to Bertha certainly connected the two courts , although not as equals : the Franks would have thought of Æthelberht as an under @-@ king . There is no record that Æthelberht ever accepted a continental king as his overlord and , as a result , historians are divided on the true nature of the relationship . Evidence for an explicit Frankish overlordship of Kent comes from a letter written by Pope Gregory the Great to Theuderic , king of Orléans , and Theudebert , king of Metz . The letter concerned Augustine 's mission to Kent in 597 , and in it Gregory says that he believes " that you wish your subjects in every respect to be converted to that faith in which you , their kings and lords , stand " . It may be that this is a papal compliment , rather than a description of the relationship between the kingdoms . It also has been suggested that Liudhard , Bertha 's chaplain , was intended as a representative of the Frankish church in Kent , which also could be interpreted as evidence of overlordship .
A possible reason for the willingness of the Franks to connect themselves with the Kentish court is the fact that a Frankish king , Chilperic I , is recorded as having conquered a people known as the Euthiones during the mid @-@ sixth century . If , as seems likely from the name , these people were the continental remnants of the Jutish invaders of Kent , then it may be that the marriage was intended as a unifying political move , reconnecting different branches of the same people . Another perspective on the marriage may be gained by considering that it is likely that Æthelberht was not yet king at the time he and Bertha were wed : it may be that Frankish support for him , acquired via the marriage , was instrumental in gaining the throne for him .
Regardless of the political relationship between Æthelberht and the Franks , there is abundant evidence of strong connections across the English Channel . There was a luxury trade between Kent and the Franks , and burial artefacts found include clothing , drink , and weapons that reflect Frankish cultural influence . The Kentish burials have a greater range of imported goods than those of the neighbouring Anglo @-@ Saxon regions , which is not surprising given Kent 's easier access to trade across the English Channel . In addition , the grave goods are both richer and more numerous in Kentish graves , implying that material wealth was derived from that trade . Frankish influences also may be detected in the social and agrarian organization of Kent . Other cultural influences may be seen in the burials as well , so it is not necessary to presume that there was direct settlement by the Franks in Kent .
= = Rise to dominance = =
= = = Bretwalda = = =
In his Ecclesiastical History , Bede includes his list of seven kings who held " imperium " over the other kingdoms south of the Humber . The usual translation for " imperium " is " overlordship " . Bede names Æthelberht as the third on the list , after Ælle of Sussex and Ceawlin of Wessex . The anonymous annalist who composed one of the versions of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle repeated Bede 's list of seven kings in a famous entry under the year 827 , with one additional king , Egbert of Wessex . The Chronicle also records that these kings held the title " bretwalda " , or " Britain @-@ ruler " . The exact meaning of bretwalda has been the subject of much debate ; it has been described as a term " of encomiastic poetry " , but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership .
The prior bretwalda , Ceawlin , is recorded by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as having fought Æthelberht in 568 . The entry states that Æthelberht lost the battle and was driven back to Kent . The dating of the entries concerning the West Saxons in this section of the Chronicle is thought to be unreliable and a recent analysis suggests that Ceawlin 's reign is more likely to have been approximately 581 – 588 , rather than the dates of 560 – 592 that are given in the Chronicle . The battle was at " Wibbandun " , which may be translated as Wibba 's Mount ; it is not known where this was .
At some point Ceawlin ceased to hold the title of bretwalda , perhaps after a battle at Stoke Lyne , in Oxfordshire , which the Chronicle dates to 584 , some eight years before he was deposed in 592 ( again using the Chronicle 's unreliable dating ) . Æthelberht certainly was a dominant ruler by 601 , when Gregory the Great wrote to him : Gregory urges Æthelberht to spread Christianity among those kings and peoples subject to him , implying some level of overlordship . If the battle of Wibbandun was fought c . 590 , as has been suggested , then Æthelberht must have gained his position as overlord at some time in the 590s . This dating for Wibbandun is slightly inconsistent with the proposed dates of 581 – 588 for Ceawlin 's reign , but those dates are not thought to be precise , merely the most plausible given the available data .
= = = Relationships with other kingdoms = = =
In addition to the evidence of the Chronicle that Æthelberht was accorded the title of bretwalda , there is evidence of his domination in several of the southern kingdoms of the Heptarchy . In Essex , Æthelberht appears to have been in a position to exercise authority shortly after 604 , when his intervention helped in the conversion of King Sæberht of Essex , his nephew , to Christianity . It was Æthelberht , and not Sæberht , who built and endowed St. Pauls in London , where St Paul 's Cathedral now stands . Further evidence is provided by Bede , who explicitly describes Æthelberht as Sæberht 's overlord .
Bede describes Æthelberht 's relationship with Rædwald , king of East Anglia , in a passage that is not completely clear in meaning . It seems to imply that Rædwald retained ducatus , or military command of his people , even while Æthelberht held imperium . This implies that being a bretwalda usually included holding the military command of other kingdoms and also that it was more than that , since Æthelberht is bretwalda despite Rædwald 's control of his own troops . Rædwald was converted to Christianity while in Kent but did not abandon his pagan beliefs ; this , together with the fact that he retained military independence , implies that Æthelberht 's overlordship of East Anglia was much weaker than his influence with the East Saxons . An alternative interpretation , however , is that the passage in Bede should be translated as " Rædwald , king of the East Angles , who while Æthelberht lived , even conceded to him the military leadership of his people " ; if this is Bede 's intent , then East Anglia firmly was under Æthelberht 's overlordship .
There is no evidence that Æthelberht 's influence in other kingdoms was enough for him to convert any other kings to Christianity , although this is partly due to the lack of sources — nothing is known of Sussex 's history , for example , for almost all of the seventh and eighth centuries . Æthelberht was able to arrange a meeting in 602 in the Severn valley , on the northwestern borders of Wessex , however , and this may be an indication of the extent of his influence in the west . No evidence survives showing Kentish domination of Mercia , but it is known that Mercia was independent of Northumbria , so it is quite plausible that it was under Kentish overlordship .
= = Augustine 's mission and early Christianization = =
The native Britons had converted to Christianity under Roman rule . The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasions separated the British church from European Christianity for centuries , so the church in Rome had no presence or authority in Britain , and in fact , Rome knew so little about the British church that it was unaware of any schism in customs . However , Æthelberht would have known something about the Roman church from his Frankish wife , Bertha , who had brought a bishop , Liudhard , with her across the Channel , and for whom Æthelberht built a chapel , St Martin 's .
In 596 , Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine , prior of the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome , to England as a missionary , and in 597 , a group of nearly forty monks , led by Augustine , landed on the Isle of Thanet in Kent . According to Bede , Æthelberht was sufficiently distrustful of the newcomers to insist on meeting them under the open sky , to prevent them from performing sorcery . The monks impressed Æthelberht , but he was not converted immediately . He agreed to allow the mission to settle in Canterbury and permitted them to preach .
It is not known when Æthelberht became a Christian . It is possible , despite Bede 's account , that he already was a Christian before Augustine 's mission arrived . It is likely that Liudhard and Bertha pressed Æthelberht to consider becoming a Christian before the arrival of the mission , and it is also likely that a condition of Æthelberht 's marriage to Bertha was that Æthelberht would consider conversion . Conversion via the influence of the Frankish court would have been seen as an explicit recognition of Frankish overlordship , however , so it is possible that Æthelberht 's delay of his conversion until it could be accomplished via Roman influence , might have been an assertion of independence from Frankish control . It also has been argued that Augustine 's hesitation — he turned back to Rome , asking to be released from the mission — is an indication that Æthelberht was a pagan at the time Augustine was sent .
At the latest , Æthelberht must have converted before 601 , since that year Gregory wrote to him as a Christian king . An old tradition records that Æthelberht converted on 1 June , in the summer of the year that Augustine arrived . Through Æthelberht 's influence Sæberht , king of Essex , also was converted , but there were limits to the effectiveness of the mission . The entire Kentish court did not convert : Eadbald , Æthelberht 's son and heir , was a pagan at his accession . Rædwald , king of East Anglia , was only partly converted ( apparently while at Æthelberht 's court ) and retained a pagan shrine next to the new Christian altar . Augustine also was unsuccessful in gaining the allegiance of the British clergy .
= = Law code = =
Some time after the arrival of Augustine 's mission , perhaps in 602 or 603 , Æthelberht issued a set of laws , in ninety sections . These laws are by far the earliest surviving code composed in any of the Germanic countries , and they were almost certainly among the first documents written down in Anglo @-@ Saxon , as literacy would have arrived in England with Augustine 's mission . The only surviving early manuscript , the Textus Roffensis , dates from the twelfth century , and it now resides in the Medway Studies Centre in Strood , Kent . Æthelberht 's code makes reference to the church in the very first item , which enumerates the compensation required for the property of a bishop , a deacon , a priest , and so on ; but overall , the laws seem remarkably uninfluenced by Christian principles . Bede asserted that they were composed " after the Roman manner " , but there is little discernible Roman influence either . In subject matter , the laws have been compared to the Lex Salica of the Franks , but it is not thought that Æthelberht based his new code on any specific previous model .
The laws are concerned with setting and enforcing the penalties for transgressions at all levels of society ; the severity of the fine depended on the social rank of the victim . The king had a financial interest in enforcement , for part of the fines would come to him in many cases , but the king also was responsible for law and order , and avoiding blood feuds by enforcing the rules on compensation for injury was part of the way the king maintained control . Æthelberht 's laws are mentioned by Alfred the Great , who compiled his own laws , making use of the prior codes created by Æthelberht , as well as those of Offa of Mercia and Ine of Wessex .
One of Æthelberht 's laws seems to preserve a trace of a very old custom : the third item in the code states that " If the king is drinking at a man 's home , and anyone commits any evil deed there , he is to pay twofold compensation . " This probably refers to the ancient custom of a king traveling the country , being hosted , and being provided for by his subjects wherever he went . The king 's servants retained these rights for centuries after Æthelberht 's time .
Items 77 – 81 in the code have been interpreted as a description of a woman 's financial rights after a divorce or legal separation . These clauses define how much of the household goods a woman could keep in different circumstances , depending on whether she keeps custody of the children , for example . It has recently been suggested , however , that it would be more correct to interpret these clauses as referring to women who are widowed , rather than divorced .
= = Trade and coinage = =
There is little documentary evidence about the nature of trade in Æthelberht 's Kent . It is known that the kings of Kent had established royal control of trade by the late seventh century , but it is not known how early this control began . There is archaeological evidence suggesting that the royal influence predates any of the written sources . It has been suggested that one of Æthelberht 's achievements was to take control of trade away from the aristocracy and to make it a royal monopoly . The continental trade provided Kent access to luxury goods which gave it an advantage in trading with the other Anglo @-@ Saxon nations , and the revenue from trade was important in itself .
Kentish manufacture before 600 included glass beakers and jewelry . Kentish jewellers were highly skilled , and before the end of the sixth century they gained access to gold . Goods from Kent are found in cemeteries across the channel and as far away as at the mouth of the Loire . It is not known what Kent traded for all of this wealth , although it seems likely that there was a flourishing slave trade . It may well be that this wealth was the foundation of Æthelberht 's strength , although his overlordship and the associated right to demand tribute would have brought wealth in its turn .
It may have been during Æthelberht 's reign that the first coins were minted in England since the departure of the Romans : none bear his name , but it is thought likely that the first coins predate the end of the sixth century . These early coins were gold , and probably were the shillings ( scillingas in Old English ) that are mentioned in Æthelberht 's laws . The coins are also known to numismatists as " thrymsas " .
= = Death and succession = =
Æthelberht died on 24 February 616 and was succeeded by his son , Eadbald , who was not a Christian — Bede says he had been converted but went back to his pagan faith , although he ultimately did become a Christian king . Eadbald outraged the church by marrying his stepmother , which was contrary to Church law , and by refusing to accept baptism . Sæberht of the East Saxons also died at approximately this time , and he was succeeded by his three sons , none of whom were Christian . A subsequent revolt against Christianity and the expulsion of the missionaries from Kent may have been a reaction to Kentish overlordship after Æthelberht 's death as much as a pagan opposition to Christianity .
In addition to Eadbald , it is possible that Æthelberht had another son , Æthelwald . The evidence for this is a papal letter to Justus , archbishop of Canterbury from 619 to 625 , that refers to a king named Aduluald , who is apparently different from Audubald , which refers to Eadbald . There is no agreement among modern scholars on how to interpret this : " Aduluald " might be intended as a representation of " Æthelwald " , and hence an indication of another king , perhaps a sub @-@ king of west Kent ; or it may be merely a scribal error which should be read as referring to Eadbald .
= = Liturgical celebration = =
Æthelberht was later regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo @-@ Saxons . His feast day was originally 24 February but was changed to 25 February . In the 2004 edition of the Roman Martyrology , he is listed under his date of death , 24 February , with the citation : ' King of Kent , converted by St Augustine , bishop , the first leader of the English people to do so ' . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark , which contains Kent , commemorates him on 25 February . He is honoured together with his wife Bertha on the liturgical calendar of The Episcopal Church on 27 May .
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= SM UB @-@ 45 =
SM UB @-@ 45 was a Type UB II submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 45 operated in the Mediterranean and the Black Seas , and was sunk by a mine in November 1916 .
UB @-@ 45 was ordered in July 1915 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in September . UB @-@ 45 was about 37 metres ( 121 ft 5 in ) in length and displaced between 270 and 305 tonnes ( 266 and 300 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was equipped to carry a complement of four torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and had an 5 @-@ centimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun . As part of a group of six submarines selected for Mediterranean service , UB @-@ 45 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped to Pola where she was assembled and then launched and commissioned in May 1916 .
In five patrols in her six @-@ month career , UB @-@ 45 sank four ships of 15 @,@ 361 gross register tons ( GRT ) . In early November 1916 , UB @-@ 45 was departing from the base at Varna , Bulgaria , when the U @-@ boat struck a mine and sank rapidly . Fifteen of the twenty men on board were killed in the attack ; one of the five crewmen rescued from UB @-@ 45 later died from his injuries . UB @-@ 45 's wreck was located and raised by the Bulgarian Navy in the 1930s with an eye toward rebuilding the submarine . Engineers from AG Weser determined that restoration of the submarine was feasible , but this was never accomplished . Remains recovered from the wreck were buried in Varna after a funeral procession through town in November 1938 .
= = Design and construction = =
The German UB II design improved upon the design of the UB I boats , which had been ordered in September 1914 . In service , the UB I boats were found to be too small and too slow . A major problem was that , because they had a single propeller shaft / engine combo , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat became almost totally disabled . To rectify this flaw , the UB II boats featured twin propeller shafts and twin engines ( one shaft for each engine ) , which also increased the U @-@ boat 's top speed . The new design also included more powerful batteries , larger torpedo tubes , and a deck gun . As a UB II boat , U @-@ 45 could also carry twice the torpedo load of her UB I counterparts , and nearly ten times as much fuel . To contain all of these changes the hull was larger , and the surface and submerged displacement was more than double that of the UB I boats .
The German Imperial Navy ordered UB @-@ 45 from AG Weser on 31 July 1915 as one of a series of six UB II boats ( numbered from UB @-@ 42 to UB @-@ 47 ) . UB @-@ 45 was 36 @.@ 90 metres ( 121 ft 1 in ) long and 4 @.@ 37 metres ( 14 ft 4 in ) abeam . She had a single hull with saddle tanks and had a draught of 3 @.@ 68 metres ( 12 ft 1 in ) when surfaced . She displaced 305 tonnes ( 300 long tons ) while submerged but only 272 tonnes ( 268 long tons ) on the surface .
The submarine was equipped with twin Daimler diesel engines and twin Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motors — for surfaced and submerged running , respectively . UB @-@ 45 had a surface speed of up to 8 @.@ 82 knots ( 16 @.@ 33 km / h ; 10 @.@ 15 mph ) and could go as fast as 6 @.@ 22 knots ( 11 @.@ 52 km / h ; 7 @.@ 16 mph ) while underwater . The U @-@ boat could carry up to 27 tonnes ( 27 long tons ) of diesel fuel , giving her a range of 6 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 850 km ; 7 @,@ 990 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her electric motors and batteries provided a range of 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) while submerged . UB @-@ 45 was equipped with two 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes . The U @-@ boat was also armed with one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Uk L / 30 deck gun .
UB @-@ 45 was laid down by AG Weser at its Bremen shipyard on 3 September 1915 . As one of six U @-@ boats selected for service in the Mediterranean while under construction , UB @-@ 45 was broken into railcar @-@ sized components and shipped overland to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola . Shipyard workers from Weser assembled the boat and her five sisters at Pola , where she was launched on 12 May 1916 .
= = Service career = =
SM UB @-@ 45 was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy on 26 May 1916 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Karl Palis . UB @-@ 45 , Palis ' second U @-@ boat command , was assigned to the Navy 's Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) . Although the flotilla was based in Pola , the site of the main Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy base , boats of the flotilla operated out of the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Cattaro which was located farther south and closer to the Mediterranean . German U @-@ boats typically returned to Pola only for repairs .
In mid @-@ July , UB @-@ 45 's first success occurred when in three days she sank two steamers . The first , Virginia , was sunk on the 16th while carrying salt destined for Calcutta . Two men on board the 4 @,@ 279 @-@ ton British ship were lost when she went down 42 nautical miles ( 78 km ; 48 mi ) off Cape Matapan . Two days later , the French ship Ville de Rouen was sunk 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) southwest of Cape Matapan . The 4 @,@ 721 @-@ ton Ville de Rouen would be UB @-@ 45 's largest victim .
Germany 's conquest of Romania provided the German Imperial Navy with sufficient fuel oil for submarines to operate in the Black Sea . UB @-@ 45 and three of her sister ships in the Pola Flotilla were ordered to Constantinople and , en route , had to navigate through the Dardanelles , which had been heavily mined by the Allies in the middle of 1916 . UB @-@ 45 joined the Constantinople Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Mittelmeerdivision in Konstantinopal ) on 12 August .
The German submarines in the Black Sea accomplished little , sinking only six ships between August and the end of the year ; UB @-@ 45 accounted for two of these while in the Black Sea . On 31 August , UB @-@ 45 sank the 2 @,@ 660 @-@ ton Italian steamer Tevere off Poti . Tevere had been requisitioned by the Imperial Russian Navy and was in use as a transport ship at the time . Two days later , the U @-@ boat torpedoed the 3 @,@ 701 @-@ ton Gioconda , another Russian transport , 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) off Trebizond . Gioconda was the last ship sunk by UB @-@ 45 .
At 14 : 30 on 6 November , UB @-@ 45 was departing Varna , Bulgaria , under escort by the Bulgarian torpedo boat Strogi that had cleared a path through Russian mines . At what was thought to be the edge of the minefield , UB @-@ 45 swung around Strogi 's port side directly into a second minefield that had been laid by Russian forces the night before . A Hertz horn mine exploded between UB @-@ 45 's control room and engine room with enough force to break the boat in half . UB @-@ 45 sank so rapidly that the only survivors were three men on the conning tower and two on deck , all of whom were injured ; the other fifteen men on board perished in the attack . One of the survivors died from the severity of his wounds the following day .
In 1932 , the Bulgarian Navy conceived a plan to search for the wreck of UB @-@ 45 with the intent of raising it for restoration as a training vessel , or , at the very least , to recover the sunken U @-@ boat 's 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun . An additional consideration was the recovery of the remains of UB @-@ 45 's crew . On 19 July 1934 , after a two @-@ year search , Bulgarian minesweepers discovered the location of the wreck , which was resting at position 43 ° 12 ′ N 28 ° 09 ′ E , near the then Bulgarian – Romanian border . UB @-@ 45 's wreck was raised in an operation that cost several times less than the cost of a new 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter gun . The remains recovered were buried on 26 February 1936 in a Varna cemetery , after a procession through the town .
Engineers from AG Weser , UB @-@ 45 's German builder , inspected the hulk and determined that repair of the wreck was feasible . A restoration of the submarine to operating condition , as either a training vessel or a military , would cost 21 million leva ( about US $ 250 @,@ 000 in 1936 dollars ) , significantly less than the 56 to 65 million leva ( $ 680 @,@ 000 to $ 790 @,@ 000 ) that a comparable new submarine would cost . Ultimately , the Bulgarian Navy opted to order new submarines from Germany rather than repair UB @-@ 45 . UB @-@ 45 's deck gun was reused , however , and one of the U @-@ boat 's diesel engines was restored to operating condition and used on the training ship Assen .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Paige ( wrestler ) =
Saraya @-@ Jade Bevis ( born 17 August 1992 ) is an English professional wrestler and actress currently signed to WWE under the ring name Paige , performing on the Raw brand . She is a two @-@ time Divas Champion and was the inaugural NXT Women 's Champion in WWE 's developmental branch , NXT . She is the only person to have held both championships concurrently , and as of July 2016 , her 308 @-@ day reign as the NXT Women 's Champion is the longest in the title 's history .
In 2005 , at the age of 13 , Bevis made her debut in the World Association of Wrestling , a promotion run by her family , under the ring name Britani Knight . She went on to hold several championships on independent circuits within Europe . In 2011 , she signed a contract with WWE and started wrestling within its developmental systems , eventually debuting on WWE 's main roster in April 2014 . In her debut match on the main roster , she won the Divas Championship , becoming the youngest champion in the title 's history at the age of 21 .
= = Early life = =
Bevis was born and raised in Norwich , Norfolk , the daughter of professional wrestlers Ian Bevis and Julia Hamer @-@ Bevis , who once unknowingly wrestled while she was seven months pregnant with Bevis . As a child , Bevis was scared of wrestling because of the injuries her family received and the concept that her parents fought other people for a living . She also intended to become a zoologist . When she was around 10 or 11 years old , her father started running a wrestling training school every month . She took this opportunity to occasionally enter the wrestling ring , where her brothers taught her about wrestling . She did this until she was 13 , when she officially made her debut as a wrestler . At the age of 15 , Bevis worked as a bouncer and bartender at her parents ' bar while they were away . She attended The Hewett School in Norwich , graduating in 2008 .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = European independent circuit ( 2005 – 2011 ) = = =
Bevis made her debut in 2005 , at the age of 13 , when her father , who was running the show , asked her to replace a wrestler who failed to turn up . Her earliest recorded match was in April 2006 when she , using the ring name Britani Knight , teamed with her mother for a loss in a triple threat tag team match in World Association of Wrestling ( WAW ) . Knight then allied with Melodi to form a tag team called the Norfolk Dolls ( based on the movie The California Dolls ) and they wrestled in multiple English promotions . The Norfolk Dolls won the new World Association of Women 's Wrestling ( WAWW ) Tag Team Title in June 2007 by defeating the Legion of Womb , but it became inactive due to no title defenses by the Norfolk Dolls .
At the age of 14 , Knight sent résumés to numerous wrestling promotions around Europe and earned a chance to wrestle in countries like Scotland , Wales , Belgium , France , Turkey , Denmark , Norway , and Germany , as well as the United States , managing to travel by herself at 14 . She began to compete for singles championships without much initial success . In Scotland , Knight competed for the World Wide Wrestling League ( W3L ) Women 's Title , but lost to Sara in the tournament finals in September 2007 . In December 2007 , Knight took part in a tournament where the winner would become the first WAWW British Champion , but lost in the finals to Jetta . In 2008 , Knight challenged both Sara and Jetta for their respective titles , but failed in her title bids .
Knight went on to achieve more singles success from 2009 . In August 2009 , Knight defeated her mother Sweet Saraya in a two out of three falls match to capture the vacant Herts and Essex ( HEW ) Women 's Championship . Later that month , Knight once again defeated Saraya to capture the WAWW British Title . In November 2009 , Knight captured the Real Deal Wrestling ( RDW ) Women 's Title from her mother in an elimination match also featuring Chelsey Love and Stacey Baybie . In December 2009 , while in HEW , Knight won the RQW Women 's Championship by defeating Jetta in a champion vs. champion match with her HEW Women 's Title on the line . In May 2010 , Knight and her mother challenged Amazon and Ananya for the PWF Ladies Tag Team Championship , which they won . On 17 July 2010 , Knight lost the HEW Women 's Championship to her mother .
On 22 January 2011 , Knight captured the German Stampede Wrestling Ladies ' Title from Blue Nikita . Knight also competed at debut show of Turkish Power Wrestling in Ankara in January 2011 , with a losing effort against Shanna for the inaugural TPW Ladies Crown . On 11 March , she recaptured the HEW Women 's Championship from her mother . Knight returned to Pro Wrestling : EVE on 8 April to participate in a two @-@ night tournament to crown the first ever Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE Champion . In the first night , Knight lost a four @-@ way match to Jenny Sjödin , won a Last Chance battle royal , then defeated Sjödin in the quarter @-@ final match . The next day , she defeated Jetta in the semi @-@ final match , and later in the finals defeated Nikki Storm to win the Pro Wrestling : EVE Championship . On 30 April , Knight won the SCW Ladies Title by defeating champion Amy Cooper . Also in 2011 , Knight won an elimination match to become WAWW Hardcore Champion .
On 4 June , Knight lost her Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE Championship to Jenny Sjödin , and on 26 June , Knight lost her SCW Ladies Title to her mother during a four @-@ way match also involving Amy Cooper and Laura Wellings . On 2 August , Knight and her mother lost their PWF Ladies Tag Team Championship to Amazon and Destiny in a two out of three falls match . On 12 November , Knight vacated the HEW Women 's Championship . Knight also lost the WAWW British Championship to Liberty on 19 November 2011 , while also vacating the RQW Women 's Championship on that day .
= = = Shimmer Women Athletes ( 2011 ) = = =
Bevis , again billed as Britani Knight , debuted for the American all @-@ female promotion Shimmer Women Athletes on 26 March 2011 at the tapings of Volume 37 in Berwyn , Illinois . Teaming with her mother Saraya Knight , as the Knight Dynasty , they were managed by Rebecca Knox and defeated Nikki Roxx and Ariel via disqualification after the other team used the Dynasty 's brass knuckles . This led to the Knight Dynasty receiving Shimmer Tag Team Championship match against the Seven Star Sisters ( Hiroyo Matsumoto and Misaki Ohata ) at Volume 38 , which the Knight Dynasty lost .
In October 2011 at Volume 42 , the Knight Dynasty lost another Shimmer Tag Team Championship match against champions Ayako Hamada and Ayumi Kurihara when Saraya refused to help Britani . Saraya then scolded Britani after the match . At Volume 43 , Britani lost to Jessie McKay , which was her third consecutive loss . This led to Saraya disowning ( in storyline ) and slapping Britani , before a brawl between the two ensued and had to be pulled apart . Britani subsequently challenged Saraya to a match , at Volume 44 , where Britani defeated Saraya under no disqualification rules , in what was her final Shimmer match .
= = = WWE = = =
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
Bevis was first informed that there would be try @-@ outs for WWE when a talent scout came to a show in England . She was unsuccessful in her first try in November 2010 , but succeeded in April 2011 . In September 2011 , Bevis signed a contract with WWE and was assigned to its then @-@ developmental territory , Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) . She made her debut for FCW at a house show on 5 January 2012 , using the ring name Saraya . Her ring name was then changed to Paige , as she made her televised debut in an appearance on the 26 February episode of FCW TV . From March 2012 , Paige formed an alliance with Sofia Cortez , dubbing themselves the " Anti @-@ Diva Army " . Paige made her televised in @-@ ring debut in a tag team match alongside Cortez on 19 March , where the duo lost to Audrey Marie and Kaitlyn . Paige and Cortez then formed a brief association with Rick Victor , winning a mixed tag team match against Audrey Marie and Aiden English . On 6 May , Paige pinned the FCW Divas Champion , Raquel Diaz in a non @-@ title triple threat match , which also involved Audrey Marie . This earned Paige a championship match against Diaz on the 27 May episode of FCW TV , where Diaz 's chicanery led to Paige being disqualified and Diaz retained her title . Dissension was teased within the Anti @-@ Diva Army as Paige moved on to feud with Audrey Marie . Paige lost to Marie on 11 June on FCW TV after Cortez interfered against her , signalling the end of the alliance . On the final episode of FCW TV on 15 July , Paige and Cortez ended their feud with Marie emerging victorious in a no disqualification match .
= = = = NXT ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = = =
WWE went on to rebrand its developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) , into WWE NXT . Paige 's NXT television debut took place on the third episode of the rebooted WWE NXT , taped at Full Sail University , in which she lost to Sofia Cortez . From September 2012 , after gaining a large surge in crowd support Paige went on a winning streak defeating the likes of Audrey Marie , Sasha Banks , Emma , Aksana , and multiple victories over Alicia Fox .
On 30 January 2013 , Paige was assaulted by ring announcer Summer Rae , due to Rae 's jealousy of Paige 's popularity and success . On the 13 February episode of NXT , Paige suffered a shoulder injury after brawling with Rae , which Rae exploited later that episode to end Paige 's undefeated streak . After Paige continued to confront Rae , Paige defeated Rae in a singles match , despite Rae 's pre @-@ match attack , on the 1 May episode of NXT . In June , Paige entered a tournament to determine the first NXT Women 's Champion . She defeated Tamina Snuka and Alicia Fox en route to the final , in which she defeated Emma to become the inaugural champion .
Paige made her first successful title defense on the 14 August episode of NXT , defeating Summer Rae . In the following months , Paige teamed up with Emma to feud with Summer Rae and Sasha Banks . Paige successfully defended her title against Natalya on 4 December , on NXT , and on 27 February 2014 , at NXT Arrival against Emma . On 24 April , Paige was forced to vacate her NXT Women 's Championship , ending her reign at 308 days , due to being elevated to the main roster and winning the WWE Divas Championship .
= = = = Divas Champion ( 2014 ) = = = =
Paige made her unannounced debut on the main roster on the 7 April 2014 episode of Raw the night after WrestleMania XXX , congratulating WWE Divas Champion AJ Lee on her successful title defense at the pay @-@ per @-@ view event . AJ slapped Paige , challenging her to an impromptu match for the championship , which Paige quickly won , making her the youngest WWE Divas Champion in history at the age of 21 , the first Diva to win the title in her debut match and the only woman to hold both WWE Divas and NXT Women 's Championships . Paige had her first successful title defense on 28 April episode of Raw in an impromptu match against Brie Bella , which went to a no contest due to Kane attacking Brie , as Paige escaped . In her first successful title defense on pay – per – view , Paige defeated Tamina Snuka on 4 May at Extreme Rules .
She suffered her first defeat on the main roster on the 19 May episode of Raw against Alicia Fox in a non – title match which led to a title match between the two at Payback , where Paige prevailed . In June , Paige started a feud with Cameron and defeated her in two non – title matches . However , Cameron 's tag team partner , Naomi , went on to defeat Paige in a non – title match and was granted a title match Money in the Bank , which Paige won . During this time , WWE was criticized for failing to develop Paige 's character despite being able to do so for Paige 's opponents and for portraying Paige as a vulnerable champion while she was proving herself in the storyline .
On the post – Money in the Bank episode of Raw , on 30 June , a role reversal occurred , when a returning AJ Lee quickly defeated Paige in a title match to regain the Divas Championship , in which Paige was initially reluctant to face AJ but agreed to the match per request of the live audience . Despite the championship loss , Paige acted as if she were best friends with AJ during tag matches in which they teamed together . At Battleground , Paige lost a rematch for the Divas Championship to AJ . On the post – Battleground episode of Raw on 21 July , after Paige and AJ won a tag match against Natalya and Emma , Paige turned heel after viciously assaulting Lee . This eventually set up another title match between the two , on 17 August , Paige 's 22nd birthday , at SummerSlam , which Paige won to capture her second Divas Championship . A month later at Night of Champions , Paige lost the title back to Lee in a triple – threat match which also involved Nikki Bella . Paige then formed an alliance with Alicia Fox while still feuding against AJ but after Fox failed to secure Paige a victory in another title match against AJ at Hell in a Cell , Paige dissolved their alliance by attacking Fox the following night on Raw . At Survivor Series , Paige participated in a 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 elimination tag team match where she was the last person from her team to be eliminated , courtesy of Naomi .
= = = = The Divas Revolution ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the 5 January 2015 episode of Raw , Paige became a fan favorite again as she rescued Natalya from a post – match assault by WWE Divas Champion Nikki Bella which led to a non – title match between the two , the following night on Main Event , which Paige won . This led to a tag team match between Paige and Natalya against The Bella Twins at the Royal Rumble , which The Bella Twins won . Following weeks of being tormented by The Bella Twins , Paige unsuccessfully challenged Nikki for the Divas Championship at Fastlane and on the 2 March episode of Raw , after which , the returning AJ Lee saved Paige from a post – match attack by The Bellas . This led to a tag team match , at Wrestlemania 31 , between Paige and AJ against The Bella Twins , which AJ and Paige won in Paige 's Wrestlemania début . On the 13 April episode of Raw , Paige won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Nikki Bella 's Divas Championship and was attacked after the match by Naomi , who injured her in the storyline and made her unable to compete . Paige returned on the 18 May episode of Raw , after a one @-@ month absence , saving Nikki Bella from an attack by Naomi and Tamina Snuka , before attacking Bella as well . This prompted a triple – threat match between Paige , Naomi and Nikki at Elimination Chamber , which Paige lost . In June , Paige went on to unsuccessfully challenge Nikki for the championship in two singles matches on Raw and Money in the Bank , after Nikki and Brie switched places and in a triple – threat match , on 4 July at The Beast in the East , which also involved Tamina .
On the 13 July episode of Raw , after weeks of being outnumbered by The Bella Twins and their ally Alicia Fox , Stephanie McMahon called for a " revolution " in the Divas division , introducing the débuting Charlotte and Becky Lynch as Paige 's allies and NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks as an ally of Naomi and Tamina , which led to a brawl between the three teams . The trio of Paige , Charlotte and Lynch , originally dubbed as " Submission Sorority " , was renamed to " Team PCB " , after the first – name initials of each wrestler . The three teams would ultimately face off at SummerSlam in a three team elimination match , which PCB won , after Becky Lynch pinned Brie Bella . On the 31 August episode of Raw , all members of PCB competed in the first ever " Divas beat the clock challenge " , however , Charlotte was named number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship , as Paige fought Sasha Banks to a time limit draw . This led to two matches between Paige and Banks on the 7 and 14 September episodes of Raw , which Banks won , and on the 10 September episode of SmackDown , where the two fought to a no – contest .
Charlotte won the Divas Championship from Nikki Bella on 20 September at Night of Champions , and during her celebration the following night on Raw , Paige turned on her partners and cut a worked shoot promo , where she claimed Charlotte was only there because of her father and berated other members of the Divas Division , including Lynch and Natalya , showing signs of a heel turn . This also led to Paige having multiple confrontations with Natalya . Throughout October , Paige , working as a tweener , acted as if she wanted to reconcil with Lynch and Charlotte , only to attack them and solidify her heel turn . In November , Paige became the new number one contender for Charlotte 's Divas Championship , after winning a fatal four – way match , but was unsuccessful in regaining the title , on three different occasions : at Survivor Series , when she lost by submission , the following night on Raw , in a rematch , which ended in a double count – out , and at TLC , when she once again lost .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
Paige took some time off television after her rivalry with Charlotte due to injury , and returned on the 18 January 2016 episode of Raw , once again as a fan favorite , accompanying her former rival Natalya to her match against Brie Bella . Upon her return , Paige started competing in various singles and tag team matches , ending on both winning and losing sides . Paige then aligned herself with fellow Total Divas cast members Brie Bella , Natalya , Alicia Fox and Eva Marie , facing Lana , Naomi , Tamina , Summer Rae and Emma in a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match on the WrestleMania 32 kick @-@ off show , which Team Total Divas would win . After defeating WWE Women 's Champion Charlotte on two occasions , Paige was granted a title match on the 20 June episode of Raw , where she failed to capture the title , and would be attacked by Charlotte and her accomplice Dana Brooke post @-@ match , before being saved by Sasha Banks , this led to a tag team match the following week on the June 27 episode of Raw , where Paige and Banks scored the victory . On 19 July , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Paige was drafted to Raw .
= = Other media = =
In July 2012 , Channel 4 produced a documentary about Bevis and her family titled The Wrestlers : Fighting with My Family .
Paige made her video game debut as a downloadable character in WWE 2K15 , and is featured as a playable character in WWE 2K16 .
In October 2014 , Paige joined the cast of Total Divas , a reality television show produced by WWE and E ! , for the second part of the show 's third season , which began airing in 2015 . Paige guest starred on the 14 January 2016 episode of the MTV series Ridiculousness . She appeared alongside Natalya , Brie Bella , and the Chrisley family on the 88th Academy Awards edition of E ! Countdown to the Red Carpet on February 28 .
In March 2015 , Paige was featured in Smosh 's 131st installment of Game Bang , along with Xavier Woods , Seth Rollins , and Daniel Bryan . Paige frequently appears at Wizard World comic con events across the United States , hosting fan signings , photo ops , and Q & A sessions . In June 2015 , Paige became one of the judges on the sixth season of Tough Enough . Before the show started , Paige predicted that she would fulfill a role similar to Simon Cowell as a judge . On 3 August 2015 , Paige was a guest on Stone Cold Steve Austin 's Stone Cold Podcast , which aired on the WWE Network . She was a guest on Conan on 22 October .
Paige starred in her first WWE Studios film titled Santa 's Little Helper , alongside The Miz , AnnaLynne McCord , and WWE Superstar Maryse , which was released in November 2015 . She will provide a voice role in the WWE Studios and Sony Pictures Animation film Surf 's Up 2 : WaveMania , which is due for release in 2017 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Business ventures = =
In September 2015 , Bevis co @-@ launched a coffee company called The Dark Gypsy with Blackcraft Cult clothing company owners Bobby Schubenski and Jim Somers .
= = Personal life = =
Bevis is part of a professional wrestling family . Her parents , Julia Hamer @-@ Bevis and Ian Bevis , and her older brothers , Roy Bevis and Zak Frary , are professional wrestlers . The family runs the World Association of Wrestling ( WAW ) promotion in Norwich . Her mother owns and operates Bellatrix Female Warriors , a women 's wrestling promotion also based in Norwich . For a time , WWE Hall of Famer Jake " The Snake " Roberts lived with the family . Bevis cites Bull Nakano , Alundra Blayze , Lita , Rikishi and Stone Cold Steve Austin as some of her favorite wrestlers .
Bevis suffers from scoliosis . She was unaware that she had the condition until after signing with WWE , when a trainer noticed that her back looked wrong .
On the WWE reality television show Total Divas , Paige acknowledged having previously " been with " another woman . Total Divas also featured Paige having a relationship with Emarosa singer Bradley Walden . She dated A Day to Remember guitarist Kevin Skaff from May 2015 until February 2016 . In May 2016 , it was reported that Paige was dating fellow WWE wrestler Alberto Del Rio .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Black Widow ( Octopus hold ) – 2014 ; parodied from AJ Lee
Knight Light ( Independent circuit ) / Ram @-@ Paige ( WWE ) ( Cradle DDT )
Paige @-@ Turner ( Swinging leg hook fireman 's carry slam ) – 2012 – 14 , used rarely thereafter
PTO – Paige Tap Out ( Inverted sharpshooter with double chickenwing ) – adopted from Bull Nakano
Ram @-@ Paige ( Cloverleaf while kneeling on the opponent 's back – 2012 – 13
Signature moves
Fallaway slam
Fisherman suplex
Hair @-@ pull toss
High knee , to a cornered or kneeling opponent
Knight Rider ( Leg trap sunset flip powerbomb ) ( independent circuit )
Modified cross @-@ legged STF
Multiple back elbows to a cornered opponent
Multiple headbutts
Multiple knee lifts , to an opponent leaning through the ropes , with theatrics
Multiple short @-@ arm clotheslines
Multiple stomps , to the chest of an opponent seated in the corner
Rope hung Boston crab ( independent circuit )
Running single leg dropkick
Samoan drop
Somersault senton , from the ring apron
Stan Lane ( independent circuit ) / Side kick ( WWE )
Managers
Rebecca Knox
Wrestlers managed
Rick Victor
Nicknames
" The Anti @-@ Diva "
" The Diva of Tomorrow "
Entrance themes
" Faint " by Linkin Park ( Shimmer )
" Smashed in the Face " by George Gabriel ( FCW / NXT ; 19 March 2012 – 26 February 2014 )
" Stars in the Night " by CFO $ ( NXT / WWE ; 27 February 2014 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
German Stampede Wrestling
GSW Ladies Championship ( 1 time )
Herts & Essex Wrestling
HEW Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
Premier Wrestling Federation
PWF Ladies Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Sweet Saraya
Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE
Pro @-@ Wrestling : EVE Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her No. 1 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2014
Real Deal Wrestling
RDW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Real Quality Wrestling
RQW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Rolling Stone
Diva of the Year ( 2014 )
Swiss Championship Wrestling
SCW Ladies Championship ( 1 time )
World Association of Women 's Wrestling
WAWW British Ladies Championship ( 1 time )
WAWW British Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Melodi
WAWW Ladies Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2015 ) Team PCB vs. Team B.A.D. vs. Team Bella
WWE NXT
NXT Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
NXT Women 's Championship Tournament ( 2013 )
WWE
WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times )
|
= Royal Grammar School , Guildford =
The Royal Grammar School , Guildford ( originally " The Free School " ) , commonly known as the RGS , is a selective English independent day school for boys in Guildford , Surrey . The school dates its founding to the death of Robert Beckingham in 1509 who left provision in his will to ' make a free scole at the Towne of Guldford ' ; in 1512 a governing body was set up to form the school . The school moved to the present site in the upper High Street after the granting of a royal charter from King Edward VI in 1552 . The school 's Old Building , constructed between 1557 and 1586 , is the home of a rare example of a chained library . It was established on the death of John Parkhurst , Bishop of Norwich , in 1575 . Although defined as a " free " school , the first statutes of governance , approved in 1608 , saw the introduction of school fees , at the rate of 4 shillings per annum , along with the school 's first admissions test . During the late 19th century the school ran into financial difficulty , which nearly resulted in the closure of the school . A number of rescue options were explored , including amalgamation with Archbishop Abbott 's School . Funds were eventually raised , however , which allowed the school to remain open , although boarding was no longer offered .
Fee paying continued until the school adopted voluntary controlled status under the Education Act 1944 ; thereafter tuition was free and the common entrance examination at 11 was introduced . Soon after , in 1958 , the school expanded with the construction of the New Building in the grounds of Allen House , a building used for a number of years as a boarding house and later as classrooms . Allen House was later demolished in 1964 just after the completion of the New Building . During December 1962 the historic Old Building caught fire , damaging a large part of it , including the two oldest rooms in the school . The damage was so great the reconstruction took over two years . The school became independent and fee paying in 1977 , when the parents and staff raised sufficient funds to purchase the school following concerns about the abolition of grammar school status with the introduction of comprehensive education .
The school initially educated 30 of the " poorest men 's sons " , though has since grown to have approximately 900 students , about 300 of whom are in the sixth form . The majority of pupils , approximately two thirds , enter at age 11 in the first form , a few ( 3 @-@ 5 pupils ) enter in the second form at the age of 12 , with the remainder entering at 13 in the third form . Admissions are based on an entrance examination set by the school , and an interview . The school performs well academically , and as such is placed high on published league tables . A number of students achieve places at either Oxford or Cambridge universities . The school partakes in a number of sporting activities , and has enjoyed some success , including finishing within the top two in the Daily Mail Cup twice . The school maintains a grammar school ethos , and as such runs a number of outreach programmes for students from local maintained schools , for which it won the Independent School Award 2010 for Outstanding Community / Public Benefit Initiative . The Headmaster is a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference .
= = History = =
The founding of the school dates to 1509 and the death of Robert Beckingham , a wealthy grocer , a member of the Worshipful Company of Grocers and a Freeman of the City of London . In his will he requested that the parishioners of St Olave 's Church , Southwark , should obtain a licence to endow a chantry priest to say masses for his soul . If they failed to do this within two years of his death , his executors had discretion either to use the property to ' make a free scole at the Towne of Guldford ' or to put the income to some other good charitable use . The licence was not obtained within the required time , and so in 1512 , Beckingham 's executors formally conveyed the lands in the bequest to a body of trustees consisting of the Mayor of Guildford and four ' sad and discrete men ' who had formerly been mayors . With the rents , they were to provide a free grammar school in Guildford with a ' sufficient schoolmaster ' , to teach thirty " of the poorest @-@ men 's sons " to read and write English and cast accounts perfectly , so that they would be fit to become apprentices . The school was built in 1520 in Castle Ditch ( now Castle Street ) with financial assistance from Guildford municipal corporation .
Over the coming years the school ran into financial difficulty and so " The Mayor and Approved Men " of Guildford petitioned Edward VI to grant them further endowments for maintenance . One of the King 's closest advisers , William Parr , had a particular affection for the town , having himself spent a large amount of time at the King 's manor house in Guildford , and it was he who advised the King to re @-@ appropriate some of the funds arising from the Abolition of the Chantries Acts to the school . Thus in January 1552 Edward VI ordered that there was to be " one Grammar School in Guildford called the Free Grammar School of King Edward VI for the education , institution and instruction of boys and youths in Grammar at all future times forever to endure " , along with a grant of 20 pounds per year ; the school acquired therewith the right to style itself a Royal Grammar School . The high street site was purchased in 1555 with the construction of the Grade I listed Tudor Old Building starting in 1557 . Construction was completed in 1586 .
The death of John Parkhurst , the Bishop of Norwich , in 1575 resulted in the founding of the school 's chained library . In his will he gave " the most parte of all my Latten bookes whereof shall be made a catalogue as shortelie as I may God sendinge me lief " , although obtaining these books was not without its difficulties . Initially the executors of his will used " all the cullerable shifts and practices " to prevent the books from moving to the school . These continued to such an extent that the mayor was forced to complain to the Lord High Treasurer , William Cecil , who summoned the executors to London . Upon a hearing with the executors , the Lord Treasurer referred them to Sir Walter Mildmay who was Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time . He demanded that the executors give everything left in the Will to the school . Following the ruling , however , the books passed to Edmund Freke , the new Bishop of Norwich , who kept them for himself at his residence . This continued until the school obtained letters from Her Majesty 's Privy Council requiring the books be delivered . The books then finally arrived at the school several years late , although the Bishop kept a number of the best for himself . Since this date the library has been added to , most notably between 1600 and 1800 . The library is housed within the Gallery ( now the Headmaster 's Study ) in the Old Building , with the present bookcases dating from 1897 . The oldest book within the library was printed in Venice around 1480 , with the oldest English book printed in about 1500 bearing the imprint of Wynkyn de Worde . Today the library is one of the few remaining examples of a chained library located within a school .
After the granting of the charter , it took 50 years before the first set of statutes to govern the school were completed . The Bishop of Winchester approved the statutes on 16 September 1608 , and they constituted a major change in the way the school was run . Until this point the boys were instructed in English and accounting , but following the statutes lessons were in the subjects of Latin and Greek ; with students required to speak in Latin unless licensed by the master to do otherwise . Admissions following the charter also changed , with " none to be admitted scholar into the said school before he be brought to the schoolmaster of that school , and upon his examination shall be found to have learned the rudiments of grammar , called the Accidence . " All scholars from the town of Guildford were required to pay the master 5 shillings on admission to the school , and for those from outside the town the charge was 10s . The number of pupils at the school was capped at 100 , although this number was rarely reached . The statues also saw the introduction of school fees . Although defined as a " free " school , fees were still charged at the rate of 4s. per annum , paid as 9d. per quarter for the provision of " rods and brooms " , with an additional shilling due on the feast of St. Michael , which was used to pay for " clean , wax candles " .
On the death of Joseph Nettles ( an old boy of the school ) in 1691 the school 's first university scholarship was founded . Nettles left eleven acres of land in his will to his daughter Elizabeth Brindley , then following her death to Sir Richard Onslow and his heirs , with the rents from the land to be paid to the school for the maintenance of a scholar at Oxford or Cambridge . The scholar was to be a son of a freeman of the town of Guildford who " should have read some Greek author " and " be well instructed and knowing in the Latin tongue " . His fitness in these fields was tested by the master of the school , and the rectors of the parishes of Stoke next Guildford and St. Nicholas in Guildford . If admitted to any college within the universities , he would then receive the rents from the lands for six years . At the end of six years , upon the scholar 's death , or his removal from the university ( whichever the sooner ) , another scholar was selected . If no scholar was deemed suitable and a vacancy arose , then the next scholar selected would receive the standard yearly rate , along with any rents acquired during the vacancy . The rents arising from the lands were roughly £ 23 per year . The scholarship ceased to be awarded at some point after 1951 .
In 1866 the then headmaster Revd Henry G Merriman ( headmaster 1859 – 75 ) purchased Allen House , a large house set in extensive grounds which stood opposite the school . The house took its name from Anthony Allen , Master of Chancery and Mayor of Guildford in 1740 . This was initially used as a boarding house for the school between 1866 – 74 before later being purchased by Surrey County Council in 1921 and was used by the school until its demolition in 1964 . The grounds surrounding the house were purchased in 1914 by HA Powell and donated to the school as playing fields .
During the mid to late 19th century the school fell into disrepair and decay . Guildford Municipal Charities established a committee to report into the general condition of the school and the buildings . The committee reported in 1881 that the school had no funds available for repairs and that there were only nine boys " instead of the former ordinary number of 100 " . Various suggestions were made by the Charity Commission to raise funds for the school , including a reorganisation with Archbishop Abbot 's School . The Committee for Maintaining Higher Education in Guildford was established in March 1887 to oppose the Charity Commission 's draft scheme to amalgamate the RGS , Nettle 's Charity and Archbishop Abbot 's School . The committee raised £ 2 @,@ 238 15s . 4d . ( approximately £ 108 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) towards the restoration of the RGS , ensuring its survival . A new Charity Commission scheme came into effect in November 1888 which resulted in the Old Building being restored , and the school 's continuation as a day only school . Several years later under the Education Act 1944 the school adopted voluntary controlled status ; tuition was therefore free and entrance was to be by common examination at the age of eleven .
The construction of the New Building started in 1958 in the grounds of Allen House and initially consisted of a gymnasium , assembly hall , dining hall and kitchens , caretaker 's flat , staff common rooms , junior library , cloakrooms and changing rooms , eight classrooms , science lecture theatre , five science laboratories , geography and art rooms , and various offices , stores and smaller rooms arranged in a J shape . The construction of the initial building was finished in 1963 .
On the morning of Sunday 2 December 1962 , a fire broke out in the Old Building . It caused widespread damage to a large part of the structure , including the two oldest rooms in the school , School Room and Big School . The main concern was to prevent the books contained within the chained library from being damaged , either by fire or water from the fire brigade 's hoses . The damage to the building was so great that rebuilding took over 2 years , with the unusually cold winter of 1962 – 1963 delaying the restoration . Lessons , however , continued throughout on the Allen House side of the high street .
The school became independent in 1977 when the parents and staff of the school , led by the Chairman of the Governors , John Fergrieve Brown , raised sufficient funds to purchase the school . The RGS then withdrew from the government maintained system , becoming independent and fee paying . This was followed in 1978 by the purchase of Lanesborough Preparatory School which became the junior school , preparing boys for entry to the RGS at either 11 or 13 .
More recently in 2003 construction finished on a new Sports Centre with Fitness Suite and All Weather Training Area with Shooting Range . Followed in 2006 with refurbishments to the Old Building site ; the old gymnasium was converted into a Sixth Form Centre and the Victorian science laboratories ( some of the earliest in the country ) converted into the Art School .
In 2009 / 2010 the school celebrated the quincentennial anniversary of the founding of the school by Robert Beckingham ; numerous events were organised , including a new musical work based loosely on the school hymn " To be a Pilgrim " . This year also saw a visit from Princess Anne , The Princess Royal .
RGS Guildford is due to open a campus in Doha , Qatar as part of Qatar 's Outstanding Schools Program . RGS Guildford in Qatar will open initially to boys and girls ages three to seven years old ( pre @-@ school to year 2 ) in September , with the rest of the primary school slated to open in 2017 . According to Bob Ukaih the school aims to open two separate single @-@ sex secondary schools - one for girls and one for boys - in Doha by September 2018 .
= = Academic = =
The school has a First Form ( Year 7 ) intake of four classes ; followed by another intake in the Third Form ( Year 9 ) of two classes , resulting in an average year size of 150 , and a sixth form of about 300 . The pupil teacher ratio is approximately 10 : 1 and is low by general school standards . Class sizes range from twenty to twenty @-@ five in the First Form through to GCSE , but are less than 16 by the final two years .
Pupils are required to take at least ten GCSE subjects during Fourth and Fifth forms , which must include Biology , Chemistry , Physics , Mathematics , English Literature , English Language , a Modern Foreign Language and a Humanity ( History , Religious Studies or Geography ) . In recent years the school has been offering the IGCSE in Maths , Biology , Chemistry , Physics , Modern Languages , History and Technology . Boys in the Sixth Form usually take four AS Levels and continue with three to A2 level .
It features highly in published A @-@ level and GCSE league tables for England and Wales . Pupils at the school are very successful at gaining places at both Oxford and Cambridge universities ; the school often features within the top 20 in the country with regards to number of places awarded . The school also sends pupils to other universities , including Durham , Imperial and UCL .
= = School life = =
= = = Terms = = =
As in most schools in the UK there are three terms in the academic year :
The Michaelmas Term from early September to mid @-@ December . This is the normal term for new boys to be admitted into the school
The Lent Term from early January to a time a week or two before Easter falls that year
The Trinity Term from mid @-@ late April to early July , during which time boys sit most public exams
= = = House system = = =
There are six houses at the RGS , named after various benefactors of the school :
Each pupil is assigned to one of the six houses upon joining the school , and a pupil 's house can be indicated to others by optional colour @-@ related clothing . If someone joins as the second in their direct family to do so , they are put in the same house as their relative . There are inter @-@ house competitions throughout the year ( including rugby , hockey , reading , and chess ) and then at the end of the year the points awarded in each event throughout the year are added up , and the house with most points is awarded the Cock House Cup , which is the traditional name given in British public schools for the in @-@ school competition cup .
The school 's official livery colour is green , picked as a house @-@ neutral colour .
= = = School uniform = = =
The school 's uniform up to the end of Fifth Form is a white shirt , dark or light grey trousers and a single @-@ breasted navy blue school blazer . A grey or dark blue , v @-@ neck pullover without sleeves may also be worn . For the lower and upper sixth , navy blue or grey suits are instead worn , and upper sixth formers are permitted to wear pastel shaded shirts . A woollen scarf in the school colours : green , red and white ; the sixth form scarf has longitudinal stripes . All years are required to wear one of the approved school ties . Various ties are awarded for sporting , artistic or social achievements , along with half and full colours awarded for services to the school and house colours awarded for services to the house ; Senior Prefect ties are awarded to those with the position . Recently there have also been commemorative ties celebrating 450 years since the granting of the Royal Charter , and 500 years since the founding of the school .
= = = Sport = = =
Sport is compulsory for all years during games periods and if selected for a team can require compulsory attendance on Saturdays . A once pupil at the school , John Derrick , is connected with the earliest mention of cricket in England when , in a 1598 court case about an ownership dispute over a plot of common land in Guildford , he gave witness that when he was a scholar at the " Free School at Guildford " , " hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . "
In the Michaelmas term rugby union is the main sport , hockey is also played .
In the Lent term hockey is the main sport , rugby sevens is also played
In the Trinity term cricket is the main sport , athletics is an option .
The sports of badminton , cross country running , fencing , football , golf , judo , rowing , sailing , swimming and tennis are available , the list varies by year and term . Sixth form also have a " Spectrum " games option where boys are permitted to use any of the facilities at Guildford Spectrum during the games period .
The sport of target rifle shooting is an option among those in the 3rd year and above , but only available to members of the CCF . In the first and second years , before the CCF is an option , there is an air rifle club , which teaches basics before moving onto " rifles . The shooting team have had a lot of success , not only winning both major smallbore competitions , the Staniforth and the Country Life , but also finishing an impressive second at fullbore in the Ashburton at the Annual Schools Meeting held at Bisley .
The school has enjoyed some success in rugby where it has had first and second places at various levels of the Daily Mail Cup .
On 6 February 2016 , Jack Clifford became the first Old Guildfordian to become a full England rugby international when he made his full debut as a replacement for Chris Robshaw during the Calcutta Cup match on 6 February 2016 after 69 minutes .
Since 2003 the six Royal Grammar Schools ( Colchester , High Wycombe , Guildford , Lancaster , Newcastle , Worcester ) have held the " RGS Cricket Festival " , hosted by a different school each year . It is based on a round robin format and held over a period of five days towards the end of the Trinity term .
The school has no playing fields on the town centre site . A 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) ground called Bradstone Brook , located a few miles away in the village of Chilworth , is the location of the rugby and cricket pitches . There is a single AstroTurf located at the main school for hockey and football . The majority of hockey takes place at Guildford Hockey Club , located at Broadwater School in Farncombe or Surrey Sports Park . Athletics and swimming both take place at Guildford Spectrum .
= = = Extra @-@ curricular activities = = =
Music
Music is part of the core curriculum for first to third forms . Pupils take lessons with peripatetic music staff within different disciplines . There is a symphony orchestra composed of students , along with several other smaller classical ensembles . In addition to classical music , there are also a number of jazz and rock bands within the school as well , and to recognise this in addition to the four main music prizes awarded each year , there is an additional contemporary music prize .
Drama
Drama is offered as an academic subject from the first form , but as well as this numerous plays are staged throughout the year for all year groups in association with local girls schools . The department has a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art auditorium which was converted from the old gymnasium as well as a studio called the Hansford Room sited in the North Building .
Period 8
Period 8 is a specific set of extra @-@ curricular activities which includes a Combined Cadet Force , outdoor pursuits , Scouts , lifesaving and community service . There are five field days in the year , on which these activities especially take place . Before the third form , pupils have the opportunity to decide between the CCF , outdoor pursuits and the scouts . The Duke of Edinburgh 's Award scheme is ' Hors Combat ' for choice , being available to all students , regardless of their other options , so no longer officially constitutes part of period 8 .
Clubs and societies
There are several dozen clubs and societies at the school , many of these are where pupils get together to discuss a topic of particular interest sometimes with a guest speaker . Past speakers include the ex @-@ government drug adviser Professor David Nutt . There are a wide variety of different societies ranging from the normal such as badminton and Amnesty International to the more obscure like " Quirks and Remnants " and the " RumDoodle Society " .
Publications
The Register ( originally Really Good Stuff ) is a termly newsletter documenting significant achievements at the school .
= = Admission and fees = =
Initially tuition at the school was free , funded by various endowments and rents obtained from lands the most significant arising from the Abolition of the Chantries Acts , and the re @-@ appropriation of funds to the school . In 1944 under the Education Act education remained free , however the common entrance exam at eleven was introduced and the school became a selective grammar school . School fees were introduced in 1977 when the school withdrew from the maintained system and became independent . For the year 2013 / 2014 they are £ 14 @,@ 670 ( approximately € 17 @,@ 900 or US $ 24 @,@ 500 as of March 2014 ) per year excluding lunches . All those wishing to be admitted now take the schools own internal 11 + entrance examination which tests English , mathematics and verbal reasoning and attend an interview with two members of staff . If a place is awarded , entry can de deferred for two years so that boys who are at prep school may enter at thirteen . Those entering at thirteen must take the 13 + Common Entrance or the scholarship examination to confirm their place .
Numerous scholarships are available at both 11 + and 13 + for music , academic achievement , and one for art at thirteen . Music and academic scholarships range in value between 5 % – 20 % with one Kings Scholarship available for a 20 % reduction in fees . These scholarships are awarded based on performance in subject specific exams or performances , and an interview with the headmaster for academic or music scholarships , or the presentation of a portfolio of work for the art scholarship . Until the start of the 2009 / 2010 academic year , the value of scholarships was substantially higher with the King 's Scholarships worth 50 % of the fees and a range of lower scholarships between 10 – 30 % .
= = Charitable status and public benefit = =
The school is a registered charity and currently has three charities registered with the Charities Commission : King Edward VI 's Grammar School ( The Royal Grammar School ) , Guildford , The Royal Grammar School Guildford ( representing the governors ) , and The Royal Grammar School Guildford Foundation After the withdrawal of the Assisted Places Scheme in 1997 the social diversity of the school decreased , as a result the school began to offer bursaries to students whose parents could not afford the fees , with the first bursary offered in 2007 .
The school also runs numerous outreach programmes for children from maintained schools in the local area , including a series of master @-@ classes in science , mathematics , technology , languages and drama for local primary school children . Also for primary school children is the Tudor Experience Project where students can explore the Tudor past of the school through a number of activities . At the higher end of the school , numerous careers and university seminars are run for sixth form students from the local area , in addition to Oxbridge preparation classes and practice interviews for local sixth form students . The school also runs several more outreach programmes , and as a result of these initiatives was recently awarded the Independent School Award 2010 for Outstanding Community / Public Benefit Initiative .
= = Headmasters = =
The post of headmaster ( schoolmaster or just master as it was originally known ) was created following the grant of the Royal Charter in 1552 , with the first appointment made in 1554 . There have been 35 appointments since the creation of the position . Until the re @-@ organisation of the school in 1888 the post was almost exclusively filled by men from a religious background , with the first headmaster being Sir Lawson , a friar from the monastery in Guildford that was dissolved in 1538 . The most notable headmaster was Roger Goad ( 1569 – 1575 ) , who was Provost of Kings College , Cambridge and three times Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University of Cambridge ; he was headmaster during the time when George Abbot ( Archbishop of Canterbury 1611 – 1633 ) was at the school .
= = Former pupils = =
Former pupils of the school are referred to as " Old Guildfordians " and are often referred to as " OGs " in official school correspondence . Since the school 's founding , notable alumni have included the 75th Archbishop of Canterbury , Olympic athletes , the longest serving speaker of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom , several members of the parliament of the United Kingdom , a founding member of the East India Company and the 11th Premier of New Zealand .
= = Old Guildfordians = =
" — " indicates year of leaving is unknown .
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= Cyclone Orson =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Orson was the fourth most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Australian region . Forming out of a tropical low on 17 April 1989 , Orson gradually intensified as it tracked towards the west . After attaining Category 5 intensity on 20 April , the storm began to track southward and accelerated . The following day , the cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 904 hPa ( mbar ) . Orson maintained this intensity for nearly two days before making landfall near Dampier . The cyclone rapidly weakened after landfall as it accelerated to the southeast . After moving into the Great Australian Bight on 24 April , the storm dissipated .
Despite Orson 's extreme intensity , damage was relatively minimal as it struck a sparsely populated region of Western Australia . Five people were killed offshore and damages amounted to A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) . The storm damaged a new gas platform that explored a possible oil field , believed to contain nearly 200 million barrels ( 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil . The damage delayed the project for nearly two weeks . The most severe impacts took place in Pannawonica , where 70 homes were damaged . Following the storm , cleanup costs reached A $ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) . Due to the severity of the storm , the name Orson was retired after the season .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Orson originated out of a tropical low , monitored by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , that formed northwest of Darwin , Australia on 17 April 1989 . The system tracked southwest throughout the day before turning due west and strengthening into a tropical cyclone , at which time it received the name Orson . At this time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also began monitoring the storm as Tropical Storm 28S . The forward motion of the storm gradually slowed as it intensified and on 19 April , Orson attained Category 3 status on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , classifying Orson as a severe tropical cyclone . Later that day , as the storm attained Category 4 status , an eye developed . By this time , Orson began to turn towards the southwest and on 20 April , the storm intensified into a Category 5 cyclone with winds of 210 km / h ( 130 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .
The JTWC also reported significant strengthening during the same period . They assessed Orson to have attained an intensity equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale on 22 April with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Around this time , the storm tracked directly over the North Rankin gas platform . The platform was in the 40 km ( 25 mi ) wide eye of Orson for roughly 40 minutes . A weather station there recorded a barometric pressure of 904 hPa ( mbar ; 26 @.@ 69 inHg ) and wind gusts of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) before the station was damaged . This was , at the time , the lowest pressure ever recorded in the Australian region since records began . It was later surpassed by Severe Tropical Cyclone Gwenda in 1999 when that storm attained a pressure of 900 hPa ( mbar ) . By this time , Cyclone Orson was roughly 555 km ( 345 mi ) in diameter .
Continuing on a southerly track , accelerating ahead of an approaching cold front , Cyclone Orson made landfall , near Dampier , around 4 : 45 am AWST on 23 April ( 2045 UTC 22 April ) . with winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . The JTWC also reported that Orson had weakened , with winds at landfall estimated at 230 km / h ( 145 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Tracking at 28 km / h ( 17 mph ) , the weakening storm passed over Pannawonica . Less than 12 hours after landfall , the storm weakened below Category 3 status . By this time , the JTWC was no longer monitoring the system . Around 5 : 00 am AWST on 24 April ( 2100 UTC 23 April ) , Orson weakened to a tropical low while situated over southern Western Australia . Continuing to accelerate to nearly 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) , the remnants of the storm moved over the Great Australian Bight late on 24 April . Several hours after moving back over water , the storm dissipated .
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . The Bureau of Meteorology 's peak intensity for Orson was 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Orson was 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Cyclone Orson approached the coast of Western Australia , residents were urged to prepare for the storm ; people proceeded to clean up litter , secure outdoor items and make sure their disaster kits were stocked . All 200 personnel from a A $ 1 @.@ 5 billion gas platform off the coast were evacuated ahead of the storm . Since Cyclone Orson made landfall in a sparsely populated region , its effects were relatively light compared to its intensity . More than 20 fishermen were reported missing during the storm .
On 23 April , a rescue mission with three aircraft recovered roughly 20 fisherman , while one was still missing . Offshore , the storm killed four Indonesian fishermen after their ships sank in swells up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) produced by the storm . The North Rankin gas platform sustained minor damage despite wind gusts reaching 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) and waves estimated at 21 m ( 69 ft ) . The large swells also delayed the find of a major oil field that contained more than 200 million barrels ( 32 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil . The waves knocked a drill rig used to find oil out of position ; it would take several days for the drill rig to be repositioned . After an assessment of damage , it was found that the drill rig snapped off and broke the chains of two anchors before drifting nearly 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the platform . The repositioning and cleanup of the drill rig delayed the project by nearly two weeks . The damages from Cyclone Orson increased the total cost of the platform to roughly A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) .
Upon making landfall , Orson produced a storm surge of 3 @.@ 1 m ( 10 ft ) . This came during low tide , having a height of 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) . Severe erosion was recorded along coastal areas , some losing nearly 20 m ( 66 ft ) of rocks . Wind gusts in Dampier reached 183 km / h ( 114 mph ) and a station near where Orson made landfall recorded a wind gust of 211 km / h ( 131 mph ) . Harbour officials stated that several ships were knocked off their moorings and washed up onshore . In Karratha , the local weather radar sustained roughly A $ 900 @,@ 000 ( US $ 760 @,@ 000 ) in damages . A nearby airport was also damaged . The jetty at Point Samson was severely damaged and eventually removed .
The most severe damage took place in the mining town of Pannawonica , where 70 homes were damaged by the storm . Numerous trees and power lines were downed along the storm 's path . Before dissipating , the storm left one additional person missing after contact was lost with his yacht . Later reports confirmed that the missing person drowned during the storm . Twenty people were also injured during the storm , 60 were left homeless and about 1 @,@ 000 were affected . Total damages from the storm were estimated at A $ 20 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 8 million ) and repair costs reached A $ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) . Due to the severity of the storm , the name Orson was retired after the season .
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= Common vampire bat =
The common vampire bat ( Desmodus rotundus ) is a small , leaf @-@ nosed bat native to the Americas . It is one of three extant species of vampire bat , the other two being the hairy @-@ legged and the white @-@ winged vampire bats . These species are the only known parasitic mammals . The common vampire bat mainly feeds on the blood of livestock , approaching its prey at night while they are sleeping . It uses its razor @-@ sharp teeth to cut open the skin of its hosts and laps up their blood with its long tongue .
The species is highly polygynous , and dominant adult males defend groups of females . It is one of the most social of bat species with a number of cooperative behaviors such as social grooming and food sharing . Because it feeds on livestock and is a carrier of rabies , the common vampire bat is considered a pest . Its conservation status is categorized as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) because of " its wide distribution , presumed large population tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . "
= = Taxonomy = =
The common vampire bat was first classified as Phyllostoma rotundum by Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire in 1810 . The species received several scientific names before being given its current one — Desmodus rotundus — by Oldfield Thomas in 1901 . It is classified under the subfamily Desmodontinae along with two other species : the hairy @-@ legged vampire bat ( Diphylla ecaudata ) , and the white @-@ winged vampire bat ( Diaemus youngi ) . These three species compose the " true " vampire bats , as opposed to the " false " vampires of the family Megadermatidae and the spectral bat . All three species of Desmodontinae specialize in feeding on the blood of warm @-@ blooded animals . However , the common vampire bat feeds on mammalian blood more than the other two species , which primarily feed on that of birds . The three species resemble each other , but the common vampire bat can be distinguished by its longer thumb . It is the only extant member of its genus , although other fossil species have been described .
= = Physical description = =
The common vampire bat is short @-@ haired , with silver @-@ gray fur on its undersides , demarcated from the darker fur on its back . It has a deeply grooved lower lip , and a flat , leaf @-@ shaped nose . A well @-@ developed , clawed thumb on each wing is used to climb onto prey and to assist the animal in take @-@ off . The bat averages about 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long with a wingspan of 18 cm ( 7 in ) . It commonly weighs about 25 @-@ 40 grams ( 2 oz ) , but its weight can drastically increase after a single feeding . The braincase is relatively large , but the snout is reduced to accommodate large incisors and canines . It has the fewest teeth among bats . The upper incisors lack enamel , which keeps them razor @-@ sharp .
While most other bats have almost completely lost the ability to maneuver on land , vampire bats are an exception . They can run using a unique , bounding gait in which the forelimbs are used instead of the hindlimbs to propel forward , as the wings are much more powerful than the legs . This ability likely evolved independently within the bat lineage . Three pads under the thumb function like a sole . It is also capable of leaping in various directions , magnitudes and temporal sequences . When making a jump , the bat pushes up with its pectoral limbs . The hindlimbs keep the body over the pectoral limbs which are stabilized by the thumbs .
Common vampire bats have good eyesight . They are able to distinguish different optical patterns and may use vision for long @-@ range orientation . These bats also have well @-@ developed senses of smell and hearing : the cochlea is highly sensitive to low @-@ frequency acoustics , and the nasal passages are relatively large . They emit echolocation signals orally , and thus fly with their mouths open for navigation . They can identify a metal strip 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) wide at a distance of 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) , which is moderate compared to other bats .
= = Range and habitat = =
The common vampire bat is found in parts of Mexico , Central America , and South America . They can be found as far north as 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) south of the Mexico – United States border . Fossils of this species have been found in Florida and states bordering Mexico . The common vampire is the most common bat species in southeastern Brazil . The southern extent of its range is Uruguay , northern Argentina , and central Chile . In the West Indies , the bat is only found on Trinidad . It prefers warm and humid climates , and uses tropical and subtropical woodlands and open grasslands for foraging . Bats roost in trees , caves , abandoned buildings , old wells , and mines . Vampire bats will roost with about 45 other bat species , and tend to be the most dominant at roosting sites . They occupy the darkest and highest places in the roosts ; when they leave , other bat species move in to take over these vacated spots .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Feeding = = =
The common vampire bat feeds primarily on mammalian blood , particularly that of livestock such as cattle and horses . Vampire bats feed on wild prey like the tapir , but seem to prefer domesticated animals , and favor horses over cattle when given the choice . Female animals , particularly those in estrus , are more often targeted than males . This could be because of the hormones .
Vampire bats hunt at night , using echolocation and olfaction to track down prey . They feed in a distance of 5 to 8 km ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from their roosts . When a bat selects a target , it lands on it , or jumps up onto it from the ground , usually targeting the rump , flank , or neck of its prey ; heat sensors in the nose help it to detect blood vessels near the surface of the skin . It pierces the animal 's skin with its teeth , biting away a small flap , and laps up the blood with its tongue , which has lateral grooves adapted to this purpose . The blood is kept from clotting by an anticoagulant in the saliva .
They are protective of their host and will fend off other bats while feeding . It is uncommon for two or more bats to feed on the same host , with the exception of mothers and their offspring .
= = = Mating and reproduction = = =
A male and several females compose a group sometimes called a harem . A dominant male mates preferentially with the females of the roost and sires more of the offspring than other males . Male vampire bats guard roosting sites that attract females , but females often switch roosts
During estrus , a female releases one egg . Mating usually lasts three to four minutes ; the male bat mounts the female from the posterior end , grasps her back with his teeth , holds down her folded wings , and inseminates her . Vampire bats are reproductively active year around , although the number of conceptions and births peak in the rainy season . Females give birth to one offspring per pregnancy , following a gestation period of about seven months . The young are raised primarily by the females . Mothers leave their young to hunt , and call their young to feed upon returning . The young accompany their mothers to hunt at six months , but are not fully weaned until nine months . Female offspring usually remain in their natal groups into adulthood , unless their mothers die or move . The occasional movements of unrelated females between groups leads to the formation of multiple matrilines within groups . Male offspring tend to live in their natal groups until they are one to two years old , sometimes being forced out by the resident adult males .
= = = Cooperation = = =
Regurgitated food sharing in common vampire bats ( Desmodus rotundus ) has been studied in both the lab and field , and is predicted by kinship , association , and reciprocal help In a field study conducted in Costa Rica from 1978 to 1983 , vampire bats frequently switched between several roost trees and co @-@ roosted with kin and non @-@ kin . Mean genetic kinship within roosting groups was low ( r = 0 @.@ 03 − 0 @.@ 11 ) , but 95 % of food sharing observed in the wild occurred between close kin ( first cousins or higher ) . Most observed food sharing ( 70 % ) was mothers feeding their pups . The non @-@ maternal sharing events were kin @-@ biased suggesting that vampire bats prefer to help relatives . However , non @-@ maternal food sharing is even better explained by frequency of interaction , even after controlling for kinship . Food sharing was only observed when co @-@ roosting association was greater than 60 % . Food sharing appears to require social bonds that require development over long periods of time . Among familiar bats , the amount of food given from bat A to bat B is best predicted by the amount of food given from bat B to A. Reciprocal sharing is most obvious over longer time spans as found in primate cooperation .
Vampire bats also participate in mutual grooming ; two bats groom each other simultaneously to clean one another , and to strengthen social bonds . Bats that groom one another also share food . It was suggested that while grooming , a bat might assess the size of its partner 's abdomen to determine if it really needs to eat .
= = Relationship with humans = =
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , most bats do not have rabies . For example , even among bats submitted for rabies testing because they could be captured , were obviously weak or sick , or had been captured by a cat , only about 6 % had rabies . However , of the few cases of rabies reported in the United States every year , most are caused by bat bites .
The highest occurrence of rabies in vampire bats occurs in the large populations found in South America . The danger is not so much to the human population , but rather to livestock . Dr. Joseph Lennox Pawan , a government bacteriologist in Trinidad , found the first infected vampire bat in March 1932 . He soon proved various species of bat , including the common vampire bat , are capable of transmitting rabies for an extended period of time without artificial infection or external symptoms . Fruit bats of the Artibeus genus were later shown to demonstrate the same abilities . During this asymptomatic stage , the bats continue to behave normally and breed . At first , Pawan 's finding that bats transmitted rabies to people and animals were thought fantastic and were ridiculed .
Although most bats do not have rabies , those that do may be clumsy , disoriented , and unable to fly , which makes them more likely to come into contact with humans . There is evidence that it is possible for the rabies virus to infect a host purely through airborne transmission , without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat . Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats , one should avoid handling them or having them in one 's living space , as with any wild animal . Medical attention should be given to any person who awakens to discover a vampire bat in their sleeping quarters . It is possible that young children may not fully awaken due to the presence of a bat ( or its bite ) .
The unique properties of the vampire bats ' saliva have found some positive use in medicine . A genetically engineered drug called desmoteplase , which uses the anticoagulant properties of the saliva of Desmodus rotundus , has been shown to increase blood flow in stroke patients .
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= Augustine of Canterbury =
Augustine of Canterbury ( first third of the 6th century – probably 26 May 604 ) was a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597 . He is considered the " Apostle to the English " and a founder of the English Church .
Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission , usually known as the Gregorian mission , to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess , Bertha , daughter of Charibert I the King of Paris , who was expected to exert some influence over her husband . Before reaching Kent , the missionaries had considered turning back , but Gregory urged them on , and in 597 , Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht 's main town of Canterbury .
King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely , giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls . Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king 's subjects , including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597 . Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601 , along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches , although attempts to persuade the native Celtic bishops to submit to Augustine 's authority failed . Roman bishops were established at London and Rochester in 604 , and a school was founded to train Anglo @-@ Saxon priests and missionaries . Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor , Laurence of Canterbury . The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint .
= = Background to the mission = =
After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410 , the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons . Before the Roman withdrawal , Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius . Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314 , and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters . Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians , at least until around 360 . After the Roman legions departed , pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain , beyond the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms , remained Christian . This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics . Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore . Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles , derived from the Latin ecclesia , meaning " church " . There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes , including the economic and religious structures .
It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission , often called the Gregorian mission , to convert the Anglo @-@ Saxons to Christianity in 595 . The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht , who married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588 , and perhaps earlier than 560 . Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I , one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks . As one of the conditions of her marriage , she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent . Together in Canterbury , they restored a church that dated to Roman times — possibly the current St Martin 's Church . Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship . One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife 's influence , Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries . The historian Ian Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen . Other historians , however , believe that Gregory initiated the mission , although the exact reasons remain unclear . Bede , an 8th @-@ century monk who wrote a history of the English church , recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair @-@ haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people . More practical matters , such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy , and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht , were probably involved . The mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards who , as pagans and Arian Christians , were not on good relations with the Catholic church in Rome .
Aside from Æthelberht 's granting of freedom of worship to his wife , the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors . Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain . Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592 , Æthelberht was the leading Anglo @-@ Saxon ruler ; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium ( overlordship ) south of the River Humber . Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht 's kingdom was well established , and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle , as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks . Lastly , Kent 's proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area . There is some evidence , including Gregory 's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission , that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time . The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship , if Bertha 's Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen . Frankish influence was not merely political ; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well .
In 595 , Gregory chose Augustine , who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's in Rome , to head the mission to Kent . The pope selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish royalty and clergy in a series of letters , of which some copies survive in Rome . He wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia , as well as their grandmother Brunhild , seeking aid for the mission . Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine . Besides hospitality , the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and Frankish priests to accompany the mission . By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops , Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent , as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife 's relatives and people . Moreover , the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent . Chlothar , in particular , needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom 's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings .
Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission . Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine 's knowledge of the Bible , so Augustine was evidently well educated . Other qualifications included administrative ability , for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope , which left the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the abbey to Augustine , the prior .
= = Arrival and first efforts = =
Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury , his eventual successor to the archbishopric , and a group of about 40 companions , some of whom were monks . Soon after leaving Rome , the missionaries halted , daunted by the nature of the task before them . They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return . Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere . In 597 , Augustine and his companions landed in Kent . They achieved some initial success soon after their arrival : Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury where they used the church of St Martin 's for services . Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht 's conversion , but it probably took place in 597 . In the early medieval period , large @-@ scale conversions required the ruler 's conversion first , and Augustine is recorded as making large numbers of converts within a year of his arrival in Kent . Also , by 601 , Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha , calling the king his son and referring to his baptism . A late medieval tradition , recorded by the 15th @-@ century chronicler Thomas Elmham , gives the date of the king 's conversion as Whit Sunday , or 2 June 597 ; there is no reason to doubt this date , although there is no other evidence for it . Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory 's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598 , which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine , but does not mention any baptism of the king . However , it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted . His baptism likely took place at Canterbury .
Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury . It is not clear when and where Augustine was consecrated as a bishop . Bede , writing about a century later , states that Augustine was consecrated by the Frankish Archbishop Ætherius of Arles , Gaul ( France ) after the conversion of Æthelberht . Contemporary letters from Pope Gregory , however , refer to Augustine as a bishop before he arrived in England . A letter of Gregory 's from September 597 calls Augustine a bishop , and one dated ten months later says Augustine had been consecrated on Gregory 's command by bishops of the German lands . The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated , and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England , but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place .
Soon after his arrival , Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul , which later became St Augustine 's Abbey , on land donated by the king . This foundation has often been claimed as the first Benedictine abbey outside Italy , and that by founding it , Augustine introduced the Rule of St. Benedict into England , but there is no evidence the abbey followed the Benedictine Rule at the time of its foundation . In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598 , he claimed that more than 10 @,@ 000 Christians had been baptised ; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place . However , there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived , remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire . Little literary traces remain of them , however . One other effect of the king 's conversion by Augustine 's mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased .
After these conversions , Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success , along with questions about the mission . Bede records the letter and Gregory 's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ; this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum . Augustine asked for Gregory 's advice on a number of issues , including how to organise the church , the punishment for church robbers , guidance on who was allowed to marry whom , and the consecration of bishops . Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul , childbirth and baptism , and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass .
Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601 . They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels , vestments , relics , and books . The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status , and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See . Along with the pallium , a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York . Gregory 's plan was that there would be two metropolitans , one at York and one at London , with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop . As part of this plan , Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury . The move from Canterbury to London never happened ; no contemporary sources give the reason , but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht 's domains . Instead , London was part of the kingdom of Essex , ruled by Æthelberht 's nephew Saebert of Essex , who converted to Christianity in 604 . The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London , and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see . This theory contradicts Bede 's version of events , however .
= = Additional work = =
In 604 , Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain . Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated , Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester . Bede relates that Augustine , with the help of the king , " recovered " a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury . It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship . Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation ; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano @-@ British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral . The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism , but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity .
Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west . Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him , apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case . According to the narrative of Bede , the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty , and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine 's part . In 603 , Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn . These guests retired early to confer with their people , who , according to Bede , advised them to judge Augustine based upon the respect he displayed at their next meeting . When Augustine failed to rise from his seat on the entrance of the British bishops , they refused to recognise him as their archbishop . There were , however , deep differences between Augustine and the British church that perhaps played a more significant role in preventing an agreement . At issue were the tonsure , the observance of Easter , and practical and deep @-@ rooted differences in approach to asceticism , missionary endeavours , and how the church itself was organised . Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British church , damaging his relations with their bishops . Also , there were political dimensions involved , as Augustine 's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king , and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west , into areas held by the Britons .
= = Further success = =
Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters . Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use , and feasts , if possible , moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs . One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus , whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr 's life or death . They may have been native Christians , but Augustine did not treat them as such . When Gregory was informed , he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus .
Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy . He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa . Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries ' conduct .
The King 's School , Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder , which would make it the world 's oldest existing school , but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century . Augustine did establish a school , and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission . Augustine received liturgical books from the pope , but their exact contents are unknown . They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time . The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown , but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome .
= = Death and legacy = =
Before his death , Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric , probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office . Although at the time of Augustine 's death , 26 May 604 , the mission barely extended beyond Kent , his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles . Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales , no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders . Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders , and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in the British Isles . Much of his success came about because of Augustine 's close relationship with Æthelberht , which gave the archbishop time to establish himself . Augustine 's example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Church .
Augustine 's body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine 's , Canterbury , but it was later exhumed and placed in a tomb within the abbey church , which became a place of pilgrimage and veneration . After the Norman Conquest the cult of St Augustine was actively promoted . After the Conquest , his shrine in St Augustine 's Abbey held a central position in one of the axial chapels , flanked by the shrines of his successors Laurence and Mellitus . King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine 's Abbey a six @-@ day fair around the date on which Augustine 's relics were translated to his new shrine , from 8 September through 13 September .
A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090 , but this life portrays Augustine in a different light than Bede 's account . Goscelin 's account has little new historical content , mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches . Building on this account , later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine 's life , often quite fanciful . These authors included William of Malmesbury , who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey , the author ( generally believed to be John Brompton ) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine , and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances . Another problem with investigating Augustine 's saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo , a fourth @-@ century saint . Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often , however . During the English Reformation , Augustine 's shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost .
Augustine 's shrine was re @-@ established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate , Kent , very close to the mission 's landing site . St Augustine 's Cross , a Celtic cross erected in 1884 , marks the spot in Ebbsfleet , Thanet , East Kent , where Augustine is said to have landed .
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= Madagascar =
Madagascar ( / ˌmædəˈɡæskər / ; Malagasy : Madagasikara ) , officially the Republic of Madagascar ( Malagasy : Repoblikan 'i Madagasikara [ republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə ̥ ] ; French : République de Madagascar ) , and previously known as the Malagasy Republic , is an island country in the Indian Ocean , off the coast of Southeast Africa . The nation comprises the island of Madagascar ( the fourth @-@ largest island in the world ) , as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from the Indian peninsula around 88 million years ago , allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation . Consequently , Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot ; over 90 % of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth . The island 's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the rapidly growing human population and other environmental threats .
The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC . Human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD 550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo . These were joined around AD 1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa . Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time , each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life . The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or more sub @-@ groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands .
Until the late 18th century , the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances . Beginning in the early 19th century , most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire , from which the island gained independence in 1960 . The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods , termed republics . Since 1992 , the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo . However , in a popular uprising in 2009 , president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina . Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014 , when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the international community . Madagascar is a member of the United Nations , the Organisation internationale de la francophonie and the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) .
In 2012 , the population of Madagascar was estimated at just over 22 million , 90 % of whom live on less than $ 2 per day . Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state . The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs , Christianity , or an amalgamation of both . Ecotourism and agriculture , paired with greater investments in education , health , and private enterprise , are key elements of Madagascar 's development strategy . Under Ravalomanana , these investments produced substantial economic growth , but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population , producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class . As of 2014 , the economy had been weakened by the then recently concluded political crisis , and quality of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy population .
= = Etymology = =
In the Malagasy language , the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara [ madaɡasʲˈkʲarə ̥ ] and its people are referred to as Malagasy . The island 's appellation " Madagascar " is not of local origin , but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans . The name Madageiscar was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th @-@ century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted transliteration of the name Mogadishu , the Somali port with which Polo had confused the island .
On St. Laurence 's Day in 1500 , Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and christened it São Lourenço . Polo 's name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps . No single Malagasy @-@ language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island , although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited .
= = Geography = =
At 592 @,@ 800 square kilometres ( 228 @,@ 900 sq mi ) , Madagascar is the world 's 46th largest country and the fourth @-@ largest island . The country lies mostly between latitudes 12 ° S and 26 ° S , and longitudes 43 ° E and 51 ° E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east , as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the north west . The nearest mainland state is Mozambique , located to the west .
The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana separated the Madagasca – Antarctica – India landmass from the Africa – South America landmass around 135 million years ago . Madagascar later split from India about 88 million years ago , allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation . Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island 's remaining tropical lowland forest .
To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 2 @,@ 460 to 4 @,@ 920 ft ) above sea level . These central highlands , traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo , are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced , rice @-@ growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region . To the west of the highlands , the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast .
Madagascar 's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs : Maromokotro 2 @,@ 876 m ( 9 @,@ 436 ft ) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island 's highest point , followed by Boby Peak 2 @,@ 658 m ( 8 @,@ 720 ft ) in the Andringitra Massif , and Tsiafajavona 2 @,@ 643 m ( 8 @,@ 671 ft ) in the Ankaratra Massif . To the east , the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of man @-@ made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km ( 370 mi ) .
The western and southern sides , which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands , are home to dry deciduous forests , spiny forests , and deserts and xeric shrublands . Due to their lower population densities , Madagascar 's dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau . The western coast features many protected harbors , but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains .
= = = Climate = = =
The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season ( November – April ) with frequently destructive cyclones , and a relatively cooler dry season ( May – October ) . Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island 's eastern coast ; the heavy precipitation supports the area 's rain forest ecosystem . The central highlands are both drier and cooler while the west is drier still , and a semi @-@ arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern interior of the island .
Tropical cyclones annually cause damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life . In 2004 Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Madagascar . The storm killed 172 people , left 214 @,@ 260 homeless and caused more than US $ 250 million in damage .
= = = Ecology = = =
As a result of the island 's long isolation from neighboring continents , Madagascar is home to an abundance of plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth . Approximately 90 % of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic , including the lemurs ( a type of strepsirrhine primate ) , the carnivorous fossa and many birds . This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the " eighth continent " , and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot .
More than 80 percent of Madagascar 's 14 @,@ 883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world , including five plant families . The family Didiereaceae , composed of four genera and 11 species , is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar . Four @-@ fifths of the world 's Pachypodium species are endemic to the island . Three @-@ fourths of Madagascar 's 860 orchid species are found here alone , as are six of the world 's nine baobab species .
The island is home to around 170 palm species , three times as many as on all of mainland Africa ; 165 of them are endemic . Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions . The drugs vinblastine and vincristine , used to treat Hodgkin 's disease , leukemia and other cancers , were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle . The traveler 's palm , known locally as ravinala and endemic to the eastern rain forests , is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo .
Like its flora , Madagascar 's fauna is diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism . Lemurs have been characterized as " Madagascar 's flagship mammal species " by Conservation International . In the absence of monkeys and other competitors , these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species . As of 2012 , there were officially 103 species and subspecies of lemur , 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008 . They are almost all classified as rare , vulnerable , or endangered . At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar , all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species .
A number of other mammals , including the cat @-@ like fossa , are endemic to Madagascar . Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island , of which over 60 percent ( including four families and 42 genera ) are endemic . The few families and genera of reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species , with over 90 percent of these being endemic ( including one endemic family ) . The island is home to two @-@ thirds of the world 's chameleon species , including the smallest known , and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the origin of all chameleons .
Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families , 15 genera and over 100 species , primarily inhabiting the island 's freshwater lakes and rivers . Although invertebrates remain poorly studied on Madagascar , researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species . All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic , as are a majority of the island 's butterflies , scarab beetles , lacewings , spiders and dragonflies .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
Madagascar 's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity . Since the arrival of humans around 2 @,@ 350 years ago , Madagascar has lost more than 90 percent of its original forest . This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy ( " fat " ) , a traditional slash @-@ and @-@ burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers . Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique , but for its cultural associations with prosperity , health and venerated ancestral custom ( fomba malagasy ) .
As human population density rose on the island , deforestation accelerated beginning around 1400 years ago . By the 16th century , the central highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests . More recent contributors to the loss of forest cover include the growth in cattle herd size since their introduction around 1000 years ago , a continued reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cooking , and the increased prominence of coffee as a cash crop over the past century .
According to a conservative estimate , about 40 percent of the island 's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000 , with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80 percent . In addition to traditional agricultural practice , wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests , as well as the state @-@ sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks . Although banned by then @-@ President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009 , the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re @-@ authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana 's ouster .
It is anticipated that all the island 's rainforests , excluding those in protected areas and the steepest eastern mountain slopes , will have been deforested by 2025 . Invasive species have likewise been introduced by human populations . Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the Asian common toad , a relative of a toad species that has severely harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s , researchers warned the toad could " wreak havoc on the country 's unique fauna . "
Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar 's endemic species or driven them to extinction . The island 's elephant birds , a family of endemic giant ratites , became extinct in the 17th century or earlier , most probably due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food . Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island , while others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and , among some populations , increased the rate of lemur hunting for food .
A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since the 2009 coup has had dire consequences for the island 's wildlife : 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction , the highest proportion of any mammalian group . Of these , 23 species were classified as critically endangered . By contrast , a previous study in 2008 had found only 38 percent of lemur species were at risk of extinction .
In 2003 Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision , an initiative to more than triple the island 's protected natural areas to over 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) or 10 percent of Madagascar 's land surface . As of 2011 , areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves ( Réserves Naturelles Intégrales ) , 21 Wildlife Reserves ( Réserves Spéciales ) and 21 National Parks ( Parcs Nationaux ) . In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana . These parks are Marojejy , Masoala , Ranomafana , Zahamena , Andohahela and Andringitra . Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments . To raise public awareness of Madagascar 's environmental challenges , the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled " Madagascar ! " in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York .
= = History = =
= = = Early period = = =
The settlement of Madagascar is a subject of ongoing research and debate . Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BC . Traditionally , archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD , while others are cautious about dates earlier than 250 AD . In either case , these dates make Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans .
Early settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo . Upon arrival , early settlers practiced slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation . The first settlers encountered Madagascar 's abundance of megafauna , including giant lemurs , elephant birds , giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus , which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction . By 600 AD groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands . Arab traders first reached the island between the seventh and ninth centuries . A wave of Bantu @-@ speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around 1000 AD . They introduced the zebu , a type of long @-@ horned humped cattle , which they kept in large herds .
By 1600 , irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom , and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later . The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever @-@ increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century . The oral histories of the Merina people , who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1000 years ago , describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba . Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave , the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo , Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries . Today , the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany ( ancestral masters of the land ) by many traditional Malagasy communities .
= = = Arab and European contacts = = =
Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement . The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs , who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam , the Arabic script ( used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe ) , Arab astrology , and other cultural elements . European contact began in 1500 , when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island . The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century .
From about 1774 to 1824 , Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders , particularly those involved in the trans @-@ Atlantic slave trade . The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia . Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island , among them Robert Drury , whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century . The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island , some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century . Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast . The Kingdom of Imerina , located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo , emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo .
= = = Kingdom of Madagascar ( 1540 – 1897 ) = = =
Upon its emergence in the early 17th century , the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons . Following almost a century of warring and famine , Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) . From his initial capital Ambohimanga , and later from the Rova of Antananarivo , this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities . His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor , King Radama I ( 1810 – 28 ) , who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar .
Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance . Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron , David Jones and David Griffiths , who established schools , transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet , translated the Bible , and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island .
Radama 's successor , Queen Ranavalona I ( 1828 – 61 ) , responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory . Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes , including theft , Christianity and especially witchcraft , for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory . Between 1828 and 1861 , the tangena ordeal caused about 3 @,@ 000 deaths annually .
Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde , an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy , and Joseph @-@ François Lambert , a French adventurer and slave trader , with whom then @-@ Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter . Succeeding his mother , Radama II ( 1861 – 63 ) attempted to relax the queen 's stringent policies , but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony ( 1852 – 1865 ) and an alliance of Andriana ( noble ) and Hova ( commoner ) courtiers , who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch .
Following the coup , the courtiers offered Radama 's queen Rasoherina ( 1863 – 68 ) the opportunity to rule , if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister — a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them . Queen Rasoherina accepted , first wedding Rainivoninahitriniony , then later deposing him and wedding his brother , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony ( 1864 – 95 ) , who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II ( 1868 – 83 ) and Queen Ranavalona III ( 1883 – 97 ) in succession .
Over the course of Rainilaiarivony 's 31 @-@ year tenure as prime minister , numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government . Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory . Army organization was improved , and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers . Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity , declared the official religion of the court in 1869 , was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace . Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European @-@ style courts were established in the capital city . In his joint role as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions .
= = = French colonisation ( 1897 – 1960 ) = = =
Primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected , France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco @-@ Hova War . At the end of the war , Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana ( Diego Suarez ) to France and paid 560 @,@ 000 francs to Lambert 's heirs . In 1890 , the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island , but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar . To force capitulation , the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast , and Mahajanga on the west coast , in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively .
A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo , losing many men to malaria and other diseases . Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Upon reaching the city in September 1895 , the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery , causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender . France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year , dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria . A two @-@ year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897 .
Under colonial rule , plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops . Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500 @,@ 000 slaves were freed ; many remained in their former masters ' homes as servants or as sharecroppers ; in many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today . Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum . Additional schools were built , particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached . Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills .
The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo . Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s , Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar plan on the basis of earlier proposals from Poland and elsewhere in Europe that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe 's Jews . During the Second World War , the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy government and the British .
The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement , leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947 . This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre ( Overseas Reform Act ) , and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence . The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958 , as an autonomous state within the French Community . A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960 .
= = = Independent state ( since 1960 ) = = =
Since regaining independence , Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution . The First Republic ( 1960 – 72 ) , under the leadership of French @-@ appointed President Philibert Tsiranana , was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France . Many high @-@ level technical positions were filled by French expatriates , and French teachers , textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country . Popular resentment over Tsiranana 's tolerance for this " neo @-@ colonial " arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972 .
Gabriel Ramanantsoa , a major general in the army , was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year , but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975 . Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava , appointed to succeed him , was assassinated six days into his tenure . General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee : Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , who ushered in the socialist @-@ Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993 .
This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity . These policies , coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis , resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar 's economy and a sharp decline in living standards , and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979 . The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency , anti @-@ corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund , World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation 's broken economy .
Ratsiraka 's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally . Within two months , a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy ( 1993 – 96 ) , who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic ( 1992 – 2010 ) . The new Madagascar constitution established a multi @-@ party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly . The new constitution also emphasized human rights , social and political freedoms , and free trade . Zafy 's term , however , was marred by economic decline , allegations of corruption , and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers . He was consequently impeached in 1996 , and an interim president , Norbert Ratsirahonana , was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election . Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001 .
The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , Marc Ravalomanana , eventually emerged victorious , caused a seven @-@ month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka . The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana 's progressive economic and political policies , which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism , facilitated foreign direct investment , and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally . National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration . In the later half of his second term , Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption .
Opposition leader and then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina , led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d 'état . In March 2009 , Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority , an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections . In 2010 , a new constitution was adopted by referendum , establishing a Fourth Republic , which sustained the democratic , multi @-@ party structure established in the previous constitution . Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election , which the international community deemed fair and transparent .
= = Government = =
= = = Structure = = =
Madagascar is a semi @-@ presidential representative democratic multi @-@ party republic , wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister , who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers . According to the constitution , executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet , the Senate and the National Assembly , although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role . The constitution establishes independent executive , legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly elected president limited to three five @-@ year terms .
The public directly elects the president and the 127 members of the National Assembly to five @-@ year terms . The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013 . All 33 members of the Senate serve six @-@ year terms , with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president . After taking power , Rajoelina dissolved both the National Assembly and the Senate , leaving the nation without a constitutional legislative body .
At the local level , the island 's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council . Provinces are further sub @-@ divided into regions and communes . The judiciary is modeled on the French system , with a High Constitutional Court , High Court of Justice , Supreme Court , Court of Appeals , criminal tribunals , and tribunals of first instance . The courts , which adhere to civil law , lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system , often forcing defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons .
Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar . It is located in the highlands region , near the geographic center of the island . King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga . As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar , Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island . In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration . The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960 . In 2011 , the capital 's population was estimated at 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The next largest cities are Antsirabe ( 500 @,@ 000 ) , Toamasina ( 450 @,@ 000 ) and Mahajanga ( 400 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = Politics = = =
Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960 , the island 's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests , several disputed elections , an impeachment , two military coups and one assassination . The island 's recurrent political crises are often prolonged , with detrimental effects on the local economy , international relations and Malagasy living standards . The eight @-@ month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana , following the 2001 presidential elections , cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure , such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson .
A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent , with more than 170 people killed . Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century . The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence .
Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity , which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union . Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election , but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14 @-@ month hiatus . Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina . Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military . Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar , including France , the United Kingdom , the United States , China and India .
Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child . Religious , ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law . Freedom of association and assembly are also guaranteed under the law , although in practice the denial of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations . Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards , although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems . Ravalomanana 's 2004 creation of BIANCO , an anti @-@ corruption bureau , resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo 's lower @-@ level bureaucrats in particular , although high @-@ level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau .
= = = Security = = =
The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava , Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island 's first standing armies by the 16th century , initially equipped with spears but later with muskets , cannons and other firearms . By the early 19th century , the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30 @,@ 000 . French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then @-@ Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy 's army . Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers , the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo . Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897 .
The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces , which comprises an army , navy and air force , was restored with independence from France in 1960 . Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders , but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest . Under the socialist Second Republic , Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender , a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991 . The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of the Interior and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis , as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections , when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate . This tradition was broken in 2009 , when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina , then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power .
The Minister of the Interior is responsible for the national police force , paramilitary force ( gendarmerie ) and the secret police . The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local level . However , in 2009 fewer than a third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces , with most lacking local @-@ level headquarters for either corps . Traditional community tribunals , called dina , are presided over by elders and other respected figures and remain a key means by which justice is served in rural areas where state presence is weak . Historically , security has been relatively high across the island . Violent crime rates are low , and criminal activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and petty theft , although child prostitution , human trafficking and the production and sale of marijuana and other illegal drugs are increasing . Budget cuts since 2009 have severely impacted the national police force , producing a steep increase in criminal activity in recent years .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions ( faritra ) . The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts , 1 @,@ 579 communes , and 17 @,@ 485 fokontany .
= = Economy = =
During Madagascar 's First Republic , France heavily influenced Madagascar 's economic planning and policy and served as its key trading partner . Key products were cultivated and distributed nationally through producers ' and consumers ' cooperatives . Government initiatives such as a rural development program and state farms were established to boost production of commodities such as rice , coffee , cattle , silk and palm oil . Popular dissatisfaction over these policies was a key factor in launching the socialist @-@ Marxist Second Republic , in which the formerly private bank and insurance industries were nationalized ; state monopolies were established for such industries as textiles , cotton and power ; and import – export trade and shipping were brought under state control . Madagascar 's economy quickly deteriorated as exports fell , industrial production dropped by 75 percent , inflation spiked and government debt increased ; the rural population was soon reduced to living at subsistence levels . Over 50 percent of the nation 's export revenue was spent on debt servicing .
The IMF forced Madagascar 's government to accept structural adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state became bankrupt in 1982 and state @-@ controlled industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s . The political crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank assistance . Conditions for the resumption of aid were not met under Zafy , who tried unsuccessfully to attract other forms of revenue for the State before aid was once again resumed under the interim government established upon Zafy 's impeachment . The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar 's debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana administration . Having met a set of stringent economic , governance and human rights criteria , Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005 .
Madagascar 's GDP in 2009 was estimated at 8 @.@ 6 billion USD , with a per capita GDP of $ 438 . Approximately 69 percent of the population lives below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day . The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011 , while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP . Madagascar 's sources of growth are tourism , agriculture and the extractive industries . Tourism focuses on the niche eco @-@ tourism market , capitalizing on Madagascar 's unique biodiversity , unspoiled natural habitats , national parks and lemur species . An estimated 365 @,@ 000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008 , but the sector has declined as a result of the political crisis with 180 @,@ 000 tourists visiting in 2010 .
= = = Natural resources and trade = = =
Madagascar 's natural resources include a variety of unprocessed agricultural and mineral resources . Agriculture ( including raffia ) , fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy . Madagascar is the world 's principal supplier of vanilla , cloves and ylang @-@ ylang . Other key agricultural resources include coffee , lychees and shrimp . Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi @-@ precious stones , and Madagascar currently provides half of the world 's supply of sapphires , which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s .
Madagascar has one of the world 's largest reserves of ilmenite ( titanium ore ) , as well as important reserves of chromite , coal , iron , cobalt , copper and nickel . Several major projects are underway in the mining , oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy . These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near Tôlanaro by Rio Tinto , extraction of nickel near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International , and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil .
Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009 . Most of the country 's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry , fish and shellfish , vanilla , cloves and other foodstuffs . France is Madagascar 's main trading partner , although the United States , Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties to the country . The Madagascar @-@ U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003 , as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets . Imports of such items as foodstuffs , fuel , capital goods , vehicles , consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP . The main sources of Madagascar 's imports include France , China , Iran , Mauritius and Hong Kong .
= = = Infrastructure and media = = =
In 2010 , Madagascar had approximately 7 @,@ 617 km ( 4 @,@ 730 mi ) of paved roads , 854 km ( 530 mi ) of railways and 432 km ( 270 mi ) of navigable waterways . The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved , with many becoming impassable in the rainy season . Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo , with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district .
There are several rail lines . Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina , Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail , and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara . The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina . Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used due to their remoteness . The island 's newest port at Ehoala , constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto , will come under state control upon completion of the company 's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038 . Air Madagascar services the island 's many small regional airports , which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts .
Running water and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service provider , Jirama , which is unable to service the entire population . As of 2009 , only 6 @.@ 8 percent of Madagascar 's fokontany had access to water provided by Jirama , while 9 @.@ 5 percent had access to its electricity services . 56 % of Madagascar 's power is provided by hydroelectric power plants with the remaining 44 % provided by diesel engine generators . Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island . Approximately 30 percent of the districts are able to access the nations ' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines .
Radio broadcasts remain the principal means by which the Malagasy population access international , national and local news . Only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island . Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range provide alternatives to state broadcasting . In addition to the state television channel , a variety of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar . Several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves , including the media groups MBS ( owned by Ravalomanana ) and Viva ( owned by Rajoelina ) , contributing to political polarization in reporting .
The media has historically come under varying degrees of pressure over time to censor their criticism of the government . Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed and media outlets are periodically forced to close . Accusations of media censorship have increased since 2009 due to the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism . Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade , with an estimated 352 @,@ 000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation 's many internet cafes in December 2011 .
= = Health = =
Medical centers , dispensaries and hospitals are found throughout the island , although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo . Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy , especially in the rural areas , and many recourse to traditional healers .
= = Education = =
Prior to the 19th century , all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values , including respect for ancestors and elders . The first formal European @-@ style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) . The LMS was invited by King Radama I ( 1810 – 28 ) to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children . The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835 but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death .
By the end of the 19th century Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre @-@ colonial Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period , with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum . During the post @-@ colonial First Republic , a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers , and French as the language of instruction , displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power .
Consequently , under the socialist Second Republic , French instructors and other nationals were expelled , Malagasy was declared the language of instruction and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two @-@ year national service policy .
This policy , known as malgachization , coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education . Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment , forcing many to take low @-@ paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty . Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy , from 1992 to 1996 , Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure .
Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration ( 2002 – 09 ) , and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13 . The primary schooling cycle is five years , followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level . During Ravalomanana 's first term , thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed , older buildings were renovated , and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained . Primary school fees were eliminated and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students .
Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune . At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers . The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo ( founded in 1961 ) , Mahajanga ( 1977 ) and Fianarantsoa ( 1988 ) . These are complemented by public teacher @-@ training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges .
As a result of increased educational access , enrollment rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006 . However , education quality is weak , producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout . Education policy in Ravalomanana 's second term focused on quality issues , including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate ( BEPC ) to a high school leaving certificate ( BAC ) , and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student @-@ centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom . Public expenditure on education was 13 @.@ 4 percent of total government expenditure and 2 @.@ 9 percent of GDP in 2008 . Primary classrooms are crowded , with average pupil to teacher ratios of 47 : 1 in 2008 .
= = Demographics = =
In 2012 , the population of Madagascar was estimated at 22 million . The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2 @.@ 9 percent in 2009 . The population grew from 2 @.@ 2 million in 1900 to an estimated 22 million in 2012 .
Approximately 42 @.@ 5 percent of the population is younger than 15 years of age , while 54 @.@ 5 percent are between the ages of 15 and 64 . Those aged 65 and older form three percent of the total population . Only two general censuses , in 1975 and 1993 , have been carried out after independence . The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast , contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90 percent of Madagascar 's population and is typically divided into eighteen ethnic sub @-@ groups . Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian and East African genes , although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab , Indian or European ancestry .
Southeast Asian origins – specifically from the southern part of Borneo – are most predominant among the Merina of the central highlands , who form the largest Malagasy ethnic sub @-@ group at approximately 26 percent of the population , while certain communities among the coastal peoples ( collectively called côtiers ) have relatively stronger East African origins . The largest coastal ethnic sub @-@ groups are the Betsimisaraka ( 14 @.@ 9 percent ) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava ( 6 percent each ) .
Chinese , Indian and Comorian minorities are present in Madagascar , as well as a small European ( primarily French ) populace . Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations , occasionally in abrupt waves , such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976 , following anti @-@ Comoran riots in Mahajanga . By comparison , there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples . The number of Europeans has declined since independence , reduced from 68 @,@ 430 in 1958 to 17 @,@ 000 three decades later . There were an estimated 25 @,@ 000 Comorans , 18 @,@ 000 Indians , and 9 @,@ 000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = = Languages = = =
The Malagasy language is of Malayo @-@ Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island . The numerous dialects of Malagasy , which are generally mutually intelligible , can be clustered under one of two sub @-@ groups : eastern Malagasy , spoken along the eastern forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo and western Malagasy , spoken across the western coastal plains . French became the official language during the colonial period , when Madagascar came under the authority of France . In the first national Constitution of 1958 , Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic . Madagascar is a francophone country , and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication .
No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992 , although Malagasy was identified as the national language . Nonetheless , many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages , eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000 , on the grounds that the publication of official documents only in the French language was unconstitutional . The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that , in the absence of a language law , French still had the character of an official language .
In the Constitution of 2007 , Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced : Malagasy , French , and English . English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the November referendum 2010 . The outcome of the referendum , and its consequences for official and national language policy , are not recognized by the political opposition , who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the High Transitional Authority .
= = = Religion = = =
Approximately half of the country 's population practice traditional religion , which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana ( ancestors ) . The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building , as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana , whereby a deceased family member 's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re @-@ wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb . The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor 's memory , reunite with family and community , and enjoy a festive atmosphere . Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party , where food and rum are typically served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present .
Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady , taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them . It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways , they may intervene on behalf of the living . Conversely , misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected . The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors . In addition , the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god , called Zanahary or Andriamanitra .
Almost half the Malagasy are Christian , with practitioners of Protestantism slightly outnumbering adherents to Roman Catholicism . In 1818 the London Missionary Society sent the first Christian missionaries to the island , where they built churches , translated the Bible into the Malagasy language and began to gain converts . Beginning in 1835 Queen Ranavalona I persecuted these converts as part of an attempt to halt European cultural and political influence on the island . In 1869 a successor , Queen Ranavalona II , converted the court to Christianity and encouraged Christian missionary activity , burning the sampy ( royal idols ) in a symbolic break with traditional beliefs .
Today , many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring the ancestors . For instance , they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial . The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar ( Roman Catholic , Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar , Lutheran , and Anglican ) and has been an influential force in Malagasy politics .
Newer groups such as Seventh @-@ day Adventists are rapidly growing in rural areas through the establishment of intellectual discussion groups , as well as clinics and churches .
Islam is also practiced on the island . Islam was first brought to the island in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders , who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast . While the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island , the Islamic religion failed to take hold in all but a handful of southeastern coastal communities . Today , Muslims constitute 7 percent of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana . The vast majority of Muslims are Sunni . Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity , Indians , Pakistanis and Comorians . More recently , Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century . Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home .
= = Culture = =
Each of the many ethnic sub @-@ groups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs , practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities . However , there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island , creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity . In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors , the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana ( solidarity ) , vintana ( destiny ) , tody ( karma ) , and hasina , a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family . Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision ; strong kinship ties ; a widespread belief in the power of magic , diviners , astrology and witch doctors ; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles , commoners , and slaves .
Although social castes are no longer legally recognized , ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status , economic opportunity and roles within the community . Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ( " Makers of the Days " ) to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana , according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs . Similarly , the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre @-@ colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy ( from olona @-@ be @-@ hasina , " man of much virtue " ) of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group , who trace their ancestry back to early Arab settlers .
The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions . The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar , the valiha , is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo , and is very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today . Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction , featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar . Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors , tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material , typically stone , and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living . The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island 's earliest settlers , and Madagascar 's national dress , the woven lamba , has evolved into a varied and refined art .
The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine , in which rice is consumed at every meal , typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes . African influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their embodiment of their owner 's wealth , traditions originating on the African mainland . Cattle rustling , originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept , has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers .
= = = Arts = = =
A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar . One of the island 's foremost artistic traditions is its oratory , as expressed in the forms of hainteny ( poetry ) , kabary ( public discourse ) and ohabolana ( proverbs ) . An epic poem exemplifying these traditions , the Ibonia , has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island , and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities . This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean @-@ Joseph Rabearivelo , who is considered Africa 's first modern poet , and Elie Rajaonarison , an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry . Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage , embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings , local dance floors and national airwaves .
The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island . In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production , the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats , baskets , purses and hats . Wood carving is a highly developed art form , with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements . Sculptors create a variety of furniture and household goods , aloalo funerary posts , and wooden sculptures , many of which are produced for the tourist market . The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO 's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008 .
Among the Antaimoro people , the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long @-@ established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco @-@ tourists . Embroidery and drawn thread work are done by hand to produce clothing , as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets . A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo , and several other urban areas , offer paintings by local artists , and annual art events , such as the Hosotra open @-@ air exhibition in the capital , contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar .
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar . Moraingy , a type of hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions . It is traditionally practiced by men , but women have recently begun to participate . The wrestling of zebu cattle , which is named savika or tolon @-@ omby , is also practiced in many regions . In addition to sports , a wide variety of games are played . Among the most emblematic is fanorona , a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions . According to folk legend , the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially due to the obsession that Andrianjaka 's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities .
Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries . Rugby Union is considered the national sport of Madagascar . Football is also popular . Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque , a French game similar to lawn bowling , which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands . School athletics programs typically include football , track and field , judo , boxing , women 's basketball and women 's tennis . Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964 and has also competed in the African Games . Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs . Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14 @,@ 905 .
Because of its advanced sports facilities , Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa 's top international basketball events , including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship , the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women , the 2014 FIBA Africa Under @-@ 18 Championship , the 2013 FIBA Africa Under @-@ 16 Championship , and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under @-@ 16 Championship for Women .
= = = Cuisine = = =
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= Scientific jury selection =
Scientific jury selection , often abbreviated SJS , is the use of social science techniques and expertise to choose favorable juries during a criminal or civil trial . Scientific jury selection is used during the jury selection phase of the trial — when lawyers have the opportunity to question jurors and they and the judge choose which people will be on the jury . It almost always entails an expert 's assistance in the attorney 's use of peremptory challenges — the right to reject a certain number of potential jurors without stating a reason — during jury selection . The practice is currently confined to the American legal system .
SJS has roots in criminal trials during the Vietnam War era , but in modern times is usually employed in high @-@ stakes civil litigation ( where only money is usually at issue , in contrast to criminal trials , where the defendant can go to prison ) . SJS practitioners determine what background characteristics and attitudes predict favorable results , and then coordinate with attorneys in choosing the jury . Studies are mixed as to the effectiveness of the practice , though it is clear that the evidence presented at trial is the most important determiner of verdicts ( the trial result ) and that SJS is more likely to have an impact where that evidence is ambiguous . SJS 's potential to unfairly skew the jury has led to some reform proposals , but none have yet been implemented . The limited fictional portrayals of SJS have been negative towards the practice .
= = History and use = =
During jury selection in the United States , attorneys have two options for excluding potential jurors . The first option is a challenge for cause , in which attorneys must state the reason for a challenge ( such as clear bias or a conflict of interest ) , the opposing party is allowed to respond , and the judge decides whether to exclude the juror . The second option is a peremptory challenge , where an attorney can exclude a juror without stating any reason . While challenges for cause are unlimited , attorneys have a limited number of peremptory challenges , sometimes as few as four , although 10 is more common in non @-@ capital felony cases .
Attorneys have long used peremptory challenges to exclude undesirable prospective jurors , but have not always been successful . Much of the early efforts were based on lawyers ' folklore about who makes a good juror for their case . Early examples of scientific jury selection were similar . For example , in the 1975 Joan Little trial , defense attorneys used an astrologer to help choose the jury . More rigorous methodology was on display during the first major use of SJS , the 1972 Harrisburg Seven trial . During that trial , social scientists used demographic characteristics to identify biases in favor of conviction . The consultants in the case had conducted surveys that indicated women and Democrats would make defense @-@ friendly jurors , and the religious , those with college degrees , and Reader 's Digest subscribers would be better for the prosecution . Although surveys had indicated that 80 % of citizens in conservative Harrisburg , Pennsylvania would convict the defendants , they were acquitted of all serious charges .
A jury consultant helped pick the jury in the O. J. Simpson murder trial . Criminologist Jo @-@ Ellan Dimitrius used surveys to determine the ideal defense juror demographic ( black women ) and analyzed and judged the prospective jurors ' answers to a questionnaire and response and body language during voir dire ( the stage of jury selection where lawyers are permitted to directly question the jury ) . Prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi gives more credit to the traditional change of venue . He argues that transferring the case to a section of Los Angeles with more blacks in the jury pool was most detrimental to the selection of a prosecution @-@ friendly jury . Incidentally , the prosecutor fired her court @-@ appointed jury consultant early in the process .
Contemporary jury consultants are often sociologists , people with experience in communications and marketing , or attorneys themselves , but they are most frequently psychologists and specialize in legal psychology . Although most of the practice 's roots are in criminal trials , modern jury consultants are more often involved in torts ( civil litigation ) , particularly where wealthy corporate defendants fear an enormous monetary judgment for the plaintiff , or where plaintiffs ’ attorneys have invested large sums of money in an important lawsuit . Since the 1980s , large jury consulting and trial consulting firms have sprouted up with multi @-@ million dollar incomes , mostly from such high @-@ stakes civil litigation . The simultaneous shift from ad @-@ hoc groups of academics to a business model has sparked the criticism that SJS magnifies the distorting effect money has on trials , since only the wealthy can afford it . Jury consultants argue that they operate in an adversarial process the same way lawyers do ; by pursuing their clients ' interests in a rule @-@ bound framework . Jeffrey Abramson , who has written extensively about juries , argues that even if SJS is ethical or has zero effect , the mere myth of powerful , effective jury manipulators shakes public confidence in the jury system .
= = Methods = =
The theory behind SJS is that juror attitudes predict voting preferences most effectively . By discovering what relationships exist between certain attitudes , attorneys can exclude those from the jury whose attitudes would predispose them to a bad verdict . Researcher Shari Diamond indicates that jury consultants primarily rely on two methods : telephone surveys and mock trials ( trial simulations ) . Telephone surveys are the practitioners ' " primary research method " . During a survey of the community where the trial is taking place , jury consultants ask about :
background characteristics of the jury pool such as race , sex , marital status , age , income , and job ; and perhaps more specific questions that depend upon the case itself ;
beliefs and attitudes likely associated with a favorable or unfavorable verdict ; and
( after reading a summary of the facts of the case ) which verdict the survey respondent would favor .
Diamond writes that jury consultants then compare the three data sets to determine which background characteristics correlate to favorable attitudes and verdicts , and which attitudes correlate to favorable verdicts . Attorneys can then use that information to select favorable jurors , based either on prospective jurors ' characteristics or whatever an attorney can learn about jurors ' attitudes . This has prompted the most frequent criticism of SJS : that consultants stack juries with inexorably biased or dumb jurors ; in turn , practitioners insist this is impossible and that bias can only be removed from a jury pool .
An alternative is to test respondents at the researcher 's facility with opening statements or a full @-@ blown mock trial instead of reading a case summary over the telephone . The higher cost of a mock trial allows for a more realistic portrayal of the real trial and ( researchers hope ) more accurate data . It also provides a better opportunity to question the subjects , before and after the trial simulation . On the other hand , telephone surveys provide a larger and more representative sample of the jury pool . Diamond indicates that since both methods have advantages , SJS practitioners commonly rely on both in the same case .
Besides the occasional astrologer or psychic , a few practitioners use unorthodox methods , such as in @-@ courtroom assessment of posture , pupil dilation , or breathing to judge jurors both during selection and during trial . Though such methods have the veneer of science , psychologists reject them as nonsense and " science fiction " . Notwithstanding this , Jo @-@ Ellan Dimitrius ( from the Simpson trial ) indicates that she also relies on appearance , body language , conduct , and even smells such as perfume or medication . She sometimes decides based upon her " gut feeling " about a juror .
Research psychologists Kassin and Wrightsman indicate that the model employed ( demographic factors predict attitudes that predict verdicts ) has empirical weaknesses . That attitudes predict verdicts is taken for granted and rarely studied . For example , veterans might favor current troops , but that does not necessarily translate into a likelihood to acquit their brethren of crimes . However , the relationship between demographics and verdicts can be more reliably predicted by mock trials . Successful prediction of jury verdicts often requires data specific to the case and jurisdiction . The sheer number of ways that one case can be unique outstrips the published research on the subject , so original research is often required . That necessity is exacerbated by the fact that many modern consultants are reluctant to share knowledge , even with other firms , because of paranoia , client confidentiality , and their regard for their work as " trade secrets " .
One important variation is " group dynamics analysis " . Some jury selection is concerned with the attitudes and bias of individuals . Some trial consultants also try to predict how individuals will form themselves into groups in the jury and which jurors will become leaders and followers in those groups . Consultants also use this tool after jury selection is over .
= = Efficacy = =
Although advocates and practitioners of scientific jury selection claim the practice is overwhelmingly effective at choosing juries that will render the desired verdict , its true effect is often more difficult to discern . Part of this difficulty is in duplicating the conditions of a real trial . In one experiment , two kinds of shadow juries watched a trial and rendered a verdict . The results indicated that the juries were substantially different , but that this difference was likely due to the two experimental juries ’ knowledge that they were not deciding an actual verdict , prompting a lower burden of proof .
Another simplified experiment indicated that lawyers trained in a systematic selection method made better predictions of juror verdicts in two of four cases – the sale of illegal drugs and a military court @-@ martial ( the other two cases were murder and drunk driving ) . The systematic method was more effective in those two cases where the predictive relationships between demographic variables and attitudes / verdicts were strongest , and least effective where such predictive relationships were weak or nonexistent .
Some academic researchers argue that the actual efficacy of SJS is obscured by poor research methodology . Specifically , demographic characteristics used to predict juror attitudes and juror verdicts may not hold true across all kinds of cases . For example , men convict more frequently than women in some types of criminal trials but less frequently in others . Besides this , demographic characteristics are often less predictive than the attitudes jurors hold ; for example , attitudes towards rape are better verdict @-@ predictors than gender in rape trials .
The actual efficacy of jury consultants may not be very important because the demographic composition of the jury has little effect on the verdict it renders , usually causing only a 5 % – 15 % variance in verdicts . The evidence presented at trial has far more impact on what the verdict will be . As Kressel and Kressel indicate , " when the evidence is strong , nothing else matters much " and even when the evidence is ambiguous , demographic characteristics of jurors are a relatively minor influence . Some researchers argue that a significant improvement in jury selection , however small , may be worthwhile when the stakes are high , like for a defendant accused of a capital crime or a corporation that stands to lose millions of dollars in a civil suit .
A popular " proof is in the pudding " argument is often made , especially by consultants themselves ; the argument goes that since attorneys and clients pay such high fees ( sometimes as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 ) for consultants , their services must be effective . Others argue that most attorneys are unaware of the social science research on the topic .
The effectiveness of scientific jury selection has also been comparison tested against other methods , such as attorney folklore and intuition . For trial attorneys , justifying the expense of SJS is contingent upon an improvement of their own jury selection abilities . Several empirical studies of traditional jury selection ( by attorneys acting alone ) have indicated that it and SJS are about equally effective .
= = Suggested reforms = =
In light of the criticisms leveled against scientific jury selection — that it lets lawyers stack juries and distorts the effect of money — several reforms have been proposed . One common reform proposal is the elimination of peremptory challenges . Supreme Court precedent already forbids use of peremptories ( peremptory challenges ) to exclude jurors based solely on their race or sex.1 Proponents argue that doing away with peremptories altogether will eliminate the perceived and real injustice of permitting lawyers to eliminate jurors dispositionally unfavorable to them without a challenge for cause argument in open court . Opponents counter that attorneys cannot always ferret out actionable evidence of juror bias , particularly in the context of a limited voir dire .
Other proposals include :
lower the number of peremptories to force attorneys to use them only on the most clearly biased jurors and severely curtail their ability to " shape " the jury with peremptory challenges .
ban jury consulting through legislative action , though it may be impossible to fairly draw a line that excludes SJS but doesn 't exclude advice from other attorneys in the same firm , for example .
limit useful information by severely curtailing verbal questioning and written questionnaires of prospective jurors . This may have the perverse effect of encouraging many erroneous Batson challenges based solely on race or gender instead of more sophisticated metrics of bias .
prohibit investigation of the jury pool or release the list of prospective jurors on the eve of jury selection to make investigation of prospective jurors impossible .
force disclosure of consultant use by making surveys of prospective jurors or the community discoverable by ( legally accessible to ) the opposing party . If consultants ' research is discoverable , each party could use and benefit from their research .
Despite serious discussion among lawyers , scholars , legislators , and others about various reform proposals , none have been implemented and no consensus exists about which remedy , if any , would be the most appropriate and effective .
= = In fiction = =
The major fictional representations to date have largely portrayed jury consultants as villains that are highly effective at influencing the jury , often using illegal tactics that mainstream practitioners do not use . Consultants are major characters in John Grisham 's novel The Runaway Jury and the similar film adaptation . In the film , Rankin Fitch , " jury consultant for the defense , " leads a team that uses high technology and sometimes @-@ illegal tactics to prevent a judgment against their corporate client in what Salon calls " our worst nightmare of corporate arm @-@ twisting . " Writing about the book , Kressel and Kressel say Grisham " plays on fears that the American justice system has been hijacked by crafty attorneys and immensely effective hired @-@ gun social scientists . " Jean Hanff Korelitz 's A Jury of Her Peers stretches the known reality of consulting much further . Korelitz 's fictional consultants are part of an unscrupulous firm that charges prosecutors to kidnap homeless people , program them with drugs into conviction @-@ only jurors , and substitute them for those hoping to avoid jury duty . Jonakait says the novel is " hardly realistic " but " reveals the distrust engendered by jury consultants . "
In a fifth @-@ season episode of the CBS television series Numb3rs , entitled " Guilt Trip , " an illegal arms dealer ( James Marsters ) is tried for racketeering and the murder of the key witness against him . After he is unexpectedly acquitted , the investigation reveals that he had hired a sleazy jury consultant to not only identify those jurors who would most likely sway the rest of the jury 's deliberations , so as to bribe and extort them into pushing for acquittal , but also train one of his henchmen to pose as the perfect " prosecutor 's juror " and get placed on the jury . In season one , episode eleven , of the television series Leverage , a pharmaceutical company is under fire for a wrongful death case involving a stimulative all natural herbal supplement . In an attempt to prevent major losses for the pharmaceutical company in question , and to protect the investment of a soon to be parent company 's subsidiary , scientific jury selection is used . However , the Leverage team thwarts their efforts every step of the way similar to a giant chess match .
= = Endnotes = =
^ 1 Batson v. Kentucky ( 1986 ) is the seminal case in this area , finding race @-@ based use of peremptory challenges by prosecutors unconstitutional . Georgia v. McCollum ( 1992 ) extended the same prohibition to defense attorneys . The relevant precedents in civil law are Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete Company ( 1991 ) ( regarding race ) and J.E.B. v. Alabama ( 1994 ) ( regarding gender ) .
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= Alien : Isolation =
Alien : Isolation is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by Creative Assembly and based on the Alien science fiction horror film series . It was published by Sega and originally released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 and Xbox One on 7 October 2014 . The game is set 15 years after the events of Ridley Scott 's 1979 Alien film and follows Amanda Ripley , daughter of Alien protagonist Ellen Ripley , and her efforts to investigate the disappearance of her mother .
Unlike previous video game adaptations of the Alien franchise , Alien : Isolation places a strong emphasis on stealth and survival horror gameplay , requiring the player to avoid and outsmart a single alien creature over the course of the game with the help of gadgets like a motion tracker and a flamethrower . It was designed more in line with Scott 's film as opposed to James Cameron 's more action @-@ oriented 1986 sequel Aliens , and features a similar lo @-@ fi , 1970s vision of what the future would look like . The game runs on an entirely new engine that was built from scratch to accommodate technical aspects like the game 's atmospheric and lighting effects as well as the alien 's behavioural design . Creative Assembly originally intended to make Alien : Isolation a third @-@ person game , but the perspective was later shifted to first @-@ person in order to create a more intense experience .
Upon release , Alien : Isolation received generally positive reviews from video game journalists and sold over two million copies in Europe and the US as of May 2015 . Critics praised the game 's retro @-@ futuristic art direction , sound design , and the alien 's artificial intelligence , but criticized its story , characters , and voice acting . The game won several year @-@ end awards , including Best Audio at the 2015 Game Developers Choice Awards and Audio Achievement at the 2015 British Academy of Film and Television Arts Awards . Several downloadable content packs that extend the game with new missions and challenges were also released .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien : Isolation is a single @-@ player action @-@ adventure game with stealth and survival horror features , in which the player controls the protagonist , Amanda Ripley , from a first @-@ person perspective to interact with the environment . To advance through the game , the player must explore a space station and complete numerous objectives while avoiding , outsmarting and defeating enemies like human occupants or hostile androids . Objectives range from activating computers to collecting certain items or reaching a specific area in the game . The player has the ability to run , climb ladders , and sneak into vents . The player can also crouch and hide behind objects to break the line of sight with enemies , and covertly peek over or lean around to gain view . The player has also the ability to go under nearby tables or inside lockers to hide from enemies .
Unlike previous video game adaptations of the Alien franchise , Alien : Isolation features a single alien creature that pursues the player over the course of the game . The alien creature cannot be defeated , requiring the player to use stealth tactics in order to survive . Instead of following a predetermined path , the alien has the ability to actively investigate disturbances and hunt the player by sight or sound . Along the way , the player can use both a flashlight and a motion tracker to detect the alien 's movements . However , using any of these increases the chance of the alien finding the player . For example , if the alien is moving and close enough , the tracker 's sound will attract the alien , forcing the player to wisely use the tracker and remove it as soon as it detects motion . The motion tracker cannot detect enemies when they are not moving and cannot determine whether the alien creature is up in the ducts or on the ground level .
Although the player can use certain weapons to defeat enemies , Alien : Isolation emphasizes evasion over direct combat by providing the player with limited ammunition . The game features four weapons that become available as the player progresses throughout the game : a revolver , a shotgun , a bolt gun , and a flamethrower . The player can also craft several items by collecting schematics and different kind of materials throughout the game . Items range from EMP mines to noisemakers , molotov cocktails and pipe bombs , among others . These items help the player deal with enemies and the alien . For example , the noisemaker can be used to attract enemies in one particular direction . The alien is afraid of fire , so using the flamethrower or a molotov cocktail will force it to retreat into the station 's ventilation system . The player has a limited amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies . Nevertheless , the player can restore lost health using medkits , which can be crafted with materials in Amanda 's inventory .
The space station is divided into multiple sections connected by trams and elevators . Each section is composed of a set of rooms and corridors separated by doors . Some doors require certain actions to be performed first before entry is allowed . For example , some doors require a keycard or a numbered entry code , while others need to be cut with a variety of welding torches or hacked using an electronic device . The player may also encounter computer terminals that can be used to access information or trigger in @-@ game actions like disabling security cameras or manipulating the space station 's air @-@ purification mechanism . The game features an automap to help players navigate the different areas of the game . To save their progress , players need to locate a terminal in the game and manually insert Amanda 's access card in it . If Amanda dies , the player will need to start the game again from the last saved point . In addition to the campaign mode , Alien : Isolation features a separate game mode , called Survivor Mode , that focuses on short , player @-@ versus @-@ alien scenarios . In each scenario , the player needs to complete a set of objectives while avoiding the alien under a time limit .
= = Plot = =
In 2137 , 15 years after the disappearance of the Nostromo spacecraft , Amanda Ripley , daughter of Ellen Ripley , is approached by the android Christopher Samuels of the Weyland @-@ Yutani corporation . Samuels informs her that the flight recorder of the Nostromo was recently located by a ship named the Anesidora and is being held aboard Sevastopol , a remote space station owned by the Seegson Corporation , in orbit around the gas giant KG348 . He offers her a place on the Weyland @-@ Yutani team sent to retrieve it so that she can have closure regarding the fate of her missing mother . Ripley , Samuels , and Weyland @-@ Yutani executive Nina Taylor travel to Sevastopol on board the courier ship Torrens , owned by captain Diane Verlaine . The group arrives at Sevastopol to find the station damaged and its communications offline . Ripley , Samuels , and Taylor attempt to spacewalk over to the station to investigate , but their EVA line is severed by debris , and Ripley is separated from them and forced to enter the station on her own .
Ripley attempts to find help , but is confronted by Axel , a survivor who explains that Sevastopol is out of control due to a " monster " loose aboard the station . Although Ripley convinces him to help her in exchange for a ride off the station aboard the Torrens , Axel is soon killed by said monster , an alien creature . While exploring the station , Ripley finds the Nostromo 's flight recorder but discovers , to her dismay , that it contains no data . After contacting Samuels and recovering medical supplies from the station 's medical bay to treat an injured Taylor , Ripley reunites with the station 's marshal , Waits , and his deputy , Ricardo . Waits explains that the alien was brought on board the station by Anesidora captain Henry Marlow , who is now in Waits ' custody . After speaking with Marlow , Ripley learns that the Anesidora crew discovered the flight recorder near the planetoid LV @-@ 426 , where they also found a derelict ship previously found by the Nostromo crew and the nest of alien eggs contained within . While exploring the ship , Marlow 's wife was attacked by a facehugger . Marlow then brought her aboard Sevastopol for emergency medical treatment , but an alien ultimately hatched from her . Waits convinces Ripley to help him contain the alien by luring it into a remote section of the station and sealing it inside . Ripley is successful , but Waits truly plotted to use Ripley as bait , and ejects the module from the station . As the module careens into space , Ripley manages to space @-@ jump back to Sevastopol using an EVA suit .
Ripley makes her way back to Ricardo , who explains that the station 's androids abruptly started slaughtering the remaining crew , including Waits . He also tells her that Samuels is attempting to interface with the station 's controlling artificial intelligence , APOLLO , to cease the rampage . However , APOLLO 's defensive countermeasures electrocute Samuels shortly after he managed to open a path for Ripley into APOLLO 's control core . Upon reaching APOLLO , Ripley discovers that Seegson , who has been trying to sell off Sevastopol for years , has finally found a buyer : Weyland @-@ Yutani , who instructed APOLLO to protect the alien . When Ripley tells APOLLO that the creature is no longer aboard the station and demands to cease all activity , APOLLO refuses and turns its attention to the station 's reactor . Ripley descends to the base of the reactor and learns that it has been converted into an alien nest . She then initiates a reactor purge to destroy the nest , but multiple alien creatures escape and begin to overrun Sevastopol in the process . Ripley learns from Ricardo that Taylor was sent by Weyland @-@ Yutani to retrieve the alien , and that she freed Marlow in exchange for the location of LV @-@ 426 . However , Marlow double @-@ crosses her and takes her hostage aboard the Anesidora .
Aboard the Anesidora , Ripley discovers a message from her mother after her initial report of the events on the Nostromo , thus finally giving her closure . Marlow then appears with Taylor and tells Ripley that he plans to overload the Anesidora 's fusion reactor and destroy the station , thus ensuring that no aliens survive . In the ensuing confrontation , both Marlow and Taylor are killed by an electric discharge and Ripley is forced to escape the Anesidora shortly before it explodes . Ricardo tells Ripley that the Anesidora explosion destroyed Sevastopol 's orbital stabilizers , causing the station to slowly drift into KG348 's atmosphere . Ripley and Ricardo manage to contact the Torrens for extraction , but Ricardo is attacked and paralyzed by a facehugger . After making her way outside to help the Torrens detach from the station , Ripley is surrounded by several alien creatures and then thrown into the ship due to a blast . Aboard the Torrens , Ripley makes her way to the bridge to find Verlaine , but is confronted by another alien . Still in her EVA suit , Ripley is cornered into the airlock and is forced to open it , jettisoning both herself and the alien into space . The final shot of the game depicts Ripley , adrift and unconscious in her EVA suit , suddenly awakened by a searchlight that crosses her face .
= = Development = =
Alien : Isolation was developed by the Creative Assembly , which is best known for their work on the Total War real @-@ time strategy video game series . The idea of developing a game based on the Alien film series from 20th Century Fox was conceived when the company finished Viking : Battle for Asgard in 2008 , after publisher Sega acquired the rights to develop Alien games in December 2006 . A six @-@ person team developed a small multiplayer game to pitch the idea to Sega , a " hide and seek " prototype where one of the players had to control the alien while the others would need to conceal themselves in the environment . The game captured the attention of Sega and the project was eventually approved . Since the Creative Assembly had no experience with survival horror games , the company had to hire several people from other studios like Bizarre Creations , Black Rock , Crytek , Ubisoft , and Realtime Worlds for the project . According to director Alistair Hope , the development team grew from " a couple of guys crammed in with the Total War team " to a group of 100 people by 2014 .
The Creative Assembly decided to design the game more in line with Ridley Scott 's 1979 film Alien as opposed to James Cameron 's more action @-@ oriented 1986 sequel Aliens . To help the designers authentically recreate the atmosphere of the film , Fox provided them with three terabytes of original production material , including costume photography , concept art , set design , behind the scenes photos , videos , and the film 's original sound effect recordings . As artist John Mckellan recalls , " It was a proper gold mine . We saw angles of things we 'd never seen before . " During the first stage of development , the developers deconstructed the film to find out what made its setting unique . This would allow them to build new environments that were faithful to it . Similarly , the film 's original soundtrack was deconstructed so that composers could identify the main cues , which would then be used as templates to extend the soundtrack and fill out the length of the game . The developers also had the chance to meet Alien and Blade Runner editor Terry Rawlings , who would give them additional insight .
Rather than go for a shiny , high @-@ tech science fiction look , the designers opted to recreate the setting and feel of the original Alien film using the work of concept artists Ron Cobb and Mœbius . As a result , the game features a lo @-@ fi , 1970s vision of what the future would look like . For example , the game features clunky machinery like phone receivers , monochrome displays , and distorted CRT monitors . To create period authentic distortion on in @-@ game monitors , the developers recorded their in game animations onto VHS and Betamax video recorders , then filmed those sequences playing on an " old curvy portable TV " while adjusting the tracking settings . As digital hacking was not conceived in the 1970s , the game 's hacking device was built the way it would have been built on the set of the movie , and requires players to tune into a computer 's signal while selecting icons on its screen . Artist Jon McKellan noted , " We had this rule : If a prop couldn 't have been made in ' 79 with the things that they had around , then we wouldn 't make it either . "
The Creative Assembly wanted Alien : Isolation to have a story that was closely related to the film . As a result , the team decided to explore a story set 15 years after the events of the film which would involve Ellen Ripley 's daughter and the Nostromo 's flight recorder . Writer Will Porter explained that the process of creating a backstory for Amanda was " refreshing " as he felt that she was an overlooked character of the Alien universe . The derelict ship the Nostromo crew previously found in the film was also included in the game since the developers felt it was a central point in the Alien canon . Actress Sigourney Weaver agreed to reprise her role as Ellen Ripley to voice small sections throughout the game because she felt that the story was interesting and true to the film . Along with Weaver , the original Alien cast , which includes Tom Skerritt , Veronica Cartwright , Harry Dean Stanton , and Yaphet Kotto , reprised their roles for the game 's separate downloadable content missions , marking the first time they were brought back together since the release of the film . All the characters were created with 3D face scans .
Alien : Isolation runs on an entirely new engine that was built from scratch by the Creative Assembly . The new engine allowed the development team to accommodate technical aspects like the game 's atmospheric and lighting effects as well as the alien 's behavioural design . The alien itself was designed to look similar to H. R. Giger 's original design for the creature from the film , including the skull underneath its semitransparent head . However , the designers did alter its humanoid legs with recurved ones to provide the alien a walk cycle that would hold up to scrutiny during longer encounters with the player . Between 70 and 80 different sets of animation for the alien were created . The alien 's artificial intelligence was programmed with a complex set of behavioural designs that evolve as it encounters the player , creating the illusion that the alien learns from each encounter and appropriately adjusts its hunting strategy . As gameplay designer Gary Napper explains , " We needed something that would be different every time you played it . You ’ re going to die a lot , which means restarting a lot , and if the alien was scripted , you ’ d see the same behaviour . That makes the alien become predictable , and a lot less scary . " The save system was inspired by a scene in the film where Captain Dallas uses a key @-@ card to access Nostromo 's computer , Mother .
The developers originally planned to add a feature that would allow players to craft weapons , but the idea was ultimately discarded . According to Hope , " We thought about what people would want to do in order to survive . We explored different ideas , and one of them was fashioning weapons to defend yourself . That was quite early on , but then we realised that this game isn 't really about pulling the trigger . " Another cancelled feature was the alien 's iconic acid blood as a game mechanic , which could melt through metal like in the film . Although the feature was implemented at one point , it was eventually removed from the game because the developers felt it would change the course of the game in a " weird " direction . In addition , the developers considered the possibility for the game to be played from a third @-@ person perspective , but then realized that it would significantly change the experience . Hope explained that it would become " a game about jockeying the camera and looking after your avatar . But in first @-@ person it 's you that 's being hunted . If you 're hiding behind an object and you want to get a better view of your surroundings , you have to move . " The actual development of the game took overall four years to complete after the Creative Assembly first pitched the idea to Sega . The game went gold on 9 September 2014 and is dedicated to Simon Franco , a programmer of the game , who died during its development .
= = Marketing and release = =
Alien : Isolation was first unveiled on 12 May 2011 when UK government minister Ed Vaizey visited the Creative Assembly and revealed on his Twitter account that the studio was hiring for an Alien game . Although no gameplay details were confirmed , the Creative Assembly did confirm to CVG that the game would be released for consoles , but did not specify any format . Sega boss Mike Hayes also said that the game was going to be " very much a triple @-@ A project . We want this to be a peer to the likes of Dead Space 2 . " Although the game 's name was anticipated following a trademark registration in October 2013 and some screenshots of the game were leaked in December 2013 , Alien : Isolation was formally announced and confirmed for the Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One platforms with the release of a teaser trailer on 7 January 2014 . The developers also stated that they were not worried about the fact that Sega 's previous Alien game , Aliens : Colonial Marines , received a negative public reaction . According to Napper , " It did completely reaffirm to us that there was a massive Alien fanbase out there [ and ] just to see such a vocal reaction to the game , everything that they 've said they want is something that we 're building and we 're very excited about that . "
In June 2014 , Alien : Isolation was presented at the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , where journalists had a chance to play a demonstration of the game . The game was also playable on the Oculus Rift virtual reality ( VR ) headset that was shown at the show . Danielle Riendeau of Polygon described the demo as " one of the most effectively terrifying slices of a game I 've ever played in my life . " The game was awarded Best VR Game and was nominated for Game of the Show , Best Xbox One Game , Best PlayStation 4 Game , Best PC Game , and Best Action Game at the IGN 's Best of E3 2014 Awards . Similarly , at the 2014 Game Critics Awards , the game was nominated for Best of Show , Best Console Game , and Best Action / Adventure Game . In August 2014 , a cinematic trailer for the game was shown at Gamescom .
Alien : Isolation was released on 7 October 2014 , featuring two pre @-@ order downloadable content missions that allow players to play two scenes from the original film . The first mission , entitled Crew Expendable , features the original crew of the Nostromo and involves the player controlling Ripley , Dallas or Parker attempting to flush the alien creature from the air vents and into the ship 's airlock . The second mission , Last Survivor , is set during the film 's finale and involves the player controlling Ripley as she tries to activate the Nostromo 's self @-@ destruct sequence and reach the escape shuttle . Unlike the first mission , the second mission is only available for players who pre @-@ ordered the game at certain retailers . Upon release , five additional downloadable content packs for the game were periodically released between October 2014 and March 2015 . These packs expand the game 's Survivor Mode with new characters , challenges , maps , and other features . A collection featuring the game and all the downloadable content packs was released for Linux , OS X , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in late 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for Alien : Isolation was divided but generally positive , with review scores ranging from IGN 's 5 @.@ 9 out of 10 to PC Gamer 's 93 out of 100 . Josh Harmon of Electronic Gaming Monthly felt that Alien : Isolation " succeeds as a genuine effort to capture the spirit of the film franchise in playable form , rather than a lazy attempt to use it as an easy backdrop for a cash @-@ in with an ill @-@ fitting genre . " Writing for GameSpot , Kevin VanOrd credited the game for its tense and frightening gameplay , stating that " when all mechanics are working as intended , alien @-@ evasion is dread distilled into its purest , simplest form . " However , he criticized the game 's " trial and error " progression and frustrating distances between save points . Jeff Marchiafava of Game Informer stated similar pros , but criticized the story and poor acting from the voice actors .
The game 's visuals and atmosphere were highlighted positively . Polygon editor Arthur Gies felt that Alien : Isolation is " a beautiful game , full of deep shadows and mystery around every corner , " while Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer praised the lighting and unusually compelling environment design . IGN 's Ryan McCaffrey gave high marks to the game 's retro @-@ futuristic art direction and sound design , commenting : " From wisps of smoke that billow out of air vents to clouds of white mist that obscure your vision when you rewire an area 's life @-@ support systems in order to aid your stealthy objectives , Isolation certainly looks and sounds like a part of the Alien universe . " Similarly , PC Gamer reviewer Andy Kelly said that the game 's art design sets Alien : Isolation apart from the likes of System Shock or Dead Space and creates a " convincing science @-@ fiction world , with machines and environments that are functional and utilitarian , rather than overtly futuristic . "
The story and characters were generally criticized , with Game Informer stating that " Amanda exhibits little growth or personality , other than concern for her fellow humans and a desire to not die gruesomely . " Similarly , Blake Peterson of Game Revolution noted that none of characters are fully developed . According to him , " we never spend enough time with them to build the emotional bond necessary for their inevitable deaths to mean anything . " GameTrailers said that most of the computer terminals found in the game contain unoriginal logs to describe predictable events . Nevertheless , he remarked that reading reports from different computer terminals " grounds Sevastopol in an appreciable way . "
Writing for GamesRadar , David Houghton highlighted the alien 's advanced artificial intelligence , stating that " progress becomes a case of ' if ' and ' how ' , not ' when ' . Movement is measured in inches and feet rather than metres , and simply remaining alive becomes more exhilarating than any objective achieved . " Peterson praised the gameplay for being tense , scary and effective , commenting that Alien : Isolation is " a solid , incredibly striking example of the [ survival horror ] genre that uses its first person perspective to greater personalize the horror . " PC Gamer credited the crafting system for giving the game " a lot of unexpected depth " , allowing players to outsmart enemies in multiple ways . The game 's Survivor Mode was praised by Chris Carter of Destructoid , who felt it offered players different feelings and experiences each time they played it .
Although the gameplay was praised by several reviewers , some found the game to be unnecessarily long , repetitive and unforgiving . In a mixed review , McCaffrey felt that the game does not offer many options of survival , requiring players to spend most of their time hiding in lockers " staring at the motion tracker " . Polygon criticized the overexposure to the alien creature , turning Alien : Isolation into an irritating experience . As Gies explained , " Every time I thought I heard the monster , every blip on my motion tracker , was a cause for a tightness in my chest at first . By the 300th time I dived under a table or into a locker , I wasn 't scared anymore — I was annoyed . " Despite the criticism , Alien : Isolation was considered a " brave " title due to its difficult and unforgiving gameplay , a feature that is uncommon in games with large development costs . As of January 2015 , Alien : Isolation has sold over one million copies worldwide according to Sega . As of March 2015 , the game has sold over 2 @.@ 1 million copies in Europe and the US .
= = = Accolades = = =
Alien : Isolation received several year @-@ end awards , including PC Gamer 's Game of the Year 2014 , Audio Achievement at the 11th British Academy Games Awards , Best Audio at the 15th Game Developers Choice Awards , and four awards at the 14th National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers . The game also appeared on several year @-@ end lists of the best games of 2014 . It was ranked 1st in The Daily Telegraph 's the 25 best video games of 2014 , 2nd in Empire 's the 10 Best Games Of The Year , 2nd in Time 's Top 10 Video Games of 2014 , 4th in The Guardian 's Top 25 Games of 2014 , 3rd in Reader 's top 50 games of 2014 by Eurogamer , and in Daily Mirror 's the 10 best games of 2014 . In 2015 , Alien : Isolation was ranked 7th in Kotaku 's list of the 10 Best Horror Games .
= = Possible sequel = =
In October 2015 , Creative Assembly studio director Tim Heaton stated that , while Sega was disappointed with the sales of the game , a sequel was " not out of the question " and that " there was more to be said . " However , he also highlighted significant obstacles in creating a sequel , commenting : " Spending very significant amounts of money , and getting close to break @-@ even or just about in the black ? That ’ s not where Sega wants to be , when we have a brilliant portfolio of other games that do great business . " Sega later confirmed that a sequel is still being considered , but the question of whether or not a sequel would be profitable will eventually decide the fate of the project .
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= SS Winfield Scott =
SS Winfield Scott was a sidewheel steamer that transported passengers and cargo between San Francisco , California and Panama in the early 1850s , during the California Gold Rush . After entering a heavy fog off the coast of Southern California on the evening of December 1 , 1853 , the ship crashed into Middle Anacapa Island . All 450 passengers and crew survived , but the ship was lost .
Winfield Scott has been the object of numerous salvage operations since the crash , and currently rests underwater as part of the Channel Islands National Park and Marine Sanctuary . The Winfield Scott wreck site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = History = =
= = = California Gold Rush = = =
The discovery of gold at Sutter 's Mill in 1848 brought thousands of people to California in search of fortune until the late 1850s . Since neither the Panama Canal nor the First Transcontinental Railroad had been constructed , people emigrating to California from the Eastern United States had three main routes of passage . They could travel over land , which was expensive and dangerous , or they could sail the roughly 14 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) route around South America . This was more attractive to some but no less dangerous , due in part to the rough waters of the Drake Passage . In addition to the inherent dangers of either route , the journey often took as long as six months to complete .
The third route involved traversing the jungles of the Isthmus of Panama , then departing via the southern coast of Panama . While this cut the length of the sea journey in half , ships to ferry passengers from Panama to San Francisco were not commonplace . As a result , many had to wait months to complete the second half of their journey . To fill this growing need for swift passage from Panama to California , shipbuilding activities increased dramatically .
= = = Construction and service = = =
Winfield Scott ( originally to be named Placer ) was constructed by the shipbuilding company Westervelt and MacKay of New York , and was completed in March 1850 . The ship was named for the celebrated United States Army general Winfield Scott ( the stern was built with a bust in his likeness ) , and she was launched on 27 October 1850 . An announcement in the October 20 edition of the New York Herald stated that " We understand that no expense has been spared to secure strength , safety and speed ... " Her hull was wooden with double iron bracing and was made from White oak , Live oak , Locust , Redcedar and Georgia yellow pine .
The steamer , owned by Davis , Brooks and Company , initially transported passengers on the New York @-@ New Orleans route . In 1852 , the ship 's ownership was transferred to the New York and San Francisco Steamship Company Line , and she arrived in San Francisco on April 28 , 1852 . Once there , she began taking gold seekers , nicknamed argonauts , on the Panama Route ( between San Francisco and Panama ) . After the demise of the New York and San Francisco Steamship Company Line ( which had been renamed as the New York and California Steamship Company in May 1853 ) , the ship 's ownership was again transferred on July 8 , 1853 , this time to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company .
= = = Last voyage = = =
Winfield Scott , bound for Panama , departed from San Francisco on the morning of 1 December 1853 . In addition to her complement of passengers and crew , the ship was transporting a shipment of gold bullion worth an estimated US $ 2 million . The ship 's progress was slowed in the afternoon when repairs had to be made to a leaking boiler , but she had resumed course at full speed . Later that evening , Captain Simon F. Blunt navigated the ship into the Santa Barbara Channel in an effort to save time . Captain Blunt knew the channel well , having helped survey the area a few years previously .
At approximately 11 PM , the ship encountered a heavy fog , and ran aground into Middle Anacapa Island ( approximately 400 miles from port ) . Her speed at the time of the wreck was estimated at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She struck the island bow first , and when Capt. Blunt attempted to back away the stern was struck , removing the ship 's rudder . With the ship taking on massive amounts of water and unable to steer , all aboard , perhaps as many as 500 people , began scrambling for land . The ship was completely evacuated in approximately two hours , and the survivors spent the first night camped on a pinnacle of rock that measured 50 by 25 yards ( 46 by 23 m ) . The next day they moved to a larger piece of land on the island .
One of the passengers , Asa Cyrus Call , recalled " a terrible jar and crashing of timbers ... I hurried out on deck , where my attention was fixed on a wall of towering cliffs , the tops of which were hidden by the fog and darkness and appeared about to fall and crush us . All round was the loud booming of angry breakers surging about invisible rocks . "
On 2 December , the steamship SS California , returning to San Francisco from Panama , was alerted to the presence of the wreck survivors by the smoke of a gun they had fired . California rescued the women and children , as well as Winfield Scott 's complement of gold bullion . On 9 December California returned to rescue the remaining passengers . The crew stayed behind to recover as much of the mail and passenger luggage as possible . Winfield Scott , however , had sustained too much damage and was left in the waters of the channel .
= = Wreckage and salvage = =
The remains of Winfield Scott are located under 25 – 30 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) of water in the Channel Islands National Park and Marine Sanctuary . The wreckage site was verified in 1981 and was registered with the National Register of Historic Places in 1988 . The site is protected by California and United States law , which prohibits divers from removing any part of the wreckage .
A salvage operation was undertaken in 1894 , utilizing San Pedro . Much of the iron machinery , as well as hundreds of copper bolts , were recovered . An additional salvage operation during World War II recovered additional iron and brass for the war effort .
The remaining wreckage is considered important from an historical perspective , as it represents a tangible example of mid @-@ 19th century shipbuilding . Although much of the wooden hull has long since disintegrated , some of the machinery is still relatively intact .
Between 1853 and 1980 , more than 140 shipwrecks were documented in the Channel Islands National Park Marine Sanctuary . As of December 2000 , twenty sites had been located . The prevailing currents and weather conditions of the area make it a dangerous place for navigation .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Light beacon = = =
Shortly after the wreck , the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey recommended that a permanent lighthouse facility be built on Anacapa Island . Due to a lack of funding , the installation ( an unmanned acetylene beacon on a fifty @-@ foot tower ) was not constructed until 1912 . The tower was replaced by a lighthouse in 1932 .
= = = Impact on local ecosystem = = =
One possible lingering effect of the Winfield Scott 's wreck was the introduction of black rats to the ecosystem of the Channel Islands . While the wreck is one possible source for the arrival of rats on Anacapa , another is the later construction of a lighthouse . The first mention of rats on the island is in 1907 .
The black rats were a major disruption to the local wildlife on Anacapa Island and are still a problem on San Miguel Island . The black rats were successfully eradicated from Anacapa Island by 2003 , with a controversial program that involved an aerial application of the rodenticide brodifacoum , the first such eradication in the United States . The program cost nearly $ 1 million .
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= Photography in Denmark =
Photography in Denmark has developed from strong participation and interest in the very beginnings of the art in 1839 to the success of a considerable number of Danes in the world of photography today . Pioneers such as Mads Alstrup and Georg Emil Hansen paved the way for a rapidly growing profession during the last half of the 19th century while both artistic and press photographers have made internationally recognized contributions . Although Denmark was slow to accept photography as an art form , Danish photographers are now increasingly active , participating in key exhibitions around the world .
Among Denmark 's most successful contemporary photographers are Jacob Aue Sobol , who gained recognition for captivating portraits of his Greenlandic girlfriend , and Per Bak Jensen , who introduced a new perspective to modern landscape photography . Press photography has prospered too under award @-@ winning contributors such as Jan Grarup and Claus Bjørn Larsen , who have covered wars and conflicts of global importance over the past 20 years .
= = History = =
= = = Daguerreotypes = = =
Christian Tuxen Falbe , a Danish marine officer , was in Paris in January 1839 on behalf of Crown Prince Frederik when Louis Daguerre revealed the art of daguerreotyping . Falbe informed the Crown Prince of a visit to Daguerre where he had seen some of the very earliest daguerreotypes , explaining how impressed he had been by the new process and how important he thought it would be for art and science in Denmark . Shortly afterwards , he returned to Copenhagen with a camera and a couple of his own daguerreotypes for the Crown Prince who , believing them to be of scientific importance , deposited them with Hans Christian Ørsted , one of Denmark 's most prominent scientists . As a result of Ørsted 's own interest in photography , the new art took on rapidly : the daguerreotypist Mads Alstrup ( 1809 – 76 ) opened Copenhagen 's first photographic studio in 1842 ; and by 1850 there were over a hundred studios in Copenhagen and many more in the provinces .
The oldest photograph on record in Denmark is credited to Peter Faber ( 1810 – 1877 ) , a songwriter and a pioneer in telegraphy . His daguerreotype of Ulfeldts Plads is in the Copenhagen City Museum . The image of the square is in fact reversed left to right , as was normal for daguerreotypes unless a mirror was used together with the camera . Careful analysis of the photograph suggests that it dates back to July 1840 . The exposure time of about 15 minutes in sunlight explains why the only figure to be seen is a man sleeping at the foot of the Pillar of Shame towards the left of the picture .
Its status in the history of Danish photography is rivalled by a portrait of Bertel Thorvaldsen sitting at an easel outside his studio in the garden of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at Charlottenborg Palace in Copenhagen . This daguerrotype was taken by the French photographer Aymard Charles Théodore Neubourg , who visited Copenhagen in the summer of 1840 . An examination of the circumstances under which it was taken reveals that the date was Sunday , 26 July 1840 . It has also been noticed that Thorvaldsen is making the horn sign with what apparently is his left hand although , as a result of the daguerrotype mirror effect , it is actually his right hand . This has been ascribed to the anxiety he must have experienced while facing the new mechanical device which could reveal even the slightest detail .
Several Danes are remembered for their contributions to daguerreotypy . While in Paris in 1848 , Anton Melbye ( 1818 – 1875 ) , a marine artist , learnt from Daguerre . Rudolph Striegler , Johan Emilius Bogh and Johan Ludvig Ussing were among those who began to specialize in portrait photography opening studios in Copenhagen and the provinces .
Georg Emil Hansen ( 1833 – 1891 ) from Næstved came from a family of photographers . When his father , Carl Christian Hansen , opened a studio in Copenhagen , he decided to open one of his own . He became one of the most respected photographers of his day , with Christian IX of Denmark and the Danish Royal Family as customers in the early 1860s . He also excelled in adopting new techniques . He was the first to use paper prints and to make full @-@ length portrait enlargements . He received awards for his exhibitions in London ( 1862 ) and Berlin ( 1865 ) . In 1867 , together with his brother , Niels Christian Hansen , and two other photographers , he set up a photographic firm which later became Hansen , Schou & Weller , suppliers to the royal Danish court .
= = = Carte de visite photography = = =
The technique of carte de visite photography was brought to Denmark by Rudolph Striegler in 1860 . It spread rapidly and by the 1870s provided a cheap and attractive alternative to portrait painting for photographers such as Ludvig Grundtvig ( 1836 – 1901 ) and Adolph Lønborg ( 1835 – 1916 ) in Copenhagen , and Heinrich Tønnies ( 1856 – 1903 ) who opened a studio in Aalborg .
Heinrich Tønnies ( 1825 – 1903 ) remains to date one of the premier CDV photographers of Denmark . In June 1856 he began his photographic career as a partner under C. Fritsche in Aalborg and by December of the same year he bought his partner 's share of the business and struck out with a studio under his own name . By 1861 , Tönnies ' business boomed requiring a larger studio and the hiring of assistants , and by 1870 he became a Danish citizen . Ultimately , his family business spanned three @-@ generations and 75 years . The breadth of his photographic products included : Daguerreotypes , calotypes , pannotypes , photo @-@ lithography , stereoscopy , ambrotypes , CDVs , and medallions . It is believed that he produced no less than 75 @,@ 000 CDVs , many ordered in relation to a large wave of emigration from Nordjylland to North America . Owing to the poverty of Denmark 's Vendsyssel region , local demands for inexpensive CDVs persisted in Aalborg right up until World War I , making Tönnies ' studio one of the last to produce CDVs in Denmark .
Pietro Boyesen ( 1819 – 1882 ) was a Danish photographer who spent most of his professional life in Rome . Boyesen had a talent for composition and characterization . In contrast to the boring studio portraits which were so common at the time , Boyesen would have his subjects pose outdoors in intimate Roman settings . By playing with the subjects clothes and their relationship to the surroundings , Boyesen would produce works presenting a somewhat timid but intimate charm .
Frederikke Federspiel ( 1839 – 1913 ) was one of the very first female photographers in Denmark . At the age of 35 , she received training in photography from her family in Hamburg , Germany , where her uncle , Poul Friedrich Lewitz , her aunt and cousins were all photographers . In 1876 , when registering her business in Aalborg , she became one of the first officially recognized female photographers in Denmark when she gave her profession as " Photographin " , a German word which clearly shows that she was a woman . Specializing in portraits , she also became one of the earliest female members of the Dansk Fotografisk Forening in 1883 . One of the first to experiment with magnesium powder for flash , she installed electric lamps in her studio when electricity came to Aalborg in 1901 .
Kristen Feilberg ( 1839 – 1919 ) stands as another Danish photographer known mainly for his images captured far beyond the borders of Denmark . From the 1860s until the 1890s , Feilberg participated in expeditions to Sumatra , Singapore , and Penang . In 1867 , he exhibited photos at an exhibition in Paris and in 1870 he joined an expedition to the Batak lands of East Sumatra , where he successfully recorded scores of ethnographic images .
Christian Hedemann ( 1852 – 1932 ) counts as among the earliest Danish photographers who emigrated the farthest distance . Though educated in Denmark , he left Copenhagen in 1878 and settled in Hawaii . Primarily occupied as a mechanical engineer at the Hana Sugar Plantation , Island of Maui , and later as a technical manager at the Honolulu Iron Works , as an avid amateur photographer he helped found the Hawaiian Camera Club ( 1889 – 1893 ) . He became an American citizen in 1903 and in 1909 accepted an appointment as Danish Consul . His remarkable photographs of the Hawaiian royal family and native social elites remain as some of the earliest images available of pre @-@ annexed Hawaii .
Mary Steen ( 1856 – 1939 ) was a successful photographer in Copenhagen , pioneering indoor photography with pictures of families inside their own homes . Later , as court photographer , she not only photographed the royal family in Denmark but also spent some time in London where she photographed Queen Victoria . She did much to improve working conditions for women and her example encouraged many women to become professional photographers .
Benedicte Wrensted ( 1859 – 1949 ) was a notable Danish female photographer , who emigrated to the USA in 1894 . Wrensted learned her craft from her maternal aunt , Charlotte Borgen , and for a time in the 1880s operated a studio on Torvet 8 , in Horsens , Denmark . Much of her photographic career is anchored to her studio in Pocatello , a small town in southeastern Idaho , where she took photographs of the local inhabitants and recorded the growth of the town . Perhaps her most famous work remains her documentary photographs of the Shoshone Great Basin Native Americans which are considered of great anthropological importance . Wrensted became a U.S. citizen in 1912 , at age 53 , and in the same year ended her career as a photographer . Many of her Native American images are preserved at the Smithsonian Institution and National Archives .
Ludvig Luplau operated in Copenhagen until he emigrated to the U.S.A ( circa 1870 ) , where he opened a photography studio in Chicago . His CDV backmarks stated " Ludvig Luplau from Copenhagen , " and the Chicago city business directories listed him at a variety of locations in the 1870s @-@ 90s . His stereoview backmark advertising claimed Luplau & Co . , of 80 Fourth Street , specialized in both outdoor photography and stereoscopic interiors . Louis Laplau , his son , continued in photography beginning in the 1890s .
Peter Elfelt ( 1866 – 1931 ) , who served his photography apprenticeship in 1893 in Hillerød with Carl Rathsack , soon opened a studio of his own together with his two brothers . His work was widely recognized with the result that , in 1900 , he was given the title of Photographer to the Royal Danish Court . He took not only a large number of portraits but also landscapes across Denmark . He later became a major name in cinematography too .
= = = Other techniques = = =
A number of other techniques developed in parallel with the use of daguerreotypes . The ambrotype , using collodium to produce a positive image on glass , and the pannotype , also collodium @-@ based , were both used in Denmark from around 1855 . Negative @-@ based paper prints , used from the beginning of the 1850s , were produced on salt paper until around 1857 when salt was replaced by albumen . Collodion emulsion chloride paper was used from 1865 and in 1880 gelatin emulsion paper was introduced .
= = = Growing popularity = = =
Thanks to the increasing availability of simpler techniques , amateur photography gained popularity at the beginning of the 20th century . Sigvart Werner and Julius Møller were among the many who were influenced by the pictorialist trend , concentrating on pictorial landscape and genre photography .
From the 1890s , the Detroit Publishing Company used the Photochrom technique based on chromolithography to produce a large number of colour postcards , many of European cityscapes . In their collection , there are several views of Copenhagen taken between 1890 and 1900 .
Benefitting from the advent of postcards , Mary Willumsen ( 1884 – 1961 ) photographed women in scanty clothing or nude at the Helgoland beach facility in Copenhagen . Between 1916 and 1920 , she took many such photographs which she sold at a nearby kiosk . The operation was discontinued when the police began to take an interest . Many of the compositions are now considered to have considerable artistic merit .
= = Press and documentary photography = =
The Danish Union of Press Photographers ( Pressefotografforbundet ) is claimed to be the world 's first national organization for newspaper photographers . It was founded in 1912 in Copenhagen by six press photographers . Today it has over 800 members .
One of the earliest and most successful press photographers was Danish @-@ American Jacob Riis ( 1849 – 1914 ) who campaigned for social reform in the United States . Essentially a journalist , he took up photography only after he had emigrated to America . A prominent user of flash , he was able to publish indoor scenes of the slums of New York City , contributing to the implementation of " model tenements " . He is now regarded as a pioneer in photography .
While some Danish newspapers started to include photographs in the 1890s , it was only in the 1950s that press photography was introduced throughout the country . Taking the French @-@ based international photographic bureau Magnum as a model , Jesper Høm , Gregers Nielsen and others set up Delta Photos , a group designed to support journalistic photography .
Delta Photos was dissolved in 1972 but other organizations such as Morten Bo 's Ragnarok and Henrik Saxgren 's 2 . Maj sought to promote more clearly defined social and political objectives . Some photographers , such as Viggo Rivad and Krass Clement , chose instead to become freelancers .
In the 1970s , Jacob Holdt ( b . 1947 ) spent a number of years in the United States where he photographed scenes of the socially disadvantaged across the country . In his book American Pictures ( 1977 ) , a worldwide success , he contrasted these with photographs of the American elite , hoping to provide a basis for social reform .
Today Danish press photographers are as active as ever . Jan Grarup , in particular , has covered wars and conflicts around the globe over the past 20 years , earning prestigious awards at home and abroad . Claus Bjørn Larsen , also working as a war photographer , won the World Press Photo of the Year award in 1999 for his work in Kosovo .
Documentary photography has also flourished outside the press . As an example , Jette Bang ( 1914 – 1964 ) was fascinated by Greenland and the Greenlanders . From 1936 , she took over 12 @,@ 000 black @-@ and @-@ white photographs of the country and its inhabitants , showing how close to nature people lived .
= = Art or science ? = =
Since the very beginning , Danes have argued about the precise place of photography in society . In 1839 , Crown Prince Frederik deposited Falbe 's daguerreotypes with Ørsted , the secretary of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters , despite the fact that Daguerre , the inventor , was an artist . In 1842 , the artist Johan Frederik Møller was refused a grant from the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts for studying photography in France on the grounds that it was not an art . Photographers came within neither the scope of the Academy of Sciences nor that of the Academy of Fine Arts but were regarded as manual workers .
The confusion continued until the end of the 19th century when artists began to use photography as an aid to painting . Notable examples are Peder Severin Krøyer , Jens Ferdinand Willumsen and Laurits Andersen Ring who used photography to obtain more detail and realism in their paintings .
With the advent of photographic societies such as Danske Kamera Piktorialister ( Danish Camera Pictorialists ) in the 1930s , there was increasing pressure from activists such as H. B. J. Cramer to have photography recognized as an art form . Indeed , the movement continued right up to the 1970s . A counter @-@ movement to pictorialism , the 1920s ' Neue Sachlichkeit was slow to reach Denmark but surfaced in 1948 when Keld Helmer @-@ Petersen published his abstract colour studies in 122 Colour Photographs .
Apart from the 20 rather amateurish artistic photography events arranged by Aage Remfeldt between 1946 and 1976 at Charlottenborg , Denmark had few photographic exhibitions until the 1960s . The situation improved in 1963 when Jesper Høm arranged an exhibition at the Danish Museum of Art & Design with photographers from New York , Moscow and Paris . Another positive influence was Keld Helmer @-@ Petersen 's book Fragments of a City with photographs of fire escapes and artistically silhouetted cranes taken while he was a student at Chicago 's Institute of Design , some of which were published in the magazine Perspectiv .
In the winter of 1968 – 1969 , Jens Juncker @-@ Jensen went even further with an excellent exhibition Fotografiet som udtryksmiddel ( Photography as a means of expression ) for which he drew the very best material from the few photographic books of the time , attracting not only professional and amateur photographers but also architects and television producers . It provided a basis for six TV programmes over the following months . There was , however , little real discussion of photography as an art form .
In the early 1970s , under the influence of the United States where photography had become an academic discipline , exhibitions such as New American Photography in Copenhagen 's Bella Center presented top artistic photographers of the 1950s and 1960s including Harry Callahan , Jerry Uelsmann and Diane Arbus . This was followed in 1973 by the opening of Galleriet for Creativ Fotografi ( Gallery for Creative Photography ) in Copenhagen , to be followed in 1977 by the IMAGE gallery in Aarhus which encouraged experimental photography . Subsequent exhibitions involved the landscape photographer Kirsten Klein , the pioneers of staged photography Nanna Bisp Büchert and Lis Steincke , as well as the magic realist Per Bak Jensen .
In the 1990s , after Per Bak Jensen had joined the teaching staff at the Royal Academy in Copenhagen , it was clear that photography had been accepted as an art form . As evidence , in October 2004 , for the very first time , a number of the Academy 's students and graduates presented their photographs at an exhibition in Copenhagen 's Galleri Asbæk under the common title ” Eye of the Beholder – et blik på portrættet ” .
= = Contemporary photographers = =
Recognizing the growing status of photography as an art form , artists such as Richard Winther , Stig Brøgger , Jytte Rex , Peter Brandes and Ane Mette Ruge have actively contributed to its development . On the digital front , younger artists like Lisa Rosenmeier have combined classical techniques of art and photography with digitized forms of expression .
Some of Denmark 's more widely recognized contemporary photographers are :
Rigmor Mydtskov ( 1925 – 2010 ) was a Danish court photographer who is remembered both for her portraits of artists performing in Danish theatres but also for her many portraits of Queen Margrethe and other members of the Danish royal family . Realizing that people in such positions tend to act as if masked , she sought to portray the person behind the mask , although she often succeeded in maintaining a little of the secrecy . As a portrait photographer , she was gentle , intuitive and confident . Her life 's work is a result of a constant , concentrated effort .
Per Bak Jensen ( born 1949 ) seeks to capture timelessness or " the being of places " in his work . A pioneer of modern landscape photography , his topics are unusual : a field of corn stubble , thistles , or twigs lying in the snow . Much of his recent work includes photographs from Iceland and Greenland , some with stark images of minerals and rocks . While he is extremely attentive to angle , light and exposure , he never manipulates his photographs once they have been taken . He has successfully exhibited across Denmark for many years and more recently in New York , London and Paris .
Krass Clement ( born 1946 ) graduated as a film director but soon turned to still photography , publishing his first book Skygger af øjeblikke ( Shadows of the Moment ) in 1978 . He has since become an active documentary photographer , focusing on people from both Denmark and elsewhere . His earlier work is black and white but since 2000 he has also worked with colour .
Kirsten Klein ( born 1945 ) studied portrait and museum photography before specializing in landscapes . Her black @-@ and @-@ white photographs often make use of older techniques such as cyanotype and platinum printing . Concentrating on landscapes , she conveys a sensitive , poetic and often melancholic mood . Since 1976 , she has lived on the Danish island of Mors where she has photographed the ever @-@ changing countryside and coastline .
Steen Brogaard ( born 1961 ) began his career in Copenhagen in 1984 photographing Greenpeace meetings and demonstrations . In 1987 , while in the United States , he was contacted by a Danish gossip magazine where he learnt the technique of photographing celebrities . Since the late 1990s , he has been a court photographer , following the lives of the Crown Prince , the Crown Princess and their family . This has allowed him to travel widely in China and the Far East . One of his recent interests is Denmark and the Danes , examining " what they do best in a great little country " .
Asger Carlsen ( born 1973 ) , who now lives in New York , has had considerable success with the cleverly doctored black @-@ and @-@ white images presented in his book Wrong . Everyday scenes suddenly become depictions of a surreal alternate reality , bordering on hallucinations . Carlsen explains his approach as " an expression of never really belonging anywhere . "
Astrid Kruse Jensen ( born 1975 , educated in the Netherlands and Scotland ) specializes in photographs taken at night which evoke the zone between reality and imagination . Carefully combining the effects of artificial light with the surrounding darkness , she creates mysterious images of lakes , swimming pools and solitary figures in the twilight . Since 2003 , she has participated in key exhibitions in Denmark and elsewhere .
Jacob Aue Sobol ( born 1976 ) studied at Fatamorgana , the Danish School of Art Photography . His first book Sabine presents vivid pictures of his Greenlandic girlfriend and the remote village where she lives . For his series on the Gomez Brito family from Quiché in Guatemala , he won the 2005 World Press Photo prize for Daily Life Stories . Commenting on his book I , Tokyo , Miranda Gavin appreciates how " the sensitivity of his approach shines through the work and sets him apart as one of a new generation of photographers with the ability to allow eroticism and danger to seep through his images without becoming sordid or clichéd . "
Klaus Thymann ( born 1974 ) lives in London . His HYBRIDS project was published in 2007 and featured documentary photography with a global perspective exploring peculiar hybrid cultures around the planet , such as Snow Polo in St. Mortiz , Gay Rodeo in LA , Underwater Striptease in Chile , Underground Gardening in Tokyo and more .
= = Photographic museums and galleries in Denmark = =
National Museum of Photography , the Royal Library , Copenhagen .
Fotografisk Center , Copenhagen
Annexone.org , Copenhagen
Danish Museum of Photographic Art , Odense .
Phototek Esbjerg , Esbjerg
Galleri Image , Aarhus
Danmarks Fotomuseum , Herning
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= A Little Kiss =
" A Little Kiss " is the two @-@ part fifth season premiere of the American television drama series Mad Men . Officially counted as the first two episodes of the season , it figures as the 53rd and 54th overall episodes of the series . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner , and directed by Jennifer Getzinger . It originally aired on the AMC channel in the United States on March 25 , 2012 .
The premiere centers on Don Draper 's fortieth birthday , opening on Memorial Day weekend 1966 . The office prepares for Don 's surprise party while also dealing with the Heinz Beans account recently brought into the agency . The relationship between Megan and Don turns bitter after she performs a sensual dance during the party , while Peggy and Pete both suffer through professional conflict with their fellow co @-@ workers .
" A Little Kiss " was the first Mad Men episode to air in 17 months following heated contract negotiations between AMC and Matthew Weiner . A consequence of the hiatus saw the show switch from airing in the Summer / Fall to the Spring for the remainder of its run . Christopher Stanley ( Henry Francis ) , Jessica Paré ( Megan Draper ) , and Jay R. Ferguson ( Stan Rizzo ) were all added as main cast members beginning with the premiere . The theme of the episode relates to the boredom and discontent among the main characters as they settle into their rather uneventful lives . The episode was well received by television critics and , at a runtime of 90 minutes , is the longest episode of Mad Men to date . It was also the highest rated episode of Mad Men to date with 3 @.@ 54 million viewers tuning in , a substantial jump over the fourth season average owing in large part to the lengthy time between seasons .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part I = = =
On the street below the Young & Rubicam office , African American protesters are picketing in support of equal @-@ opportunity employment . Several employees lean out the office window and drop bags of water on them . The protesters and journalists then enter the office to catch the employees ready with water @-@ filled bags .
At his new apartment , Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) cooks breakfast for Sally ( Kiernan Shipka ) , Bobby ( Mason Vale Cotton ) and Gene . He only gets to see them for a short time before he returns them to Betty and Henry ’ s impressive ( but quite old ) home . Don is now married to Megan , and turning forty ( Dick Whitman 's birthday having been several months earlier and Don Draper 's about to occur ) . Megan , who now works under Peggy Olson ( Elisabeth Moss ) in creative , is planning a big surprise party for his birthday . Peggy , knowing Don 's aversion to birthdays , is reserved about the idea , but Megan insists that no one could dislike parties .
Roger Sterling ( John Slattery ) shows Don and Pete Campbell ( Vincent Kartheiser ) a newspaper article shaming Y & R for the water @-@ bomb stunt . Roger suggests running a mock ad touting Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce as an equal @-@ opportunity employer .
Pete arrives at a lunch meeting with representatives from Mohawk Airlines and unexpectedly finds Roger sharing drinks with them . Roger had spied on Pete 's appointment calendar . Pete is overcome with anger over Roger ’ s antics , especially since the charismatic Roger makes a much better impression .
During a presentation for Heinz , Peggy pitches an ambitious , cutting @-@ edge " ballet of beans " ad , which does not impress the Heinz executives . Don enters to assure the company men that his firm will think of a new pitch . Peggy protests that he did not fight hard enough for her idea , and complains to Stan that Don has changed .
On the evening of the surprise party ( which is inadvertently given away by Roger ) , Megan presents her birthday gift : She sings a French song , " Zou Bisou Bisou " , and dances provocatively . The guests clap and whistle , although Don seems unimpressed . Peggy , while talking to Don and Megan , makes a snide remark about having to return to the office later , since she is the only one really working on the weekend . After the party , Don , tired of the day , collapses on the bed fully clothed . Megan asks if he enjoyed the party ; he tells her not to waste money on such things . Not fazed by his demeanor , she teases and kisses him , wanting to talk about the party . He declines and insists on going to sleep , so she leaves the room upset .
= = = Part II = = =
The next morning , Lane Pryce ( Jared Harris ) finds a man 's wallet in a cab . Inspecting it , he becomes fascinated with a photo of a young woman named Delores . He later telephones the wallet ’ s owner but reaches Delores , the owner ’ s girlfriend . He flirts with her on the phone , and she promises the wallet be retrieved . The owner of the wallet comes to Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce in order to retrieve it . Lane secretly removes Delores ’ photo and the owner does not notice .
Joan Harris ( Christina Hendricks ) has given birth to a son named Kevin , who is now a few months old . Her mother , Gail Holloway ( Christine Estabrook ) , has come to stay with her to help with the baby but constantly argues with Joan over the subject of Joan returning to work , saying that Joan 's husband is a doctor . Insisting that the company needs her , Joan does not want to break her promise to go back . Gail shows Joan the company 's newspaper ad and claims that it is evidence that they intend to replace her . Joan stops by the office with baby Kevin in tow . In Lane ’ s office , she tearfully asks if they are planning to replace her . He assures her that the ad is a poor joke and that everyone is eagerly awaiting her return .
Megan overhears some particularly lewd comments from Harry about her dance , eventually ranting to Peggy about the office ’ s cynical culture . She tells her that Don did not appreciate the surprise party . Peggy apologizes for her rude comment at the party and Megan goes home early . Peggy goes to Don ’ s office to apologize to him as well . After hearing that Megan went home early , Don also leaves for the day . At the apartment , he asks Megan why she left work . She then disrobes and angrily cleans up the mess left from the party in just her black bra and panties . Don tries to initiate sex , but Megan says no and forcefully pushes him away several times . Don grabs her roughly , saying she " [ wants ] it so bad right now " , and the two have sex on the floor . Afterwards , Megan complains that she is not liked at the office and wonders if she ought to stop working there . Don tells her he does not care about work - he only cares about her .
Pete is given Harry 's office , which is larger and has windows , in order to impress his clients . As revenge for Roger crashing his earlier meeting with Mohawk Airlines , Peter later tricks Roger into going on a 6 : 00 a.m. meeting with Coca @-@ Cola that doesn ’ t exist .
At the office the next morning , Don and Megan enter the reception area to find a large group of African @-@ American women and men . They are responding to the newspaper ad , not aware it was a joke . The receptionist interrupts with a piece of traditional African art , sent from Y & R. Realizing that the applicants have seen the artifact , Cooper sends Lane into the reception area . He dismisses the men , by saying they are only seeking secretaries , and collects resumes from the women .
= = Production = =
" A Little Kiss " was directed by Jennifer Getzinger and written by series creator Matthew Weiner . This was the second episode to be solely written by Weiner and directed by Getzinger , the other being the fourth season episode " The Suitcase " . Although the first to be aired of the season , it was actually produced after the following episode " Tea Leaves " , due to January Jones ' pregnancy . Despite the long break , 85 percent of the crew from the fourth season returned for the fifth . " There 's a sense of boredom , there 's a sense of anxiety , there 's a sense of discontent with the contentedness " , Weiner said , in regards to the positions of the characters at the beginning of the new season . Weiner considered the main question of the first episode " What is Don Draper like when he is happy ? " , with the twist of the first episode being Don 's disinterest in work . The episode was expanded from its regular runtime of 47 minutes into a 90 @-@ minute episode aired over two hours , after Weiner realized the story broken for the premiere was " 85 percent too big " . " We just put everything into it that we had . I think when you see it in its completeness , you 'll get it . "
Intense contract negotiations between the end of the fourth and fifth season led Matthew Weiner to quit during the downtime between Season 4 and Season 5 . AMC and Weiner were locked in intense negotiations , with AMC asking Weiner to cut two main cast members every season starting with the fifth , a shorter running time to make room for more commercials , and more product placement within the series . During the negotiations , Weiner said , " First of all , the number that 's been published is not true . Second of all , I offered to have less money , to save the cast , and to leave the show in the running time that it 's supposed to be . The harder that I 've fought for the show , the more money that they 've offered me . " After conversations with the network stalled , Weiner gave up hope on returning to the series . " I quit ... during the negotiation . I had come to terms with the fact that it was over ... In the most protective and demanding way , I did not feel that it was worth going back to work to make a show that was not the show I 'd been making . I had this argument with my wife , where I said : ' You don 't understand - it 's not just a matter of changing the show . I don 't want to go to work and do it different . I just figured out how it works ' ... [ But ] in the end , everything worked out . " AMC eventually relented , signing a new deal with Weiner that keeps him on board as showrunner for the fifth and sixth season , with a strong possibility for a final seventh season .
Weiner explained that the delay in the airing of the series and the 17 @-@ month break between the fourth and fifth season was not his decision . Although , he did admit that the plan to keep Mad Men off the air in 2011 was in place before the negotiations . He said , " There was a plan in place in 2010 that the show would not be on the air in 2011 . You don 't just throw in Breaking Bad because Mad Men is not available . They have four shows . They do them one at a time , and God bless them for the fact that Breaking Bad got an audience , because of where they were this summer . I 'm very happy about that , because people should see that show . "
= = = " The Look of Love " song change = = =
The original screener of " A Little Kiss " sent out to critics included the use of the Dusty Springfield song " The Look of Love " . However , critics soon pointed out that " The Look of Love " was not released until 1967 , six months after the time period that " A Little Kiss " takes place . When critics pointed this out to showrunner Matthew Weiner , he sent out a letter to critics , which was reprinted in many publications and websites . Weiner 's letter included him telling reporters that , " Although we take license for artistic purposes with the end @-@ title music , we never want the source music to break from the time period we are trying to recreate . As someone who has a deep appreciation for details , I want to thank you for bringing this to our attention . It ’ s a privilege to work on a show that generates an ongoing dialog with you and our amazing fans so please — keep those notes and comments coming ! " The 1966 Dusty Springfield song " You Don 't Have To Say You Love Me " was used during the end titles , though this was not a replacement for " The Look of Love " . An article by The New York Times indicated that " The Look of Love " was originally played by the band at Don Draper 's fortieth birthday party .
= = = Young & Rubicam protest incident = = =
In an unusual departure for the series , the opening scene of the season premiere was largely a re @-@ creation of a true event that occurred at the Young & Rubicam advertising agency . The original story detailing the event was published on Page 1 of the May 28 , 1966 edition of The New York Times . The " Goldwater ' 68 " poster seen in the window of Young & Rubicam during " A Little Kiss " was also present on the day of the real event , including another poster that read " If you want money , get a job " ( echoed by one character 's scream of " Get a job ! " at the protesters in the premiere ) .
The incident was notable for water bombs thrown from the executive floor , which housed the Young & Rubicam advertising agency . The two water balloons struck 19 @-@ year @-@ old James Hill , who slipped and fell on pavement , but was not seriously hurt . The other hit 9 @-@ year @-@ old Mike Robinson . His mother , Mrs. Esme Robinson , along with other Black protestors and a New York Times reporter , came to the executive floor to complain . Mike Robinson , Esme Robinson , protestor Vivian Harris , and Times reporter John Kifner were all portrayed in the opening scene . The dialogue in the scene was also taken directly from the original article . Vivian Harris originally said the , " And they call us savages " line , which television critic Mike Hale called " unfortunately hamhanded " and fellow critic Matt Zoller Seitz called " a terrible line " when they reviewed the premiere , apparently unaware that it was a real quote . On the day of the real event , Young & Rubicam office manager Frank Coppola apologized to the women for the incident , saying that " we have 1 @,@ 600 people in this building and I can 't control all of them . I 've ordered all of the windows closed and I have men patrolling all the floors to make sure this doesn 't happen again . " Coppola 's assurance that the windows were closed is similar to character Don Draper 's idea of " Our windows don 't open " in Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce 's mocking want ad seen later in the episode .
After the head researcher for Mad Men , Allison Hill , found the original article , she handed it to showrunner Matthew Weiner , who was " blown away " . “ I just loved the level of outrage from the participants in the protest . It was so eloquently said , and it struck to the heart of the conflict . They were being lampooned . This was a very serious issue for them and a joke to everyone else , " Weiner said . The original New York Times reporter , John Kifner , does not remember the actual event , mentioning that he did " a lot of poverty and racial stuff . " He could not remember the original article , but was greatly excited when he heard that his story inspired the premiere . The current chief executive of Young & Rubicam , David Sable , did not know whether the original employees were fired , but found their actions " completely repulsive and not in line with the values of our company " .
= = = " Zou Bisou Bisou " = = =
The episode includes a scene where Megan Draper serenades Don with a rendition of " Zou Bisou Bisou " , which is a French Yé @-@ yé song originally released in 1960 by Gillian Hills . Creator Matthew Weiner prepared Jessica Paré for her performance of " Zou Bisou Bisou " and gave her a detailed list of notes to help her . She worked with choreographer Marianne Ann Kellogg during three six @-@ hour sessions to work out the dance routine . It took the actress about a week and a half to learn the entire routine . She recorded the actual song in a studio . Paré said to reporters the day after the original episode airing , “ It ’ s been gathering a lot of really great attention . I can ’ t believe I ’ m new on the show and one of the first things I have to do is an entire song and dance routine for the entire cast of Mad Men . ” Weiner characterized the dance as a symbol of the oncoming generation gap and " open sexuality " .
Olivia Fleming of Daily Mail praised the surprise 40th birthday party scene saying " … sultry style icon , Megan Draper , captured America 's attention … seducing the audience - if not her new husband Don Draper . " She also noted the performance 's " … unyielding coyness and high voltage sexuality . " Alexandra Kaptik of The Wall Street Journal said " One of the most talked @-@ about scenes … was Megan Draper ’ s sultry performance … " Slate 's Haglund described the song as " The centerpiece of the Mad Men season 5 premiere " . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone described the scene as " a highlight of the two @-@ hour episode " , stating that " Megan sings … for her husband , who can barely suppress his embarrassment and discomfort . " Bill Keveney of USA Today said " Paré … had fans buzzing … with her character 's sexy rendition … " Patrick Kevin Day of the Los Angeles Times stated that the scene " … has people talking " , describing it as follows : " Pare … serenades her husband … with the sexy , slinky number " Zou Bisou Bisou " while wearing a barely there miniskirt . " Lori Rackl of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted that the performance was the talk the premiere and said : " Showing a lot of leg — and chutzpah — the new Mrs. Megan Draper ( Jessica Paré ) delivered a sexy serenade … purring the early ’ 60s French pop song " Zou Bisou Bisou . " The … performance made the unflappable Don Draper blush and his co @-@ workers ’ jaws hit the floor … " Lauren Moraski of CBS News said " Probably one of the best scenes … took place when the new Mrs. Don Draper ( Jessica Paré as Megan ) sang an awkward @-@ turned @-@ sultry version of the French ' 60s pop song " Zou Bisou Bisou " … " Erin Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter described Paré 's performance as " bizarre , come @-@ hither burlesque " , noting that she " … stunned partygoers who openly ogled her while the ad exec ( Jon Hamm ) squirmed with polite embarrassment . " Ethan Sacks of the New York Daily News described the scene as " The sexy scene in which Megan serenades Don … with the song and transitions into a lap dance … "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" A Little Kiss " was the most watched @-@ episode of Mad Men to date , with 3 @.@ 5 million viewers and 1 @.@ 6 million viewers in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Before the fifth season , Mad Men had never gotten above a 1 @.@ 00 in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The premiere 's core viewer demographic was adults aged 25 – 54 at 1 @.@ 7 million viewers . This was an increase from the same core group during the season four premiere at 1 @.@ 4 million viewers . Charlie Collier , AMC ’ s president , said that " For each of the five Mad Men seasons Matthew Weiner and his team have crafted a beautifully told story and each season a larger audience has responded ; a rare accomplishment . We couldn ’ t be more proud of this program , the brilliant writers , cast and crew , and the entire team on each side of the camera . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
" A Little Kiss " received very approving reviews from the television critic community . USA Today writer Robert Bianco gave it four out of four stars , praising the high level of achievement in the writing and directing as well as the cast led by the " shockingly under @-@ Emmyed Jon Hamm , playing a man who is his own deeply flawed invention and letting us see the effort and pain behind the charade . But there 's not a weak performer on view Sunday , from the preternaturally assured Kiernan Shipka as Sally to old pro Robert Morse as Bert . " TV Guide critic Matt Roush opined that " the civil rights movement provides ironic bookends for the episode , reflecting how insular the universe is for these smug but deeply flawed purveyors of the American dream , none more memorable and maddening than Don Draper ( Jon Hamm ) , the alpha hunk who appears to have it all . But some things never change in the world of Mad Men : the high quality of acting , writing , production design and detail . " Newsday reviewer Verne Gay gave it an " A " grade , citing that " Mad Men is back and back in all the right ways -- the humor , the writing , the period details , and best of all , the flawless attention to these characters and their cluttered interior worlds . " Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said that " the premiere suggests that the only other show that belongs with it in the discussion for the best drama on television is the same one we were talking about last season . At the top level , there is Breaking Bad , and there is also — finally , thankfully , exceptionally — Mad Men , and then there is everything else . "
TV Fanatic ’ s Dan Forcella gave the two @-@ hour season premiere 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars by saying , " Honestly , the first 45 minutes or so were basically just setting the scene for the new season , so it was a smart move to make this premiere two hours long . After that , though , everything began to pick up . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated this episode an A- and commented on the series ' take on the 1960s , saying : " The ' 60s are both incredibly important to the show and something almost incidental to what makes it work so well . It ’ s a show , on the one hand , about how people deal with sweeping social change , even when it 's happening way , way off their radar ( as we see in the final scene of tonight 's episode ) , but it ’ s also a show about what it means to live through a decade . " Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the season five premiere four stars : " After a dark and often depressing season four , it 's refreshing to start things off on a more jovial , lighter note . That 's not to say the premiere is devoid of angst , disappointment and drama . It 's just buoyed by an unusually high amount of humor . " The Los Angeles Times ' Robert Lloyd spoke about the series ' continued success : " It works because it 's less about who we were then — it 's a fantasy of who we were then , really — than about who we are now . "
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times , however , was one of the very few reviewers to give the season premiere a low score : " A show that became a hit because it seemed so original has been so co @-@ opted that it now looks like a cliché . The personalities on Mad Men don 't change , but the times do . At this point , the context may be more interesting than the characters . " On Twitter , Hollywood Reporter critic Tim Goodman characterized Stanley 's critique as a " bullshit ramble @-@ review " , saying that Stanley " just wants us to know she 's above the material she 's covering . " In his review , Goodman was laudatory , saying that " the party , more than anything else , was a central defining moment of where we 're going . Everything about it was different . Newer . We 're not in 1960 anymore . And if you think about it , the show we all know and love is about to change as well . It 's going to look different , above and beyond the characters changing . " Time writer James Poniewozik wrote a cooler review saying that , " I ’ m glad to have Mad Men back , but “ A Little Kiss ” was not a great episode . Mad Men return episodes generally aren ’ t : they take their time and do a lot of table setting . " Poniewozik was simultaneously intrigued and unsettled by Megan 's addition as " essentially a new female lead " and reasoned that Weiner used Megan 's " unfamiliarity as an advantage and as a storytelling device . The very fact that she is an unknown quantity among these very well @-@ known quantities may give us a chance to see everyone we think we know differently — through the eyes of a relative stranger . " Chuck Barney of the Contra Costa Times said the premiere was off to a " methodical start " that reintroduced us to the " enigmatic characters " but that " Eventually , it gains traction , weaving threads of heartfelt poignancy with doses of dark humor . What hasn 't changed is the quality of the endeavor . Mad Men remains a show that often feels more like literature than TV . The top @-@ notch acting is still intact , as is the attention to aesthetic detail . So , after that excruciating delay , are we still in love with this show ? Truly , deeply -- madly . " David Weigard of the San Francisco Chronicle called the premiere a " stunner " and compared to the character of Don Draper to legendary American characters like Jake Barnes , Charles Foster Kane , Tony Soprano , Huck Finn , Natty Bumppo , Elmer Gantry and " most of all , to F. Scott Fitzgerald 's creation of Jimmy Gatz , who assumed an entirely new identity as Jay Gatsby in 1925 . "
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= Phantom Power ( Super Furry Animals album ) =
Phantom Power is the sixth album by Welsh indie rock band Super Furry Animals , released on 21 July 2003 by Epic Records in the United Kingdom . The record was originally conceived as a ten song concept album using D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D guitar tuning , but the band chose to abandon this idea during recording as they didn 't want to constrain themselves . The group did attempt to create a " more coherent " album than their past efforts by choosing songs which worked well together . Phantom Power was recorded at the band 's own studio , AV Happenings , in Cardiff with the Super Furries producing and engineering themselves for the first time . The album features a range of musical styles , from country rock to techno , although many of the tracks are based around the acoustic guitar . According to chief songwriter and vocalist Gruff Rhys , the album 's lyrics deal with " broken relationships and war " .
The album , like their previous record Rings Around the World , was simultaneously released on CD , vinyl and DVD . The DVD featured a surround sound mix of the album along with animations , commentary by Mario Caldato Jr . ( who mixed the record ) and remixes . The majority of these remixes were re @-@ released as the album Phantom Phorce in 2004 . Phantom Power was well received , with many critics suggesting it was the best album of the band 's career .
= = Origins and recording = =
Phantom Power was originally conceived as a ten song cycle in the " unconventional " D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D guitar tuning . Singer Gruff Rhys wrote many of the songs on the album in this tuning and in the key of D major during the space of a few days . These tracks , which included the " Father Father " instrumentals , " Golden Retriever " , " Hello Sunshine " , " Cityscape Skybaby " and " Out of Control " , were then demoed at the house of regular producer Gorwel Owen with overdubs added at the band 's own office @-@ block based studio , AV Happenings , in Cardiff .
The group took a hands @-@ on approach to the actual recording sessions for Phantom Power , engineering and producing themselves for the first time . Recording largely took place at AV Happenings during the second half of 2002 , with the band working through the night so as not to disturb staff who worked in other parts of the building during the day . According to bassist Guto Pryce this involved a fair amount of trial and error as the band " didn 't really know what [ they ] were doing " . Soundproof booths were improvised by setting up tents in the office corridors : " we 'd record a guitar and it 'd sound rubbish and we had to figure out why . So we started experimenting with different tent designs . In the end it was the wigwam that was easiest to put up and sounded best " . The band had to take these booths down before office workers arrived in the morning , a process that guitarist Huw Bunford has described as " ghosts in the night ... a bit clandestine " . A brief two @-@ week session with Gorwel Owen at Rockfield Studios saw some of the album 's more " straight ahead " tracks recorded with live vocals before the band returned to AV Happenings and " messed around " with them . When the album was almost finished the band enlisted the services of Tony Doogan who engineered sessions during which several vocal parts were recorded .
The ten song D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D concept was eventually abandoned with Pryce stating " we don 't like constraining ourselves and if you 've got a concept , you 're doing that . And we had some other really nice tunes so we just chose the best songs " . According to Rhys the only plan the group stuck to was to make a " more coherent " record : " In the past ... we 'd put ideas kind of side by side , and on this record we wanted all those sounds to be more blended " . Following arguments over the track listing of previous album Rings Around the World , after a " lot of songs " were recorded necessitating four months worth of discussions about which tracks to leave off the record , the group recorded just 16 largely acoustic based songs during the sessions for Phantom Power . Rhys 's initial batch of songs were augmented by , among others , the Huw Bunford penned " Sex , War & Robots " , the first time the guitarist had had one of his songs included on a Super Furry Animals album and also the first time he had sung lead vocals for the group , " Slow Life " , which grew out of an electronic piece of music keyboardist Cian Ciaran had been working on for several years and " The Piccolo Snare " which was partly written in the studio .
= = Music = =
After the more produced Rings Around the World , which relied heavily on computers and electronics , the group were keen to make Phantom Power " a little more human " with guitarist Huw Bunford stating : " with technology you can do anything these days , but sometimes less is more " . Many songs on the album are acoustic based and bass player Guto Pryce has claimed that they sounded " pretty good right from the start " which also contributed to the decision to avoid " over @-@ tweak [ ing ] them in the studio " . Despite this the group did work electronic loops into several tracks after Ciaran bought a large number of " sound effect and light music " vinyl records from a man who worked in the same building . According to Rhys : " he knocked on the door just as we were beginning the album : " hey , I 've got these records to sell , are ya interested ? " And Cian went down to check them out and gave him a hundred pounds on the spot and carried 700 albums back to our tiny room " .
The album showcases an eclectic range of sounds from the country rock of " Sex , War & Robots " , featuring pedal steel guitar , to the heavy metal and punk of " Out of Control " and the glam rock of first single " Golden Retriever " . " Slow Life " , a track which singer Gruff Rhys has described as the " most sonically impressive " song on Phantom Power , features techno influences and is based on a piece of electronic music written by keyboardist Cian Ciaran several years earlier . Ciaran encouraged the band to jam on top of his original track to produce a fusion of techno and guitar @-@ pop . " The Undefeated " is inspired by ska and reggae music , although the group removed a " cheesy white reggae " section from the song because it sounded " fucking horrible " and actively tried not to make it sound too much like a ska or reggae track as they felt they " couldn 't pull it off " . Many tracks feature close vocal harmonies , with all the band apart from Pryce contributing . These harmonies give the album a California / West Coast of America feel , with comparisons being drawn to the work of The Beach Boys , particularly on the song " Venus and Serena " .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Singer and chief lyric writer Gruff Rhys has claimed that Phantom Power is about " broken relationships and war " with " a positive outlook to the future " . As " BBC News 24 addicts " Rhys and the band absorbed " fucked up war images " from the Iraq War during the making of the album which affected the way songs were written : " We seem to be living in such a heavy time . We 're just absorbing all the words thrown at us from the TV and regurgitating them back . " Frustration with the George Bush administration and its foreign policy had an impact on the record with Rhys claiming that he feels qualified to address the subject as United States foreign policy " effectively decides what the foreign policy is in the UK " .
The two most overtly " political " tracks on Phantom Power are " The Piccolo Snare " and " Liberty Belle " . " The Piccolo Snare " is about " societies torn apart by war and the waste of human life " . The track uses the vocabulary of the Falklands War ( Tumbledown , Skyhawks etc . ) but Rhys claims it is applicable to any war . " Liberty Belle " tells the story of two cartoon characters devised by Rhys , ' Liberty Belle ' and ' Memory Lane ' , the former representing the " bells of freedom " , specifically the American Dream , and the latter representing " history 's harsh lessons " which Liberty Belle has failed to learn . The song is told from the perspective of a " bird living almost in a parallel universe to humans , oblivious to the gravity of the games which are being played around us " , something which Rhys admits to feeling himself much of the time . " Venus and Serena " uses a story of a child who talks to his pet tortoises , Venus and Serena , as he can 't communicate with his elders to make a similar point : that people feel alienated from their elected leaders . Both " Out of Control " and " Slow Life " feature regurgitated media buzzwords , with " Out of Control 's " " flippant " lyrics designed to create the feel of " an over @-@ dramatic theme to a current affairs programme " . " Bleed Forever " deals specifically with the nuclear fallout from the Chernobyl disaster which fell over North Wales , allegedly causing an increase in incidents of leukaemia among children in the area .
However , Rhys has been keen to point out that the record is not a forcefully political one , claiming that most of the band 's songs are " fragments of daily life ; occasionally politics are a part of that . Super Furry Animals is about exploration , not political campaigning " . " Valet Parking " , for example , is a song about " the glories of pan @-@ European travel " , documenting a road trip from Cardiff to Vilnius , " Golden Retriever " is about " the relationship between [ Gruff Rhys 's ] girlfriend 's two dogs - a male and a female " and " The Undefeated " , inspired by a poor run of results for the Welsh football team , is about " underdogs and overdogs " .
= = DVD = =
The DVD of Phantom Power contains the 14 songs featured on the CD version of the album in surround sound , 16 remixes , commentary by Mario Caldato Jr. who mixed the record and provided one of the remixes , and song lyrics .
According to singer Gruff Rhys , the concept behind the DVD was based on the success of platform games : the listener can play the album as if it were a game and spend " months ... instead of weeks " exploring the content . Unlike the DVD version of previous album Rings Around the World , which featured videos for every track , the songs on the DVD are accompanied by slowly moving animations . Rhys has stated that the Super Furry Animals wanted to use " really bland images " as viewers began to place too much emphasis on the videos on Rings Around the World and the band wanted them to concentrate on the music .
Keyboardist Cian Ciaran stated at the time of Phantom Power 's release that the band would issue a DVD with every future album , claiming that " this is just the way we make records now " . However , the band 's next two albums , Love Kraft and Hey Venus ! , were not made available on DVD and , in a 2008 interview with Uncut , Rhys suggested that the release had been something of a failure : " no one gave a shit because people just want to rock n ' roll ! "
The remixes on the DVD version of Phantom Power vary from radical reworkings such as Killa Kella 's beatbox treatment of " Golden Retriever " and Wauvenfold 's " unrecognisable " version of " Sex , War and Robots " , to the likes of Mario Caldato Jr 's take on " Liberty Belle " and High Llamas ' " Valet Parking " which are merely " spruced up " . The majority of the remixes were reissued on CD as the album Phantom Phorce in 2004 . According to drummer Dafydd Ieuan the band didn 't have the money to pay the artists involved for their remix work so , in order to provide them with royalties , promised to release an album featuring the tracks on their own label , Placid Casual .
Hidden footage of the band firing machine guns can be reached by selecting the song " The Undefeated " , waiting 22 seconds until the lettering starts to blink and pressing ' Enter ' ( ' Enter ' must be pressed before the lettering blinks for a second time at 24 seconds ) Guitarist Huw Bunford has described this footage as being " exactly how it looked on the tin ... noisy , full of testosterone , with pumped up guys in the woods trying to kill furry animals ! "
= = Release = =
Phantom Power was released on CD , vinyl and DVD on 21 July 2003 in the United Kingdom on Sony 's Epic imprint . The album reached # 4 in the UK Albums Chart . In America the album was released on 22 July 2003 by Beggars Banquet US . Phantom Power was released on 21 July 2003 in Japan with two additional tracks , " Summer Snow " and " Blue Fruit " , added after " Slow Life " at the end of the album . " Golden Retriever " was released as the first single from the album , reaching # 13 in the UK Singles Chart , followed by " Hello Sunshine " in October 2003 which peaked at # 31 . The Slow Life EP was released as a free download from the website of the band 's record label , Placid Casual , on 12 April 2004 , featuring the title track , " Lost Control " ( a remix of " Out of Control " ) , and the Goldie Lookin Chain collaboration , " Motherfokker " . The majority of the remixes from the DVD version of Phantom Power were released as Phantom Phorce on Placid Casual on 19 April 2004 . Initial copies of this album came bundled with a CD version of the Slow Life EP . Phantom Power has been certified silver in the United Kingdom , denoting sales of more than 60 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Phantom Power received generally positive reviews from critics with a score of 87 on Metacritic , denoting " universal acclaim " . Drowned in Sound described the album as " another fine , esoteric wonder of an LP " , while the NME claimed it is the group 's " most focussed , energetic pop record since Radiator " and went on to state that " for a band to be hitting such form six albums into a steady career is astonishing " . Q called it " the band 's best work to date , as accessible as it is inventive " ; The Times agreed , calling Phantom Power " the Furries ’ most satisfying album to date ... one to cherish . " Several critics commented on the " summery pop " nature of the record with Tiny Mix Tapes likening the album to " the sun shining through following a large and brooding thunderstorm " and The Times calling it " mellow summer listening " despite the " grim view of the world " expressed in Gruff Rhys 's lyrics . The NME found that Phantom Power compares favourably with the band 's previous release , Rings Around the World , losing some of that album 's mainstream polish . AllMusic agreed , expressing relief that the band had loosened up following Rings ... , which the website described as " often sounding constrained by its polished widescreen aspirations " . Irish website entertainment.ie saw Phantom Power as " a highly polished affair , filled with the widescreen classic pop that Gruff Rhys and co. carry off so effortlessly ... thankfully free of the techno experiments that marred so much of their previous work " .
There was some criticism of the album with The Guardian accusing the band of " treading water " , the album suffering from overfamiliarity as the group 's sixth release despite being a " lovely record " . Stylus Magazine expressed similar views , claiming that Phantom Power " feels very much like business as usual for the Welsh wizards , as if they 've made just another album " . In a 2008 interview with Uncut Rhys described Phantom Power as his favourite Super Furries album , although he conceded that all the band 's records " have their moments " .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Track listing = =
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= Hurricane Klaus =
Hurricane Klaus was a minimal Atlantic hurricane that dropped heavy rainfall across the Lesser Antilles in October 1990 . The eleventh tropical cyclone and sixth hurricane of the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season , Klaus developed from a tropical wave on October 3 a short distance east of Dominica . It drifted northwestward , and quickly intensified to attain hurricane status on October 5 . Though its closest approach to the Lesser Antilles was within 12 miles ( 19 km ) , the strongest winds remained to its northeast due to strong wind shear , which caused Klaus to steadily weaken . After deteriorating into a tropical depression , Klaus briefly restrengthened over the Bahamas before dissipating on October 9 under the influence of developing tropical storm , Marco .
Heavy rainfall on Saint Lucia destroyed about 15 % of its yearly banana crop . Damage was heaviest on Martinique , where seven casualties occurred and 1 @,@ 500 people were left homeless as the heavy rainfall caused severe flooding on the island , resulting in some landslides . The remnant moisture of Klaus entered the southeastern United States , dropping heavy rainfall and causing four casualties ; the same area was affected with more precipitation a few days later by Tropical Storm Marco . Due to the damage caused by the storm , the name Klaus was retired from the list of tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 27 . It tracked westward to the south of a subtropical ridge , becoming convectively active , and a low @-@ level circulation was observed as it passed south of the Cape Verde islands on September 28 . The organization of the convection oscillated over the subsequent days , and a few times the system showed signs of developing into a tropical depression . As it approached the Lesser Antilles it organized further , and despite unfavorable upper @-@ level wind shear the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen on October 3 while located about 115 miles ( 185 km / h ) east of Dominica . Located in an area of weak steering currents , the depression drifted to the northwest , and about six hours after first developing the cyclone intensified into a tropical storm ; the National Hurricane Center designated it with the name Klaus .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Klaus was located in an area of 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) of wind shear , although concurrently it was located over warm water temperatures of 83 @.@ 1 ° F ( 28 @.@ 4 ° C ) . Tracking through a highly baroclinic environment , the storm became better organized , and at 1200 UTC on October 5 Klaus attained hurricane status about 30 miles ( 50 km ) east of Antigua ; shortly thereafter , it passed 12 miles ( 19 km ) east of Barbuda , its closest point of approach to the Lesser Antilles . Klaus reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 985 @.@ 0 mbar ( 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) , though most of its deep convection and strong winds remained to its northeast due to wind shear . At the time the hurricane was forecast to continue tracking to the north @-@ northwest . However , after weakening to a tropical storm on October 6 , Klaus turned westward .
Klaus continued tracking just north of the Lesser Antilles , and after continuing to deteriorate from the wind shear , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression on October 8 to the north of Puerto Rico . Later that day , convection redeveloped over the center , and Klaus re @-@ attained tropical storm status as it accelerated toward the northeast Bahamas ; it briefly reached winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . A low pressure area to its west over Cuba had been steadily intensifying and building toward the surface , and on October 9 it developed into a tropical depression ; the cyclone became the dominant system , eventually becoming Marco , and Klaus dissipated under the influence of the system late on October 9 . The remnant moisture continued to the northwest , reaching the coast of South Carolina by October 11 .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after Klaus attained tropical storm status early on October 4 , a tropical storm warning was issued for the northern Leeward Islands from Saint Martin to Antigua , which was upgraded to a hurricane warning as its quick strengthening became apparent ; additionally , the government of France issued a tropical storm warning for Guadeloupe . A hurricane watch was issued for the Virgin Islands , though it was dropped as Klaus began to weaken . In Guadeloupe , officials advised citizens to transport livestock to safer areas , and also to avoid potentially flooded areas . Prior to its arrival , schools were closed in Martinique , Sint Maarten , and Antigua . The VC Bird International Airport was closed during the passage of the hurricane .
Later in its duration , the government of The Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the central and later northern Bahamas , though it was discontinued as the cyclone dissipated . Due to Hurricane Klaus , Space Shuttle Columbia 's launch was delayed .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Klaus dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across the Lesser Antilles , potentially as high as 15 inches ( 380 mm ) ; the hurricane affected many areas struck by Hurricane Hugo in the previous year . On Barbados , flooding from the rainfall blocked a few roads and forced a few families to move to safer areas ; lightning from the outskirts of the storm left a portion of the island without power . High winds and rainfall affected the island of Saint Lucia , which destroyed about 15 % of the nation 's banana crop for the year ; damage totaled about $ 1 million ( 1990 USD ) .
The rainfall resulted in severe flooding on Martinique , which accrued to almost 10 feet ( 3 m ) in some locations ; two sisters drowned near Saint @-@ Joseph after a bridge was washed away . Several landslides were reported on the island . The passage of the cyclone left damaged and power and telephone systems . 750 people evacuated their homes in Le Lamentin due to flooding , and a total of 1 @,@ 500 residents were left homeless on the island . Offshore , rough conditions damaged a fishing vessel , leaving its two passengers drifting on the boat for 25 days before being rescued about 640 miles ( 1035 km ) to the north @-@ northwest of Martinique . In all , seven people were killed on the island .
On Dominica , winds from the hurricane damaged power lines and downed trees in the northern portion of the island . High winds on Antigua damaged a few roofs , and also downed communications from two radio networks . The outer rainbands of the storm dropped light rainfall on the United States Virgin Islands , reaching about 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) on Saint Thomas ; wind gusts peaked at 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) on Saint Croix . Moderate rainfall continued into the Turks and Caicos Islands , with Grand Turk reporting a total of 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in 36 hours .
On the east coast of Florida , Klaus produced 15 foot ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) waves and tides of 3 feet ( 1 m ) above normal . Beach erosion was reported along the east coast , due to persistent easterly winds . As the remnant moisture of Klaus entered the southeastern United States , it produced heavy rainfall between 10 – 15 inches ( 250 – 380 mm ) of rainfall in South Carolina , with slightly lower totals in North Carolina . In South Carolina , the rainfall caused a dam to burst , killing four people . About two days after the remnants of Klaus entered the southeastern United States , Tropical Storm Marco made landfall on northwestern Florida , dropping more heavy rainfall and causing heavy damage across the region .
= = Retirement = =
Due to its impact on Martinique , the government of France requested the retirement of the name Klaus ; the World Meteorological Organization retired the name from the list of tropical cyclone names in the following year and replaced it with the name Kyle .
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= New Jersey Route 57 =
Route 57 is a state highway located in Warren County in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 21 @.@ 10 mi ( 33 @.@ 96 km ) from an interchange with U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) in Lopatcong Township to an intersection with Route 182 and County Route 517 ( CR 517 ) in Hackettstown . The route passes through mostly rural areas of farmland and mountains in Warren County . It also passes through Washington , where Route 57 crosses Route 31 . The route is designated a scenic byway , the Warren Heritage Scenic Byway , by the state of New Jersey due to the physical environments it passes through as well as from historical sites along the way such as the Morris Canal .
The current alignment of Route 57 was designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 in 1917 . In 1927 , Route 24 was designated along this route between the Phillipsburg area and Penwell in Mansfield Township while a spur of Route 24 called Route S24 replaced pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 between Penwell and US 46 in Hackettstown . When New Jersey renumbered its state highways in 1953 , the portion of Route S24 between Penwell and CR 517 in Hackettstown became a part of Route 24 to complete a gap in that route while Route S24 north of there became Route 57 . A never @-@ built segment of Route 57 running from the intersection of Route 24 and Route 57 to US 46 east of Hackettstown was legislated in 1965 . Around 1970 , Route 57 was designated along Route 24 west of Hackettstown while the portion of Route 57 in Hackettstown became Route 182 .
= = Route description = =
Route 57 begins at an interchange with US 22 in Lopatcong Township , where the only movements possible here between the two highways are westbound Route 57 to westbound US 22 and vice @-@ versa . The road heads to the east on the Morris and Essex Turnpike , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The route heads through a mix of businesses and farm fields , with Norfolk Southern 's Washington Secondary rail line paralleling the road to the south . The railroad line eventually runs farther to the south of Route 57 before the route crosses County Route 519 ( Uniontown Road ) .
Past this intersection , the road heads northeast through farmland within the Pohatcong Creek valley , situated between Pohatcong Mountain to the south and Scotts Mountain to the north . It enters Greenwich Township , where the route crosses County Route 637 ( Liberty Road / North Main Street ) before passing through residential areas . Route 57 heads into farmland with intermittent residences , crossing into Franklin Township . The route continues to New Village , where residences become more dense . A short distance after the intersection with County Route 603 ( Edison Road ) , Route 57 heads back into farm fields . The road reaches the residential community of Broadway , where it comes to a junction with County Route 643 ( Asbury Broadway Road ) . Route 57 continues through agricultural areas with more residences and businesses , crossing into Washington Township , where it intersects County Route 648 ( Little Philadelphia Road ) and County Route 623 ( Brass Castle Road ) .
Past this intersection , Route 57 enters Washington Boro , where it becomes Washington Avenue . Here , the road passes residences and businesses before heading into the commercial downtown of Washington . It crosses Route 31 and passes through a mix of residences , businesses , and industrial establishments . It crosses back into Washington Township , where Route 57 becomes the Morris and Essex Turnpike again , crossing over the Norfolk Southern rail line before intersecting County Route 630 ( Washburn Avenue ) and County Route 651 ( McCullough Road ) in Port Colden . From here , the road heads east into a mix of agricultural and residential areas with some businesses , entering Mansfield Township . Here , the route is known as the Admiral John D. Bulkeley Memorial Highway , named after Vice Admiral John D. Bulkeley , a United States Navy officer who served in World War II .
In Mansfield Township , the road passes through the residential community of Anderson and intersects County Route 632 ( Anderson Road ) and County Route 628 ( Port Murray Road ) . From here , Route 57 turns northeast and parallels the Musconetcong River , heading through wooded areas around Upper Pohatcong Mountain with some farmland . In Stephensburg , the road passes through a wooded residential region and intersects County Route 652 ( Watters Road ) . Past this intersection , the road continues alongside the wooded Musconetcong River , with residential and commercial development increasing past the Hazen Road intersection . Route 57 enters Hackettstown , where it becomes the Morris and Essex Turnpike before coming to its terminus at an intersection with the southern terminus of Route 182 and County Route 517 , which continues south from this intersection as well as north along Route 182 .
From milepost 2 @.@ 07 ( 3 @.@ 33 km ) to its eastern terminus , Route 57 is designated a scenic byway , the Warren Heritage Scenic Byway , by the state of New Jersey due to its mountain and valley scenery , historic districts , and the adjacent Morris Canal , which was built in 1831 and had the greatest elevation change among all canals across the world .
= = History = =
The present @-@ day alignment of Route 57 was legislated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 , a route that was designated to run from Paterson west to Phillipsburg in 1917 . A one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of the road in Franklin Township was the first concrete road built in New Jersey , having been constructed in 1912 . The concrete was supplied by Thomas Edison 's Portland cement company and some of the original concrete is still in use on the road today . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 12 west of Penwell in Mansfield Township was legislated as a part of Route 24 , a route that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark , while the portion between Penwell and U.S. Route 46 in Hackettstown was designated as Route S24 , a spur of Route 24 .
The portion of Route S24 between Penwell and County Route 517 in the southern part of Hackettstown ( Route 57 ’ s current eastern terminus ) became part of mainline Route 24 in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering in order to complete the gap that existed in that route between Penwell and Long Valley . The portion of Route S24 from this point north to U.S. Route 46 was designated as Route 57 . In 1965 , a portion of Route 57 was designated to bypass Hackettstown , running from its intersection with Route 24 to U.S. Route 46 east of Hackettstown ; this was never built . Around 1970 , Route 24 west of Hackettstown became part of Route 57 while the portion of Route 57 that had existed between Route 24 and U.S. Route 46 was designated Route 182 .
In the 2000s , the New Jersey Department of Transportation worked with communities along Route 57 to create a land use and transportation plan for the area surrounding the route , as part of their Future In Transportation plan .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Warren County .
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= SMS Irene =
SMS Irene was a protected cruiser or Kreuzerkorvette of the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) and the lead ship of the Irene class . She had one sister , Prinzess Wilhelm ; the two ships were the first protected cruisers built by the German Navy . Irene was laid down in 1886 at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin , launched in July 1887 , and commissioned into the fleet in May 1888 . The cruiser was named after Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine , sister @-@ in @-@ law of Kaiser Wilhem II . As built , the ship was armed with a main battery of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and had a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Irene saw extensive service with the German fleet in the first years of her career , frequently escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht on cruises throughout Europe . In 1894 , she was deployed to East Asian waters ; she was in dock for engine maintenance in November 1897 when Otto von Diederichs seized the naval base Kiaochou Bay , and so she was not present during the operation . She was present in the Philippines in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Manila Bay between American and Spanish squadrons during the Spanish – American War in 1898 . Irene eventually returned to Germany in 1901 . She remained in service until early 1914 , when she was retired from front @-@ line service and converted into a submarine tender . She served in this capacity until 1921 , when she was sold for scrap and broken up the following year .
= = Design = =
Irene was the first protected cruiser built by the German navy . She was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Elisabeth " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1886 . She was launched on 23 July 1887 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 25 May 1888 . The ship was 103 @.@ 7 meters ( 340 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 74 m ( 22 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 027 t ( 4 @,@ 948 long tons ; 5 @,@ 541 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal Wolfsche 2 @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical double @-@ boilers . These provided a top speed of 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 610 km ; 2 @,@ 870 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 28 officers and 337 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four 15 cm K L / 30 guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 400 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 900 ft ) . Irene also carried ten shorter @-@ barreled 15 cm K L / 22 guns in single mounts . These guns had a much shorter range , at 5 @,@ 400 m ( 17 @,@ 700 ft ) . The gun armament was rounded out by six 3 @.@ 7 cm revolver cannon . She was also equipped with three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the deck and the third was in the bow , below the waterline . In 1893 , the ship was modernized in Wilhelmshaven in 1903 ; work lasted until 1905 . The ship 's armament was significantly improved ; the four L / 30 guns were replaced with a new model with an increased range of 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were installed in place of the L / 22 guns , and six 5 cm SK L / 10 QF guns were added .
= = Service history = =
In the summer of 1888 , Irene joined the fleet that steamed to Great Britain to celebrate the coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm II . She was assigned to the I Division , along with the ironclad corvettes Sachsen and Baden and the casemate ironclad Oldenburg . The Kaiser 's brother , Prince Heinrich commanded the Division , his flag flying in Irene . The fleet then held training maneuvers in the North Sea under command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Hollmann . Over the winter of 1889 – 1890 , Irene and the II Division of the fleet went into the Mediterranean to escort the Kaiser 's yacht , Hohenzollern . Prince Heinrich remained in command of Irene during the cruise . The Kaiser made state visits to Turkey and Italy , and called in ports throughout the region , including Athens and Venice . Irene and the rest of the squadron returned to Germany in April 1890 .
In August 1890 , Irene again escorted Hohenzollern to Britain , to participate in the Cowes Regatta . Directly thereafter , the two ships steamed to the island of Helgoland to celebrate the ceremonial transfer from Britain ; there , the entire German fleet joined Irene and Hohenzollern for the ceremonies . In late November 1894 , Irene was dispatched to Casablanca to protest the murder of a German businessman in the city . She then proceeded on to Asian waters to join the German naval presence in the region in the aftermath of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War . Under Rear Admiral Paul Hoffmann , Irene became the flagship of the Cruiser Division , along with three older cruisers . By 1895 , she had been joined by her sister Prinzess Wilhelm , the rebuilt old ironclad Kaiser , the light cruiser Cormoran , the corvette Arcona , and the gunboat Iltis .
In 1896 , Otto von Diederichs arrived in Asia to command the Cruiser Division ; he spent the year reconnoitering the region for a suitable naval base . Late in the year , Irene had to put into Hong Kong for extensive engine maintenance , which was completed on 30 November . She rejoined the fleet on 3 December . In the meantime , Diederichs had completed the seizure of the Kiaochou Bay concession ; the Cruiser Division was sent reinforcements and promoted to the East Asia Squadron . Irene was assigned to the I Division of the Squadron . In the Spring of 1898 , Irene was sent to Shanghai for periodic maintenance .
During the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Irene steamed to Manila in the Philippines in the aftermath of the Battle of Manila Bay ; she arrived in the harbor on 6 May . By 27 June , Irene had been joined by several other German warships , including Kaiserin Augusta , Diederichs 's flagship . On the 27th , Irene was steaming into Manila Bay when she was stopped by the American revenue cutter Hugh McCulloch . On 5 July , Diederichs dispatched Irene to survey Subic Bay and to evacuate any German nationals in the area that were threatened by Filipino insurgents . While steaming off Isla Grande , Irene encountered the rebel ship Companie de Filipinas , which was threatening the Spanish garrison at Isla Grande . The rebel commander came aboard Irene to inform her captain of his activities ; Obenheimer informed him that any act of war committed under the rebel flag was an act of piracy under international law . The rebels therefore agreed to return to port . Obenheimer inspected both the Spanish garrison on the island and the nearby rebel base in Olongapo . After unsuccessfully searching for German nationals in the area , Irene evacuated the noncombatants on Isla Grande on 7 July ; while steaming out of Subic Bay , Irene encountered the American warships Raleigh and Concord without issue .
The American press exaggerated the encounter between Irene and the American ships , which prompted Diederichs to decide to send Irene away from the area to deflate tensions between the two countries . After returning to Manila and debarking the non @-@ combatants , Irene was ordered to depart the Philippines . Irene relieved Arcona in Kiaochou , which was in turn ordered to steam to the Caroline and Mariana Islands to observe the American capture of Guam . Irene coaled in Mariveles before departing for Kiaochou on 9 July . While in Kiaochou , Irene conducted crew training . She returned to Manila in November , but remained there only briefly , before she was replaced by Kaiserin Augusta . Irene returned to Germany after 1901 ; in 1903 she went into drydock at the Imperial Shipyard in Wilhelmshaven for modernization , which was completed by 1905 . She was stricken on 17 February 1914 and used as a submarine tender , based in Kiel . In 1916 , she was transferred to Wilhelmshaven . She remained there until 26 November 1921 , when she was sold for scrapping for 909 @,@ 000 Marks . She was broken up the following year in Wilhelmshaven .
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= Climatic regions of Argentina =
Due to its vast size and range of altitudes , Argentina possesses a wide variety of climatic regions , ranging from the hot subtropical region in the north to the cold subantarctic in the far south . Lying between those is the Pampas region , featuring a mild and humid climate . Many regions have different , often contrasting , microclimates . In general , Argentina has four main climate types : warm , moderate , arid , and cold in which the relief features , and the latitudinal extent of the country , determine the different varieties within the main climate types .
Northern parts of the country are characterized by hot , humid summers with mild , drier winters , and highly seasonal precipitation . Mesopotamia , located in northeast Argentina , has a subtropical climate with no dry season and is characterized by high temperatures and abundant rainfall because of exposure to moist easterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean throughout the year . The Chaco region in the center @-@ north , despite being relatively homogeneous in terms of precipitation and temperature , is the warmest region in Argentina , and one of the few natural areas in the world located between tropical and temperate latitudes that is not a desert . Precipitation decreases from east to west in the Chaco region because eastern areas are more influenced by moist air from the Atlantic Ocean than the west , resulting in the vegetation transitioning from forests and marshes to shrubs . Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry , hot , and subtropical although its rugged topography results in a diverse climate .
Central Argentina , which includes the Pampas to the east , and the Cuyo region to the west , has a temperate climate with hot summers and cool , drier winters . In the Cuyo region , the Andes obstruct the path of rain @-@ bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean ; moreover , its latitude coincides with the subtropical high . Both factors render the region dry . With a wide range of altitudes , the Cuyo region is climatically diverse , with icy conditions persisting at altitudes higher than 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Pampas is mostly flat and receives more precipitation , averaging 500 mm ( 20 in ) in the western parts to 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the eastern parts . The weather in the Pampas is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms that impact the region . These can generate thunderstorms with intense hailstorms and precipitation , and are known to have the most frequent lightning , and highest convective cloud tops , in the world .
Patagonia , in the south , is mostly arid or semi – arid except in the extreme west where abundant precipitation supports dense forest coverage , glaciers , and permanent snowfields . Its climate is classified as temperate to cool temperate with the surrounding oceans moderating temperatures on the coast . Away from the coast , areas on the plateaus have large daily and annual temperature ranges . The influence of the Andes , in conjunction with general circulation patterns , generates one of the strongest precipitation gradients ( rate of change in mean annual precipitation in relation to a particular location ) in the world , decreasing rapidly to the east . In much of Patagonia precipitation is concentrated in winter with snowfalloccurring occasionally , particularly in the mountainous west and south ; precipitation is more evenly distributed in the east and south . One defining characteristic is the strong winds from the west which blow year @-@ round , lowering the perception of temperature ( wind chill ) , while being a factor in keeping the region arid by favouring evaporation .
= = Definition of the regions = =
The vast size , and wide range of altitudes , contribute to Argentina 's diverse climate . Consequently , there is a wide variety of biomes in the country , including subtropical rain forests , semi @-@ arid and arid regions , temperate plains in the Pampas , and cold subantarctic in the south . In general , Argentina has four main climate types : warm , moderate , arid , and cold in which the relief features , and the latitudinal extent of the country , determine the different varieties in the main climate types . Despite the diversity of biomes , about two @-@ thirds of Argentina is arid or semi @-@ arid . Argentina is best divided into six distinct regions reflecting the climatic conditions of the country as a whole . From north to south , these regions are Northwest , Chaco , Northeast , Cuyo / Monte , Pampas , and Patagonia . Each climatic region has distinctive vegetation .
= = Mesopotamia = =
The region of Mesopotamia includes the provinces of Misiones , Entre Ríos and Corrientes . It lies between the Uruguay and Paraná rivers , which serve as natural borders for the region .
It has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa according to the Köppen climate classification ) . whose main features are high temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year . This year @-@ round rainfall occurs because most of the region lies north of the subtropical high pressure belt even in winter , exposing it to moist easterly winds from the Atlantic Ocean throughout the year . Water deficiencies and extended periods of drought are uncommon , and much of the region has a positive water balance ( i.e. the precipitation exceeds the potential evapotranspiration ) .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Mesopotamia is the wettest region in Argentina with average annual precipitation ranges from less than 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) in the southern parts , to approximately 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 71 in ) in the eastern parts.Precipitation is slightly higher in summer than in winter , and generally decreases from east to west and from north to south . Summer ( December – February ) is the most humid season , with precipitation ranging from 300 to 450 mm ( 12 to 18 in ) . Fall ( March – May ) is the rainiest season , with many places receiving over 350 mm ( 14 in ) . Most of the rainfall during summer and fall is caused by convective thunderstorms . Winter ( June – August ) is the driest season , with a mean precipitation of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) throughout the region . Most of the winter precipitation is the result of synoptic scale , low pressure weather systems ( large scale storms such as extratropical cyclones ) , particularly the sudestada , which often bring long periods of precipitation , cloudiness , cooler temperatures , and strong winds . Snowfall is extremely rare and mainly confined to the uplands of Misiones Province where the last significant snowfall occurred in 1975 in Bernardo de Irigoyen . Spring ( September – November ) is similar to fall with a mean precipitation of 340 mm ( 13 in ) .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Mean annual temperatures range from 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) in the south to 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) in the north . Summers are hot and humid while winters are mild . The mean January temperature throughout most of the region is 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) except in the uplands of Misiones Province where they are lower owing to its higher elevation . During heat waves , temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in the summer months , while in the winter months , cold air masses from the south can push temperatures below freezing , causing frost . However , such cold fronts are brief , and are less intense than in areas further south or at higher altitudes .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Chaco = =
The Chaco region in the center @-@ north completely includes the provinces of Chaco , and Formosa . Eastern parts of Jujuy Province , Salta Province , and Tucumán Province , and northern parts of Córdoba Province and Santa Fe Province are part of the region . As well , most of Santiago del Estero Province lies within the region .
The region has a subtropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , western parts have a semi @-@ arid climate ( Bs ) while the east has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) . Chaco is one of the few natural regions in the world located between tropical and temperate latitudes that is not a desert . Precipitation and temperature are relatively homogeneous throughout the region . The general atmospheric circulation influences the climate of the region , primarily by two permanent high pressure systems - the South Pacific High and the South Atlantic High - and a low pressure system that develops over northeast Argentina called the Chaco Low . The interaction between the South Atlantic High and the Chaco Low generates a pressure gradient that brings moist air from the east and northeast to eastern coastal and central regions of Argentina . In summer , this interaction strengthens , favouring the development of convective thunderstorms that can result in heavy rainfall . In contrast , winters are dry due to these systems weakening , and the lower insolation that weakens the Chaco Low , and the northward displacement of westerly winds . During the entire year , the South Pacific High influences the climate by bringing cold , moist air masses originating in Patagonia leading to cold temperatures and frost , particularly during winter . Summers feature more stable weather than winter since the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions , making the entrance of cold fronts more difficult .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Mean annual precipitation ranges from 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the eastern parts of Formosa Province to a low of 450 to 500 mm ( 18 to 20 in ) in the west and southwest . Most of the precipitation is concentrated in the summer and decreases from east to west . Summer rains are intense , and torrential rain is common , occasionally causing floods and soil erosion . During the winter months , precipitation is sparse . Eastern areas receive more precipitation than western areas since they are more influenced by moist air from the Atlantic Ocean . This penetrates the eastern areas more than the west , bringing it more precipitation . As a result , the vegetation differs with eastern areas being covered by forests , savannas , marshes , and subtropical wet forest , while western areas are dominated by medium and low forests of mesophytic and xerophytic trees , and a dense understory of shrubs and grasses . The western part has a pronounced dry winter season while the eastern parts have a slightly drier season . In all parts of the region , precipitation is highly variable from year to year . The eastern part of the region receives just enough precipitation to have a positive water balance . By contrast , the western parts of the region have a negative water balance ( the potential evapotranspiration exceeds the precipitation ) owing to lower precipitation .
= = = Temperatures = = =
The Chaco region is the hottest in Argentina , with a mean annual temperature of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . With mean summer temperatures reaching 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) , the region has the hottest summers in the country . Winters are mild and brief , with mean temperatures in July ranging from 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) in the northern parts to 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in the southernmost parts . Absolute maximum temperatures can reach up to 49 ° C ( 120 ° F ) while during cold waves , temperatures can fall to − 6 ° C ( 21 ° F ) . Eastern areas are more strongly influenced by maritime climate than western areas , leading to a smaller thermal amplitude ( difference between average high and average low temperatures ) . This results in absolute maximum and minimum temperatures being 43 ° C ( 109 ° F ) and − 2 @.@ 5 ° C ( 27 @.@ 5 ° F ) in the east compared to more than 47 ° C ( 117 ° F ) and − 7 @.@ 2 ° C ( 19 @.@ 0 ° F ) in the west .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Northwest = =
Northwest Argentina consists of the provinces of Catamarca , Jujuy , La Rioja , and western parts of Salta Province , and Tucumán Province . Although Santiago del Estero Province is part of northwest Argentina , much of the province lies in the Chaco region .
Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry , hot , and subtropical . Owing to its rugged topography , the region is climatically diverse , depending on the altitude , temperature , and distribution of precipitation . Consequently , vegetation differs within these different climate types . In general , the climate can be divided into two main types : a cold arid or semi @-@ arid climate at the higher altitudes , and warmer subtropical climate in the eastern parts of the region . Under the Köppen climate classification , the region has 5 different climate types : semi – arid ( BS ) , arid ( BW ) , temperate climate without a dry season and with a dry season ( Cf and CW respectively ) , and an alpine climate at the highest altitudes .
The atmospheric circulation is controlled by the two semi – permanent South Atlantic and South Pacific highs , and the Chaco Low . During summer , the interaction between the South Atlantic High and the Chaco Low brings northeasterly and easterly winds that carry moisture to the region , particularly in the northern parts . The movement of moist air into the region during summer results in very high precipitation . Most of the precipitation comes from the east since the Andes block most moisture from the Pacific Ocean . Southern parts of the region are influenced by cold fronts travelling northward . These cold fronts are responsible for producing precipitation during summer . For example , in Tucumán Province , cold fronts are responsible for 70 % of the rainfall in that province . Furthermore , the intertropical convergence zone ( or doldrums ) reaches the region during the summer months , leading to enhanced precipitation . During the winter months , the intertropical convergence zone , the South Pacific , and the South Atlantic highs move northward while the Chaco Low weakens , all of which results in the suppression of rain during the winter . With the Andes blocking most rain bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean , along with atmospheric circulation patterns unfavourable for rain , this results in a dry season during winter . The Chaco Low attracts air masses from the South Pacific High , creating a dry and cold wind , particularly during winter . At the highest altitudes , westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean can penetrate during the winter months , leading to snowstorms .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Precipitation is highly seasonal and mostly concentrated in the summer months . It is distributed irregularly owing to the country 's topography although it generally decreases from east to west . As moist air reaches the eastern slopes of the mountains , it rises and cools adiabatically , leading to the formation of clouds that generate copious amounts of rain . The eastern slopes of the mountains receive between 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 39 to 59 in ) of precipitation a year although some places receive up to 2 @,@ 500 mm ( 98 in ) of precipitation annually owing to orographic precipitation . In the south , the orographic effect is enhanced by advancing cold fronts from the south , resulting in increased precipitation . The high rainfall on these first slopes creates the thick Yungas jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges . During fall , the jungles are covered by fog and complete cloud cover . Beyond the first slopes of the Andes into the valleys , the air descends , warming adiabatically , and becoming drier than on the eastern slopes . The north – south orientation of the mountains , which increase in altitude to the west , and a discontinuous topography , creates valleys with regions of relatively high orographic precipitation in the west and drier regions in east .
The temperate valleys , which include major cities such as Salta and Jujuy , have an average precipitation ranging between 500 to 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 20 to 39 in ) . For example , in the Lerma Valley , which is surrounded by tall mountains , ( only the northeastern part of the valley is surrounded by shorter mountains ) , precipitation ranges from 695 mm ( 27 in ) in Salta to 1 @,@ 395 mm ( 55 in ) in San Lorenzo , just 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) away . Rainfall in the temperate valleys is mainly concentrated in the summer months , often falling in short but heavy bursts .
Valleys in the southern parts of the region are drier than valleys in the north due to the greater height of the Andes and the Sierras Pampeanas on the eastern slopes compared to the mountains in the north ( ranging from 3 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 900 m ( 9 @,@ 800 to 22 @,@ 600 ft ) ) , presenting a significant orographic barrier that blocks moist winds from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . These valleys receive less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) of precipitation per year , and are characterized by sparse vegetation adapted to the arid climate .
The area further west is the Puna region , a plateau with an average altitude of 3 @,@ 900 m ( 12 @,@ 800 ft ) that is mostly a desert due the easterly winds being blocked by the Andes and the northwest extension of the Sierras Pampeanas . Precipitation in the Puna region averages less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) a year while potential evapotranspiration ranges from 500 to 600 mm ( 20 to 24 in ) a year , owing to the high insolation , strong winds , and low humidity that exacerbates the dry conditions . This results in the Puna region having a water deficit in all months . The southeast parts of the Puna region are very arid receiving an average of 50 mm ( 2 in ) , while in the northeastern area , average annual precipitation ranges from 300 to 400 mm ( 12 to 16 in ) . Although easterly winds are rare in the Puna region , they bring 88 % – 96 % of the area 's precipitation . Snowfall is rare , averaging less than five days of snow per year . Due to the aridity of these mountains at high altitudes , the snowline can extend as far up as 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level . The El Niño – Southern Oscillation influences precipitation levels in northwest Argentina . During an El Niño year , westerly flow is strengthened , while moisture content from the east is reduced resulting in a drier rainy season . In contrast , during a La Niña year , there is enhanced easterly moisture transport , resulting in a more intense rainy season . Nonetheless , this trend is highly variable both spatially and temporally .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Temperatures in northwest Argentina vary by altitude . The temperate valleys have a temperate climate , with mild summers , and dry and cool winters with regular frosts . The diurnal range in cities is fairly wide , particularly in the winter . In the Yungas jungle to the east , the climate is hot and humid with temperatures that vary significantly based on latitude and altitude . Mean annual temperatures in the Yungas range between 14 to 26 ° C ( 57 to 79 ° F ) .
The mean annual temperatures in the Quebrada de Humahuaca valley range from 12 @.@ 0 to 14 @.@ 1 ° C ( 53 @.@ 6 to 57 @.@ 4 ° F ) , depending on altitude . In the Calchaquí Valleys in Salta Province , the climate is temperate and arid with large thermal amplitudes , long summers , and a long frost free period which varies by altitude . In both the Quebrada de Humahuaca and Calchaquí valleys , winters are cold with frosts that can occur between March and September .
In the valleys in the south in La Rioja and Catamarca Provinces , along with the southwest parts of Santiago del Estero Province , temperatures during the summer are very high averaging 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) in January , while winters are mild averaging 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) during the summer , particularly in the central valley of Catamarca ( Valle Central de Catamarca ) and the valley of La Rioja Capital which lie at lower altitudes . During winter , cold fronts from the south bringing cold Antarctic air can cause temperatures to fall between − 8 to − 14 ° C ( 18 to 7 ° F ) with severe frosts . In contrast , the Zonda wind , which occurs more often during the winter months , can raise temperatures up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) with strong gusts , sometimes causing crop damage .
Temperatures are much colder in the Puna region , with a mean annual temperature of less than 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) owing to its high altitude . The Puna region is characterized by being cold but sunny throughout the year , with frosts that can occur in any month . The diurnal range is large , with a thermal amplitude that can exceed 40 ° C ( 72 ° F ) due to the low humidity and the intense sunlight throughout the year . Absolute maximum temperatures in the Puna region can reach up to 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) while absolute minimum temperatures can fall below − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Cuyo = =
The Cuyo region includes the provinces of Mendoza , San Juan , and San Luis . Western parts of La Pampa Province ( as shown in map ) also belong in this region , having similar climatic and soil characteristics to it .
It has an arid or semi @-@ arid climate . The wide range in latitudes , combined with altitudes ranging from 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to nearly 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) , means that it has a variety of different climate types . In general , most of the region has a temperate climate , with higher altitude valleys having a more milder climate . At the highest altitudes ( over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) ) , icy conditions persist year round . With very low humidity , abundant sunshine throughout the year , and a temperate climate , the region is suitable for wine production .
The Andes prevent rain @-@ bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean from moving in , while its latitude puts it in a band of the sub @-@ tropical high pressure belt keeping the region dry . Droughts are often frequent and prolonged . The Cuyo region is influenced by the subtropical , semi – permanent South Atlantic High to the east in the Atlantic , the semi @-@ permanent South Pacific High to the west of the Andes , and the development of the Chaco Low and westerlies in the southern parts of the region . Most of the precipitation falls during the summer due to the stronger interaction between the Chaco Low and the South Atlantic High .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Average annual precipitation ranges between 100 to 500 mm ( 4 to 20 in ) though this varies from year to year . More than 85 % of the annual rainfall occurs from October to March , which constitutes the warm season . Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than western areas since they receive more summer rainfall . As such , most of Mendoza and San Juan Provinces receive the lowest annual precipitation , with mean summer precipitation averaging less than 100 mm ( 4 in ) and in rare cases , no summer rainfall . Further eastward , in San Luis Province , mean summer rainfall averages around 500 mm ( 20 in ) and can exceed 700 mm ( 28 in ) in some areas . Higher altitude locations receive precipitation in the form of snow during the winter months . In the Cuyo region , annual precipitation is highly variable from year to year and appears to follow a cycle between dry and wet years in periods of about 2 , 4 – 5 , 6 – 8 , and 16 – 22 years . In wet years , easterly winds caused by the subtropical South Atlantic High are stronger , which causes more moisture to flow towards this region ; during the dry years , these winds are weaker .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Summers in the region are hot and generally very sunny , averaging as much as 10 hours of sunshine per day . The average temperature in January is 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) in most of the region . In contrast , winters are dry and cold and average around 7 – 8 hours of sunshine per day . July temperatures range from 7 to 8 ° C ( 45 to 47 ° F ) . Since this region has a wide range of altitudes ranging from 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to nearly 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) , temperatures can vary widely with altitude . The Sierras Pampeanas , which cross into both San Juan and San Luis Provinces , have a milder climate with mean annual temperatures ranging from 12 to 18 ° C ( 54 to 64 ° F ) . In all locations , at altitudes over 3 @,@ 800 m ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , permafrost is present , while icy conditions persist year round at altitudes over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The region is characterized by a large diurnal range with very hot temperatures during the day followed by cold nights .
The Zonda wind , a foehn wind characterized by warm , dry air can cause temperatures to exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . In some cases , such as in 2003 , they can exceed 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . This wind often occurs before the passage of a cold front across Argentina , and tends to occur when a low pressure system brings heavy rain to the Chilean side , and when an upper level trough allows the winds to pass over the Andes to descend downwards . As such , the temperature may rise as much as 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) in a few hours , with humidity approaching 0 % during a Zonda wind event . In contrast , cold waves are also common , owing to the Andes channeling cold air from the south , allowing cold fronts to come frequently during the winter months , causing cool to cold temperatures with temperatures that can fall below freezing . Temperatures can dip below − 10 to − 30 ° C ( 14 to − 22 ° F ) at the higher altitudes .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Pampas = =
The Pampas includes all of Buenos Aires Province , eastern and southern Córdoba Province , eastern La Pampa Province , and southern Santa Fe Province . It is subdivided into two parts : the humid Pampas to the east , and the dry / semi – arid Pampas to the west .
This region 's land is appropriate for agricultural and livestock activities . It is mostly a flat area , interrupted only by the Tandilia and Ventana hills in its southern portion . The climate of the Pampas is temperate and humid with no dry season , featuring hot summers and mild winters ( Cfa / Cfb according to the Köppen climate classification ) . The weather in the Pampas is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms that impact the region . Maritime polar air from the south produces the cool pampero winds , while warm humid tropical air from the north produces sultry nortes - a gentle wind usually from the northeast formed by trade winds , and the South Atlantic High that brings cloudy , hot , and humid weather and is responsible for bringing heat waves . The Pampas are influenced by the El Niño – Southern Oscillation which is responsible for variations in annual precipitation . An El Niño year often leads to higher precipitation , while a La Niña year leads to lower precipitation . The Pampas are moderately sunny , ranging from an average of 4 – 5 hours of sunshine per day during the winter months to 8 – 9 hours in summer .
= = = Precipitation = = =
Precipitation decreases from east to west , and ranges from 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the northeast , to under 500 mm ( 20 in ) in the south and west . Most regions receive 700 to 800 mm ( 28 to 31 in ) of precipitation per year . Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year in the easternmost parts , while in the western parts most of the precipitation is concentrated during the summer months and winters are drier . In many places precipitation , which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms , is high during summer . These thunderstorms form when cold air from the south , caused by the pampero wind , meets humid tropical air masses from the north , and are some of the most intense storms in the world , with the most frequent lightning and the highest convective cloud tops . These severe thunderstorms produce intense amounts of precipitation and hailstorms , and can cause both floods and flash floods . As well , the Pampas is the most consistently active tornado region outside the central and southeastern United States . Autumn and spring bring periods of very rainy weather followed by dry , mild stretches . Places in the east receive rainfall throughout autumn , whereas in the west it quickly becomes very dry . Winters are drier in most places due to weaker easterly winds , and stronger southerly winds , which prevent moist air from coming in . In winter , most of the precipitation occurs from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and strong southeasterly winds ( sudestada ) , which bring long periods of precipitation , and cloudiness , particularly in the southern and eastern parts . As such , precipitation is more evenly distributed in the eastern parts than the western parts , which are further away from these frontal systems . Dull , grey , and damp weather characterize winters in the Pampas . Snowfall is extremely rare ; when it does snow , it usually lasts for only a day or two .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Annual temperatures range from 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) in the northern parts to 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in the south . Summers in the Pampas are hot and humid ; coastal areas are moderated by the cold Malvinas Current . Heat waves that can bring temperatures in the 36 to 40 ° C ( 97 to 104 ° F ) range for a few days . These are usually followed by a day or two of strong pampero winds from the south , which bring cool , dry air . Autumn arrives in March and brings periods of mild daytime temperatures and cool nights . Generally , frost arrives in early April in the southernmost areas , and in late May in the north and ends by mid @-@ September - although the dates of the first and last frosts can vary from year to year . Frost is rarely intense , nor prolonged , and does not occur in some years . Winters are mild with frequent frosts and cold spells . Temperatures are usually mild during the day and cold during the night . Occasionally , tropical air masses from the north may move southward , providing relief from the cool , damp temperatures . On the other hand , the sudestada and the pampero winds bring periods of cool to cold temperatures .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Patagonia = =
Chubut , Neuquén , Río Negro , Santa Cruz , and Tierra del Fuego are the provinces that make up Patagonia .
The Patagonian climate is classified as arid to semi @-@ arid and temperate to cool temperate . The exception is the Bosque Andino Patagónico , a forested area located in the extreme west and southern parts of Tierra del Fuego Province , which has a humid , wet , and cool to cold climate . One defining characteristic is the strong winds from the west which blow year round ( stronger in summer than in winter ) . These favor evaporation , and are a factor in making the region mostly arid . Mean annual wind speeds range between 15 to 22 km / h ( 9 to 14 mph ) , although gusts of over 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) are common . There are three major factors that influence the climate of this region : the Andes , the South Pacific and the South Atlantic Highs , and higher insolation in eastern than in western areas .
The Andes play a crucial role in determining the climate of Patagonia because their north – south orientation creates a barrier for humid air masses coming from the Pacific Ocean . Since the predominant wind is from the west and most air masses come from the Pacific Ocean , the Andes cause these air masses to ascend , cooling adiabatically . Most of the moisture is dropped on the Chilean side , resulting in abundant precipitation , while in much of the Argentine side , the air warms adiabatically and becomes drier as it descends . As a result , the Andes create an extensive rain @-@ shadow in much of Argentine Patagonia , causing most of the region to be arid . South of 52oS , the Andes are lower in elevation , reducing the rain shadow effect in Tierra del Fuego Province , allowing forests to thrive on the Atlantic coast .
Patagonia is located between the subtropical high pressure belt , and the subpolar low pressure zone , meaning it is exposed to westerly winds that are strong , since south of 40o S , there is little land to block these winds . Being located between the semipermanent South Pacific and the South Atlantic Highs at around 30oS , and the Subpolar Low at arount 60o S , the movement of the high and low pressure systems , along with ocean currents , determine the precipitation pattern . During winter , both the South Pacific and South Atlantic highs move to the north , while the Subpolar Low strengthens , which , when combined with higher ocean temperatures than the surrounding land , results in higher precipitation during this time of the year . Due to the northward migration of the South Pacific High , more frontal systems can pass through , allowing for more precipitation to occur . During summer , the South Pacific High migrates southward , preventing the passage of fronts , and cyclones that can cause precipitation to occur , resulting in lower precipitation during this time of the year . Northeastern areas , along with southern parts of the region , are influenced by air masses from the Atlantic Ocean , resulting in precipitation being more evenly distributed throughout the year . Most precipitation comes from frontal systems , particularly stationary fronts that bring humid air from the Atlantic Ocean .
Cold fronts usually move from west to east , or from southwest to northeast , but rarely from the south . Because of this , these cold fronts do not result in the cold being intense since they are moderated as they pass over the surrounding oceans . In the rare cases when cold fronts move northwards from the south ( Antarctica ) , the cold air masses are not moderated by the surrounding oceans , resulting in very cold temperatures throughout the region . In general , the passage of cold fronts is more common in the south than in the north , and occurs more in winter than in summer . The movement of warm , subtropical air into the region occurs frequently in summer up to 46oS . When warm subtropical air arrives in the region , the air is dry , resulting in little precipitation , and causes temperatures to be higher than the those observed in northeast Argentina .
= = = Precipitation = = =
The influence of the Pacific Ocean , general circulation patterns , and the topographic barrier caused by the Andes , results in one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world . Precipitation decreases steeply from west to east , ranging from 4 @,@ 000 mm ( 160 in ) in the west on the Andean foothills at 41oS , to 150 mm ( 6 in ) in the central plateaus . For example , while mean annual precipitation is more 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) at the Andean foothills , in less than 100 km ( 62 mi ) to the east , precipitation decreases to 200 mm ( 8 in ) . The high precipitation in the Andes in this region supports glaciers and permanent snowfields .
Most of the region receives less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) of precipitation per year , although some areas can receive less than 100 mm ( 4 in ) . In northern Río Negro Province and eastern Neuquén Province , mean annual precipitation is around 300 mm ( 12 in ) while south of 50oS , precipitation increases southwards , reaching up to 600 to 800 mm ( 24 to 31 in ) . There is a narrow transition zone running down from 39oS to 47oS that receives about 400 mm ( 16 in ) of precipitation a year . Much of northwestern Patagonia in the Andes , corresponding to the northern parts of the Bosque Andino Patagónico region , receives abundant precipitation in winter with occasional droughts in summer , allowing it to support forests with dense coverage . With the exception of certain areas such as Puerto Blest , no major towns receive more than 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) of precipitation a year . The southern parts of the Bosque Andino Patagónico region receive only 200 to 500 mm ( 8 to 20 in ) resulting in less dense forest coverage . The lower precipitation , compared to the northern parts , is due to the winds being more intense and drier , favouring evaportranspiration .
The aridity of the region is due to the combination of low precipitation , strong winds , and high temperatures in the summer months , each of which cause high evaporation rates . Mean evapotranspiration ranges from 550 to 750 mm ( 22 to 30 in ) , which decreases from northeast to southwest . In most of Patagonia , precipitation is concentrated in the winter months with the exception of northeastern and southern areas of the region which have a more even distribution of precipitation throughout the year . As a result , except for these areas , the winter maxima in precipitation results in a strong water deficit in the summer . Most precipitation events are light ; each event usually results in less than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) . Thunderstorms are infrequent in the region , occurring an average of 5 days per year , only during summer . In Tierra del Fuego , thunderstorms are non @-@ existent . Snowfall occurs on 5 to 20 days per year , mainly in the west and south . These snowfall events can result in strong snow storms .
Despite the low precipitation , Patagonia is cloudy , with the mean cloud cover ranging from 50 % in eastern parts of Neuquén Province and northeast Río Negro Province to 70 % in Tierra del Fuego Province ; the region has one of the highest percentages of cloud cover in Argentina . In general , mountainous areas are the cloudiest , and coastal areas are cloudier than inland areas . Northern areas are sunnier ( 50 % possible sunshine ) than the southern parts of the region such as western Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego Provinces ( less than 40 % possible sunshine ) . The southernmost islands receive some of the lowest average annual sunshine hours in the world .
= = = Temperatures = = =
Temperatures are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Malvinas Current and the high altitude . For example , in Tierra del Fuego temperatures are colder than at equal latitudes in the northern hemisphere in Europe since they are influenced by the cold Malvinas Current rather than the warm North Atlantic Current . A characteristic of the temperature pattern is the NW – SE distribution of isotherms due to the presence of the Andes .
The warmest areas are in northern parts of Río Negro and Neuquén Provinces where mean annual temperatures range from 13 to 15 ° C ( 55 to 59 ° F ) , while the coldest are in western Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego Provinces where mean annual temperatures range from 5 to 8 ° C ( 41 to 46 ° F ) . On the Patagonian plateaus , mean annual temperatures range from 8 to 10 ° C ( 46 to 50 ° F ) which decreases towards the west . The daily and annual range of temperatures on these plateaus is very high . The Atlantic Ocean moderates the climate of coastal areas resulting in a lower annual and daily range of temperatures . Towards the south , where land masses are narrow , the Pacific Ocean influences coastal areas in addition to the Atlantic Ocean , ensuring that the cold is neither prolonged nor intense . At higher altitudes in the Andes , stretching from Neuquén Province to Tierra del Fuego Province , mean annual temperatures are below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Generally , mean annual temperatures vary more with altitude than with latitude since the temperature gradient for latitude is relatively moderate owing to ocean currents . Summers have a less uniform distribution of temperature , and in the months December to January mean temperatures range from 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) in northern Río Negro Province and eastern parts of Neuquén Province to 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) in Tierra del Fuego . Winters have a more uniform temperature distribution . In July , mean temperatures are above 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) in all of extra – Andean Patagonia , ranging from 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) in the north to around 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) in Ushuaia .
Being exposed to strong westerly winds can decrease the perception of temperature ( wind chill ) , particularly in summer . The wind lowers the perception of the mean annual temperature by 4 @.@ 2 ° C ( 7 @.@ 6 ° F ) throughout the region . The annual range of temperatures in Patagonia is lower than in areas in the Northern Hemisphere at the same latitude owing to the maritime influences of the sea . In Patagonia , the annual range of temperatures ranges from 16 ° C ( 29 ° F ) in the north and decreases progressively southwards to 4 ° C ( 7 ° F ) on the southernmost islands . This contrasts with an annual range of more than 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) in North America at latitudes above 50oN . Absolute maximum temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in the northern Río Negro Province and Neuquén Province , while in much of the region , they can exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Further south in Tierra del Fuego Province , absolute maximum temperatures do not exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , while in the southernmost islands , they do not exceed 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . Absolute minimum temperatures are more than − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) in coastal areas , while in the central Patagonian plateaus , they can reach below − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) .
= = = Statistics for selected locations = = =
= = Books = =
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= SM UB @-@ 6 =
SM UB @-@ 6 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine was interned after running aground in neutral Dutch waters , and was scuttled by her crew at Hellevoetsluis .
UB @-@ 6 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in November . UB @-@ 6 was a little more than 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 142 tonnes ( 125 and 140 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 6 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in March 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 6 in April .
UB @-@ 6 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank HMS Recruit , the first warship credited to the flotilla in May 1915 . Through September 1916 , the U @-@ boat accounted for fourteen additional ships sunk , two ships damaged , and one ship seized as a prize . On 12 March 1917 , UB @-@ 6 ran aground near the Maas River in the Netherlands due to a navigational error by her commander ; the submarine and crew were interned by the neutral country and taken to Hellevoetsluis . Six days later , UB @-@ 6 was scuttled by her crew , which remained interned for the rest of the war . The wreck of UB @-@ 6 was ceded to France in 1919 and broken up at Brest in July 1921 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 6 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 6 was laid down by Germaniawerft in Kiel on 22 November . As built , UB @-@ 6 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 6 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 6 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) Deck gun . UB @-@ 6 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 6 was complete at the Germaniwerft yard , UB @-@ 6 was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In early 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 6 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 6 was assembled and launched sometime in March , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Early career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 6 on 8 April under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kptlt . ) Erich Haecker , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . On 19 April , UB @-@ 6 joined the other UB I boats then comprising the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 6 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
The UB I boats of the Flanders Flotilla were initially limited to patrols in the Hoofden , the southern portion of the North Sea between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . Although UB @-@ 4 had made both the first sortie and sunk the first ship of the flotilla in April , UB @-@ 6 sank the first warship credited to the flotilla . On 1 May , Haecker spotted two old Royal Navy destroyers , Brazen and Recruit , about 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) southwest of the Galloper light vessel . Just before noon , Haecker launched a torpedo that hit Recruit and split the 335 @-@ tonne ( 330 @-@ long @-@ ton ) displacement ship in half , killing 34 men ; 26 men were rescued . One month later , on 1 June , UB @-@ 6 sank what would be her largest ship , the British cargo ship Saidieh , of 3 @,@ 303 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Saidieh was en route to Hull from Alexandria with a load of onions and cottonseed when UB @-@ 6 sank her at the mouth of the Thames ; eight crewmen lost their lives in the attack .
In late June , Korvettenkapitän Karl Bartenbach , head of the Flanders Flotilla , used UB @-@ 6 to test a theory that British defenses in the Straits of Dover — anti @-@ submarine nets and mines — were not insurmountable . On the evening of 21 June , UB @-@ 6 departed Zeebrugge for a round @-@ trip to Boulogne . UB @-@ 6 sailed past Dunkirk on the surface and made Boulogne in the early morning of the 22nd , having to crash dive once during the voyage when discovered by a British destroyer . UB @-@ 6 immediately made the return trip and arrived safely at Zeebrugge later the same day . Three other UB I boats , UB @-@ 2 , UB @-@ 5 , and UB @-@ 10 , soon followed with patrols in the Channel , but bad weather and fog hampered the boats and none had any success . Even though no ships were sunk during these forays into the English Channel , by successfully completing their voyages , the submarines helped further prove the feasibility of defeating the British countermeasures in the Straits of Dover .
On 12 July , while patrolling between 18 and 23 nautical miles ( 33 and 43 km ; 21 and 26 mi ) off Lowestoft , UB @-@ 6 attacked five British fishing vessels , sinking four of them . All four of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 6 , and sunk with explosives . Two weeks later , UB @-@ 6 torpedoed and sank the 406 @-@ ton Firth 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) from the Aldborough Napes Buoy . UB @-@ 6 sank the 57 @-@ ton Leander , another smack , on 11 August .
Germany 's submarine offensive was suspended on 18 September by the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , in response to American demands after the sinking of the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . It would be five months before UB @-@ 6 would sink another ship .
In mid @-@ November , Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt.z.S. ) Ernst Voigt succeeded Haecker as commander of UB @-@ 6 ; it was the first U @-@ boat command for the 25 @-@ year @-@ old Voigt . Under his command , UB @-@ 6 sank her next vessel in January 1916 . The 57 @-@ ton smack Crystal was boarded and sunk by explosives 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) southeast of Southwold on the 27th .
= = Victims Gallery = =
= = Second submarine offensive = =
By early 1916 , the British blockade of Germany was beginning to have an effect on Germany and her imports . The Royal Navy had stopped and seized more cargo destined for Germany than the quantity of cargo sunk by German U @-@ boats in the first submarine offensive . As a result , the German Imperial Navy began a second offensive against merchant shipping on 29 February . The final ground rules agreed upon by the German Admiralstab were that all enemy vessels in Germany 's self @-@ proclaimed war zone would be destroyed without warning , that enemy vessels outside the war zone would be destroyed only if armed , and — to avoid antagonizing the United States — that enemy passenger steamers were not to be attacked , regardless of whether in the war zone or not .
UB @-@ 6 's first attack in the new offensive came on 17 March , when the U @-@ boat torpedoed the Swedish ship Ask near the North Hinder lightship . The 1 @,@ 041 @-@ ton ship was en route to London from Westervik with a load of timber , but did not sink ; there were no reports of casualties on the damaged ship . The attack on Ask was followed up two weeks later by the sinking of another Swedish ship . The 1 @,@ 115 @-@ ton Hollandia was at anchor 0 @.@ 25 nautical miles ( 460 m ) from the Galloper lightship when UB @-@ 4 torpedoed her on the last day of March . Hollandia was in ballast and in the process of sailing from Rouen to Rotterdam when sent under without loss of life .
In March , UB @-@ 6 's commander , Voigt , was assigned to the newly commissioned UB @-@ 23 , and replaced on UB @-@ 6 by Kapitänleutnant Karl Neumann , the former commander of two of the submarine 's sister ships , UB @-@ 2 and UB @-@ 13 . In his U @-@ boat career , Neumann sank over 100 @,@ 000 tons of shipping , but none at the helm of UB @-@ 6 . In July , Neumann was succeeded by Oberleutnant zur See Karsten von Heydebreck , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old , first @-@ time U @-@ boat captain , who was Voigt 's classmate in April 1908 cadet class .
Near the end of April 1916 , Admiral Reinhardt Scheer , the newest commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the German High Seas Fleet , called off the merchant shipping offensive and ordered all boats at sea to return , and all boats in port to remain there . As with the end of the first offensive in August 1915 , UB @-@ 6 would not sink any more ships for the next five months .
= = Grand Fleet ambush attempts = =
In mid @-@ May , Scheer completed plans to draw out part of the British Grand Fleet . The German High Seas Fleet would sortie for a raid on Sunderland , luring the British fleet across " ' nests ' of submarines and mine @-@ fields " . In support of the operation , UB @-@ 6 and five other Flanders boats set out at midnight 30 / 31 May to form a line 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) east of Lowestoft . This group was to intercept and attack the British light forces from Harwich , should they sortie north to join the battle . Unfortunately for the Germans , the British Admiralty had intelligence reports of the departure of the submarines which , coupled with an absence of attacks on shipping , aroused British suspicions .
A delayed departure of the German fleet for its sortie ( which had been redirected to the Skagerrak ) and the failure of several of the U @-@ boats stationed to the north to receive the coded message warning of the British advance caused Scheer 's anticipated ambush to be a " complete and disappointing failure " . In UB @-@ 6 's group , only UB @-@ 10 sighted the Harwich forces , and they were too far away to mount an attack . The failure of the submarine ambush to sink any British capital ships allowed the full Grand Fleet to engage the numerically inferior High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland , which took place 31 May – 1 June .
Later in August , the Germans set up another ambush for the British fleet , when they drew up plans for another High Seas Fleet raid on Sunderland ( as had been the original intention in May ) . The German fleet planned to depart late in the day on 18 August and shell military targets the next morning . As in May , UB @-@ 6 was part of a group intended to attack the Harwich forces . As one of five boats forming the second line of boats from the Flanders Flotilla , UB @-@ 6 was stationed off Texel by the morning of 20 August . Once again , British intelligence had given warning of the impending attack and ambush , causing the Grand Fleet to sortie at 16 : 00 on 18 August , five hours before the German fleet sailed . Faulty intelligence caused Scheer initially to divert from Sunderland , and then to eventually call off the whole operation . Although U @-@ boats to the north sank two British light cruisers , UB @-@ 6 and her group played no part in the action .
On 10 September , UB @-@ 6 was patrolling off the Maas lightship and torpedoed the 400 @-@ ton Norwegian steamer Lindborg , with a general cargo for London ; there were no casualties . While patrolling in the same area on the 23rd , UB @-@ 6 sank four Belgian lighters . The following day , the Dutch ship Batavier II was seized as a prize and sailed into Zeebrugge by a prize crew from UB @-@ 6 . Batavier II was the last success for Heydebreck in command of UB @-@ 6 ; he was assigned to command the newly commissioned minelaying submarine UC @-@ 63 in January 1917 . Oberleutnant zur See Oskar Steckelberg , another member of the April 1908 cadet class , replaced Heydebreck on UB @-@ 6 .
= = Unrestricted submarine warfare = =
The British blockade of Germany , which prevented neutral shipping from reaching German ports , had severely limited imports of food and fuel into Germany . Among the results were an increase in infant mortality and as many as 700 @,@ 000 deaths attributed to starvation or hypothermia during the war . With the blockade having such dire consequences , Kaiser Wilhelm II personally approved a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare to begin on 1 February 1917 to help force the British to make peace . The new rules of engagement specified that no ship was to be left afloat .
On 10 March , UB @-@ 6 departed Zeebrugge to patrol off the Mass lightship . Two days later , UB @-@ 6 entered Dutch territorial waters after Steckelberg made a navigational error , and ran aground at the mouth of the Maas River . Because the Netherlands was neutral during the war , and UB @-@ 6 did not leave Dutch territorial waters within 24 hours as required by international law , the submarine and her crew were interned by the Dutch . The Germans protested , but because UB @-@ 6 's grounding was merely the result of an error and not because of distress , the Dutch could not release the submarine . UB @-@ 6 was taken to the port of Hellevoetsluis for internment , where , on 18 March , UB @-@ 6 's crew scuttled her . The crew of UB @-@ 6 was interned for the duration of the war . After the end of the war , UB @-@ 6 's wreck was surrendered to France , taken to Brest , and broken up in July 1921 .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= 55 Cancri f =
55 Cancri f ( abbreviated 55 Cnc f ) , also designated Rho1 Cancri f and named Harriot , is an extrasolar planet approximately 41 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Cancer ( the Crab ) . 55 Cancri f is the fourth known planet ( in order of distance ) from the star 55 Cancri and the first planet to have been given the designation of " f " .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Harriot for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands . It honors the astronomer Thomas Harriot .
= = Discovery = =
The initial presentation of this planet occurred at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in April 2005 , however it was another two and a half years before the planet was to be published in a peer @-@ reviewed journal . It is the first known planet outside our solar system to spend its entire orbit within what astronomers call the " habitable zone " . Furthermore , its discovery made 55 Cancri the first star other than the Sun known to have at least five planets .
= = Orbit and mass = =
55 Cancri f is located about 0 @.@ 781 AU away from the star and takes 260 days to complete a full orbit . A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect 55 Cancri f is that only a minimum mass can be obtained , in this case around 0 @.@ 144 times that of Jupiter , or half the mass of Saturn . A Keplerian fit to the radial velocity data of 55 Cancri A indicates that the orbit is consistent with being circular , however changing the value in a range between 0 and 0 @.@ 4 does not significantly alter the chi @-@ squared statistic of the fit , thus a representative eccentricity of 0 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 2 was assumed . In a Newtonian model which takes interactions between the planets into account , the eccentricity comes out as 0 @.@ 0002 , almost perfectly circular .
Astrometric observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope suggest that the outer planet 55 Cancri d is inclined at 53 ° with respect to the plane of the sky . The inner planets b and e are inclined at 85 ° . The inclination of f is unknown .
= = Characteristics = =
Since the planet was detected indirectly through observations of its star , properties such as its radius , composition and temperature are unknown . With a mass half that of Saturn , 55 Cancri f is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface . It orbits in the so @-@ called " habitable zone , " which means that liquid water could exist on the surface of a possible moon .
It is not known if the composition and appearance is more like Saturn or Neptune . Based on its temperature , it should be a Sudarsky Class II planet , covered in water clouds .
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= Acting white =
In the United States , acting white is a pejorative term , usually applied to African Americans , which refers to a person 's perceived betrayal of their culture by assuming the social expectations of white society . Success in education in particular ( depending on one 's cultural background ) can be seen as a form of " selling out " by being disloyal to one 's culture .
The term is controversial , and its precise meaning is hard to define . Some minority students are discouraged from achieving in school by the negative prejudices of ethnic peers ; such a view has been expressed in articles in The New York Times , Time magazine , and The Wall Street Journal — and by public figures and academics across the political spectrum .
= = History of usage = =
The question of whether or not " acting white " attitudes are prevalent has been debated in academic literature . The African @-@ American comedian and media figure , Bill Cosby , used the term in what became a noted May 2004 speech when he challenged the black community against the idea that gaining education was " acting white " . Black people accused of " acting white " are sometimes referred to as Black Anglo @-@ Saxons , a term coined by comedian Paul Mooney . The 2008 election of Barack Obama as President of the United States resulted in a public discussion that the acting white attitude may be waning , as he represented a model of African @-@ American achievement .
= = Case studies and research = =
Not all scholars define acting white in the same way . Most definitions include a reference to situations where some minority adolescents ridicule their peers for engaging in behaviors perceived to be characteristic of whites . In this scenario , they equate " white behavior " with high grades in school , a result researchers can quantify , but the term is not limited to this .
In 1986 , Signithia Fordham co @-@ authored with Nigerian sociologist John Ogbu a study that concluded that high @-@ performing African @-@ American students in a Washington , D.C. , high school borrowed from hegemonic white culture as part of a strategy for achievement , while struggling to maintain a black identity . Ogbu made a related claim in his 2003 book , Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb : A Study of Academic Disengagement , concluding that black students ' own cultural attitudes sometimes hindered academic achievement and that these attitudes are too often neglected . Ogbu had earlier written in his seminal work Minority Education and Caste ( 1978 ) , that school disengagement among caste @-@ like minorities occurs because white society limits the job @-@ success of their parents and others in their communities by a glass ceiling . In his new book , he said that non @-@ whites " failed to observe the link between educational achievement and access to jobs . "
In 1997 the scholars Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig published a report finding that blacks do not face any stronger social pressures than whites to succeed in school , nor do they have greater feelings of alienation towards education in general . They noted anecdotal and ethnographic research confirming that minority students hold these views , but they concluded that these are not inherently generalizable and do not substantially affect student behavior in the classroom . They labeled the issue " something of a distraction " from what they saw as more important educational reforms .
Though Ogbu 's 1978 study 's conclusion was widely discussed , a 2003 work also challenged its validity . In 2003 , Karolyn Tyson , a sociologist , and William Darity , Jr . , an economist , of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , conducted an 18 @-@ month study at 11 North Carolina schools . The study concluded that white and black students have essentially the same attitudes about scholastic achievement ; students in both groups want to succeed in school and show higher levels of self @-@ esteem when they do better in school . They compared attitudes identified as acting white to the normal adolescent pains experienced in John Hughes ' movies .
A 2006 study titled An Empirical Analysis of " Acting White " by Roland G. Fryer , Jr . , at Harvard University and Paul Torelli suggested that the phenomenon probably had little to no effect on students achieving at average levels , but might explain a significant role in the disparities between black and white students at high achievement levels . Fryer has also written that , in contrast to Fordham and Ogbu 's theory , " acting white " prejudices are actually more common the more integrated the school , with historically black schools free of any effects . He found that groups such as Italian immigrants in Boston ’ s West End and the Maori of New Zealand display similar behaviors . He concluded that there is necessarily a trade @-@ off between doing well and rejection by your peers when you come from a traditionally low @-@ achieving group , especially when that group comes into contact with more outsiders .
A fundamental drawback of much of the research so far is that the people studied have been asked to rate their own popularity in the eyes of others , which naturally brings those scores into question . Roland G. Fryer , Jr. has remarked , " Asking teenagers whether they ’ re popular is like asking them if they ’ re having sex . "
Stuart Buck , a lawyer , also explored this issue in Acting White : The Ironic Legacy of Desegregation ( 2010 ) . He said that segregated black schools had featured teachers , counselors , and others of the same race as the student population , and the adults often acted as mentors to the students . Integration of many public schools since the mid- to late @-@ 20th century may have resulted in schools in which black students perceived they were controlled or dominated by whites . A black student trying to achieve high educational success may then be considered as trying to leave the minority group .
Margaret Beale Spencer and Vinay Harpalani ( 2008 ) argue that usage of the term " acting white " by black teenagers does not reflect their cultural values ; rather , it is a manifestation of their racial identity development , experienced in conjunction with normal adolescent hassles and peer pressure . Spencer and Harpalani employ William E. Cross 's ( 1991 ) Nigrescence framework and contend that black teenagers ' use of " acting white " in relation to academic achievement is similar to white teenagers ' use of the term " nerd " : the only difference is that black teenagers express it in racialized terms , as in addition to normal teenage peer pressure , they are grappling with racial identity and what it means to be " black " . Expressions such as " acting white " may or may not reflect black teenagers ' cultural values , and their usage is sometimes counterintuitive : for example , Ogbu ( 2003 ) himself documented one instance where a black teenage girl with natural hair was accused of " acting white " by her black peers because " like white people , she did not have to process her hair . " These kind of examples show that accusations of " acting white " are not fundamentally about black cultural attributes ( although such accusations may reflect these attributes ) . Rather , " acting white " is just a manifestation of racial identity development for black children and teenagers , who are learning and defining for themselves what it means to be " black " — in conjunction with normal adolescent peer pressure and hassles . That is also why such accusations are less common among black adults , who have come to greater resolution regarding racial identity issues .
= = Commentary = =
Political observer John McWhorter has commented , " [ t ] eenagers have a variety of identities open to them for trying on anti @-@ Establishment postures . White kids can be stoners or goths . Black kids can be ' nonwhite ' . " He interpreted those kids as black " nerds " . He stated that the acting white attitude developed as the creation of an " other " among newly integrated African @-@ American kids .
In their 2003 study , Tyson and Darity said that school staff and faculty who hold racist attitudes about the ability of black students use the acting white disparagement as a cover for disparities in student performance . Shelby Steele wrote in The Content of Our Character that what he identified as middle @-@ class black values are falsely viewed by the majority of blacks as " white , " while they are colorblind . He argued that this attitude is distinct from other issues of young blacks in poverty .
Kenji Yoshino , a New York University School of Law professor , in his Covering : The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights ( 2006 ) , criticizes social pressures to conform to mainstream white culture . He said this violated African Americans ' civil rights , and they can uphold their own social distinctions . He said they should be able to freely choose to identify with white culture if they wish . Anne Arnett Ferguson , a professor at Smith College , wrote in 2001 that white culture " ruthlessly excludes African American cultural modes as relevant and meaningful " . She highlighted the insistence in schools of standard English over Black Vernacular English as an example .
Clarence Page remarked on The News Hour with Jim Lehrer in 2004 :
In African American folklore , the sea crab ranks among the dumbest of creatures who also offers a valuable lesson . When you catch a bucket or a basketful , you never have to put a lid on because when one of the creatures tries to get out , the others will just pull it back in . Some of our fellow human beings aren 't much smarter than that . When they see you working hard to achieve your dreams , they 'll make fun of you just for trying .
= = Accusations of " acting white " = =
= = = Barack Obama = = =
Public figures arouse controversy . Before he was elected as President , Senator Barack Obama , was criticized in 2007 as " acting white " by Jesse Jackson in relation to a specific case involving blacks . Also before Obama 's election , Ralph Nader , a longtime activist , in 2008 characterized the senator as " talking white " . However , one must note that Obama is also a Mixed @-@ race American , with a White / European mother and Kenyan father ; he also has Cherokee descent . Kenyans are a different ethnic group than the various groups modern day African Americans are descended from .
Also , note that " talking white " is a form of a dialect . Who President Obama is speaking with may determine the dialect he chooses to use .
Obama 's presidential victory in the 2008 election and public image prompted a public discussion about whether he would shift the ground of critics of ' acting white . ' Commentators John McWhorter and Stephen J. Dubner have said that it might . Yahanna of the Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge , described by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a black supremacist sect , did not consider Obama to be black but " African of white descent " and advised African Americans not to vote for him .
Obama strongly criticized the idea that achievement was limited to " acting white " in his keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention . He said that " children can ’ t achieve unless we raise their expectations and turn off the television sets and eradicate the slander that says a black youth with a book is acting white . ”
= = = Russell Wilson = = =
Seattle Seahawks football player Russell Wilson came under fire in 2014 when anonymous sources alleged that the feeling in the Seahawks locker room was that Wilson lacked " blackness . " CBS Sports cited this conflict as a possible reason for the trading of star player Percy Harvin from the Seahawks to the New York Jets .
= = = Matthew Clark III = = =
Socially conscious Texas Hip @-@ Hop artist , Matthew Clark III addressed the diminutive effects African @-@ American adolescents face when being accused of " Acting White " in his autobiographic song " Acting White " " " ( 2015 ) . In his song he depicts the average struggles of young black children that don 't fit the stereotypical mold society wishes to place them in . He describes the struggles of dealing with police harassment , being made fun of for dressing differently , enunciating his words , being accused of stealing in stores , and his aspirations to be like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr .
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= Battle of Kapyong =
The Battle of Kapyong ( Korean : 가평전투 , 22 – 25 April 1951 ) , also known as the Battle of Jiaping ( Chinese : 加平战斗 ; pinyin : Jiā Píng Zhàn Dòu ) , was fought during the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and Canadian — and the Chinese communist People 's Volunteer Army . The fighting occurred during the Chinese Spring Offensive and saw the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade establish blocking positions in the Kapyong Valley , on a key route south to the capital , Seoul . The two forward battalions — 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) and 2nd Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( 2 PPCLI ) — occupied positions astride the valley and hastily developed defences . As thousands of South Korean soldiers began to withdraw through the valley , the Chinese infiltrated the brigade position under the cover of darkness , and assaulted the Australians on Hill 504 during the evening and into the following day .
Although heavily outnumbered , the 27th Brigade held their positions into the afternoon before the Australians were finally withdrawn to positions in the rear of the brigade , with both sides having suffered heavy casualties . The Chinese then turned their attention to the Canadians on Hill 677 , but during a fierce night battle they were unable to dislodge them . The fighting helped blunt the Chinese offensive and the actions of the Australians and Canadians at Kapyong were important in assisting to prevent a breakthrough on the United Nations Command central front , and ultimately the capture of Seoul . The two battalions bore the brunt of the assault and stopped an entire Chinese division during the hard fought defensive battle . The next day the Chinese withdrew back up the valley , in order to regroup . Today , the battle is regarded as one of the most famous actions fought by the Australian and Canadian armies in Korea .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
The United Nations counter offensive between February and April 1951 had been largely successful , with the US Eighth Army pushing the Chinese north of the Han River during Operation Killer , while Seoul was recaptured in mid @-@ March during Operation Ripper and UN forces once again approached the 38th parallel . Regardless , the strained relationship between General Douglas MacArthur and US President Harry S. Truman led to MacArthur 's dismissal as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , and his replacement by General Matthew B. Ridgway . Consequently , on 14 April 1951 , General James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as commander of the US Eighth Army and the United Nations forces in Korea . Ridgway flew to Tokyo the same day to replace MacArthur . Meanwhile , the offensive continued with a series of short thrusts . Operation Courageous , in late March , pushed forward to the Benton Line , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) south of the 38th parallel , while Operation Rugged in early @-@ April pushed just north of the 38th parallel to the Kansas Line . Finally , in mid @-@ April a further advance moved the US Eighth Army to the Utah Line .
Following the Battle of Maehwa @-@ San the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade had enjoyed a period in corps reserve as the UN forces had continued to push steadily northwards . By April 1951 , the brigade consisted of four infantry battalions , one Australian , one Canadian and two British , including : the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ; the 2nd Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ; the 1st Battalion , Middlesex Regiment and the 1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders . Brigadier Basil Coad had departed for Hong Kong on compassionate leave on 23 March and the brigade was now under the command of Brigadier Brian Arthur Burke . In direct support was the 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery ( 16 RNZA ) with its 3 @.@ 45 @-@ inch ( 88 mm ) 25 pounder field guns . 3 RAR was now under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Ferguson , who had replaced Lieutenant Colonel Floyd Walsh following his dismissal in the wake of the Battle of Pakchon on 5 November 1950 . 2 PPCLI was commanded at this time by Lieutenant Colonel James Riley Stone . Deployed in the central sector , the brigade was part of the US IX Corps which also included the US 24th Division , South Korean 2nd Division , US 7th Division and the South Korean 6th Division , under the overall command of Major General William M. Hoge .
During this time 27th Brigade was attached to the US 24th Division , advancing north through the Chojong valley in late @-@ March , reaching the Benton Line on 31 March . The brigade was then released , advancing with IX Corps up the deep and narrow valley of the Kapyong River , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east . From 3 April , the 27th Brigade moved further up the river , advancing 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) over the next twelve days as part of Operation Rugged . Although the valley was not held in strength by the Chinese , it was skilfully defended by small groups of infantry dug @-@ in on the hilltops that overlooked it . Advancing along the flanking hills and ridges the brigade captured successive positions , while encountering heavy resistance before reaching the Kansas Line on 8 April . Following a brief operational pause , the advance 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the Utah Line began on 11 April , the day after MacArthur 's dismissal . Chinese resistance strengthened noticeably and the brigade 's initial objectives were not captured by the Middlesex until 13 April .
The approach to the Utah Line was dominated by two 900 metres ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) hills — the ' Sardine ' feature 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) north , and ' Salmon ' a further 800 metres ( 870 yd ) north . The Middlesex were repulsed during repeated attempts to capture Sardine on 14 April , before the task was allocated to 3 RAR . A Company , 3 RAR subsequently captured the crest , killing 10 Chinese and wounding another 20 for the loss of eight Australians wounded . The following morning , Salmon was captured by C Company without firing a shot , amidst light resistance . Chinese shelling after its capture resulted in two men wounded , while airstrikes then broke up an attempted Chinese counter @-@ attack . Meanwhile , 2 PPCLI continued their advance on the right flank , capturing the ' Turbot ' feature ( Hill 795 ) on 15 April . Facing a spirited Chinese delaying action on successive positions , the Canadians did not capture their final objective — the ' Trout ' feature ( Hill 826 ) — until the following morning .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
After reaching the Utah Line , 27th Brigade was withdrawn from the front on 17 April , handing over its positions to the South Korean 6th Division . Burke subsequently ordered his battalions into reserve positions north of the previously destroyed village of Kapyong , on the main road from Seoul to the east coast . Intelligence indicated that a new Chinese offensive was imminent , and while the brigade settled in to rest it remained on three hours notice to move to support IX Corps . Having been on operations continuously for the past seven months , the British intended to relieve the bulk of the brigade during its period in reserve . The two British battalions — the Argylls and the Middlesex — would be replaced by two fresh battalions from Hong Kong , while Burke and the headquarters of 27th Brigade would be replaced by Brigadier George Taylor and the headquarters of 28th Brigade in late @-@ April . The Canadians were scheduled to transfer to the newly raised 25th Canadian Brigade in May as part of Canada 's increased commitment to the war . Advance parties from Brigade Headquarters and the Argylls departed for Seoul en route for Hong Kong on 19 April , while the remaining British battalions were scheduled to depart two weeks later . 3 RAR would not be rotated and remained a part of the brigade for the entire war , operating on an individual reinforcement system instead .
Meanwhile , planning began for Operation Dauntless , a drive 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) into the Iron Triangle — a key communist concentration area and communications junction in the central sector between Chorwon and Kumwha in the south and Pyonggang in the north . Contingency planning also included precautions against a further Chinese offensive , in which the US Eighth Army would conduct a delaying defence on successive positions . Further indications of an imminent communist offensive — including the visible strengthening of Chinese and North Korean artillery and logistic systems — led Ridgway to order Van Fleet not to exploit any opportunities beyond the Wyoming Line . Confident nonetheless , Ridgway widened the scope of the offensive , designating a secondary objective line in the eastern sector known as the Alabama Line . Fate would intervene however , and Van Fleet launched his offensive on 21 April only to be met by a much stronger Chinese and North Korean offensive the following night .
The First Chinese Spring Offensive — also known as the Chinese Fifth Phase Campaign , First Impulse — envisioned the total destruction of the US I and IX Corps above the Han River , involving three Chinese Army Groups — the 3rd , 9th , and 19th Army Groups — and three North Korean corps — the I , III and V Corps — under the overall command of Peng Dehuai , the commander of the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army in Korea . With the immediate objective of capturing Seoul , the offensive commenced on 22 April on two broad fronts : the main thrust across the Imjin River in the western sector held by the US I Corps involving 337 @,@ 000 troops driving towards Seoul , and the secondary effort involving 149 @,@ 000 troops attacking further east across the Soyang River in the central and eastern sectors , falling primarily on the US IX Corps , and to a lesser extent on the US X Corps sector . A further 214 @,@ 000 Chinese troops supported the offensive ; in total more than 700 @,@ 000 men . As part of the preparation , the battle hardened 39th and 40th Armies of the 13th Army Group were transferred to the 9th Army Group under the overall command of Song Shi @-@ Lun , and Commander Wen Yuchen of the 40th Army was given the mission of destroying the South Korean 6th Division while blocking any UN reinforcements towards the Imjin River at Kapyong .
Facing the Chinese offensive were 418 @,@ 000 UN troops , including 152 @,@ 000 South Koreans , 245 @,@ 000 Americans , 11 @,@ 500 British Commonwealth and 10 @,@ 000 troops from other UN countries . However , with the US Eighth Army not strong enough to prevent large penetrations along its line , masses of Chinese infantry soon swept around its flanks , surrounding entire formations in an attempt to cut off their withdrawal . Standing directly in the path of the main Chinese attack towards Seoul in the I Corps sector was the 29th British Brigade . The brigade 's stand on the Imjin River held off two Chinese divisions for two days and ultimately helped prevent the capture of Seoul , but resulted in heavy casualties in one of the bloodiest British engagements of the war . During the fighting , most of the 1st Battalion , Gloucestershire Regiment were killed or captured during a stubborn resistance at the Battle of the Imjin River that saw the commanding officer — Lieutenant Colonel James Carne — awarded the Victoria Cross after his battalion was surrounded . Ultimately the 29th Brigade suffered 1 @,@ 091 casualties in their defence of the Kansas Line , and although they destroyed a large portion of the Chinese 63rd Army and inflicted nearly 10 @,@ 000 casualties , the loss of the Glosters caused a controversy in Britain and within the United Nations Command . Meanwhile , further east , in the IX Corps sector , the Chinese 118th Division , 40th Army and the 60th Division , 20th Army prepared to attack the South Korean 6th Division on the night of 22 April .
= = Battle = =
= = = South Korean collapse , 22 – 23 April 1951 = = =
The South Koreans were holding positions at the northern end of the Kapyong Valley , having advanced 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) since relieving the 27th Brigade . However , anticipating a Chinese attack , the divisional commander — General Chang Do Yong — had halted his advance at 16 : 00 and ordered his two forward regiments — the 19th and the 2nd Infantry Regiments — to tie @-@ in and develop defensive positions . Meanwhile , the 7th Infantry Regiment occupied reserve positions immediately behind the forward regiments . Suffering a reputation for unreliability in defence the South Koreans had been bolstered by the attachment of the New Zealand guns and a battery of 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) M101 howitzers from the US 213th Field Artillery Battalion . Regardless , left with only one hour to halt its advance and step up defences , the forward South Korean units were only able to occupy a series of hill @-@ top positions while leaving the valleys and flanks exposed . Two Chinese divisions — the 118th and the 60th Division — struck at 17 : 00 , easily infiltrating through numerous gaps between the badly organised defensive positions . Under pressure all along the front , the defenders gave ground almost immediately and soon broke . Abandoning their weapons , equipment and vehicles , they disintegrated and began to stream south out of the mountains and through the valley , and by 23 : 00 Chang was forced to admit that he had lost all communication with his units . At 04 : 00 the decision was made to withdraw the New Zealanders to prevent their loss , however following reports that the South Koreans were making a stand they were ordered back up the valley the next morning with the Middlesex accompanying them as protection . By dusk it was clear that the South Koreans had in fact collapsed , and the guns were withdrawn again .
Meanwhile , the US 1st Marine Division was holding firm against the Chinese 39th Army to the east , and the withdrawal of the South Koreans had left their flank exposed . However , with the Chinese 39th and 40th Armies only tasked with protecting the eastern flank of the 9th Army Group against possible counterattacks from the 1st Marine Division , the Chinese did not exploit this opportunity and the Americans remained relatively unmolested . Yet with the forward UN positions in both the US I Corps and US IX Corps sectors increasingly untenable as the Chinese exploited gaps between formations , Van Fleet ordered a withdrawal to the Kansas Line in the mid @-@ morning . Hoge subsequently ordered the US Marines to form a new defensive position beyond the Pukhan River , between the Hwachon Reservoir and the new position to be occupied by the South Korean 6th Division . Hoge 's plan relied on the South Koreans reforming and offering some resistance , and although a rearguard of 2 @,@ 500 men was belatedly established it was in no condition to fight . Fearing a breakthrough , Hoge warned out the 27th Brigade , as the corps reserve , to establish defensive positions north of Kapyong on the afternoon of 23 April as a precaution in the event the South Koreans were unable to hold , tasking them with blocking the two approaches to the village and to prevent the Chinese from cutting Route 17 , a key route south to Seoul and an important main supply route .
The brigade was by now reduced to three battalions , as the Argylls had been withdrawn to Pusan just prior to the battle , in preparation for their embarkation . The Middlesex were also on stand @-@ by for embarkation , and were kept in reserve . As such , with the width of the valley precluding the establishment of continuous linear defensive , Burke was forced to place his two available battalions on the high points on either side of it , with 3 RAR occupying Hill 504 to the east of the river and 2 PPCLI occupying Hill 677 to the west . Meanwhile , Sudok San ( Hill 794 ) to the north @-@ west — a massive hill nearly 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) high — was left undefended by necessity . Together these three hills formed a naturally strong defensive position , well suited to blocking a major advance . Regardless , the brigade position suffered from a number of deficiencies , being exposed without flank protection , while the central sector was not occupied because the Middlesex were away to the north with the guns . Likewise , until the return of the New Zealanders the brigade would have little artillery support ; as such if large Chinese forces arrived before these two units returned the forward companies would be without support and would have to accept the probability that they would be cut @-@ off . 3 RAR — whose line of communications ran 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) through the exposed central sector of the valley — would be particularly exposed .
Each of the battalions were deployed across the summits and slopes in separate company @-@ sized defensive positions , creating a series of strong @-@ points across a 7 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) front . Due to the large amount of ground to be defended each of the companies were spread widely , and were unable to offer mutual support . Instead each platoon would support each other , with each company adopting all @-@ round defence . Brigade Headquarters remained in the valley , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south . With the New Zealand gunners still forward supporting the South Koreans , US IX Corps placed a battery of 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) howitzers from the US 213th Field Artillery Battalion and the twelve 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) M2 mortars of B Company , 2nd Chemical Mortar Battalion , under the command of 27th Brigade . Fifteen Sherman tanks from A Company , US 72nd Heavy Tank Battalion , were also in support .
The Canadians subsequently occupied Hill 677 and began digging @-@ in , deploying their six Vickers medium machine @-@ guns in sections to add depth , and using defensive fire tasks to cover the gaps in their positions . Meanwhile , the Australians occupied Hill 504 , with D Company holding the summit itself , A Company the spur @-@ line which ran down to the north @-@ west , and B Company the small hill by the river , while C Company was in reserve on the rear spur . In response to US IX Corps requirements Burke directed Ferguson to site his headquarters in the low ground of the valley in the vicinity of the hamlet of Chuktun @-@ ni , so as to control the withdrawing South Koreans . However , this would limit Ferguson 's situational awareness and his ability to control the battle , while also leaving them exposed to infiltration . The afternoon was spent on the lightly scrub @-@ covered slopes digging @-@ in and building sangers where the rocky ground proved too hard . In only a few hours the Australians managed to prepare hasty defensive positions , although defensive fire tasks were unable to be registered as the artillery Forward Observers were unable to reach the company positions until after dark .
The American tank company commander — Lieutenant Kenneth W. Koch — deployed his platoons in support of the Australians . The road skirted the eastern flank of Hill 504 , and it offered the best area for the employment of armour . One platoon of five tanks occupied a northern outpost position forward of B Company to prevent the Chinese using the road ; another platoon occupied the high ground to the west , with B Company ; while the final platoon and Koch 's command tank was deployed near Battalion Headquarters , covering a ford by which the road crossed the Kapyong River , approximately 800 metres ( 870 yd ) south of B Company . Perhaps unwisely the tanks were deployed without infantry support . The command relationship between the Australians and their armoured support was also complicated , as the Americans were not under command as they might normally have been , rather Koch was free to conduct his own battle . Regardless , armed with a 76 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) cannon and one .50 calibre and two .30 calibre machine @-@ guns , the Sherman tanks were formidable assets and bolstered the defence considerably . In contrast , the Chinese had no tanks at Kapyong , while their infantry had only a few 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 89 mm ) anti @-@ tank rockets with which to counter them .
By 20 : 00 that evening a large number of South Koreans were retreating in disarray through a gap in the line held by the brigade , the majority of them moving through the Australians . The South Korean 6th Division later regrouped in positions behind 27th Brigade , but was now reduced to less than half its original strength . Meanwhile , as the 20th Army veered to the west as part of the Chinese main effort against Seoul , the Chinese 118th Division continued its secondary advance down the Kapyong Valley , closely pursuing the retreating South Koreans . Racing down the northeast running valley , the 354th Regiment reached the Australian positions by about 22 : 00 . Intent on capturing the important crossroads of Route 17 south of Kapyong , and most likely unaware of the location of the Australian blocking position , the Chinese vanguard remained in the low ground , splitting as they approached a long , low north @-@ south running ridge that rose like an island in the mouth of the valley .
= = = Night battle , 23 / 24 April 1951 = = =
Having successfully prevented the US 1st Marine Division from reinforcing the Imjin River front , the Chinese 40th Army turned its attention towards the 27th Brigade on 23 April . The battle started during the night of 23 / 24 April , and continued until late the following day as an entire Chinese division — the 118th Division , totalling perhaps 10 @,@ 000 men under the command of Deng Yue — engaged the two forward battalions of 27th Brigade . The initial Chinese attack at Kapyong engaged 3 RAR on Hill 504 , while in the early part of the battle the Middlesex and New Zealand gunners were all but cut off . However , the resistance of the Australians ultimately allowed them to safely withdraw and the Middlesex then moved into a reserve position astride the western bank of the river in order to provide depth to the brigade defence . The two battalions of the Chinese 354th Regiment launched repeated attacks on the two forward Australian companies on the northwest spur of Hill 504 . Assault after assault of massed Chinese troops kept up the attack throughout the night , but the strong defence of the Australians on the brigade 's right flank held them back , before they turned their attention to the Canadians the following day .
Using the retreating South Korean troops to cover their movements , the Chinese had infiltrated the brigade position in the initial stages of the battle , penetrating between A and B Companies , 3 RAR astride the road , and largely surrounding the latter before moving into the rear positions . The Australians struggled to distinguish the Chinese from the South Koreans in the dark , although the Korean Service Corps porters attached to the battalion were able to provide valuable assistance to the defenders distinguishing the Chinese by the sounds of their voices . At 21 : 30 the Chinese launched their first attack on the forward platoon of American tanks , which had been posted on the road without infantry support . The initial moves were easily repelled , however a stronger attack an hour later forced the tanks to withdraw after two of the tank commanders were killed , including the platoon commander . The Chinese then proceeded to assault the Australians on two different axes : one against the two forward companies in front of Hill 504 , and the other through the valley astride the road around Battalion Headquarters . Finally , by 23 : 00 the New Zealand artillery had returned to the brigade , although they provided only limited support throughout the rest of the night .
Probes began on the A and B Company positions , and a number of assaults occurred during the night . Utilising indirect fires , the Chinese charged forward in waves , only to be beaten back by the Australians ' Bren light machine @-@ guns , Owen submachine @-@ guns , rifle fire and grenades , before again regrouping and attacking again . B Company — under the command of Captain Darcy Laughlin — supported by tanks , drove off each assault , inflicting heavy casualties while emerging almost unscathed . Laughlin 's command post was fired upon by a number of Chinese that had infiltrated the company position , but they were swiftly driven out . An outpost on the northern knoll reported Chinese massing on their flanks at 23 : 00 , and although heavy artillery was directed against the attackers , the section was forced to break contact and withdraw to the main defensive position . The main Chinese assault began at 00 : 50 , falling on 4 Platoon but was broken up after an hour of heavy fighting . A second assault was mounted on 6 Platoon at 03 : 30 , following a feint against 5 Platoon . With determination the Chinese swept forward , penetrating the Australian perimeter before being ejected by an equally determined counter @-@ attack by 6 Platoon with Sherman tanks in support . At 04 : 00 a small outpost to the rear of the company position was attacked by more than 50 Chinese . Held by just four men under the command of Lance Corporal Ray Parry , the Australians fought off four separate attacks , killing more the 25 and wounding many more over the space of twenty minutes . Parry was later awarded the Military Medal for his actions . A final assault on B Company was made just on dawn at 04 : 45 by about 70 Chinese , and was again repulsed .
Further up the ridge , A Company — under Major Ben O 'Dowd — faced a tougher task , and came under heavy attack . The first probes began at 21 : 30 , targeting 1 Platoon which was the lowest of the three platoons on the west flank . The initial moves were then followed up by major Chinese assaults from three sides over the next three hours . Despite suffering many casualties the Chinese continued their attack , closing in and attacking the Australians with hand grenades . The Australians also suffered numerous casualties , with more than half the platoon killed or wounded , including all three Bren gunners . Fighting back with small arms fire , they held against repeated assaults , which increased in frequency and strength as the Chinese assaulted over heaps of their own dead and wounded . By 01 : 00 O 'Dowd ordered the survivors of 1 Platoon to withdraw through Company Headquarters into a new position in between 2 and 3 Platoons . For his leadership Lieutenant Frederick Gardner was later Mentioned in Despatches . The Chinese attacks then continued against 3 Platoon , lasting until 04 : 30 , although they were not made with the same weight as the previous assaults .
By dawn it was clear that they had succeeded in penetrating the perimeter through a gap between the Australian platoons , and they began to engage them with machine @-@ guns from a defilade position covered from fire by a steep dip in the ridgeline , and concealed by thick scrub . In the growing light , 1 and 3 Platoon were soon pinned down and suffered a number of casualties as they attempted to gain better fire positions with which to engage their attackers . At 06 : 00 a fighting patrol was dispatched to make contact with Company Headquarters , and as the section passed over a false crest on their way down the spur line they encountered the Chinese positions by chance . Attacking immediately , six Chinese were killed for the loss of one Australian , and the threat to A Company was eliminated . O 'Dowd then launched a counter @-@ attack with 3 Platoon assaulting the Chinese occupying the original 1 Platoon position . By 07 : 00 they had regained the feature and the Chinese were forced to withdraw under heavy fire from the Australians on the high ground , who again exacted a heavy toll . The night 's fighting had cost A Company dearly however , and among the dead were the two New Zealand forward observers . In total they suffered more than 50 casualties — half their original strength . Meanwhile , on the right flank , D Company — under Captain Norm Gravener — held the summit of Hill 504 and was not heavily engaged during the night , while C Company — commanded by Captain Reg Saunders — was attacked only once .
Located 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) to the rear , Battalion Headquarters found itself heavily pressed however . Protected only by a section of Vickers medium machine @-@ guns , two 17 pounder anti @-@ tank guns , the Assault Pioneer Platoon and the Regimental Police under the Headquarters Company commander — Captain Jack Gerke — the fighting flared around 22 : 00 as the Chinese infiltrated the position among the retreating South Koreans . They bypassed the headquarters and the American tanks nearby , surrounding the defenders and establishing blocking positions on the road to the south . During the night the Chinese attempted to mount the tanks and destroy them with grenades and satchel charges , but were driven off by fire . Later , one of the tanks received a direct hit from a 3 @.@ 5 inch rocket , while the forward perimeter was struck heavily by attacking waves of Chinese , and was forced back with heavy casualties . Receiving fire from Chinese soldiers occupying several houses in the village of Chuktun @-@ ni , the Shermans engaged the road block and several houses , killing more than 40 Chinese in one house alone . However , at 04 : 00 a company from the Middlesex battalion had to be dispatched to help restore the situation .
At dawn the Chinese intensified their attack on the headquarters ' perimeter , killing and wounding the bulk of the Medium Machine Gun section and the Assault Pioneer Platoon and driving them off the high ground they had been occupying . By 05 : 00 the Chinese on the heights were able to fire directly into Battalion Headquarters below , and Ferguson made the decision to withdraw 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to a new position inside the Middlesex perimeter . Gerke ordered his men to withdraw gradually , moving one vehicle at a time back along the road , as those that remained provided covering fire . The withdrawal was successfully completed , and with Headquarters Company finally assembled inside the Middlesex perimeter , Gerke was then ordered to secure a key ford across the Kapyong River , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) east , as a possible withdrawal route for the battalion should it later have to retire from Hill 504 . However , during the withdrawal two Australians were left behind and were subsequently captured by the Chinese : Private Robert Parker , the battalion despatch rider , and Private Horace Madden , one of the signallers . For his conduct while in captivity Madden was posthumously awarded the George Cross , following his death from malnutrition and ill @-@ treatment . Ferguson 's caravan , a converted two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half tonne trunk , became bogged during the withdrawal and had to be destroyed . Meanwhile , the New Zealand gunline had also been probed during the early morning and was forced to redeploy at 03 : 00 , while the American mortar company had simply fled , abandoning most of their weapons and vehicles .
Communications between 3 RAR and Brigade Headquarters had failed early , while those with the forward companies were also poor . This was mostly due to the large number of South Koreans retreating through their position tearing out the line from the Command Post , as well the effect of heavy vehicle traffic and gunfire on the exposed line . Likewise , direct radio communication with the forward companies on the battalion command net with the new Type 31 VHF radios was obstructed by the rugged terrain due to the sitting of Battalion Headquarters in low ground relative to the forward companies and the requirement for line @-@ of @-@ sight . The forward companies were able to maintain communications with each other , but not with Battalion Headquarters , while the company level nets also functioned well . Ultimately contact was maintained between Ferguson and Burke through a radio set in the Middlesex Battalion Headquarters , while messages to the forward companies relied on line and a slow relay through C Company . These issues had only further complicated the conduct of the defence on the first night , with the co @-@ ordination of the forward battle falling to O 'Dowd . The next morning , O 'Dowd finally managed to get through on a radio phone to a general in the US 1st Marine Division . The officer was incredulous , thinking it was a Chinese agent speaking . He told O 'Dowd that the unit no longer existed and that it had been wiped out the night before . O 'Dowd replied " I 've got news for you . We 're still here and we 're staying here . "
The Chinese attacks had been launched quickly and aggressively , placing their light machine @-@ guns on the flank in support and attempting to close to attack the Australian perimeter with grenades . Contrary to some contemporary western accounts , the Chinese did not use human wave tactics , rather , using a tactic known as ' one @-@ point @-@ two sides ' , they used massed forces and infiltration to achieve local numerical superiority and to penetrate the gaps between the forward companies , before attempting to envelop the Australians while drawing their fire to the front , away from their threatened flanks . They would normally attempt to close with UN defensive positions using darkness or poor visibility to cover their movement and to counter American air superiority , before attacking using massed force , co @-@ ordinated with close fire support . However , although normally well @-@ planned and closely supported by machine @-@ gun , mortar and artillery fire , Chinese attacks in Korea were often inflexible in execution once launched . This was mostly due to the lack of radio communications below battalion @-@ level , with the Chinese instead relying on with whistle blasts , bugle calls and runners for command and control , and although their 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) and 81 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortars had provided particularly effective indirect fire support , these problems were again evident during the fighting at Kapyong . Later , it was estimated that more than 500 Chinese were killed by the Australians and the American tanks that supported them .
Meanwhile , on Hill 677 the Canadians had spent the night of 23 / 24 April in their pits listening to the sounds of the fighting on the Australian front . However , by early morning Chinese activity increased and with the situation deteriorating on the Patricia 's right flank , Stone withdrew B Company from their position forward of the feature 's summit in order strengthen this flank in the event the Australians were forced to withdraw . Under the command of Major Vince Lilley , the company subsequently moved to occupy positions east of Battalion Headquarters , on the high ground overlooking the valley road .
= = = Day battle , 24 April 1951 = = =
As daylight broke , the Chinese now found themselves highly exposed in the open ground in front of the Australians . A and B Company supported by artillery , mortars and tanks poured heavy fire onto the hapless Chinese , forcing them to withdraw leaving hundreds of casualties behind on the slopes . With the Australians remaining in possession of their original defensive locations the immediate situation had stabilised , although they were now effectively cut @-@ off 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) behind the front . Ammunition , food and medical supplies were now extremely low throughout the forward area , and with casualty evacuation increasingly difficult , the battalion was at risk of being overrun unless it could be concentrated , resupplied and supported . As such in order to avoid each company being isolated and overwhelmed in a series of Chinese attacks , at 07 : 15 B Company was ordered to leave its position and join the other companies on the high ground to form a defendable battalion position . The Australians subsequently withdrew as instructed , taking several dozen Chinese prisoners with them that had been captured earlier by a standing patrol . The New Zealand gunners covered their movement across the open valley , laying a smoke screen to conceal the withdrawal , while the American tanks also provided support . As they moved across the valley the Australians exchanged a number of shots with a small groups of Chinese who were still hiding in dead ground and in the riverbed , as well as numerous dead from the fighting the previous night . 173 Chinese dead were counted on the B Company perimeter by the Australians before they departed .
With B Company successfully occupying its new positions , Ferguson moved forward to the hillside below his forward companies aboard a Sherman tank . Just after 09 : 00 , a group of Chinese launched an attack at the top of the spur held by C Company . The attack was repulsed , and no further assaults were made against C Company during the day , although they endured sniper fire and mortar bombardment for several hours . Realising the importance of B Company 's previous position to a planned counter @-@ offensive , two hours after their withdrawal , Ferguson order Laughlin to re @-@ occupy the position which they had just vacated . 27th Brigade would now be reinforced by American troops and their move forward would be facilitated if the Chinese were cleared from the small hill that commanded the road through the valley . Likewise , the defence of this position the previous evening had prevented a Chinese assault on the western flank of Hill 504 . As such at 09 : 30 the order to withdraw was rescinded and B Company were tasked to re @-@ occupy the position . In preparation for the company assault on the summit , Laughlin tasked 5 Platoon to assault a small knoll halfway between C Company and the old B Company position . A frontal assault was launched at 10 : 30 , with two sections attacking and one in fire support . Strongly held by a Chinese platoon well dug @-@ in in bunkers , the defenders allowed the Australians to approach to within 15 metres ( 16 yd ) before opening fire with machine @-@ guns , rifles and grenades . 5 Platoon suffered seven casualties , including the platoon commander , and they were forced to withdraw under the cover of machine @-@ gun and mortar fire .
4 Platoon — under Lieutenant Leonard Montgomerie — took over the attack , while a number of American tanks moved in to provide further support . Conducting a right flanking attack , the Australians suffered a number of casualties as they moved across the open ground . Advancing to within 30 metres ( 33 yd ) of the forward trenches , the Chinese fire increased . Montgomerie launched a desperate bayonet charge , while a section under Corporal Donald Davie broke in on the right . Amid fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting the Australians cleared the Chinese from the trenches , losing three men . Davie 's section was then heavily engaged by machine @-@ guns from the rear trenches , and he moved quickly to assault these with his remaining men . Montgomerie reorganised the platoon , and they fought from trench to trench using bayonets and grenades . The Australians then began taking fire from another knoll to their front and leaving his rear sections to clear the first position , Montgomerie led Davie 's section onto the second knoll . Against such aggression the Chinese were unable to hold , and although the majority bravely fought to the death , others fled across the open ground . By 12 : 30 the knoll had been captured by the Australians , with 57 Chinese dead counted on the first position and another 24 on the second . A large Chinese force was now detected occupying the old B Company position and the Australians were effectively halted halfway to their objective . Before Laughlin could prepare his next move he was ordered to withdraw by Ferguson , and the attempt to dislodge the Chinese was subsequently abandoned . During the fighting the tanks had provided invaluable support , moving ammunition forward to B Company , and helping to evacuate the wounded . The entire operation had cost the Australians three killed and nine wounded . For his actions Montgomerie was awarded the Military Cross , while Davie received the Military Medal .
Meanwhile , the Chinese shifted their attention to D Company , launching a series of relentless assaults against the summit . D Company 's position was vital to the defence of Hill 504 , commanding the high ground and protecting the Australian 's right flank . Commencing at 07 : 00 the Chinese assaulted the forward platoon — 12 Platoon — launching attacks at thirty @-@ minute intervals until 10 : 30 . Using mortars to cover their movement they attacked on a narrow front up the steep slope using grenades , however the Australians beat the Chinese back , killing more than 30 for the loss of seven wounded during six attacks . The New Zealand artillery again played a key role in defeating the Chinese attempts , bring down accurate fire within 50 metres ( 55 yd ) of the Australian positions . However , throughout the fighting the supply of ammunition for the guns had caused severe problems , as the Chinese offensive had depleted the stock of 25 pounder rounds available forward of the airhead in Seoul . Despite improvements , problems with the logistic system remained and each round had to be used effectively in response to the directions of the artillery Forward Observers which controlled their fire . Although badly wounded Corporal William Rowlinson was later awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his leadership , while Private Ronald Smith was awarded the Military Medal . Lance Corporal Henry Richey was posthumously Mentioned in Despatches after being fatally wounded attempting to evacuate the last of the Australian casualties .
Despite their previous failures , the Chinese launched another series of attacks from 11 : 30 and these attacks continued for the next two hours , again targeting 12 Platoon under the command of Lieutenant John Ward . Failing to break through again , the Chinese suffered heavy casualties before the assault ended . From 13 : 30 there was another lull in the fighting for an hour and a half , although D Company continued to endure Chinese mortar , machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Believing that the battle may continue into the night , Gravener made the decision to pull 12 Platoon back in order to adopt a tighter company perimeter , lest his forward platoon be overrun and destroyed . The movement was completed without incident , and shortly after the newly vacated position was assaulted by a large Chinese force which had failed to detect the withdrawal . The Chinese moved quickly as they attempted to establish their position on the northern end of the ridge , only to be heavily engaged by Australian machine @-@ gun and rifle fire , and artillery .
On the Canadian front , B Company , 2 PPCLI completed its redeployment by 11 : 00 hours . The battalion now occupied a northward facing arc curving from the summit of Hill 677 in the west to the high ground closest to the river . D Company held the summit on the battalion 's left , C Company the central forward slope , while A and B Company held the right flank . The high grass and severe terrain of Hill 677 limited the ability of each company to provide mutual support however , while at the same time it afforded any attacking force limited avenues of approach , and even less cover or concealment for an assault . 24 April passed with little activity , with the Chinese continuing to focus on the Australians across the river . Meanwhile , the Canadians continued to strengthen their defences as reports of growing Chinese concentrations came in from the forward companies . Each company was allocated a section of Vickers medium machine @-@ guns , as well as three 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) mortars . Defensive fire tasks were registered , while additional ammunition was pushed out to the forward companies in the afternoon .
= = = 3 RAR withdraws , evening 24 April 1951 = = =
Although originally intending on holding until the Australians could be relieved by the US 5th Cavalry Regiment , Burke had decided during the morning to withdraw 3 RAR , and this had prompted the cancellation of B Company 's assault . With the Australians facing encirclement , and mindful of the fate that had befallen the Glosters , Burke had ordered a fighting withdrawal back to the Middlesex area to new defensive positions in rear of the brigade . Indeed , despite holding Chinese at bay throughout the morning and afternoon , the increasing difficulty of resupply and casualty evacuation made it clear that the Australians would be unable to hold Hill 504 for another night in its exposed and isolated positions . Planning for the withdrawal had begun as the Chinese renewed their assault on D Company around 11 : 30 , while Ferguson and O 'Dowd discussed the withdrawal by radio at 12 : 30 . With the Chinese dominating the road south Ferguson ordered his companies to withdraw along a ridge running 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south @-@ west from Hill 504 , just east of the Kapyong River . The Middlesex position lay a further 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) south @-@ west of the foot of the ridge and could be reached by the ford secured earlier by Gerke , which would act as the battalion check point for the withdrawal . O 'Dowd , as the senior company commander , was subsequently appointed to plan and command the withdrawal . Ferguson saw his role as ensuring that O 'Dowd received the support he needed to achieve a clean break , and had as such decided not to move forward to lead the withdrawal himself .
Command of A Company was temporarily handed over to the second @-@ in @-@ command , Captain Bob Murdoch . Present at Pakchon in November 1950 , O 'Dowd understood first @-@ hand the dangers of withdrawing while in contact . The challenge was to protect the forward platoons as they withdrew from being followed up by the Chinese occupying the old B Company positions and from D Company 's position after they broke contact . The Australians would also have to clear the withdrawal route of any blocking forces , while at the same time the evacuation of a large number of wounded and Chinese prisoners would hamper their movement . As such the timing of the withdrawal would be critical to its success . Consequently , the lead company would not move until mid @-@ afternoon so that the rearguard would be able to use the protection of darkness to break contact , while at the same time offering good observation and fields of fire during the daylight to support the initial moves . Orders were delivered at 14 : 30 . B Company would lead the withdrawal down the ridge line , carrying any wounded that still required evacuation , as well as clearing the route and securing the ford near the Middlesex position . C Company would wait for the artillery to neutralise the Chinese on the old B Company position , before moving to establish a blocking position behind D Company . A Company would then withdraw to a blocking position behind C Company , in order to allow Gravener and Saunders to establish a clean break . Finally , D Company would withdraw through both C and A Company and set up a blocking position to delay any follow up and allow those companies to withdraw .
After 15 : 00 an airstrike was called in to dislodge the surviving Chinese in front of D Company . However , the attack by two US Marine Corps F4U Corsairs was mistakenly directed at the Australians themselves after their positions were wrongly marked by the spotter plane . Two men were killed and several badly burnt by napalm before the attack was broken off after the company second @-@ in @-@ command — Captain Michael Ryan — ran out under Chinese fire waving a marker panel . The company medical orderly — Private Ronald Dunque — was subsequently awarded the Military Medal for his efforts assisting the wounded despite his own injuries . The Chinese quickly attempted to exploit the chaos , moving against D Company 's long exposed eastern flank . 11 Platoon on the main ridge forward of the summit was subjected to a frontal assault ; however , unaffected by the napalm they broke up the Chinese attack and inflicted heavy casualties on them . Regardless , further Chinese attempts to infiltrate the Australian positions continued into the afternoon .
The withdrawal was scheduled to begin shortly following the misdirected airstrike , and was to be preceded by an artillery bombardment with high explosive and smoke at 16 : 00 . The American tanks were subsequently moved forward to provide cover , and when the New Zealand artillery failed to fire at the appointed hour , they provided the direct fire support . Still in contact , the Australians began to pull back , fighting a number of well @-@ disciplined , rearguard actions as the companies leapfrogged each other . Meanwhile , the New Zealand artillery kept the Chinese at bay , after it finally commenced firing . B Company had taken 39 Chinese prisoners during the earlier fighting , and unable to leave these behind they were used to carry many of the Australian wounded , and much of their equipment as well . O 'Dowd 's fear that the Chinese might have blocked the withdrawal route were not realised , and B Company moved back along the ridge and down to the ford without incident , reaching the Middlesex area after dark . C Company was the next to withdraw , departing at 16 : 30 , just after suffering another casualty from sniper fire . Saunders led his company up the spur and then south down the main ridge without incident , followed by A Company during the next hour with the Chinese in close pursuit .
Murdoch had been concerned lest he and his men should be engaged when they reached the Kapyong River in an exhausted condition and with little ammunition . Luck was with the Australians , and due to difficulties of communication and navigation along the ridge line in the dark , elements of A Company had become separated and the last two platoons descended to the river too early to strike the ford . However , reaching a deserted part of the bank they realised their mistake and immediately turned west again , following the river @-@ bank to the ford . The Chinese did not follow this sudden final turn and plunged on into the river , giving A Company an unexpected opportunity to break free . The Chinese were subsequently detected by the Canadians on Hill 677 and were fired on , although fortunately for them the Canadian fire did not hit the Australians . This possibility had been foreseen earlier ; however , problems with the radio relay between the Canadians and Australians meant that there had been no guarantee that the withdrawing force would not be mistaken for Chinese as they crossed the river .
Only D Company — which had been holding the summit and had withdrawn last — was heavily engaged and was unable to move at the scheduled time . The Chinese launched a determined assault , preceding it with heavy machine @-@ gun and mortar fire , before attempting to overrun the forward pits . Once again the Australians repelled the Chinese assault and Gravener decided to begin to thin out his position before the situation deteriorated further . With one platoon covering their movement , D Company subsequently withdrew , closely pursued by the Chinese . During the rapid withdrawal after the final Chinese attack , Private Keith Gwyther was accidentally left behind after being knocked unconscious and buried in a forward pit by a mortar round . He regained consciousness some hours later and was subsequently captured by the Chinese who had by then occupied Hill 504 and were digging @-@ in . Finally , the Australians succeeded in achieving a clean break after dark , and D Company was able to safely withdraw . By 23 : 30 the battalion was clear , completing its withdrawal in good order and intact , and suffering only minimal casualties . Regardless , the previous 24 hours of fighting had been costly for the Australians , resulting in 32 killed , 59 wounded and three captured ; the bulk of them in A Company and Battalion Headquarters . Yet their stout defence had halted the assault on the brigade 's right flank , and had inflicted far heavier casualties on the Chinese before being withdrawn . Significantly for the Australians 25 April was Anzac Day ; however , following their successful withdrawal the Chinese turned their attention to the Canadians on the left flank .
= = = Defence of Hill 677 , 24 – 25 April 1951 = = =
Despite the withdrawal from Hill 504 that evening , 27th Brigade had been reinforced on the afternoon of 24 April by the arrival of the 5th US Cavalry Regiment . The Americans had been dispatched earlier in the day to ensure that Kapyong remained in UN hands , and one of the battalions was subsequently deployed to the southwest of the D Company , 2 PPCLI on the summit of Hill 677 in order to cover the left flank . A second American battalion occupied a position across the river , southeast of the Middlesex . Likewise , despite heavy casualties in one of the Australian companies and battalion headquarters 3 RAR had emerged from the intense battle largely intact and had successfully withdrawn in an orderly fashion . Meanwhile , one of the replacement British battalions , the 1st Battalion , King 's Own Scottish Borderers , had also arrived during the 24th and it took up positions with the Australians around Brigade Headquarters . With six UN battalions now holding the valley the Chinese faced a difficult task continuing the advance .
Having dislodged the defenders from Hill 504 , the 354th Regiment of the Chinese 118th Division would attempt to capture the dominating heights of Hill 677 held by the Canadians . Although unaware of the arrival of American reinforcements , the Chinese had detected the redeployment of B Company , 2 PPCLI however , and at 22 : 00 that evening they commenced an assault on the Canadian right flank . Although the initial moves were easily beaten back by automatic fire and mortars , a second Chinese assault an hour later succeeded in overrunning the right forward platoon . The Canadians successfully withdrew in small groups back to the company main defensive position , where they eventually halted the Chinese advance . During the fighting the Canadians ' 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) mortars had proven vital , their stability allowing for rapid fire out to 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) and an ability to accurately hit narrow ridgelines at maximum range . The next morning 51 Chinese dead were counted around the B Company perimeter . Shortly following the second assault on B Company was repelled , another large Chinese assault force was detected fording the river in the bright moonlight . Laying down heavy and accurate artillery fire , the New Zealand gunners forced the Chinese to withdraw , killing more than 70 .
Meanwhile , a large Chinese force of perhaps company strength was detected in the re @-@ entrant south of B Company , moving toward Battalion Headquarters , and Lilley warned Stone of the impending assault . Six M3 Half @-@ tracks from Mortar Platoon had been positioned there before the battle , each armed with a .50 calibre and a .30 calibre machine @-@ gun . Stone held fire until the Chinese broke through the tree @-@ line just 180 metres ( 200 yd ) from their front . Opening fire with machine @-@ guns and mortar fire at their minimum engagement distance , the Chinese suffered severe casualties and the assault was easily beaten off . The Chinese had telegraphed their intentions prior to the assault by using tracer fire for direction , and had used bugles to co @-@ ordinate troops in their forming up positions . Such inflexibility had allowed the Canadians to co @-@ ordinate indirect fires and took heavy toll on the attackers in the forming up positions .
The Chinese had been unable to successfully pin @-@ point the Canadian defensive positions , having failed to carry out a thorough reconnaissance prior to the attack . The severe terrain had also prevented the assaulting troops from adopting a low profile during their final assault , however in the darkness the Canadian rifle fire was ineffective , forcing them to resort to using grenades and rocket launchers . The Chinese mortars and artillery was particularly ineffective however , and very few rounds fell on the Canadian positions during the evening . Indeed , in their haste to follow up the collapse of the South Korean 6th Division , the Chinese 118th Division had left the bulk of its artillery and supplies well north of scene of the fighting . Meanwhile , what mortar ammunition they did have had been largely used up on the Australians during the previous evening . In contrast , the New Zealand gunners provided effective fire support and had been able to break up a number of Chinese assaults before they had even reached the Patricias . The Chinese now turned their attention to D Company holding the summit of Hill 677 , on the battalion 's left flank .
At 01 : 10 a large Chinese force was detected forming up on a spur to the west towards Hill 865 and they were engaged by Bren light machines guns and defensive fires . Assaulting 10 Platoon under the cover of machine @-@ gun and mortar fire , the Chinese were soon effectively engaged by Vickers machine @-@ guns from 12 Platoon firing in mutual support . Switching their axis of assault to 12 Platoon , the Chinese succeeded in overrunning one of the Canadian sections and a medium machine @-@ gun , killing two of its crew who had remained at their post firing until the last moment . The Canadians fought back , engaging the Chinese as they attempted to turn the Vickers on them , rendering it inoperable before calling in pre @-@ arranged defensive fires on to the newly lost position . With the supporting artillery firing at the ' very slow ' rate to conserve ammunition , the weight of the Chinese assaults soon prompted the Canadians to request it be increased to the ' slow ' rate of two rounds per gun per minute , so that 24 rounds fell every 30 seconds within a target area of 180 metres ( 200 yd ) .
With the Chinese infiltrating the Canadian perimeter through the gaps between platoons , D Company was close to being surrounded . The company commander — Captain J.G.W. Mills — was subsequently forced to call down artillery fire onto his own position on several occasions during the early morning of 25 April to avoid being overrun . The tactic succeeded and the exposed Chinese were soon swept off the position , while the dug @-@ in Canadians escaped unharmed . The Chinese persisted however , launching a number of smaller attacks during the rest of the night , but these were again repulsed by artillery and small arms fire . By dawn the attacks on the Canadian positions had abated , and with D Company remaining in control of the summit they were able to recover the previously abandoned machine @-@ gun at first light . Meanwhile , on the right flank B Company was also able to re @-@ occupy the platoon position it had been forced to relinquish earlier the previous evening . The Chinese had suffered heavily during the night , with perhaps as many as 300 killed by the Patricias .
= = = Fighting concludes , 25 April 1951 = = =
Although the Chinese had continued to mount small attacks , UN forces were now in control of the battle . Regardless , the Chinese had succeeded in establishing blocking positions on the roads south of the Canadians , temporarily cutting them off from resupply . Anticipating that the battle would continue into the evening , Stone requested that food , ammunition and water be airdropped directly onto Hill 677 and by 10 : 30 the required supplies — including 81 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortar ammunition — were dropped by four American C @-@ 119 Flying Boxcars flying from an airbase in Japan . Anticipating a renewed Chinese effort , the Canadians continued to improve their defensive position . Meanwhile , the Middlesex sent out patrols during the morning in order to clear the Chinese that had infiltrated behind Hill 677 during the evening , and although the Chinese blocking positions were relatively weak it was not until 14 : 00 that patrols from B Company , 2 PPCLI reported the road clear . Stone subsequently requested that further supplies and reinforcements be sent forward by vehicle as rapidly as feasible .
The remainder of the day was relatively quiet for the Canadians , although they were subjected to periodic harassing fire from the Chinese . D Company received heavy machine @-@ gun fire from Hill 865 to the west , in particular . Regardless , the Chinese made no further attempt to attack , and confined themselves to limited patrolling activities across the front . Later the Patricias , with American tanks in support , cleared the remaining Chinese from the northern slopes of Hill 677 , while several concentrations of Chinese were again broken up by heavy artillery fire and airstrikes . The American battalion on the south @-@ west flank of the Canadians was subsequently relieved by the Middlesex , following which the 5th US Cavalry Regiment launched an assault to recover Hill 504 . The Chinese resisted until 16 : 00 , before the 118th Division suddenly withdrew . American patrols north of the feature met no resistance , while the Americans were also able to patrol east along Route 17 to Chunchon without contact . By last light the situation had stabilised on the Kapyong Valley front . Having left their supplies of food and ammunition far behind during the advance two days earlier , the Chinese had been forced to withdraw back up the Kapyong Valley in the late afternoon of 25 April in order to regroup and replenish following the heavy casualties incurred during the fighting .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
With vastly superior numbers the Chinese had attacked on a broad front , and had initially overrun a number of the forward UN positions . Regardless , the 27th Brigade had ultimately prevailed despite being outnumbered by a factor of five to one . Indeed , despite their numerical advantage the Chinese had been badly outgunned and they could not overcome the well @-@ trained and well @-@ armed Australians and Canadians . The battlefield was littered with the corpses of Chinese soldiers , a testament to the discipline and firepower of the defenders . And yet , despite their ultimate defeat the battle once again demonstrated that the Chinese were tough and skillful soldiers capable of inflicting heavy casualties on the Australians and forcing their eventual withdrawal , albeit both intact and orderly . As a result of the fighting Australian losses were 32 killed , 59 wounded and three captured , while Canadian casualties included 10 killed and 23 wounded . American casualties included three men killed , 12 wounded and two tanks destroyed , all from A Company , 72nd Heavy Tank Battalion . The New Zealanders lost two killed and five wounded . In contrast , Chinese losses were far heavier , and may have included 1 @,@ 000 killed and many more wounded . The Canadians were finally relieved on Hill 677 by a battalion of the 5th US Cavalry Regiment on the evening 26 April .
2 PPCLI , 3 RAR and A Company , 72nd Heavy Tank Battalion were all subsequently awarded the US Presidential Unit Citation for their actions during the Battle of Kapyong . The New Zealand gunners — without whom the Australians and Canadians may have suffered a similar fate to that of Glosters at the Imjin — were awarded the South Korean Presidential Unit Citation . Although the Canadians and Australians had borne the brunt of the fighting , the Middlesex — despite the imminence of their replacement — had shown no evidence of hesitancy or lack of aggression when recalled into the fighting early in the battle . For their leadership , Ferguson and Stone were both awarded the Distinguished Service Order , while Koch was awarded both the American Distinguished Service Cross and the British Military Cross for the vital part his tanks had played in the fighting . The Royal Australian Regiment , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry and the Middlesex Regiment were subsequently granted the battle honour " Kapyong " . Today , the battle is regarded one as the most famous actions fought by the Australian and Canadian armies in Korea .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
By 29 April , the First Chinese Spring Offensive was halted by UN forces at a defensive line north of Seoul , known as the " No @-@ Name Line " ; in total a withdrawal of 56 kilometres ( 35 mi ) in the US I and IX Corps sectors , and 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) in the US X Corps and South Korean III Corps sectors . Although the main Chinese blow had fallen on US I Corps , the resistance by British Commonwealth forces in the battles at the Imjin River and at Kapyong had helped to blunt its impetus , with the defence mounted by the 27th Brigade stopping the Chinese from isolating the US I Corps from the US IX Corps , thereby helping to halt the Chinese advance on Seoul and preventing its capture . The Chinese had now nearly exhausted their resources of men and material , and were approaching the limit of their supply lines . Many Chinese soldiers were now tired , hungry and short of equipment and during the fighting at Kapyong they had demonstrated a greater willingness to surrender than in previous encounters , with 3 RAR alone taking 39 prisoners , only eight of them wounded . Contingent on the rapid attainment of its objectives , the attempted Chinese coup de main ultimately failed amid heavy casualties and they had little recourse but to abandon their attacks against the US I and IX Corps . The Chinese had suffered at least 30 @,@ 000 casualties during the period 22 – 29 April . In contrast , US casualties during the same period numbered just 314 killed and 1 @,@ 600 wounded , while Commonwealth , South Korean and other UN contingents brought the total to 547 killed , 2 @,@ 024 wounded and 2 @,@ 170 captured ; the disparity highlighting the devastating effect of enormous UN firepower against massed infantry . Undeterred by these setbacks , the Second Chinese Spring Offensive began on 16 May to the east of Kapyong , only to suffer their worst defeat at the Battle of the Soyang River .
27th Brigade was replaced by the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade and Brigadier George Taylor took over command of the new formation on 26 April . With the Chinese offensive losing momentum , the new Commonwealth formation was subsequently pulled back into IX Corps reserve to the southwest of Kapyong , near the junction of the Pukhan and Chojon rivers . 3 RAR was transferred to 28th Brigade , while the 1st Battalion , The King 's Own Scottish Borderers and the 1st Battalion , The King 's Shropshire Light Infantry replaced the Argylls and Middlesex regiments . Later , the Patricias were transferred to the newly arrived 25th Canadian Brigade on 27 May . After protracted negotiations between the governments of Australia , Britain , Canada , India , New Zealand and South Africa , agreement had been reached to establish an integrated formation with the aim of increasing the political significance of their contribution , as well as facilitating the solution of the logistic and operational problems faced by the various Commonwealth contingents . The 1st Commonwealth Division was formed on 28 July 1951 , with the division including the 25th Canadian , 28th British Commonwealth and 29th British Infantry Brigades under the command of Major General James Cassels , and was part of US I Corps . For many of the Australians Kapyong was to be their last major battle before completing their period of duty and being replaced , having endured much hard fighting , appalling weather and the chaos and confusion of a campaign that had ranged up and down the length of the Korean Peninsula . Most had served in the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) during the Second World War and this combat experience had proven vital . Regardless , casualties had been heavy , and since the battalion 's arrival from Japan in September 1950 the Australians had lost 87 killed , 291 wounded and five captured .
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= Final Fantasy VIII =
Final Fantasy VIII ( ファイナルファンタジーVIII , Fainaru Fantajī Eito ) is a 1999 role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) . It is the eighth major installment in the Final Fantasy series . The game was the series ' second 3D installment and the first to consistently use realistically proportioned characters , and introduced a new magic system to the Final Fantasy franchise which removed magic point @-@ based spell @-@ casting . Set on an unnamed fantasy world with science fiction elements , the game follows the story of a group of young mercenaries , led by Squall Leonhart , who are part of an organization named SeeD . Initially traveling to different countries to stop the sorceress Edea , their goal changes to stop a sorceress from the future named Ultimecia from compressing time .
The development of Final Fantasy VIII began in 1997 , during the English localization process of Final Fantasy VII . It was produced by Shinji Hashimoto , and directed by Yoshinori Kitase . The music was scored by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu , and in a series first a vocal piece was written as the game 's theme , " Eyes on Me " , performed by Faye Wong . The game was positively received by critics , who praised the originality and scope of the game . It was voted the 22nd @-@ best game of all time in 2006 by readers of the Japanese magazine Famitsu . The game was a commercial success ; 13 weeks after its release , Final Fantasy VIII had earned more than US $ 50 million in sales , making it the fastest @-@ selling Final Fantasy title of all time until Final Fantasy XIII , a multi @-@ platform release . The game shipped 8 @.@ 15 million copies worldwide by March 31 , 2003 . Originally for the PlayStation , it was later ported to Windows @-@ based personal computers and became available on PlayStation Network as a PSone Classics title in 2009 . As of December 2013 , it has sold over 8 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous games in the Final Fantasy series , Final Fantasy VIII consists of three main modes of play : the world map , field map , and battle screen . Like previous titles , players navigate a single character across a small scale rendering of the game world between various towns and dungeons , which is rendered in 3D like Final Fantasy VII . Along with getting around traditionally by foot , by Chocobo , and by airship , Final Fantasy VIII also allows players to travel by car , by train , and via a Mobile Garden . Players must make progress in the game 's story to obtain the airship and Mobile Garden , while chocobos can be acquired from special forests on the world map . Cars , which are similar to chocobos in that they can avoid fights , must be rented from cities that offer them and characters must carry reserve fuel with them to prevent them running out , while trains can be only be used by boarding at stations in settlements or on the world map , and paying a fee for the ride . On the field map , players navigate controllable 3D characters around one or more 2D pre @-@ rendered backgrounds , which represent environmental locations such as towns or forests . The battle screen is a 3D model of a location such as a street or room , where turn @-@ based fights between playable characters and CPU @-@ controlled enemies take place when triggered on either the world map or field map .
While common features from previous titles remain , such as the menu @-@ driven interfaces , other elements received extensive changes or were removed , with Final Fantasy VIII including brand new features that are exclusive to it . One such new feature is the Junction system , which relinquishes the need for the typical weapon and armor systems used in previous titles in place of a system that allows for extensive optimization of a character 's stats and abilities . Another new feature is the inclusion of a collectible card @-@ based minigame called " Triple Triad " .
= = = Junction System & Magic = = =
Final Fantasy VIII uses a unique battle system known as the " Junction System " , which acts as a substitute for armour and accessories used in previous titles , allowing a player to enhance the characters ' statistics and determine what Commands a character will use in battles . The system is based upon the game 's version of the classic summon @-@ able monsters of the Final Fantasy series , referred to in @-@ game as " Guardian Forces " ( or " GFs " ) , wherein assigning at least one GF onto a character via " junctioning " allows for enhancements of stats through magic spells , the allocation of different Character / Party abilities , and the ability to use Battle Commands beyond the default of " Attack " ; all GFs can allow a character to use various different Commands , with the most common being " Magic " , " GF " ( to summon the junctioned GF in battle ) , " Item " and " Draw " ( to draw magic spells from a draw point or an enemy ) . While whatever GF ( s ) are junctioned to a character , determines what stats can be enhanced and what commands and abilities can be set , what kind of enhancement is made to each stat available depends on what magic spells are junctioned to it , that the character has acquired . Whereas in previous titles , characters bought or acquired spells on their journeys and used magic points to cast them , characters in Final Fantasy VIII acquire spells by drawing and stocking them from either Draw Points in the game 's environments or from enemies , or refining them from items ; spells drawn from enemies can be cast , rather than stocked . Each character can stock magic into a quantified inventory , but are limited to carrying around 32 distinct spells , and 100 of each spell .
Junctioning magic to a stat to enhance it , improves a character and makes them more effective in battles ; improving Strength , for example , increases the amount of damage done to an enemy , while improving speed , charges a character 's ATB gauge more quickly . How much of an enhancement is made depends on the spell junctioned to a stat , for example , junctioning Fire to Strength garners a better improvement than Cure . Players can also perform Elemental Junctions , which can enhance a character 's physical attack with an element type while improving their defences to element types , even nullifying or absorbing elemental damage , as well as performing Status Junctions , which can allow a character to inflict a status ailment on enemies or defend against such ailments being inflicted on them . Such junctions rely on a % value , to determine how effective it is ; players can only junction one elemental and status ailment spell to attack , but up to four for defence . Players can either manually assign spells , or have them automatically assigned depending on the type of allocation - Attack will ensure a character makes strong physical attacks , Magic will ensure they inflict stronger magical damage , and Defence ensures they boost the Hit Points more .
= = = Guardian Forces = = =
The most common use of summoned creatures was always to summon one to perform a single devastating attack during battle and / or action , so expanding their use by providing them additional roles in Final Fantasy VIII was a significant departure for the Final Fantasy series . In the game , a GF serves as not only a powerful ally for the character / party in battles , but also as a potent support asset in and out of battles ; in addition to their role in the Junction System , GFs can also earn EXP to increase their levels to improve them when summoned in battles , and can acquire AP to help them learn additional abilities to those they know ; by default , a GF acquired either from the field or drawn from certain fights , will usually already have a number of abilities learned and be set at a level close to the active party 's average level . Abilities that a GF can use to further assist the player during the game , are divided into five categories - Junction Abilities , Commands Abilities , Character / Party Abilities , GF Abilities & Menu Abilities . Learning new Junctions provides more stats that can be enhanced by magic spells , learning new Commands provide additional battle commands for a character to use , while learning Character / Party abilities provide additional abilities for use during battles and the game 's environments . Learning GF abilities provide enhancements to their HP and to their attack power if they do damaging attacks . Learning Menu abilities provides the means for players to refine items and card into new items or magic spells , along with other useful benefits . A GF can learn a new ability by acquiring AP from battles , though the amount needed varies depending on the ability itself , or can be taught one through an item acquired by players during the game , even if they cannot learn it themselves with AP . All GFs have a limit on the amount of abilities they can learn - upon reaching this limit , they cannot learn a new one without forgetting one they currently know .
GFs work differently to summon @-@ able monsters when used in battles ; not only must a character have a GF junctioned to them to use it , but they must also have the " GF " command assigned as well in order to summon them . In battle , when a GF is summoned by a character , the character 's name , HP , and ATB gauge is replaced by the GF 's name , HP and Summon Gauge , until it is summoned and performs its attack / action . Until the Summon Gauge is emptied completely , the GF takes the place of the character and receives any damage directed to them ; if the GF loses all their HP before the gauge is empty , it is KO 'ed and cannot be summoned until revived .
= = = Weapons & Limit breaks = = =
Whereas players had to often buy new weapons to replace existing ones for better damage and other improvements in previous titles , each major character in Final Fantasy VIII carries a unique weapon which cannot be replaced , but can be upgraded to a stronger version , affecting its appearance , power , and the % value of landing a hit . In order to upgrade a weapon , players must visit a " Junk Shop " ( the game 's equivalent of the traditional weapon shop ) in any of the world 's towns and cities , and not only pay a small fee , but also provide the necessary materials for it which are detailed within a series of in @-@ game weapon magazines . These materials are acquired from either enemies in battle or refining items .
In addition to a unique weapon , each character also has a unique special attack , or " Limit Break " , which operate in a similar manner to the Desperation Attacks of Final Fantasy VI . Unlike in Final Fantasy VII , where a character had to receive sufficient damage to trigger a limit , Limit Breaks are triggered when a character 's health is low or the character is under the influence of the spell Aura , can be prevented from triggering if the player is under certain status afflictions , and is merely an option besides attack when available . For one character , Rinoa , most of her Limit Breaks activate randomly under certain conditions and are not triggered by low health or Aura .
Final Fantasy VIII is the first game in the series to introduce interactive elements to complement some characters Limit Break animations . These interactive elements range from selecting a target and making simple button presses , to well @-@ timed button inputs or performing button combos , with successful application resulting in more damage being done . For other characters , even temporary additions , their Limit Breaks either require simple activation or making choice of what to use . For the main characters , their Limit Breaks are influenced or improved in certain ways - Squall learns a new finishing move by upgrading his weapon ; Quistis learns new abilities by using certain items acquired ; Irvine needs ammo to use his , but can use different types ; Zell and Rinoa learn new moves from certain in @-@ game magazines , though the latter must have her dog learn it while being part of the active party .
= = = Experience Points System & Level @-@ Scaling = = =
Final Fantasy VIII uses a levelling @-@ up system quite that is quite different from the traditional one used in previous games in the series . While the system has similarities to those in previous games , in which characters are awarded EXP after battling and defeating enemies , who are predominantly encountered randomly , and which contribute to the continued strengthening and level @-@ gaining of the characters , the system used in the games has major differences . Whereas gaining new levels required ever @-@ increasing amounts of EXP to achieve ( e.g. , getting to level 2 might require 200 experience points , level 3 might require 400 , etc . ) , in Final Fantasy VIII a level is earned after accumulating 1000 EXP , while improvements to stats through level @-@ gain is minimal at best , emphasizing the need to rely on the game 's Junction System instead for better stats . The amount of EXP earned in a battle is the same for each character , except the one who inflicts the final blow that wins it ; that character receives a small bonus to the EXP that they earned . Furthermore , Bosses do not give any EXP , but do give significant amounts of AP .
Just as the characters level up and become stronger , so too do the enemies around the game world . Most enemies are scaled up in level to the average level of the active party , making them tougher in battles , which is in direct contrast to previous titles in the Final Fantasy series , in fact most RPGs , where enemies from previously visited locations in the game are often weak and easily defeated . However , some enemies do not receive level @-@ scaling , and as such remain at static levels ; some can be at weaker levels , others at higher , stronger levels . Enemies at higher levels become capable of inflicting and withstanding significantly more damage , may have additional special attacks , and will often carry either additional or new levels of magic spells on them .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Most of Final Fantasy VIII is set on an unnamed fantasy world with one moon . The game primarily consists of modern elements , but does contain some futuristic elements . The planet contains five major landmasses , with Esthar , the largest , covering most of the eastern portion of the map . Galbadia , the second @-@ largest continent , lies to the west , and contains many of the game 's locations . The northernmost landmass is Trabia , an Arctic region . Positioned roughly in the middle of the world map lies Balamb , the smallest continent , the island on which the game begins . The remaining landmass is small and mostly desolate , riddled with rough , rocky terrain caused by the impact of a " Lunar Cry " , an event where monsters from the moon fall to the planet . The southernmost landmass includes an archipelago of broken sections of land that have drifted apart . Islands and marine structures flesh out the rest of the game world , and a handful of off @-@ world locations round out the game 's playable areas .
The six primary protagonists of Final Fantasy VIII are : Squall Leonhart , a loner who keeps his focus on his duty to avoid vulnerability ; Rinoa Heartilly , an outspoken and passionate young woman who follows her heart in all situations ; Quistis Trepe , an instructor with a serious , patient attitude ; Zell Dincht , a martial artist with a passion for hot dogs ; Selphie Tilmitt , a cheerful girl who loves trains and pilots the airship Ragnarok ; and Irvine Kinneas , a marksman and consummate ladies ' man . Temporarily playable characters include Laguna Loire , Kiros Seagill , and Ward Zabac , who appear in " flashback " sequences , and antagonists Seifer Almasy and Edea Kramer .
= = = Plot = = =
When the game begins , Squall and Seifer duel in a training session outside the Balamb Garden military academy , scarring each other in the process . Meanwhile , Galbadia invades the Dollet Dukedom , forcing Dollet to hire assistance from the Balamb Garden branch of " SeeD " , Garden 's elite mercenary force . SeeD uses the mission as a final exam for its cadets ; with the help of his instructor , Quistis , Squall passes the mission 's prerequisite and is grouped with Seifer and Zell . Seifer disobeys orders and abandons his team , forcing Selphie to accompany Squall and Zell for the duration of the mission . After the mission , SeeD halts the Galbadian advance ; Squall , Zell , and Selphie graduate to SeeD status , while Seifer is disciplined for his disobedience . During the graduation party , Squall meets Rinoa , whose personality is apparently the opposite of his . When assigned with Zell and Selphie to help Rinoa 's resistance faction in Galbadian @-@ occupied Timber , Squall learns that a sorceress named Edea is behind Galbadia 's recent hostilities . Under orders from Balamb and Galbadia Gardens , Squall and his comrades — joined by Rinoa , Quistis , and Irvine — attempt to assassinate Edea . However , the sorceress thwarts the attempt , stabbing Squall in the shoulder with an ice shard , and the party is detained . During the attempt , Squall 's party also learns that Seifer has left Garden to become Edea 's second @-@ in @-@ command .
After the team escapes along with a conscious Squall , Edea launches a missile attack on Trabia Garden . Fearing that Balamb Garden is the next target of Edea 's plan , the team splits into two units . Squall 's group returns to Balamb to warn of the attack , but must first stop an internal Garden conflict incited by NORG , SeeD 's financier . Selphie 's team travels to the Missile Base to stop the launch , but fails . Squall inadvertently activates Balamb Garden 's " mobile fortress " form , allowing the facility to evade the missiles ; however , unable to control the Garden , it collides with the docks at Fishermans ' Horizon . While local technicians repair the Garden , the Galbadian Army invade in search of a girl named Ellone , who had been staying at Balamb Garden until recently . Ellone eventually escapes to Esthar , the world 's technological superpower . During Squall 's meeting with Ellone , he learns that she had been " sending " him and his allies into flashbacks set 17 years in the past in a vain effort to alter the present . The scenes center on Laguna and his two friends , Kiros and Ward . During the flashbacks , Laguna changes from a Galbadian soldier to the defender of a country village , then moves from being the leader of a resistance movement against Sorceress Adel to the President of Esthar .
Meanwhile , Squall confronts his personal anxieties fueled by ongoing developments , such as Headmaster Cid appointing him as SeeD 's new leader , and his increasing attraction to Rinoa . While investigating Trabia Garden 's wreckage , Squall and his comrades learn that they , along with Seifer and Ellone , were all raised ( except for Rinoa ) in an orphanage run by Edea ; after eventual separation , they later developed amnesia due to their use of Guardian Forces . It is also revealed that Cid and Edea had established Garden and SeeD primarily to defeat corrupt sorceresses . After these revelations , the forces of Balamb Garden and the Galbadian Army , led by Squall and Seifer respectively , engage in battle above the orphanage . After Balamb defeats Galbadia , the player learns that Edea is merely an unwilling tool for " Ultimecia " , a powerful sorceress from the future who wishes to compress time into a single moment ; it is for this reason she has sought Ellone . Edea loses a decisive battle against the SeeD , forcing Ultimecia to transfer her powers to Rinoa ; Edea survives , but Rinoa enters a coma . Squall becomes obsessed with waking her and goes to Esthar to find Ellone , as he believes that she can help save Rinoa .
While Rinoa is being treated on Esthar 's space station , Ultimecia uses her to free Sorceress Adel from her orbital prison . Ultimecia then orders Seifer to activate the Lunatic Pandora facility , inciting a rain of creatures from the moon that sends Adel 's containment device to the planet . Having selected Adel as her next host , Ultimecia abandons Rinoa in outer space . Squall rescues her , and they return to the planet on a derelict starship . Upon their landing , delegates from Esthar isolate Rinoa for fear of her sorceress abilities , forcing Squall to rescue her . They are met by the President of Esthar who reveals himself to be Laguna and apologizes for the incident and announces Dr. Odine 's plan to let Ultimecia possess Rinoa , have Ellone send Rinoa ( and thus Ultimecia as well ) to the past and then retrieve only Rinoa back to the present , enabling Ultimecia to achieve Time Compression , as it would allow Squall 's group to confront Ultimecia in her time . To do this , Squall 's team infiltrates Lunatic Pandora , defeats Seifer and Adel , and has Rinoa inherit Adel 's sorceress powers . Time Compression is thus initiated ; Squall and his allies travel to Ultimecia 's era and defeat her .
With Ultimecia defeated , the universe begins returning to normal ; however , Squall is nearly lost in the flow of time as he witnesses the origins of the game 's story , ghostly , sporadic apparitions of Rinoa , and a faceless portrait of himself . When a dying Ultimecia travels back in time to pass her powers to Edea , Squall informs Edea of the concepts of Garden and SeeD that she will create . Afterward , he is able to properly recollect his memories and thus return to the present with Rinoa 's help . The end cinematic depicts the events after Squall 's return to the present . Seifer , no longer a Garden member , is once again reunited with Raijin and Fujin ; Laguna visits Raine 's grave ( and remembers his proposal to her ) along with Ellone , Ward , and Kiros ; and a celebration takes place in the Garden , with Squall and Rinoa sharing a kiss under the moonlight .
= = Development = =
Development of Final Fantasy VIII began in 1997 , during the English @-@ language translation of Final Fantasy VII . As with much of the production of Final Fantasy VII , series creator and veteran Hironobu Sakaguchi served as the executive producer , working primarily on the development of Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within and leaving direction of Final Fantasy VIII to Yoshinori Kitase . Shinji Hashimoto was assigned to be the producer in Sakaguchi 's place , while the game and battle system were designed by Kitase and Hiroyuki Ito , respectively . The card game Triple Triad was conceived and implemented by programmer Kentarow Yasui . The concept was derived from trading cards which is a popular hobby in some parts of Japan . Triple Triad was meant to keep the player 's interest during long stretches without cutscenes . Originally , it was simply about collecting cards but Yasui considered this too disconnected from the main game and " begged " for the inclusion of an ability to transform cards into items . The game 's total development costs approximately ¥ 3 billion , with a crew of about 180 people , many of whom had previously worked on VII .
= = = Visual design = = =
From the beginning , Kitase knew he wanted a thematic combination of fantasy and realism . To this end , he aimed to include a cast of characters who appeared to be ordinary people . Character designer and battle visual director Tetsuya Nomura and art director Yusuke Naora strove to achieve this impression through the inclusion of realistically proportioned characters — a departure from the super deformed designs used in the previous title . Additionally , Naora attempted to enhance the realism of the world through predominantly bright lighting effects with shadows distributed as appropriate . Other measures taken included implementing rental cars for travel in @-@ game , and the use of motion capture technology to give the game 's characters lifelike movements in the game 's full motion video sequences . The FMV sequences were created by a team of roughly 35 people , with the total cinematic run @-@ time being estimated at over an hour , approximately 20 minutes longer than the FMV sequences in VII .
In an interview with Famitsu , Naora described that the game was generally designed to be a " bright , fresh Final Fantasy . " The designers felt a need to invert the atmosphere of previous games in the series , which had feelings of " light emerging from darkness " . This decision was easy for the developers to make , because most of them had worked on Final Fantasy VII and felt that a new direction was acceptable . The world designs were also developed with the knowledge that most of the staff were now used to computer graphics , which was not the case with Final Fantasy VII . The developers also noted that with Final Fantasy VIII , they attempted to " mix future , real life and fantasy . " As part of a theme desired by Kitase to give the game a foreign atmosphere , various designs were given to its locations using the style of internationally familiar places , while also maintaining a fantasy atmosphere . Inspiration ranged from ancient Egyptian and Greek architecture , to the city of Paris , France , to an idealized futuristic European society . Flags were also given to some factions , their designs based on the group 's history and culture .
To maintain a foreign atmosphere , the characters of the game were designed to have predominantly European appearances . The first Final Fantasy VIII character created was Squall . Desiring to add a unique angle to Squall 's appearance and emphasize his role as the central character , Nomura gave him a scar across his brow and the bridge of his nose . As there was not yet a detailed history conceived for the character , Nomura left the explanation for Squall 's scar to scenario writer Kazushige Nojima . Squall was given a gunblade , a fictional revolver – sword hybrid that functions primarily as a sword , with an added damaging vibration feature activated by use of its gun mechanism , similar to a vibroblade . His character design was complemented by a fur lining along the collar of his jacket , incorporated by Nomura as a challenge for the game 's full motion video designers . Additionally , some designs Nomura had previously drawn , but had not yet used in a Final Fantasy game , were incorporated into Final Fantasy VIII . These were the designs of Edea , Fujin and Raijin . The latter two had originally been designed for use in Final Fantasy VII , but with the inclusion of the Turks characters in that game , it was felt that Fujin and Raijin were unnecessary . Nomura had designed Edea before the development of Final Fantasy VII , based on the style of Yoshitaka Amano . For the Guardian Forces , Nomura felt they should be unique beings , without clothes or other human @-@ like concepts . This was problematic , as he did not want them to " become the actual monsters " , so he took great care in their design . Leviathan was the first GF , created as a test and included in a game demo . After it received a positive reaction from players , Nomura decided to create the remaining sequences in a similar fashion .
= = = Story development = = =
The plot of Final Fantasy VIII was conceived by Kitase , with the stories for the characters provided by Nomura and the actual scenario written by Nojima . During the game 's pre @-@ production , Nomura suggested the game be given a " school days " feel . Nojima already had a story in mind in which the main characters were the same age ; their ideas meshed , taking form as the " Garden " military academies . Nojima planned that the two playable parties featured in the game ( Squall 's present day group and Laguna 's group from the past ) would be highly contrasted with one another . This idea was conveyed through the age and experience of Laguna 's group , versus the youth and naïveté of Squall 's group . Nojima has expressed that the dynamic of players ' relationships with the protagonist is important to him . Both Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy VIII feature reserved , quiet protagonists in the form of Cloud Strife and Squall . With Final Fantasy VIII , however , Nojima worked to give players actual insight into what the character was thinking ; a direct contrast with his handling of Final Fantasy VII , which encouraged the player to speculate .
= = = Other media = = =
In March 1999 , one month after the game 's release , Final Fantasy VIII Ultimania was published , a book that features an in @-@ depth guide to Final Fantasy VIII and interviews with the developers . An origami book was released in November 1999 . On September 22 , 1999 , a CD @-@ ROM titled Final Fantasy VIII Desktop Accessories was released . It contains desktop icons , computer wallpapers , screensavers , and an e @-@ mail application . It additionally features a stand @-@ alone edition of the Triple Triad minigame , which allowed players to compete against one another via a local area network .
Also in 1999 , the ballroom dance scene of Final Fantasy VIII was featured as a technical demo for the PlayStation 2 . In 2000 , a PC version was released for Windows . This port featured smoother graphics , enhanced audio , and the inclusion of Chocobo World , a minigame starring Boko , a Chocobo featured in one of the side @-@ quests in Final Fantasy VIII . For most North American and European players , the PC version of the game was the only means of playing Chocobo World , as the game was originally designed to be played via the PocketStation , a handheld console never released outside Japan . In 2009 , Final Fantasy VIII was added to the PlayStation Store on the PlayStation Network .
On December 18 , 2012 , the game was re @-@ released as part of the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box Japanese package . A remastered PC version was announced May 17 , 2013 , and was released on Steam December 5 , 2013 .
= = = Music = = =
Regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu wrote the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VIII . He tried to base the songs off of the emotional content of when they would be played , asserting that expressing the emotions he desires is more important than improving skills : " I think it will be a shame if we won 't be able to cry as we play our own game " . He could not determine a character 's emotions solely based on the plot , instead using images of appearance and attire — " It 's important to know when their emotions are at their height , but it usually takes until a month before release for them to finish the ending dialog ... ! " In response to a question by IGN music stating that the music of Final Fantasy VIII was very dark and perhaps influenced by the plot of the game , Uematsu stated " the atmosphere of music varies depending on story line , of course , but it 's also my intention to put various types of music into one game " . The absence of character themes found in the previous two games was due to Uematsu finding those of Final Fantasy VI and Final Fantasy VII ineffective . Uematsu considers it reasonable to have character themes if each character has a " highlight " in the game , but he found Final Fantasy VIII only focused on Squall Leonhart and Rinoa Heartilly as a couple , resulting in the " Eyes on Me " theme .
The original soundtrack was released on four compact discs by DigiCube in Japan on March 10 , 1999 , and by Square EA in North America as Final Fantasy VIII Music Collection in January 2000 . It was republished worldwide by Square Enix on May 10 , 2004 . An album of orchestral arrangements of selected tracks from the game was released under the title Fithos Lusec Wecos Vinosec Final Fantasy VIII on November 19 , 1999 , by DigiCube , and subsequently published on July 22 , 2004 , by Square Enix . The pieces were arranged and conducted by Shirō Hamaguchi for a live orchestra . A collection of piano arrangements performed by Shinko Ogata was released under the title Piano Collections : Final Fantasy VIII by DigiCube on January 21 , 2000 , and subsequently re @-@ published by Square Enix on July 22 , 2004 .
The score is best known for two songs : " Liberi Fatali " , a Latin choral piece that is played during the introduction to the game , and " Eyes On Me " , a pop song serving as the game 's theme , performed by Chinese singer Faye Wong . Near the end of the production of Final Fantasy VII , the developers suggested to use a singer , but abandoned the idea due to a lack of reasoning based on the game 's theme and storyline . However , Nobuo Uematsu thought a ballad would closely relate to the theme and characters of Final Fantasy VIII . This resulted in the game 's developers sharing " countless " artists , eventually deciding on Wong . Uematsu claims " her voice and mood seem to match my image of the song exactly " , and that her ethnicity " fits the international image of Final Fantasy " . After negotiations were made , " Eyes on Me " was recorded in Hong Kong with an orchestra . The song was released as a CD single in Japan and sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies , setting the record for highest @-@ selling video game music disc ever released in that country at the time . " Liberi Fatali " was played during the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens during the women 's synchronized swimming event .
The music of Final Fantasy VIII has appeared in various official Final Fantasy concerts . These include 2002 's 20020220 Music from FINAL FANTASY , in which the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra played " Liberi Fatali " , " Don 't Be Afraid " , " Love Grows " , and " The Man with the Machine Gun " , the 2004 Tour de Japon series , which featured " The Oath " , the Dear Friends series that began that same year and included " Liberi Fatali " and " Love Grows " , and the 2005 More Friends concert , which included " Maybe I 'm a Lion " . More recent concerts include the Voices – Music from Final Fantasy 2006 concert showcasing " Liberi Fatali " , " Fisherman 's Horizon " , and " Eyes on Me " and the international Distant Worlds concert tour that continues to date , which includes " Liberi Fatali " , " Fisherman 's Horizon " , " Man with the Machine Gun " , and " Love Grows " . Several of these concerts have produced live albums as well . Music from the game has also been played in non Final Fantasy @-@ specific concerts such as the Play ! A Video Game Symphony world tour from 2006 onwards , for which Nobuo Uematsu composed the opening fanfare that accompanies each performance .
= = Other appearances and cameos = =
Final Fantasy VIII has made a cameo appearance in real @-@ life media . In the 2000 film version of Charlie 's Angels , two young boys are seen playing the game at night , with Squall and Quistis fighting a battle in Balamb Garden 's Training Center , and one of them about to summon the Guardian Force Quezacoatl . At this time , the character Dylan ( played by Drew Barrymore ) appears at the patio door to ask for help and clothing after having just escaped an attempt on her life .
= = Reception = =
Final Fantasy VIII received critical acclaim . Within two days of its North American release on September 9 , 1999 , Final Fantasy VIII became the top @-@ selling video game in the United States , a position it held for more than three weeks . It was also a bestseller in Japan and the UK . It grossed a total of more than $ 50 million in the 13 weeks to follow , making it the fastest @-@ selling Final Fantasy title . In Japan , it sold roughly 2 @.@ 5 million units within the first four days of release . More than 6 million units were sold in total by the end of 1999 . As of March 31 , 2003 , the game had shipped 8 @.@ 15 million copies worldwide : 3 @.@ 7 million in Japan and 4 @.@ 45 million abroad . The opening cut scene in Final Fantasy VIII was ranked second on Game Informer 's list of " Top 10 Video Game Openings " , and first by IGN . GameSpy listed it as the 15th best cinematic moment in video games . IGN additionally named the game 's ending the third best of any game for the PlayStation , while UGO.com named it one of the series ' best and most memorable moments . Final Fantasy VIII was voted by readers of Japanese magazine Famitsu as the 22nd best game of all time in 2006 , and named one of the 20 essential Japanese role @-@ playing games by Gamasutra , stating " [ t ] here 's a lot that Final Fantasy VIII does wrong , but there 's even more that it does right " .
Reviews of the gameplay have been mixed . IGN felt that it was the weakest aspect of the game , citing its Guardian Force attack sequences as " incredibly cinematic " but tedious , sentiments echoed by Electronic Gaming Monthly . They also regarded the battle system as intensely complicated , yet refreshingly innovative and something that " RPG fanatics love to obsess over " . Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine claims that the game 's Junction system is a major flaw due to repetitive stocking of spells , while the video game magazine Edge commented that the battle system consists of a " bewildering " number of intricate options and techniques that " most gamers will [ ... ] relish " . GameSpot praised the game 's battle system , commenting that the " possibilities for customization [ with the Junction system ] are immense " .
In general , Final Fantasy VIII has been compared favorably to its predecessors . Though questioning the game 's lack of voice overs for its characters , Game Revolution praised its storyline and ending . For their part , Edge labeled Final Fantasy VIII " a far more accomplished game than FFVII " . On the other hand , the magazine also felt that the game 's length left its story unable to " offer consistently strong dialogue and sub @-@ plots " . Additionally , it found some of the story 's plot twists " not ... suitably manipulated and prepared " , leaving it " hard not to greet such ... moments with anything but indifference " . Overall , Edge considered Final Fantasy VIII to be " yet another outstanding edition of SquareSoft 's far @-@ from @-@ final fantasies " , summarizing it as " aesthetically astonishing , rarely less than compelling , and near peerless in scope and execution " . Electronic Gaming Monthly offered similar comments , stating that the game 's character development " is the best of any RPG 's " and that " Final Fantasy VIII is the pinnacle of its genre . " UGO.com stated that while no other game in the series had stirred the controversy that Final Fantasy VIII had and that it was flawed , Final Fantasy VIII was a " daring , groundbreaking game [ ... ] decidedly the most original console @-@ style RPG ever created " . In 2002 , IGN named the game the seventh best title for the PlayStation of all time , placing higher on the list than Final Fantasy VII and described as " [ taking ] all of its strong points , and [ making ] them better " .
The PC port received mixed reception . Maximum PC praised the full motion video sequences as " phenomenal " , adding that while the gameplay took getting used to , they enjoyed the teamwork emphasized by it , and that the game 's visual presentation added to its appeal . GameSpy stated that while the game was not a " huge leap forward " from the previous title , its gameplay and visual appeal worked for its benefit , though that on a computer the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds appeared blurry and the controls at time difficult with a keyboard . GameSpot criticized the game for not taking advantage of the capabilities afforded to computers at the time , describing the PlayStation version as both looking and sounding superior , and recommending that the title was " not worth buying period " for the PC . UGO.com also described the port as inferior to its original counterpart , adding that its presentation was in turn detrimental to the reception the game received as a whole . Computer Gaming World praised some of the changes made to the game in light of previous titles and the inclusion of the Triple Triad sub @-@ game , though heavily criticized the port as " lazy " and " disappointing " , stating that it only served to emphasize the original game 's flaws . Despite their complaints however , they named it the twentieth best game of 2000 .
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= Secrets and Lies ( 30 Rock ) =
" Secrets and Lies " is the eighth episode of the second season of 30 Rock , and the twenty @-@ ninth overall . It was written by Ron Weiner and directed by Michael Engler . The episode first aired on December 6 , 2007 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Reathel Bean , James Carville , Paul Eichel , Edie Falco , Melissa Gallagher , Jabari Gray , Blaine Horton , John Lutz , Erich McCall , Andrew Polk , Reshma Shetty , Tom Treadwell and Darlene Violette .
In this episode , Celeste " C.C. " Cunningham ( played by Edie Falco ) wishes to go public with her relationship with Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) . Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) gets angry when she thinks Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) lets Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) do anything he likes . Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) feud over Toofer 's status as a Harvard University alumnus .
= = Plot = =
Jack is worried when his girlfriend C.C. , the Democratic congresswoman for the state of Vermont , tells him that she wants to go public with their relationship . The pair had been avoiding this because C.C. is suing the Sheinhardt Wig Company , the fictional parent company of NBC . During their secret relationship , Jack and C.C. had been sneaking to each other 's house in disguises , including C.C. as a plumber named Mr. Spoonatelli . C.C. confides in Liz ( after she finds out about their relationship ) , and Jack confides in political consultant James Carville , who gives Jack advice on how two important people from opposite political positions can make their relationship work " Cajun style , " without regard for how others perceive them . Eventually , Jack takes C.C. to dinner in the GE executive dining room where he reveals his relationship to the other executives , leading to the other executives making some bizarre revelations of their own .
When Jenna wins an award for her work on Mystic Pizza : The Musical : The Movie , in the category of " Best Actress in a Movie Based on a Musical Based on a Movie " , Tracy is annoyed that he never wins any awards of his own and storms off the set . To get him back to work , Liz tells him that he has won a Pacific Rim Emmy Award for his work on TGS . Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) helps Liz stage a fake acceptance speech for Tracy , which is also attended by Tracy 's co @-@ stars , Jenna and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) , despite it taking place in the middle of the night . During his acceptance speech Tracy thanks everybody who works on the show , except for Jenna , and then pulls Jenna 's dress down in a Japanese practice he claims is called " Sharking . " An enraged Jenna claims Liz is willing to jump through hoops for Tracy , but not her . As a result , she becomes disobedient and uncooperative and starts her own entourage , much like Tracy . Liz becomes fed @-@ up with Jenna 's new behavior , reveals to her that she in fact " coddle [ s ] the crap " out of her as well as Tracy . Liz then reveals that Jenna did not win an award for Mystic Pizza : The Musical : The Movie and that the " award " statue was actually a cookie . This is enough for Jenna to happily return to work .
After a night of performing stand up at Harvard University , Frank comes into work wearing a Harvard sweatshirt , even though he did not attend the university . Outraged by this , Harvard alumnus Toofer tells him to take it off . When Frank refuses , and then comes into work the next day in full Harvard regalia , Toofer retaliates by dressing up as Frank . Unable to back down for fear of their coworkers mocking them , their argument is eventually mediated " Cajun style " by James Carville , who then proceeds to also demonstrate how to steal candy from a vending machine ... " Cajun style . "
= = Production = =
This episode was performed live on stage at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre . The performance , which was titled 30 Rock — On Strike ! , was to display support for the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which began on November 5 , 2007 . The performance took place on November 19 , 2007 . All the main cast members of the series were in attendance , although due to other commitments , guest star Edie Falco was unable to appear in her role as Celeste " C.C. " Cunningham . In her place was the Saturday Night Live head writer , Paula Pell . As guest star James Carville was also unable to attend , an unnamed 30 Rock writer filled in for him . Other 30 Rock writers , including Donald Glover , also played the smaller , " bit " parts . During the " commercial breaks " , cast member Jack McBrayer and recurring cast member John Lutz improvised fake comedic advertisements for various products . Sheinhardt Wig Company t @-@ shirts , which were signed by the cast of 30 Rock , were also raffled off during the performance .
= = Reception = =
" Secrets and Lies " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 7 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 7 refers to 2 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S .. This episode ranked first in the male 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , growing 4 % from its lead @-@ in of the My Name Is Earl episode " Early Release . "
Robert Canning of IGN wrote that the episode " came close to fulfilling [ its ] potential , but was unable to keep the rapid @-@ fire comedic pace going for the entire episode . " He added that the second half of the show was not " a complete loss , but , man , that first act just steamrolled viewers with hilarious bit after hilarious bit . " Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide thought that the " unexpected treat this week was guest star James Carville , who 's [ sic ] presence as confidant to Jack not only made sense , but Carville also had a lot of fun lampooning himself ' Cajun style ' and all . And look at how well his advice for Frank and Twofer [ sic ] worked ! "
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= Cigarette Smoking Man =
Cigarette Smoking Man ( abbreviated CSM or C @-@ Man ; sometimes referred to as Cancer Man or the Smoking Man ) is a fictional character and the primary antagonist of the Fox science fiction @-@ supernatural television series The X @-@ Files , at least from the second to seventh series , and again in the tenth . He serves as the arch @-@ nemesis of FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder . In the show 's sixth season , his name is said to be C.G.B. Spender , but Dana Scully suggests this is one of " hundreds of aliases " ; the show 's characters and fans continue to refer to him by variations of " the Smoking Man " because he is almost always seen chain @-@ smoking Morley cigarettes .
Although he utters only four audible words in the entire first season of the show , the Smoking Man eventually develops into the series ' primary antagonist . In his early appearances , he is seen in the offices of Section Chief Scott Blevins and Assistant Director Walter Skinner , Mulder and his partner Dana Scully 's supervisors . An influential man working for the powers that be , he is a key member in a government conspiracy known only as the Syndicate , who are hiding the truth of alien existence and their plan to colonize Earth . His power and influence remained strong , even after most of the Syndicate was destroyed .
The Smoking Man is portrayed by Canadian actor William B. Davis . When Davis first received the role , the character was written as an extra for the pilot episode . He returned for small cameo appearances during the first season , making increasingly more appearances in the seasons that followed . Davis never received an award for his portrayal alone , but he was nominated for ensemble awards .
TV Guide included him in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time .
= = Character arc = =
The birth date , birthplace , and most of the history of the Smoking Man is never categorically confirmed . One possible version of his past is provided during the fourth season episode " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " , where the conspiracy theorists known as The Lone Gunmen claim Smoking Man was born in Baton Rouge , Louisiana , on August 20 , 1940 . In the same episode , he is claimed to have a long history in black ops and American intelligence , was involved in the training of Cuban rebels in the Bay of Pigs , and was the assassin of both John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King , Jr . However , X @-@ Files writer , Frank Spotnitz , has stated that this version of events is only one possibility and is not accepted canon .
In his first appearance in the series , he oversees FBI agent Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) briefing and debriefing , and later disposes of evidence Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Scully had brought back from their investigation of an alien abduction . With the Smoking Man hiding truth from the public , Mulder seeks to reveal it to the public and the truth about the disappearance of his sister , Samantha . This leads to a rivalry that lasts until the end of the series .
In later seasons , it is revealed that he is a member of a group known as the Syndicate , a shadowy organization within the United States government . The episode " Two Fathers " reveals his birthname or alias as C.G.B. Spender , and that he was formerly married to Cassandra Spender , with whom he had a son , Jeffrey Spender . He recruits FBI Special Agent Diana Fowley to be a subordinate of his because she has a close relationship with Mulder . In " One Son " , Jeffrey finds out that his father , the Smoking Man , forced his mother Cassandra to undergo medical treatments that led to several nervous breakdowns during his childhood years . When the Smoking Man finds out , he seemingly kills Jeffrey . Knowing of the colonization plan , the Alien rebels return to Earth to try to persuade the Syndicate to join their side against their war with the Colonists . Not believing in the strength of the Alien rebels , the Syndicate members meet at El Rico Air Base to be transported to a spaceship to survive the colonization . However , the rebels appear instead of the Colonists and kill all remaining chief members of the Syndicate . Together with Fowley , the Smoking Man escapes the destruction of the Syndicate . Later in the sixth season , there is more evidence that suggested that the Smoking Man is Mulder 's biological father . Eventually in " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " , Fowley comes in disagreement with him . Because of his plans to kill Mulder , Fowley helps Scully in her investigation to locate Mulder , which leads to her death . After the destruction of the Syndicate , the Smoking Man starts to operate as he wishes . However , his cancer resurfaces , and he begins using a wheelchair . In the end , Alex Krycek and Marita Covarrubias betray him in the episode " Requiem " , throwing him down a flight of stairs , where they presume him to be dead .
Until the ninth season episode " William " , the Smoking Man is presumed dead . It is learned that his attempted murder of his son failed , which led him to subject his son to terrible experiments . In the series finale , " The Truth " , Mulder and Scully travel through remote New Mexico and reach a pueblo where a " wise man " reputedly lives : he is , in fact , the Smoking Man . His condition has worsened since his disappearance , and he lives a primitive life in hiding from the " New " Syndicate . After taunting Mulder and Scully , he reveals to Scully what Mulder already knew , that the alien re @-@ colonization of Earth is set for December 22 , 2012 . Shortly after , Smoking Man is again apparently killed by a rocket shot from a helicopter ordered by Knowle Rohrer .
For the next 14 years , he is presumed dead . However , he appears again at the end of " My Struggle " ( 2016 ) , the first episode of The X @-@ Files miniseries , stating that the X @-@ Files have been reopened . He is still smoking , even though he has had a tracheotomy . In the season finale , " My Struggle II " , the Smoking Man puts into motion the conspiracy he had been working on all these years , releasing chemtrails into the atmosphere which trigger immune system breakdowns throughout the American population , which had been infected by the Spartan virus through mandatory flu vaccinations . Out of fondness for Mulder , he offers him the cure to the disease , but is rebuffed . The United States is thrown into chaos as the Syndicate plan for depopulation gets underway . The series ends on a cliffhanger .
= = Spin @-@ off media = =
Prior to the tenth televised series of The X @-@ Files in 2016 , Chris Carter worked with IDW Publishing in 2013 to produce a comic book continuation of the show . It hints that The Smoking Man is alive and indirectly feeding information to both Mulder and The Lone Gunmen . Carter later said that the story from these comics would be disregarded in future television productions .
= = Characterization = =
Kim Manners , a director of several X @-@ Files episodes , said that the Smoking Man was the show 's version of Darth Vader . Some X @-@ Files fans have categorized the Smoking Man as evil , making him out to be the villain . Series creator Chris Carter , on the other hand , once called him " the devil " , producing a mixed reaction among fans . Some fans , along with the portraying actor , see him as a hero , as he is forced to make choices others are not .
On the surface , it may seem that the Smoking Man merely tries to hide information from Mulder and Scully , but there is much more to him . He is involved in the Syndicate , a shadow organization which includes members of the United States government that exists to hide from the public the fact that aliens are planning to colonize Earth . The Smoking Man often ruthlessly protects the secrets of the conspiracy , and serves as the main antagonist to Mulder , who has an equally consuming devotion to reveal the truth in the first seven seasons . His stated justification is a desire to prevent the alien colonization for as long as possible ; in the episode " One Breath " , he tells Mulder that he is in the conspiracy ( which he calls " the game " ) because he believes that the secrets he keeps could , if publicly revealed , threaten the social order that preserves society : " If people were to know of the things that I know ... it would all fall apart " . He is at times shown working towards that goal , particularly in connection with developing a vaccine to protect people from the " black oil " , a parasitic agent which the alien Colonists use to propagate themselves .
= = Development = =
When first cast for the role , portraying actor William B. Davis thought a show about the paranormal would not last for long . Before joining The X @-@ Files cast , Davis had not smoked a cigarette in twenty years . For the first two episodes he appeared in , he smoked " real " cigarettes , but later changed to herbal cigarettes , giving the reason that it was " dangerous " for his health . In at least one early script draft from the " Pilot " , a Special Agent named Lake Drazen is present at the meeting near the start of the episode , having chosen Scully for an assignment to evaluate the validity of Mulder 's work on the X @-@ Files . The scene was eventually deleted and replaced , and several crew members have hinted that Agent Drazen became the Smoking Man .
Kim Manners said that it seemed all the prominent pieces created for The X @-@ Files were created by " accident " . According to Manners , Davis was nothing more than an extra leaning on a shelf . At the start , the producers of the show were not sure about making the Smoking Man the main antagonist . Paul Rabwin commented once that he did not know if Davis could handle the role , because he was not sure if he was a " good enough " actor for the role . Manners later commented that Davis knew that the Smoking Man had two different characters , the first being the one played by Davis and the second was the cigarettes . He further stated that the cigarette smoke could tell a " whole story " by itself , thanks to Davis ' talent .
Fans of the series were active in debating if the Smoking Man was actually dead after the events of the season five premiere " Redux " . In his first response , Chris Carter said he had left clues in the episode , and he later officially announced that the character would appear in The X @-@ Files movie . In one of his last comments on the matter , he said , " Not that we haven 't brought deceased characters back before , in flashbacks or more paranormal ways . The great thing about The X @-@ Files is that anything can happen . "
The Smoking Man is the only character in the series , in addition to Mulder and Scully , to appear in both the first episode , " pilot " and the last , " The Truth " of the series . Portraying actor William B. Davis was listed as CIA Agent in the first season episode " Young at Heart " , instead of his usual character , the Smoking Man . Actor Chris Owens for a time portrayed the Smoking Man as a young man in flashbacks . He later plays his son , Jeffrey Spender . Young Cigarette Smoking Man was first played by Craig Warkentin , with Davis 's voice dubbed over in " Apocrypha " .
= = Reception = =
While not being nominated for any of his work alone on The X @-@ Files , William B. Davis and several other cast members were nominated in the category " Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series " by the Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1997 , 1998 and 1999 but did not win . The character was regularly voted " The Nastiest Villain " on television polls during the 90s . TV Guide listed Cigarette Smoking Man 20th in their " 25 Greatest TV Villains " list . According to the portraying actor , the character had garnered protest from " pro @-@ smokers " . Entertainment Weekly writer Jennifer Armstrong cited the character as an example of the old tradition of having only " bad guys " smoking on television .
Davis was included in Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 50 Biggest Emmy Snubs , the list 's author saying that the presence of the " Cigarette Smoking Man " was as important as " black oil , alien implants , and Scully 's skepticism " . The Malaysian newspaper the New Straits Times called the Smoking Man one of the most " intriguing " characters of the show . However , Christianity Today said that the mystery behind the Smoking Man had evaporated by the late season episodes . Likewise , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly felt that " the monotonous evil of Cancer Man " had " become actively annoying " in later seasons of the show , being that his lurking presence did not seem as mysterious anymore . Salon reviewer Jeff Stark felt the show was at its best when you " didn 't exactly know the motivations of the Smoking Man " .
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= Polish – Prussian alliance =
The Polish – Lithuanian and Prussian alliance was a mutual defense alliance signed on 29 March 1790 in Warsaw between representatives of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Prussia . It was signed in the brief period when Prussia was seeking an ally against either Austria or Russia , and the Commonwealth was seeking guarantees that it would be able to carry out significant governmental reforms without foreign intervention .
From the beginning , the alliance was much more valuable to the Commonwealth than to Prussia . Soon after the treaty was signed , the international situation , and changes within the Commonwealth , made the treaty much less valuable to the Prussian side . Meanwhile , the Commonwealth embarked on a series of major internal reforms , seeing the alliance as a guarantee that it had the backing of a powerful neighbor in this process – where in fact Prussia felt those reforms were not in its best interest , and felt threatened by them . When Russia invaded the Commonwealth in May 1792 , Prussia refused a request to honor the alliance and intervene , arguing that it was not consulted with regard to the 3rd May Constitution , which invalidated the alliance . A few months later , in 1793 , Prussia aided Russia in the suppression of the Kościuszko Uprising .
= = Background = =
The Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( also known as the Republic of Poland ) had been a major European power since its formation in the late 16th century and was still one of the largest states on the European continent in the latter part of the 18th century . Over time , its state machinery had become increasingly dysfunctional . By the early 17th century , the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state — or rather , they managed to ensure that no reforms would be carried out that might weaken their privileged status ( the so @-@ called " Golden Freedoms " ) . Tentative reforms began in the late 18th century ; however , any idea of reforming the Commonwealth was viewed with suspicion not only by its magnates but also by neighboring countries , which were content with the state of the Commonwealth 's affairs and abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders . With the Commonwealth Army only numbering around 16 @,@ 000 , it was easy for its neighbors to intervene directly : the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300 @,@ 000 ; the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army , 200 @,@ 000 . All of those powers had already annexed about a third of the Commonwealth territory and population ( 211 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 81 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and four to five million people ) in the First Partition of Poland in 1772 – 1773 .
However , events in the world appeared to play into the reformers ' hands . Poland 's neighbors were too occupied with wars to intervene forcibly in Poland , with Russia and Austria engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Empire ( the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1787 – 92 ) and the Austro @-@ Turkish War ( 1787 – 91 ) ) ; the Russians also found themselves fighting Sweden ( the Russo @-@ Swedish War ( 1788 – 90 ) ) .
In the context of the Austrian Empire 's war with the Ottoman Empire , and similar Russian Empire 's war , Polish king Stanisław August Poniatowski , attempted to draw Poland into the Austro @-@ Russian alliance , seeing a war with the Ottomans as an opportunity to strengthen the Commonwealth . Due to internal Russian politics , this plan was not implemented . Spurned by Russia , Poland turned to another potential ally , the Triple Alliance , represented on the Polish diplomatic scene primarily by the Kingdom of Prussia . This line of reasoning gained support from Polish politicians such as Ignacy Potocki and Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski .
Within the Triple Alliance , Prussia was hoping for some territorial gains in the Baltic region , through war ( with Russia ) or diplomacy ( from the Commonwealth ) , or a combination of the above . With regard to the Balkans , the Triple Alliance aimed at restraining the Russian Empire , as well as the its ally , the Austrian Empire , and there were expectations of a war between the Alliance and Russia ( and possibly Austria ) around 1791 .
= = Negotiations = =
Prussia tried to take opportunity of the Russian Empire 's wars with the Ottoman Empire and Sweden and move the weak Commonwealth into its sphere of influence . Some factions in the Commonwealth deemed this as an opportunity to shake free from decades of Russian control . That said , Prussia did not expect much from the alliance , not even that it would pass . When the treaty was first proposed to the Great Sejm by Prussian ambassador Ludwig Heinrich Buchholtz on 13 October 1788 , Prussians expected that it would cause long and fruitless debate which only outcome would be to ensure the weakening of Russian ( and to a lesser degree , Austrian ) position in Poland . Overall , for Prussia , the alliance with Poland was only one of several potential options ; but for some Polish politicians it became a new , and increasingly , only available strategy . The reception of Prussian proposal by the Sejm exceeded their expectations , and it has significantly strengthened the Patriotic Party . For the next year or so , Prussians decided to delay taking any clear action , keeping their options open . Buchholtz was also reprimanded for allowing things to go too far , and another Prussian diplomat , Girolamo Lucchesini , was sent to Warsaw to aid him .
One of the Prussian playing @-@ for @-@ time requests to the Patriotic Party was that before the treaty is signed , they need to see more reforms within the Commonwealth government . In October 1789 , the changing international situation ( primarily the military defeats of the Ottoman Empire ) suddenly and temporarily increased the value of an alliance with Poland for Prussia . In the meantime , the previously anti @-@ royalist Patriotic Party has begun drifting closer to the king . In February and March 1790 , concrete proposals were exchanged between Warsaw and Berlin . Some difficulties were centered around Prussian demands for the cession of Gdańsk and Toruń , and tariffs , but a threat of a Polish @-@ Austrian alliance , recently brought forward by Austria , caused Prussia to withdraw most of the demands the Polish side was finding difficult to accept .
= = Treaty and its unraveling = =
The treaty was finally signed on 29 March 1790 , and ratified on 23 April . It was a defensive treaty , as each country promised to aid the other in case of being invaded .
Several factors , however , soon reduced the value of the treaty for Prussia . Treaty of Reichenbach of July 27 , 1790 , meant that Prussia was no longer considering a war with Austria ; the Polish – Prussian alliance now had only an anti @-@ Russian angle . Then , on September 9 , the Great Sejm , despite some opposition , declared that Commonwealth territories could not be divided . As Prussia was expecting to receive Gdańsk and Toruń from the Commonwealth as a compensation in a subsequent treaty ( with Commonwealth being compensated through territorial gains from another neighbor ) , the Sejm declaration that meant that no territory could be traded to another state made the Commonwealth a much less valuable party for Prussian long @-@ term goals . Already in fall and winter of 1790 , Prussian diplomacy begun negotiations with Russians , and hinting at its abandoning of Poland .
Potocki attempted to offer another deal to Prussia , namely , to support Prince Louis Charles of Prussia candidature for the Polish throne , but Frederick William II of Prussia , advised by Ewald Friedrich von Hertzbergm refused this offer , as it did not seem profitable enough to Prussia , which was interested more in territorial gains than in a potentially strengthened Commonwealth , which could ask for the return of the territories lost in the First Partition . The passing of the Constitution of 3 May , 1791 , although officially applauded by Frederick Wilhem II , who sent a congratulatory note to Warsaw , caused further worry in Prussia . Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives : " The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution " , elaborating that strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition . Finally , the Prussian @-@ Russian relations stabilized with the end of the Triple Alliance , which was cemented by the British @-@ Netherlands @-@ Prussian @-@ Russian treaty of 26 July 1791 , in which the Triple Alliance de facto capitulated to all Russian demands . In the meantime , similar negotiations of a Polish – Swedish alliance , never realized , fell through as well .
= = Aftermath = =
The Treaty of Jassy in January 1792 ended the Russian war with the Ottomans , and in April of that year the First Coalition wars began , forcing Prussia to move the bulk of its forces west to deal with revolutionary France . Russia , angered by Poland 's attempt to move out of its influence , invaded Poland in May . Around that time , Prussian policy was already set against Poland ; rather than discussing how to aid it , Frederic Wilhelm and his ministers were discussing how to convince Austria and Prussia to a new partition . Lucchesini has already made several declarations that Prussia cannot aid the Commonwealth , and in June that year , Potocki 's mission to Berlin received a confirmation of that , motivated on the grounds that the Constitution of 3 May changed Polish state so much that Prussia does not consider its obligations binding . Prussian Foreign Minister , Friedrich Wilhelm von Schulenburg @-@ Kehnert , has clearly and with rare candor told Potocki that Prussia did not support the constitution , but could not say so initially , as to not allow any Polish @-@ Russian reconciliation , and now will not even help as a mediator , as it is not in Prussian 's interest of the state to see Commonwealth strengthened so that it could threaten Prussia in some future .
When in January 1793 a Prussian corps entered Greater Poland , it was not as a Commonwealth ally , but instead to guarantee Prussia 's share of spoils in the Second Partition of Poland . Prussian forces were acting in support of the Prussian @-@ Russian treaty on the partition has been that month . Subsequently , Prussian forces assisted Russians in several key battles of the Kościuszko Uprising , such as in the defeat of Tadeusz Kościuszko 's forces at the battle of Szczekociny . By 1795 , Commonwealth would cease to exist , with Prussia acquiring Gdańsk , Toruń and other territories it desired ( see Prussian partition ) .
= = Historiography = =
The issue of the Polish – Prussian alliance was subject to a comprehensive study as early as the 1890s , when Polish historian Szymon Askenazy published his work on the subject ( Przymierze polsko @-@ pruskie , 1900 ) focusing on the diplomatic and international aspects . Askenazy argued that the alliance fell more due to inept Polish diplomacy than to the Prussian realpolitik agenda ; this view is not supported by majority of historians , and noted by Jerzy Łojek ( who admits that himself , at the same time declaring himself , in his Geneza i obalenie Konstytucji 3 maja ( 1986 ) as sharing Askenazy 's minority viewpoint ) . The question of to what degree the alliance was realistic , and to what degree it represented a Prussian diplomatic feint which mislead Commonwealth politicians is still debated by modern historians . Similarly , as Piotr Wandycz has noted , the advantages and disadvantages of this alliance have been debated by the historians for over a century .
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= Valley Parade =
Valley Parade , also known as the Coral Windows Stadium through sponsorship rights , is an all @-@ seater football stadium in Bradford , West Yorkshire , England . It was built in 1886 , and was the home of Manningham Rugby Football Club until 1903 , when they changed code from rugby football to association football and became Bradford City . It has been Bradford City 's home since , although it is now owned by former chairman Gordon Gibb 's pension fund . It has also been home to Bradford ( Park Avenue ) for one season , and Bradford Bulls rugby league side for two seasons , as well as host to a number of England youth team fixtures .
Football architect Archibald Leitch was commissioned to redevelop the ground when Bradford City were promoted to the First Division in 1908 . From then , the stadium underwent few changes until 1985 , when it was the scene of a fatal fire on 11 May 1985 , when 56 supporters were killed and at least 265 were injured . It underwent a £ 2 @.@ 6 million redevelopment and was re @-@ opened in December 1986 . The ground underwent significant changes in the 1990s and early 2000s and now has a capacity of 25 @,@ 136 . The record attendance of 39 @,@ 146 was set in 1911 for an FA Cup tie against Burnley , making it the oldest surviving attendance record at a Football League ground in the country .
= = History = =
Manningham Rugby Football Club , formed in 1876 , originally played games at Cardigan Fields , in the Carlisle Road area of Bradford . When their ground was sold to facilitate the construction of Drummond School , the club required a new home . Consequently , they bought one @-@ third of the Valley Parade site in Manningham , taking a short @-@ term lease out on the rest of the land in time to play there for the 1886 – 87 season . The new ground and the road it was built upon both adopted the name of the local area , Valley Parade , a name deriving from the steep hillside below Manningham . The land was previously a quarry , and formed part of a greater site owned by Midland Railway Company .
The club spent £ 1 @,@ 400 appointing designers to oversee the excavation and levelling of the land , and moved a one @-@ year @-@ old stand from Carlisle Road to the highest part of the new ground . The original ground comprised the relocated stand , a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stepped enclosure with the players ' changing rooms beneath the stand , the playing area , a cinder athletics track and fencing to limit the total capacity to 18 @,@ 000 . The playing field was made of ballast , ashes , soil and sods . The ground was officially opened on 27 September 1886 for a game against Wakefield Trinity which was watched by a capacity crowd , but construction work meant most of Manningham 's early games were away fixtures .
Manningham RFC continued playing until 1903 , when financial difficulties , caused by relegation at the turn of the century , prompted club officials to change codes from rugby football to association football . The first association football game to be played at Valley Parade was a promotional fixture on 6 April 1903 between a side of West Yorkshire footballers and Sheffield United 's 1903 FA Cup winning side . The game had been organised to stimulate interest in the sport in Bradford and attracted 8 @,@ 000 fans . The new football club , Bradford City , were elected to The Football League 's Division Two the following month . Bradford City 's first game at Valley Parade came on 5 September 1903 against Gainsborough Trinity , drawing a crowd of 11 @,@ 000 . As a result of alterations first implemented in 1897 , City players originally changed in a shed behind one end of the ground , and visiting teams used the old rugby club dressing rooms at the back of the nearby Belle Vue Hotel . However , after City 's 5 – 1 defeat by Manchester United on 10 February 1906 , United player Bob Bonthron was attacked as he left the ground . As a result , The Football Association closed the ground for 14 days , ordering City to switch its changing rooms to the nearby Artillery Barracks for the 1906 – 07 season . Several supporters faced criminal proceedings for the incident .
After Bradford City won the Division Two championship in 1907 – 08 , the club hurried through a reconstruction programme of the ground to prepare for the club 's first season in Division One . Football architect Archibald Leitch was commissioned to design new terracing in the paddock — a standing area in front of the 5 @,@ 300 @-@ seater main stand which was built in 1908 — and build a Spion Kop at the north side of the ground and an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stand at the Midland Road end opposite the main stand . Further work was performed to lower the railings , erect barriers , move the pitch and add extra turnstiles . The changing rooms were also moved , with a tunnel leading from the rooms underneath the Kop along the main stand side of the ground . The total project cost £ 9 @,@ 958 , and raised the capacity to 40 @,@ 000 . The work was not completed until midway through the 1908 – 09 season . The first match after work was finished took place on Christmas Day 1908 , when 36 @,@ 000 fans saw City host Bristol City . The improvements allowed Bradford City to set their record attendance of 39 @,@ 146 on 11 March 1911 against Burnley during the club 's FA Cup winning run . It is the longest surviving attendance record at any league ground in the country .
On 17 March 1932 , Bradford City paid Midland Railway Company £ 3 @,@ 750 for the remaining two @-@ thirds of the site to become outright owners of the ground , which was now 45 years old . The stadium had remained virtually unchanged since 1908 , and did so until 1952 , when the capacity of the ground was reduced after examinations of the foundations were ordered following the 1946 Burnden Park disaster . The investigation resulted in the closure of half the Midland Road stand . The stand 's steel frame was then sold to Berwick Rangers for £ 450 and a smaller replacement stand was built at Valley Parade in 1954 . Six years later , the stand had to be demolished for a second time because of continuing foundation problems . It was another six years before all four stands at Valley Parade were able to be opened for the first time . To enable construction of a new stand on the Midland Road side of the ground , the club directors moved the pitch 3 yards ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) closer to the main stand . The new stand was then the narrowest stand in the league . Further improvements were made to the stand in 1969 , ready for the club 's FA Cup tie with Division One side Tottenham Hotspur on 3 January 1970 , which ended in a 2 – 2 draw in front of 23 @,@ 000 fans . The cost of the work forced the club to sell Valley Parade to Bradford Corporation for £ 35 @,@ 000 , but it was bought back by 1979 for the same price .
During the period from 1908 to 1985 , the club carried out a number of other lesser work to the rest of the ground . It also included the introduction of floodlights in English football . Valley Parade 's first floodlights cost £ 3 @,@ 000 and were lamps mounted on telegraph poles running along each side of the ground . They were originally used against Hull City on 20 December 1954 . The floodlights were replaced in 1960 and again used for the first time against Hull City , but when one fell over in 1962 , an FA Cup game with Gateshead had to go ahead with only three pylons , prompting an FA inquiry . In 1985 , football ground writer Simon Inglis described the view from the main stand , which was still the same as when it was developed in 1908 , as " like watching football from the cockpit of a Sopwith Camel " because of its antiquated supports and struts .
On 11 May 1985 , one of the worst sporting disasters occurred at Valley Parade . Fifty @-@ six people died and at least 265 were injured when the main stand was engulfed by fire . The fire started 40 minutes into the club 's final game of the 1984 – 85 season against Lincoln City and destroyed the main stand in just nine minutes . For the next season and the first five months of the 1986 – 87 season , Bradford City played home games at Leeds United 's Elland Road , Huddersfield Town 's Leeds Road and Bradford Northern 's Odsal Stadium , while Valley Parade was rebuilt . Huddersfield @-@ based firm J Wimpenny carried out the £ 2 @.@ 6 million work , which included funding from insurance pay @-@ outs , Football League stadium grants , club funds and a £ 1 @.@ 46 million Government loan obtained by two Bradford MPs , Geoffrey Lawler and Max Madden . A new 5 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater main stand was built , longer than the structure which had burned down . The Kop was also covered for the first time and increased to a 7 @,@ 000 capacity . Other minor work was carried out to the ground 's other two stands . On 14 December 1986 , 582 days after the fire , The Hon Sir Oliver Popplewell , who had conducted the inquiry into the fire , opened the new stadium before an exhibition match against an England international XI . It was first used for a league game on Boxing Day when City lost 1 – 0 to Derby County .
The two stands which were not altered after the fire were both improved during the 1990s . The Bradford end of the ground was made a double @-@ decker , all @-@ seater stand , with a new scoreboard , in 1991 . City 's promotion to Division One in 1996 meant that chairman Geoffrey Richmond announced the construction of a 4 @,@ 500 seater stand on the Midland Road side . It was first used for a Yorkshire derby against Sheffield United on Boxing Day 1996 , before being officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 27 March 1997 . Richmond continued his plans to redevelop the ground as City continued to rise through the league . The roof of the Kop , which was the largest safe @-@ standing terrace in the country at the time , was removed and the capacity reduced during City 's 1998 – 99 promotion season , to prepare for a summer £ 6 @.@ 5 million rebuilding programme . The Kop was converted into a two @-@ tier 7 @,@ 500 @-@ seat capacity stand . An additional 2 @,@ 300 @-@ seat capacity corner section was built , which filled in the corner between the main stand and Kop . When opened in December 2000 it took the capacity of Valley Parade to more than 20 @,@ 000 for the first time since 1970 . A suite of offices and a shop were added at the same time . Once the work was completed , a second tier was added to the main stand at the cost of £ 6 @.@ 5 million . It was opened in 2001 , increasing the main stand 's capacity to 11 @,@ 000 , and the ground 's capacity to 25 @,@ 000 .
Richmond also planned to increase the main stand 's capacity by a further 1 @,@ 800 seats by building new changing rooms and office blocks , and add a second tier to the Midland Road stand , to increase the ground capacity to more than 35 @,@ 000 . However , the club went into administration in May 2002 , and Richmond was replaced by new co @-@ owners Julian Rhodes and Gordon Gibb . The following year , Valley Parade was sold to Gibb 's pension fund for £ 5 million , with the club 's offices , shop and car park sold to London @-@ based Development Securities for an additional £ 2 @.@ 5 million . Bradford City 's annual rent bill in 2011 to Gibb 's pension fund is £ 370 @,@ 000 . The total budget for the year , including other rent payments , rates , maintenance and utility bills is £ 1 @.@ 25 million .
The ground has been renamed a number of times for sponsorship reasons . Sponsors have included The Pulse radio station , Bradford & Bingley and Intersonic . The ground has been named the Coral Windows Stadium since July 2007 in a three @-@ year deal , but is still commonly known throughout football as Valley Parade .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium is divided into five all @-@ seater stands , the JCT600 Stand , the Kop , the Midland Road Stand , the North West Corner and the TL Dallas Stand . All five stands are covered except for a small part of the main stand , and all but the Midland Road Stand being two @-@ tiered . Most of the stands are cantilever structures , and because of the ground 's location on the hillside , the Midland Road Stand overhangs the road .
Many of the stands have more traditional names , but have since been renamed because of sponsorship deals . The JCT600 Stand is the ground 's main stand , and is often called the latter by fans , but is also known as the Sunwin stand owing to the former sponsor . The Kop , was the former standing area , and its name was derived , like at many stadia across the country , from the Battle of Spion Kop . The East Stand , sponsored by Northern Commercials , is also named the Midland Road stand , because of the road on that side of the ground . The TL Dallas Stand is also known as the Bradford end , because it is nearest to the city centre .
The total capacity of Valley Parade is 25 @,@ 136 . The largest stand is the JCT600 Stand , which holds 9 @,@ 004 supporters , followed by the Kop , which has a capacity of 7 @,@ 492 . The Midland Road Stand holds 4 @,@ 500 , and the North West Corner 2 @,@ 300 . The TL Dallas Stand is the smallest of the five stands with a capacity of 1 @,@ 840 . The stadium includes 134 seats for media representatives .
The Sunwin Stand has further room for expansion , and is unusual because it only runs three @-@ quarters of the length of the pitch . The rest of this side is taken up by a brick building , situated in the south west corner of the stadium , which houses the club changing rooms and the security offices . The Sunwin Stand also includes the ground 's 17 executive boxes and conference facilities , which have capacity for up to 700 people . A second function room , called the Bantams Bar , in the Kop , has room for another 300 people . There is also more office space , a club store , ticket office and museum in the car park behind the Kop . From early 2010 , the area near the store will also include a dental surgery , which will be run by NHS Bradford and Airedale in partnership with the football club .
Visiting team fans sat in the TL Dallas Stand from 1995 to 2008 , but have also been given other parts of the ground for larger matches . In March 2008 , the club announced that the TL Dallas Stand would be made available for home fans for the 2008 – 09 season . The decision came after an overwhelmingly positive text message poll from the club 's supporters to use the Bradford End of the ground . Visiting team fans have been accommodated in the end blocks of the East Stand since the start of the 2008 – 09 season . Since the 2013 @-@ 14 Season away fans have moved back to the TL Dallas stand .
= = Fire disaster = =
On 11 May 1985 , a crowd of 11 @,@ 076 attended Bradford City 's final Division Three game of the 1984 – 85 season against Lincoln City . The Bradford side had secured the Division Three title the week before when they defeated Bolton Wanderers 2 – 0 . The league trophy was presented to City 's skipper Peter Jackson before the Lincoln game . The score was still 0 – 0 after 40 minutes of the game , when a small fire was noticed three rows from the back of the ground 's main stand . The flames became more visible within minutes , and police started to evacuate people in the stand less than six minutes later . Club chairman Stafford Heginbotham , who was in the main stand , described the effect and his reaction to the disaster : " The fire just spread along the length of the stand in seconds . The smoke was choking . We couldn 't breathe . It was to be our day . " The game was stopped , and the wooden roof caught fire . The fire spread the length of the stand , and timber and the roof began to fall onto the crowds . Black smoke enveloped the rear passageways , where fans were trying to escape . Ultimately , the fire killed 56 spectators , ranging from 11 @-@ year @-@ old children to the 86 @-@ year @-@ old former chairman of the club , Sam Firth . At least 265 further supporters were injured . The few existing narrow escape routes led to locked doors in some cases , and the only escape for most spectators was directly onto the field . The match was abandoned and never replayed , with The Football League ordering the scoreline at the time of abandonment to stand .
Sir Oliver Popplewell published his inquiry into the fire in 1986 , which introduced new safety legislation for sports grounds across the country . Forensic scientist David Woolley believed the cause of the fire was from a discarded cigarette or match , which had dropped through gaps between the seating to a void below the stand where rubbish had built up . A number of police officers and 22 spectators were later awarded bravery awards for their deeds on the day .
The old wooden roof of the stand was due to be replaced the day after the Lincoln match , because it did not meet the safety regulations required for Division Two , where the team would be playing in the following season . Instead , it took until July 1986 for rebuilding work to begin . The ground was used for reserve team fixtures from September 1985 , but only journalists and club officials were present to watch . Bradford City 's senior team played home games at other grounds in West Yorkshire for 19 months while Valley Parade was rebuilt . The new ground cost £ 2 @.@ 6 million to rebuild , and was reopened in December 1986 .
More than £ 3 @.@ 5 million was raised for victims of the fire and their families through the Bradford Disaster Appeal Fund . Memorials have been erected at the ground and at Bradford City Hall , the latter of which was provided by Bradford 's twin town of Hamm , in Germany . The disaster is also marked by an annual remembrance ceremony on 11 May at Bradford City Hall , and an annual Easter @-@ weekend youth tournament , contested between Bradford , Lincoln and other teams from across Europe .
= = Other uses = =
Valley Parade hosted its first international football game just two months after its first Football League match . The game 's governing bodies wanted to promote the sport in the West Riding of Yorkshire , so chose Valley Parade to host a game between an English League side and an Irish League side , despite the ground not being up to standard . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 spectators attended the match on 10 October 1903 , which the English League won 2 – 1 . Over the next 20 years the ground hosted a number of other representative games , including an England international trial , the 1904 FA Amateur Cup Final and an under @-@ 15s schoolboy international between England and Scotland . But it was not until 6 April 1987 that the ground hosted another international when England under @-@ 18s drew 1 – 1 with Switzerland . Other under @-@ 18 fixtures have been played since , the last of which was between England and Belgium in November 2000 . It hosted two England under @-@ 21 international friendlies . The first was against Denmark ’ s under @-@ 21 ’ s on 8 October 1999.The hosts thrashed the visitors 4 - 1 . The other was against Italy ’ s under @-@ 21 ’ s 26 March 2002 @.@ it ended in a 1 - 1 draw with 21 @,@ 642 in attendance . Valley Parade 's next international came seven years later when Bradford City hosted an under @-@ 19s European Championship qualifying game , in which England defeated Slovakia 4 – 1 . The England women 's team have also played at Valley Parade , including their first home match under the auspices of The Football Association in 1994 against Spain .
Bradford ( Park Avenue ) have played 29 games at Valley Parade , including a 2 – 0 friendly victory over Swiss side AC Lugano in 1962 , and all their home fixtures in 1973 – 74 , their last season before extinction . Bradford 's rugby league side Bradford Northern played a number of fixtures at Valley Parade between 1920 and 1937 , as well as three games in the 1980s and 1990s . Northern became Bradford Bulls with the advent of the Super League , and played two seasons at Valley Parade in 2001 and 2002 during redevelopment of their home ground at Odsal .
During , before and after the years of the First World War the 1 / 2nd and 2 / 2nd West Riding Brigade Royal Field Artillery ( Territorial Force ) had its headquarters at Valley Parade .
= = Records = =
The record attendance at Valley Parade is 39 @,@ 146 , for Bradford City 's FA Cup fourth round tie against Burnley on 11 March 1911 . The highest league attendance of 37 @,@ 059 , was for a Bradford derby match between Bradford City and Bradford ( Park Avenue ) on 17 September 1927 in Division Three ( North ) . The record all @-@ seated attendance record at Valley Parade is 24 @,@ 321 , set on 7 March 2015 in the FA Cup Sixth Round draw with Reading , surpassing the previous record of 23 @,@ 971 , set on 10 December 2012 in the Football League Cup victory over Arsenal . The lowest attendance for a league home match at Valley Parade is 1 @,@ 249 , on 15 May 1981 , for a Division Four fixture with Hereford United . The record gate receipts that Bradford City have received are £ 181 @,@ 990 for the Premier League game with Manchester United on 13 January 2001 .
Official attendance figures for league games were not kept by The Football League until 1925 . City 's official highest average attendance at Valley Parade since then is 18 @,@ 551 for the 1928 – 29 promotion season from Division Three ( North ) , although the club reported an average of 22 @,@ 585 in 1920 – 21 . It was not until City were promoted to the Premier League in 1999 that the club again recorded average attendances of higher than 18 @,@ 000 . City recorded an average of 18 @,@ 030 in 1999 – 2000 , and 18 @,@ 511 the following season .
During their two years at Valley Parade , the Bradford Bulls recorded their highest attendance on 4 March 2001 against St Helens with a crowd of 16 @,@ 572 . The Bulls averaged 11 @,@ 488 in 2002 for Super League VII . The highest crowd for a Bradford Northern fixture at Valley Parade was 20 @,@ 973 on 13 February 1926 for a Challenge Cup game against Keighley , which finished 2 – 2 .
= = Transport = =
Bradford is served by two railway stations . They are Bradford Interchange , which is also the city 's main bus terminus , and 1 mile ( 2 km ) away from the ground , and Bradford Forster Square , which is 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) away from the ground . Bradford Interchange connects to Leeds railway station for Virgin Trains East Coast and CrossCountry train services , Grand Central provide a direct service to London , and provides First Bradford and Transdev in Keighley buses to the ground . Forster Square , which provides train services operated by Northern Rail , also connects to Leeds . The stadium has no parking facilities available to supporters on matchdays . In 2000 , as part of the expansion of Valley Parade , the club drew up a green transport plan in a bid to ease traffic congestion around the ground . Proposals included a new railway station on the line between Leeds and Bradford Forster Square , and a discounted bus service . No station has ever been built , and a discounted bus route was withdrawn because of low patronage .
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= Pilot ( The Office ) =
" Pilot " is the first episode of the first season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's first episode overall . The episode premiered in the United States on NBC on March 24 , 2005 . The episode 's teleplay was adapted by Greg Daniels from the original script of the first episode of the British version written by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant . The episode was directed by Ken Kwapis .
In this episode , a documentary crew arrives at the Scranton , Pennsylvania offices of Dunder Mifflin to observe the employees and learn about modern management . Manager Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) tries to paint a happy picture in the face of potential downsizing from corporate . The office also gets new employee Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) as a temporary worker , while Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) pranks antagonist Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) .
" Pilot " debuted The Office as a midseason replacement for the 2004 – 05 season . The episode was primarily adapted from the first episode of the British series , although it was partially re @-@ scripted in an attempt to " Americanize " the new show . Although the episode was a ratings success , receiving a 5 @.@ 0 / 13 in the Nielsen ratings among people aged 18 – 49 , and garnering 11 @.@ 2 million viewers overall , the episode received mixed reviews , with many critics criticizing it as a complete copy of the original .
= = Plot = =
We are introduced to Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , the regional manager of Dunder Mifflin , a paper @-@ production company that is currently under threat of facing downsizing . The news is delivered to him by the Vice President of Northeast Sales , Jan Levinson @-@ Gould , who , along with the other employees , can barely tolerate Michael ’ s foolish antics .
We are also introduced to a few of the other workers in the office , such as Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , a socially awkward salesman and part @-@ time , volunteer sheriff ’ s deputy , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , another salesman who enjoys playing pranks on Dwight , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , the receptionist on whom Jim harbors an obvious crush , and Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) , a temporary worker .
= = Production = =
The episode debuted the series as a midseason replacement for the 2004 – 05 season . The pilot is a direct adaptation of the first episode of the British version . Daniels had decided to go through this route because " completely starting from scratch would be a very risky thing to do " due to the show being an adaptation . Although the episode was primarily adapted from the first episode of the British series , it was partially re @-@ scripted in an attempt to " Americanize " it . Jokes such as Dwight 's stapler being put in Jell @-@ O by Jim were transferred verbatim from the original series , while others were only slightly changed . Although later reshot , a scene in which Jim tapes pencils to his desk was originally filmed as a parallel to a scene in the British version , in which Tim Canterbury stacks up cardboard boxes in front of Gareth Keenan to restrict Keenan 's view of Canterbury . The table reading for the pilot episode of The Office was held on February 10 , 2005 . " Pilot " was filmed almost six months prior to beginning of filming on the second episode of the season , " Diversity Day " . The Office used no laugh tracks in the " Pilot " , wanting its " deadpan " and " absurd " humor to fully come across .
= = = Casting = = =
NBC programmer Kevin Reilly originally suggested Paul Giamatti to producer Ben Silverman for the role of Michael Scott , but the actor declined . Martin Short , Hank Azaria and Bob Odenkirk were also reported to be interested . In January 2004 , Variety reported Steve Carell , of the popular Comedy Central program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , was in talks to play the role . At the time , he was already committed to another NBC mid @-@ season replacement comedy , Come to Papa , but the series was quickly canceled , leaving him fully committed to The Office . Carell later stated he had only seen about half of the original pilot episode of the British series before he auditioned . He did not continue watching for fear that he would start copying Gervais ' characterizations . Rainn Wilson , who was cast as the power @-@ hungry sycophant Dwight Schrute , watched every episode of the series before he auditioned . Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael , a performance he described as a " terrible Ricky Gervais impersonation " ; however , the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more and hired him for the role .
John Krasinski and Jenna Fischer were virtual unknowns before being cast in their respective roles as Jim and Pam , the central love interests . Krasinski had attended school with , and was a friend of B. J. Novak . Krasinski recalled accidentally insulting Greg Daniels while waiting to audition for the series , telling him , " I hope [ the show 's developers ] don 't screw this up . " Daniels then introduced himself and told Krasinski who he was . Fischer prepared for her audition by looking as boring as possible , creating the original Pam hairstyle . In an interview on NPR 's Fresh Air , Fischer recalled the last stages of the audition process for Pam and Jim , with the producers partnering the different potential Pams and Jims ( four of each ) together to gauge their chemistry . When Fischer finished her scene with Krasinski , he told her that she was his favorite Pam , to which she reciprocated that he was her favorite Jim . Many actors originally filmed as extras in this episode would later go on to become supporting cast members in later episodes , and the two women wearing blue sweaters towards the back of the room at the staff meeting scene were actual accountants that worked on the production staff .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pilot " premiered on NBC on March 24 , 2005 . The episode received a 5 @.@ 0 / 13 in the Nielsen ratings among people aged 18 – 49 , meaning that 5 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds viewed the episode . The episode garnered 11 @.@ 2 million viewers overall . " Pilot " ranked as the number one show in the key 18 – 49 demographic , outperforming all five of its network competitors . In addition , the episode ranked as the third most @-@ watched show for that evening . With over 11 million views , it is the second most watched episode of the series , after the fifth season episode " Stress Relief , " which attracted 22 @.@ 9 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Pilot " received mixed reviews after its premiere . Many sources deemed it another failed American reincarnation of a British show . A reviewer form the Deseret Morning News said , " Maybe , after The Office dies a quick death on NBC , the network will decide that trying to Americanize British TV comedies isn 't such a great idea . " The New York Daily News said the show was " neither daring nor funny " , adding that " NBC 's version is so diluted there 's little left but muddy water " . The Los Angeles Times complained that Steve Carell , who portrays Scott and also appeared in the movie Anchorman : The Legend of Ron Burgundy , was " too cartoon " and said : " Lost in translation is the sadness behind the characters . "
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C + and felt that it was a lackluster copy of the original . He noted that " the fatal flaw of this episode — though it could ’ ve been a proviso in the licensing agreement signed by Gervais and Merchant — involves dropping reminders of the U.K. Office ’ s pilot left and right " , and that " this episode pales in comparison " to the original British version . However , Adams complimented the character of Pam , noting that " she ’ s also the embodiment of a certain grounded , de @-@ glamorized look and tone these early episodes sold well — before subsequent seasons dropped them along with the most obvious concessions to the ' workplace documentary ' conceit . "
Although many perceived the first episode to have been a failure , some outlets praised the new show . While berating the show for coming across " slowly and painfully " , the Boston Globe said that " it is funny " . In relation to past failed shows adapted from British shows , the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette stated " Despite botching the American remake of the Britcom Coupling , NBC makes a pretty good effort in its version of The Office in duplicating the original 's ethos while injecting it with an American sensibility . "
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= Pail closet =
A pail closet or pail privy was a room used for the disposal of human excreta , under the pail system ( or Rochdale system ) of waste removal . The closet was a small outhouse ( privy ) which contained a seat , underneath which a portable receptacle was placed . This bucket ( pail ) , into which the user would defecate , was removed and emptied by the local authority on a regular basis . The contents would either be incinerated or composted into fertiliser .
Although the more advanced water closet ( flush toilet ) was popular in wealthy homes , the lack of an adequate water supply and poor sewerage meant that in 19th @-@ century England , in working @-@ class neighbourhoods , towns and cities often chose dry conservancy methods of waste disposal . The pail closet was an evolution of the midden closet ( privy midden or midden closet ) , an impractical and unsanitary amenity considered a nuisance to public health . The pail system was popular in France and England , particularly in the historic Lancashire town of Rochdale , from which the system commonly took its name . The pail closet was not without its own problems ; if the pail was not emptied on a regular basis , it overflowed and became unhygienic . Some manufacturers lined the pail with absorbent materials , and other designs used mixtures of dry earth or ash to disguise the smell .
Improved water supplies and sewerage systems in England led directly to the replacement of the pail closet during the early 20th century . Municipal collection of pail toilets ( dunnies ) continued in Australia into the second half of the twentieth century . In the western world , it has now been almost completely replaced by the flush toilet .
= = Before the pail closet = =
Pail closets were used to dispose of human excreta , dirty water , and general household waste such as kitchen refuse and sweepings . The pail closet system was one of several methods of waste disposal in common use in the 19th century , others of which were the privy midden system , the pail system , and the dry @-@ earth system .
= = = Middens = = =
By 1869 , Manchester had a population of about 354 @,@ 000 people who were served by about 10 @,@ 000 water closets ( flush toilets ) and 38 @,@ 000 middensteads . An investigation of the condition of the city 's sewer network revealed that it was " choked up with an accumulation of solid filth , caused by overflow from the middens . " ( Middens and middensteads both refer to dunghills , ash pits , or refuse heaps . ) Such problems forced the city authorities to consider other methods of dealing with human excretion . Although the water closet was used in wealthy homes , concerns over river pollution , costs and available water supplies meant that most towns and cities chose more labour @-@ intensive dry conservancy systems . Manchester was one such city and by 1877 its authorities had replaced about 40 @,@ 000 middens with pail and midden closets , rising to 60 @,@ 000 by 1881 . The soil surrounding the old middens was cleared out , connections with drains and sewers removed and dry closets erected over each site . A contemporary estimate stated that the installation of about 25 @,@ 000 pail closets removed as much as 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of urine and accompanying faeces from the city 's drains , sewers and rivers .
The midden closet was a development of the privy , which had evolved from the primitive " fosse " ditch . Midden closets were still used in the latter part of the 19th century but were rapidly falling out of favour . A Mr Redgrave , in a speech to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1876 , said that the midden closet represented " ... the standard of all that is utterly wrong , constructed as it is of porous materials , and permitting free soakage of filth into the surrounding soil , capable of containing the entire dejections from a house , or from a block of houses , for months and even years " . The 1868 Rivers Pollution Commission reported two years later : " privies and ashpits are continually to be seen full to overflowing and as filthy as can be ... These middens are cleaned out whenever notice is given that they need it , probably once half @-@ yearly on an average , by a staff of night @-@ men with their attendant carts . "
Midden closets were , therefore , generally insanitary and were also difficult to empty and clean . Later improvements , such as a midden closet built in Nottingham , used a brick @-@ raised seat above a concave receptacle to direct excreta toward the centre of the pit — which was lined with cement to prevent leakage into the surrounding soil . This closet was also designed with a special opening through which deodorising material could be scattered over the top of the pit . A special ventilation shaft was also installed . The design offered a significant improvement over the less advanced midden privy , but the problems of emptying and cleaning such pits remained and thus the pail system , with its easily removable container , became more popular .
= = The pail system = =
= = = Geographic spread = = =
The pail system was used throughout Europe , in French cities such as Marseille and Le Havre , and English towns and cities such as Leeds , Birmingham , and Manchester , but it was popular in the town of Rochdale , from which the Rochdale system of pail collection took its name . It was widespread in Australia too .
= = = The Rochdale system = = =
The Rochdale system was first used in 1869 . It used a wooden tub , or pail ( sometimes half of a petroleum barrel ) , which was placed under the closet seat . The pails were often circular ( to aid cleaning ) , and were designed to be easily handled and of a size that encouraged regular collections . The top of the pail carried a cast iron rim about 3 inches deep to receive a tight @-@ fitting inner lid . The pails were collected on a weekly basis during the day . Each pail was secured by its lid and loaded onto a sealed 24 @-@ bay wagon to be taken to a depot where they were emptied , cleaned and returned . While the pail was removed from the closet , a replacement was installed in its place . In 1874 , Rochdale Corporation employed five such wagons in full @-@ time service , collecting from 3 @,@ 354 privies spread across the town . By contrast , with a much larger population , Manchester Corporation employed 73 wagons . By 1875 , 4 @,@ 741 pails were in use , and in 1876 the number was 5 @,@ 566 . A separate cart accompanied the wagon to collect other household refuse which was collected from a separate chamber in the pail closet .
About 9 @,@ 000 long tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of night soil were collected in Rochdale each year , from a population of about 64 @,@ 000 — roughly 313 lb ( 142 kg ) per person . At the depot , the night soil was emptied into a storage tank . The pails were washed in a large trough using a mixture of chloride of lime and water . The night soil was then dried in revolving cylinders , using furnace heat from other borough refuse , before being transferred to so @-@ called drying plates . Gases were burnt in a furnace , the fumes escaping up a 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) chimney . Clinker from the remains of burnt refuse was used to make mortar . The manure works was a filthy environment , filled with dust . Enginemen were paid 7 ¼ d , firemen 6 ½ d , and general labourers 4 ½ d . The fertiliser was transported from the works via railway to local filtration plots for disposal .
Some pails were supplied with deodorants such as iron sulphate . Manchester Corporation attempted to remove the smell of putrefaction by attaching cinder @-@ sifters to their closets so that fine ash could be poured on top of the excrement . The Goux system , invented in the 1860s by Pierre Nicholas Goux , a landowner near Paris , and widely used in France , overcame some of the more common problems associated with pail closets by lining the pail with an absorbent material . The Rochdale Corporation experimented with Goux 's design for several months but settled instead on a system which used smaller pails . Goux 's system did , however , find a home in Halifax , where it was used in more than 3 @,@ 000 closets after 1870 . The wooden pails used in Halifax were oval in cross @-@ section ( about 24 by 19 inches ) and 16 inches deep . Each was lined at the sides and bottom with a mixture of refuse , such as straw , grass , street sweepings , wool , hair , and even seaweed . This lining , which was formed by a special mould and to which sulphate of lime was added , was designed to help remove the smell of urine , slow putrefaction and keep the excreta dry . Pails were collected between 7 am and 5 : 30 pm . Members of the public occasionally complained about the smell , which usually occurred when a pail was left to overflow , such as in winter 1875 when severe weather conditions prevented the horse @-@ pulled collection wagons from reaching the closets .
= = = Other systems = = =
In some areas , an earth closet was used . Invented by Henry Moule , this system used a metal container as with the pail system , but small amounts of a mixture of peat , dry earth and ashes were used to cover the excreta , removing any smells almost immediately . These deodorisers were often applied with a small scoop or shovel , but more elaborate systems existed where the powder was kept in a box near the seat , with a small handle to control the amount deposited on the excrement . Charcoal — which could be obtained cheaply from street @-@ sweepings — and sawdust were also used to good effect . The process was more expensive than the simpler pail system . The mixture of earth and excreta could often be dried and re @-@ used , but the fear of infections spread by bacteria meant that it was sometimes used instead as a garden fertiliser .
Earth closets were usually housed in a separate building from the main structure and were well ventilated . As with the pail system , earth closet containers were designed to be emptied frequently . The earth closet was popular and was used in private houses , military camps , hospitals and extensively in India . It remained in use well into the 1930s .
= = Disadvantages = =
From a sanitary perspective , the pail system of waste removal was imperfect . Excreta and other general waste were often left above ground for hours , sometimes even days at a time . In his report on the Goux system used in Salford , the epidemiologist John Netten Radcliffe commented : " In every instance where a pail had been in use over two or three days , the capacity of absorption of the liquid dejections , claimed by the patentee for the absorbent material , had been exceeded ; and whenever a pail had been four or five days a week in use , it was filled to the extent of two thirds or more of its cavity , with liquid dejections , in which the solid excrement was floating . "
The pail closet contained several important design considerations . In his 1915 essay to the American Public Health Association , author Richard Messer described some of the more commonly encountered problems :
Any of these [ pails ] should be provided with handles and be held in place by guide pieces nailed to the floor . Too often no mention is made of the latter in the specifications . Wooden boxes are unsatisfactory for they soon become leaky due to warping , are too heavy to handle and hold excreta long enough to permit the breeding of flies . To keep flies away from the receptacle is a difficult matter . The hinged door at the rear , being exposed to weather , soon warps , leaving openings around the edges , the self @-@ closing seat cover fails to operate properly due to rusty hinges and the front door is seldom kept closed ... The lack of proper attention in regard to cleaning is perhaps the principal drawback to this style of privy and one which makes it practically a failure for general use . In towns it is becoming more and more difficult to find anyone willing to do this kind of work and in rural districts the privy is usually neglected .
= = Popularity = =
Following the successes seen in various northern towns , about 7 @,@ 000 pail closets were introduced in 1871 in Leicester , where the implementation of water closets had been hindered by the refusal of the water company to provide adequate supplies . The use of pail closets reduced the demand placed upon the area 's inadequate sewerage system , but the town suffered with difficulties in the collection and treatment of the night soil . Initially , night soil was collected by contractors , but after 1873 the local authority became responsible . The authority found dealing with the night soil an expensive and difficult business and , following legal proceedings against the corporation in 1878 , transport of night soil was transferred from the railway system to canal barges . This , however , led to complaints that the canal was being polluted . In 1886 , the authority found that the River Soar was badly polluted by sewage and so they built a sewage farm at Beaumont Leys . By the end of the 19th century , this and the construction of a new sewer system enabled all pail closets to be phased out and replaced by water closets . In Manchester , faced with phenomenal population growth , the council attempted to retain the pail closet system , but following the exposure of the dumping of 30 – 60 long tons ( 30 – 61 t ) of human faeces into the Medlock and Irwell rivers at their Holt Town sewage works , the council was forced to change their plans . Originally they had intended to build incinerators , but public objections to the dumping of waste into rivers forced the council instead to purchase Carrington Moss in 1886 , and Chat Moss in 1895 , which were both developed as refuse disposal sites . But by the 1930s neither site was still receiving night soil , the water closet having replaced dry conservancy in Manchester .
= = = Decline and end = = =
In Coventry , the number of pail closets in use declined from about 712 in 1907 , to 92 in 1912 , and only 16 by 1926 .
Pail toilets with municipal collection persisted in Australia well into the second half of the twentieth century . Brisbane , its third most populous city , relied on " dunny carts " until the 1950s ( one source says until the 1970s ) ; because the population was so dispersed , it was difficult to install sewerage . Tar , creosote , and disinfectant kept the smell down . Academic George Seddon claimed that " the typical Australian back yard in the cities and country towns " had , throughout the first half of the twentieth century , " a dunny against the back fence , so that the pan could be collected from the dunny lane through a trap @-@ door "
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= Yu Narukami =
Yu Narukami ( 鳴上 悠 , Narukami Yū ) is a fictional character introduced in Atlus 's role @-@ playing game Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 . As the protagonist of the game , Yu is a silent character whose thoughts and actions are decided by the player . He appears as a high school student who moves to Inaba to live with his uncle and cousin while his parents are busy working . Shortly after arriving to Inaba , Yu starts investigating a murder case alongside his school mates and explores an alternate dimension where he obtains a power known as " Persona " to confront the " Shadows " , the creatures who have murdered the first victims . Yu has also appeared in other works related to Persona 4 , including an anime adaptation called Persona 4 : The Animation , a manga version , and several sequels and spin @-@ offs to the game . For these works , Yu received his own characterization and development in the stories . He has been voiced by Daisuke Namikawa in Japanese and Johnny Yong Bosch in English .
The protagonist of Persona 4 was designed by Shigenori Soejima who aimed to create an ambiguous character who could appeal to most players by way of reflecting several feelings towards them and through his mannerisms . For the anime , director Seiji Kishi expressed difficulties in giving the character emotions without damaging what the original staff created . Nevertheless , Yu 's characterization in the anime has been a subject of praise due to his portrayal as a mostly silent teenager whose few lines are related to the plot and in some cases , a source of comedy .
= = Character creation and traits = =
Character designer Shigenori Soejima made Yu with the idea that his entire personality be decided and portrayed by the player 's in @-@ game actions and decisions . As a result , he wanted Yu to look more ambiguous than Makoto Yuki , the protagonist of Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 . Soejima compared Yu to the Blue Ranger from the Power Rangers franchise as such character tends to stand silent to follow the orders from his leader . His character design stayed relatively similar to its initial conception , with his tone and facial expressions changing the most . The feature Soejima focused on most was his eyes : he thought that having his eyes under the fringe of his hair would make him " look cool . " The collar of his school uniform was made to stand a bit taller than other characters ' . In order to emphasize his being from a city , Yu was given a distinct , stylish haircut to contrast with other citizens of Inaba , a small town Yu moves to in the game . While designing the character , Soejima noted " the main character needs to be well @-@ rounded enough to be likeable , but also needs that extra little something to make him stand out from the rest of the cast . " He made a " baby face " sketch of the character so that he and the staff could discover Yu 's " special something " and discuss what would make him stand out as the protagonist .
Yu 's voice acting has been handled by Daisuke Namikawa in Japanese and Johnny Yong Bosch in English . Bosch felt uneasy about voicing Yu due to the fact he also voiced another character from the game , Tohru Adachi . However , when he initially learned that the protagonist would have very few lines , his worry evaporated . It was first planned that Yu 's voice actor for the anime would be recast , because he and Adachi would begin to interact several more times . However , in the end Bosch remained as the voice of Yu to avoid disappointing the game players . In order to solve the problem of having both of his characters sound too similar , he decided to speak in a lower register for Yu .
= = = Differences in adaptations = = =
In the initial Persona 4 game , the main player @-@ controlled character is known simply as the " Protagonist " or " Hero " , whose name is decided by the player . The name " Yu Narukami " was first given to the character in the 2011 anime adaptation , Persona 4 : The Animation , and has since been used in official games where the character is unable to be named by the player , beginning with Persona 4 Arena . Prior to this , he was given the name of Sōji Seta in the game 's manga adaptation . In an interview , game director Katsura Hashino drew attention to the way in which the Protagonist remains silent and emotionless throughout the game . This leaves the player to interpret the Protagonist 's emotional reactions subjectively at any particular point . Hashino elaborated on this particular character trait becoming an obstacle for Persona 4 : The Animation 's director Seiji Kishi , since the character would undoubtedly have to speak and show some level of emotion . In the same interview , Kishi admitted the difficulty of transitioning the silent Protagonist into the anime without destroying what Hashino had already established .
A unique gesture of Yu 's in the anime occurs when he unbuttons his school jacket when summoning a Persona for the first time . Kishi noted this as being a " key " moment of " opening something that was closed . " However , he refrained from explaining its deeper meaning , leaving it instead as something for the viewers to ponder and hence helping them enjoy the adaptation much more . Another aspect made possible in the anime was Yu 's cool and composed nature during battle scenes . Hashino elaborated that it was possible to create such an attitude by having the fighting solely done by the Personas , thus establishing Yu as an emotionally strong character — something which " would have lost its significance if he was given a weapon . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Persona 4 = = =
In Persona 4 , Yu Narukami is a high school student who moves to the countryside of Inaba to live with his uncle Ryotaro Dojima and cousin Nanako Dojima for a year as a result of his parents working abroad , and attends Yasogami High School where he meets most of the game 's cast . Upon learning of the Midnight Channel 's connection with the murders in Inaba , Yu gains access to the TV world , where he investigates the case alongside his friends and is appointed as their leader as a result of his experience . There he awakens his initial Persona , Izanagi ( イザナギ ) , a swordsman wearing a black coat , which he uses to fight embodiements of humans ' negative feelings , the Shadows .
Yu also has the unique " Wild Card " ( ワイルド , Wairudo ) ability , which allows him to swap Personas for use in battle . This is tied with the Social Links ( Community ( コミュニティ , Komyuniti ) in Japan ) mechanic : each bond Yu makes with other characters grants him access to more and much stronger Personas , each named after one of the Major Arcana of the Tarot deck . Yu 's own Arcana is The Fool , representing the group as a whole and personified by Izanagi , which later becomes the Judgement , when the Investigation Team realizes that Taro Namatame is not responsible for his actions and begin to seek out the real culprit behind the Inaba events ( This bond is represented by the Persona Lucifer ( ルシファー , Rushifā ) in the anime ) . After closing the serial murder case , Yu learns he gained his powers from the goddess Izanami who had been posing as the Moel gas station attendant and aims to transform people into Shadows . Yu defeats Izanami by transforming Izanagi into Izanagi @-@ no @-@ Okami ( 伊邪那岐大神 , Izanagi @-@ no @-@ Ōkami ) , representing The World , thanks to the power he gained from his many friends through Social Links . He then returns to his hometown , saying farewell to his friends .
= = = In Persona 4 : Arena = = =
In the fighting game Persona 4 Arena , Yu returns to Inaba and goes to the TV World alongside his friends to investigate a fighting tournament promoted in the Midnight Channel . As the group is unable to find the mastermind behind the competition , the Investigation Team decides to search for him . He fights using Izanagi , though during its strongest attack it transforms in Izanagi @-@ no @-@ Okami . His moveset was balanced for the sequel to make him more versatile as a result of comments regarding his character being too strong in the first game . The author behind Arena 's manga , Aiyakyuu , said that Yu was his favorite character and that whenever he draws him he thinks " Yu is so cool ! " Aiyakyuu also mentioned having trouble making the fight scene between Yu and Akihiko Sanada from Persona 3 as " Both characters wouldn 't easily lose to anyone . "
= = = Persona 4 adaptations = = =
In the Persona 4 manga , he is named Sōji Seta ( 瀬多 総司 , Seta Sōji ) and is depicted as a distant but otherwise friendly teenager due having to move frequently as a result of his parents ' changing careers . He is also a supporting character in the manga Persona 4 : The Magician with the name of Yu Narukami . In the events of The Animation , Yu faces his own Shadow that reveals his repressed fear of moving away from Inaba and losing his friends , a fact that Yu accepts and acknowledges as the truth , enabling him to best Margaret in combat so he can face Izanami 's true form . He later appears in Persona 4 : The Golden Animation , which focuses on new events not featured in the previous series , showcasing some slight differences in personality from that of the previous series . In the live stage production , he was portrayed by Toru Baba and his name was chosen by the audience .
= = = Other games = = =
Yu appears alongside Persona 3 's protagonist in the 2014 game , Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth , in which he joins forces with the Persona 3 cast to escape the mysterious labyrinth that they have been trapped inside of , while at the same time working to restore the memories of the mysterious Zen and Rei . Yu will also appear in the upcoming rhythm game , Persona 4 : Dancing All Night , where his friend Rise Kujikawa asks for his help . Yu also appears in Square Enix 's arcade card game Lord of Vermilion Re : 2 as a summon spell .
= = Reception = =
Yu Narukami 's character has generally been well received . His role has been noted for allowing the player to build a unique " self " during the game while questioning their real @-@ life identity . Additionally , the protagonist 's relationships with his relatives with whom he starts living were praised for adding more variants to the relationships with these ones focusing on family relationships . Kotaku 's Jason Schreier got to call him " suave , handsome , and charming . He 's friends with everyone , all the girls want to be with him , and in general he 's just an all @-@ around badass . "
The character 's role in the anime adaptation of Persona 4 earned similar response . A reviewer from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews commented that Yu " seems to be the aggregate of all the quirkiest possible choices you could make in the game , " making him likable character for his diverse scenes . When first watching the Persona 4 anime , Elliot Page from UK Anime Network noted that although Yu was not a silent character as in the video game , he had little dialogue and the pacing managed to make up for it . In a later review , Andy Hanley from the same site said he liked how the protagonist was handled , as the staff used his " blank state " to create comedic interactions . Briana Lawrence from the Fandom Post shared similar feelings , stating that the staff " somehow managed to give a silent protagonist a personality that 's not only believable , but likable . " Lawrence appreciated how the character was developed across the series thanks to all the bonds he forms into a " snarky , lovable main character who can keep a straight face while being kicked off a cliff . " While also commenting how Yu manages to reinforce both the comical and " spooky " elements of the plot , Blu @-@ ray 's Jeffrey Kauffman noted he " remains something of a cipher throughout the series " with the possibility of having the viewer relate with him .
In contrast to most reviewers , Richard Eisenbeis from Kotaku had mixed opinions about the character . Calling him " one of the oddest characters in any work of fiction ever " , Eisenbeis found that his lack of backstory made it difficult for the viewer to predict his actions . However , he noted that , as well as being entertaining to watch , by the series ' end , Yu had " become a character in his own right . " However , he criticised Yu 's characterization in Persona 4 Arena and its sequel for being a stereotypical lawful @-@ good hero and less than a bland compared to the new character Sho Minazuki and Rise 's development . Additionally , he was rated sixth in the category " Best Male Character " from the Newtype anime awards from 2012 .
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= William Charles Osman Hill =
William Charles Osman Hill ( 13 July 1901 – 25 January 1975 ) was a British anatomist , primatologist , and a leading authority on primate anatomy during the 20th century . He is best known for his nearly completed eight @-@ volume series , Primates : Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy , which covered all living and extinct primates known at the time in full detail and contained illustrations created by his wife , Yvonne . Schooled at King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys in Birmingham and University of Birmingham , he went on to publish 248 works and accumulated a vast collection of primate specimens that are now stored at the Royal College of Surgeons of England .
= = Early life and education = =
William Charles Osman Hill was born on 13 July 1901 . He was educated first at King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Boys in Birmingham , and later obtained his degrees from the University of Birmingham . During medical school , also at the University of Birmingham , he won three junior student prizes and the Ingleby Scholarship in Midwifery . He obtained his primary medical degrees in 1924 , and the same year took on the role of lecturer in zoology . Osman Hill earned his MD with honours in 1925 . He also earned his Ch . B while in medical school .
= = Career = =
Upon graduation , Osman Hill continued his role as a lecturer at the University of Birmingham under an apprenticeship until 1930 , but teaching anatomy instead of zoology . In 1930 , his career took shape when he moved to Sri Lanka , then known as Ceylon , to become both Chair of Anatomy and Professor of Anatomy at the Ceylon Medical College ( more recently named Faculty of Medicine of the University of Colombo or Colombo Medical School ) . His position allowed him to pursue anthropological studies of the indigenous Veddah people and comparative anatomy of primates . During this time , he began developing a private menagerie of exotic and native species . Consisting mostly of a variety of primates and parrots , the collection reported included several types of cockatoo ( family Cacatuidae ) , red @-@ fan parrots ( Deroptyus accipitrinus ) , eclectus parrots ( Eclectus roratus ) , star tortoises ( genus Geochelone ) , leopard tortoises ( Stigmochelys pardalis ) , Galápagos tortoises ( Chelonoidis nigra ) , and ruddy mongooses ( Herpestes smithii ) . Osman Hill held this position in Ceylon for 14 years , returning to the UK after being appointed as Reader in Anthropology at the University of Edinburgh in 1945 . Upon his departure from Ceylon , his menagerie was divided between the London Zoo and the National Zoological Gardens of Sri Lanka .
Five years later in 1950 , he became prosector for the Zoological Society of London and remained there for twelve years . When he left the London Zoo in 1962 , the old prosectorium that has been his office was closed , many preserved biological specimens were discarded , and the era of anatomists working at the London Zoo — starting from the time of Richard Owen — came to a close . Between 1957 and 1958 , Osman Hill also acted as a visiting scholar at Emory University in Atlanta , Georgia . Later in 1958 , primatologist Jane Goodall studied primate behaviour under him in preparation for her studies of wild chimpanzees . In 1962 , he was hired as the assistant director of the Yerkes National Primate Research Center ( YNPRC ) in Atlanta after being turned down for the position of director .
The Royal Society of Edinburgh honoured him as a fellow in 1955 and for his contributions to science awarded him both its Gold Medal and the Macdougal @-@ Brisbane Prize . Upon his retiring from YNPRC in 1969 , the Royal College of Surgeons of England made him a Hunterian Trustee . Following retirement , Osman Hill divided his time between his home at Folkestone and his continued work at the University of Turin . His relentless work in anatomy ended only during the final stages of his terminal illness , after he had suffered three years of increased illness as well as diabetes .
= = Publications = =
During his career , Osman Hill wrote 248 publications , all academic journal articles or chapters in books based primarily upon his own observations . His first paper , which discussed the comparative anatomy of the pancreas , was published in 1926 . In all , his works , which continued being published until the year of his death , focused on the anatomy and behaviour of humans , primates , and other mammals .
Osman Hill is best known for writing Primates : Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy , an eight @-@ volume series that aimed to include all living and extinct primates . Published by Edinburgh University between 1953 and 1974 , the series was the culmination of 50 years of his scientific research and thought . Each volume , starting with the strepsirrhines , covered its subjects exhaustively , including native and scientific nomenclature , anatomical structure , genetics , behaviour and palaeontology . The books were illustrated with both photographs and drawings , most of which were made by his wife , Yvonne . The series was known for its breadth and depth , however it was never completed . Projected as a nine @-@ volume set , Osman Hill died in 1975 , leaving his magnum opus unfinished . With five sections of the final volume written , including material on the taxonomy and most of the anatomy of langurs , it was hoped that his widow would be able to follow through with plans to prepare and publish them . However , she died one year later .
This monographic series often received praise for its encyclopaedic content , but was also criticised for occasional omissions , errors , and lack of specificity .
= = = Selected publications = = =
The eight volumes for which Osman Hill is best remembered were
Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy ( 1953 – 1974 )
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1953 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy I — Strepsirhini . Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3 . Edinburgh University Press . OCLC 500576914 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1955 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy II — Haplorhini : Tarsioidea . Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3b . Edinburgh University Press . OCLC 500576923 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1957 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy III — Pithecoidea Platyrrhini . Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3c . OCLC 500576928 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1960 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy IV — Cebidae , Part A. Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3d . OCLC 500576933 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1962 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy IV — Cebidae , Part B. Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3e . OCLC 500576939 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1966 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy VI — Catarrhini Cercopithecoidea : Cercopithecinae . Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3f . OCLC 500576943 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1974 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy VII — Cynopithecinae ( Cercocebus , Macaca , Cynopithecus ) . Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3g . OCLC 613648477 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1970 ) . Primates Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy VIII — Cynopithecinae ( Papio , Mandrillus , Theropithecus ) . Edinburgh Univ Pubs Science & Maths , No 3h . OCLC 500576950 .
The following is a list of other selected publications written by Osman Hill between 1926 and 1974 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ; Phillips , W. W. A. ( 1932 ) . " A new race of slender loris from the highlands of Ceylon " . Ceylon Journal of Science ( B ) 17 : 109 – 122 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1933 ) . " A monograph of the genus Loris , with an account of the external , cranial and dental characters of the genus : A revision of the known forms ; And the description of a new form from Northern Ceylon " . Ceylon Journal of Science ( B ) 18 : 89 – 132 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1934 ) . " A monograph on the purple @-@ faced leaf @-@ monkeys ( Pithecus vetulus ) " . Ceylon Journal of Science ( B ) 19 : 23 – 88 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1942 ) . " The slender loris of the Horton Plains , Ceylon . Loris tardigradus nycticeboides subsp , nov " . Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 43 : 73 – 78 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1942 ) . " The highland macaque of Ceylon " . Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 43 : 402 – 406 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1945 ) . " Notes on the Dissection of Two Dugongs " . Journal of Mammalogy 26 ( 2 ) : 153 – 175 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1375092 . JSTOR 1375092 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ; Rewell , R. E. ( 1948 ) . " The caecum of primates . — Its appendages , mesenteries and blood supply " . The Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 26 : 199 – 256 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1096 @-@ 3642.1948.tb00223.x.
Hill , W. C. O. ( 1952 ) . " The external and visceral anatomy of the Olive Colobus Monkey ( Procolobus verus ) " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 122 : 127 – 186 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1469 @-@ 7998.1952.tb06315.x.
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1953 ) . " Note on the taxonomy of the genus Tarsius " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 123 : 13 – 16 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1096 @-@ 3642.1953.tb00149.x.
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1953 ) . " Caudal cutaneous specializations in Tarsius " . Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 123 : 17 – 26 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1096 @-@ 3642.1953.tb00150.x.
Osman Hill , W. C. ; Davies , D. V. ( 1954 ) . " The reproductive organs in Hapalemur and Lepilemur " . Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh ( B ) 65 : 251 – 270 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / s0080455x00014600 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ; Davies , D. V. ( 1956 ) . " The heart and great vessels in the Strepsirhini " . Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 63 ( 1 ) : 115 – 127 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / s0080456800003033 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ; Booth , A. H. ( 1957 ) . " Voice and larynx in African and Asiatic Colobidae " . Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 54 : 309 – 321 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1958 ) . " Pharynx , oesophagus , stomach , small and large intestine . Form and position " . In Hofer , H. ; Schultz , A. H. ; Starck , D. Primatologia 3 . Basel : Karger. pp. 139 – 207 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1958 ) . " External genitalia " . In Hofer , H. ; Schultz , A. H. ; Starck , D. Primatologia 3 . Basel : Karger. pp. 630 – 704 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1959 ) . " The Anatomy of Callimico goeldii ( Thomas ) : A Primitive American Primate " . Transactions of the American Philosophical Society . New Series 49 ( 5 ) : 1 – 116 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1005807 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1972 ) . Evolutionary Biology of Primates . Academic Press. p . 233 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 528750 @-@ 0 .
Osman Hill , W. C. ( 1972 ) . " Taxonomic status of the Macaques Macaca mulatta Zimm. and Macaca irus Cuvier ( = M. fascicularis Raffles ) " . Journal of Human Evolution 1 ( 1 ) : 49 – 72 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0047 @-@ 2484 ( 72 ) 90041 @-@ 3 .
= = Cryptozoology studies = =
In 1945 , Osman Hill published an article entitled " Nittaewo — An unsolved problem of Ceylon " , in which he speculated that a traditional Vedda story on Sri Lanka about savage dwarf @-@ like humanoids , called Nittaewo , might have referred to an isolated species of Homo erectus , then referred to as Java Man or Pithecanthropus . He went further to suggest that Homo erectus may also fit the description of the elusive and more well @-@ known cryptid called Orang Pendek from Sumatra . He supported his now @-@ defunct hypothesis by pointing out several shared similarities between the two islands , including comparable wildlife .
In the 1950s , he studied photographs of a relic from the Pangboche monastery in Nepal called the Pangboche Hand , which was claimed to be the hand of a Yeti , and decided that it belonged to an unknown anthropoid . However , after the a few bones from the relic were smuggled out of Nepal and brought to him for examination , he concluded that the bones had belonged to a human . He reportedly changed his mind later and declared the bones belonged to a Neanderthal . In 1961 , Osman Hill published an article entitled " Abominable snowmen : The present position " . After examining the evidence available at the time , he and other researchers decided that although the Yeti might still exist , the evidence was not conclusive . In time , he lost interest in the matter due to a lack of new evidence .
Based on his studies of the results of a March 1960 expedition , Osman Hill concluded that " ufiti " , or Bili ape , was a remarkable chimpanzee . Citing older reports of chimpanzees from the dense forests of Malawi , he suggested that the Bili ape represented an undiscovered subspecies of chimpanzee , more similar to the western chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes verus ) , despite being located nearer the eastern chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii ) .
= = Legacy = =
Osman Hill is remembered as a " distinguished anatomist " , " eminent primatologist " , and the foremost authority on primate anatomy of his time . However , he did not consider himself a primatologist , but instead related best to old @-@ school anatomists and naturalists , who studied the entire biological world and considered their own observations and recordings as sufficient . To these ends , he used his curiosity and broad knowledge of natural history .
Osman Hill was remembered for his skill at dissection , and was noted for his ability to make quick , but accurate sketches of the anatomical features his scalpel revealed . He is also remembered for his work as a " painstaking investigator " , physician , and anthropologist . In his honour , two species have been named after him : Osman Hill 's mangabey ( Lophocebus osmani ) and the Colombo wolf snake ( Lycodon osmanhilli ) . The Primate Society of Great Britain named their Osman Hill Medal award after him . The award is given every two years for distinguished contributions to primatology .
He is responsible for describing one subspecies of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata ) , the southern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( V. v. editorum ) in 1952 ; one subspecies of toque macaque ( Macaca sinica ) , the highland toque macaque ( M. s. opisthomelas ) in 1942 ; one subspecies of red slender loris ( Loris tardigradus ) , the Horton Plains slender loris ( L. t. nycticeboides ) in 1942 ; and two subspecies of grey slender loris ( Loris lydekkerianus ) , the highland slender loris ( L. l. grandis ) in 1932 and the dry zone slender loris ( L. l. nordicus ) in 1933 .
His extensive collection of biological primate specimens , which included tissues and skeletons , is preserved at the Royal College of Surgeons of England .
= = Personal life = =
Osman Hill married his wife , Yvonne Stranger , in 1947 . Yvonne , the only daughter of Harold Stranger KC , MP , was not only his devoted wife , but also a collaborator and illustrator of his works . The couple preferred a small , close @-@ knit circle of friends , and the dinners they hosted for their friends included the best wines and exotic dishes , such as python stew . Yvonne died close to a year after her husband .
Osman Hill was described in a memorial published in the International Journal of Primatology ( 1981 ) as being " short and rotund , with twinkling blue eyes , a quiet manner , and a strong sense of humor . " He was particularly remembered for his eagerness to help young researchers . In the Journal of Medical Primatology he was described as an " entertaining companion with a quick and ready wit . " In another memorial , published in the Journal of Anatomy in 1975 , he was described as friendly and tolerant , as well as " a merry man , vigorous , of humane culture , having the humour and good sense natural to those bred in the Provinces : a good Englishman . " He was known to value simple citizenship and academics , and held small regard for people who " aspired to monarchy . " At Yerkes in Atlanta , some staff members viewed him as " the archetypical English scholar @-@ gentleman who viewed those from the ' colonies ' as a step below the British . "
In the British Who 's Who , Osman Hill named field ornithology , botany , photography , and travel as his recreations . Other casual interests included drugstore ice cream , good eating , old buildings , and gardening with his wife .
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= Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant =
The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant began during the turbulent Reconstruction period following the American Civil War . Grant was elected the 18th President of the United States in 1868 and was re @-@ elected to the office in 1872 , serving from March 4 , 1869 , to March 4 , 1877 . Grant was a Republican , and his main supporters were the Radical and Stalwart factions . The United States was at peace with the world throughout the era , and was prosperous until the Panic of 1873 , a severe national depression , that dominated Grant 's second term . Grant bolstered the Executive Branch 's enforcement powers by signing into law the Department of Justice and Office of Solicitor General that was implemented to protect the civil rights of African Americans . Grant expanded federal authority that protected African American civil rights against domestic terrorism in the South . Grant 's presidency represented the Civil War values that included " union , freedom and equality . " Grant 's Reconstruction policy , however , was challenged by the complexities of using the U.S. Army to impose democracy and legal equality regardless of the resistance of Democrats in the South . Grant worked hard to ensure the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment that gave black men the right to vote . Grant 's notable efforts as President included civil rights , civil service reform , and Indian policy . Grant 's foreign policy under Hamilton Fish was successful and improved Anglo @-@ American relations .
Grant was opposed by the Liberal faction of the Republican Party , many of them founding fathers of the GOP , who denounced Grant for violating the party 's emphasis on fighting corruption . The Liberals insisted that Reconstruction had been successful , that slavery and secessionism were dead . Liberals demanded that Army troops should be withdrawn from the South so that normal political life could resume . The Liberals nominated long @-@ time Republican spokesman Horace Greeley in 1872 , depriving Grant of the intellectual base of the Republican Party . Greeley was quietly supported by the Democrats , but was decisively defeated by Grant . Rather than develop a cadre of trustworthy political advisers , Grant was overconfident in choosing his Cabinet ; he relied heavily on former Army associates who had a thin understanding of politics and a weak sense of civilian ethics . His presidential reputation was severely damaged by repeated scandals and frauds .
Having struggled to be a self @-@ made man , Grant was extremely loyal to himself and his family , while trusting of close military associates that in turn caused dissension among reformers whom he believed were plotting to overthrow his presidency . Grant dismissed three Cabinet members without notice or explanation . Two of his Cabinet secretaries ( War and Navy ) , his personal secretary , and high officials he named to the Treasury department joined federal bribery or tax @-@ evasion syndicates . Corruption charges were rampant in the Department of the Interior in 1874 , until Grant appointed a reformer . Grant often defended the culprits , rather than the integrity of government service , while he attacked their accusers . Middle @-@ class public opinion , a key element in the Republican Party base , turned hostile to Grant . Some scholars , however , maintain that corruption charges were exaggerated during the Grant administration , and that Grant implemented civil service reform and ended the moiety system .
Grant played a role in thwarting the Gold Ring in 1869 and the prosecution of the Whiskey Ring in 1875 . His Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont and Postmaster General John A. J. Creswell made sweeping reforms in their respected departments , and several of Grant 's Cabinet initiated civil service in their own departments . After a false start with weak selections , Grant named to his Cabinet leading reformers including Hamilton Fish , Benjamin Bristow , Alphonso Taft , and Amos T. Akerman . Fish , as Secretary of State , negotiated the Treaty of Washington and was successful at keeping the United States out of trouble with Britain and Spain . Bristow , as Secretary of Treasury , ended the corruption of the Whiskey Ring where distillers and corrupt officials made millions from tax evasion . Taft , a brilliant jurist as Attorney General , successfully negotiated for bipartisan panel to peacefully settle the controversial Election of 1876 . Grant and Attorney General Akerman enforced civil rights legislation that protected African Americans and destroyed the Ku Klux Klan . Grant encouraged peaceful Congressional negotiations after the controversial Election of 1876 ; signed the Electoral Commission Act of 1877 ; while the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction .
Economically , Grant was a conservative who favored a hard @-@ money , gold @-@ based , anti @-@ inflationary policy that entailed paying off the large national debt with gold . He reduced governmental spending , decreased the federal work force , and reduced the national debt , while tax revenues increased in the Treasury Department . During his second term in office , the Panic of 1873 , caused by rampant railroad speculation , shook the nation 's financial institutions ; banks failed , prices fell , and unemployment surged . Before the Panic there had been eight years of tremendous industrial growth after the Civil War that fueled lavish money making schemes , personal greed , and national corruption . President Grant 's contraction of money supply worsened the panic ; the ensuing major U.S. depression that followed lasted for five years causing massive economic damage to the country . The Panic wiped out both the fortunes of business and corruption . Southern Reconstruction continued that included escalated sectional violence over the status of freedmen and fractured state party alliances and elections .
With the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 , the West was wide open to expansionism that sometimes was challenged by hostile Native Americans . Grant implemented an innovative peace policy , though not always successful , with Native Americans . Hostilities took place with the Modoc War , the Red River War , and the Great Sioux War that culminated with the famous Battle of Little Bighorn where Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer was killed . In 1874 , millions of buffalo were being slaughtered to make room for settlers and ranchers . Grant , who favored ranchers land use for domestic cattle , rejected legislation that would have limited the slaughter of the bison . After the fatal Modoc peace commission in 1873 , Grant 's Native American policy incorporated the military strategies favored by William T. Sherman and Phil Sheridan . Grant gave legislative support to the early suffragette movement . Corruption was rampant in the Department of Indian Affairs under Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano . However , Grant and Secretary Delano did have success in the establishment of America 's first national park , Yellowstone , and the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation . The Interior Department corruption was cleaned up by Grant 's Secretary Zachariah Chandler in 1875 . Grant 's presidential legacy has suffered due to his heavy @-@ handed use of the U.S. Army to prop up his political allies in southern states . However , since the mid @-@ 1990s his presidential reputation has improved as historians emphasize his enforcement of African American civil rights in the South and his Peace policy towards Indians .
= = Presidency 1869 – 1877 = =
Grant 's presidency has traditionally been viewed by historians as incompetent and full of corruption . An examination of his presidency reveals Grant had both successes and failures during his two terms in office . In recent years historians have elevated his presidential rating because of his support for African American civil rights . He leaned heavily toward the Radical camp and often sided with their Reconstruction policies , signing into law Force Acts to prosecute the Ku Klux Klan . In foreign policy Grant won praise for the Treaty of Washington , settling the Alabama Claims issue with Britain through arbitration . Economically he sided with Eastern bankers and signed the Public Credit Act that paid U.S. debts in gold specie , but was blamed for the severe economic depression that lasted 1873 – 1877 . Grant , wary of powerful congressional leaders , was the first President to ask for a line item veto .
In the century after he left office most historians denounced the Reconstruction policies followed by Grant . More recently , Grant 's support for and enforcement of African Americans civil rights has earned him praise from scholars . While graft and corruption existed in the Southern state governments he supported with the Army , many civil rights advances were made for African Americans . He was vigorous in his enforcement of the 14th and 15th amendments and prosecuted thousands of persons who violated African American civil rights ; he used military force to put down political insurrections in Louisiana , Mississippi , and South Carolina .
The depression of 1873 , along with the increasingly unpopular Reconstruction program , weakened his reputation and his party , allowing the resurgent Democrats to gain a majority in the House of Representatives in 1875 . His Presidency was inundated with many scandals caused by low standards and carelessness with his political appointees and personal associates . Nepotism , practiced by Grant , was unrestrained with almost forty family members or relatives who financially benefited from government appointments or employment .
Grant and Sumner were often at odds with each other on matters of foreign policy and political patronage . Sumner followed his own foreign policy and detested Grant 's practice of nepotism in making political appointments . One historian , Mary L. Hinsdale , described the Grant Administration as " a most extraordinary array of departures from the normal course " and a " military " rule , in close connection with a select Republican Senatorial group . In an unsuccessful effort to annex the island country of Santo Domingo , Grant bypassed the State Department by sending his military associate Orville E. Babcock to produce the treaty . Grant disregarded the opinion of Attorney General Ebenezer R. Hoar over the McGarrahan mining claim patents .
Grant 's foreign policy was heavily influenced by the able Secretary of State Hamilton Fish . Grant depended on Fish 's advice on domestic issues such as money policy and Reconstruction . His Secretary of Treasury , George Boutwell , was given full charge of national economic policies . In 1874 , Grant began a series of appointments that included reformers and qualified statesmen to his Administration , starting with Benjamin Bristow who prosecuted the Whiskey Ring . With the departure of Orville E. Babcock and William W. Belknap from the White House in 1876 , the Grant Administration took on a civilian rather than " military " style .
= = Election of 1868 = =
There were two main divisive issues in 1868 . The first was the continued Reconstruction of the South . The Democrats advocated allowing former Confederate soldiers to hold elective offices , and the Republicans endorsed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution which allowed African Americans to vote . The other controversial issue concerned the redemption of war bonds either in gold or paper money known as greenbacks . The Democrats wanted to redeem the bonds with $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in greenbacks and the rest with gold . The greenbacks were known as " cheap money " and would be inflationary . The Republicans wanted to pay the redemption of war bonds only with gold , a position attractive to investors and bankers .
Finding a popular hero who endorsed their Reconstruction policies , the Republicans nominated Grant and Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax . The Democrats , ignoring politically damaged President Andrew Johnson ( who was a political independent ) , nominated Horatio Seymour – former governor of New York – and Francis P. Blair from Missouri . Seymour was a wealthy conservative who came under GOP attack for weakness during the war and favoring the anti @-@ war Copperheads . The campaigning was nasty , as the Republicans waved the " bloody shirt " of treason against the Democrats @-@ as @-@ Copperheads . Grant himself never campaigned , except for his slogan " Let us have peace " and his apology to Jewish voters for his 1862 General Order No. 11 that banned Jewish merchants from his zone during the Civil War because of alleged profiteering . Grant won with 52 @.@ 7 % of the popular vote and won by a landslide in the Electoral College with 214 votes to Seymour 's 80 votes . Grant was helped by the fact that six southern states were controlled by Radical Republicans who kept many ex @-@ Confederates from voting .
= = First Term 1869 – 1873 = =
= = = Cabinet = = =
Grant took an unorthodox approach to his cabinet choices , declining to consult with the Senate and keeping his choices secret until he submitted them for confirmation . Grant purposely avoided choosing Republican Party leaders in an effort to create national harmony . Out of personal loyalty , Grant appointed his friends Elihu B. Washburne to the State Department and John A. Rawlins as Secretary of War . Washburne served only twelve days before resigning over claims of ill @-@ health ; the plan was designed to give him greater diplomatic clout when Grant appointed him Minister to France . Grant then appointed Hamilton Fish , a conservative New York statesman , as Secretary of State . Fish would be Grant 's most successful appointment . His relationship with Fish grew out of a strong friendship between the two men 's wives . Rawlins later died of tuberculosis and was replaced by William W. Belknap . Grant selected several non @-@ politicians to his cabinet , including Adolph E. Borie and A.T. Stewart , with limited success . Borie served briefly as Secretary of Navy , replaced by George M. Robeson , while Stewart was lawfully prevented from becoming Secretary of Treasury by a 1789 statute and by Senator Charles Sumner 's and Senator Roscoe Conkling 's opposition to amend the law . In place of Stewart , Grant appointed George S. Boutwell , known for his integrity , as Secretary of Treasury . Grant 's other cabinet appointments — Jacob D. Cox ( Interior ) , John Creswell ( Postmaster General ) , and Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar ( Attorney General ) — were well @-@ received and uncontroversial . Some of Grant 's cabinet members did not even know their names were offered to the Senate for confirmation . Grant 's independent , at times problematic , manner in choosing his cabinet started a rift between Republican party veterans who were denied consultation .
= = = Modified Tenure of Office Act = = =
In March 1869 , President Grant made it known he desired the Tenure of Office Act repealed , stating it was a " stride toward a revolution in our free system " . The Tenure of Office Act was passed by Congress in 1867 , sponsored by Radical Republicans , to curb the power of the President Andrew Johnson in making government office appointments . The controversial law had been invoked during the impeachment trial of Johnson in 1868 . On March 5 , 1869 , a bill was brought before Congress to repeal the act , but Senator Charles Sumner was opposed , unwilling to give Grant a free hand in making appointments . Grant , to bolster the repeal effort , declined to make any new appointments except for vacancies , until the law was overturned , thus , agitating political office seekers to pressure Congress to repeal the law . Under national pressure for governmental reform , a compromise was reached and a new bill was passed that allowed the President to have complete control over removing his own cabinet , however , government appointees needed the approval of Congress within a thirty @-@ day period . Grant , who did not desire a party split over the matter , signed the bill ; afterwards , he received criticism for not getting a full repeal of the law . The unpopular measure was completely repealed in 1887 . Grant was criticized for appointing many family members considered unqualified to highly sought government posts , a practice known as nepotism .
= = = Political defections = = =
Initially , President Grant was popular among many political and newspaper elite . Political defections began as early as the spring and fall of 1869 when both Charles A. Dana and Henry Adams became critical and discouraged over Grant 's Presidency in the aftermath of the Black Friday scandal . By 1870 , Horace Greeley lost enthusiasm for the Administration with the resignations of Attorney General Ebenezer R. Hoar and Ambassador to Britain John L. Motley . Prominent journalists Samuel Bowles , Horace White , E. L. Godkin , and William C. Bryant became concerned over alleged incompetence and lack of national direction from Grant . Personal animosity remained between Charles Sumner and Grant over the Senate rejection of the Santo Domingo Treaty . The common citizen , however , revered Grant for his gallant service in the Civil War .
= = = Reconstruction and civil rights = = =
During Reconstruction , Freedmen ( freed slaves ) , were given the vote by Congress and became active in state politics ; fourteen were elected to Congress . In state government they were never governor but did become lieutenant governors or secretaries of state . They formed the voting base of the Republican party along with some local whites ( called " Scalawags " ) and new arrivals from the North ( called " Carpetbaggers " . ) Most Southern whites opposed the Republicans ; they called themselves " Conservatives " or " Redeemers " . Grant repeatedly took a role in state affairs ; for example on December 24 , 1869 , he established federal military rule in Georgia and restored black legislators who had been expelled from the state legislature .
Most historians in the 21st century consider Reconstruction to be a failure . However , historian Mark Summers in 2014 has argued that :
if we see Reconstruction 's purpose as making sure that the main goals of the war would be filled , of a Union held together forever , of a North and South able to work together , of slavery extirpated , and sectional rivalries confined , of a permanent banishment of the fear of vaunting appeals to state sovereignty , backed by armed force , then Reconstruction looks like what in that respect it was , a lasting and unappreciated success .
= = = = Fifteenth amendment = = = =
According to biographer , William S. McFeely , Grant and many in the north believed the American Civil War extended democracy to the African American freedmen . Grant used political pressure to ensure the states ratified the Fifteenth Amendment , guaranteeing that " no citizen can be denied the right to vote based upon race , color , or previous condition of servitude " . When it passed he hailed it as " a measure of grander importance than any other one act of the kind from the foundation of our free government to the present day " . Many in the south , however , were determined that the African American males ' right to vote would be unenforceable .
= = = = Department of Justice = = = =
On June 22 , 1872 , Grant signed a bill into law passed by Congress that created the Department of Justice and to aid the Attorney General , the Office of Solicitor General . Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as America 's first Solicitor General . Both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s . In the first few years of Grant 's first term in office there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice . By 1871 , there were 3000 indictments and 600 convictions with most only serving brief sentences while the ringleaders were imprisoned for up to five years in the federal penitentiary in Albany , New York . The result was a dramatic decrease in violence in the South . Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was " better " or " stronger " then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists . Akerman 's successor , George H. Williams , in December 1871 , continued to prosecute the Klan throughout 1872 until the Spring of 1873 during Grant 's second term in office . William 's clemency and moratorium on Klan prosecutions was due in part that the Justice Department , having been inundated by Klan outrage cases , did not have the effective man power to continue the prosecutions .
= = = = Naturalization Act of 1870 = = = =
On July 14 , 1870 Grant signed into law the Naturalization Act of 1870 that allowed persons of African descent to become citizens of the United States . This revised an earlier law , the Naturalization Act of 1790 that only allowed white persons of good moral character to become U.S. citizens . The law also prosecuted persons who used fictitious names , misrepresentations , or identities of deceased individuals when applying for citizenship .
= = = = Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 = = = =
To add enforcement to the 15th Amendment , Congress passed an act that guaranteed the protection of voting rights of African Americans ; Grant signed the bill , known as the Force Act of 1870 into law on May 31 , 1870 . This law was designed to keep the Redeemers from attacking or threatening African Americans . This act placed severe penalties on persons who used intimidation , bribery , or physical assault to prevent citizens from voting and placed elections under Federal jurisdiction .
On January 13 , 1871 President Grant submitted to Congress a report on violent acts committed by the Ku Klux Klan in the South . On March 20 , President Grant told a reluctant Congress the situation in the South was dire and federal legislation was needed that would " secure life , liberty , and property , and the enforcement of law , in all parts of the United States . " President Grant stated that the U.S. mail and the collection of revenue was in jeopardy . Congress investigated the Klan 's activities and eventually passed the Force Act of 1871 to allow prosecution of the Klan . This Act , also known as the " Ku Klux Klan Act " and written by Representative Benjamin Butler , was passed by Congress to specifically go after local units of the Ku Klux Klan . Although sensitive to charges of establishing a military dictatorship , Grant signed the bill into law on April 20 , 1871 after being convinced by Secretary of Treasury , George Boutwell , that federal protection was warranted , having cited documented atrocities against the Freedmen . This law allowed the President to suspend habeas corpus on " armed combinations " and conspiracies by the Klan . The Act also empowered the president " to arrest and break up disguised night marauders " . The actions of the Klan were defined as high crimes and acts of rebellion against the United States .
The Ku Klux Klan consisted of local secret organizations formed to violently oppose Republican rule during Reconstruction ; there was no organization above the local level . Wearing white hoods to hide their identity the Klan would attack and threaten Republicans . The Klan was strong in South Carolina between 1868 and 1870 ; South Carolina Governor Robert K. Scott , who was mired in corruption charges , allowed the Klan to rise to power . Grant , who was fed up with their violent tactics , ordered the Ku Klux Klan to disperse from South Carolina and lay down their arms under the authority of the Enforcement Acts on October 12 , 1871 . There was no response , and so on October 17 , 1871 , Grant issued a suspension of habeas corpus in all the 9 counties in South Carolina . Grant ordered federal troops in the state who then captured the Klan ; who were vigorously prosecuted by Att . Gen. Akerman and Sol . Gen. Bristow . With the Klan destroyed other white supremacist groups would emerge , including the White League and the Red Shirts .
= = = = Amnesty Act of 1872 = = = =
Texas was readmitted into the Union on March 30 , 1870 , Mississippi was readmitted February 23 , 1870 , and Virginia on January 26 , 1870 . Georgia became the last Confederate state to be readmitted into the Union on July 15 , 1870 . All members for the House of Representatives and Senate were seated from the 10 Confederate states who seceded . Technically , the United States was again a united country .
To ease tensions , Grant signed the Amnesty Act of 1872 on May 23 , 1872 that gave amnesty to former Confederates . This act allowed most former Confederates , who before the war had taken an oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States , to hold elected public office . Only 500 former Confederates remained unpardonable and therefore forbidden to hold elected public office .
= = = Indian affairs and human rights = = =
= = = = " Peace Policy " for Indians = = = =
Grant 's 1868 campaign slogan , " Let us have peace , " defined his policy toward reconstructing the South and opening a new era in relations with the western Indian tribes .
In a major address , Grant stated :
The building of rail @-@ roads and the access thereby given to all the agricultural and mineral regions of the country is rapidly bringing civilized settlements into contact with all the tribes of indians . No matter what ought to be the relations between such settlements and the aborigines , the fact is they do not get on together , and one or the other has to give way in the end . A system which looks to the extinction of a race is too abhorant for a Nation to indulge in without without entailing upon the wrath of all Christendom , and without engendering in the Citizen a disregard for human life , and the rights of others , dangerous to society . I see no remedy for this except in placing all the indians on large reservations ... and giving them absolute protection there .
The goal of his " peace policy " was to minimize military conflict with the Indians , looking forward to " any course toward them which tends to their civilization and ultimate citizenship " . Indians were to stay on reservations where they would receive government subsidies and training supervised by religious denominations . Indians were no longer allowed to engage in raids or send war parties off the reservations ; the Army 's job was to force them back . The goal was to assimilate the Indians into American society ; any Indian could leave the reservation at any time and join the larger society , and have full citizenship . The Indians on reservations were made U.S. citizens in 1924 .
Grant 's Peace Policy was a sharp reversal of federal policy toward Native Americans . " Wars of extermination ... are demoralizing and wicked . " , he told Congress in his second Inaugural Address of 1873 . The president lobbied , though not always successfully , to preserve Native American lands from encroachment by the westward advance of pioneers . The economic forces of western expansionism led to conflicts between Native Americans , settlers , and the U.S. military . Native Americans were increasingly forced to live on reservations . Statistical data of the number of Indian wars per year between 1850 and 1890 , revealed that battles decreased during Grant 's two terms in office from 101 in 1869 to 43 in 1877 . In 1875 there were only 15 battles , the lowest rate since 1853 at 13 battles .
In 1869 , Grant appointed his aide General Ely S. Parker , a Seneca Indian , as the first Native American Commissioner of Indian Affairs . During Parker 's first year in office , the number of Indian Wars per year dropped by 43 from 101 to 58 . Chief of the Oglala Sioux Red Cloud wanted to meet President Grant , after learning that Parker was appointed Indian Commissioner . Red Cloud , along with chief of the Brulé Sioux Spotted Tail , came to Washington , D.C. by train and met with Parker and President Grant in 1870 . Grant held no personal animosity towards Native Americans and personally treated them with dignity . When Red Cloud and Spotted Tail first met Grant at the White House on May 7 , 1870 , they were given a bountiful dinner and entertainment equal to what was shown to a young Prince Arthur at a White House visit from Britain in 1869 . At their second meeting on May 8 , Red Cloud informed Grant that Whites were trespassing on Native American lands and that his people needed food and clothing . Out of concern for Native Americans , Grant ordered all Generals in the West to " keep intruders off by military force if necessary " . To prevent Native American hostilities and wars , Grant lobbied for and signed the Indians Appropriations Act of 1870 – 1871 . This act ended the governmental policy of treating tribes as independent sovereign nations . Native Americans would be treated as individuals or wards of the state and Indian policies would be legislated by Congressional statues .
Historians have debated issues of " paternalism " and " colonialism " but have glossed over the significance of contingencies , inconsistencies , and political competition involved in forging a substantive federal policy , according to scholar David Sim ( 2008 ) . He examined the peace policy , emphasizing incoherence in its formulation and implementation . . While the Grant administration focused on well @-@ meaning but limited goals of placing " good men " in positions of influence and convincing native peoples of their fundamental dependency on the US government , attempts to create a new departure in federal @-@ native relations were characterized by conflict and disagreement . According to Sim , The muddled creation of what has become known as the peace policy thus tells much about the varied and divergent attitudes Americans had toward the consolidation of their empire in the West following the Civil War .
The innovation in Grant 's Native American peace policy was in appointing Quakers as US Indian agents to various posts throughout the nation . This destroyed the power of patronage , as Congress would be reluctant to go after church appointments . On April 10 , 1869 , Congress created the Board of Indian Commissioners . Grant appointed volunteer members who were " eminent for their intelligence and philanthropy " ; a previous commission had been set up under the Andrew Johnson Administration in 1868 . The Grant Board was given extensive power to supervise the Bureau of Indian Affairs and " civilize " Native Americans . After the Piegan Massacre on January 23 , 1870 , when Major Edward M. Baker killed 173 tribal members , mostly women and children , Grant was determined to divide Native American post appointments " up among the religious churches " ; by 1872 , 73 Indian agencies were divided among religious denominations . Quakers or Protestant clergy predominantly controlled most of the central and southern Plains Indian territories , while all other surrounding territories were under the control of appointed military officers .
= = = = = Evaluations = = = = =
Congressional reaction to the losses suffered by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's unit at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876 was shock and dismay at the failure of the Peace Policy . Grant blamed Custer wholly for the defeat stating that the sacrifice of troops was unnecessary . The Indian appropriations measure of August 1876 marked the end of Grant 's Peace Policy . The Sioux were given the choice of either selling their lands in the Black Hills for cash or not receiving government gifts of food and other supplies . The historian Robert M. Utley ( 1984 ) contended that Grant , as a pragmatist , saw no inconsistencies with dividing up Native American posts among religious leaders and military officers . He added that Grant 's " Quaker Policy " , despite having good intentions , failed to solve the real dilemma of the misunderstandings between " the motivations , purposes , and ways of thinking " between both White and Native American cultures . These inconsistencies were evident in the breakdown of peace negotiations between the U.S. military and the Modoc tribal leaders during the Modoc War from 1872 to 1873 .
In 1871 , President Grant 's Indian peace policy , enforced and coordinated by Brig. Gen. George Stoneman in Arizona , required the Apache to be put on reservations where they would receive supplies and agriculture education . The Apache slipped out and occasionally raided white settlers . In one raid , believed to have been conducted by Apache warriors , settlers and mail runners were murdered near Tuscan , Arizona . The townspeople traced this raid to Apache reservation from Camp Grant . 500 Apache lived at the Camp Grant near Dudleyville . Angered over the murders , the Tuscan townspeople hired 92 Papago Indians , 42 Mexicans , and 6 whites to take revenge on the Apache . When the war party reached Camp Grant on April 30 , they murdered 144 Apaches , mostly women and children , in what became known as the Camp Grant Massacre . Twenty @-@ seven captured Apache children were sold into Mexican slavery . In May , an attempt was made by a small federal military party to capture Apache leader Cochise ; during the chase they killed 13 Apache . Grant immediately removed Stoneman of his command in Arizona .
Most detrimental to Grant 's Peace Policy was rampant corruption in the Department of the Interior under Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano . During Sec . Delano 's tenor , federal money intended to supply Native American tribes with food and clothing was skimmed off by corrupt Indian agents and clerks , often allied with traders . In addition , persons posing as " Indian Attorneys " charged Indian tribes money for bogus representation in Washington D.C. After newspapers exposed Delano 's delinquency , Grant defended him rather than investigate the matter . Although Sec . Delano supported and defined Grant 's Indian peace policy and was instrumental in the creation of the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation in 1872 , he was not a reformer and was careless in his administration of the Department of the Interior . The previous Grant appointment , Secretary Jacob D. Cox , had run the department with efficiency and merit . Cox had been considered to be one of the best secretaries of Interior in the nation 's history . When Cox resigned in 1870 , Grant appointed Delano out of patronage considerations to appease Stalwart party bosses . After Sec . Delano finally resigned in 1875 , his replacement , Sec . Zachariah Chandler , reformed the Department of the Interior , banned " Indian Attornies " , and fired the corrupt clerks working in the Department of Indian Affairs . Grant 's Secretary of War , William W. Belknap , who was in charge of all Indian Trading posts under the Department of War , received illicit profit payments from the Fort Sill Indian tradership . Sec . Belknap resigned and was replaced by reformer Alphonso Taft . Belknap was impeached by the House ; put on trial in the Senate during the Summer of 1876 and acquitted .
= = = = West Point hazing reduced = = = =
While President Grant advocated that African Americans enter the West Point Academy , he initially failed in 1870 and 1871 to protect the first African American West Point Academy cadet , James Albert Smith , from racist hazing by other cadets . This lack of protection was influenced by Grant 's son , then West Point cadet Frederick Dent Grant , who participated in the hazing against Smith . Maj. Gen. Thomas H. Ruger , however , was appointed Superintendent of West Point in 1871 , reformed the Academy ; having reduced the amount of hazing of cadets by 1873 and made strong efforts to eradicate the " discreditable " practice . In 1871 , other African Americans eventually followed Smith 's entrance into West Point and Henry O. Flipper , who was admitted to the Academy in 1873 , became the first to graduate from the Academy in 1877 . In 1874 , Smith was forced out of the Academy due to having failed an unconventional private test , in defiance of traditional West Point practice , administrated by Prof. Peter S. Michie . Smith was finally commissioned an officer by West Point in 1997 , one hundred and twenty three years later .
= = = = Utah territory polygamy = = = =
In 1862 , during the American Civil War President Lincoln signed into law the Morrill bill that outlawed polygamy in all U.S. Territories . Mormons who practiced polygamy in Utah for the most part resisted the Morrill law and the territorial governor . During the 1868 election , Grant had mentioned he would enforce the law against polygamy . Tensions began as early as 1870 , when Mormons in Ogden , Utah began to arm themselves and practice military drilling . By the Fourth of July , 1871 Mormon militia in Salt Lake City , Utah were on the verge of fighting territorial troops , however , leveler heads prevailed and violence was averted . President Grant , however , who believed Utah was in a state of rebellion was determined to arrest those who practiced polygamy outlawed under the Morrill Act . In October , 1871 hundreds of Mormons were rounded up by U.S. marshals , put in a prison camp , arrested , and put on trial for polygamy . One convicted polygamist received a $ 500 fine and 3 years in prison under hard labor . On November 20 , 1871 Mormon leader Brigham Young , in ill health , had been charged with polygamy . Young 's attorney stated that Young had no intention to flee the court . Other persons during the polygamy shut down were charged with murder or intent to kill . The Morrill Act , however , proved hard to enforce since proof of marriage was required for conviction . On December 4 , 1871 President Grant stated that polygamists in Utah were " a remnant of barbarism , repugnant to civilization , to decency , and to the laws of the United States . "
= = = = Comstock Act = = = =
In March 1873 , anti @-@ obscenity moralists , led by the YMCA 's Anthony Comstock , easily secured passage of the Comstock Act which made it a federal crime to mail articles " for any indecent or immoral use " . Grant signed the bill after he was assured that Comstock would personally enforce it . Comstock went on to become a special agent of the Post Office appointed by Secretary James Cresswell . Comstock prosecuted pornographers , imprisoned abortionists , banned nude art , stopped the mailing of information about contraception , and tried to ban what he considered bad books .
= = = Early suffrage movement = = =
During Grant 's presidency the early Women 's suffrage movement led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton gained national attention . Anthony lobbied for female suffrage , equal gender pay , and protection of property for women who resided in Washington D.C. In April 1869 , Grant signed into law the protection of married women 's property from their husbands ' debts and the ability for women to sue in court in Washington D.C. In March 1870 Representative Samuel M. Arnell introduced a bill , coauthored by suffragist Bennette Lockwood , that would give women federal workers equal pay for equal work . Two years later Grant signed a modified Senate version of the Arnell Bill into law . The law required that all federal female clerks would be paid the fully compensated salary , however , lower tiered female clerks were exempted . The law increased women 's clerk salaries from 4 % to 20 % during the 1870s , however , the culture of patronage and patriarchy continued . The Republicans , who needed women to campaign for Grant in the 1872 Presidential Election , added to their platform open discussion of women 's rights without actually endorsing women 's rights .
= = = Economy and Treasury reform = = =
On taking office Grant 's first move was signing the Act to Strengthen the Public Credit , which the Republican Congress had just passed . It ensured that all public debts , particularly war bonds , would be paid only in gold rather than in greenbacks . The price of gold on the New York exchange fell to $ 130 per ounce – the lowest point since the suspension of specie payment in 1862 .
On May 19 , 1869 , Grant protected the wages of those working for the U.S. Government . In 1868 , a law was passed that reduced the government working day to 8 hours ; however , much of the law was later repealed that allowed day wages to also be reduced . To protect workers Grant signed an executive order that " no reduction shall be made in the wages " regardless of the reduction in hours for the government day workers .
Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell reorganized and reformed the United States Treasury by discharging unnecessary employees , started sweeping changes in Bureau of Printing and Engraving to protect the currency from counterfeiters , and revitalized tax collections to hasten the collection of revenue . These changes soon led the Treasury to have a monthly surplus . By May 1869 , Boutwell reduced the national debt by $ 12 million . By September the national debt was reduced by $ 50 million , which was achieved by selling the growing gold surplus at weekly auctions for greenbacks and buying back wartime bonds with the currency . The New York Tribune wanted the government to buy more bonds and greenbacks and the New York Times praised the Grant administration 's debt policy .
The first two years of the Grant administration with George Boutwell at the Treasury helm expenditures had been reduced to $ 292 million in 1871 – down from $ 322 million in 1869 . The cost of collecting taxes fell to 3 @.@ 11 % in 1871 . Grant reduced the number of employees working in the government by 2 @,@ 248 persons from 6 @,@ 052 on March 1 , 1869 to 3 @,@ 804 on December 1 , 1871 . He had increased tax revenues by $ 108 million from 1869 to 1872 . During his first administration the national debt fell from $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to $ 2 @.@ 2 billion .
In a rare case of preemptive reform during the Grant Administration , Brevet Major General Alfred Pleasonton was dismissed for being unqualified to hold the position of Commissioner of Internal Revenue . In 1870 , Pleasonton , a Grant appointment , approved an unauthorized $ 60 @,@ 000 tax refund and was associated with an alleged unscrupulous Connecticut firm . Treasury Secretary George Boutwell promptly stopped the refund and personally informed Grant that Pleasonton was incompetent to hold office . Refusing to resign on Boutwell 's request , Pleasonton protested openly before Congress . President Grant removed Pleasonton before any potential scandal broke out .
= = = Yellowstone , buffalo , and conservation = = =
Organized exploration of the upper Yellowstone River began in fall 1869 when the Cook – Folsom – Peterson Expedition made a month @-@ long journey up the Yellowstone River and into the geyser basins . In 1870 , the somewhat more official Washburn – Langford – Doane Expedition explored the same regions of the upper Yellowstone and geyser basins , naming Old Faithful and many other park features . Official reports from Lieutenant Gustavus Cheyney Doane and Scribner 's Monthly accounts by Nathaniel P. Langford brought increased public awareness to the natural wonders of the region . Influenced by Jay Cooke of the Northern Pacific Railroad and Langford 's public speeches about the Yellowstone on the East Coast , geologist Ferdinand Hayden sought funding from Congress for an expedition under the auspices of the U.S. Geological Survey . In March 1871 Grant signed into law Congressional legislation appropriating $ 40 @,@ 000 to finance the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 . Hayden was given instructions by Grant 's Secretary of Interior , Columbus Delano . The expedition party was composed of 36 civilians , mostly scientists , and two military escorts . Among the survey party were artist Thomas Moran and photographer William Henry Jackson . Hayden 's published reports , magazine articles , along with paintings by Moran and photographs by Jackson convinced Congress to preserve the natural wonders of the upper Yellowstone . On December 18 , 1871 , a bill was introduced simultaneously in the Senate , by Senator S.C. Pomeroy of Kansas , and in the House of Representatives , by Congressman William H. Clagett of the Montana Territory , for the establishment of a park at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River . Hayden 's influence on Congress is readily apparent when examining the detailed information contained in the report of the House Committee on Public Lands : " The bill now before Congress has for its objective the withdrawal from settlement , occupancy , or sale , under the laws of the United States a tract of land fifty @-@ five by sixty @-@ five miles , about the sources of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers , and dedicates and sets apart as a great national park or pleasure @-@ ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people . " When the bill was presented to Congress , the bill 's chief supporters , ably prepared by Langford , Hayden and Jay Cooke , convinced their colleagues that the region 's real value was as a park area , to be preserved in its natural state . The bill was approved by a comfortable margin in the Senate on January 30 , 1872 , and by the House on February 27 . On March 1 , 1872 , Grant played his role , in signing the " Act of Dedication " into law . It established the Yellowstone region as the nation ’ s first national park , made possible by three years of exploration by Cook @-@ Folsom @-@ Peterson ( 1869 ) , Washburn @-@ Langford @-@ Doane ( 1870 ) , and Hayden ( 1871 ) .
In 1872 , around two thousand white buffalo hunters working between Wichita , Kansas , and Arkansas were killing buffalo for their hides by the many thousands . Acres of land were dedicated solely for drying the hides of the slaughtered buffalo . Native Americans protested at the " wanton destruction " of their food supply . By 1874 , 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 bison had been destroyed on the western and southern plains of the United States . Concern for the destruction of the buffalo mounted , and a bill in Congress was passed , HR 921 , that would have made buffalo hunting illegal for whites . Taking advice from Secretary Delano , Grant chose to pocket @-@ veto the bill , believing that the demise of the buffalo would reduce Indian wars and force tribes to stay on their respected reservations and to adapt an agricultural lifestyle rather than roaming the plains and hunting buffalo . Ranchers favored the buffalo slaughter to open pasture land for their cattle herds . With the buffalo food supply lowered , Native Americans were forced to stay on reservations .
The 1872 Yellowstone Act prohibited fish and game , including buffalo , from " wanton destruction " within the confines of the park . However , Congress did not appropriate funds or legislation for the enforcement against poaching ; as a result , Secretary Delano could not hire people to aid tourists or protect Yellowstone from encroachment . By the 1880s buffalo herds dwindled to only a few hundred , a majority found mostly in Yellowstone National Park . As the Indian wars ended , Congress appropriated money and enforcement legislation in 1894 , signed into law by President Grover Cleveland , that protected and preserved buffalo and other wildlife in Yellowstone . Grant also signed legislation that protected northern fur seals on Alaska ’ s Pribilof Islands . This was the first law in U.S. history that specifically protected wildlife on federally owned land .
= = = Foreign policies = = =
The foreign @-@ policy of the Administration was generally successful , except for the attempt to annex Santo Domingo . The annexation of Santo Domingo was President Grant 's " not unrealistic " effort to relieve the plight of blacks in the South during Reconstruction and was a first step to end slavery in Cuba and Brazil . The dangers of a confrontation with Britain on the Alabama question were resolved peacefully , and to the monetary advantage of the United States . Issues regarding the Canadian boundary were easily settled . The achievements were the work of Secretary Hamilton Fish , who was a spokesman for caution and stability . A poll of historians has stated that Secretary Fish was one of the greatest Secretraries of States in United States history . Fish was appointed Secretary of State by Grant on March 17 , 1869 and served on Grant 's Cabinet until the end of Grant 's second term on March 4 , 1877 . Afterwards Secretary Fish briefly served on President Rutherford B. Hayes Cabinet until March 12 , 1877 .
= = = = Dominican Republic annexation treaty = = = =
In 1869 , Grant proposed to annex the independent largely black nation of the Dominican Republic , then known as Santo Domingo . Previously in 1868 , President Andrew Johnson had attempted to annex the Dominican Republic and Santo Domingo , but the House of Representatives defeated two resolutions for the protection of the Dominican Republic and Santo Domingo and for the annexation of the Dominican Republic . In July , 1869 Grant sent Orville E. Babcock and Rufus Ingalls who negotiated a draft treaty with Dominican Republic President Buenaventura Báez for the annexation of Santo Domingo to the United States and the sale of Samaná Bay for $ 2 million . To keep the island nation and Báez secure in power , Grant ordered naval ships , unauthorized by Congress , to secure the island from invasion and internal insurrection . Báez signed an annexation treaty on November 19 , 1869 offered by Babcock under federal State department authorization . Secretary Fish drew up a final draft of the proposal and offered $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the Dominican national debt , the annexation of Santo Domingo as an American state , the United States ' acquisition of the rights for Samaná Bay for 50 years with an annual $ 150 @,@ 000 rental , and guaranteed protection from foreign intervention . On January 10 , 1870 the Santo Domingo treaty was submitted to the Senate for ratification . Despite his support of the annexation , Grant made the mistakes of not informing Congress of the treaty or encouraging national acceptance and enthusiasm .
Not only did Grant believe that the island would be of use to the Navy tactically , particularly Samaná Bay , but also he sought to use it as a bargaining chip . By providing a safe haven for the freedmen , he believed that the exodus of black labor would force Southern whites to realize the necessity of such a significant workforce and accept their civil rights . Grant believed the island country would increase exports and lower the trade deficit . He hoped that U.S. ownership of the island would urge Cuba , Puerto Rico , and Brazil to abandon slavery . On March 15 , 1870 , the Foreign Relations Committee , headed by Sen. Charles Sumner , recommended against treaty passage . Sumner , the leading spokesman for African American civil rights , believed that annexation would be enormously expensive and involve the U.S. in an ongoing civil war , and would threaten the independence of Haiti and the West Indies , thereby blocking black political progress . On May 31 , 1870 Grant went before Congress and urged passage of the Dominican annexation treaty . Strongly opposed to ratification , Sumner successfully led the opposition in the Senate . On June 30 , 1870 the Santo Domingo annexation treaty failed to pass the Senate ; 28 votes in favor of the treaty and 28 votes against . Grant 's own cabinet was divided over the Santo Domingo annexation attempt , and Bancroft Davis , assistant to Sec . Hamilton Fish , was secretly giving information to Sen. Sumner on state department negotiations .
Grant was determined to keep the Dominican Republic treaty in the public debate , mentioning Dominican Republic annexation in his December , 1870 State of the Union Address . Grant was able to get Congress in January , 1871 to create a special Commission to investigate the island . Senator Sumner continued to vigorously oppose and speak out against annexation . Grant appointed Frederick Douglass , an African American civil rights activist , as one of the Commissioners who voyaged to the Dominican Republic . Returning to the United States after several months , the Commission in April 1871 , issued a report that stated the Dominican people desired annexation and that the island would be beneficial to the United States . To celebrate the Commissions return , Grant invited the Commissioners to the White House , except Frederick Douglass . African American leaders were upset and the issue of Douglass not being invited to the White House dinner was brought up during the 1872 Presidential election by Horace Greeley . Douglas , however , who was personally disappointed for not being invited to the White House , remained loyal to Grant and the Republican Party . Although the Commission supported Grant 's annexation attempt , there was not enough enthusiasm in Congress to vote on a second annexation treaty .
Unable constitutionally to go directly after Sen. Sumner , Grant immediately removed Sumner 's close and respected friend Ambassador , John Lothrop Motley . With Grant 's prodding in the Senate , Sumner was finally deposed from the Foreign Relations Committee . Grant reshaped his coalition , known as " New Radicals " , working with enemies of Sumner such as Ben Butler of Massachusetts , Roscoe Conkling of New York , and Oliver P. Morton of Indiana , giving in to Fish 's demands that Cuba rebels be rejected , and moving his Southern patronage from the radical blacks and carpetbaggers who were allied with Sumner to more moderate Republicans . This set the stage of the Liberal Republican revolt of 1872 , when Sumner and his allies publicly denounced Grant and supported Horace Greeley and the Liberal Republicans .
A Congressional investigation in June , 1870 led by Senator Carl Schurz revealed that Babcock and Ingalls both had land interests in the Bay of Samaná that would increase in value if the Santo Domingo treaty were ratified . U.S. Navy ships , with President Grant 's authorization , had been sent to protect Báez from an invasion by a Dominican rebel , Gregorio Luperón , while the treaty negotiations were taking place . The investigation had initially been called to settle a dispute between an American businessman Davis Hatch against the United States government . Báez had imprisoned Hatch without trial for his opposition to the Báez government . Hatch had claimed that the United States had failed to protect him from imprisonment . The majority Congressional report dismissed Hatch 's claim and exonerated both Babcock and Ingalls . The Hatch incident , however , kept certain Senators from being enthusiastic about ratifying the treaty .
= = = = Cuban insurrection = = = =
In 1869 , Grant was urged by popular opinion to support rebels in Cuba with military assistance and to give them U.S. diplomatic recognition . Grant and Fish instead attempted to use arbitration with Spain with minister Daniel Sickles negotiating . Grant and Fish wanted Cuban independence and to end slavery without U.S. military intervention or occupation . Fish , diligently and against popular pressure , was able to keep Grant from officially recognizing Cuban independence because it would have endangered negotiations with Britain over the Alabama Claims . The Sickle 's peace negotiations failed in Madrid , but Grant and Fish did not succumb to popular pressure for U.S. military involvement in the Cuban rebellion . Grant and Fish sent a message to Congress , written by Fish and signed by Grant . The message urged strict neutrality not to officially recognize the Cuban revolt , calming national fears .
= = = = Treaty of Washington = = = =
Historians have credited the Treaty of Washington for implementing International Arbitration to allow outside experts to settle disputes . Grant 's able Secretary of State Hamilton Fish had orchestrated many of the events leading up to the treaty . Previously , Secretary of State William H. Seward during the Johnson administration first proposed an initial treaty concerning damages done to American merchants by three Confederate warships , CSS Florida , CSS Alabama , and CSS Shenandoah built in Britain . These damages were collectively known as the Alabama Claims . These ships had inflicted tremendous damage to U.S. merchant ships during the Civil War and Washington wanted the British to pay heavy damages , perhaps including turning over Canada .
In April 1869 , the U.S. Senate overwhelmingly rejected a proposed treaty which paid too little and contained no admission of British guilt for prolonging the war . Senator Charles Sumner spoke up before congress ; publicly denounced Queen Victoria ; demanded a huge reparation ; and opened the possibility of Canada ceded to the United States as payment . The speech angered the British government , and talks had to be put off until matters cooled down . Negotiations for a new treaty began in January 1871 when Britain sent Sir John Rose to America to meet with Fish . A joint high commission was created on February 9 , 1871 in Washington , consisting of representatives from both Britain and the United States . The commission created a treaty where an international Tribunal would settle the damage amounts ; the British admitted regret , not fault , over the destructive actions of the Confederate war cruisers . Grant approved and signed the treaty on May 8 , 1871 ; the Senate ratified the Treaty of Washington on May 24 , 1871 .
The Tribunal met in Geneva , Switzerland . The U.S. was represented by Charles Francis Adams , one of five international arbitrators , and was counseled by William M. Evarts , Caleb Cushing , and Morrison R. Waite . On August 25 , 1872 , the Tribunal awarded United States $ 15 @.@ 5 million in gold ; $ 1 @.@ 9 million was awarded to Great Britain . Historian Amos Elwood Corning noted that the Treaty of Washington and arbitration " bequeathed to the world a priceless legacy " . In addition to the $ 15 @.@ 5 million arbitration award , the treaty resolved some disputes over borders and fishing rights . On October 21 , 1872 William I , Emperor of Germany , settled a boundary dispute in favor of the United States .
= = = = Korean incident = = = =
A primary role of the United States Navy in the 19th century was to protect American commercial interests and open trade to Eastern markets , including Japan and China . Korea had excluded all foreign trade and , the U.S. sought a treaty dealing with shipwrecked sailors after the crew of a stranded American commercial ship was killed . The long @-@ term goal for the Grant Administration was to open Korea to Western markets in the same way Commodore Matthew Perry had opened Japan in 1854 by a Naval display of military force . On May 30 , 1871 Rear Admiral John Rodgers with a fleet of five ships , part of the Asiatic Squadron , arrived at the mouth of the Salee River below Seoul . The fleet included the Colorado , one of the largest ships in the Navy with 47 guns , 47 officers , and a 571 @-@ man crew . While waiting for senior Korean officials to negotiate , Rogers sent ships out to make soundings of the Salee River for navigational purposes .
The American fleet was fired upon by a Korean fort , but there was little damage . Rogers gave the Korean government ten days to apologize or begin talks , but the Royal Court kept silent . After ten days passed , on June 10 , Rogers began a series of amphibious assaults that destroyed 5 Korean forts . These military engagements were known as the Battle of Ganghwa . Several hundred Korean soldiers and three Americans were killed . Korea still refused to negotiate , and the American fleet sailed away . The Koreans refer to this 1871 U.S. military action as Shinmiyangyo . President Grant defended Rogers in his third annual message to Congress in December , 1871 . After a change in regimes in Seoul , in 1881 , the U.S. negotiated a treaty – the first treaty between Korea and a Western nation .
= = Corruption and reform ( 1869 @-@ 1873 ) = =
The main scandals included Black Friday in 1869 and the Whiskey Ring in 1875 . The Crédit Mobilier is not a Grant scandal ; its origins having been in 1864 during the Abraham Lincoln Administration which carried over into the Andrew Johnson Administration . The actual Crédit Mobilier scandal was exposed during the Grant Administration in 1872 as the result of political infighting between Congressman Oakes Ames and Congressman Henry S. McComb . Stocks owned by Ambassador to Britain Robert C. Schenck in the fraudulent Emma Silver Mine is considered a Grant Administration embarrassment rather than a scandal . Although Grant 's Administration had many successes during the first term as President in the economy , civil rights , and foreign policy , scandals associated with the Administration were beginning to emerge publicly . Although Grant himself was not directly responsible for and did not profit from the corruption among subordinates , he was reluctant to believe friends could commit criminal activities . As a result , he failed to take any direct action and rarely reacted strongly after their guilt was established . Grant protected close friends with Presidential power and pardoned persons who were convicted in the Whiskey Ring scandal after serving only a few months in prison . When his second term ended , Grant wrote to Congress that " Failures have been errors of judgment , not of intent " . Nepotism was rampant ; around 40 family relatives financially prospered while Grant was President .
= = = Gold Ring thwarted = = =
In September 1869 , financial manipulators Jay Gould and Jim Fisk set up an elaborate scam to corner the gold market through buying up all the gold at the same time to drive up the price . The plan was to keep the Government from selling gold , thus driving its price . President Grant and Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell found out about the gold market speculation and ordered the sale of $ 4 million in gold on ( Black ) Friday , September 23 . Gould and Fisk were thwarted , and the price of gold dropped . The effects of releasing the gold by Boutwell were disastrous . Stock prices plunged and food prices dropped , devastating farmers for years .
= = = Civil service commission = = =
Grant was the first U.S. President to recommend a professional civil service , pushed the initial legislation through Congress , and appointed the members for the first United States Civil Service Commission . The temporary Commission recommended administering competitive exams and issuing regulations on the hiring and promotion of government employees . Grant ordered their recommendations in effect in 1872 ; having lasted for two years until December , 1874 . At the New York Custom House , a port that took in hundreds of millions of dollars a year in revenue , persons who applied for an entry position had to take and pass a civil service examination . Chester A. Arthur who was appointed by Grant as New York Custom Collector stated that the examinations excluded and deterred unfit persons from getting employment positions . However , Congress , in no mood to reform itself , denied any long @-@ term reform by refusing to enact the necessary legislation to make the changes permanent . Historians have traditionally been divided whether patronage , meaning appointments made without a merit system , should be labelled corruption .
The movement for Civil Service reform reflected two distinct objectives : to eliminate the corruption and inefficiencies in a non @-@ professional bureaucracy , and to check the power of President Johnson . Although many reformers after the Election of 1868 looked to Grant to ram Civil Service legislation through Congress , he refused , saying : " Civil Service Reform rests entirely with Congress . If members will give up claiming patronage , that will be a step gained . But there is an immense amount of human nature in the members of Congress , and it is human nature to seek power and use it to help friends . You cannot call it corruption – it is a condition of our representative form of Government . " Grant used patronage to build his party and help his friends . He protected those whom he thought were the victims of injustice or attacks by his enemies , even if they were guilty . Grant believed in loyalty with his friends , as one writer called it the " Chivalry of Friendship " .
= = = Star Route Postal Ring = = =
In the early 1870s during the Grant Administration , lucrative postal route contracts were given to local contractors on the Pacific Coast and Southern regions of the United States . These were known as Star Routes because an asterisk was given on official Post Office documents . These remote routes were hundreds of miles long and went to the most rural parts of the United States by horse and buggy . In obtaining these highly prized postal contracts , an intricate ring of bribery and straw bidding was set up in the Postal Contract office ; the ring consisted of contractors , postal clerks , and various intermediary brokers . Straw bidding was at its highest practice while John Creswell , Grant 's 1869 appointment , was Postmaster @-@ General . An 1872 federal investigation into the matter exonerated Creswell , but he was censured by the minority House report . A $ 40 @,@ 000 bribe to the 42nd Congress by one postal contractor had tainted the results of the investigation . In 1876 , another congressional investigation under a Democratic House shut down the postal ring for a few years .
= = = New York Custom House Ring = = =
Prior to the Presidential Election of 1872 two congressional and one Treasury Department investigations took place over corruption at the New York Custom House under Grant collector appointments Moses H. Grinnell and Thomas Murphy . Private warehouses were taking imported goods from the docks and charging shippers storage fees . Grant 's friend , George K. Leet , was allegedly involved with exorbitant pricing for storing goods and splitting the profits . Grant 's third collector appointment , Chester A. Arthur , implemented Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell 's reform to keep the goods protected on the docks rather than private storage .
= = = Salary grab = = =
On March 3 , 1873 , President Grant signed a law that authorized the President 's salary to be increased from $ 25 @,@ 000 a year to $ 50 @,@ 000 a year and Congressmen 's salaries to be increased by $ 2 @,@ 500 . Representatives also received a retroactive pay bonus for previous two years of service . This was done in secret and attached to a general appropriations bill . Reforming newspapers quickly exposed the law and the bonus was repealed in January 1874 . Grant missed an opportunity to veto the bill and to make a strong statement for good government . Congress sustained Grant 's $ 50 @,@ 000 a year salary .
= = Election of 1872 = =
Grant remained popular throughout the nation despite the scandals evident during his first term in office . Grant had supported a patronage system that allowed Republicans to infiltrate and control state governments . In response to President Grant 's federal patronage , in 1870 , Senator Carl Schurz from Missouri , a German immigrant and Civil War hero , started a second party known as the Liberal Republicans ; they advocated civil service reform , a low tariff , and amnesty to former Confederate soldiers . The Liberal Republicans successfully ran B.G. Brown for the governorship of Missouri and won with Democrat support . Then in 1872 , the party completely split from the Republican party and nominated New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley as candidate for the Presidency . The Democrats , who at this time had no strong candidate choice of their own , reluctantly adopted Greeley as their candidate with Governor B.G. Brown as his running mate . Frederick Douglass supported Grant and reminded black voters that Grant had destroyed the violent Ku Klux Klan .
The Republicans , who were content with their Reconstruction program for the South , renominated Grant and Massachusetts Senator Henry Wilson in 1872 . Wilson , a practical reformer , was intended to bulster the ticket , and potentially mend the political rift that grew between Grant and Sumner . Grant had remained a popular Civil War hero , and the Republicans continued to wave the " bloody shirt " as a patriotic symbol representing the North . The Republicans favored high tariffs and a continuation of Radical Reconstruction policies that supported five military districts in the Southern states . Grant also favored amnesty to former Confederate soldiers like the Liberal Republicans . Because of political infighting between Liberal Republicans and Democrats , the physically ailing Greeley was no match for the " Hero of Appomattox " and lost dismally in the popular vote . Grant swept 286 Electoral College votes while other minor candidates received only 63 votes . Grant won 55 @.@ 8 percent of the popular vote between Greeley and the other minor candidates . Heartbroken after a hard fought political campaign , Greeley died a few weeks after the election and was able to receive only 3 electoral votes . Out of respect for Greeley , Grant attended his funeral .
= = Second Term 1873 – 1877 = =
= = = Reconstruction = = =
Conservative resistance to Republican state governments grew after the 1872 elections . With the destruction of the Klan in 1872 , new secret paramilitary organizations arose in the Deep South . In Mississippi , North Carolina , South Carolina , and Louisiana , the Red Shirts and White League operated openly and were better organized than the Ku Klux Klan . Their goals were to oust the Republicans , return Conservative whites to power , and use whatever illegal methods needed to achieve them . Being loyal to his veterans , Grant remained determined that African Americans would receive protection .
= = = = Colfax Massacre = = = =
After the November 4 , 1872 election , Louisiana was a split state . In a controversial election , two candidates were claiming victory as governor . Violence was used to intimidate black Republicans . The fusionist party of Liberal Republicans and Democrats claimed John McEnery as the victor , while the Republicans claimed U.S. Senator William P. Kellogg . Two months later each candidate was sworn in as governor on January 13 , 1873 . A federal judge ruled that Kellogg was the rightful winner of the election and ordered him and the Republican @-@ based majority to be seated . The White League supported McEnry and prepared to use military force to remove Kellogg from office . Grant ordered troops to enforce the court order and protect Kellogg . On March 4 , Federal troops under a flag of truce and Kellogg 's state militia defeated McEnry 's fusionist party 's insurrection .
A dispute arose over who would be installed as judge and sheriff at the Colfax courthouse in Grant Parish . Kellogg 's two appointees had seized control of the Court House on March 25 with aid and protection of black state militia troops . Then on April 13 , White League forces attacked the courthouse and massacred 50 black militiamen who had been captured . A total of 105 blacks were killed trying to defend the Colfax courthouse for Governor Kellogg . On April 21 , Grant sent in the U.S. 19th Infantry Regiment to restore order . On May 22 , Grant issued a new proclamation to restore order in Louisiana . On May 31 , McEnry finally told his followers to obey " peremptory orders " of the President . The orders brought a brief peace to New Orleans and most of Louisiana , except , ironically , Grant Parish .
= = = = The Brooks @-@ Baxter war in Arkansas = = = =
In the fall of 1872 the Republican party split in Arkansas and ran two candidates for governor , Elisha Baxter and Joseph Brooks . Massive fraud characterized the election , but Baxter was declared the winner and took office . Brooks never gave up , and finally in 1874 a local judge ruled Brooks was entitled to the office and swore him in . Both sides mobilized militia units , and rioting and fighting bloodied the streets . There was anticipation who President Grant would side with – either Baxter or Brooks . Grant delayed , requesting a joint session of the Arkansas government to figure out peacefully who would be the Governor , but Baxter refused to participate . Then , on May 15 , 1874 , President Grant issued a Proclamation that Baxter was the legitimate Governor of Arkansas , and the hostilities ceased . In fall of 1874 the people of Arkansas voted out Baxter , and all the Republicans and the Redeemers came to power . A few months later in early 1875 , Grant astonished the nation by reversing himself and announcing that Brooks had been legitimately elected back in 1872 . Grant did not send in troops , and Brooks never regained office ; instead Grant gave him the high @-@ paying patronage job of postmaster in Little Rock . Brooks died in 1877 . The episode brought further discredit to Grant .
= = = = Vicksburg riots = = = =
In August 1874 , the Vicksburg city government elected a White reform party consisting of Republicans and Democrats . This was done initially to lower city spending and taxes . Despite their early intentions , the reform movement turned racist when the new White city officials went after the county government , which had a majority of African Americans . Rather than using legal means , the White League threatened the life of and expelled Crosby , the black county sheriff and tax collector . Crosby then went to Governor Adelbert Ames to seek help to regain his position as sheriff . Governor Ames told him to take other African Americans and use force to retain his lawful position as Sheriff of Warren County . At that time Vicksburg had a population of 12 @,@ 443 , over half of whom were African American .
On December 7 , 1874 , Crosby and an African American militia approached the city . He had declared that the Whites were , " ruffians , barbarians , and political banditti " . A series of battles occurred that resulted in 29 African Americans and 2 Whites killed . The White militia retained control of the Court House and jail . On December 21 , Grant gave a Presidential Proclamation for the people in Vicksburg to stop fighting . Philip Sheridan in Louisiana dispatched troops who reinstated Crosby as sheriff and restored the peace . When questioned about the matter , Governor Ames denied he had told Crosby to use African American militia . On June 7 , 1875 , Crosby was shot to death by a White deputy while drinking in a bar . The origins for the shooting remained a mystery .
= = = = Louisiana revolt and coups = = = =
On September 14 , 1874 , the White League and Democratic militia took control of the state house at New Orleans , and the Republican Governor William P. Kellogg was forced to flee . Former Confederate General James A. Longstreet , with 3 @,@ 000 African American militia and 400 Metropolitan police , made a counterattack on the 8 @,@ 000 White League troops . Consisting of former Confederate soldiers , the experienced White League troops routed Longstreet 's army . On September 17 , Grant sent in Federal troops , and they restored the government back to Kellogg . During the following controversial election in November , passions rose high , and violence mixed with fraud were rampant ; the state of affairs in New Orleans was becoming out of control . The results were that 53 Republicans and 53 Democrats were elected with 5 remaining seats to be decided by the legislature .
Grant had been careful to watch the elections and secretly sent Phil Sheridan in to keep law and order in the state . Sheridan had arrived in New Orleans a few days before the January 4 , 1875 legislature opening meeting . At the convention the Democrats again with military force took control of the state building out of Republican hands . Initially , the Democrats were protected by federal troops under Colonel Régis de Trobriand , and the escaped Republicans were removed from the hallways of the state building . However , Governor Kellogg then requested that Trobriand reseat the Republicans . Trobriand returned to the State house and used bayonets to force the Democrats out of the building . The Republicans then organized their own house with their own speakers all being protected by the Federal Army . Sheridan , who had annexed the Department of the Gulf to his command at 9 : 00 P.M. , claimed that the federal troops were being neutral since they had also protected the Democrats earlier .
= = = = South Carolina 1876 = = = =
During the election year of 1876 , South Carolina was in a state of rebellion against Republican governor Daniel H. Chamberlain . Conservatives were determined to win the election for ex @-@ Confederate Wade Hampton through violence and intimidation . The Republicans went on to nominate Chamberlain for a second term . Hampton supporters , donning red shirts , disrupted Republican meetings with gun shootings and yelling . Tensions became violent on July 8 , 1876 when five African Americans were murdered at Hamburg . The rifle clubs , wearing their Red Shirts , were better armed then the blacks . South Carolina was ruled more by " mobocracy and bloodshed " than by Chamberlain 's government .
Black militia fought back in Charleston on September 6 , 1876 in what was known as the " King Street riot " . The white militia assumed defensive positions out of concern over possible intervention from federal troops . Then , on September 19 , the Red Shirts took offensive action by openly killing between 30 and 50 African Americans outside Ellenton . During the massacre , state representative Simon Coker was killed . On October 7 , Governor Chamberlain declared martial law and told all the " rifle club " members to put down their weapons . In the meantime , Wade Hampton never ceased to remind Chamberlain that he did not rule South Carolina . Out of desperation , Chamberlain wrote to President Grant and asked for federal intervention . The " Cainhoy riot " took place on October 15 when Republicans held a rally at " Brick Church " outside Cainhoy . Blacks and whites both opened fire ; six whites and one black were killed . Grant , upset over the Ellenton and Cainhoy riots , finally declared a Presidential Proclamation on October 17 , 1876 and ordered all persons , within 3 days , to cease their lawless activities and disperse to their homes . A total of 1 @,@ 144 federal infantrymen were sent into South Carolina , and the violence stopped ; election day was quiet . Both Hampton and Chamberlain claimed victory , and for a while both acted as governor ; Hampton took the office in 1877 , after President Rutherford B. Hayes withdrew federal troops and after Chamberlain left the state .
= = = Indian affairs = = =
Under Grant 's peace policy , wars between settlers , the federal army , and the American Indians had been decreasing from 101 per year in 1869 to a low of 15 per year in 1875 . However , the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory and the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway , threatened to unravel Grant 's peace policy , as white settlers encroached upon native land to mine for gold . Indian wars per year jumped up to 32 in 1876 and remained at 43 in 1877 . One of the highest casualty Indian battles that took place in American history was at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876 . Indian war casualties in Montana went from 5 in 1875 , to 613 in 1876 and 436 in 1877 .
= = = = Modoc War = = = =
In January 1873 , Grant 's Native American peace policy was challenged . Two weeks after Grant was elected for a second term , fighting broke out between the Modocs and settlers near the California @-@ Oregon border . The Modocs , led by Captain Jack , killed 18 white settlers and then found a strong defensive position . Grant ordered General Sherman not to attack the Indians but settle matters peacefully with a commission . Sherman then sent Major General Edward Canby , but Captain Jack killed him . Reverend Eleazar Thomas , a Methodist minister , was also killed . Alfred B. Meacham , an Indian Agent , was severely wounded . The murders shocked the nation , and Sherman wired to have the Modocs exterminated . Grant overruled Sherman ; Captain Jack was executed , and the remaining 155 Modocs were relocated to the Quapaw Agency in the Indian Territory . This episode and the Great Sioux War undermined public confidence in Grant 's peace policy , according to historian Robert M. Utley .
= = = = Red River War = = = =
In 1874 , war erupted on the southern Plains when Quanah Parker , leader of the Comanche , led 700 tribal warriors and attacked the buffalo hunter supply base on the Canadian River , at Adobe Walls , Texas . The Army under General Phil Sheridan launched a military campaign , and , with few casualties on either side , forced the Indians back to their reservations by destroying their horses and winter food supplies . Grant , who agreed to the Army plan advocated by Generals William T. Sherman and Phil Sheridan , imprisoned 74 insurgents in Florida .
= = = = Bureau of Indian Affairs corruption = = = =
In 1874 , massive fraud prevailed in the Bureau of Indian Affairs under Secretary of the Interior Columbus Delano . This proved to be the most serious detriment to Grant 's Indian peace policy . Many agents that worked for the department made unscrupulous fortunes and retired with more money than their pay would allow . Secretary Delano had allowed " Indian Attorneys " who were paid by Native American tribes $ 8 @.@ 00 a day plus food and traveling expenses for sham representation in Washington . Other corruption charges were brought up against Secretary Delano and he was forced to resign . In 1875 , Grant appointed Zachariah Chandler as Secretary of the Interior . Chandler vigorously uncovered and cleaned up the fraud in the department by firing all the clerks and banned the phony " Indian Attorneys " access to Washington . Grant 's " Quaker " or church appointments partially made up the lack of food staples and housing from the government .
= = = = Great Sioux War = = = =
In 1874 gold had been discovered in the Black Hills in the Dakota Territory . White speculators and settlers rushed in droves seeking riches mining gold on land reserved for the Sioux tribe by the Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868 . In 1875 , to avoid conflict President Grant met with Red Cloud , chief of the Sioux , at Washington , D.C. , and offered $ 25 @,@ 000 from the government to purchase the land . The offer was declined . On November 3 , 1875 at a White House meeting , Phil Sheridan claimed to the President that the Army was overstretched and could not defend the Sioux tribe from the settlers ; Grant capitulated ; ordered Sheridan to round up the Sioux and put them on the reservation . Sheridan used a strategy of convergence , using Army columns to force the Sioux onto the reservation . On June 25 , 1876 , one of these columns , led by Colonel George A. Custer met the Sioux at the Battle of Little Big Horn and was slaughtered . Approximately 253 federal soldiers and civilians were killed compared to 40 American Indians . Custer 's death and the Battle of Little Big Horn shocked the nation . Sheridan avenged Custer , pacified the northern Plains , and put the defeated Sioux on the reservation . On August 15 , 1876 President Grant signed a proviso giving the Sioux nation $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in rations , while the Sioux relinquished all rights to the Black Hills , except for a 40 @-@ mile land tract west of the 103 meridian . On August 28 , a seven @-@ man committee , appointed by Grant , gave additional harsh stipulations for the Sioux in order to receive government assistance . Halfbreeds and " squaw men " were banished from the Sioux reservation . To receive the government rations , the Indians had to work the land . Reluctantly , on September 20 , the Indian leaders , whose people were starving , agreed to the committee 's demands and signed the agreement .
During the Great Sioux War , Grant came into conflict with Col. George Armstrong Custer after he testified in 1876 about corruption in the War Department under Secretary William W. Belknap ( see below ) . Grant had Custer arrested for breach of military protocol in Chicago and barred him from leading an upcoming campaign against the Sioux . Grant finally relented and let Custer fight under Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry . Custer was killed at the subsequent Battle of the Little Big Horn , a defeat for the federal army . Two months later , Grant castigated Custer in the press , saying " I regard Custer 's massacre as a sacrifice of troops , brought on by Custer himself , that was wholly unnecessary -- wholly unnecessary . " As the nation was shocked by the death of Custer , Grant 's Peace policy became militaristic ; Congress appropriated funds for 2 @,@ 500 more troops , two more forts were constructed , the army took over the Indian agencies , while Indians were barred from purchasing rifles and ammunition .
= = = Visited Colorado Territory = = =
Grant was the first President to visit the Colorado Territory in late April 1873 , having traveled by the Union Pacific Railroad , who had made a special presidential car . President Grant stayed at the residence of Governor Samuel H. Elbert , whom Grant had appointed earlier in April . Grant 's presidential party included his wife , daughter Nellie , and his private secretary Orville E. Babcock . At a reception held by Governor Elbert at Guard Hall , Grant was met by many white people who aggressively sought his handshake . Grant met with 30 to 40 Ute Indians , who had desired to see the " Great Father " , and shook their hands . Former Colorado Territory Governors John Evans and Edward M. McCook also met with Grant while he visited the Colorado Territory . President Grant was impressed by Colorado 's " magnifigant scenery " and expressed his desire to revisit the territory .
= = = Civil rights = = =
= = = = Civil Rights Act of 1875 = = = =
Throughout his presidency , Grant was continually concerned with the civil rights of all Americans , " irrespective of nationality , color , or religion . " Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 that allowed citizens access to public eating establishments , hotels , and places of entertainment . This was done particularly to protect African Americans who were discriminated across United States . The bill was also passed in honor of Senator Charles Sumner who had previously attempted to pass a civil rights bill in 1872 .
= = = = Polygamy and Chinese prostitution = = = =
In October 1875 , Grant traveled to Utah and was surprised that the Mormons treated him kindly . He told Utah territorial governor , George W. Emery , that he had been deceived concerning the Mormons . However , on December 7 , 1875 after his return to Washington , Grant wrote to Congress in his seventh annual state of the Union address that as " an institution polygamy should be banished from the land … " Grant believed that polygamy negatively affected children and women . Grant advocated that a second law , stronger than the Morrill Act , be passed to " punish so flagrant a crime against decency and morality . "
Grant also denounced the immigration of Chinese women into the United States for the purposes of prostitution , saying that it was " no less an evil " than polygamy .
= = = Secular education = = =
Grant believed strongly in the separation of church and state and championed complete secularization in public schools . In a September 1875 speech , Grant advocated " security of free thought , free speech , and free press , pure morals , unfettered religious sentiments , and of equal rights and privileges to all men , irrespective of nationality , color , or religion . " In regard to public education , Grant endorsed that every child should receive " the opportunity of a good common school education , unmixed with sectarian , pagan , or atheist tenets . Leave the matter of religion to the family altar , the church , and the private schools ... Keep the church and the state forever separate . "
= = = Support for Jews = = =
Grant very much regretted his wartime order expelling Jewish traders . The Jewish community was angry with Grant , and feared for their status in America even though President Lincoln forced Grant to rescind the order immediately . Grant publicly apologized for it in 1868 . When he became president in 1869 , he set out to make amends . Historian Jonathan Sarna argues :
Eager to prove that he was above prejudice , Grant appointed more Jews to public office than had any of his predecessors and , in the name of human rights , he extended unprecedented support to persecuted Jews in Russia and Romania . Time and again , partly as a result of this enlarged vision of what it meant to be an American and partly in order to live down General Orders No. 11 , Grant consciously worked to assist Jews and secure them equality .... Through his appointments and policies , Grant rejected calls for a ' Christian nation ' and embraced Jews as insiders in America , part of " we the people . " During his administration , Jews achieved heightened status on the national scene , anti @-@ Jewish prejudice declined , and Jews look forward optimistically to a liberal epoch characterized by sensitivity to human rights and interreligious cooperation . ”
= = = Panic of 1873 = = =
The Panic of 1873 was a worldwide depression that started when the stock market in Vienna , Austria crashed in June that year . Unsettling markets soon spread to Berlin and throughout Europe . The panic eventually reached New York when two banks went broke – the New York Warehouse & Security Company on September 18 and the major railroad financier Jay Cooke & Company on September 19 . The ensuing depression lasted 5 years , ruined thousands of businesses , depressed daily wages by 25 % from 1873 to 1876 , and brought the unemployment rate up to 14 % .
The causes of the panic in the United States included the destruction of credit from over @-@ speculation in the stock markets and railroad industry . Eight years of unprecedented growth after the Civil War had brought thousands of miles of railroad construction , thousands of industrial factories , and a strong stock market ; the South experienced a boom in agriculture . However , all this growth was done on borrowed money by many banks in the United States that have over @-@ speculated in the Railroad industry by as much as $ 20 million . A stringent monetary policy under Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell , during the height of the railroad speculations , contributed to unsettled markets . Boutwell created monetary stringency by selling more gold then he bought bonds . The Coinage Act of 1873 made gold the de facto currency metal over silver .
On September 20 , 1873 the Grant Administration finally responded . Grant 's Secretary of Treasury William Adams Richardson , Boutwell 's replacement , bought $ 2 @.@ 5 million of five @-@ twenty bonds with gold . On Monday , September 22 , Richardson bought $ 3 million of bonds with legal tender notes or greenbacks and purchased $ 5 @.@ 5 million in legal tender certificates . From September 24 to September 25 the Treasury department bought $ 24 million in bonds and certificates with greenbacks . On September 29 the Secretary prepaid the interest on $ 12 million bonds bought from security banks . From October , 1873 to January 4 , 1874 Richardson kept liquidating bonds until $ 26 million greenback reserves were issued to make up for lost revenue in the Treasury . These actions did help curb the effects of the general panic by allowing more currency into the commercial banks and hence allowing more money to be lent and spent . Historians have blamed the Grant administration for not responding to the crisis promptly and for not taking adequate measures to reduce the negative effects of the general panic . The monetary policies of both Secretary Boutwell and Richardson were inconsistent from 1872 to 1873 . The government 's ultimate failure was in not reestablishing confidence in the businesses that had been the source of distrust . The Panic of 1873 eventually ran its course despite all the limited efforts from the government .
Grant 's " cronyism " , as Smith ( 2001 ) calls it , was apparent when he overruled Army experts to help a wartime friend , engineer , James B. Eads . Eads was building a major railroad bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis that had been authorized by Congress in 1866 , and was nearing completion in 1873 . However , the Army Corps of Engineers chief of engineers , agreeing with steam boat interests , ordered Eads to build a canal around the bridge because the bridge would be " a serious obstacle to navigation . " After talking with Eads at the White House , Grant reversed the order and the 6 @,@ 442 feet ( 1 @,@ 964 m ) long steel arched bridge went on to completion in 1874 without a canal .
= = = Economy = = =
= = = = Vetoes inflation bill = = = =
The rapidly accelerated industrial growth in post @-@ Civil War America and throughout the world crashed with the Panic of 1873 . Many banks overextended their loans and went bankrupt as a result , causing a general panic throughout the nation . In an attempt to put capital into a stringent monetary economy , Secretary of Treasury William A. Richardson released $ 26 million in greenbacks . Many argued that Richardson 's monetary policies were not enough and some argued were illegal . In 1874 , Congress debated the inflationary policy to stimulate the economy and passed the Inflation Bill of 1874 that would release an additional $ 18 million in greenbacks up to the original $ 400 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 amount . Eastern bankers vigorously lobbied Grant to veto the bill because of their reliance on bonds and foreign investors who did business in gold . Grant 's cabinet was bitterly divided over this issue while conservative Secretary of State Hamilton Fish threatened to resign if Grant signed the bill . On April 22 , 1874 , after evaluating his own reasons for wanting to sign the bill , Grant unexpectedly vetoed the bill against the popular election strategy of the Republican Party because he believed it would destroy the nation 's credit .
= = = = Resumption of Specie Act = = = =
On January 14 , 1875 , Grant signed the Resumption of Specie Act , and he could not have been happier ; he wrote a note to Congress congratulating members on the passage of the act . The legislation was drafted by Ohio Republican Senator John Sherman . This act provided that paper money in circulation would be exchanged for gold specie and silver coins and would be effective January 1 , 1879 . The act also implemented that gradual steps would be taken to reduce the amount of greenbacks in circulation . At that time there were " paper coin " currency worth less than $ 1 @.@ 00 , and these would be exchanged for silver coins . Its effect was to stabilize the currency and make the consumers money as " good as gold " . In an age without a Federal Reserve system to control inflation , this act stabilized the economy . Grant considered it the hallmark of his administration .
= = = Foreign Policy = = =
= = = = Virginus affair = = = =
On October 31 , 1873 , a steamer Virginius , flying the American flag carrying war materials and men to aid the Cuban insurrection ( in violation of American and Spanish law ) was intercepted and taken to Cuba . After a hasty trial , the local Spanish officials executed 53 would @-@ be insurgents , eight of whom were United States citizens ; orders from Madrid to delay the executions arrived too late . War scares erupted in both the U.S. and Spain , heightened by the bellicose dispatches from the American minister in Madrid , retired general Daniel Sickles . Secretary of State Fish kept a cool demeanor in the crisis , and through investigation discovered there was a question over whether the Virginius ship had the right to bear the United States flag . The Spanish Republic 's President Emilio Castelar expressed profound regret for the tragedy and was willing to make reparations through arbitration . Fish negotiated reparations with the Spanish minister Senor Poly y Bernabe . With Grant 's approval , Spain was to surrender Virginius , pay an indemnity to the surviving families of the Americans executed , and salute the American flag ; the episode ended quietly .
= = = = Hawaiian free trade treaty = = = =
In December 1874 , Grant held a state dinner at the White House for the King of Hawaii , David Kalakaua , who was seeking the importation of Hawaiian sugar duty @-@ free to the United States . Grant and Fish were able to produce a successful free trade treaty in 1875 with the Kingdom of Hawaii , incorporating the Pacific islands ' sugar industry into the United States ' economy sphere .
= = = = Liberian @-@ Grebo war = = = =
The U.S. settled the war between Liberia and the native Grebo people in 1876 by dispatching the USS Alaska to Liberia . James Milton Turner , the first African American ambassador from the United States , requested that a warship be sent to protect American property in Liberia , a former American colony . After Alaska arrived , Turner negotiated the incorporation of Grebo people into Liberian society and the ousting of foreign traders from Liberia .
= = Corruption and reform ( 1873 @-@ 1877 ) = =
Scandals and frauds continued to be exposed during President Grant 's second term in office . The Democrats along with the Liberal Republicans had gained control of the House of Representatives and held many Committee meetings to stop political graft . The main scandal was the Whiskey Ring where the investigation went up to Grant himself . The Emma Silver mine was a minor embarrassment associated with American Ambassador to Britain , Robert C. Schenck , using his name to promote a worked out silver mine . The Crédit Mobilier scandal 's origins were during the presidential Administrations of Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson , however , political congressional infighting during the Grant Administration exposed the scandal .
= = = Scandal cabinet and appointees = = =
The most infamous of Grant 's cabinet or other presidential appointees who were involved in scandals or criminal activity :
Daniel Butterfield , Assistant Secretary of Treasury – ( Black Friday- 1869 ) ( Forced to resign by Grant . )
William A. Richardson , Secretary of Treasury – ( Sanborn Contracts- 1874 ) ( Resigned and appointed Federal Judge by Grant . )
George H. Williams , Attorney General – ( Pratt & Boyd- 1875 ) ( Resigned )
Columbus Delano , Secretary of Interior – ( Bogus Agents – 1875 ) ( Resigned )
Orville E. Babcock , Private Secretary – ( Black Friday – 1869 ) ( Whiskey Ring – 1875 ) ( Safe Burglary Conspiracy – 1876 ) ( Acquitted in Saint Louis Whiskey Ring trials by jury due to Grant 's defense testimony in his favor . )
John McDonald , Internal Revenue Supervisor , St. Louis – ( Whiskey Ring – 1875 ) ( Indicted and convicted ; served prison time ; claimed Grant was involved in the Whiskey Ring but did not supply any evidence . )
Horace Porter , Private Secretary – ( Whiskey Ring – 1875 )
William W. Belknap , Secretary of War – ( Trading Post Ring- 1876 ) ( Resigned ; Convicted by House ; acquitted by Senate ; indictments against Belknap in Washington D.C. court were dropped by judge at request of Grant and Attorney General Alphonso Taft . )
George M. Robeson , Secretary of Navy – ( Naval Department Ring- 1876 ) ( Grant defended Robeson in State of the Union address . Grant believed Robeson had kept U.S. Navy as modern as possible during his lengthy tenure . )
= = = Sanborn contracts = = =
In June 1874 , Treasury Secretary William A. Richardson gave private contracts to one John D. Sanborn who in turn collected illegally withheld taxes for fees at inflated commissions . The profits from the commissions were allegedly split with Richardson and Senator Benjamin Butler , while Sanborn claimed these payments were " expenses " . Senator Butler had written a loophole in the law that allowed Sanborn to collect the commissions , but Sanborn would not reveal whom he split the profits with .
= = = Pratt & Boyd = = =
In April 1875 , it was discovered that Attorney General George H. Williams allegedly received a bribe through a $ 30 @,@ 000 gift to his wife from a Merchant house company , Pratt & Boyd , to drop the case for fraudulent customhouse entries . Williams was forced to resign by Grant in 1875 .
= = = Delano affair = = =
In 1875 , the U.S. Department of the Interior was in serious disrepair with corruption and incompetence . The Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano , discovered to have taken bribes to secure fraudulent land grants , resigned from office on October 15 , 1875 . Delano had also given bogus lucrative cartographical contracts to his son John Delano and Ulysses S. Grant 's own brother , Orvil Grant . Neither John Delano nor Orvil Grant performed any work or were skillfully qualified to hold such surveying positions . The Department of Indian Affairs was being controlled by corrupt clerks and bogus agents who made enormous profits from the exploitation of Native American tribes . Massive fraud was also found in the Patent Office with corrupt clerks who embezzled from the government payroll . Delano who refused to make any reforms resigned under public pressure rather than Grant asking for a resignation . It was another missed opportunity for Grant to support ethics in government . However , on October 19 , 1875 , Grant made another reforming cabinet choice when he appointed Zachariah Chandler as Secretary of the Interior . Chandler cleaned up the Patent Office and the Department of Indian Affairs by firing all the corrupt clerks and banned bogus agents .
= = = Whiskey Ring prosecuted = = =
In May 1875 , Secretary of Treasury Benjamin H. Bristow discovered that millions of dollars of taxes were being funneled into an illegal ring from whiskey manufacturers . Prosecutions ensued , and many were put in prison . Grant 's private Secretary Orville E. Babcock was indicted and later acquitted in trial . The Whiskey Ring was organized throughout the United States , and by 1875 it was a fully operating criminal association . The investigation and closure of the Whiskey Ring resulted in 230 indictments , 110 convictions , and $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in tax revenues that were returned to the Treasury Department . During the prosecution of the Whiskey Ring leaders , Grant testified on behalf of his friend Babcock . As a result , Babcock was acquitted , however , the deposition by Grant was a great embarrassment to his reputation . The Babcock trial turned into an impeachment trial against the President by Grant 's political opponents .
= = = Trading post ring = = =
In March 1876 it was discovered under House investigations that Secretary of War William W. Belknap was taking extortion money in exchange for allowing an Indian trading post agent to remain in position at Fort Sill . Belknap was allowed to resign by President Grant and as a result was acquitted in a Senate impeachment trial . Profits were made at the expense of Native Americans who were supposed to receive food and clothing from the government . In late April 1876 , Grant lashed out at Lieut . Col. George A. Custer , after Custer had testified at a Congressional committee one month before against Grant 's brother Orville and Sec . Belknap . There had been rumors Custer had talked with the press concerning the Indian post profiteering . Custer personally went to the White House to clear matters up with the President , however , Grant refused to see him three times . When Custer left Washington on May 3 to return to Fort Lincoln , he had been removed from overall command by Grant and denied any participation of the Sioux Campaign ; having been replaced by Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry . However , at Terry 's insistence , Grant relented and allowed Custer to participate in the campaign against the Sioux on the condition he did not take any pressmen .
= = = Cattellism = = =
In March 1876 , Secretary of Navy George M. Robeson was charged by a Democratic @-@ controlled House investigation committee with giving lucrative contracts to Alexander Cattell & Company , a grain supplier , in return for real estate , loans , and payment of debts . The House investigating committee also discovered that Secretary Robeson had allegedly embezzled $ 15 million in naval construction appropriations . Since there were no financial paper trails or enough evidence for impeachment and conviction , the House Investigation committee admonished Robeson and claimed he had set up a corrupt contracting system known as " Cattellism " .
= = = Safe burglary conspiracy = = =
In September 1876 , Orville E. Babcock , Superintendent of Public Works and Buildings , was indicted in a safe burglary conspiracy case and trial . In April , corrupt building contractors in Washington , D.C. were on trial for graft when a safe robbery occurred . Bogus secret service agents broke into a safe and attempted to frame Columbus Alexander , who had exposed the corrupt contracting ring . Babcock was named as part of the conspiracy , but later acquitted in the trial against the burglars . Evidence suggests that Backcock was involved with the swindles by the corrupt Washington Contractors Ring and he wanted revenge on Columbus Alexander , an avid reformer and critic of the Grant Administration . There was also evidence that safe burglary jury had been tampered with .
= = Reforming cabinet members = =
Grant 's cabinet fluctuated between talented individuals or reformers and those involved with political patronage or party corruption . Some notable reforming cabinet members were persons who had outstanding abilities and made many positive contributions to the administration . These reformers resisted the GOP demands for patronage to select efficient civil servants . Grant 's most successful appointment , Hamilton Fish , after the confirmation on March 17 , 1869 , went immediately to work and collected , classified , indexed , and bound seven hundred volumes of correspondence . He established a new indexing system that simplified retrieving information by clerks . Fish also created a rule that applicants for consulate had to take an official written examination to receive an appointment ; previously , applicants were given positions on a patronage system solely on the recommendations of Congressmen and Senators . This raised the tone and efficiency of the consular service , and if a Congressman or Senator objected , Fish could show them that the applicant did not pass the written test . According to Fish 's biographer and historian Amos Elwood Corning in 1919 , Fish was known as " a gentleman of wide experience , in whom the capacities of the organizer were happily united with a well balanced judgment and broad culture " .
Another reforming cabinet member was United States Secretary of Treasury George S. Boutwell who was confirmed by the Senate on March 12 , 1869 . His first actions were to dismiss S.M. Clark , the chief of U.S. Bureau and Engraving , and to set up a system of securing the plates that the paper money was printed on to prevent counterfeiting . Boutwell set up a system to monitor the manufacturing of money to ensure nothing would be stolen . Boutwell prevented collusion in the printing of money by preparing sets of plates for a single printing , with the red seal being imprinted in the Treasury Bureau . Boutwell persuaded Grant to have the Commissioner of Internal Revenue Alfred Pleasanton removed for misconduct over approving a $ 60 @,@ 000 tax refund . In addition to these measures , Boutwell established a uniform mode of accounting at custom houses and ports . Boutwell along with Attorney General , Amos T. Akerman , were two of Grant 's strongest cabinet members who advocated racial justice for African Americans .
During Amos T. Akerman 's tenure as Attorney General of the United States from 1870 to 1871 , thousands of indictments were brought against Klansmen to enforce the Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and the Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 . Born in the North , Akerman moved to Georgia after college and owned slaves ; he fought for the Confederacy and became a Scalawag during Reconstruction , speaking out for blacks ' civil rights . As U.S. Attorney General , he became the first ex @-@ Confederate to reach the cabinet . Akerman was unafraid of the Klan and committed to protecting the lives and civil rights of blacks . To bolster Akerman 's investigation , Grant sent in Secret Service agents from the Justice Department to infiltrate the Klan and to gather evidence for prosecution . The investigations revealed that many whites participated in Klan activities . With this evidence , Grant issued a Presidential proclamation to disarm and remove the Klan 's notorious white robe and hood disguises . When the Klan ignored the proclamation , Grant sent Federal troops to nine South Carolina counties to put down the violent activities of the Klan . Grant teamed Akerman up with another reformer in 1870 – the first Solicitor General and native Kentuckian Benjamin Bristow – and the duo went on to prosecute thousands of Klan members and brought a brief quiet period of two years in the turbulent Reconstruction era .
As perhaps Grant 's most popular cabinet reformer , Benjamin H. Bristow was appointed Secretary of Treasury in June 1874 . Bristow had served ably as Solicitor General of the United States from 1870 to 1872 , prosecuting many Ku Klux Klan 's men who violated African American voting rights . When Bristow assumed office he immediately made an aggressive attack on corruption in the department . Bristow discovered that the Treasury was not receiving the full amount of tax revenue from whiskey distillers and manufacturers from several Western cities , primarily St. Louis , Missouri . Bristow discovered in 1874 that the Government alone was being defrauded by $ 1 @.@ 2 million . On May 13 , 1875 , armed with enough information , Bristow struck hard at the ring , seized the distilleries , and made hundreds of arrests ; the Whiskey Ring ceased to exist . Although President Grant and Bristow were not on friendly terms , Bristow sincerely desired to save Grant 's reputation from scandal . At the end of the Whiskey Ring prosecutions in 1876 , there were 230 indictments , 110 convictions , and $ 3 million in tax revenues returned to the Treasury Department .
In 1875 , Grant paired up Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow with U.S. Attorney General Edwards Pierrepont , a Yale graduate . The appointment was popularly accepted by the public as Bristow and Pierrepont successfully prosecuted members of the Whiskey Ring . Before becoming U.S. Attorney General , Pierrepont was part of a reforming group known as the " Committee of Seventy " and was successful at shutting down William M. Tweed 's corrupt contracting Ring while he was a New York U.S. Attorney in 1870 . Although Grant 's reputation was vastly improved , Pierrepont had shown indifference in 1875 to the plight of freedmen by circumventing Federal intervention when White racists terrorized Mississippi 's African American citizens over a fraudulent Democratic election . Every cabinet appointment made by Grant came with a political cost .
When President Grant was in a bind to find a replacement for Secretary of War William W. Belknap , who abruptly resigned in 1876 amidst scandal , he turned to his good friend Alphonso Taft from Cincinnati . Taft , who accepted , served ably as Secretary of War until being transferred to the Attorney General position . As Secretary of War , Taft reduced military expenditures and made it so that no post @-@ traderships would be given to any person except on the recommendation of the officers at the post . Grant then appointed Taft as U.S. Attorney General . Taft was a wise scholar and jurist educated at Yale University , and the Attorney General position suited him the best . During the controversial Presidential Election of 1876 between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden , Attorney General Taft and House Representative J. Proctor Knott had many meetings to decide the outcome of the controversial election . The result of the Taft @-@ Knott negotiations , the Electoral Commission Act was passed by Congress and signed into law by Grant on January 29 , 1877 ; it created a 15 panel bipartisan committee to elect the next President . Hayes won the Presidency by one electoral vote two days before the March 4 , 1877 Inauguration . Alphonso Taft was the father of future president William H. Taft .
In 1875 , the U.S. Department of the Interior was in serious disrepair with corruption and incompetence . The result was that United States Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano , reportedly having taken bribes to secure fraudulent land grants , was forced to resign from office on October 15 , 1875 . On October 19 , 1875 , in a personal effort of reform , Grant appointed Zachariah Chandler to the position and was confirmed by the Senate in December 1875 . Chandler immediately went to work on reforming the Interior Department by dismissing all the important clerks in the Patent Office . Chandler had discovered that fictitious clerks were earning money and that other clerks were earning money without performing services . Chandler simplified the patent application procedure and as a result reduced costs . Chandler , under President Grant 's orders , fired all corrupt clerks at the Bureau of Indian Affairs . Chandler also banned the practice of Native American agents , known as " Indian Attorneys " who were being paid $ 8 @.@ 00 a day plus expenses for supposedly representing their tribes in Washington .
Postmaster General John A. J. Creswell proved to be one of the ablest organizers ever to head the Post Office . He cut costs while greatly expanding the number of mail routes , postal clerks and letter carriers . He introduced the penny post card and worked with Fish to revise postal treaties . A Radical , he used the vast patronage of the post office to support Grant 's coalition . He asked for the total abolition of the franking privilege since it reduced the revenue receipts by five percent . The franking privilege allowed members of Congress to send mail at the government 's expense .
= = Election of 1876 = =
During the presidential election of 1876 , the Republicans nominated the fiscally conservative Rutherford B. Hayes and the Democrats nominated reformer Samuel Tilden . Results were split . Tilden received 51 % of the popular vote ; Hayes 48 % ; while 20 key electoral votes remained undecided and in dispute . Both Republicans and Democrats claimed victory and the threat of a second civil war was eminent . Grant was watchful ; encouraged Congress to settle the election by commission ; and determined to keep a peaceful transfer of power . On January 29 , 1877 Grant signed the Electoral Commission Act that gave a 15 panel bipartisan commission power to determine electoral votes . The commission gave Hayes 185 electoral votes ; Tilden received 184 . Hayes became the 19th President of the United States after being awarded 3 electoral votes from the state of Colorado . Grant 's personal honesty , firmness , and even handedness reassured the nation and a second civil war was averted .
= = Judicial appointments = =
Grant appointed four Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first two vacancies occurred in 1869 with the retirement of Robert C. Grier and Congress 's restoration of a ninth seat on the Court . Grant appointed former Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Attorney General Ebenezer R. Hoar . Neither man would take his seat : Stanton was confirmed , but died before he took office ; Hoar was widely disliked in the Senate , which defeated his nomination 24 @-@ 33 . Following a cabinet discussion , Grant submitted two more names to the Senate : William Strong and Joseph P. Bradley . Strong was a former justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania who retired to take up a private practice in Philadelphia . Bradley , a New Jersey lawyer , also had a successful private practice . Both men were railroad lawyers , and their appointment led to accusations that Grant intended them to overturn the case of Hepburn v. Griswold , which had been decided the same day they were nominated . That case , which was unpopular with business interests , held that the federal debt incurred before 1862 must be paid in gold , not greenbanks . Nonetheless , both Strong and Bradley were confirmed and the following year Hepburn was indeed reversed .
After Grant 's reelection , another Supreme Court seat opened up with the retirement of Justice Samuel Nelson . Grant nominated Ward Hunt , a New York state judge and friend of Senator Roscoe Conkling , to replace him . Hunt was confirmed in 1873 and , like Nelson , upheld Reconstruction legislation . He served on the court until 1882 . In May 1873 , Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase died suddenly . Grant waited several months before offering the seat to Conkling in November . Conkling declined , as did Senator Timothy Howe of Wisconsin . Grant unsuccessfully tried to enlist Hamilton Fish for the job and considered nominating Caleb Cushing , as well , before submitting the name of his attorney general , George Henry Williams . The Senate had a dim view of Williams 's performance at the Justice Department and refused to act on the nomination . Grant stuck to his choice , but after no action Williams asked that his name be withdrawn in January 1874 . Fish suggested nominating Hoar again , but Grant instead chose Cushing . Cushing was an eminent lawyer and respected in his field , but the emergence of his wartime correspondence with Jefferson Davis doomed his nomination . Grant finally turned to Morrison Waite , a respectable ( if little @-@ known ) Ohio lawyer who had worked on the Alabama claims arbitration . Waite was unanimously approved two days later , on January 21 , 1874 . Waite was an uncontroversial nominee , but in his time on the Court he authored two of the decisions ( United States v. Reese and United States v. Cruikshank ) that did the most to undermine Reconstruction @-@ era laws for the protection of black Americans .
= = Administration and Cabinet = =
= = = Supreme Court appointments = = =
Grant appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States :
Edwin M. Stanton – 1869 ( died before taking seat )
William Strong – 1870
Joseph P. Bradley – 1870
Ward Hunt – 1873
Morrison Remick Waite ( Chief Justice ) – 1874
= = = States admitted to the Union = = =
Colorado – August 1 , 1876
Colorado came into the Union just in time to give enough electoral votes for Rutherford B. Hayes to win the Presidential Election of 1876 .
= = = Vetoes = = =
Grant vetoed more bills then any of his predecessors with 93 vetoes during the 41st through 44th Congresses . 45 were regular vetoes , and 48 of them were pocket vetoes . Grant had 4 vetoes overridden by Congress .
= = = Government agencies instituted = = =
Department of Justice ( 1870 )
Office of the Solicitor General ( 1870 )
United States Civil Service Commission ( 1871 ) ; Congressional appropriations expired in 1873 , however , the commission continued to function . The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883 renewed appropriations and enhanced the federal power and scope of the commission . Grant 's U.S. Attorney General Amos T. Akerman ruled that the Civil Service Commission was Constitutional as long as the purpose was to increase government 's power to higher qualified workers and improve the efficiency of running the government . Akerman stated that the Civil Service Commission did not have the Constitutional power to stop or prevent appointments .
Office of the Surgeon General ( 1871 )
Army Weather Bureau ( currently known as the National Weather Service ) ( 1870 )
= = = Presidential succession 1875 @-@ 1877 = = =
When Grant 's second term Vice President and Cabinet member Henry Wilson died in office on November 22 , 1875 , by 1792 Statue , President pro tempore of the Senate , then Michigan Republican Senator Thomas W. Ferry , was next in line of succession to the president . On March 2 , 1877 Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes was declared by Congress to be elected President having received a majority of electoral votes . President Grant believed an insurrection by the Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden 's supporters over the controversial Election of 1876 could take place and wanted to make sure that any Democratic attempt to seize by force Hayes ' public inauguration ceremony would fail . Since March 4 , 1877 was a Sunday , President Grant secretly had Hayes take the oath of office in the Red Room of the White House on March 3 , becoming the first president to take the oath of office in the White House . No disturbance took place and Hayes formally took the oath of president on Monday , March 5 , 1877 .
= = Presidential reputation = =
Grant was the first President since Andrew Jackson to serve two full terms in office . The 40 years that separated their administrations marks the longest time span between presidents without one serving two terms . The legacy of President Grant is one of American civil rights , international diplomacy , scandals , and a boom @-@ and @-@ bust national economy . In terms of civil rights , Grant had urged the passing of the 15th Amendment and signed into law the Civil Rights Bill of 1875 that gave all citizens access to places of public enterprise . Grant defeated the Klan by sending in the Justice Department , backed by the Army . Grant 's 1868 Presidential campaign slogan " Let us have peace " rang true when his State Department resolved crises with Britain and Spain , implementing the new concept of International Arbitration .
The scandals revealed that Grant reacted too readily to protect his team , to cover up misdeeds , and to get rid of whistle blowers and reformers . It was impossible for Grant to morally check all of the corruption generated from the socioeconomic forces of a costly American Civil War , rapid industrialization , and Westward expansionism . His acceptance of gifts from wealthy associates showed poor judgment . He distrusted reformers as busybodies who were interfering with party patronage . He was reluctant to prosecute cabinet members and appointees viewed as " honest " friends , and those who were convicted were set free with presidential pardons after serving a brief time in prison . His associations with these scandals have tarnished his personal reputation while President and afterward . Despite the scandals , by the end of Grant 's second term the corruption in the Departments of Interior ( 1875 ) , Treasury ( 1874 ) , and Justice ( 1875 ) were cleaned up by his new cabinet members . The State Departement under Secretary Hamilton Fish was run efficiently and virtually free from scandal for Grant 's two terms in office . The Postal Service was cleaned up by reformer Post Master Marshall Jewell ( 1875 ) , who aided Benjamin Bristow shut down the Whiskey Ring . The Department of War was cleaned up by Secretary Alphonso Taft , after the resignation of Secretary William Belknap in 1876 . Grant 's personal Secretary Orville Babcock was out of the White House by 1876 . The Department of Navy , under Secretary George Robeson , remained unreformed , however , Robeson did implement U.S. Naval resurgence after the Virginius Incident in 1873 .
Grant 's generous treatment of Robert E. Lee at Appomattox helped give him popularity in the South . Although he kept civil rights on the political agenda , the Republican party at the end of Grant 's second term shifted to pursuing conservative fiscal policies . His weak response to the Panic of 1873 hurt the economy and seriously damaged his party , which lost heavily in 1874 . His personal will often strayed from normal Presidential orthodoxy , and his administration defied the American tradition of a government run without political corruption and favoritism . Grant 's financial policies favored Wall Street , but his term ended with the nation mired in a deep economic depression that Grant could not comprehend or deal with . Revisionist historians during the first half of the Twentieth Century have tended to prop up a romantic view of the Confederacy and the Lost Cause at the expense of downgrading the Union cause and Grant 's Presidency as a corrupt despot .
However , the tide is beginning to turn concerning Grant 's presidential legacy . Frank Scaturro , who is credited with spearheading the movement to restore Grant 's Tomb while only a college student , has since written the first book of the modern era which portrays Grant 's presidency in a positive light . President Grant Reconsidered has altered the perception of how history and historians view Grant 's presidency . At the time of its publication the Weekly Standard said that Scaturro 's work was a " convincing case that Grant was a strong and , in many important respects , successful president . It is an argument full of significance for how we see the course of American political history . ... Scaturro 's work ... should prompt a reassessment of the entire progressive @-@ New Deal Tradition . And Presidential Studies Quarterly stated " It would appear that historians and the press have been unkind in their evaluation of Grant 's two term presidency . Scaturro does well in his reconsideration . Now modern scholars are individually evaluating Grant 's Presidency rather than relying on traditional Presidential polls that have given Grant low rankings . Since Scaturro 's publication in 1998 , extensive biographies of President Grant have been written by such notable historians as 2002 finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography Jean Edward Smith , Grant , Josiah H Bunting III , Ulysses S. Grant : The American Presidents Series : The 18th President and most recently H.W. Brands , The Man Who Saved the Union : Ulysses Grant in War and Peace . These venerable historians have indeed reconsidered Grant 's presidency and like Scaturro have reached a much more favorable opinion than early twentieth century works .
= = Civil rights record = =
Grant proactively used military and Justice Department enforcement of civil rights laws and the protection of African Americans more than any other President . He used his full powers to weaken the Ku Klux Klan , reducing violence and intimidation in the South . He appointed James Milton Turner as the first African American minister to a foreign nation . Grant 's relationship with Charles Sumner , the leader in promoting civil rights , was shattered by the Senator 's opposition to Grant 's plan to acquire Santo Domingo by treaty . Grant retaliated , firing men Sumner had recommended and having allies strip Sumner of his chairmanship of the Foreign Relations Committee . Sumner joined the Liberal Republican movement in 1872 to fight Grant 's reelection .
Grant 's presidency was committed to treat Native Americans as individual wards of the state under a " peace " policy and encouraged their citizenship . Native Americans were eventually given full U.S. citizenship in 1924 under the Indian Citizenship Act signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge . Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 . In his sixth message to Congress , he summed up his own views , " While I remain Executive all the laws of Congress and the provisions of the Constitution ... will be enforced with rigor ... Treat the Negro as a citizen and a voter , as he is and must remain ... Then we shall have no complaint of sectional interference . " In the pursued equal justice for all category from the 2009 CSPAN Presidential rating survey Grant scored a 9 getting into the top ten .
= = = By author = = =
Brands , H. W. ( 2012 ) . The Man Who Saved The Union Ulysses S. Grant in War and Peace . New York : Doubleday .
Brands , H. W. ( December 2012 ) . " Presidents in Crisis Grant : Takes on the Klan " . American History : 42 – 47 .
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Boutwell , George S. ( 2008 ) [ First published 1902 ] . Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public Affairs . New York City : Greenwood Press. pp. 131 – 133 . OCLC 1857 .
Bradford , Richard H. ( 1980 ) . The Virginius Affair . Boulder , Colorado : Colorado Associated University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87081 @-@ 080 @-@ 0 . OCLC 6675742 .
Brown , Dee ( 1970 ) . " The War to Save the Buffalo " . Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee . New York City : Henry Holt and Company. pp. 264 – 271 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 1045 @-@ 9 .
Brister , Dan ( November – December 2000 ) . " Between the Bison and the Bullet " . Earth First ! . Retrieved April 15 , 2010 .
Bunting III , Josiah ( 2004 ) . " The Original Inhabitants " . Ulysses S. Grant . New York City : Times Books. pp. 117 – 118 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 6949 @-@ 5 . OCLC 54803737 . Retrieved March 6 , 2010 . Lay summary – WorldCat ( April 12 , 2010 ) .
Carpenter , Daniel P. ( 2001 ) . " Chapter Three " . The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy : Reputations , Networks , and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies , 1862 – 1928 . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press. pp. 84 – 85 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 07009 @-@ 4 . OCLC 47120319 . Retrieved April 1 , 2010 .
Chamberlain , Daniel Henry ( 1902 ) . " Charles Sumner and the Treaty of Washington " . Massachusetts Historical Society ( Worcester , Massachusetts : Press of G.G. Davis ) . Chamberlain reviewed speech by Charles Francis Adams to New York Historical Society on November 19 , 1901 .
Corning , Amos Elwood ( 1918 ) . Hamilton Fish . New York City : Lamere Publishing Company. pp. 49 – 54 . OCLC 2959737 .
DeLony , Eric . " Context for World Heritage Bridges " . International Council on Monuments and Sites . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 04 @-@ 26 .
Doenecke , Justis D. ( 1981 ) . The Presidencies of James A. Garfield & Chester A. Arthur . Lawrence , Kansas : The Regents Press of Kanas . ISBN 0 @-@ 7006 @-@ 0208 @-@ 9 .
Donald , David ( 1970 ) . Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man . New York City : Knopf . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 41899 @-@ 9 .
Duncan , Russell ( 1986 ) . " Introduction " . Freedom 's shore : Tunis Campbell and the Georgia freedmen . Athens , Georgia : University of Georgia Press. pp. 9 – 10 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8203 @-@ 0876 @-@ 0 . OCLC 13334307 . Retrieved April 12 , 2010 .
Etcheson , Nicole ( June 2009 ) . " Reconstruction and the Making of a Free @-@ Labor South " ( PDF ) . Reviews in American History 37 ( 2 ) : 236 – 242 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1353 / rah.0.0101. ISSN 0048 @-@ 7511 . OCLC 1783629 . Lay summary – Project MUSE ( April 12 , 2010 ) . ( subscription required )
Garland , Hamlin ( 1898 ) . Ulysses S. Grant : His Life and Character . New York City : Doubleday and McClure Company. p . 438 . ISBN 0 @-@ 548 @-@ 13253 @-@ 4 . OCLC 11394591 .
Gray , John S. ( 1976 ) . Centennial Campaign The Sioux War of 1876 . University of Oklahoma : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8061 @-@ 2152 @-@ 1 .
Gross , Linda P. ; Theresa R. Snyder ( 2005 ) . Philadelphia 's 1876 Centennial Exhibition . Arcadia Publishing. pp. 15 – 16 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7385 @-@ 3888 @-@ 4 . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 04 @-@ 23 .
Grossman , Mark ( 2003 ) . Political Corruption in America : An Encyclopedia of Scandals , Power , and Greed . Santa Barbara , California : ABC @-@ CLIO. pp. 308 – 309 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57607 @-@ 060 @-@ 4 . OCLC 52418234 . Retrieved April 12 , 2010 .
Hesseltine , William Best ( 1935 ) [ First published 1935 ] . " Chapter XI : The End of Reconstruction " . Ulysses S. Grant , Politician . New York City : Dodd , Mead . ISBN 1 @-@ 931313 @-@ 85 @-@ 7 . OCLC 312581 . Retrieved April 12 , 2010 . ( subscription required )
Hinsdale , Mary Louise ( 1911 ) . A History of the President 's Cabinet ( Ph.D. thesis for the faculty of the Department of Literature , Science , and the Arts of the University of Michigan ) . Ann Arbor , Michigan : George Wehr . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4366 @-@ 5553 @-@ 8 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8762 . OCLC 484433457 . Retrieved April 12 , 2010 .
Howe , George Frederick ( 1935 ) . Chester A. Arthur A Quarter @-@ Century of Machine Politics . New York , New York : Frederick Unger Publishing Co .
Hutton , Paul Andrew , Ph.D. ( 2009 ) [ First published 1985 ] . " Chapter 12 : Reconstructing Louisiana : ' To Charge upon the Liberties of His Fellow @-@ Citizens ' " . Phil Sheridan and his Army . Norman , Oklahoma : University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 262 – 266 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 2329 @-@ 5 . OCLC 10694656 . Retrieved February 25 , 2010 .
Johnson , Benjamin S. ( 1908 ) . John Hugh Reynolds , ed . " The Brooks @-@ Baxter War " . Publications of the Arkansas Historical Association ( Little Rock , Arkansas : Arkansas Historical Association ) 2 : 122 – 168 . OCLC 13681571 . Retrieved February 26 , 2010 .
Keith , LeeAnna ( 2007 ) . " Chapter 7 : Battle of the Colfax Courthouse " . The Colfax Massacre : The Untold Story of Black Power , White Terror , & The Death of Reconstruction . New York City : Oxford University Press. p . 100 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 531026 @-@ 9 . OCLC 145145411 . Retrieved April 13 , 2010 .
Kennedy , Robert C. ( 2001 ) . " George M. Robeson " . Dvrbs.com. Retrieved April 13 , 2010 .
Kinley , David ( 1910 ) . " Chapter VIII – Treasury Relief in Crises , 1873 to 1890 " . The Independent Treasury of the United States and its Relations to the Banks of its Country . Washington , D.C. : U.S. National Monetary Commission , United States Senate. pp. 225 – 235 . OCLC 474950853 . Retrieved February 2 , 2010 .
Kremer , Gary R. ( 1991 ) . " Chapter V : The Preservation of a Noble Experiment " . James Milton Turner and the Promise of America – The Public Life of a Post @-@ Civil War Black Leader . Columbia , Missouri : University of Missouri Press. p . 81 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8262 @-@ 0780 @-@ 7 . OCLC 23144878 . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
Lane , Charles ( 2008 ) . " Chapter Six : Black @-@ Letter Law " . The Day Freedom Died : The Colfax Massacre , the Supreme Court , and the Betrayal of Reconstruction . New York City : Henry Holt and Company. p . 124 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 8922 @-@ 6 . OCLC 172984718 .
Leonard , Lewis Alexander ( 1920 ) . Life of Alphonso Taft . New York City : Hawke Publishing Company . OCLC 60738535 . Retrieved January 28 , 2010 .
McFeely , William S. ( 2002 ) [ First published 1981 ] . Grant : A Biography . New York City : W. W. Norton & Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 01372 @-@ 6 . OCLC 6889578 . , Pulitzer prize , but hostile to Grant
Michno , Gregory F. ( 2003 ) . Encyclopedia of Indian Wars . Missoula , Montana : Mountain Press Publishing Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 87842 @-@ 468 @-@ 7 .
Miller , Nathan ( 1997 ) [ First published 1977 ] . " Chapter 6 : The Naval Renaissance " . The U.S. Navy : A History ( 3rd ed . ) . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press. pp. 146 – 147 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55750 @-@ 595 @-@ 8 . OCLC 37211290 . Retrieved March 30 , 2010 .
Morris , Charles R. ( 2005 ) . " Chapter 5 : Mega @-@ Machine " . The Tycoons : How Andrew Carnegie , John D. Rockefeller , Jay Gould , and J.P. Morgan Invented the American Super Economy . New York City : Times Books. pp. 137 – 138 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 7599 @-@ 1 . OCLC 58431867 . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
Muench , James F. ( 2006 ) . Five Stars : Missouri 's Most Famous Generals . Columbia , Missouri : University of Missouri Press. p . 74 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8262 @-@ 1656 @-@ 4 . OCLC 191943891 . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
Nevins , Allan ( 1937 ) . Hamilton Fish : The Inner History of the Grant Administration . New York City : Macmillan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8044 @-@ 1676 @-@ 4 . OCLC 478495 . Retrieved April 11 , 2010 . ( subscription required )
Oberholtzer , Ellis Paxson ( 1922 ) . " Chapter XI : The Campaign of 1868 " . A history of the United States since the Civil War 2 . New York City : Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 8371 @-@ 2642 @-@ 8 . OCLC 1535877 . Retrieved April 12 , 2010 .
Oberholtzer , Ellis Paxson . A History of the United States Since the Civil War ( NY : Macmillan , 1926 ) vol 3 : 1872 – 1878
Olson , James C. ( 1965 ) . " Chapter 7 : Red Cloud Visits the Great White Father " . Red Cloud and the Sioux problem . Lincoln , Nebraska : University of Nebraska Press. p . 103 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 5817 @-@ 4 . OCLC 728240 . Retrieved April 3 , 2010 .
Pierson , Arthur Tappen ( 1880 ) . " Zachariah Chandler : An Outline Sketch of his Life and Public Services " . Detroit Post and Tribune. pp. 343 – 345 . OCLC 300744189 .
Prucha , Francis Paul ( 1984 ) . " Chapter 20 : Structures of the Peace Policy " . The Great Father : The United States Government and the American Indians . Lincoln , Nebraska : University of Nebraska Press. pp. 501 – 503 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 3668 @-@ 4 . OCLC 9918967 . Retrieved April 4 , 2010 .
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Rhodes , James G. ( 1906 ) . History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley @-@ Bryan Campaign of 1896 : vol . 6 : 1866 – 1872 . OCLC 765948 .
Rives , Timothy ( Fall 2000 ) . " Grant , Babcock , and the Whiskey Ring " . Prologue 32 ( 3 ) . Retrieved January 18 , 2010 .
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Scaturro , Frank ( October 26 , 2006 ) . " The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant , 1869 – 1877 " . College of St. Scholastica . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
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Zuczek , Richard ( 1996 ) . State of Rebellion : Reconstruction in South Carolina . Columbia , South Carolina : University of South Carolina Press. pp. 159 – 165 , 170 – 172 , 174 , 176 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57003 @-@ 105 @-@ 2 . OCLC 33971572 .
= = = By title ( anonymous ) = = =
" C @-@ SPAN 2009 Historians Presidential Leadership Survey " . C @-@ SPAN.org. 2009 . Retrieved January 23 , 2010 .
" Crédit Mobilier – Credit Mobilier of America " . Encyclopedia Americana 8 . Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1918 @.@ p . 173 . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
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" South Carolina Governor Robert Kingston Scott " . National Governors Association . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
Illinois Historic Preservation Agency ( March 11 , 2009 ) . " Ulysses S. Grant is Remembered as a Champion of Civil Rights " . Moline ( Illinois ) Dispatch / Rock Island Argus . Retrieved January 23 , 2010 .
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" The Whiskey Ring " . PoliticalCorruption.net. February 9 , 2009 . Retrieved January 30 , 2010 .
" The American Presidency Project Election of 1876 " . Retrieved 2010 @-@ 04 @-@ 21 .
Ulysses S. Grant Memoirs and Selected Letters . The Library of America . 1990 . ISBN 0 @-@ 940450 @-@ 58 @-@ 5 . The source information was taken from the Chronology section in the book .
= = = Newspaper articles = = =
" Amnesty and Civil Rights " ( PDF ) . The New York Times . May 23 , 1872 .
" The Civil Rights Bill " ( PDF ) . The New York Times . March 2 , 1875 @.@ pp. 1 – 2 .
" The Conduct of the Finances " . The New York Times . July 17 , 1872 .
" The Emma Mine Scandal " ( PDF ) . The New York Times . March 4 , 1876 .
" The Safe Burglary Case : Columbus Alexander and Major Richards of the Washington Police Examined " . The New York Times . September 23 , 1876 .
" The Safe Burglary Case : Preparing for the trial – Witnesses for the defense summoned " . The New York Times . September 8 , 1876 .
E.G.D. ( October 9 , 1893 ) . " The Pantaloon of the Senate : A Reminiscence of the Emma Mine Scandal " . The New York Times .
= = = Yearbooks = = =
American Annual Cyclopedia ... 1868 ( 1869 ) , online , highly detailed compendium of facts and primary sources
American Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1869 ( 1870 ) , large compendium of facts , thorough national coverage ; includes also many primary documents online edition
Appleton 's Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1870 ( 1871 )
American Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1872 ( 1873 )
Appleton 's Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1873 ( 1879 ) online edition
Appleton 's Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1875 ( 1877 )
Appleton 's Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1876 ( 1885 ) online edition
Appleton 's Annual Cyclopedia ... for 1877 ( 1878 )
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= Hell Money =
" Hell Money " is the nineteenth episode of the third season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files and 68th episode overall . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 29 , 1996 . It was written by Jeffrey Vlaming and directed by Tucker Gates . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Hell Money " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 9 , being watched by 14 @.@ 86 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a murder in San Francisco 's Chinatown involving masked intruders , strange Chinese symbols , a lottery , and the clandestine selling of body parts .
The premise of the episode was based on three major ideas : a pyramid scheme involving body parts , a lottery in a small town , and the corporate beings assembling the destitute in Chinatown . The episode 's writer , Vlaming , developed the latter two ideas and series creator Chris Carter merged all three ideas in the finalized script . The episode contained several elaborate special effects shots , most notably the scene wherein a frog bursts out of a victim 's chest , which was created by using molds to create a fake human torso that was then placed over an actor .
= = Plot = =
In San Francisco 's Chinatown , a Chinese immigrant , Johnny Lo , makes his way to his apartment . There , he is confronted by someone telling him to " pay the price " , and is overtaken by three figures wearing shigong masks . A security guard later finds the three figures near a crematory oven , where Lo is being burned alive .
Fox Mulder and Dana Scully investigate Lo 's death , the latest in a series of fatal incinerations in Chinatown ; Mulder believes that ghost activity is behind the deaths , while Scully suspects a cult . The agents collaborate with Glen Chao , a Chinese @-@ American detective with the San Francisco Police Department . When they find a Chinese character written inside the oven , Chao translates it as meaning " ghost . " Mulder also finds a scrap of burned paper in the ashes , which Chao identifies as " hell money " , a symbolic offering to deceased spirits . The agents locate Lo 's apartment , where they find his collection of charms , as well as bloodstains underneath the recently installed carpet .
Meanwhile , another immigrant , Hsin , tends to his leukemia @-@ stricken daughter , Kim . To pay for her treatments , Hsin attends an underground lottery in which participants either win money or lose an organ , depending on tiles chosen from a pair of vases . One man wins the lottery but selects a bad tile , and his body is found later that day . Scully performs an autopsy and finds that he had been selling body parts , noticing his numerous surgical scars . The agents question Chao , who claims that the local community maintains a code of silence and does not reveal anything to even him .
Chao finds information that leads them to Hsin , who installed the carpet in Lo 's apartment . Hsin has a bandage over his eye , having lost it to the lottery earlier . Returning to his home , Chao is confronted by the three masked figures . The agents visit him at the hospital . Meanwhile , Hsin visits the Hard Faced Man , one of the proprietors of the lottery , wanting to end his participation . The man warns him that ghostly fire will consume him if he leaves the lottery . The agents return to the hospital , finding Chao gone . They trace his blood to that on the carpet in Lo 's apartment , finding a match . This causes the agents to visit Hsin , but find only his daughter at his apartment .
The agents find Chao outside a nearby Chinese restaurant and follow him inside . Hsin wins the lottery , but selects the tile representing his heart . Chao comes in and knocks over the table with the vases , revealing the lottery to be fixed . Mulder and Scully stop the Hard Faced Man seconds before he is about to operate on Hsin . They interrogate him , but because no one who participated will testify against him , it is unlikely he will be prosecuted . Hsin is brought to the hospital and his daughter is placed on an organ donor list . Chao disappears , awakening in a crematorium oven before he is burned alive .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Hell Money " was written by Jeff Vlaming , making it his second and last script for the show after the earlier third season episode " 2Shy " . The episode was directed by Tucker Gates , making it the first of only two episodes of The X @-@ Files — the other being the show 's fourth season entry " El Mundo Gira " — to be directed by him . The episode features pre @-@ fame Lucy Liu in a guest star role . Liu would later gain prominence as a cast member of the show Ally McBeal in 1998 .
The premise of the episode originated from an idea that executive producer and series creator Chris Carter had about a pyramid scheme involving body parts . Writer Jeff Vlaming combined two additional concepts that he had developed ; the first involved a lottery in a small town and the other concerned corporate beings assembling the destitute in Chinatown . When the initial script for " Hell Money " was submitted , Carter merged the three stories into one . Entertainment Weekly later noted that " the twisted grotesquery of this story makes you think it must be based on a true story " , but , according to Carter , the story was completely original . Vlaming had originally hoped that the episode would be one of the rare entries where Scully 's version of the events would be vindicated , but in the end Mulder , once again , put everything together .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode 's exterior scenes were shot in Vancouver , Canada 's Chinatown while the crematorium scenes were shot on a soundstage . Interior shots of the gambling parlor were shot at the Welsh Irish Scottish English ( W.I.S.E. ) Hall , a community building in Vancouver . The production staff created a second balcony in the hall exclusively for the episode , with an agreement to tear it down once the episode was filmed . However , after the filming ended , the W.I.S.E. Hall 's owners requested that the balcony be left in place " for aesthetic reasons " . The vase and tiles used in the episode were created entirely by the show 's production department . The scene where a frog pops out of a victim 's chest was created by using molds to create a fake human torso , which was then placed over the actor . For a close @-@ up shot , the torso was placed on a table with a hole on it , allowing the show 's animal wrangler to push a live frog through the opening in the torso . Actors Michael Yama and Lucy Liu had to redo all of their dialogue in a Cantonese accent in post production . Their re @-@ recorded lines were dubbed over the original soundtrack .
= = Reception = =
" Hell Money " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 29 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 9 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . This totaled 14 @.@ 86 million viewers .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics , ranging from largely positive to negative . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode an A – , calling it " gorgeously shot " , citing the " lush , smoky gaming sequences " in particular . Television Without Pity ranked " Hell Money " the eleventh most nightmare @-@ inducing episode of the show noting , " If there ’ s one thing you don ’ t want to mess with , it ’ s the Chinese mafia . Especially the branch that dresses up like Slipknot and either a ) burns you alive , if you ’ re lucky , or b ) forces you to participate in a haunted organ @-@ harvesting raffle only to slowly carve you up and sell your vital organs on the black market , whether you like it or not . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , and called it a " hard episode to love [ but ] sincere and purposeful " . The two praised the conceit of the episode , arguing that by presenting the situation from the Chinese immigrants — members of an alien culture — and Chao 's point of view , " Mulder and Scully seem clumsy and arrogant . And by implication , the audience are made to feel just as arrogant . "
Other reviews were more mixed . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode 5 / 10 , noting " Overall , this episode attempted to make a mundane murder case interesting by forcing the agents to interact with an ' alien ' culture . Unfortunately , the structure of the episode gave the audience answers long before the agents discovered them , making the bulk of the episode an exercise . By not taking the theme far enough or deepening the mystery , the writers ultimately fail to reach their goals . " Reviewer Todd VanDerWerff from The A.V. Club gave the entry a C + and wrote that the episode " was also fairly bold for its time , providing a whole subplot that 's mostly told through subtitles [ but ] it feels like a series of shocks that are strung together along a pretty standard story setup . " Ultimately , VanDerWerff concluded that , " the major problem with ' Hell Money ' is that it feels , at times , like a backdoor pilot for a new series starring B.D. Wong as corrupt detective Glen Chao . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She critiqued the fact that the episode lacked a paranormal mystery , noting that the theme of the episode " would fit nicely into any other police drama " . Vitaris described the " three actors in the black suits and ghost masks " as " not very convincing . "
Co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin was not a fan of " Hell Money " : he believed that the premise was not really an X @-@ File due to the fact that nothing paranormal happened during the episode . He claimed that if Mulder and Scully were removed from the story , it would not have changed anything and that the two were not affected personally by the case .
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= 2013 – 14 Norwich City F.C. season =
The 2013 – 14 season was the 112th season of football for Norwich City . It was Norwich City 's third campaign in the Premier League since achieving promotion during the 2010 – 11 season and was their 24th season in the top flight of English football . Norwich spent most of the season in the bottom half of the Premier League table , but only in two short periods , in September and October , were they actually in the relegation zone and this is where they slipped back to in the final few matches of the season . They finished the season in eighteenth place in the Premier League and were subsequently relegated to the Championship . Norwich lost in a replay to Fulham in the third round of the FA Cup and to Manchester United in the fourth round of the League Cup . It was a season that saw the sacking of manager Chris Hughton and the appointment of former Norwich player Neil Adams as his replacement with five games left to play .
= = Build up to the season = =
Expectations were high for Norwich after they finished the previous season eleventh position in the league which was their highest finish in the league since the 1992 – 93 season . The £ 13.5M profit made during the 2011 – 12 season and the prospect of becoming debt free also raised the expectations of the fans with the prospect of significant spending on players over the summer 2013 transfer window .
= = = Players and club staff = = =
= = = Summer transfer window = = =
= = = = Transfers out = = = =
Following their 11th @-@ place finish in the 2012 – 13 Premier League Norwich started their preparations for their third consecutive season in the top flight by releasing ten players in May 2013 including first team players Chris Martin , Simeon Jackson , Elliot Ward and Marc Tierney . Over the course of the summer James Vaughan , Grant Holt , Leon Barnett and Jacob Butterfield were all sold for undisclosed fees . Former Norwich City manager Paul Lambert returned to his former club to sign goalkeeper Jed Steer for his current club Aston Villa but the decision on a fee went to tribunal . During the summer Declan Rudd and Andrew Surman were both loaned out to lower league clubs for the season . During the lower league loan window David Fox and Daniel Ayala were loaned for half of the season .
Grant Holt 's exit followed a very successful period at the club including two promotions , being named Norwich City F.C. Player of the Season three times and being top scorer at the club four seasons in a row . Holt blamed the tactics of Chris Hughton as a contributory factor in his exit , along with the prospect of playing Europa League football for the first time .
= = = = Transfers in = = = =
The summer transfer window was a record breaking one for Norwich with both a record amount spent in total and a record amount spent on a single player . The task of building on the successes of the previous season for the 2013 – 14 season started while the 2012 – 13 season was still in progress when during March 2013 it was announced that Ricky van Wolfswinkel had signed for a reported club record fee of £ 8 @.@ 5 million . Javier Garrido who had been with Norwich the previous season signed a two @-@ year permanent deal during May 2013 . During the summer Gary Hooper , Leroy Fer , Carlo Nash , Martin Olsson and Nathan Redmond all also signed permanent deals . Norwich first attempted to sign Hooper during the January 2013 transfer window with a number of bids reported to have been rejected but he eventually signed during July 2013 for £ 5 million . In August 2013 Johan Elmander signed on a season long loan deal .
† effective July 2013
= = = January transfer window = = =
= = = = Transfers in = = = =
On 13 January Jonás Gutiérrez signed on loan from Newcastle United . On 30 January Joseph Yobo signed from Fenerbahçe on loan .
= = = = Transfers out = = = =
After his original three @-@ month loan deal at Middlesbrough expired Daniel Ayala made his move permanent on 24 January for an undisclosed fee . On 7 February it was announced Jacob Murphy would be joining Swindon Town for a month when the loan window opens ( 8 February ) .
= = = Pre @-@ season matches = = =
Norwich started their build up to the season with a pre @-@ season tour of the United States . It continued with away games against Brighton and Braga and concluded with two home games against Panathinaikos and Real Sociedad .
Note : first @-@ team friendlies only
= = Premier League season = =
= = = August = = =
Norwich started their league season with a home draw with Everton with record signing Ricky van Wolfswinkel scoring a 71st @-@ minute equaliser on his debut . This was followed up with a 1 – 0 away defeat by Hull City . Hull spent an hour with ten men following Yannick Sagbo 's red card for an apparent head butt motion towards Russell Martin . Norwich earned their first win of the season with a 1 – 0 home win over Southampton in which Nathan Redmond scored his first goal for the club .
= = = September = = =
Norwich 's poor away form continued with a 2 – 0 away defeat by Tottenham Hotspur . The run of defeats continued when Aston Villa 's visit to Carrow Road ended in a 1 – 0 defeat . Norwich scored their first away goal of the season in their first ever win at the Britannia Stadium when they beat Stoke City 1 – 0 .
= = = October = = =
Norwich got back into the game against Chelsea with a goal from Anthony Pilkington but conceded two late goals to finish 1 – 3 to the visitors . This was followed up with a 4 – 1 away defeat by Arsenal . The home fixture against Cardiff City finished in controversy during when Leroy Fer put the ball in the back of the net when passing the ball back to goalkeeper David Marshall . This resulted in a melee in which both Norwich and Cardiff were fined £ 20 @,@ 000 by the FA for failing to control their players . The game was also notable with Norwich having 31 shots at goal despite the game finishing as a draw .
= = = November = = =
November started badly with a 7 – 0 defeat at Manchester City following a 4 – 0 defeat against Manchester United in the League Cup earlier in the week . This heavy defeat following on from a run of bad form resulted in calls from fans for Chris Hughton to be replaced as manager . Norwich responded to the defeat the following week with a 3 – 1 comeback win over West Ham United . Gary Hooper 's first Premier League goal from the penalty spot marked the start of the comeback and it was completed with goals from Robert Snodgrass and Leroy Fer . Norwich 's poor away form continued after the international break with a 2 – 1 defeat at Newcastle United which stretched their away record to five defeats out of six matches . The run of injuries continued when Anthony Pilkington was stretchered off with a suspected hamstring injury . The 1 – 0 home win over Crystal Palace was watched by a record all @-@ seater home attendance at Carrow Road in a match which was Tony Pulis ' first game in charge of the visitors .
= = = December = = =
Norwich 's poor away form continued at Anfield with Liverpool winning 5 – 1 . Luis Suarez scored four of the goals which was Suárez 's third hat @-@ trick against Norwich in three seasons and extended his run to eleven goals in five games against Norwich . Three days after their mauling at Liverpool , Norwich were again on the road travelling to West Bromwich Albion where goals from Gary Hooper and Leroy Fer saw them climb up to 14th in the table . The return to Carrow Road for the match against Swansea City saw Hooper score his fourth goal in six games to equalise following Nathan Dyer 's opener . The final game before Christmas saw Norwich travel to the Stadium of Light where the goalless draw saw reach Norwich 19 points , six points clear of the relegation zone , and ensure that Sunderland went into Christmas three points adrift of the bottom of the table . Hooper scored his fifth goal in eight games in a Boxing Day defeat by Fulham . The year finished poorly with a 0 – 1 home defeat by defending champions Manchester United seeing the Canaries pick up only two points from a possible twelve .
= = = January = = =
The new year started with a 1 – 1 draw in the return fixture against Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park . This was a poor game for Leroy Fer who gave away a penalty for the equaliser and was also sent off for a second yellow card in the 82nd minute . The run of games without a win continued when Norwich visited Liverpool to play Everton where goals from Gareth Barry and Kevin Mirallas saw Norwich come away with nothing . The following game saw loan signing Jonas Gutiérrez make his debut for Norwich and the 1 – 0 win saw Norwich move up to twelfth in the table level on points with visitors Hull . The midweek match which followed a weekend off at home to Newcastle ended in a goalless draw . Both teams finished with ten men after an altercation between Loïc Rémy and Bradley Johnson . Norwich appealed against the decision to send Johnson off . An Independent Regulatory Commission upheld the appeal and the red card was rescinded .
= = = February = = =
Robert Snodgrass scored early on to give Norwich the lead at half time during the Cardiff City away fixture . The second half of the game started with two quick goals from Craig Bellamy and Kenwyne Jones to see Cardiff come back to win the game . The next game was a visit from title challenging Manchester City which Norwich were expected to lose . Norwich defended well to earn a point and could have won the game when they had a goal disallowed for offside . The following Tuesday Norwich visited West Ham where two late goals from the home side saw them slip to one point above the relegation zone . The defeat saw pressure build once more on Chris Hughton following an interview with Norwich chief executive David McNally . The next match saw champions league chasing Tottenham Hotspur visit Carrow Road where a single Robert Snodgrass goal proving to be enough to take the lead and a number of fine saves saw John Ruddy ensure Norwich kept their fourth home clean sheet in a row .
= = = March = = =
Norwich started their match against Aston Villa with a goal after 3 minutes by Wes Hoolahan who nearly joined them in the January transfer window . Hoolahan 's goal was a high point of the match after four goals were scored by the home side in sixteen minutes to consign Norwich to another away defeat . Norwich took the lead in the second half of their next match at home to Stoke City thanks to a goal from Bradley Johnson . Jonathan Walters equalised for Stoke City but shortly afterwards was sent off for a foul on Alex Tettey . Norwich failed to make use of the extra man and the game finished as a draw . The following week saw Norwich travel to Southampton where they conceded after five minutes . By eighty minutes Norwich looked out of the game when the score had increased to 3 – 0 to the home side . Two quick goals from Norwich raised hopes of an unlikely point but the result was put beyond doubt when Southampton scored in time added on to make the final score 4 – 2 . The following game , at home to Sunderland , was another game that was billed as " must win " in the media . Goals from Robert Snodgrass and Alex Tettey saw Norwich cruise past Sunderland in the end and lifted them to thirteenth in the table and seven points clear of the bottom three . The trip to Swansea saw Norwich concede three goals and meant that Norwich had lost six away games in a row .
= = = April = = =
Their next match against West Brom was a crucial one , but a poor performance saw them lose by a single goal dragging them closer to the relegation zone . The defeat saw angry scenes after the game with fans chanting for Chris Hughton to be sacked and also saw John Ruddy climb over the barrier to remonstrate with one of the home fans in the Barclay Stand . This result was the final straw for the club board who sacked Chris Hughton along with Colin Calderwood and Paul Trollope and named Neil Adams as his replacement . Adams ' first game in charge was against Fulham , a team that they had not beaten at Craven Cottage since 1986 . The game was settled by a single first half Hugo Rodallega goal . Norwich entertained league leaders Liverpool for the Easter Sunday match . The game looked like turning into a rout when Liverpool scored two early goals but a strong second half saw Norwich fight back before eventually losing 2 – 3 . Norwich 's next game , at Manchester United , came at the end of a week which saw the hosts sack manager David Moyes and appoint Ryan Giggs as interim player @-@ manager . Two goals apiece from Wayne Rooney and Juan Mata saw Norwich slump to their fifth defeat in a row overall and seventh away defeat in a row .
= = = May = = =
Norwich went into the final away match against Chelsea knowing that defeat would mean relegation to the Championship after Sunderland beat Manchester United the day before . Norwich ended a run of eight successive away defeats and five defeats overall by holding Chelsea to a goalless draw . This was their first away point since New Years Day . Norwich manager Neil Adams believed that his team should have got more from the game after they were denied a penalty . The result left Norwich favourites for relegation and two points behind fourth bottom Sunderland with one game left to play . Relegation was effectively sealed by a victory for Sunderland against West Brom which left Norwich three points behind West Brom with their vastly inferior goal difference . Relegation was confirmed on the final day of the season when they lost at home to Arsenal .
= = = League table = = =
= = = Results summary = = =
Last updated : 11 May 2014 .
Source : Statto.com
= = = Results by matchday = = =
Last updated : 11 May 2014 .
Source : Statto.comGround : A |
= Away ; H =
Home . Result : D |
= Draw ; L =
Loss ; W |
= Win ; P =
Postponed .
= = FA Cup = =
The third round of the FA Cup drew Norwich against Fulham , a team they had also played at home a week before in the league . Chris Hughton made eight changes to the team that played against Crystal Palace on New Year 's Day . These included naming Josh Murphy in his starting line @-@ up for the match , his first start for the club . During the game Josh Murphy was substituted for his twin brother Jacob Murphy who was making his professional début . The match finished 1 – 1 following a Robert Snodgrass equaliser on 45 minutes . Chris Hughton made six changes for the replay which finished 3 – 0 to the home side after goals from Darren Bent , Ashkan Dejagah and Steve Sidwell .
= = League Cup = =
Despite making eight changes to the starting eleven Norwich started their League Cup campaign brightly with an entertaining 6 – 3 win at home to Bury with Johan Elmander scoring two of the six goals . The third round of the cup saw Norwich win away at Watford 3 – 2 . Norwich were two goals down on 55 minutes but a goal from Josh Murphy , who was making his professional début , on 77 minutes inspired an extra time comeback . Chris Hughton again made eight changes for the fifth round of the cup which saw Norwich travel to Manchester United where two late goals resulted in a one @-@ sided looking 4 – 0 defeat .
= = Aftermath of the season = =
Finishing eighteenth in the Premier League resulted in relegation to the Championship for the following season . The Norwich City board announced shortly after relegation was confirmed on 11 May 2014 that a new manager would be announced within the week . On 22 May 2014 Neil Adams was named as the permanent manager despite the relegation from this season and four defeats in five matches as caretaker manager . The upheaval at the club was not limited to change in the management team with a number of first team players being linked to moves away from Carrow Road including Robert Snodgrass , Gary Hooper and John Ruddy . Chairman Alan Bowkett responded to the reports by stating that the club would be under no pressure to sell players during the transfer window .
The 2014 summer transfer window started for Norwich with attacking signings of Lewis Grabban from AFC Bournemouth and Kyle Lafferty from 2013 – 14 Serie B champions Palermo on 27 June . This was followed by the sale of Scotland international Robert Snodgrass to Hull City for a fee reported to be in the region of £ 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on 30 June 2014 . On 5 August Norwich announced the signing of former QPR midfielder Gary O 'Neil following his release at the end of the previous season . Anthony Pilkington was the next to leave , joining promotion rivals Cardiff City for a reported fee of £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on 15 August . Newly promoted Queens Park Rangers completed the transfer of Leroy Fer for a reported fee of £ 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on 20 August . Also on 20 August it was announced that Carlos Cuellar had signed a one @-@ year deal following his release from Sunderland at the end of the previous season and that Cameron Jerome had signed from Stoke City on a three @-@ year deal for an undisclosed fee .
On 2 June 2014 Norwich named under @-@ 21 coach Mark Robson and former player Gary Holt first team coaches . They also named former player and Ipswich Town manager Joe Royle as football consultant .
There was criticism of the summer 2013 transfer activity including specific criticism of record signing Ricky Van Wolfswinkel who was rated as one of the worst signings of the season by various critics Norwich City chief executive David McNally admitted that the club had got the summer transfer window " horribly wrong " .
Norwich City announced on 25 October 2014 that they made a profit of £ 6 @.@ 7 million from the 2013 – 14 season , with their revenue rising to £ 95 @.@ 5 million from £ 78 @.@ 7 million the previous season . They also made £ 64 @.@ 5 million from Premier League broadcast payments during the season , which was more than the £ 60 @.@ 8 million that Manchester United received for winning the Premier League title the previous season .
= = Statistics = =
Last updated : 11 May 2014Sources :
= = = Overall competition record = = =
= = = Appearances , goals and cards = = =
Status ( Premier League eligibility ) :
HG
= Home grown player named in 25 @-@ man squad
PL =
Non home grown player named in 25 @-@ man squad
U21 = Under 21 players
Source : Premier League Squad list :
= = = Goalscorers = = =
= = = Other statistics = = =
Norwich 's total of 28 league goals in total were the fewest in the 2013 – 14 Premier League season .
Only two teams , Fulham and Cardiff , conceded more goals than Norwich during the League Season .
Norwich 's 14 away defeats was the most in the league .
Norwich 's 9 away points was the worst in the league .
Norwich 's 8 away defeats in a row was the joint worst in the league .
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= Avro Canada CF @-@ 103 =
The Avro Canada CF @-@ 103 was a proposed Canadian interceptor , designed by Avro Canada in the early 1950s as a development , and possible replacement of the company 's CF @-@ 100 Canuck , that was entering service at the time with the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) . Although intended to be capable of flying at transonic speeds , the CF @-@ 103 only proffered a moderate increase in performance and capability over the CF @-@ 100 ; subsequently , the aircraft never progressed beyond the mock @-@ up stage .
= = Design and development = =
Even before the prototype of the CF @-@ 100 had flown , Avro Canada was conducting studies of potential advanced variations of the aircraft , as the RCAF was seeking an interceptor with greater high @-@ speed performance . Due to the perceived limitations of the CF @-@ 100 's original " thick " , straight wing , Chief Designer John Frost proposed a series of refinements that included a thinner swept wing . In December 1950 , the Avro Aircraft Design Office decided to proceed with a redesign , primarily incorporating the early series CF @-@ 100 fuselage structure with a new swept wing and tail surfaces as part of the C @-@ 100S design study .
Frost considered the new design as an interim aircraft between the CF @-@ 100 and the more advanced C @-@ 104 project . The salient changes to the basic wing planform were in decreasing its chord and thickness , and adding a 42 ° sweep to the leading edge , creating a near @-@ delta wing configuration . The tail surfaces were also swept back . One version that was considered featured two streamlined fuel tanks blended into the leading edge of the wings near the three / quarter position . Despite the use of more powerful engines , the redesign had very modest performance specifications , with a planned maximum diving speed of Mach 0 @.@ 95 , scarcely better than the placarded Mach 0 @.@ 85 speed limit of the production CF @-@ 100 Mk 2 and Mk 3 . Avro executives , recognizing that the company had already suffered due to the protracted development of the CF @-@ 100 , determined that Frost 's revised design would provide a " hedge " against the CF @-@ 100 's failure to secure long @-@ term contracts .
In 1951 , the Canadian Department of Trade and Commerce issued an order for two prototypes and a static test airframe , under the CF @-@ 103 project designation . Jigs , tools and detailed engineering drawings were in place by June 1951 , with wind tunnel testing , conducted at Cornell University , completed by November 1951 . Although a wooden mock @-@ up of the CF @-@ 103 was built , along with a separate cockpit area and engine section that was partially framed in , the mock @-@ up did not feature an undercarriage unit nor any interior fittings . Two different tail designs were fitted with the initial effort only having a swept leading edge of the tail , while the definitive version had a much more raked appearance . The engineering and installation requirements for the CF @-@ 103 's proposed Orenda 17 jet engines were not finalized , as the experimental " hybrid " using an Orenda 8 compressor unit and Orenda 11 two @-@ stage turbine , matched to a " reheat " unit , had not been fully developed .
= = Cancellation = =
During 1951 , flight tests carried out by Chief Development Test Pilot S / L Janusz Żurakowski and other members of the Flight Test unit , revealed the development potential of the CF @-@ 100 had outstripped the intended performance envelope of the CF @-@ 103 , while Frost and the Design Office became preoccupied with more sophisticated designs as potential replacements for the CF @-@ 100 . Work on the CF @-@ 103 stalled , with the maiden flight originally scheduled for the summer of 1952 , postponed to mid @-@ 1953 . With Cold War pressures mounting , the Canadian government demanded that production of the latest CF @-@ 100 fighter , as well as developing more advanced variants of the Canuck should predominate , leading the Avro company to curtail the moribund CF @-@ 103 project in December 1951 .
Although the mock @-@ up languished in the experimental bay at the factory , a dramatic event served to preclude any attempt to restart the project . On 18 December 1952 , from a height of 33 @,@ 000 ft ( 10 @,@ 000 m ) , Żurakowski dived the CF @-@ 100 Mk 4 prototype ( RCAF Serial No. 18112 ) to Mach 1 @.@ 06 . His " unauthorized " test flight resulted in the final scrapping of the mock @-@ up .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Avro Arrow : The Story of the Avro Arrow from its Evolution to its Extinction
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 59 ft 9 in ( 18 @.@ 2 m )
Wingspan : 43 ft ( 13 @.@ 1 m )
Height : 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 87 m )
Powerplant : 2 × Orenda 17 turbojets
Dry thrust : 7 @,@ 275 lbf ( 34 @.@ 36 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 8 @,@ 490 lbf ( 37 @.@ 8 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 85 or 647 mph ( 1 @,@ 039 km / h ) ( Mach 0 @.@ 95 in dive )
Armament
Proposed
Forward @-@ firing ventral gun pack containing eight .5 @-@ inch Browning M3 machine guns ( 200 rounds per machine gun )
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= Music of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 =
Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix in 2011 as the sequel to Final Fantasy XIII . The music of the game was composed by Masashi Hamauzu , Naoshi Mizuta , and Mitsuto Suzuki . It was intended to sound different from the music of previous Final Fantasy titles , featuring more musical styles and vocal pieces . Since the release of the game , Square Enix has published the 2011 four @-@ disc soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack , as well as an album of arrangements and alternate versions of tracks from the game , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack PLUS , in 2012 . The theme song for the game , " Yakusoku no Basho " ( 約束の場所 , The Promised Place ) , was released by singer Mai Fukui as a single in 2011 , and the English version of the song , sung by Charice Pempengco and included in the non @-@ Japanese versions of the game , was included on her 2012 album Infinity .
Reviews of the soundtrack album were positive , with critics praising both the variety of styles and quality of the pieces . Several critics noted Mizuta 's work as possibly his finest to date . Reviewers of the game were more mixed , with some feeling that some of the styles of music did not match where they were played in the game . Critics were also mixed in their opinions of the arranged album , feeling that several of the pieces were simply inferior versions of the original tracks . Both of the albums and the single sold well enough to place on the Japanese Oricon charts , with the original soundtrack album reaching a peak of # 13 and remaining on the charts for eight weeks .
= = Creation and influence = =
The music of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 was composed by Masashi Hamauzu , Naoshi Mizuta , and Mitsuto Suzuki . The three composers were coordinated by Keiji Kawamori to ensure the composers ' three styles meshed well together . Hamauzu , who was the sole composer for the music of Final Fantasy XIII , composed roughly a quarter of the game 's tracks , as did Suzuki , while Mizuta wrote nearly half . Prior to this game , Mizuta has worked on the music of Final Fantasy XI , while Suzuki had been a sound director for several Square Enix games and served as an arranger for XIII . The game 's director , Motomu Toriyama , wanted the game 's soundtrack to have more variety than that of the music in Final Fantasy XIII , as well as feature more styles . As a result , the game had three composers rather than just Hamauzu . Toriyama also wished for the music to have " a more edgy sound " and more vocal pieces , so that it would sound " unlike the typical Final Fantasy title " . The music incorporates a wide variety of styles , from orchestral and electronic to rap , hip @-@ hop , jazz funk , and metal .
Prior to the game Hamauzu was known for working on orchestral pieces , Mizuta for instrumental pieces , and Suzuki for electronic pieces , and as a result all three composers attempted to write music that did not fit their general style to avoid only writing music similar to what they had produced before . They also worked with each other to blend their styles together , so that shifts between composers in the soundtrack would not be jarring . While the music is not intended to be reminiscent of Final Fantasy XIII 's music , pieces set in scenes involving places or characters from the prequel use motifs and pieces of music used in that game for those places or characters . Mizuta 's favorite song from the soundtrack that he wrote is " Caius 's Theme " , which he rewrote four times over the course of a month . Suzuki 's favorite is " Historia Crux " , which he wrote as several tunes mixing into one as a metaphor for time travel in the game , and Hamauzu 's is " Knight of the Goddess " , the battle theme for the game , which he attempted to make the equal of " Blinded by Light " , the battle theme of the prequel , which he felt was very well received .
= = Soundtrack = =
The first album of music from the game which Square Enix released is Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack . The album contains all of the musical tracks from the game , and was composed and produced by Masashi Hamauzu , Naoshi Mizuta , and Mitsuto Suzuki . Some of the tracks were arranged by Ryo Yamazaki , Yoshitaka Suzuki , Kengo Tokusashi , Shootie HG , and Sachiko Miyano , and a few songs were arrangements of previous Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu 's chocobo theme . The soundtrack spans four discs and 79 tracks , covering a duration of 5 : 01 : 22 . It was released by Square Enix on December 14 , 2011 in Japan and on February 2 , 2012 in North America as a part of the limited edition of the game , bearing the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10296 ~ 9 . The Japanese limited edition of the soundtrack included a bonus disc containing two versions of the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo trailer for the game . The album reached # 13 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for eight weeks .
The album received positive reviews from critics . Patrick Gann of the role @-@ playing video game news website RPGFan called it " a no @-@ questions @-@ asked kind of purchase " , praising in particular the variety of the pieces and the contrasts between the different styles . Jayson Napolitano of the video game music news website Original Sound Version concurred , calling it " a fantastic soundtrack " with eclectic styles , and noting Mizuta 's contributions as his best work to date . Original Sound Version later named the album as the best soundtrack of 2011 . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online , another video game music news website , was not as enthusiastic about the album as other reviewers , as he felt that some of the more experimental tracks missed the mark , but was still positive about the album as a whole . He considered the soundtrack " a fresh sound for the series " , and agreed with Napolitano that Mizuta 's contributions were noteworthy for the composer . Reviewers of the soundtrack in the context of the game were more mixed . Simon Parkin in his review of the game for Eurogamer said that the music " suffers from a lack of coherent direction " and often did not match up with the scenes it was played in . Dale North of Destructoid , however , felt that the soundtrack was " wonderfully varied and lots of fun " , and predicted that " traditionalist " fans of Final Fantasy music would not like it as much .
Tracklist
= = Soundtrack Plus = =
On May 30 , 2012 Square Enix published in Japan a second album of music from the game titled Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack PLUS . Similar to the Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack PLUS album released for the previous game , the album contains early versions of songs used in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , alternate takes contained in the downloadable content for the game , arrangements made for promotions of the game , and new remixes . The tracks on the album were arranged by Ryo Yamazaki , Kengo Tokusashi , Yoshitaka Suzuki , Goh Hotoda , Shootie HG , and Hiroyuki Togo . The single @-@ disc soundtrack contains 16 tracks , covering a duration of 1 : 07 : 02 , and bears the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10311 . The album 's music covers a variety of styles , often different ones than those of the original pieces , including electronic , instrumental , and piano covers . The album reached # 93 on the Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for one week .
Unlike the original soundtrack , the arranged album received mixed reviews from critics . Patrick Gann of RPGFan felt that the album was a good addition to the musical outputs of the Final Fantasy XIII world , and superior to the PLUS soundtrack for the first game in that it relied less on early , unpolished versions of songs . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online , however , felt that the album contained mainly " inferior " versions of works from the original soundtrack , and was not worth acquiring . Both reviewers , however , praised " Clash on the Big Bridge - Oriental Mix - " , an arrangement of a tune by Nobuo Uematsu from Final Fantasy V included in the game 's downloadable content , as a welcome addition to the soundtrack , with Kotowski calling it " amazing " and the main reason to get the album , and Gann terming it " the most interesting version " of the song released to date .
= = Theme song = =
" Yakusoku no Basho " ( 約束の場所 , The Promised Place ) is the theme song of the Japanese version of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . Sung by Mai Fukui , it was composed by Koichi Tabo . Non @-@ Japanese versions of the game instead included an alternate English version of the song , " New World " , from Charice Pempengco 's album Infinity ( 2012 ) . " New World " was also composed by Koichi Tabo . " Yakusoku no Basho " was released as a single on November 23 , 2011 by J @-@ more , and included three other tracks in addition to the piece . These tracks are " Tatta Hitori no Mikata " ( たったひとりの味方 , Only One Side ) and instrumental version of both songs . Simon Isogai composed and wrote the lyrics for " Tatta Hitori no Mikata " . The limited edition of the single included a DVD with a music video for the song . The song was also released on Fukui 's six @-@ track mini @-@ album Beautiful Days on December 14 , 2011 , along with a Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 trailer and a code for downloadable content for the game . The single has a length of 21 : 22 , and has the catalog number of YICD @-@ 70093 . The single reached # 24 on the Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for 8 weeks .
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= Education in early modern Scotland =
Education in early modern Scotland includes all forms of education within the modern borders of Scotland , between the end of the Middle Ages in the late fifteenth century and the beginnings of the Enlightenment in the mid @-@ eighteenth century . By the sixteenth century such formal educational institutions as grammar schools , petty schools and sewing schools for girls were established in Scotland , while children of the nobility often studied under private tutors . Scotland had three universities , but the curriculum was limited and Scottish scholars had to go abroad to gain second degrees . These contacts were one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of Humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life . Humanist concern with education and Latin culminated in the Education Act 1496 .
After the Reformation the Humanist concern with education became part of a programme of godly education , with an attempt to establish a system of parish schools administered by the Church of Scotland ( the " Kirk " ) . A new university was established in Edinburgh and the existing universities underwent a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville that revitalised them and brought them up to the standards of Humanist scholarship and methods of teaching of institutions elsewhere . In the seventeenth century there were attempts to organise and finance the system of parish schools and a successful expansion of the university system . By the early eighteenth century the network of parish schools was reasonably complete in the Lowlands , but limited in the Highlands where it was supplemented by Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . Scotland began to reap the benefits of its university system , with major early figures of the Enlightenment including Francis Hutcheson , Colin Maclaurin and David Hume .
= = Background = =
= = = Schooling = = =
Surviving sources for education in Medieval Scotland are extremely limited . Outside of occasional references in documents concerned with other matters , they amount to a handful of burgh records and monastic and episcopal registers . In the Highlands there are indications of a system of Gaelic education associated with the professions of poetry and medicine , with ferleyn , who may have taught theology and arts , and rex scholarum of lesser status , but evidence of formal schooling is largely only preserved in place names . By the end of the Middle Ages most large churches probably had song schools , open to all boys . Grammar schools , which were based on the teaching of Latin grammar for boys , could be found in all the main Scottish burghs and some small towns . Educational provision was probably better in towns ; in rural areas , petty schools provided an elementary education . They were almost exclusively aimed at boys , but by the end of the fifteenth century Edinburgh also had schools for girls . These were sometimes described as " sewing schools " , whose name probably indicates one of their major functions , although reading may also have been taught , and were generally run by lay women or nuns . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers . Sometimes these developed into " household schools " that may also have catered to farming neighbours and kin , as well as the sons of the laird 's household . There is documentary evidence for about 100 schools of these different kinds before the Reformation . The growing Humanist @-@ inspired emphasis on education in the late Middle Ages culminated in the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools and endorsed the Humanist concern to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , although it was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the beginning of the sixteenth century .
= = = Universities = = =
From the end of the eleventh century universities had been founded across Europe , developing as semi @-@ autonomous centres of learning , often teaching theology , mathematics , law and medicine . By the fifteenth century , beginning in northern Italy , universities had become strongly influenced by Humanist thinking . This put an emphasis on classical authors , questioned some of the accepted certainties of established thinking and manifested itself in the teaching of new subjects , particularly through the medium of the Greek language . In the fifteenth century university colleges had been founded at St John 's College , St Andrews ( 1418 ) and St Salvator 's College was added in 1450 . Glasgow was founded in 1451 and King 's College , Aberdeen in 1495 . St Leonard 's College was added at St. Andrews in 1511 . Initially , they were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who began to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in government and law .
In this period Scottish universities largely had a Latin curriculum , designed for the clergy and civil and canon lawyers . They did not teach the Greek that was fundamental to the new Humanist scholarship , focusing on metaphysics , and putting a largely unquestioning faith in the works of Aristotle , whose authority would be challenged in the Renaissance . They provided only basic degrees . Those wanting to study for the more advanced degrees that were common amongst European scholars needed to go to universities in other countries . As a result , large numbers of Scots continued their studies on the Continent and at English universities . These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of Humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life . By 1497 the Humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris , returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen . Another major figure was Archibald Whitelaw , a teacher at St. Andrews and Cologne who later became a tutor to the young James III and served as royal secretary from 1462 to 1493 .
= = Sixteenth century = =
= = = Humanism and Protestantism = = =
The civic values of humanism , which stressed the importance of order and morality , began to have a major impact on education and would become dominant in universities and schools by the end of the sixteenth century . King 's College Aberdeen was refounded in 1515 . In addition to the basic arts curriculum it offered theology , civil and canon law and medicine . St Leonard 's College was founded in Aberdeen in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart . John Douglas led the refoundation of St John 's College as St Mary 's College , St Andrews in 1538 , as a Humanist academy for the training of clerics , with a stress on biblical study . Robert Reid , Abbot of Kinloss and later Bishop of Orkney , was responsible in the 1520s and 1530s for bringing the Italian humanist Giovanni Ferrario to teach at Kinloss Abbey , where he established an impressive library and wrote works of Scottish history and biography . Reid was also instrumental in organising the public lectures that were established in Edinburgh in the 1540s on law , Greek , Latin and philosophy , under the patronage of the queen consort Mary of Guise . These developed into the " Tounis College " of the city , which would eventually become the University of Edinburgh .
In the mid @-@ sixteenth century , Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that rejected Papal authority and many aspects of Catholic theology and practice . It created a predominately Calvinist national church , known as the kirk , which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook , severely reducing the powers of bishops , although not initially abolishing them . This gave considerable power within the new kirk to local lairds , who often had control over the appointment of the clergy and would be important in establishing and funding schools . There was also a shift from emphasis on ritual to one on the word , making the Bible , and the ability to read the Bible , fundamental to Scottish religion .
= = = Reformation of schools = = =
The Humanist concern with increasing public access to education was shared by the Protestant reformers , who saw schools as vehicles for the provision of moral and religious education for a more godly society . After the Protestant party became dominant in 1560 , the First Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school in every parish , but this proved financially impossible . In the burghs the existing schools were largely maintained , with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools . Schools were supported by a combination of kirk funds , contributions from local heritors or burgh councils and parents that could pay . They were inspected by kirk sessions of local elders , which checked for the quality of teaching and doctrinal purity . There were also large number of unregulated private " adventure schools " . These were often informally created by parents in agreement with unlicensed schoolmasters , using available buildings and are chiefly evident in the historical record through complaints and attempts to suppress them by kirk sessions because they took pupils away from the official parish schools . However , such private schools were often necessary given the large populations and scale of some parishes . They were often tacitly accepted by the church and local authorities and may have been particularly important to girls and the children of the poor . Outside of the established burgh schools , which were generally better funded and more able to pay schoolmasters , masters often combined their position with other employment , particularly minor posts within the kirk , such as clerk . Immediately after the Reformation they were in short supply , but there is evidence that the expansion of the university system provided large numbers of graduates by the seventeenth century . There is evidence of about 800 schools for the period between 1560 and 1633 . The parish schools were " Inglis " schools , teaching in the vernacular and taking children to the age of about 7 , while the grammar schools took boys to about 12 . At their best in the grammar schools , the curriculum included the catechism , Latin , French , Classical literature and sports .
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women came into conflict with a desire , intensified after the Reformation , for women to take greater personal moral responsibility , particularly as wives and mothers . In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible , but most commentators of the period , even those that tended to encourage the education of girls , thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys . Girls were only admitted to parish schools when there were insufficient numbers of boys to pay an adequate living for schoolmasters . In the lower ranks of society , girls benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation , but were usually outnumbered by boys and often taught separately , for a shorter time and to a lower level . Girls were frequently taught reading , sewing and knitting , but not writing . Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women , such as Mary , Queen of Scots .
= = = Reformation of universities = = =
After the Reformation , Scotland 's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville , who returned from Geneva to become principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574 . A distinguished linguist , philosopher and poet , he had trained in Paris and studied law at Poitiers , before moving to Geneva and developing an interest in Protestant theology . Influenced by the anti @-@ Aristotelian Pierre Ramus , he placed an emphasis on simplified logic and elevated languages and sciences to the same status as philosophy , allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged . He introduced new specialist teaching staff , replacing the system of " regenting " , where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum . Metaphysics were abandoned and Greek became compulsory in the first year followed by Aramaic , Syriac and Hebrew , launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages . Enrollment rates at the University of Glasgow had been declining before his arrival , but students now began to arrive in large numbers . He assisted in the reconstruction of Marischal College , Aberdeen founded as a second university college in the city in 1593 by George Keith , 5th Earl Marischal , and , in order to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow , he was appointed Principal of St Mary 's College , St Andrews in 1580 . The " Tounis College " established in the mid @-@ sixteenth century became the University of Edinburgh in 1582 . Melville 's reforms produced a revitalisation of all Scottish universities , which were now providing a quality of education equal to the most esteemed higher education institutions anywhere in Europe .
= = Seventeenth century = =
= = = Parish schools = = =
In 1616 an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a school " where convenient means may be had " . After the Parliament of Scotland ratified this law and the Education Act of 1633 , a tax on local landowners was introduced to provide the necessary endowment . From 1638 Scotland underwent a " second Reformation " , with widespread support for a National Covenant , objecting to the Charles I 's liturgical innovations and reaffirming the Calvinism and Presbyterianism of the kirk . After the Bishop 's Wars ( 1639 – 40 ) , Scotland had virtual independence from the government in Westminster . Education remained fundamental to the ideas of the Covenanters . A loophole which allowed evasion of the education tax was closed in the Education Act of 1646 , which established a solid institutional foundation for schools on Covenanter principles , emphasising the role of presbyteries in supervision . Although the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought a reversal to the 1633 position , in 1696 new legislation restored the provisions of 1646 together with means of enforcement " more suitable to the age " and underlined the aim of having a school in every parish . In rural communities these acts obliged local landowners ( heritors ) to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster , known in Scotland as a dominie , while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education . In many Scottish towns , burgh schools were operated by local councils . By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands , but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas .
= = = Growth of the universities = = =
Under the Commonwealth ( 1652 – 60 ) , the universities saw an improvement in their funding , as they were given income from deaneries , defunct bishoprics and the excise , allowing the completion of buildings including the college in the High Street in Glasgow . They were still largely seen as training schools for clergy , and came under the control of the hard line Protesters , who were generally favoured by the regime because of their greater antipathy to royalism , with leading protester Patrick Gillespie being made Principal at Glasgow in 1652 . After the Restoration there was a purge of Presbyterians from the universities , but most of the intellectual advances of the preceding period were preserved . The five Scottish universities recovered from the disruption of the civil war years and Restoration with a lecture @-@ based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science , offering a high @-@ quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry . All saw the establishment or re @-@ establishment of chairs of mathematics . Astronomy was facilitated by the building of observatories at St. Andrews and at King 's and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen . Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh and he co @-@ founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681 . These developments helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and would put Scotland at the forefront of Enlightenment thinking .
= = Early eighteenth century = =
= = = Limitations of the school system = = =
One of the effects of the extensive network of parish schools was the growth of the " democratic myth " , which in the nineteenth century created the widespread belief that many a " lad of pairts " had been able to rise up through the system to take high office and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states , particularly England . Historians now accept that very few boys were able to pursue this route to social advancement and that literacy was not noticeably higher than in comparable nations , as the education in the parish schools was basic and short and attendance was not compulsory .
By the eighteenth century many poorer girls were being taught in dame schools , informally set up by a widow or spinster to teach reading , sewing and cooking . Among members of the aristocracy by the early eighteenth century a girl 's education was expected to include basic literacy and numeracy , needlework , cookery and household management , while polite accomplishments and piety were also emphasised . Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 percent from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth centuries , and perhaps 85 percent for women of all ranks by 1750 , compared with 35 per cent for men . Overall literacy rates were slightly higher than in England as a whole , but female rates were much lower than for their English counterparts .
In the Scottish Highlands , popular education was challenged by problems of distance and physical isolation , as well as teachers ' and ministers ' limited knowledge of Scottish Gaelic , the primary local language . Here the Kirk 's parish schools were supplemented by those established from 1709 by the Scottish Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . Its aim in the Highlands was to teach English language and end the attachment to Roman Catholicism associated with rebellious Jacobitism . Though the SSPCK schools eventually taught in Gaelic , the overall effect contributed to the erosion of Highland culture . Literacy rates were lower in the Highlands than in comparable Lowland rural society , and despite these efforts illiteracy remained prevalent into the nineteenth century .
= = = Beginnings of the Enlightenment = = =
Access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England , Germany or France . Attendance was less expensive and the student body more representative of society as a whole . In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the intellectual benefits of this system in its contribution the European Enlightenment . Key figures in the Scottish Enlightenment who had made their mark before the mid @-@ eighteenth century included Francis Hutcheson ( 1694 – 1746 ) , who was professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow from 1729 to 1746 . He was an important link between the ideas of Shaftesbury and the later school of Scottish Common Sense Realism , developing Utilitarianism and Consequentialist thinking . Colin Maclaurin ( 1698 – 1746 ) , appointed to a chair of mathematics by the age of 19 at Marischal College , was the leading British mathematician of his era . Perhaps the most significant intellectual figure of early modern Scotland was David Hume ( 1711 – 76 ) whose Treatise on Human Nature ( 1738 ) and Essays , Moral and Political ( 1741 ) helped outline the parameters of philosophical Empiricism and Scepticism . He would be a major influence of later Enlightenment figures including Adam Smith , Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham .
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= Pilot ( Cold Feet ) =
Cold Feet is a British television pilot directed by Declan Lowney . It stars James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale as Adam and Rachel , a couple who meet and fall in love , only for the relationship to break down when he gets cold feet . John Thomson , Fay Ripley , Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst appear in supporting roles . The programme was written by Mike Bullen , a BBC radio producer with little screenwriting experience , who was tasked with creating a one @-@ off television production that would appeal to middle @-@ class television audiences , who the executive producer Andy Harries believed were underepresented on British television .
After filming was completed in 1996 the commissioning network ITV shelved it for a year . It was eventually scheduled for broadcast on the evening of 30 March 1997 , as part of the network 's Comedy Premieres strand , but overrunning sports coverage delayed it for an hour . Ratings were low and critical reviews were minimal , but positive ; critics enjoyed the comedy drama format and praised the writing and performances of the leads . Harries entered Cold Feet in the Montreux Television Festival , where it was awarded the Rose d 'Or , the festival 's top prize , resulting in ITV quickly scheduling a repeat broadcast . At the end of the year it won the award for Best Comedy Drama ( ITV ) at the British Comedy Awards and the incoming director of channels ordered a full series , which ran for five successful years from 1998 to 2003 .
= = Plot = =
Adam Williams ( James Nesbitt ) breaks up with another in a long line of girlfriends and spends the evening at the pub with his friend Pete Gifford ( John Thomson ) . Pete arrives home late , which annoys his wife Jenny ( Fay Ripley ) , who calculated that night to be the best time for them to conceive a child . She becomes even more frustrated when she sees Pete has brought Adam back ; he missed his last bus home . Rachel Bradley 's ( Helen Baxendale ) boyfriend Simon Atkinson ( Stephen Mapes ) breaks up with her over dinner after taking a job in Hong Kong . Rachel angrily leaves the restaurant and telephones her friend Karen Marsden ( Hermione Norris ) , who has just asked her husband David ( Robert Bathurst ) if they can get a nanny to take care of their son Josh .
Rachel crashes her car into Adam 's on a supermarket car park . After a brief argument Adam suggests they exchange phone numbers , under the pretence that it is for insurance purposes . She writes hers on his rear windscreen but rain washes it off . Prompted by Pete , Adam spends a day on the supermarket car park , in the hope that he and Rachel will cross paths , but they do not meet . At a dinner party held by Karen and David , Karen suggests Rachel get out more and advises her to call Adam . They go on a date but Adam is disappointed that Rachel does not want sex . Eventually , he suggests they see a play , which happens to be on at a theatre near his house . The play is dismal but Rachel decides it is time they slept together . Jenny takes another pregnancy test , but it is negative . Adam arrives and recounts his dates with Rachel to her and Pete , telling them he loves Rachel .
Following a discussion with Pete about women and commitment , Adam argues with Rachel and angrily leaves her flat . Seconds later Simon returns , telling Rachel he has turned down the Hong Kong job . After getting locked out the house , Karen interrupts a seminar David is holding , demanding they get a nanny . He relents , embarrassed after being shown up in front of his colleagues . Determined to get Rachel back , Adam goes to Simon 's flat , where he serenades her wearing nothing but a rose between his buttocks . Jenny and Pete arrive to find Simon chasing a naked Adam down the street . The fight is interrupted by a passing policeman , who lists multiple felonies Adam has committed , until Rachel steps forward and takes the blame for what has happened . She declares her love to Adam and the two leave . Pete and Jenny watch and she tells him her last pregnancy test was positive .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Writer Mike Bullen 's first script , an hour @-@ long comedy entitled The Perfect Match , was produced by Granada Television in 1995 . Granada 's controller of comedy Andy Harries was pleased with the balance Bullen 's script struck between comedy and drama . Eager to develop a television series for middle @-@ class thirty @-@ somethings , Harries had Bullen pitch ideas to The Perfect Match assistant producer Christine Langan , with a view to making a pilot . Bullen 's initial idea was a typical " boy meets girl , boy loses girl , boy wins girl back " story , but told from both sides of the relationship . Langan accepted Bullen 's pitch and he began writing a first draft . Bullen and Langan were influenced by the American television series Thirtysomething and the film When Harry Met Sally ; the stories were funny and dramatic but neither aspect was " ghettoised " . Believing that there was little television aimed at people like them , Bullen and Langan discussed their own lives and friends , using personal experiences to create the characters : Adam was based on Bullen before he met his wife and Rachel was based on a combination of his ex @-@ girlfriends and " the fantasy girlfriend " . When writing his first draft , Bullen realised that telling the same story from both sides of the relationship would mean repeating something that the audience had already seen . To rectify this he introduced the fantasy scenes and the idea of the characters reporting events in a slightly different way to what really happened .
Adam and Rachel were originally Londoners living in Chelsea . Langan proposed moving the setting to Manchester to keep production costs down by using Granada 's existing studios based in the city . Harries , who wanted a series to be commissioned by ITV , agreed , believing it would make the show more accessible to viewers . Another requirement for a series was the number of potential storylines ; Adam and Rachel 's plot was self @-@ contained . Harries told Bullen to expand the four supporting characters ' roles , so Bullen " tacked on " their storylines . The script went through up to seven drafts before being filmed . Langan interviewed several directors before hiring Father Ted director Declan Lowney . Lowney initially rejected the script , believing the characters to be very smug . After re @-@ reading it , he met Langan backstage after a Father Ted taping , where he compared the story to The Big Chill . Both producer and director " clicked " and Lowney joined the production team .
= = = Casting = = =
After commissioning the pilot , ITV Network Centre did not dictate to the producers who should be cast . John Thomson , a comedian known for his work with Steve Coogan , was the first to be cast . He had played Rick , a minor character in The Perfect Match , a role Bullen describes as " proto @-@ Pete " . Bullen was impressed by Thomson 's natural comedy and Langan asked him to write a role for him to play in Cold Feet . Thomson accepted the role because he did not want to be known forever for playing " Fat Bob " , the sidekick of Coogan 's Paul Calf in a series of sketches . Lowney had been introduced to James Nesbitt through a mutual friend . He brought him in to audition for the part of Adam after seeing his " wonderfully expressive face " in a Persil advertisement . At the audition , Nesbitt asked to do the reading with his own accent , believing that Northern Irish characters rarely appeared in contemporary British drama without " political baggage " . Langan found Nesbitt 's approach to be refreshing and he was cast as Adam .
Halfway through the casting process , Cardiac Arrest actress Helen Baxendale became available . BAFTA Scotland award @-@ nominated Baxendale was seen as a coup , though she was hesitant to audition as she believed that she could not do comedy . Harries persuaded her that she was more than qualified , citing her comedic performance in Cardiac Arrest . She was cast as Rachel on the basis of her chemistry at the audition with Nesbitt . Fay Ripley assumed that she would be reading for the role of Rachel , and was surprised to be auditioning for Jenny . Many of the actresses seen for the part were " finger @-@ wagging " and " predictable " , an approach Ripley did not take . Raised in Surrey , Ripley had to adopt a Manchester accent for the part . She " managed to bodge together a sort of Manchester accent " for the audition , assuming that she would not get the part . When she was cast , she worked on improving the accent by spending time talking to local people .
Robert Bathurst was appearing in The Rover during casting and arrived at his audition " bearded and shaggy " . He did not expect to win the part of David , the " smooth " management consultant , assuming someone " a lot shinier and flashier " than him would be cast . Langan had seen him in Joking Apart and some other sitcom pilots and was attracted to his " disciplined comic energy " . Hermione Norris first read for Rachel but Lowney asked her to read for Karen because her social class matched that of the character , and she had a good rapport with Bathurst . Other actors appearing are Mark Andrews as Howard , Mark Crowshaw as the waiter , John Griffin as Andrew , David Harewood as the Police Sergeant , Kathryn Hunt as Pru , Pauline Jefferson as the Old Lady , Jeremy Turner @-@ Welch as the Neighbour , and Lewis Hancock as the Evangelist . Mike Bullen makes a cameo appearance as the actor . Bullen insisted on having a line as when he visited the set of The Perfect Match he " felt like a spare part " .
= = = Filming and music = = =
Filming was scheduled over a 12 @-@ day period on Granada 's sets and on location around Manchester , following a week of rehearsals . It was shot entirely on film stock . For the climax involving the rose , Nesbitt was required to be nearly naked on an open set , save for a small pouch that was not visible on screen . There was a risk that production could be shut down if residents of the street they were filming on complained to the police , so the production manager ensured that Nesbitt was covered up when he was not being filmed . Filming the five @-@ minute scene took about two hours . The song " Female of the Species " by Space was used throughout the programme ; the instrumental version plays over the opening credits and the full lyrical version is heard during a first @-@ act montage . The track was chosen by Langan after she heard it on The Chart Show . The rest of the incidental music and the main end credits theme was composed by The Other Two . Adam 's song was originally scripted to be Nilsson 's " Without You " but the rights to the song were too expensive . The song was substituted with " I 've Got You Under My Skin " .
= = Reception = =
Following post @-@ production , the programme was shelved by ITV Network Centre until 1997 , when it was placed on the Easter weekend schedule as part of the network 's " Comedy Premieres " programming strand . The broadcast , scheduled for a 9 pm start on 30 March , went head @-@ to @-@ head with launch night of Channel 5 , Britain 's last terrestrial television channel , and the second part of the BBC1 drama The Missing Postman . Also broadcast on 30 March was ITV 's coverage of the Brazilian Grand Prix . The race was restarted due to an accident and threw ITV 's evening schedules into disarray . Broadcast of Cold Feet eventually began 40 minutes later than originally advertised and the overnight ratings reflected this ; it recorded viewing figures of just 3 @.@ 5 million . Harries wrote it off as a failure , telling Langan that they would never get a series . Some critical success came though ; writing in The Times the day after it aired , Matthew Bond called it " an enjoyable one @-@ off comedy aimed at anybody who 's ever been single , married , or had children . With such catholic appeal further heightened by Helen Baxendale heading a talented cast , it showed just what ITV can do when it is trying to win awards , such as the Golden Rose of Montreux . " The Sun 's Tim Ewbank echoed Bond 's reaction , expressing surprise that a " fast , funny , convincing " comedy had appeared on ITV , calling it " a treat " and " sharply observed " , and Baxendale and Nesbitt " terrific " .
An ITV committee selected Cold Feet to represent the network in the comedy @-@ drama category at the Montreux Television Festival at the end of April . Bullen was unable to attend the Rose d 'Or ceremony as he was sick with flu , so Harries took his place . The programme won the Silver Rose in the Humour category and the Golden Rose of Montreux , the festival 's highest honour . The Montreux jury was headed by David Liddiment , who became ITV 's director of channels in the latter half of 1997 and was influential in ordering a full series from Harries . Peter Salmon , Granada 's director of programmes , called the win " a reflection of the brilliant production and acting talents of the team " . Paul Spencer , the ITV network controller of comedy , called it " exactly the kind of comedy at which ITV excels . Bullen met with ITV executives to outline a series , and storylines were established by the end of May .
After the success at Montreux , ITV scheduled a repeat of Cold Feet for 25 May , this time at 9 pm The repeat brought in 5 @.@ 60 million viewers , making it the 66th most @-@ watched programme on British television that week . A. A. Gill , who had not seen the original broadcast , wrote that " it was lifted from being merely whimsical by some bow @-@ tight comic acting and a great script " , though he did not see the Golden Rose win as a particularly glorious achievement , citing the saturation of the Montreux Festival by British programmes in the 1990s . Further recognition came at the end of the year at the British Comedy Awards when Cold Feet won the Best Comedy Drama ( ITV ) award and at the Royal Television Society Programme Awards , where it was nominated for Best Situation Comedy & Comedy Drama . Helen Baxendale was nominated for the British Comedy Award for Top Television Comedy Actress but lost to Dawn French . At the RTS North West Awards , Cold Feet won the award for Best Network Entertainment Programme . The programme has retained the interest of reviewers several years after its original broadcast ; writing for The Jerusalem Post , Aryeh Dean Cohen said , " The cast sparkles all around , as does the script , and the characters are endearing and believable . "
Granada 's sale of the series package to American cable network Bravo in 2000 included this pilot . Bravo hired agency G WhiZ to design a series of print and media advertisements for the series to run in such publications as The New York Times . G WhiZ based their campaign on the shot of Adam 's buttocks , which led to many publications either asking for an alternative or refusing to carry the promotion outright .
= = Home media = =
Cold Feet 's first home video publication came in 1999 when it was released on VHS by Video Collection International , with the subtitle " A comedy about life , love & everything else ! " A short behind @-@ the @-@ scenes feature on the filming of the second series was included . It was also released together with the double @-@ video set and DVD of the first series . In July 2007 , it was made available as streaming media on ITV 's revamped itv.com website and in April 2008 was made available for purchase on ITV 's iTunes Store shop .
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= Third Epistle of John =
The Third Epistle of John , often referred to as Third John and written 3 John , is the antepenultimate book of the New Testament and attributed to John the Evangelist , traditionally thought to be the author of the Gospel of John and the other two epistles of John . The Third Epistle of John is a private letter composed to a man named Gaius , recommending to him a group of Christians led by Demetrius , which had come to preach the gospel in the area where Gaius lived . The purpose of the letter is to encourage and strengthen Gaius , and to warn him against Diotrephes , who refuses to cooperate with the author of the letter .
Early church literature contains no mention of the epistle , with the first reference to it appearing in the middle of the third century . This lack of documentation , though likely due to the extreme brevity of the epistle , caused early church writers to doubt its authenticity until the early 5th century , when it was accepted into the canon along with the other two epistles of John . The language of 3 John echoes that of the Gospel of John , which is conventionally dated to around AD 90 , so the epistle was likely written near the end of the first century . Others contest this view such as the scholar John A. T. Robinson who dates 3 John to c . AD 60 – 65 . The location of writing is unknown , but tradition places it in Ephesus . The epistle is found in many of the oldest New Testament manuscripts , and its text is free of major discrepancies or textual variants .
= = Content = =
There is no doctrine laid out in 3 John , which is strictly a personal letter , but the overall theme is the importance of hospitality , especially when it comes to men who were working to spread the gospel . Third John is the shortest book of the Bible by word count , though 2 John has fewer verses . It is the only New Testament book which does not contain the names " Jesus " or " Christ " .
= = = Greeting and introduction = = =
The letter is written to a man named Gaius . Gaius seems to have been a wealthy man , since the epistle 's author , who identifies himself only as " the Elder " , did not think it would impose unduly on him to host some traveling preachers for a short time . The Elder may have converted Gaius , since he calls Gaius his " child " in the faith . The Apostolic Constitutions VII.46.9 records that Gaius was made bishop of Pergamon , though there is no early support for this statement .
The name Gaius occurs three other times in the New Testament . First , a Christian Gaius is mentioned in Macedonia as a traveling companion of Paul , along with Aristarchus ( Acts 19 : 29 ) . One chapter later , a Gaius from Derbe is named as one of Paul 's seven traveling companions who waited for him at Troas ( Acts 20 : 4 ) . Next , a Gaius is mentioned residing in Corinth as being one of only a few people there ( the others being Crispus and the household of Stephanas ) who were baptised by Paul , who founded the Church in that city ( 1 Corinthians 1 : 14 ) . Lastly , a Gaius is referred to in a final greeting portion of the Epistle to the Romans ( Romans 16 : 23 ) as Paul 's " host " and also host of the whole church , in whatever city Paul is writing from at the time ( probably Corinth ) . However , there is no reason to suppose that any of these men were the Gaius of 3 John .
Verse 2 , where the author wishes material prosperity upon Gaius similar to the prosperity of his soul , is a commonly used proof text within prosperity gospel teachings ; opponents of the prosperity gospel consider the verse to be little more than well @-@ wishing .
= = = Missionaries = = =
The Elder continues the letter by commending Gaius for his loyalty and his hospitality towards a group of traveling " brothers " . The " brothers " are brothers in the faith or missionaries , who in accordance with Jesus ' command in Mark 6 : 8 – 9 have set out on a journey without any money . The Elder then goes on to request that Gaius provide for the brothers to continue their journey .
= = = Opposition of Diotrephes = = =
The Elder next describes his conflict with Diotrephes , who does not acknowledge the Elder 's authority and is excommunicating those , like Gaius , who welcome missionaries sent by the Elder . The Elder mentions a previous letter which he has written to the church which was suppressed by Diotrephes , and says that he intends to visit the church and to confront Diotrephes . " The church " is apparently known to Gaius , but he is likely not a member of it , since otherwise the Elder would not need to provide him with information about Diotrephes ' activities . The dispute between Diotrephes and the Elder seems to be based on church leadership and authority rather than doctrine , since the Elder does not accuse Diotrephes of teaching heresy .
Most scholars do not connect the letter the Elder mentions with 2 John , since 3 John does not contain any reference to the doctrinal controversy described in 2 John , and argue that the Elder is here referring to a previous letter of recommendation . John Painter , however , argues the Elder is in fact referring to 2 John , since there is overlap between 2 John 9 and the theme of hospitality in 3 John .
The Elder closes this section with an entreaty to Gaius : " Beloved , do not imitate evil but imitate good . Whoever does good is from God ; whoever does evil has not seen God . " This injunction is reminiscent of several passages in 1 John ( 2 : 3 – 5 , 3 : 4 – 10 , 4 : 7 ) .
= = = Final greetings and conclusion = = =
Verse 12 introduces another man named Demetrius , who according to the Apostolic Constitutions VII.46.9 was ordained by John as bishop of Philadelphia ( now Amman , Jordan ) . Demetrius was probably a member of the group of missionaries discussed earlier in the letter , and 3 John likely serves as a recommendation letter to Gaius about Demetrius . Recommendation letters were quite common in the early church , as evidenced by 2 Corinthians 3 : 1 , Romans 16 : 1 – 2 , and Colossians 4 : 7 – 8 .
The Elder , before ending the letter , says that he has many other things to tell to Gaius , and plans to make a journey to see him in the near future , using almost the exact language of 2 John 12 . The closing verse , " Peace be to you . The friends greet you . Greet the friends , one by one " , is typical of contemporary correspondence , with " Peace be to you " a greeting adopted by Christians from the Jews .
= = Authorship = =
3 John was almost certainly written by the same author who wrote 2 John , and likely 1 John as well . This individual may have been John the Evangelist himself or someone else , perhaps John the Presbyter , though according to scholar C. H. Dodd , " If we attempt to ... identify the anonymous author of these epistles with some known individual , we have little but surmise to go on . "
There are many similarities between 2 and 3 John . Both follow the format of other personal letters of the era ; in both the author self @-@ identifies as " the Presbyter " , a term which literally means " the elder " ; and both deal with themes of hospitality and conflict within the church . They are also extremely similar in length , probably because they were both written to fit on one papyrus sheet .
3 John is also linguistically similar to both 2 John and other Johannine works . Of 99 different words used , 21 are unimportant words like " and " or " the " , leaving 78 significant words . 23 of these do not appear in 1 John or the Gospel of John , of which four are unique to 3 John , one is common to 2 and 3 John , and two are found in both 2 and 3 John as well as in other New Testament writings . Approximately 30 % of the significant words in 3 John do not appear in 1 John or the Gospel , compared to 20 % for 2 John . These considerations indicate a close affinity between 2 and 3 John , while 2 John is more strongly connected to 1 John that is 3 John . A minority of scholars , however , argue against common authorship of 2 and 3 John , and Rudolf Bultmann held that 2 John was a forgery based on 3 John .
If 3 John was written by John the Apostle , however , it is strange that Diotrephes would oppose him since the apostles were highly respected in the early church . One possible alternative view of the epistle 's authorship arises from a fragment written by Papias of Hierapolis and quoted by Eusebius which mentions a man named " the Presbyter John " . However , since nothing else is known of this individual it is not possible to positively identify him as the author of 3 John .
= = = Date and location of writing = = =
All three letters of John were likely written within a few years of each other , and internal evidence indicates that they were written after the Gospel of John , placing them in the second half of the first century . This dating makes sense given their allusions and opposition to Gnostic and docetic teaching , which denied the full humanity of Jesus , and which was gaining ascendancy at the end of the first century .
Dodd argues for a date between 96 – 110 A.D. , concluding from the absence of references to persecution in the letters that they were probably written after the harsh reign of the Roman emperor Domitian , whose persecution of Christians seems to have prompted the writing of the Book of Revelation . Dodd notes , however , that they could have been written in the pre @-@ Domitian era , which is likely if the author was a personal disciple of Jesus . Marshall suggests a date of between the 60s and 90s . Rensberger suggests a dating of around 100 , assuming that the Gospel of John was written in the 90s and the letters must have followed after . Brown argues for a date of between 100 and 110 , with all three letters composed in close time proximity . A date past 110 – 115 is unlikely , as parts of 1 John and 2 John are quoted by Polycarp and Papias .
The letters do not indicate the location of authorship , but since the earliest quotations of them ( in the writings of Polycarp , Papias , and Irenaeus ) come from the province of Asia Minor , it is likely that the epistles were also written in Asia . Church tradition typically places them in the city of Ephesus .
= = = Manuscripts = = =
3 John is preserved in many of the old manuscripts of the New Testament . Of the Greek great uncial codices , codices Sinaiticus , Alexandrinus , and Vaticanus contain all three Johannine epistles , while Codex Ephraemi contains 3 John 3 – 15 along with 1 John 1 : 1 – 4 . Codex Bezae , while missing most of the Catholic epistles , contains 3 John 11 – 15 in Latin translation . In languages other than Greek , the Vulgate and the Sahidic , Armenian , Philoxenian Syriac , and Aethiopic versions contain all three epistles . Between the different copies there are no major difficulties or differences , meaning that there is very little doubt over determining the original text .
= = Canonical history = =
There are some doubtful similarities between passages in the Johannine epistles and the writings of Polycarp and Papias , but the earliest definitive references to the epistles come from the late second century . Irenaeus in Adversus Haereses 3 @.@ 16 @.@ 8 ( written c . 180 ) , quotes 2 John 7 and 8 , and in the next sentence 1 John 4 : 1 , 2 , but does not distinguish between 1 and 2 John ; he does not quote from 3 John . The Muratorian Canon seems to refer to two letters of John only , though it is possible to interpret it as referring to three . 1 John is extensively cited by Tertullian , who died in 215 , and Clement of Alexandria , in addition to quoting 1 John , wrote a commentary on 2 John in his Adumbrationes . All three Johannine epistles were recognized by the 39th festal letter of Athanasius , the Synod of Hippo and the Council of Carthage . Additionally Didymus the blind wrote a commentary on all three epistles , showing that by the early 5th century they were being considered as a single unit .
The first reference to 3 John is in the middle of the third century ; Eusebius says that Origen knew of both 2 and 3 John , however Origen is reported as saying " all do not consider them genuine " . Similarly , Dionysius of Alexandria , Origen 's pupil , was aware of a " reputed Second or Third Epistle of John " . Also around this time 3 John is thought to have been known in North Africa as it was referred to in the Sententiae Episcoporum produced by the Seventh Council of Carthage . There was doubt about the authority of 3 John , however , with Eusebius listing it and 2 John as " disputed books " despite describing them as " well @-@ known and acknowledged by most " . Although Eusebius believed the Apostle wrote the Gospel and the epistles , it is likely that doubt about the fidelity of the author of 2 and 3 John was a factor in causing them to be disputed . By the end of the fourth century the Presbyter ( author of 2 and 3 John ) was thought to be a different person than the Apostle John . This opinion , although reported by Jerome , was not held by all , as Jerome himself attributed the epistles to John the Apostle . One factor which helps explain the late attestation of 3 John and the doubts about its authority is the very short nature of the letter ; early writers may simply not have had occasion to quote from it .
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= Eric Cartman =
Eric Theodore Cartman is one of the main characters in the animated television series South Park , created by Matt Stone and Trey Parker , and voiced by Trey Parker . Cartman , generally referred to by his surname , is one of four central characters in South Park , along with his friends Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , and Kenny McCormick . Cartman first appeared , originally named Kenny , in prototypical form in a 1992 animated short Jesus vs. Frosty , and a 1995 animated short Jesus vs. Santa , and first appeared on television in the pilot episode of South Park , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , on August 13 , 1997 .
Cartman is an elementary school student who lives with his mother in the fictional town of South Park , Colorado , where he routinely has extraordinary experiences atypical of a small town . Cartman has been portrayed as aggressive , prejudiced , arrogant , and narcissistic since his character 's inception ; Stone and Parker describe the character as " a little Archie Bunker " . These traits are significantly augmented in later seasons as his character evolves , and he begins to exhibit extremely psychopathic , sociopathic and manipulative behavior , and also be depicted as highly intelligent , able to execute morally appalling plans and business ideas with success .
Cartman is considered to be the most popular character on South Park . Parker and Stone state that he is their favorite character , and the one with whom they most identify . South Park has received both praise and criticism for Cartman 's politically incorrect behavior . Prominent publications and television channels have included Cartman on their lists as one of the most iconic television and cartoon characters of all time .
= = Role in South Park = =
Eric Cartman attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison 's class . During the show 's first 58 episodes , Cartman and the other main characters are in the third grade , after which they move on to the fourth grade . He is an only child being raised by Liane Cartman , a promiscuous single mother . In " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " ( 1998 ) , Liane Cartman claims to be a hermaphrodite when she also claims to be the father of Cartman and that she did not know the woman who gave birth to Cartman . However , the season 14 ( 2010 ) episode " 201 " later reveals that Liane actually is his mother , and that his true biological father is Jack Tenorman , a fictional former player for the Denver Broncos whom Cartman arranged to be killed in the season five ( 2001 ) episode " Scott Tenorman Must Die " , making Cartman and Scott Tenorman half @-@ brothers and putting Liane 's intersexual identity in question .
Among the show 's main child characters , Cartman is distinguished as " the fat kid " , and his obesity is a continuing subject of insults and ridicule from other characters throughout the show 's run . Cartman is frequently portrayed as an antagonist or villain whose actions set in motion the events serving as the main plot of an episode . Other children and classmates are alienated by Cartman 's insensitive , racist , xenophobic , anti @-@ semitic , lazy , self @-@ righteous behavior , but are occasionally influenced by his obtrusive , manipulative , and propagandist antics .
Kyle , who is Jewish , is often the target of Cartman 's slander and anti @-@ Semitic insults . The two have shared an enmity since the show 's beginnings , and their rivalry has become significantly more pronounced as the series has progressed , with Cartman even routinely exposing Kyle to physical endangerment . Kyle has intentionally endangered Cartman as well by convincing him in " Fatbeard " to go to Somalia in hopes that he will be killed . However , at other times , Kyle is an enthusiastic participant in Cartman 's schemes and Cartman is sometimes seen actually being nice to Kyle in some instances . Parker and Stone have compared the relationship to the one shared by Archie Bunker and Michael " Meathead " Stivic on the 1970s sitcom All in the Family . Kyle has a tendency to make what he thinks are safe bets with Cartman , and often loses these bets when the improbable actions promised by Cartman are accomplished . Cartman 's motivation in this regard is not merely monetary gain , but an obsession with scoring a victory over Kyle , a fixation that ultimately plays a major part in a subplot to the three @-@ part episode " Imaginationland " ( season 11 , 2007 ) . This obsession has also proven itself to actually trump other goals Cartman wishes to achieve , for instance , in " Christian Rock Hard " Cartman makes a bet with Kyle that he can make a platinum album before Kyle can . After recruiting Butters and Token , Cartman creates a Christian rock band called " Faith + 1 " and " writes " Christian songs by merely taking love songs and replacing words such as " baby " with " Jesus " ( which humorously implicates sexual relations with Jesus ) . Against all odds , the band becomes largely successful , managing to sell over a million copies ( and potentially gain millions of dollars ) . However , since Christian rock bands cannot truly get a platinum album ( which is not true in real life ) , Cartman loses the bet . Despite having amassed a large fan base as well as a large , steady income , Cartman only becomes enraged since he was unable to win a bet with Kyle . Careless in his anger accepting the " Myrrh " album in front of a large Christian crowd , Cartman goes into an Anti @-@ Christian rant which drives away all of the fans as well as profits . In " You 're Getting Old " , the final episode of the first half of South Park 's 15th season , it is suggested that Kyle and Cartman may be developing a genuine friendship , possibly due to the void left by Stan 's apparent departure . Cartman 's resentment of Stan is usually reserved for when Cartman proudly proclaims his hatred for both Stan and Kyle as a duo , and his contempt for Stan as an individual is usually limited to his annoyance with Stan 's sensitivity , affection for animals , and the relationship Stan shares with Wendy .
Despite being intolerant of other cultures , Cartman displays an aptitude for learning foreign languages . In the episode " My Future Self n ' Me " when he starts " Parental Revenge Corp " , he speaks Spanish to his Latino workers , though he may have learned the language merely from a practical standpoint in order to better exploit a labor pool . He also knows German , and once spoke a few phrases while dressed up as Adolf Hitler while promoting the extermination of Jews to an oblivious audience that did not speak German . Cartman can also be seen speaking broken German with an American accent in Season 15 Episode 2 " Funnybot " . Conversely in one episode ( " Major Boobage " ) Cartman acts as an Oskar Schindler character for the town 's cats , a rare case of a subplot based on Cartman 's altruism .
Cartman frequently teases Kenny for being poor , and derides Kenny 's family for being on welfare . He will also use an awkward pause during a conversation as an opportunity to casually remind Kenny that he hates him . Cartman 's mischievous treatment of Butters Stotch , and the relationship the duo shares has received significant focus in the more recent seasons of the series . This reflects Parker 's interest ; the scenes between the two are the ones he most enjoys writing .
Several episodes center around Cartman 's greed and his get @-@ rich @-@ quick schemes , although his numerous attempts to attain wealth generally fail . His extreme disdain for hippies serves to satirize the counterculture of the 1960s and its influence in contemporary society , reflecting Parker 's real @-@ life antipathy towards hippies . Though the role is customarily taken by Stan or Kyle , Cartman will occasionally be the one to reflect on the lessons learned during the course of an episode with a speech that often begins with " You know , I 've learned something today ... " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
A precursor to Cartman first appeared in the first The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Frosty , created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado . In the short , Cartman was actually named " Kenny " , and the catchphrase " Oh my God , they killed Kenny ! " was exclaimed when the character representing Cartman was killed by an evil snowman . The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated through the use of stop motion . When commissioned three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends , Parker and Stone created another similarly @-@ animated The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Santa . In this short , his character first appears as he does in the series , and is given the name " Cartman " , while the character of Kenny appears as the character is depicted today and given Cartman 's moniker from the previous short . Cartman next appeared on August 13 , 1997 , when South Park debuted on Comedy Central with the episode " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " .
In keeping with the show 's animation style , Cartman is composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors . He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand @-@ drawn characters ; his character is mostly shown from one direction , and his movements intentionally jerky . Ever since the show 's second episode , " Weight Gain 4000 " ( season one , 1997 ) , Cartman , like all other characters on the show , has been animated with computer software , though he is portrayed to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique .
Cartman is usually depicted wearing winter attire which consists of a red coat , brown pants , yellow gloves / mittens , and a yellow @-@ brimmed turquoise knit cap tapered with a yellow pom @-@ pom . He has parted brown hair , and he is seen without his hat more often than the other characters with distinctive headwear . As he is overweight , his body is wider , his hands noticeably larger and his head is a more elliptical shape in contrast to the circular heads of the other children . An additional curved line on his lower face represents a double chin .
Although he had originally voiced Cartman without any computer manipulation , Parker now does so by speaking within his normal vocal range with a childlike inflection . The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools , and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound like that of a fourth grader . Parker says to achieve the effect of Cartman 's voice , he simply uses the same technique when voicing Stan while " adding a lot of fat to it " .
= = = Development = = =
Cartman is partially named after and based on Matt Karpman , a high school classmate of Parker who remains a friend of both Parker and Stone . Cartman is also inspired by All in the Family patriarch Archie Bunker , who is himself inspired by Alf Garnett from Till Death Us Do Part , the original British version of All in the Family . Parker and Stone are big fans of All in the Family . They state that creating Cartman as a " little eight @-@ year @-@ old fat kid " made it easier for the two to portray a Bunker @-@ like character after the introduction of political correctness to late @-@ 20th century television . While developing the character , Parker noted that everyone either remembers " an annoying fat kid in their pasts " , or " they were the annoying fat kid " . Stone has observed that " kids are not nice , innocent , flower @-@ loving little rainbow children [ ... ] they don 't have any kind of social tact or etiquette , they 're just complete little raging bastards " .
In the season five ( 2001 ) episode " Scott Tenorman Must Die " , Cartman is tricked into buying the pubic hair of local eighth @-@ grader named Scott Tenorman for $ 16 @.@ 12 . He then successfully executes an elaborate scheme to publicly humiliate Scott in front of his favorite band Radiohead , by getting Scott 's parents killed and then tricking Scott into eating them . The show 's writers debated during production of the episode whether or not the incident would be " a step too far , even for Cartman " . Parker felt that the act could sufficiently be the culmination of Cartman 's sociopathic behavior , and would " [ set ] a new bar " by portraying Cartman as being capable of performing anything short of murder . Fans reacted by ranking it as Cartman 's " greatest moment " in a 2005 poll on Comedy Central 's website . It is later revealed in the season fourteen episode " 201 " that Jack Tenorman , Scott 's father , was a football player for the Denver Broncos and Cartman 's father . Dr. Alphonse Mephesto also admits that he lied about Cartman 's mother being a hermaphrodite .
Parker and Stone , despite being the basis for Stan and Kyle , insist that Cartman is their favorite character , and the one with whom they identify the most .
= = = Personality and traits = = =
Cartman is foul @-@ mouthed ( as are his friends ) as a means for Parker and Stone to portray how they believe young boys really talk when they are alone . According to Parker , Cartman does not possess the " underlying sweetness " of the show 's other child characters . Cartman is shown at times to be completely amoral and remorseless . Cartman is amused by bodily functions and toilet humor , and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip , a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show revolve substantially around fart jokes .
Cartman is sensitive and in denial about his obesity . Often reasserting Liane 's notion by exclaiming " I 'm not fat , I 'm big @-@ boned ! " and will just as often either threaten to bring harm to anyone who mocks his weight or curse them out in aggravation . He has also had people killed , such as when he drove his psychiatrist 's wife to suicide after enduring a long tirade about his weight . He views himself as more mature than his fellow friends and classmates , and often grows impatient with their company ; despite claiming to be more mature , he will often break down crying childishly and pathetically whenever he feels defeated . This often leads to loud arguments , which in earlier seasons typically end with Cartman peevishly saying " Screw you guys ... I 'm going home ! " and then leaving . In an action King 's College philosophy professor David Kyle Johnson describes as " directed either toward accomplishing his own happiness or the unhappiness of others " , Cartman often feigns actual friendship with his classmates when needing a favor . The lack of a true father figure in his life , and Liane 's promiscuity and drug use have caused repressed psychological hardship in Cartman 's life . As a parent , Liane often spoils Cartman , and is largely ineffectual as a disciplinarian . Cartman sometimes commands his mom to do tasks for him , but more often resorts to pleading with her in an ingratiating tone . When neither method works , he resorts to excessive and indecipherable whining , to which Liane usually succumbs . Parker has noted that this is the primary cause for Cartman 's behavior , stating that Cartman is " just a product of his environment " .
We always had this thing where Cartman 's mother was so sweet — she was always so sweet to him and giving him whatever he wanted . And I don 't know if it 's worse in L.A. than most places in the country — I hope so — but [ we 've met ] so many parents who were just so desperately trying to be friends to their kids . And it was the thing we really picked up on . And it was just like , ' These [ people ] are making these really evil kids ' .
– Trey Parker , discussing Liane 's role in shaping Cartman 's personality in an interview with NPR
Cartman thrives on achieving ascendancy over others , and exerts his will by demagogy and by demanding that others " Respect my authoritah ! " Cartman has several times declared that his dream is getting " Ten million dollars " . He has shown initiative in taking a businesslike approach to earning money , starting his own " hippie control " and " parental revenge " operations , as well as a Christian Rock and a boy band , a basketball team of crack babies ( parody of the NCAA ) and his own church .
Cartman 's anti @-@ Semitism , while mostly limited to mocking Kyle , culminates in the season eight ( 2004 ) episode " The Passion of the Jew " . In the episode , Cartman , after watching The Passion of the Christ numerous times , deifies the film 's director , Mel Gibson , and starts an official Gibson fan club , praising Gibson for " trying to express — through cinema — the horror and filthiness of the common Jew " . Cartman 's interpretation of the film influences him to dress up as Adolf Hitler and lead other fan club members ( who are oblivious of Cartman 's actual intentions ) in a failed effort to engage in a systematic genocide of the Jews similar to that of the Final Solution . In the season 10 ( 2006 ) episode " Smug Alert ! " , Cartman anonymously saves Kyle 's life in an effort to get him and his family to return to South Park from San Francisco , revealing that he craves the animosity shared between the two . And in " Coon vs. Coon and Friends " ( season 14 , 2010 ) , Cartman directs the " evil god " Cthulhu to destroy " most of the synagogues " . However , in the 16th season episode " Jewpacabra " Cartman revealed he had converted to Judaism after a hallucinogenic dream . As of season 19 , it is unsure whether he has retained this trait or whether it was simply a plot point in that one episode .
Upon hearing his classmates tell him that they hold him in the lowest regard possible and that they could not possibly think any worse of him , a stubborn Cartman misinterprets this act as their attempt to make him feel better , and convinces himself that everyone thinks he is the " coolest kid in school " . In the season 13 ( 2009 ) episode " Fishsticks " , Cartman subconsciously believes that he helped in creating a joke that quickly becomes a nationwide sensation , despite the fact that the character Jimmy Valmer writes the joke without any assistance . Carlos Delgado of If Magazine noted this as " Cartman being so egotistical that he manipulates the past to serve his own purposes " .
Little is shown concerning Cartman 's romantic interests , as for the most part , his attitude towards females is sexist . However , at least in one episode ( " Chef Goes Nanners " ) , Cartman develops an attraction to Wendy , which is apparent from the end of episode when Wendy describes her temporary infatuation towards Cartman as ' sexual tension ' and even though Cartman agrees in front of Wendy , he sighs with sorrow at being alone again . During a period when he was physically unable to control his speech and he repeatedly blurted hidden feelings , he expressed a romantic interest in classmate Patty Nelson , a side character who has not been seen before or since .
Though he is commonly portrayed as ignorant , Cartman is shown at least twice ( " My Future Self n ' Me " and " Pandemic " ) to be able to speak fluent Spanish ( and German ) .
In certain episodes , Cartman is shown to think of himself as a skilled fighter , only to be beat up by Wendy , Token , Stan , and Kyle at different times . However , when Cartman thinks he has some sort of authority , such as being the Coon or the hallway monitor , he displays various martial arts knowledge and proves to be able to beat up various other characters such as Clyde and Bradley .
= = Cultural impact = =
Cartman is a South Park fan favorite , and is often described as the most famous character from the series . With a headline to their online written version of a radio report , NPR declared Cartman as " America 's Favorite Little $ @ # & * % " . " Respect my authoritah ! " and " Screw you guys ... I 'm going home ! " became catchphrases and , during the show 's earlier seasons , were highly popular in the lexicon of viewers . His eccentric enunciation of " Hey ! " was included in the 2002 edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Catchphrases . Stone has said that when fans recognize him or Parker , the fans will usually do their imitation of Cartman , or , in Parker 's case , request that he do Cartman 's voice .
In 2005 , Comedy Central ran a three @-@ night marathon of episodes showcasing what voters had deemed to be his " 25 greatest moments " . A two @-@ disc DVD collection entitled " The Cult of Cartman " , which Comedy Central described as " 12 classic episodes with Cartman at his very worst ! " , was released in 2008 .
In a 1999 poll conducted by NatWest Bank , eight and nine @-@ year @-@ old children in the United Kingdom voted Cartman as their favorite personality . This drew the concern of several parent councils who were expecting a character from a television show aimed at children to top the list , to which Stone responded by claiming the results of the poll were " upsetting to people who have an idyllic vision of what kids are like " . Parker and Stone have always asserted that due to Cartman 's actions and dialogue , his appearances in South Park are not meant to be viewed by younger children , and they note that the show is certified with TV ratings that indicate its intention for mature audiences .
While some in the Jewish community have praised the show 's depiction of Cartman holding an anti @-@ Semitic attitude towards Kyle as a means of accurately portraying what it is like for a young Jew to have to endure prejudice , other Jews have blamed South Park and Cartman for having found themselves surrounded by " acceptable racism " . On November 20 , 2008 , a Facebook group titled " National Kick a Ginger Day , are you going to do it ? " surfaced , suggesting abuse towards redheads . Thousands of internet users signed up as a member of the group , and reports of a feared increase of bullying of red @-@ headed students across Canada soon followed . The group 's administrator , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old from Vancouver Island , said the group was only intended as a joke , and apologized for the offense it caused . The group was inspired by the season nine ( 2005 ) episode " Ginger Kids " , in which Cartman incites prejudice towards those with red hair , pale skin , and freckles , a group he calls " Gingers " and claims are inherently evil and without souls .
Other characters commonly express lessons learned from the antagonistic actions Cartman commonly provokes ; this has resulted in these characters giving their opinions on issues such as hate crime legislation , civil liberties , excessive religious devotion , the stem cell controversy , anabolic steroid use , the " right to die " debate , and prejudice . In the season 10 ( 2006 ) episode " Cartoon Wars Part II " , Cartman , planning to exploit the public 's fear of terrorism , seeks to get the Fox television series Family Guy , a program he despises , permanently removed from the airwaves when Fox plans to air an episode despite its inclusion of a cartoon likeness of Muhammad . This leads Kyle to give a short speech about the ethics of censorship , which reiterates Parker and Stone 's sentiments of " Either it 's all okay , or none of it is " in regards to whether or not any subject should remain off @-@ limits to satire . Both Cartman 's commentary and the commentary resulting in response to his actions have been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public , and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world .
The book South Park and Philosophy : You Know , I Learned Something Today includes an essay in which Johnson uses Cartman 's actions and behavior as examples when discussing the logical problem of moral evil , and another essay by College of Staten Island professor Mark D. White cited the season two ( 1998 ) episode " Chickenlover " , in which Cartman is temporarily granted law enforcement powers , in its discussion regarding the command theory of law and what obligates a citizen to obey the law . Essays in the books South Park and Philosophy : Bigger , Longer , and More Penetrating , Blame Canada ! South Park and Contemporary Culture , and Taking South Park Seriously have also analyzed Cartman 's perspectives within the framework of popular philosophical , theological , political , and social concepts . Parker and Stone downplay the show 's alignment with any particular political affiliation , and deny having a political agenda when creating an episode . In response to the focus on elements of satire in South Park , Parker has said that the main goal of the show is to portray Cartman and his friends as " kids just being kids " as a means of accurately showcasing " what it 's like to be in [ elementary school ] in America " .
= = = Recognitions = = =
TV Guide ranked Cartman at number 10 on their 2002 list of the " Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters " , 24th on TV Guide 's " 25 Greatest TV Villains " , 198th on VH1 's " 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons " , and 19th on Bravo 's " 100 Greatest TV Characters " television special in 2004 . When declaring him the second @-@ scariest character on television ( behind only Mr. Burns of The Simpsons ) in 2005 , MSNBC 's Brian Bellmont described Cartman as a " bundle of pure , unadulterated evil all wrapped up in a fat — er , big @-@ boned — cartoony package " who " takes a feral delight in his evildoing " . In 2014 , IGN ranked Cartman first place on their list of " The Top 25 South Park Characters " , commenting that he was " the obvious choice " of number one and that " sometimes the obvious choice is also the right one . " The website stated that despite Cartman being " one of the worst human beings in the history of fiction [ ... ] he 's the most loathsome character we 've ever loved . " IGN concluded by calling him " the biggest contribution to the world of animated characters that South Park has made – and that 's saying something . "
= = In other media = =
Cartman has a major role in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , the full @-@ length film based on the series , and appeared on the film 's soundtrack singing the same musical numbers performed in the movie . As a tribute to the Dead Parrot sketch , a short that features Cartman attempting to return a dead Kenny to a shop run by Kyle aired during a 1999 BBC television special commemorating the 30th anniversary of Monty Python 's Flying Circus . Cartman is also featured in the documentary film The Aristocrats , telling his version of the film 's titular joke to Stan , Kyle , and Kenny , and in " The Gauntlet " , a short spoofing both Gladiator and Battlefield Earth that aired during the 2000 MTV Movie Awards .
For their 2007 Snakes & Arrows tour , the rock band Rush commissioned a short , video introduction for the song " Tom Sawyer " . Cartman , dressed in a long wig to look like singer Geddy Lee , sings his own , personal , version of the song 's lyrics prompting the usual outrage from Kyle . The video can be seen on the band 's Snakes & Arrows concert video .
In 2002 , Cartman became the main protagonist of a series of promotional videos for the Los Angeles Kings of the NHL , which are played on the big @-@ screen TVs inside of Staples Center where the character ridicules the mascots of rival teams and reacts to various aspects of the game .
Short clips of Cartman introducing the starting lineup for the University of Colorado football team were featured during ABC 's coverage of the 2007 match @-@ up between the University of Colorado and the University of Nebraska .
In Plants vs. Zombies 2 : It 's About Time , the plant Winter Melon , has a costume of a hat resembling Eric Cartman 's .
In 2008 , Parker , as Cartman , gave answers to a Proust Questionnaire conducted by Julie Rovner of NPR .
Parker performs as Cartman on tracks for Chef Aid : The South Park Album and Mr. Hankey 's Christmas Classics . Cartman also appears in five South Park @-@ related video games : In South Park , Cartman is controlled by the player through the first person shooter mode who attempts to ward off enemies from terrorizing the town of South Park . In South Park : Chef 's Luv Shack , a user has the option of playing as Cartman when participating in the game 's several " minigames " based on other popular arcade games . In the racing game South Park Rally , a user can race as Cartman against other users playing as other characters , while choosing to place him in any of a variety of vehicles . In South Park Let 's Go Tower Defense Play ! , Cartman can be selected as a playable character used to establish a tower defense against the game 's antagonists . In South Park : The Stick of Truth , Cartman is the leader of one of two tribes in South Park , at war over the Stick of Truth . Cartman is later a selectable companion character in this JRPG @-@ style game .
A cover of " Poker Face " was released as DLC for the Rock Band video game series in 2010 based on the version heard in the episode , " Whale Whores " , released the same day as the original , featuring Cartman on lead vocals .
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= Scotland in the modern era =
Scotland in the modern era , from the end of the Jacobite risings and beginnings of industrialisation in the 18th century to the present day , has played a major part in the economic , military and political history of the United Kingdom , British Empire and Europe , while recurring issues over the status of Scotland , its status and identity have dominated political debate .
Scotland made a major contribution to the intellectual life of Europe , particularly in the Enlightenment , producing major figures including the economist Adam Smith , philosophers Francis Hutcheson and David Hume , and scientists William Cullen , Joseph Black and James Hutton . In the 19th century major figures included James Watt , James Clerk Maxwell , Lord Kelvin and Sir Walter Scott . Scotland 's economic contribution to the Empire and the industrial revolution included its banking system and the development of cotton , coal mining , shipbuilding and an extensive railway network . Industrialisation and changes to agriculture and society led to depopulation and clearances of the largely rural highlands , migration to the towns and mass immigration , where Scots made a major contribution to the development of countries including the US , Canada , Australia and New Zealand .
In the 20th century , Scotland played a major role in the British and allied effort in the two world wars and began to suffer a sharp industrial decline , going through periods of considerable political instability . The decline was particularly acute in the second half of the 20th century , but was compensated for to a degree by the development of an extensive oil industry , technological manufacturing and a growing service sector . This period also increasing debates about the place of Scotland within the United Kingdom , the rise of the Scottish National Party and after a referendum in 1999 the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh .
= = Late 18th century and 19th century = =
With the advent of the Union with England and the demise of Jacobitism , thousands of Scots , mainly Lowlanders , took up positions of power in politics , civil service , the army and navy , trade , economics , colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent British Empire . Historian Neil Davidson notes that " after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life , particularly outside Scotland " . Davidson also states that " far from being ' peripheral ' to the British economy , Scotland – or more precisely , the Lowlands – lay at its core " .
= = = Politics = = =
Scottish politics in the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century was dominated by the Whigs and ( after 1859 ) their successors the Liberal Party . From the Scottish Reform Act 1832 ( which increased the number of Scottish MPs and significantly widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes ) , until the end of the century they managed to gain a majority of the Westminster Parliamentary seats for Scotland , although these were often outnumbered by the much larger number of English and Welsh Conservatives . English @-@ educated Scottish peer Lord Aberdeen ( 1784 – 1860 ) led a coalition government from 1852 to 1855 , but in general very few Scots held office in the government . From the mid @-@ century there were increasing calls for Home Rule for Scotland and when the Conservative Lord Salisbury became prime minister in 1885 he responded to pressure for more attention to be paid to Scottish issues by reviving the post of Secretary of State for Scotland , which had been in abeyance since 1746 . He appointed the Duke of Richmond , a wealthy landowner who was both Chancellor of Aberdeen University and Lord Lieutenant of Banff . Towards the end of the century the first Scottish Liberal to become prime minister was the Earl of Rosebery ( 1847 – 1929 ) , like Aberdeen before him a product of the English education system . In the later 19th century the issue of Irish Home Rule led to a split among the Liberals , with a minority breaking away to form the Liberal Unionists in 1886 . The growing importance of the working classes was marked by Keir Hardie 's success in the Mid Lanarkshire by @-@ election , 1888 , leading to the foundation of the Scottish Labour Party , which was absorbed into the Independent Labour Party in 1895 , with Hardie as its first leader .
The main unit of local government was the parish , and since it was also part of the church , the elders imposed public humiliation for what the locals considered immoral behaviour , including fornication , drunkenness , wife beating , cursing and Sabbath breaking . The main focus was on the poor and the landlords ( " lairds " ) and gentry , and their servants , were not subject to the parish 's discipline . The policing system weakened after 1800 and disappeared in most places by the 1850s .
= = = Enlightenment = = =
In the 18th century , the Scottish Enlightenment brought the country to the front of intellectual achievement in Europe . Perhaps the poorest country in Western Europe in 1707 , Scotland reaped the economic benefits of free trade within the British Empire together with the intellectual benefits of a highly developed university system . Under these twin stimuli , Scottish thinkers began questioning assumptions previously taken for granted ; and with Scotland 's traditional connections to France , then in the throes of the Enlightenment , the Scots began developing a uniquely practical branch of humanism to the extent that Voltaire said " we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization " .
The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was Francis Hutcheson , who held the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1729 to 1746 . A moral philosopher who produced alternatives to the ideas of Thomas Hobbes , one of his major contributions to world thought was the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides , in his words , " the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers " . Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method ( the nature of knowledge , evidence , experience , and causation ) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his proteges David Hume and Adam Smith .
Hume became a major figure in the sceptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy . He and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what he called a ' science of man ' , which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett , Adam Ferguson , John Millar and William Robertson , all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity . Indeed , modern sociology largely originated from this movement . Adam Smith developed and published The Wealth of Nations , the first work on modern economics . It had an immediate impact on British economic policy and still frames 21st century discussions on globalisation and tariffs . The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen , physician and chemist , James Anderson , an agronomist , Joseph Black , physicist and chemist , and James Hutton , the first modern geologist . While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century , disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more , thanks to such figures as James Hutton , James Watt , William Murdoch , James Clerk Maxwell , Lord Kelvin and Sir Walter Scott .
= = = Religion = = =
The late 18th and 19th centuries saw a fragmentation of the Church of Scotland that had been created in the Reformation . These fractures were prompted by issues of government and patronage , but reflected a wider division between the Evangelicals and the Moderate Party over fears of fanaticism by the former and the acceptance of Enlightenment ideas by the latter . The legal right of lay patrons to present clergymen of their choice to local ecclesiastical livings led to minor schisms from the church . The first in 1733 , known as the First Secession , led to the creation of a series of secessionist churches . The second in 1761 lead to the foundation of the independent Relief Church . Gaining strength in the Evangelical Revival of the later 18th century and after prolonged years of struggle , in 1834 the Evangelicals gained control of the General Assembly and passed the Veto Act , which allowed congregations to reject unwanted " intrusive " presentations to livings by patrons . The following " Ten Years ' Conflict " of legal and political wrangling ended in defeat for the non @-@ intrusionists in the civil courts . The result was a schism from the church by some of the non @-@ intrusionists led by Dr Thomas Chalmers known as the Great Disruption of 1843 . Roughly a third of the clergy , mainly from the North and Highlands , formed the separate Free Church of Scotland . In the late 19th century the major debates were between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals , who rejected a literal interpretation of the Bible . This resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the Free Presbyterian Church in 1893 . There were , however , also moves towards reunion , beginning with the unification of some secessionist churches into the United Secession Church in 1820 , which united with the Relief Church in 1847 to form the United Presbyterian Church , which in turn joined with the Free Church in 1900 . The removal of legislation on lay patronage allowed the majority of the Free Church to rejoin Church of Scotland in 1929 . The schisms left small denominations including the Free Presbyterians and a remnant as the Free Church from 1900 .
By the mid @-@ 18th century , Catholicism had been reduced to the fringes of the country , particularly the Gaelic @-@ speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands . Conditions grew worse for Catholics after the Jacobite risings and Catholicism was reduced to little more than a poorly run mission . However , Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and the influx of large numbers of Irish immigrants , particularly after the famine years of the late 1840s , principally to the growing lowland centres like Glasgow , led to a transformation of its fortunes . In 1878 , despite opposition , a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy was restored to the country , and Catholicism became a significant denomination within Scotland . Also important was Episcopalianism , which had retained supporters through the civil wars and changes of regime in the 17th century . Since most Episcopalians had given their support to the Jacobite risings in the early 18th century they suffered a decline in fortunes , but revived in the 19th as the issue of succession receded , becoming established as the Episcopal Church in Scotland in 1804 , as an autonomous organisation in communion with the Church of England . Baptist , Congregationalist and Methodist churches also appeared in Scotland in the 18th century , but did not begin significant growth until the 19th century , partly because more radical and evangelical traditions already existed within the Church of Scotland and the free churches . From 1879 they were joined by the evangelical revivalism of the Salvation Army , which attempted to make major inroads in the growing urban centres .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
During the Industrial Revolution , Scotland became one of the commercial and industrial centres of the British Empire . With tariffs with England now abolished , the potential for trade for Scottish merchants was considerable , especially with Colonial America . However , the economic benefits of union were very slow to appear , primarily because Scotland was too poor to exploit the opportunities of the greatly expanded free market . Scotland in 1750 was still a poor rural , agricultural society with a population of 1 @.@ 3 million . Some progress was visible , such as the sales of linen and cattle to England , the cash flows from military service , and the tobacco trade that was dominated by Glasgow after 1740 . The clippers belonging to the Glasgow Tobacco Lords were the fastest ships on the route to Virginia . Merchants who profited from the American trade began investing in leather , textiles , iron , coal , sugar , rope , sailcloth , glassworks , breweries , and soapworks , setting the foundations for the city 's emergence as a leading industrial centre after 1815 . The tobacco trade collapsed during the American Revolution ( 1776 – 83 ) , when it sources were cut off by the British blockade of American ports . However , trade with the West Indies began to make up for the loss of the tobacco business , reflecting the extensive growth of the cotton industry , the British demand for sugar and the demand in the West Indies for herring and linen goods . During 1750 – 1815 , 78 Glasgow merchants not only specialised in the importation of sugar , cotton , and rum from the West Indies , but diversified their interests by purchasing West Indian plantations , Scottish estates , or cotton mills . They were not to be self @-@ perpetuating due to the hazards of the trade , the incident of bankruptcy , and the changing complexity of Glasgow 's economy .
Linen was Scotland 's premier industry in the 18th century and formed the basis for the later cotton , jute , and woollen industries . Scottish industrial policy was made by the Board of Trustees for Fisheries and Manufactures in Scotland , which sought to build an economy complementary , not competitive , with England . Since England had woollens , this meant linen . Encouraged and subsidised by the Board of Trustees so it could compete with German products , merchant entrepreneurs became dominant in all stages of linen manufacturing and built up the market share of Scottish linens , especially in the American colonial market . The British Linen Company , established in 1746 , was the largest firm in the Scottish linen industry in the 18th century , exporting linen to England and America . As a joint @-@ stock company , it had the right to raise funds through the issue of promissory notes or bonds . With its bonds functioning as bank notes , the company gradually moved into the business of lending and discounting to other linen manufacturers , and in the early 1770s banking became its main activity . Renamed the British Linen Bank in 1906 , it was one of Scotland 's premier banks until it was bought out by the Bank of Scotland in 1969 . It joined the established Scottish banks such as the Bank of Scotland ( Edinburgh , 1695 ) and the Royal Bank of Scotland ( Edinburgh , 1727 ) . Glasgow would soon follow and Scotland had a flourishing financial system by the end of the century . There were over 400 branches , amounting to one office per 7000 people , double the level in England . The banks were more lightly regulated than those in England . Historians often emphasise that the flexibility and dynamism of the Scottish banking system contributed significantly to the rapid development of the economy in the 19th century .
From about 1790 textiles became the most important industry in the west of Scotland , especially the spinning and weaving of cotton , which flourished until in 1861 the American Civil War cut off the supplies of raw cotton . The industry never recovered , but by that time Scotland had developed heavy industries based on its coal and iron resources . The invention of the hot blast for smelting iron ( 1828 ) revolutionised the Scottish iron industry . As a result , Scotland became a centre for engineering , shipbuilding and the production of locomotives . Toward the end of the 19th century , steel production largely replaced iron production .
Coal mining became a major industry , and continued to grow into the 20th century , producing the fuel to heat homes , factories and drive steam engines , locomotives and steamships . By 1914 there were 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 coal miners in Scotland . The stereotype emerged early on of Scottish colliers as brutish , non @-@ religious and socially isolated serfs ; that was an exaggeration , for their life style resembled coal miners everywhere , with a strong emphasis on masculinity , egalitarianism , group solidarity , and support for radical labour movements .
Britain was the world leader in the construction of railways , and their use to expand trade and coal supplies . The first successful locomotive @-@ powered line in Scotland , between Monkland and Kirkintilloch , opened in 1831 . Not only was good passenger service established by the late 1840s , but an excellent network of freight lines reduce the cost of shipping coal , and made products manufactured in Scotland competitive throughout Britain . For example , railways opened the London market to Scottish beef and milk . They enabled the Aberdeen Angus to become a cattle breed of worldwide reputation .
= = = Urbanisation = = =
Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800 . The industrial belt ran across the country from southwest to northeast ; by 1900 the four industrialised counties of Lanarkshire , Renfrewshire , Dunbartonshire , and Ayrshire contained 44 per cent of the population . Glasgow and the River Clyde became a major shipbuilding centre . Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world , and known as " the Second City of the Empire " after London . Shipbuilding on Clydeside ( the river Clyde through Glasgow and other points ) began when the first small yards were opened in 1712 at the Scott family 's shipyard at Greenock . After 1860 the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron ( after 1870 , made of steel ) , which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world . It became the world 's pre @-@ eminent shipbuilding centre . Clydebuilt became an industry benchmark of quality , and the river 's shipyards were given contracts for warships , as well as prestigious liners . It reached its peak in the years 1900 – 18 , with an output of 370 ships completed in 1913 , and even more during the First World War .
The industrial developments , while they brought work and wealth , were so rapid that housing , town @-@ planning , and provision for public health did not keep pace with them , and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad , with overcrowding , high infant mortality , and growing rates of tuberculosis . The companies attracted rural workers , as well as immigrants from Catholic Ireland , by inexpensive company housing that was a dramatic move upward from the inner @-@ city slums . This paternalistic policy led many owners to support government sponsored housing programs as well as self @-@ help projects among the respectable working class .
= = = Highlands = = =
Modern historians suggest that due to economic and social change , the clan system in the highlands was already declining by the time of the failed 1745 rising . In its aftermath the British government enacted a series of laws that attempted to speed the process , including a ban on the bearing of arms , the wearing of tartan and limitations on the activities of the Episcopalian Church . Most of the legislation was repealed by the end of the 18th century as the Jacobite threat subsided . There was soon a process of the rehabilitation of highland culture . Tartan had already been adopted for highland regiments in the British army , which poor highlanders joined in large numbers until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , but by the 19th century it had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people . In the 1820s , as part of the Romantic revival , tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite , not just in Scotland , but across Europe . The international craze for tartan and for idealising a romanticised highlands was set off by the Ossian cycle published by Scottish poet James Macpherson 's in 1761 @-@ 2 . Sir Walter Scott 's Waverley novels further helped popularise Scottish life and history . His " staging " of the royal Visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 and the king 's wearing of tartan resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish linen industry . The designation of individual clan tartans was largely defined in this period and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity . The fashion for all things Scottish was maintained by Queen Victoria who help secure the identity of Scotland as a tourist resort and the popularity of the tartan fashion . Her Highland enthusiasm led to the design of two tartan patterns , " Victoria " and " Balmoral " , the latter named after her castle Balmoral in Aberdeenshire , which from 1852 became a major royal residence .
Despite these changes the highlands remained very poor and traditional , with few connections to the uplift of the Scottish Enlightenment and little role in the Industrial Revolution . A handful of powerful families , typified by the dukes of Argyll , Atholl , Buccleuch , and Sutherland , owned the best lands and controlled local political , legal and economic affairs . As late as 1878 , 68 families owned nearly half the land in Scotland . Particularly after the end of the boom created by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ( 1790 – 1815 ) , these landlords needed cash to maintain their position in London society , and had less need of soldiers . They turned to money rents , displaced farmers to raise sheep , and downplayed the traditional patriarchal relationship that had historically sustained the clans . This was exacerbated after the repeal of the Corn Laws in mid @-@ century , when Britain adopted a free trade policy , and grain imports from America undermined the profitability of crop production .
One result of these changes were the Highland Clearances , by which much of the population of the Highlands suffered forced displacement as lands were enclosed , principally so that they could be used for sheep farming . The clearances followed patterns of agricultural change throughout the UK , but were particularly notorious as a result of the late timing , the lack of legal protection for year @-@ by @-@ year tenants under Scots law , the abruptness of the change from the traditional clan system , and the brutality of many evictions . The result was a continuous exodus from the land — to the cities , or further afield to England , Canada , America or Australia . Of those that remained many were now crofters : poor families living on " crofts " — very small rented farms with indefinite tenure used to raise various crops and animals , with kelping , fishing , spinning of linen and military service as important sources of revenue . The traditional landed interests held their own politically in the face of the rapidly growing urban middle classes , for the electoral reforms of mid @-@ century were less far @-@ reaching in Scotland than in England .
The unequal concentration of land ownership remained an emotional subject and eventually became a cornerstone of liberal radicalism . The politically powerless poor crofters embraced the popularly oriented , fervently evangelical Presbyterian revival after 1800 and the breakaway " Free Church " after 1843 . This evangelical movement was led by lay preachers who themselves came from the lower strata , and whose preaching was implicitly critical of the established order . The religious change energised the crofters and separated them from the landlords ; it helped prepare them for their successful and violent challenge to the landlords in the 1880s through the Highland Land League . Violence began on the Isle of Skye when Highland landlords cleared their lands for sheep and deer parks . It was quieted when the government stepped in passing the Crofters ' Holdings ( Scotland ) Act , 1886 to reduce rents , guarantee fixity of tenure , and break up large estates to provide crofts for the homeless . In 1885 three Independent Crofter candidates were elected to Parliament , which listened to their pleas . The results included explicit security for the Scottish smallholders ; the legal right to bequeath tenancies to descendants ; and creating a Crofting Commission . The Crofters as a political movement faded away by 1892 , and the Liberal Party gained most of their votes .
= = = Emigration = = =
The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century , from 1 @,@ 608 @,@ 000 in the census of 1801 to 2 @,@ 889 @,@ 000 in 1851 and 4 @,@ 472 @,@ 000 in 1901 . Even with the growth of industry there were insufficient good jobs , as a result , during the period 1841 – 1931 , about 2 million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia , and another 750 @,@ 000 Scots relocated to England . By the 21st century , there were about as many people who were Scottish Canadians and Scottish Americans as the 5 million remaining in Scotland . Scots born migrants played a leading role in the foundation and principles of the United States ( John Witherspoon , John Paul Jones , Andrew Carnegie ) , Canada ( John A MacDonald , James Murray , Tommy Douglas ) , Australia ( Lachlan Macquarie , Thomas Brisbane , Andrew Fisher ) and New Zealand ( James Mckenzie , Peter Fraser ) .
= = = Education = = =
A legacy of the Reformation in Scotland was the aim of having a school in every parish , which was underlined by an act of the Scottish parliament in 1696 ( reinforced in 1801 ) . In rural communities these obliged local landowners ( heritors ) to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster , while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education . In many Scottish towns , burgh schools were operated by local councils . One of the effects of this extensive network of schools was the growth of the " democratic myth " in the 19th century , which created the widespread belief that many a " lad of pairts " had been able to rise up through the system to take high office and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states , particularly England . Historians now accept that very few boys were able to pursue this route to social advancement and that literacy was not noticeably higher than comparable nations , as the education in the parish schools was basic , short and attendance was not compulsory .
Industrialisation , urbanisation and the Disruption of 1843 all undermined the tradition of parish schools . From 1830 the state began to fund buildings with grants , then from 1846 it was funding schools by direct sponsorship , and in 1872 Scotland moved to a system like that in England of state @-@ sponsored largely free schools , run by local school boards . Overall administration was in the hands of the Scotch ( later Scottish ) Education Department in London . Education was now compulsory from five to thirteen and many new board schools were built . Larger urban school boards established " higher grade " ( secondary ) schools as a cheaper alternative to the burgh schools . The Scottish Education Department introduced a Leaving Certificate Examination in 1888 to set national standards for secondary education and in 1890 school fees were abolished , creating a state @-@ funded national system of free basic education and common examinations .
The five Scottish universities had been oriented to clerical and legal training , after the religious and political upheavals of the 17th century they recovered with a lecture @-@ based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science , offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry . It helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and to put Scotland at the forefront of Enlightenment thinking . In the mid 19th century , the historic University of Glasgow became a leader in British higher education by providing the educational needs of youth from the urban and commercial classes , as well as the upper class . It prepared students for non @-@ commercial careers in government , the law , medicine , education , and the ministry and a smaller group for careers in science and engineering . Scottish universities would admit women from 1892 .
= = = Literature = = =
Although Scotland increasingly adopted the English language and wider cultural norms , its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature , as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form . James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation , claiming to have found poetry written by Ossian , he published translations that acquired international popularity , being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal written in 1762 was speedily translated into many European languages , and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German , literature , influencing Herder and Goethe . Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic , but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience .
Robert Burns and Walter Scott were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle . Burns , an Ayrshire poet and lyricist , is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement . As well as making original compositions , Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland , often revising or adapting them . His poem ( and song ) " Auld Lang Syne " is often sung at Hogmanay ( the last day of the year ) , and " Scots Wha Hae " served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country . Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads . His first prose work , Waverley in 1814 , is often called the first historical novel . It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity .
In the late 19th century , a number of Scottish @-@ born authors achieved international reputations . Robert Louis Stevenson 's work included the urban Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde ( 1886 ) , and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like Kidnapped and Treasure Island . Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction . The " kailyard tradition " at the end of the century , brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie , most famous for his creation of Peter Pan and George MacDonald whose works including Phantasies played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Scotland in this era produced some of the most significant British artists and architects . The influence of Italy was particularly significant , with over fifty Scottish artists and architects known to have travelled there in the period 1730 – 80 . Many painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans , like the members of the Norie family , James ( 1684 – 1757 ) and his sons , who painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 1768 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland , and were to varying degree influenced by forms of Neoclassicism .
The shift in attitudes to a romantic view of the Highlands at the end of the 18th century had a major impact on Scottish art . Romantic depictions can be seen in the work of 18th @-@ century artists including Jacob More , and Alexander Runciman. and the next generation of artists , including the portraits of Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) , and the landscapes of Alexander Nasmyth ( 1758 – 1840 ) and John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) . The Royal Scottish Academy of Art was created in 1826 , allowing professional painters to more easily exhibit and sell their works . Andrew Geddes ( 1783 – 1844 ) and David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) were among the most successful portrait painters . The tradition of highland landscape painting was continued by figures such as Horatio McCulloch ( 1806 – 67 ) , Joseph Farquharson ( 1846 – 1935 ) and William McTaggart ( 1835 – 1910 ) . Aberdeen born William Dyce ( 1806 – 64 ) , emerged as one of the most significant figures in art education in the United Kingdom . The Glasgow School , which developed in the late 19th century , and flourished in the early 20th century , produced a distinctive blend of influences including the Celtic Revival the Arts and Crafts Movement , and Japonisme , which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe and helped define the Art Nouveau style . Among the most prominent members were the loose collective of The Four : acclaimed architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh , his wife the painter and glass artist Margaret MacDonald , her sister the artist Frances , and her husband , the artist and teacher Herbert MacNair .
Scotland produced some of the most significant British architects of the 18th century , including : Colen Campbell ( 1676 – 1729 ) , James Gibbs ( 1682 – 1754 ) , James ( 1732 – 94 ) , John ( 1721 – 92 ) and Robert Adam ( 1728 – 92 ) and William Chambers ( 1723 – 96 ) , who all created work that to some degree looked to classical models . Edinburgh 's New Town was the focus of this classical building boom in Scotland . From the mid @-@ eighteenth century the it was laid out according to a plan of rectangular blocks with open squares , drawn up by James Craig . This classicism , together with its reputation as a major centre of the Enlightenment , resulted in the city being nicknamed " The Athens of the North " . However , the centralisation of much of the government administration , including the king 's works , in London , meant that a number of Scottish architects spent most of all of their careers in England , where they had a major impact on Georgian architecture .
= = Early 20th century = =
In the 20th century Scotland made a major contribution to the British participation in the two world wars and suffered relative economic decline , which only began to be offset with the exploitation of North Sea Oil and Gas from the 1970s and the development of new technologies and service industries . This was mirrored by a growing sense of cultural and political distinctiveness , which towards the end of the century , culminated in the establishment of a separate Scottish Parliament within the confines of the United Kingdom .
= = = Before the First World War 1901 – 13 = = =
In the Khaki Election of 1900 , nationalist concern with the Boer War meant that the Conservatives and their Liberal Unionist allies gained a majority of Scottish seats for the first time , although the Liberals regained their ascendancy in the next election . Various organisations , including the Independent Labour Party , joined to make the British Labour Party in 1906 , with Keir Hardie as its first chairman . The Unionists and Conservatives merged in 1912 , usually known as the Conservatives in England and Wales , they adopted the name Unionist Party in Scotland .
The years before the First World War were the golden age of the inshore fisheries . Landings reached new heights , and Scottish catches dominated Europe 's herring trade , accounting for a third of the British catch . High productivity came about thanks to the transition to more productive steam @-@ powered boats , while the rest of Europe 's fishing fleets were slower because they were still powered by sails . However , in general the Scottish economy stagnated leading to growing unemployment and political agitation among industrial workers .
= = = First World War 1914 – 18 = = =
Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War . It especially provided manpower , ships , machinery , food ( particularly fish ) and money . With a population of 4 @.@ 8 million in 1911 , Scotland sent 690 @,@ 000 men to the war , of whom 74 @,@ 000 died in combat or from disease , and 150 @,@ 000 were seriously wounded . Thus , although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population , they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead . Concern for their families ' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist ; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled . Clydeside shipyards and the engineering shops of west @-@ central Scotland became the most significant centre of shipbuilding and arms production in the Empire . In the Lowlands , particularly Glasgow , poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest . After the end of the war in June 1919 the German fleet interned in Scapa Flow was scuttled by its crews , to avoid its ships being taken over by the victorious allies .
= = = Inter @-@ war period 1919 – 38 = = =
After World War I the Liberal Party began to disintegrate . As the Liberals splintered Labour emerged to become the party of progressive politics in Scotland , gaining a solid following among working classes of the urban lowlands , and as a result the Unionists were able to gain most of the votes of the middle classes , who now feared Bolshevik revolution , setting the social and geographical electoral pattern in Scotland that would last until the late 20th century . With all the main parties committed to the Union new nationalist and independent political groupings began to emerge , including the National Party of Scotland in 1928 and Scottish Party in 1930 . They joined together to form the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) in 1934 with the goal of creating an independent Scotland , but it enjoyed little electoral success in the Westminster system .
The interwar years were marked by economic stagnation in rural and urban areas , and high unemployment . Thoughtful Scots pondered their declension , as the main social indicators such as poor health , bad housing , and long @-@ term mass unemployment , pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best , or even a downward spiral . The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem , and no one offered workable solutions . The despair reflected what Finlay ( 1994 ) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War .
The shipbuilding industry had expanded by a third during the war and had expected continued prosperity , but instead it shrank drastically . A serious depression hit the economy by 1922 and it did not fully recover until 1939 . The most skilled craftsmen were especially hard hit , because there were few alternative uses for their specialised skills . The yards went into a long period of decline , interrupted only by the Second World War 's temporary expansion . The war had seen the emergence of a radical movement led by militant trades unionists . John MacLean became a key political figure in what became known as Red Clydeside , and in January 1919 , the British Government , fearful of a revolutionary uprising , deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow . Formerly a Liberal stronghold , the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922 , with a base in the Irish Catholic working class districts . Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing and rent issues . However , the " Reds " operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament ; in the face of heavy unemployment the workers ' mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s .
Emigration of young people continued apace with 400 @,@ 000 Scots , ten per cent of the population , estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931 . The economic stagnation was only one factor ; other push factors included a zest for travel and adventure , and the pull factors of better job opportunities abroad , personal networks to link into , and the basic cultural similarity of the United States , Canada , and Australia . Government subsidies for travel and relocation facilitated the decision to emigrate . Personal networks of family and friends who had gone ahead and wrote back , or sent money , prompted emigrants to follow .
= = = Scottish renaissance = = =
In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature and art , influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism , known as the Scottish Renaissance . The leading figure in the movement was Hugh MacDiarmid ( the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve ) . MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including " A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle " ( 1936 ) , developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms . Other writers that emerged in this period , and are often treated as part of the movement , include the poets Edwin Muir and William Soutar , the novelists Neil Gunn , George Blake , Nan Shepherd , A J Cronin , Naomi Mitchison , Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon , and the playwright James Bridie . All were born within a fifteen @-@ year period ( 1887 and 1901 ) and , although they cannot be described as members of a single school they all pursued an exploration of identity , rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues .
In art , the first significant group to emerge in the 20th century were the Scottish Colourists in the 1920s : John Duncan Fergusson ( 1874 – 1961 ) , Francis Cadell ( 1883 – 1937 ) , Samuel Peploe ( 1871 – 1935 ) and Leslie Hunter ( 1877 – 1931 ) . Influenced by the Fauvists , they have been described as the first Scottish modern artists and were the major mechanism by which post @-@ impressionism reached Scotland . In the inter @-@ war period , elements of modernism and the Scottish Renaissance , were incorporated into art by figures including Stanley Cursiter ( 1887 – 1976 ) , who was influenced by Futurism , and William Johnstone ( 1897 – 1981 ) , whose work marked a move towards abstraction . Johnstone also played a part in developing the concept of a Scottish Renaissance with poet Hugh MacDiarmid , which attempted to introduce elements of modernism into Scottish cultural life and bring it into line with contemporary art elsewhere . James McIntosh Patrick ( 1907 – 98 ) and Edward Baird ( 1904 – ) were influenced by elements of surrealism .
= = = Second World War 1939 – 45 = = =
The Second World War brought renewed prosperity , despite extensive bombing of cities by the Luftwaffe . It saw the invention of radar by Robert Watson @-@ Watt , which was invaluable in the Battle of Britain , as was the leadership at RAF Fighter Command of Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding .
As in World War I , Scapa Flow in Orkney served as an important Royal Navy base . Attacks on Scapa Flow and Rosyth gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in the Firth of Forth and East Lothian . The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in Glasgow and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort , and suffered attacks from the Luftwaffe , enduring great destruction and loss of life . As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating north @-@ west Britain , Scotland played a key part in the battle of the North Atlantic . Shetland 's relative proximity to occupied Norway resulted in the Shetland Bus by which fishing boats helped Norwegians fled the Nazis , and expeditions across the North Sea to assist resistance . Perhaps Scotland 's most unusual wartime episode occurred in 1941 when Rudolf Hess flew to Renfrewshire , possibly intending to broker a peace deal through the Duke of Hamilton .
Scottish industry came out of the depression slump by a dramatic expansion of its industrial activity , absorbing unemployed men and many women as well . The shipyards were the centre of more activity , but many smaller industries produced the machinery needed by the British bombers , tanks and warships . Agriculture prospered , as did all sectors except for coal mining , which was operating mines near exhaustion . Real wages , adjusted for inflation , rose 25 per cent , and unemployment temporarily vanished . Increased income , and the more equal distribution of food , obtained through a tight rationing system , dramatically improved the health and nutrition ; the average height of 13 @-@ year @-@ olds in Glasgow increased by 2 inches .
Prime Minister Winston Churchill appointed Labour politician Tom Johnston as Secretary of State for Scotland in February 1941 ; he controlled Scottish affairs until the war ended . As Devine ( 1999 ) concludes , " Johnson was a giant figure in Scottish politics and is revered to this day as the greatest Scottish Secretary of the century ... in essence , Johnson was promised the powers of a benign dictator " . Johnston launched numerous initiatives to promote Scotland . Opposed to the excessive concentration of industry in the English Midlands , he attracted 700 businesses and 90 @,@ 000 new jobs through his new Scottish Council of Industry . He set up 32 committees to deal with any number of social and economic problems , ranging from juvenile delinquency to sheep farming . He regulated rents , and set up a prototype national health service , using new hospitals set up in the expectation of large numbers of casualties from German bombing . His most successful venture was setting up a system of hydro electricity using water power in the Highlands . A long @-@ standing supporter of the Home Rule movement , Johnston persuaded Churchill of the need to counter the nationalist threat north of the border and created a Scottish Council of State and a Council of Industry as institutions to devolve some power away from Whitehall .
= = Postwar 1946 – present = =
= = = Postwar politics = = =
In this period the Labour Party usually won most Scottish parliamentary seats , losing this dominance briefly to the Unionists in the 1950s . Support in Scotland was critical to Labour 's overall electoral fortunes as without Scottish MPs it would have gained only two UK electoral victories in the 20th century ( 1944 and 1966 ) . The number of Scottish seats represented by Unionists ( known as Conservatives from 1965 onwards ) went into steady decline from 1959 onwards , until it fell to zero in 1997 . The Scottish National Party gained its first seat at Westminster in 1945 and became a party of national prominence during the 1970s , achieving 11 MPs in 1974 . However , a referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful as it did not achieve the support of 40 per cent of the electorate ( despite a small majority of those who voted supporting the proposal ) and the SNP went into electoral decline during the 1980s . The introduction in 1989 by the Thatcher @-@ led Conservative government of the Community Charge ( widely known as the Poll Tax ) , one year before the rest of the United Kingdom , contributed to a growing movement for a return to direct Scottish control over domestic affairs . On 11 September 1997 , the 700th anniversary of Battle of Stirling Bridge , the Blair @-@ led Labour government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution . A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in 1999 . The new Scottish Parliament Building , adjacent to Holyrood House in Edinburgh , opened in 2004 . Although not reaching its 1970s peak in Westminster elections , the SNP had more success in the Scottish Parliamentary elections with their system of mixed member proportional representation . It became the official opposition in 1999 , a minority government in 2007 , a majority government from 2011 and a second minority government in 2016 .
= = = Economics = = =
After World War II , Scotland 's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition , inefficient industry , and industrial disputes . This only began to change in the 1970s , partly due to the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service @-@ based economy . The discovery of the giant Forties oilfield in October 1970 signalled that Scotland was about to become a major oil producing nation , a view confirmed when Shell Expro discovered the giant Brent oilfield in the northern North Sea east of Shetland in 1971 . Oil production started from the Argyll field ( now Ardmore ) in June 1975 , followed by Forties in November of that year . Deindustrialisation took place rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s , as most of the traditional industries drastically shrank or were completely closed down . A new service @-@ oriented economy emerged to replace traditional heavy industries . This included a resurgent financial services industry and the electronics manufacturing of Silicon Glen .
= = = Twentieth @-@ century religion = = =
In the 20th century existing Christian denominations were joined by other organisations , including the Brethren and Pentecostal churches . Although some denominations thrived , after World War II there was a steady overall decline in church attendance and resulting church closures for most denominations . In the 2011 census , 53 @.@ 8 % of the Scottish population identified as Christian ( declining from 65 @.@ 1 % in 2001 ) . The Church of Scotland is the largest religious grouping in Scotland , with 32 @.@ 4 % of the population . The Roman Catholic Church accounted for 15 @.@ 9 % of the population and is especially important in West Central Scotland and the Highlands . In recent years other religions have established a presence in Scotland , mainly through immigration and higher birth rates among ethnic minorities , with a small number of converts . Those with the most adherents in the 2011 census are Islam ( 1 @.@ 4 % , mainly among immigrants from South Asia ) , Hinduism ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) and Sikhism ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) . Other minority faiths include the Bahá 'í Faith and small Neopagan groups . There are also various organisations which actively promote humanism and secularism , included within the 43 @.@ 6 % who either indicated no religion or did not state a religion in the 2011 census .
= = = Twentieth @-@ century education = = =
The Scottish education system underwent radical change and expansion in the 20th century . In 1918 Roman Catholic schools were brought into the system , but retained their distinct religious character , access to schools by priests and the requirement that school staff be acceptable to the Church . The school leaving age was raised to 14 in 1901 , and although plans to raise it to 15 in the 1940s were never ratified , increasing numbers stayed on beyond elementary education and it was eventually raised to 16 in 1973 . As a result , secondary education was the major area of growth in the inter @-@ war period , particularly for girls , who stayed on in full @-@ time education in increasing numbers throughout the century . New qualifications were developed to cope with changing aspirations and economics , with the Leaving Certificate being replaced by the Scottish Certificate of Education Ordinary Grade ( ' O @-@ Grade ' ) and Higher Grade ( ' Higher ' ) qualifications in 1962 , which became the basic entry qualification for university study . The centre of the education system also became more focused on Scotland , with the ministry of education partly moving north in 1918 and then finally having its headquarters relocated to Edinburgh in 1939 . After devolution , in 1999 the new Scottish Executive set up an Education Department and an Enterprise , Transport and Lifelong Learning Department , which together took over its functions . One of the major diversions from practice in England , possible because of devolution , was the abolition of student tuition fees in 1999 , instead retaining a system of means @-@ tested student grants .
= = = New literature = = =
Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots , including Robert Garioch and Sydney Goodsir Smith . Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry , among them Norman MacCaig , George Bruce and Maurice Lindsay . George Mackay Brown from Orkney , and Iain Crichton Smith from Lewis , wrote both poetry and prose fiction shaped by their distinctive island backgrounds . The Glaswegian poet Edwin Morgan became known for translations of works from a wide range of European languages . He was also the first Scots Makar ( the official national poet ) , appointed by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004 . Many major Scottish post @-@ war novelists , such as Muriel Spark , James Kennaway , Alexander Trocchi , Jessie Kesson and Robin Jenkins spent much or most of their lives outside Scotland , but often dealt with Scottish themes , as in Spark 's Edinburgh @-@ set The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie ( 1961 ) and Kennaway 's script for the film Tunes of Glory ( 1956 ) . Successful mass @-@ market works included the action novels of Alistair MacLean , and the historical fiction of Dorothy Dunnett . A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Shena Mackay , Alan Spence , Allan Massie and the work of William McIlvanney .
From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival , particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic , poet and teacher Philip Hobsbaum . Also important in the movement was Peter Kravitz , editor of Polygon Books . Members of the group that would come to prominence as writers included James Kelman , Alasdair Gray , Liz Lochhead , Tom Leonard and Aonghas MacNeacail . In the 1990s major , prize @-@ winning , Scottish novels that emerged from this movement included Irvine Welsh 's Trainspotting ( 1993 ) , Warner 's Morvern Callar ( 1995 ) , Gray 's Poor Things ( 1992 ) and Kelman 's How Late It Was , How Late ( 1994 ) . These works were linked by a sometimes overtly political reaction to Thatcherism that explored marginal areas of experience and used vivid vernacular language ( including expletives and Scots dialect ) . Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Val McDermid , Frederic Lindsay , Christopher Brookmyre , Quintin Jardine , Denise Mina and particularly the success of Edinburgh 's Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels . This period also saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage , including Don Paterson , Robert Crawford , Kathleen Jamie and Carol Ann Duffy . Glasgow @-@ born Carol Ann Duffy was named as Poet Laureate in May 2009 , the first woman , the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post .
= = = Modern art = = =
Important post @-@ war artists included Anne Redpath ( 1895 – 1965 ) , most famous for her two dimensional depictions of everyday objects , Alan Davie ( 1920 – ) , influenced by jazz and Zen Buddhism , who moved further into abstract expressionism and sculptor and artist Eduardo Paolozzi ( 1924 – 2005 ) , who was a pioneer of pop art and in a varied career produced many works that examined juxtapositions between fantasy and the modern world . John Bellany ( 1942 – ) , mainly focusing on the coastal communities of his birth and Alexander Moffat ( 1943 – ) , who concentrated on portraiture , both grouped under the description of " Scottish realism " , were among the leading Scottish intellectuals from the 1960s . The artists associated with Moffat and the Glasgow School of Art are sometimes known as the " new Glasgow Boys " , or " Glasgow pups " and include Steven Campbell ( 1953 – 2007 ) , Peter Howson ( 1958 – ) , Ken Currie ( 1960 – ) and Adrian Wisniewski ( 1958 – ) . Their figurative work has a comic book like quality and puts an emphasis on social commentary . Since the 1990s , the most commercially successful artist has been Jack Vettriano , whose work usually consists of figure composition , with his most famous painting The Singing Butler ( 1992 ) , often cited as the best selling print in Britain . However , he has received little acclaim from critics . Contemporary artists emerging from the Glasgow include Douglas Gordon ( 1966 – ) , working in the medium of installation art , Susan Philipsz who works in sound installations , Richard Wright , noted for his intricate wall paintings and Lucy McKenzie ( 1977 – ) , whose painting is often sexually explicit .
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= Utah State Route 161 =
State Route 161 ( SR @-@ 161 ) is a 3 @.@ 084 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 963 km ) long state highway , designated as a rural major connector , completely within Millard County in central Utah . The highway connects Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) to I @-@ 15 while providing service to historic Cove Fort . The route was once part of U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) , but was renumbered to SR @-@ 161 in the 1970s , in parallel with the construction of I @-@ 70 .
= = Route description = =
Located entirely in southeastern Millard County , SR @-@ 161 starts at a diamond interchange with the westernmost exit on I @-@ 70 before it terminates at I @-@ 15 . The road continues northward until it reaches the historic Cove Fort and the associated visitors center . On the eastern side of the highway is a Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) maintenance center . SR @-@ 161 starts to make a gentle turn to the northeast , passing a filling station , which also serves as a rest area as part of a public – private partnership between UDOT and the owners of the station . The highway intersects I @-@ 15 and comes to an end at a cattle guard on Black Rock Road northwest of the interchange with I @-@ 15 .
In 2007 , a daily average of 455 cars traveled along SR @-@ 161 , representing only a slight growth from previous years ; in 2006 , the average was 450 and in 2005 , 415 ) . Thirty five percent of this traffic was composed of trucks . The average traffic measurement is collected at a point on SR @-@ 161 between Cove Fort and the interchange with I @-@ 15 .
= = History = =
The SR @-@ 161 designation has been used two other times for other state routes . The first route , which was formed in 1933 , connected US @-@ 50 / US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 ( now US @-@ 89 ) to SR @-@ 68 in Bluffdale until the route was decommissioned in 1953 . From May 8 , 1961 to February 14 , 1964 , the route number was used for a road from US @-@ 91 to I @-@ 15 in the city of Beaver .
The parallel T @-@ beam bridges that carry I @-@ 15 over SR @-@ 161 at its northern terminus were constructed in 1966 along with the construction of I @-@ 15 though the area . The bridges carrying I @-@ 70 over SR @-@ 161 were constructed in 1973 .
The current route , codified into Utah law in 1965 and designated on signage following the decommissioning of US @-@ 91 in the 1970s , was partially a former alignment of US @-@ 91 . Once I @-@ 70 was completed the 1 @.@ 07 mi ( 1 @.@ 72 km ) long segment of US @-@ 91 as well as the roadway to the north was designated SR @-@ 161 by the Utah State Department of Highways . No significant changes have been made to the roadway except for its legal definition . SR @-@ 161 serves the important function of providing access to the contracted rest area as well as the historic Cove Fort . As of 2009 no new projects are scheduled for SR @-@ 161 , either through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act or the UDOT Statewide Transportation Improvement Program .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Millard County .
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= Vs . ( Pearl Jam album ) =
Vs. is the second studio album by the American rock band Pearl Jam , released on October 19 , 1993 through Epic Records . After a relentless touring schedule in support of their 1991 debut album Ten , Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut . The resulting album , Vs . , featured a rawer and more aggressive sound compared with the band 's previous release . It was the band 's first collaboration with producer Brendan O 'Brien .
Pearl Jam decided to scale back its commercial efforts for Vs . , including declining to produce music videos for any of the album ’ s singles . Upon its release , Vs. set the record for most copies of an album sold in its first week , a record it held for five years . Vs. occupied the number one spot on the Billboard 200 chart for five weeks , the longest duration for a Pearl Jam album . The album has been certified seven times platinum by the RIAA in the United States .
= = Recording = =
For its second album , Pearl Jam felt the pressures of trying to match the success of its debut album , Ten . In a 2002 interview , guitarist Mike McCready said , " The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy . " Vs. was the first Pearl Jam album to have production duties handled by producer Brendan O 'Brien . It was also the band 's first album with drummer Dave Abbruzzese , who had joined the band in August 1991 and toured for the album Ten . Rehearsals for Vs. began in February 1993 at Potatohead Studio in Seattle , Washington . The band then moved to The Site in Nicasio , California in March 1993 to begin recording . Abbruzzese called the tranquil recording site " paradise " while lead vocalist Eddie Vedder said , " I fucking hate it here ... I 've had a hard time ... How do you make a rock record here ? "
The band took the approach of recording one song at a time , and agreed with O 'Brien to mix the songs as each one was finished . O 'Brien had the band members set up much as they do live , and most of the songs were developed out of jam sessions . Guitarist Stone Gossard said , " I think we allowed things to develop in a more natural , band @-@ oriented sort of way , rather than me bringing in a bunch of stuff that was already arranged . " Gossard added that most of the songs were arranged once Vedder joined in and started singing , elaborating , " You could tell when the music wanted to change just by the way he was singing . " In a 2009 interview , Gossard stated , " [ Vs . ] was probably where it felt better recording wise . I saw how it could change and evolve which gave me a lot of inspiration to go we can do ballads , we can do fast stuff , we can do slow stuff , we can do punk stuff . That was where I realized there were gonna be a lot of places to go with Ed . "
The first week of recording produced " Go " , " Blood " , " Rats " , and " Leash " before the band hit a lull . In order to keep up his intensity , Vedder traveled into San Francisco and began sleeping in his truck , as well as the sauna at the recording studio . Bassist Jeff Ament said , " Recording Vs . , there was a lot more pressure on Ed . The whole follow @-@ up . I thought we were playing so well as a band that it would take care of itself ... He was having a hard time finishing up the songs ; the pressure , and not being comfortable being in such a nice place . " Ament added that " toward the end it got fairly intense " and that the band " tried to make it as uncomfortable for [ Vedder ] as we could . " Eventually the band was able to get " back on track " according to Ament as Vedder was allowed " to get in the space of his songs . " The album was finished in May 1993 . Vedder later said , " The second record , that was the one I enjoyed making the least ... I just didn 't feel comfortable in the place we were at because it was very comfortable . I didn 't like that at all . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album featured a much looser and rawer sound compared to the band 's debut album , Ten . Ament said , " When we made Vs . , our second record , I remember thinking , ' Man , I wish our first record sounded like this . ' I thought it was more direct , more powerful . " Besides the heavier songs , the album features two acoustic ballads in " Daughter " and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " . A few of the songs incorporate elements of funk , including " Animal " , " Blood " , and " Rats " . McCready stated that it wasn 't that the band " sat down and decided to be funky , " but rather it came from the band " exploring different directions and combining our influences . " Paul Evans of Rolling Stone said " ' Animal ' , ' Daughter ' and ' Blood ' ... are songs of a kind of ritual passion , tapping into something truly wild . " In a 2002 interview , Gossard said , " We got our heavyosity out on that record . "
The songs on the album tackle personal as well as social and political concerns . Vedder said that " you write what comes to you ... You try to reflect the mood of the songs . " Topics on the album include child abuse ( " Daughter " ) , gun culture ( " Glorified G " ) , police racism ( " W.M.A. " ) , and the media ( " Blood " ) . " Daughter " , " Dissident " , and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " are three storytelling songs . " Daughter " tells the story of a child who is abused by her parents because they do not understand her learning disability ; " Dissident " tells the story of a woman who takes in a political fugitive ; and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " tells the story of an old lady who has been stuck in a small town her whole life .
" Glorified G " , a song mocking gun enthusiasts , was inspired by an incident that involved Abbruzzese telling the band he had just bought two guns which sparked a conversation about guns within the band . " W.M.A. " was inspired by an incident that happened outside Pearl Jam 's rehearsal studio in which Vedder got into an altercation with a group of police officers who hassled a black friend of his but ignored him . Vedder said that " Rearviewmirror " is about being " in a car , leaving ... a bad situation . " Vedder stated that " Rats " is about the idea that " rats are probably a hell of a lot more admirable " than humans . " Leash " was written about the same girl that the Ten song " Why Go " is about . Regarding " Indifference " , Vedder said it is about " [ trying to ] do something to make some other peoples ' lives better than they are , even if it means going through hell . Three Faces of Me . "
= = Release and reception = =
Vs. debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 album chart and stayed there for five weeks . Vs. sold 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first five days of release , which set a record for the most copies of an album sold in its first week of release and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined . Vs. held this record for five years before it was broken by Garth Brooks ' 1998 album , Double Live . While Double Live officially beat Vs. in first week sales , Vs. still holds an unbreakable record in that Soundscan only counted the first five days of an album 's release in its first week sales until 1998 . Vs. has been certified seven times platinum by the RIAA , and , as of July 2013 , has sold 6 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan .
Rolling Stone staff writer Paul Evans gave Vs. a favorable review , saying , " Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten ; and Vs. tops even that debut . " He added , " Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend , Vedder makes a forte of his psychological @-@ mythic explorations ... As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops , he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that " Pearl Jam uses its new album ... to broaden its music , " and added that " most of the album ... projects individual misery as public catharsis . " AllMusic staff writer Steve Huey gave the album four out of five stars , saying " Vs. may not reach the majestic heights of Ten , but at least half the record stands with Pearl Jam 's best work . "
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B – . He said , " Vs. is not a carbon copy of Ten ; for that alone , [ Pearl Jam ] get points . " However , he countered by saying that " Vs. confirms once and for all that there 's nothing underground or alternative about [ Pearl Jam ] . " Critic Robert Christgau gave the album a " dud " rating .
Pearl Jam made a conscious decision beginning with the release of Vs. to scale back its commercial efforts . " We pulled back after the second record pretty hard , " Ament stated . " A lot of it had to do with being in the eye of the storm and not being able to think straight . " The band declined to produce music videos after the very successful " Jeremy " , and opted to give fewer interviews as well as make fewer television appearances . " Ten years from now , " Ament said , " I don 't want people to remember our songs as videos . "
Vs. included the hit singles " Go " , " Daughter " , " Animal " , and " Dissident " . All four singles placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . " Daughter " was the most successful song from Vs. on the rock charts , reaching the number one spot on both the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts , spending a total of eight weeks at number one on the former . Album tracks " Glorified G " and " Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town " also charted . At the 1995 Grammy Awards , " Daughter " received a nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and " Go " received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance . Vs. received a nomination for Best Rock Album .
In 2011 , Pearl Jam released a remastered Vs . , along with Vitalogy , in three formats : an Expanded Version , a three @-@ CD Deluxe Edition and a Limited Edition Collector 's Boxed Set . The Expanded Version features three bonus tracks recorded by Brendan O 'Brien at The Site studio during the Vs. sessions : a previously unreleased acoustic version of " Hold On " , " Cready Stomp " - a previously unreleased studio outtake , and the band 's cover of Victoria Williams ' " Crazy Mary " featuring Williams on backing vocals and guitar , which had previously been issued on the 1993 tribute album , Sweet Relief : A Benefit for Victoria Williams . The three @-@ CD Deluxe Edition features both the Legacy Versions of Vs. and Vitalogy with their bonus tracks and a copy of Live at the Orpheum Theater , Boston , April 12 , 1994 .
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art , photographed by Ament , features a black @-@ and @-@ white picture of a sheep from a farm in Hamilton , Montana . According to Ament , the cover was a representation of how the band felt at the time , with Ament stating " we were slaves . " The album booklet contains additional drawings and writings by Vedder , including one page apparently doodled at a business meeting that says " I will never trust anybody again . " The lyric page for " W.M.A. " features a portion of a news story concerning Malice Green , allegedly a victim of police brutality .
Originally , the album was titled Five Against One ( The song " Animal " features the lyric " One , two , three , four , five against one ... " ) . Concerning the original album title , Gossard said , " For me , that title represented a lot of struggles that you go through trying to make a record ... Your own independence — your own soul — versus everybody else 's . " The album title was changed at the last minute , first to a self @-@ titled album and then to Vs . , a nod to the general theme of conflict present in most of the songs on the album . Regarding the title Vs . , Vedder said , " They were writing all these articles ... Our band against somebody else 's band . What the hell are they talking about ? You know , don 't try to separate the powers that be . We 're all in this together . "
The decision to change the album 's name at the last minute resulted in a few different versions of the album . There are also different versions of the album that are unrelated to the title . Regarding the different versions of the album , some of the first pressings of the cassette still contained Five Against One printed on the cassette itself , the first couple of pressings of the cassette do not contain the title printed on the artwork at all , and the lyrics to " Indifference " are included in the cassette version . The first couple of pressings of the CD do not contain the title printed on the artwork at all , and the initial versions of the CD came in an Ecopak , which was a variation on the traditional CD sized Digipak . While not rare , they went out of print quickly and are now hard to find . The song titles are not printed on the back cover of this version , but the artwork remains the same . The vinyl version has never had the title printed on it , and the cover art on the vinyl copies is different from the CD and cassette . For all versions , the picture of the " elderly woman " changed at some point after the first pressings . Allegedly , the original woman never gave permission for her picture to be used , so Pearl Jam changed the picture to another woman . The difference is easy to spot , as " the new and improved woman behind the counter " is printed below the picture .
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in the United States in the fall of 1993 and the spring of 1994 . The fall 1993 tour focused on the Western United States , while the spring 1994 tour focused on the Eastern United States . Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam 's tour to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin , in that the band " ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans . " During this tour the band set a cap on ticket prices in the attempt to thwart scalpers .
Several songs from the band 's third album , Vitalogy , were premiered during this tour . The band 's April 3 , 1994 concert in Atlanta , Georgia at the Fox Theatre was broadcast live on the radio in the United States . A few days later , the body of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was found in his home in Seattle due to an apparent suicide , which deeply affected Vedder . At the band 's April 8 , 1994 concert in Fairfax , Virginia at the Patriot Center , Vedder proclaimed , " I don 't think any of us would be in this room tonight if it weren 't for Kurt Cobain . " Vedder later said that " the day that we found out about Kurt ... I was just spinning . I was lost and didn 't know if we should play , or if we should just go home , or if we should attend the services . I still have some regrets about that , even though in the end it was probably better that we played the last two weeks of the tour . I decided I would play those next two weeks and then I 'd never have to play again . "
Pearl Jam was outraged when it discovered after a pair of shows in Chicago , Illinois in March 1994 that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets . Following the tour , the band brought a lawsuit against Ticketmaster that accused them of being a monopoly whose anticompetitive practices allowed markup prices of more than 30 % . The band 's intention was to get ticket prices lowered for its fans . Pearl Jam 's plans for a 1994 summer tour were cancelled as a result of a Ticketmaster boycott .
On April 16 , 2016 at the Bon Secours Wellness Arena in Greenville , South Carolina , during their 2016 tour , Pearl Jam played the entire album in order as part of their set .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder . All music is credited to Pearl Jam , actual music composers listed below .
= = = Reissue bonus material = = =
= = = = Vs . Tour bonus live CD = = = =
Performed April 12 , 1994 at the Orpheum Theater , Boston , MA . The penultimate show of the Vs. tour , this concert featured some songs from the upcoming follow @-@ up album Vitalogy . The CD omits eight songs from the original performance : " State of Love and Trust " , " Hard to Imagine " , " Go " , " Animal " , " Alone " , " Better Man " , " Yellow Ledbetter " , " I 've Got a Feeling " ( The Beatles cover ) .
" Oceans "
" Even Flow "
" Sonic Reducer " ( Dead Boys cover ; guest performance : Mark Arm )
" Immortality "
" Glorified G "
" Daughter "
" Not for You "
" Rats "
" Blood "
" Release "
" Tremor Christ "
" Once "
" Fuckin ' Up " ( Neil Young cover )
" Dirty Frank "
" Rearviewmirror "
" Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town "
= = Outtakes = =
Two songs were rejected from the album that later appeared on the band 's follow @-@ up Vitalogy , " Whipping " and " Better Man " . Both songs made their live debuts at the band 's May 13 , 1993 concert in San Francisco at Slim 's Café where the band premiered most of the newly recorded songs for Vs . " Better Man " was said to have been rejected because Vedder was not comfortable with the song 's accessibility . Another song that was recorded during the album 's sessions is " Hard to Imagine " . " Hard to Imagine " later made its way on to the soundtrack for the 1998 film , Chicago Cab ; however , this version was recorded during the sessions for Vitalogy . The version recorded for Vs. appears on the 2003 rarities compilation , Lost Dogs . According to Gossard , " Hard to Imagine " was cut from Vs. because the band already had enough mellow songs for the album . Pearl Jam 's cover of the Victoria Williams song " Crazy Mary " ( to which Williams herself contributed background vocals and guitar ) was also recorded during these sessions . " Crazy Mary " appeared on the 1993 tribute album , Sweet Relief : A Benefit for Victoria Williams , and later on the 2011 Vs. reissue , as a bonus track . The Pearl Jam / Cypress Hill collaboration " Real Thing " was also recorded around this time . " Real Thing " appeared on the 1993 Judgment Night soundtrack .
= = Personnel = =
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= Marge Simpson =
Marjorie Jacqueline " Marge " Simpson ( née Bouvier ) is a fictional character in the American animated sitcom The Simpsons and part of the eponymous family . She is voiced by Julie Kavner and first appeared on television in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Marge was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of shorts based on Life in Hell but instead decided to create a new set of characters . He named the character after his mother Margaret Groening . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three seasons , the Simpson family received their own series on Fox , which debuted December 17 , 1989 .
Marge is the matriarch of the Simpson family . With her husband Homer , she has three children : Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . Marge is the moralistic force in her family and often provides a grounding voice in the midst of her family 's antics by trying to maintain order in the Simpson household . She is often portrayed as a stereotypical television mother and is often included on lists of top " TV moms " . She has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons — including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials , and comic books — and inspired an entire line of merchandise .
Marge 's distinctive blue beehive hairstyle was inspired by a combination of the Bride 's in Bride of Frankenstein and the style that Margaret Groening wore in the 1960s . Julie Kavner , who was a member of the original cast of The Tracey Ullman Show , was asked to voice Marge so that more voice actors would not be needed . Kavner has won several awards for voicing Marge , including a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 . She was also nominated for an Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature for her performance in The Simpsons Movie . In 2000 , Marge , along with the rest of her family , was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not physically age , and as such the show is generally assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific time periods , although this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Marge Simpson is the wife of Homer and mother of Bart , Lisa and Maggie Simpson . She was raised by her parents , Jacqueline and Clancy Bouvier . She has a pair of sisters , the joyless Patty and Selma , both of whom vocally disapprove of Homer . In " The Way We Was " ( season two , 1991 ) , it is revealed via flashback that Marge attended Springfield High School , and in her final year met Homer Simpson . She was at first wary of Homer , but agreed to go to the prom with him , although she ended up going with Artie Ziff . However , she regretted going with Artie and ended up with Homer . After the two had been dating for several years , Marge discovered she was pregnant with Bart , and she and Homer were married in a small wedding chapel across the state line . Bart was born soon after , and the couple bought their first house . The episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season 19 , 2008 ) contradicted much of the established back @-@ story ; for example , it was revealed that Marge and Homer were childless in the early 1990s although past episodes had suggested Bart and Lisa were born in the 1980s .
As with many Simpsons characters , Marge 's age and birthday changes to serve the story . In season one ( 1990 ) episodes " Life on the Fast Lane " and " Some Enchanted Evening " , Marge was said to be 34 . In " Homer 's Paternity Coot " ( season 17 , 2006 ) , Marge states that Emerald would have been her birthstone if she had been born three months later , placing her birthday sometime in February . In " Regarding Margie " ( season 17 , 2006 ) , Homer mentioned that Marge was his age , meaning she could have been anywhere between 36 and 40 . In the season eighteen episode " Marge Gamer " she states that she and actor Randy Quaid share the same birthdate ( October 1 ) .
Marge has been nonworking for most of the series , choosing to be a homemaker and take care of her family . However , she has held several one @-@ episode jobs in the course of the series . These include working as a nuclear technician alongside Homer at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant in " Marge Gets a Job " ( season four , 1992 ) ; selling houses in " Realty Bites " ( season nine , 1997 ) ; owning her own pretzel business in " The Twisted World of Marge Simpson " ( season eight , 1997 ) , and working at an erotic bakery in " Sex , Pies and Idiot Scrapes " ( season 20 , 2008 ) . While Marge has never expressed discontent with her role as a homemaker , she has become bored with it . In " The Springfield Connection " ( season six , 1995 ) , Marge decided that she needed more excitement in her life and became a police officer . However , by the end of the episode , she became upset with the corruption in the force and quit . Of course , her work as a house mother far outweighs any job she 's had over the course of the series and this earned her a spot on COX Cable 's TV Mom Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Matt Groening first conceived Marge and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of producer James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights , Groening decided to go in another direction and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family , naming the characters after members of his own family . Marge was named after Groening 's mother Margaret " Marge " Groening , who has said she bears little similarity to the character , stating , " It 's really weird to have people think you 're a cartoon . " Marge 's beehive hairstyle was inspired by the titular Bride in Bride of Frankenstein and the style that Margaret Groening wore during the 1960s , although her hair was never blue .
Marge debuted with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 , in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Network . Marge and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
Matt Groening believes that episodes featuring Marge are among the most difficult episodes to write . Bill Oakley believes that the " junior " writers are usually given Marge episodes because he and writing partner Josh Weinstein were given several to write during their first season . During the third season of the show , most of the writers focused on Bart and Homer , so David M. Stern decided to write a Marge episode , which became " Homer Alone " ( season three , 1992 ) . He felt that they could achieve a " deeper vein " of comedy in an episode where Marge has a nervous breakdown , and James L. Brooks quickly approved .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . To draw Marge , the animators generally start off with a sphere , similar to the way Lisa and Maggie are drawn . The eyes are then drawn , with one roughly in the middle of the sphere , and the other to the front side of the head . Then , the nose and lip are drawn . Her hair is then drawn on top as a long tube coming out of the sphere . An original idea the animators had for when Marge walked through doorways was that her hair would be forced down as she walked through , then once clear of the door , it would spring back and forth . This was never used . Groening 's original plan for Marge 's hair was that it would conceal large , Life in Hell @-@ esque rabbit ears . The gag was intended to be revealed in the final episode of the series , but was scrapped early on due to inconsistencies , and also to the fact that rabbit ears would be too fictitious even for The Simpsons .
= = = Voice = = =
Marge 's voice is performed by Julie Kavner , who also does the voices of Marge 's mother Jacqueline and her sisters Patty and Selma . Kavner had been part of the regular cast of The Tracey Ullman Show . Voices were needed for the shorts , so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast member Dan Castellaneta to voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors . Part of Kavner 's contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video and she rarely performs Marge 's voice in public because she believes it " destroys the illusion . People feel these are real people . " Kavner takes recording sessions seriously and feels that voice acting is " a little more limiting than live acting . And I have nothing to do with my character 's movement . "
Marge 's raspy voice is only slightly different from Kavner 's , who has a " honeyed gravel voice " which she says is due to " a bump on [ her ] vocal cords . " While Marge is her most famous character , Kavner 's favorite characters to voice are Patty and Selma because " they 're really funny and sad at the same time . " In The Simpsons Movie , some scenes , such as Marge 's video message to Homer , were recorded over one hundred times , leaving Kavner exhausted .
Until 1998 , Kavner was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing to cast new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and she received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Kavner earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Personality = = =
Marge is generally a stereotypical sitcom mother , and she also plays the " long @-@ suffering wife " who puts up with the antics of her children and her oafish husband . While she usually takes her family 's problems with good humor , in " Homer Alone " ( season three , 1992 ) , her workload and resultant stress caused her to have a mental breakdown . After spending time at " Rancho Relaxo " , during which her family barely coped with her absence , she returned refreshed and everyone promised to help out more often . Marge often provides a grounding opinion for Homer and their marriage has often been shaky . Marge admits that she " put [ s ] up with a lot in [ their ] marriage , " and has left Homer or thrown him out of the house on several occasions . One of the first such episodes to depict this is " Secrets of a Successful Marriage " ( season five , 1994 ) , where Homer starts teaching an adult education class on how to build a successful marriage . He is at first unsuccessful , but gains the interest of the class when he starts giving away family secrets , many of which concern Marge . Upon finding this out , Marge is incensed and throws him out of the house . The next day , Homer is dirty and disheveled , and begs Marge to take him back , saying the one thing he can offer her that nobody else can is " complete and utter dependence . " At first , Marge does not see that as a benefit , but eventually admits that he " really [ does ] make a gal feel needed . " Episodes that depict marital problems have become more frequent in recent seasons of the show . Through it all , Marge has remained faithful to Homer , despite temptations to the contrary such as the one in " Life on the Fast Lane " ( season one , 1990 ) , where she resists the charming Frenchman Jacques and instead chooses to remain with Homer .
Marge is a caring , understanding , and nurturing parent to Bart , but she refers to him as " a handful " and is often embarrassed by his antics . In " Marge Be Not Proud " ( season seven , 1995 ) , she felt she was mothering Bart too much and started acting more distant towards him after he was caught shoplifting . In the beginning of the episode , Bart protested her " over @-@ mothering " , but as she started acting more distant towards him , he felt guilty about it and made up with her . Marge has expressed understanding for her " special little guy " and has defended him on many occasions . She once said " I know Bart can be a handful , but I also know what he 's like inside . He 's got a spark . It 's not a bad thing ... Of course , it makes him do bad things . " Marge has a good relationship with Lisa and the two are shown to get along quite well . Marge over @-@ mothers Maggie , which causes her to become too clingy and dependent on Marge . In " Midnight Towboy " ( season 19 , 2007 ) , Marge hires an expert to help make Maggie more independent . However , Maggie becomes so independent that she rarely needs Marge . Marge begins to miss Maggie , but at the end of the episode , Maggie starts to need her again .
Marge maintains a good relationship with her mother Jacqueline and her sisters Patty and Selma , though they disapprove of Homer and are vocal about it . Marge has tolerated their criticism , but has occasionally lost patience with them , once referring to them as " ghouls . " Marge 's late father Clancy is rarely referred to in the series and has had speaking parts in only two episodes . It was revealed in " Fear of Flying " ( season six , 1994 ) that Clancy told Marge that he was a pilot , but in reality , he was a flight attendant . Marge discovered this one day and developed aerophobia . In " Jazzy and the Pussycats " ( season 18 , 2006 ) , Homer casually mentions that they once attended his funeral .
Marge believes she has higher morals than most other characters , once leading a family values crusade against the violent The Itchy & Scratchy Show and being a prominent member of the " Citizens ' Committee on Moral Hygiene . " She often provides a voice of reason for the town itself , but many of the townspeople are frustrated or contemptuous of her frequent failure to recognize or react correctly to breaches of social norms . Marge is the only member of the family who encourages , and occasionally forces , church attendance . In " Homer the Heretic " ( season four , 1992 ) , Homer starts skipping church and Marge tells him " don 't make me choose between my man and my God , because you just can 't win . " . Yet , in some episodes , Marge 's stereotypical attitude seems to affect her relationship with her daughter , Lisa , who is a feminist . In " Lisa the Skeptic " ( season nine , 1997 ) , an " angel skeleton " is discovered , much to the skepticism of Lisa . As Lisa rants about the people who believe it is an angel , Marge informs her that she also believes it is an angel . She tells Lisa , " There has to be more life than just what we see , everyone needs something to believe in . " In spite of her highly debatable moral stances , Marge struggles with vices , such as a gambling addiction . While Marge has learned to cope with her addiction , it has never completely disappeared and remains an underlying problem that is referenced occasionally on the show .
Politically , Marge generally aligns with the Democratic Party , having supported the candidacy of her state 's progressive governor Mary Bailey , and voting for Jimmy Carter in both of his presidential elections .
= = Reception = =
At the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards , Kavner received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Marge in the season three episode " I Married Marge " . In 2004 , Kavner and Dan Castellaneta ( the voice of Homer ) won a Young Artist Award for " Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series " . For her performance in The Simpsons Movie , Kavner was nominated for " Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature " at the 2007 Annie Awards , but lost to Ian Holm from Ratatouille . Kavner 's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews and one critic said she " gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever . " Various episodes in which Marge is prominently featured have been nominated for Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " The Way We Weren 't " in 2004 and " Life on the Fast Lane " , which won the award in 1990 . In 2000 , Marge and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
Marge has been ranked highly in lists of the top television mothers of all time . She was ranked first on Entertainment Weekly 's list in 1994 ; first on Fox News ' list in 2005 ; eighth on CityNews ' list in 2008 ; and was included in Time 's list of the " 10 Best Moms Ever " . In a 2004 poll in the United Kingdom , Marge was named the " most respected mother " by respondents . Still in 2004 , Marge was ranked third in a poll conducted by the Opinion Research Company . In May 2012 , Marge was one of the 12 moms chosen by users of iVillage on their list of " Mommy Dearest : The TV Moms You Love " . AOL has named Marge the 24th " Most Memorable Female TV Character " . Her relationship with Homer was included in TV Guide 's list of " The Best TV Couples of All Time " .
Religious writer Kenneth Briggs has written that " Marge is my candidate for sainthood [ ... ] She lives in the real world , she lives with crises , with flawed people . She forgives and she makes her own mistakes . She is a forgiving , loving person [ ... ] absolutely saintly . "
= = Cultural influence = =
The October 1 , 1990 edition of People included an interview with then @-@ First Lady of the United States Barbara Bush . The article included the following passage : " She loves America 's Funniest Home Videos but remains baffled after sampling The Simpsons . " It was the dumbest thing I had ever seen , " she says , " but it 's a family thing , and I guess it 's clean . " The writers decided to respond by privately sending a polite letter on September 28 to Bush where they posed as Marge Simpson . On October 9 , Bush sent a reply : " Dear Marge , How kind of you to write . I 'm glad you spoke your mind ... I foolishly didn 't know you had one . I am looking at a picture of you ... depicted on a plastic cup ... with your blue hair filled with pink birds peeking out all over . Evidently , you and your charming family — Lisa , Homer , Bart and Maggie — are camping out . It 's a nice family scene . Clearly you are setting a good example for the rest of the country . Please forgive a loose tongue . "
In 2002 , opponents of the Seattle Monorail Project planned on showing the episode " Marge vs. the Monorail " at a protest event . Following complaints , 20th Century Fox sent a letter to the event organizers ordering that the episode not be shown due to copyright laws . In 2004 , Marge appeared on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom for the Alternative Christmas message , which is annually broadcast at the same time that Queen Elizabeth II gives her Christmas message .
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Marge and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Marge is depicted in much The Simpsons @-@ related merchandise , including T @-@ shirts , baseball caps , bumper stickers , cardboard stand @-@ ups , refrigerator magnets , key rings , buttons , dolls , posters and figurines . She has appeared in each of The Simpsons video games , including The Simpsons Game , released in 2007 . Besides the television series , Marge regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 , and are issued monthly . Marge also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
Marge appeared in a 2005 advertisement for Dove Styling , where her normal beehive hair was exchanged for a more stylish look for a series of ads featuring several popular cartoon women .
In October 2009 , it was announced that Marge would be featured on the front cover of the November issue of Playboy becoming the first cartoon character to appear on the cover of the magazine . The edition was first published on October 16 , 2009 . The cover and a three @-@ page picture spread , as well as a story inside entitled The Devil in Marge Simpson , is a celebration of the 20th anniversary of The Simpsons , but is also part of a plan to appeal to younger readers . Chief executive of Playboy Enterprises , Scott Flanders , has said that the cover and centerfold were " somewhat tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " . Darine Stern 's picture on the October 1971 cover served as the inspiration for Playboy 's November 2009 cover .
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= Pool Party ( The Office ) =
" Pool Party " is the twelfth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 164th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 19 , 2012 . It was written by Owen Ellickson and was directed by Charles McDougall . The episode guest starred Lindsey Broad and Eleanor Seigler .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) decides to sell his mansion following his divorce and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) suggests that he have an office pool party . There , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) tries to make Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) jealous by flirting with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Meanwhile , Robert gives everyone a tour of his massive home .
" Pool Party " received mostly mixed reviews from critics , with many criticizing the episode 's lack of a finite plot . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Pool Party " drew 6 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 3 rating / 7 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , marking a slight increase from the previous episode , " Trivia . " The episode ranked third in its timeslot , and was the highest rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
After Robert California ( James Spader ) is forced to sell his mansion at the behest of his ex @-@ wife following his divorce , Kevin suggests that he have an office pool party . Andy ( Ed Helms ) takes his girlfriend Jessica to the party and brings an engagement ring his Jessica @-@ approving mother gave him , hoping to propose . The ring goes missing from Andy 's pants and he is horrified that he cannot find it . Kelly and Phyllis later find the ring and decide , based on the superstition of finding a lost ring , that it must be destroyed . Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) , having been told by Meredith that Andy followed her home after the Christmas party , decides to make Andy jealous by flirting with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Dwight initially refuses , but , after realizing that Erin 's choosing him as her co @-@ conspirator is flattering to his attractiveness , agrees to help . The two flirt outrageously whenever Andy is close by , but Andy doesn 't notice . To ensure Andy 's attention , Erin and Dwight challenge Andy and Jessica to a series of chicken fights in the pool . After several defeats , Erin is so determined to win a match that she pushes Dwight to the point where he passes out in the water , ending the game . In a final attempt to make Andy jealous , Dwight tells Andy he wants to pursue a romance with Erin but wants to avoid an " Angela @-@ type situation " between them . Andy assures Dwight that he and Erin are through but , at the mention of Dwight having sex with Erin that very night , suggests that Dwight take things slowly instead , leading Dwight to pointedly tell him " You 're an idiot . " Erin later swims up to Andy with the lost ring , which Kelly had earlier set in the pool atop a tiny pyre , and he admits that he has doubts about proposing to Jessica . This makes Erin very happy .
While most of the employees are congregated in the pool area , Robert gives some of the male employees a tour of his massive home , spending most of the time mournfully describing how it was intended to be the location for wild , uninhibited parties . He offers those present on the tour a free bottle of wine from his wine cellar and the staff proceed to get drunk . Jim ( John Krasinski ) had intended to make a token appearance at Robert 's party and quickly return home to his wife and kids ; however , Robert , sensing his reluctance to be there , insists that Jim stay for the duration of the tour in order to punish him for laughing at an inopportune moment earlier that day as Robert had complained about having to sell his house . Eventually , Robert realizes that he is hosting one of the parties he had always imagined , at which point he jumps into the pool completely naked , followed by Gabe and Ryan ( B.J. Novak ) , who had both been battling all night to impress him . Jim takes this as his cue to leave , sneaking away and driving home at top speed . At the end of the night , Gabe and Ryan , both drunk and unwilling to concede defeat in their brown @-@ nosing battle , remain at the party with Robert even as the CEO passes out .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by co @-@ producer Owen Ellickson , his first writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the eighth season . It was directed by Charles McDougall , his seventh directing credit for the series . The episode also marks the sixth appearance of Lindsey Broad , who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season and she initially appeared in " Pam 's Replacement " . Due to Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy , Pam did not appear in the episode . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Erin and Dwight taking turns suggestively massaging and stretching each other , Erin talking to the camera about her convoluted relationship with Andy , and Robert shows his guests his " shame " room .
= = Cultural references = =
The songs " Big White Elephant " and " Model Homes " by the band In @-@ Flight Safety were featured during scenes at the party . The song " Can 't Complain " by Bomb the Music Industry ! appeared around 14 minutes in . Many of the references were a result of Robert California bemoaning his position in life . He mentions early on in the episode that , " The 1 % are hurting too " , a reference to the slogan of the Occupy movement . During the tour of his home theater , California explained that he had it created to watch Caligula , Last Tango in Paris , and Emmanuelle 2 , but that the last two movies he watched in there were Marley & Me and On Golden Pond .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pool Party " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 19 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 02 million viewers and received a 3 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode marked a slight increase in ratings compared to the previous episode , " Trivia . " The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 8 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 8 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The episode , however , did manage to beat the Fox drama series The Finder and The CW drama series The Secret Circle . In addition , " Pool Party " was the highest rated NBC television episode of the night . It was also the last episode of The Office to be viewed by more than 6 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Many reviews criticized the episode 's lack of a cohesive plot . Myles McNutt from The A.V. Club awarded the episode a C rating , saying , " ' Pool Party ' was so loosely structured that it relied heavily on the characters to carry the narrative , and the result was some languid storytelling which gave me way too much time to think about missed opportunities , failed experiments , and the increasing burden of a show without any momentum . " Dan Forcella from TVFanatic gave the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and wrote , " There were bits and pieces of each story that worked in ' Pool Party , ' but neither Robert 's stroll through parties never had , nor Erin 's endeavor to make Andy jealous , came together to make completely funny or interesting tales . " The Huffington Post wrote that , " Once [ at the titular pool part ] , the plot bits were so loose it might have been difficult for casual fans to follow it all . " Craig McQuinn from The Faster Times wrote , " ' Pool Party ' was one of those episodes where you can tell the writers didn 't know what else to do . ... This is filler , really , which unfortunately tends to be unavoidable when you do 22 @-@ episode seasons and you 're eight years in . " Many reviews were critical of the continued Erin @-@ Andy romance taking center @-@ stage . McNutt wrote , " I still really do not care about Andy and Erin as a relationship . The show 's approach to this storyline ... is to have Andy enjoying a fairly normal evening with his girlfriend Jessica while Erin acts like a crazy person in an effort to get his attention . " Forecella noted that , while the Erin and Dwight pairing was funny , their attempts to make Andy jealous were not successful , as Andy 's sub @-@ plots were deemed not funny and " boring . "
Not all reviews were critical . WhatCulture reviewer Joseph Kratzer awarded the episode four out of five stars and wrote , " Now that 's what I 'm talking about – few things are better in art than having your expectations overturned and " The Pool Party " pleasantly surprised me with the efficacy of its execution . " Jeffrey Hyatt from ScreenCrave gave the episode a 9 / 10 rating and wrote , " I think ' Pool Party ' is my favorite episode so far this season . The Robert California and Erin / Dwight / Andy story lines were rock solid . Previous excursions out of the office have been blah , but the pool party setting really complimented the ensemble – and the sharp writing . " Michael Tedder from New York Magazine called the episode the season 's second best , after " Trivia . " In addition , many critics wrote positively of the characters and their actions . Jill Mader from InsidePulse wrote that while , " [ the pool party ] storyline itself was just OK ... Ellie Kemper was hilarious . " Many reviewers , including McNutt and Forcella , found Kevin 's lines and actions to be particularly memorable , most notably , his declaration that Val was racist after she asked if Darryl could swim . A variety of reviewers found the cold @-@ opening , featuring Jim pranking Dwight by placing meatballs in his desk in an attempt to make Stanley laugh , funny .
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= New Kid on the Block =
" New Kid on the Block " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 12 , 1992 . After meeting his new neighbor , Laura , Bart develops a crush on her , only to later discover that she has a boyfriend , Jimbo Jones , whom he attempts to scare off so that he can have a relationship with Laura . Meanwhile , Homer sues the Sea Captain Horatio McCallister after being kicked out of his all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat restaurant while still hungry . It was written by Conan O 'Brien and directed by Wes Archer .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons ' neighbors , the Winfields , decide to relocate because of Homer 's regular inappropriate behavior . Bart and Lisa explore the Winfield 's house while it is empty and up for sale , but Bart scares Lisa away from the basement with stories . Bart turns around to see his new neighbor , Laura Powers . Surprised , he falls down in shock and is helped back up by her and the pair become acquainted . Bart instantly develops a crush on her .
After Marge visits Ruth Powers to welcome her to the area , she tells Marge that she is divorced , and the two become friends . Meanwhile , after seeing a television advertisement about The Frying Dutchman 's all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat offer , Homer insists that Marge come dine with him , so he arranges for Laura to babysit Bart and Lisa . Homer quickly earns himself the ire of the Sea Captain , devouring nearly every morsel of food in the buffet , and is eventually forced to leave despite not being sated . Much to Marge 's embarrassment , Homer sues the restaurant for deceptive advertisement . Lionel Hutz is employed by him to represent him in court and the case is successful after Hutz convinces the mostly overweight jury that a similar buffet mishap could befall them . To avoid further legal trouble , the Sea Captain and Homer eventually agree that Homer shall be displayed in the restaurant as " Bottomless Pete : Nature 's Cruelest Mistake " to draw in more customers to the restaurant and offset the cost of his eating .
Meanwhile , Bart is delighted at having Laura babysitting him and attempts to impress her . She later asks him to come to his treehouse , as she has important news . She tells him she is dating Jimbo Jones , which upsets Bart. When Laura invites him over to the household , Bart , in an attempt to break the pair up , prank @-@ calls Moe 's Tavern , giving his name as Jimbo Jones , and telling Moe where he lives . Mistakenly believing Jimbo was the one who had been pranking Moe throughout the entire series , he races into the Simpson house with a kitchen knife looking for Jimbo , causing Jimbo to cry and plead for his life . Afterwards , Laura breaks up with him for not being the tough " outlaw " she thought he was . Laura tells Bart that she would date him if he were old enough to grow a mustache and the episode ends with the pair laughing after prank @-@ calling Moe again .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Conan O 'Brien and directed by Wes Archer . The episode 's original subplot was intended to include American actor and comedian Don Rickles as a guest star presenting a comedy show and Homer laughing excessively at his jokes , until Rickles ridicules him . The pair were intended to start fighting and end up having to go to court . Despite O 'Brien and other production staff being sure that Rickles would appear in the episode , he was reportedly upset by the concept of the storyline , as he did not wish to be portrayed as a " mean guy " .
When attending a Fox Broadcasting Company publicity event in New York with Rupert Murdoch , show producer Matt Groening was introduced by Murdoch to Rickles . Rickles began shouting at Groening , accusing him of spying on his Las Vegas act and using material from that for the episode . The cast actually had been receiving recordings from Rickles from the 1950s to use as ideas on how to get the style for his animatic portrayal . Another side story the writers produced was for Homer to become an outstanding barber and hair dresser , but this was never used .
" New Kid on the Block " features first time appearances from Laura Powers , Ruth Powers , and The Sea Captain . Hank Azaria based the Sea Captain 's voice on that of actor Robert Newton .
= = Cultural references = =
The courtroom scene in which numerous sacks of letters to Santa Claus are delivered to court is a parody of the 1947 film Miracle on 34th Street .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " New Kid on the Block " finished 23rd in ratings for the week of November 9 – 16 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 4 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Beverly Hills , 90210 . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented that it was " a fun episode , introducing the Powers family [ and featuring ] the last appearance of the Winfields " . In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Sara Gilbert 's role as Laura Powers as one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons .
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= Chris Ryan 's Strike Back =
Chris Ryan 's Strike Back , also known as Strike Back : Origins on Cinemax , is a six @-@ part British television series based on the novel of the same name written by best @-@ selling author and former soldier of the Special Air Service , Chris Ryan , and is the first series of Strike Back . It was produced by Left Bank Pictures for Sky1 . The cast of Strike Back is led by Richard Armitage and Andrew Lincoln , also starring Orla Brady , Shelley Conn , Colin Salmon and Jodhi May , including a variety of guest appearances including Toby Stephens , Ewen Bremner , Dhaffer L 'Abidine , Shaun Parkes and Alexander Siddig . The series follows John Porter ( Armitage ) , a former British Special Forces soldier , who is drafted back into service by Section 20 , a fictional branch of the Defence Intelligence ( DI ) of the Ministry of Defence .
The series ran on a multi @-@ million pound budget , and was filmed on location in South Africa , particularly in Gauteng . Ryan became a series consultant . Strike Back commenced airing on 5 May 2010 with two episodes showing a week . The first episode received unofficial overnight ratings of almost 400 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom , which increased to just over one million according to the more official Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board . It was met with generally positive reviews ; comments of the series ranged from a positive " British action series that packs a Die Hard @-@ style thrill around every corner , " to a more negative " pathetic male fantasy " . It was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on 7 June 2010 .
A 10 @-@ part second series , known as Strike Back : Project Dawn , a co @-@ production between Sky and the American network Cinemax , was first broadcast in August 2011 . A third series of Strike Back , also consisting of 10 parts , was released in August 2012 .
Following success of the second through fourth series , Cinemax began airing the six @-@ part series starting 25 October 2013 in the United States . It is airing as a prequel in the U.S. since Cinemax aired Strike Back : Project Dawn , Strike Back : Vengeance , and Strike Back : Shadow Warfare prior to the first season .
= = Episodes = =
In this table , the number in the first column refers to the episode 's number within the entire series , " UK viewers in millions " refers to how many Britons watched the episode on Sky1 . The series plays out as three two @-@ part episodes .
= = Cast and characters = =
Richard Armitage plays series protagonist John Porter . Porter served with the SAS until he was discharged after he spared the life of a boy who was believed to have subsequently killed two soldiers in his unit following a rescue operation the night before the Iraq invasion . He is brought back into service by Section 20 seven years later . He is married to Diane , and has a daughter , Alexandra . Armitage described Porter as a " damaged hero " , and " sort of like Lucas North , only on some kind of go @-@ faster drug . " In order to fit into the role , Armitage had to " bulk up for the role , " and performed a lot of training for about ten weeks in the UK , and then flew to Johannesburg the day after filming the eighth series of Spooks wrapped up , where he proceeded with more training . He was trained from " how to hold a gun to how you can run through a door without getting your head blown off . " Armitage had not trained as hard as in the past ; the intensity of such training almost made him pass out after the first workout , stating " filming Spooks is demanding , but nowhere near as physical as this . " Armitage performed most of his own stunts .
Andrew Lincoln plays Hugh Collinson , former soldier in Porter 's unit and has since become the head of Section 20 . Lincoln was signed onto the role because he thought the series was a " great story " , and that his character was " completely re @-@ written from the book . " Out of the cast , the weapons instructor told Lincoln that he was the most instinctive he ever worked with .
Orla Brady plays Katie Dartmouth , a British war correspondent who was kidnapped in Basra by the " Sword of Islam " , an Iraqi terrorist group . To play Dartmouth , Brady used her inspiration from real life BBC war correspondent Orla Guerin . During the filming of Dartmouth 's holding , a male stand @-@ in with a wig was used as a stunt double . The crew also added oil and dirt on Brady 's hair every morning . Brady stated that she liked playing extremes , and thought Dartmouth is " grown up " compared to Siobhan Dhillion , the character Brady portrayed in Mistresses .
Shelley Conn plays Danni Prendiville , an officer with Section 20 . Porter started an affair with her after he was redrafted into service . She signed on for the role because she " thought the concept of the scripts was very clever and once I heard who was involved it didn 't take me long to sign up . " In researching for her role , Conn had somewhat of a military background since her father and uncle both served in the British Army , and had since had a base understanding of military life .
Colin Salmon plays James Middleton , a civil servant who sits between the British government and the Ministry of Defence . Salmon previously worked with Sky1 on Hex . He was attracted to the role in Strike Back due to the script being " a page @-@ turner , and they 're rare . It 's really lovely to sit down to start reading something and then not be able to stop because you have to know what 's going to happen next , " as well as hearing of who was involved in the project . A member of The Prince 's Trust charity , Salmon took the opportunity to visit some of their projects in Soweto while the series was filmed .
Jodhi May plays Layla Thompson , a lieutenant in military intelligence and works alongside Collinson in Section 20 . At first , she came to resent Porter , but starts opening up to him after she grows some distrust towards Collinson . May described Thompson as an " incredibly challenging , assertive and ambitious woman working in a male @-@ dominated field that she 's climbed to the top of . " She was drawn into appear in the series because of the respect she has with Andy Harries and Left Bank Productions . May knew people who work in the same world her character does , and talked with them to conduct some research into her role , as well as reading on the subject .
The first series was also given a variety of guest appearances . Among them include Nicola Stephenson ( Diane Porter ) , Laura Greenwood ( Alexandra Porter ) , Fenar Mohammed Ali ( As 'ad ) , Dhaffer L 'Abidine ( Hakim Al Nazeri ) , Shaun Parkes ( Felix Masuku ) , David Harewood ( Colonel Tshuma ) , Toby Stephens ( Frank Arlington ) and Alexander Siddig ( Zahar Sharq ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The inspiration for a television adaptation came when executive producer Andy Harries saw the novel while at an airport and took it on holiday with him . He did not manage to read it before returning to Britain , but pitched the idea to Sky 's Head of Drama Elaine Pyke , who commissioned it anyway . Pyke and Harries had enthusiasm for the novel , and were excited to take up the challenge to adapt it for television . It was planned to be shot in high @-@ definition because , according to Pyke ; " Sky1 HD drama is about trying to astound audiences , up the creative bar , and commission shows which make audiences love being Sky subscribers . " After seeing the success from previous dramas such as Terry Pratchett 's Hogfather and The Take , Sky made a multimillion @-@ pound commitment to Strike Back .
Harries commented that he " was interested in developing a quality action series out of the UK because it 's something we don 't do very often , but there 's no reason why we shouldn 't . " Richard Armitage called the series an " ambitious project for television . But the advantage of that is that these three feature films are linked together so you get a really interesting character arc through all episodes . American television is being brave and doing that at the moment , and this is stepping into that area . " Former SAS soldier and the original novel 's author , Chris Ryan , served as the series consultant and script advisor . Chris Ryan stated ; " When you produce a novel it 's like a child and to see it put onto screen opens it up to a greater audience . I class myself as a storyteller now , and to tell that story on paper is a great privilege , then to see it on screen is even better . "
= = = Preparation = = =
As Strike Back is a military drama , the production crew used a vast catalogue of firearms , including side arms , assault and sniper rifles , as well as rocket @-@ propelled grenades , hand grenades and other explosives . Cast members were first taught by carrying weights that mimicked the weight of the weapons so they could get used to carrying it during filming . Later , they were taught how to carry them professionally , including how to disassemble and re @-@ assemble them , as well as how to fire and reload . Though the majority were actually rubber , duplicates were sometimes used for some of the background characters . Three ex @-@ SAS soldiers gave the cast weapons and tactical training , and were also on hand to oversee how cast members carried the weapons during filming sessions .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming commenced on August 2009 , and concluded by the end of the same year . It was filmed on location primarily in the Johannesburg area in South Africa , as well as the same Province the city is located , Gauteng . Other filming locations in the series include Northern Cape , Augrabies Falls National Park , and the Kalahari Desert . Harries wanted to film the series in South Africa because he worked there several times in the past , and knew the country can replicate anywhere in the world .
One of the biggest problems for filming is the environmental impact they would cause , particularly with explosions . Location manager Jaco Espach often coordinated with a special effects team to use more environmentally friendly methods . In order to film sequences involving firearms and explosives in private property , the series crew often negotiated with property owners , as well as notifying all neighbouring properties , local police and the local hospital . In the city , leaflets were distributed to the filming location a week in advance . In airport scenes , the crew would inform the aviation authorities . The action sequences in the beginning of the first episode took five days to shoot , and was filmed in the Johannesburg suburb of Yeoville . On the scenes filmed on the Kalahari , filming temporarily halted due to the spotting of venomous snakes in the area . After they retreated from some rainfall , the crew swept the area to remove them and filming continued .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Release and ratings = = =
The series aired two episodes a week from 5 to 19 May 2010 in the United Kingdom . BBC Worldwide acquired distribution rights to broadcast the first series internationally . Episodes 1 and 2 received unofficial overnight ratings of 398 @,@ 000 and 370 @,@ 000 viewers , with an audience share of 1 @.@ 7 % and 2 @.@ 1 % respectively . Both episodes more than tripled Sky1 's average audience share in their slots from the previous three months , and were also the third most @-@ watched non @-@ terrestrial viewing behind BBC Four 's Timothy Spall : Somewhere at Sea and a live Sky Sports football game . The overnight figures for episodes 3 and 4 were down somewhat to 337 @,@ 000 and 294 @,@ 000 with an audience share of 1 @.@ 4 % and 1 @.@ 5 % respectively . The overnight ratings for the finale episodes were both 386 @,@ 000 viewers , and received an audience share of 1 @.@ 7 % and 2 @.@ 3 % respectively .
Strike Back was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the United Kingdom on 7 June 2010 . Released by 2entertain , they contain all six episodes , as well as cast interviews and a Behind the Scenes featurette .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Overall , the reviews of the series were generally positive . Michael Conroy of GQ named Strike Back an " Editor 's Pick " for its " excellent cinematography , stellar performances and a surprisingly balanced global perspective makes this story of two former British SAS soldiers a thoroughly enjoyable action romp . " Conroy compared the series to Green Zone , The Pacific and the Call of Duty video game series . Keith Watson of Metro called the series a " British action series that packs a Die Hard @-@ style thrill around every corner . " Watson praised Armitage 's performance , calling him perfect for the role , and that " for once in a British series , the action scenes kick some proper butt . " John Preston of The Daily Telegraph stated that Strike Back was " a slick affair , crisply directed by Daniel Percival , scripted with considerable sharpness by Jed Mercurio and full of belting action sequences . "
Jack Foley of IndieLondon rated the first episodes four stars out of five , stating that it " made for exciting viewing even if the politics and the script sometimes proved laughably gung @-@ ho and naive . " On review on the first two episodes , Jane Simon of The Mirror has said that between the cast , " there 's enough shock and awe to make you very glad they 're showing this in a double bill . " Gerard Gilbert of The Arts Desk dubbed Strike Back as " thin and lightweight next to [ Armitage 's other gig ] Spooks " , and although " not unexciting " , Gilbert did not find the series interesting . Andrea Mullaney of The Scotsman was positive about the casting , and the changes in storyline from the original novel , though the series was aimed " squarely at the blokey viewer who 'd rather watch paint dry than a costume drama . " Whilst also reviewing Luther and Lewis , John Lloyd of The Financial Times called it " fine for tension , " " good on sub @-@ Bond dialogue " and that the story lines make Spooks look true to life . Lloyd also called Richard Armitage " one of the best action men on television . "
The Guardian and The Independent have each released two separate reviews ; they were more mixed . Sam Wollaston enjoyed the first two episodes , but called it a " pathetic male fantasy . " Andrew Anthony has said that " no scene lasted more than about 25 seconds in the first two episodes and no element of plot information was left unspoken . The dialogue is close to pure exposition , with an occasional clunkily macho line thrown in as a concession to dramatic atmosphere . Show , don 't tell , say the screenwriting gurus . This was show and tell . " From The Independent , Tom Sutcliffe stated the series may be enjoyed by those who like explosions and Spooks @-@ like operations . Rhiannon Harries was almost negative in her review , believing Strike Back was " in almost every respect , a terrible piece of television drama , " although part of Harries enjoyed watching it . Harries noted that Luther was more recommended .
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= Georgia State Route 40 =
State Route 40 ( SR 40 ) is a 30 @.@ 46 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 49 @.@ 02 km ) state highway in the southeast part of the U.S. state of Georgia . The highway travels from US 1 / US 23 / US 301 / SR 4 / SR 15 in Folkston east to Church Street in St. Marys . SR 40 is the primary east – west highway of eastern Charlton County and southern Camden County . The highway connects Folkston and St. Marys with Kingsland , where the route meets Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and US 17 / SR 25 . SR 40 also serves as the majority of the route from I @-@ 95 to Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay and Cumberland Island National Seashore . SR 40 has a pair of auxiliary routes : a connector route in Folkston and a spur route in St. Marys that provides access to the submarine base and Crooked River State Park .
SR 40 was assigned to the Folkston – St. Marys highway in the early 1920s . The highway was first improved in the mid @-@ 1920s and paved in the mid @-@ 1930s from Kingsland to St. Marys . SR 40 was paved from Folkston east to the Charlton – Camden county line in the late 1930s and from the county line to Kingsland in the early 1940s . The highway was extensively relocated between Folkston and Kingsland in the mid @-@ 1960s . SR 40 was expanded to four lanes , much of it divided highway , east of Kingsland in the 1980s . The Georgia Department of Transportation ( GDOT ) has long @-@ term plans to expand the state highway to a four @-@ lane divided highway from Folkston to Kingsland . The first portion of this project was completed east of Folkston in the mid @-@ 2000s .
= = Route description = =
SR 40 has a pair of similarly named official designations west of Kingsland . The Georgia General Assembly designated part of the Okefenokee Parkway from Folkston to I @-@ 95 , which was then under construction , in 1968 . SR 40 from Folkston to Kingsland became one of ten stretches of highway designated part of the Okefenokee Trail by the state legislature in 2006 . The highway is a part of the National Highway System for its entire length .
= = = Folkston to Kingsland = = =
SR 40 begins at the intersection of Main Street and Second Street in the city of Folkston . Second Street carries US 1 / US 23 / US 301 / SR 4 / SR 15 . Main Street continues west as an unnumbered street through the center of town . Two blocks west of SR 40 's terminus , Main Street intersects CSX 's Nahunta Subdivision , a very busy dual track rail line that attracts railfans to the Folkston Railfan Platform one block south of Main Street . One block west of the rail line , Main Street meets SR 23 / SR 121 ( Okefenokee Parkway ) . SR 40 heads east for one block to Main Street 's eastern end at Third Street , an intersection that is adjacent to the Charlton County Courthouse . The state highway turns south onto Third Street for one block , then turns east onto Kingsland Road .
SR 40 meets the eastern end of SR 40 Connector ( Cross Street ) and leaves Folkston as a two @-@ lane road . The road expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before reverting to two lanes shortly before crossing the Charlton – Camden county line . SR 40 intersects SR 110 , which heads northeast to Woodbine , at the hamlet of Colerain . Between Folkston and Kingsland , the highway crosses several streams that feed into the parallel St. Marys River . SR 40 enters Kingsland on King Avenue , which has a grade crossing of the First Coast Railroad and intersects US 17 / SR 25 ( Lee Street ) . Here , the state highway expands to a four @-@ lane undivided street . SR 40 expands again to a six @-@ lane divided highway and begins to closely parallel the St. Marys Railroad through a commercial area just west of its partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 .
= = = Kingsland to St. Marys = = =
Near the east end of the commercial area on either side of I @-@ 95 , SR 40 becomes a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane . SR 40 gains a median again at its intersection with Kings Bay Road , one of several highways that lead to Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay . Another main highway to the naval base is St. Marys Road , which the highway meets at a partial cloverleaf interchange on the boundary between the cities of Kingsland and St. Marys . SR 40 intersects a branch of the railroad that heads into the naval base and crosses Dark Entry Creek before meeting the southern end of SR 40 Spur ( Charlie Smith , Sr. , Highway ) , which heads north along the western edge of the naval base on its way to Crooked River State Park .
SR 40 continues through St. Marys along Osborne Road , which is a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane until after it passes to the south of St. Marys Airport . SR 40 reduces to four lanes and then two as it curves south onto Osborne Street in the center of St. Marys . The highway intersects the St. Marys Railroad near its eastern terminus before reaching its eastern terminus at the intersection of Osborne Street and Church Street . Osborne Street continues south past the historic home Orange Hall and into the St. Marys Historic District , at the southern end of which is the passenger ferry to Cumberland Island and its national seashore .
= = History = =
SR 40 was assigned to the highway from Folkston to St. Marys via Kingsland by 1920 . However , the route from Folkston to what became US 17 / SR 25 in Kingsland was not marked on maps between 1921 and January 1932 . The highway that was to become SR 40 followed most of its present alignment from Folkston to the Charlton – Camden county line in 1919 but had a significantly different route in western Camden County , following what are now Colerain Road , Forestry Road , Marr Cemetery Road , Oakhill Church Road , Willies Loop , Old Folkston Road , Arizona Avenue , and several sections of abandoned highway . East of Kingsland , the highway followed most of its present alignment but crossed the parallel railroad several times .
By 1926 , the Kingsland – St. Marys highway was a sand or dirt road . When the Folkston – Kingsland stretch of SR 40 reappeared on maps in February 1932 , the highway was recorded as an unimproved but maintained road . SR 40 was under construction along its present alignment from US 17 in Kingsland to the south end of Osborne Street in St. Marys by October 1934 ; the highway was completed as a paved road by January 1936 . The highway from Folkston to the Charlton – Camden county line was under construction by October 1936 . The construction was extended east from the county line to the highway 's original SR 110 junction in July 1937 . When construction concluded in October 1937 , there was a paved highway from Folkston to the county line and a graded but otherwise unimproved highway from there to SR 110 . SR 40 between Colerain and the western edge of Kingsland was under construction by July 1939 and paving was completed in January 1941 . The gap in Kingsland was placed under construction by April 1941 but was not completed until the beginning of 1943 .
The first major rerouting of SR 40 occurred between 1963 and 1966 when the highway was moved to its present alignment between the Charlton – Camden county line and Kingsland . By 1982 , the highway had been expanded to a divided highway around its interchange with I @-@ 95 and to a four @-@ lane undivided highway from there to St. Marys . The divided highway section was extended west toward downtown Kingsland in 1984 . SR 40 's interchange with St. Marys Road was built and the highway was expanded to a divided highway from Kings Bay Road to SR 40 Spur by 1986 . The entire length of the highway was designated a Governor 's Road Improvement Program ( GRIP ) corridor in 1989 . GDOT plans to expand the entire highway west of I @-@ 95 to a four @-@ lane divided highway . The first new section of the highway to be expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway was the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch west of the Charlton – Camden county line , which was completed in 2004 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Bannered routes = =
= = = SR 40 Connector = = =
State Route 40 Connector ( SR 40 Connector ) is a 1 @.@ 33 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 14 km ) connector route of SR 40 in Folkston . The route follows Cross Street from US 1 / US 23 / US 301 / SR 4 / SR 15 / SR 23 / SR 121 ( Okefenokee Drive ) on the north side of town southeast to SR 40 east of Folkston . SR 40 Connector heads east from the U.S. highways as a two @-@ lane road that passes Charlton County High School . The highway continues southeast through a residential area and intersects SR 252 ( Burnt Fort Road ) , which heads southwest toward its western terminus in downtown Folkston and northeast toward White Oak in northern Camden County . SR 40 Connector enters a forested area for the remainder of its course to SR 40 ( Kingsland Road ) . SR 40 CONN was designated along Cross Street in 2005 .
= = = SR 40 Spur = = =
State Route 40 Spur ( SR 40 Spur ) is a 6 @.@ 58 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 59 km ) spur route of SR 40 in St. Marys . The route is officially named Charlie Smith , Sr. , Highway based on a 1994 Georgia Transportation Board resolution honoring a local politician from Camden County ; the highway is also known as Crooked River Road . SR 40 Spur begins at an intersection with SR 40 ( Osborne Road ) northwest of downtown St. Marys and heads north as a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane through a mixed commercial and residential area . North of its oblique intersection with Colerain Road and Douglas Drive , the spur route expands to a controlled @-@ access divided highway and serves as the western boundary of Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay . Access to the base is provided at intersections with USS Benjamin Franklin Drive opposite St. Marys Road and USS Henry L. Stimson Drive opposite Kings Bay Road . North of the latter junction , SR 40 Spur reduces to two lanes and has a grade crossing with the branch of the St. Marys Railroad that enters the naval base . Further north , the highway has a pair of intersections with USS Andrew Jackson Drive and USS Proteus Boulevard , which serve the northern part of the military reservation . SR 40 Spur leaves the edge of the base as it enters Crooked River State Park . The highway reaches its northern terminus at the park gate a short distance south of the Crooked River . SR 40 Spur was designated by the beginning of 1941 and was under construction later that year . The paved road was completed in 1942 . SR 40 Spur was expanded to four lanes from SR 40 to Kings Bay Road around 1986 .
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= Bad Hair Day =
Bad Hair Day is the ninth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on March 12 , 1996 . It was the third studio album self @-@ produced by Yankovic . The album produced an array of hit comedy singles ; lead single " Amish Paradise " , which lampoons both Coolio 's " Gangsta 's Paradise " and the Amish lifestyle , charted at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while " Gump " , which parodies " Lump " by The Presidents of the United States of America and the movie Forrest Gump , charted at 102 .
The musical styles on the album are built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 1990s , largely targeting alternative rock and hip @-@ hop alike . The album also includes style parodies , imitations of specific artists like They Might Be Giants and Elvis Costello . " Amish Paradise " caused a minor controversy after rapper Coolio expressed distaste at having his song parodied by Yankovic , although the two later made amends .
Bad Hair Day was met with mixed to positive reviews , with many critics praising " Amish Paradise " in particular ; " Amish Paradise " went on to become one of Yankovic 's best @-@ known singles . The album peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard 200 . Bad Hair Day sold 1 @,@ 317 @,@ 000 copies in the US in 1996 alone , the highest sales tally for any comedy album in a single calendar year since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991 . Bad Hair Day was Yankovic 's sixth Gold record in the United States , and went on to be certified Platinum for sales of over one million copies in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The album was also certified Platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
In November 1994 , Yankovic entered Santa Monica Sound Recorders in Santa Monica , California to begin the first of the Bad Hair Day sessions , which he produced himself . Recording with Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in five sessions . The first session started on November 30 and yielded two originals : " Callin ' In Sick " and " Everything You Know Is Wrong " . The second session started the next day and produced the original songs : " I Remember Larry " , " The Night Santa Went Crazy " , and " Since You 've Been Gone " . The third session took place on November 5 , 1995 , and resulted in the original " I 'm So Sick of You " and the parody " Cavity Search " . The fourth session yielded " The Alternative Polka " medley , and the two parodies " Gump " and " Phony Calls " . The fifth and final recording session produced " Amish Paradise " and " Syndicated Inc . " , both of which were parodies .
= = = Originals = = =
" Callin ' In Sick " is a style parody of music popular in Seattle , Washington , most notably grunge . " Everything You Know Is Wrong " is a stylistic pastiche of They Might Be Giants . Yankovic explained that he " tried to write a song sort of in their style , but perhaps even a little bit more twisted " . For fans of They Might Be Giants , he put " little references in here and there , little allusions to other songs of theirs " . Yankovic later admitted that it " is a little bit harder I think to decipher exactly where the inspiration is coming from . "
" I Remember Larry " is a style parody of Hilly Michaels , and it tells the tale of a neighborhood bully who , after myriad pranks , is brutally murdered by the narrator . At the 3 : 10 mark , the song contains a backmasked message , which when reversed reads , " Wow , you must have an awful lot of free time on your hands " . " The Night Santa Went Crazy " tells the story of Santa snapping and embarking on a killing spree . Originally , the song had a different third verse , differing in the fact that , at the end of the song , Santa is killed by the SWAT team . Although Yankovic 's record label made him re @-@ record the song for the album , the " Extra Gory " version was released on the single for " Amish Paradise " . Another version was written for the Touring with Scissors tour in 1999 , combining elements of the album version and the " Extra Gory " version . " Since You 've Been Gone " is a generic doo @-@ wop a cappella track that details a lover 's torment after the object of his affections breaks up with him . Yankovic performed most of the vocals himself , and to make sure that he stayed on key , a scratch guitar track was recorded ; when the song was mixed , the guitar track was removed . Bassist Steve Jay provides the low voices in the song . Finally , " I 'm So Sick of You , " a style parody of Elvis Costello in which the singer tells his girlfriend all the things he hates about her .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
The first parody recorded for the album was " Cavity Search " , a parody of U2 's hit " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " . The song , which recounts the horror of having to go to the dentist , features the sound of an actual dental drill . To enhance the dental theme of the song , Yankovic called in his actual dentist , who brought a real drill and a human tooth , which the two took turns drilling while recording to create a genuine sound effect . The second parody was a pastiche of TLC 's hit " Waterfalls " called " Phony Calls " , about prank calls . During the bridge , a clip from The Simpsons second season episode " Blood Feud " is played on top of the music . Because the sound clip was from a preexisting episode , Yankovic noted that " it was a pretty sweet deal for the Simpsons ' voice actors – they each got a nice pile of money , and they didn 't even have to come to the studio ! " The next parody recorded for the album was " Gump " , a parody of " Lump " by The Presidents of the United States of America . The song recounts the basic plot to the 1994 film Forrest Gump about a naïve and slow @-@ witted yet athletically prodigious native of Alabama who witnesses , and in some cases influences , some of the defining events of the latter half of the 20th century in the United States . " Gump " was released as the second single from the album , and received a video .
On January 15 , 1996 , Yankovic began recording the lead single for the album , " Amish Paradise " . Yankovic felt that parodying Coolio would pay off , because Coolio had " such an identifiable image that a lot of things could be done [ with ] " . He noted , " I like to play around with people that have some- you know , a lot of style as opposed to somebody who 's kind of homogonized [ sic ] and bland and has no personality , and Coolio certainly kind of sticks out in a crowd . " Yankovic felt that juxtaposing the original song 's " gangsta " themes with the Amish lifestyle would produce a humorous end result . After Yankovic revealed to his label that he would be doing a Coolio parody , they requested that the album artwork for the release also parody Coolio . Yankovic had been toying with the name Bad Hair Day for a time and felt that he could adequately use the name and lampoon Coolio – who was known for his distinct hair style – at the same time . The final parody recorded for the album , " Syndicated Inc . " , is a parody of " Misery " by Soul Asylum , a loving ode to syndicated television .
Much like Yankovic 's previous album , Bad Hair Day features a polka medley of then @-@ current hit songs , " The Alternative Polka " . " The Alternative Polka " originally contained the chorus of Weezer 's song " Buddy Holly " performed by Yankovic , but Weezer front man Rivers Cuomo requested its removal just before release . Yankovic was forced to physically cut the bit out of the master tape , but Weezer was still given credit in the liner notes because the notes were already printed . On June 25 , 2010 , over fourteen years after the album 's release , Yankovic released the " Buddy Holly " clip on his official YouTube channel .
= = = Unused parodies = = =
In addition to the five parodies on the album , Yankovic had several parody ideas that were turned down . Originally , Yankovic wanted to turn The Offspring 's hit " Come Out and Play " into an ode about doing laundry called " Laundry Day " . There are conflicting stories as to why the song was never recorded ; either Yankovic never approached The Offspring about releasing the parody , or the band denied permission . Either way , Yankovic performed the song in concert from 1996 through 2000 . Despite not being able to parody " Come Out and Play " , Yankovic would later be granted permission to parody their 1998 hit " Pretty Fly ( For a White Guy ) " as " Pretty Fly for a Rabbi " on his 1999 album Running with Scissors . Yankovic also wanted to record a parody of The Beatles ' Anthology hit " Free as a Bird " entitled " Gee , I 'm a Nerd " . Yankovic asked Paul McCartney , a supporter of Yankovic 's work , if he could parody " Free as a Bird " . McCartney had no problem with the parody , but because " Free as a Bird " was written by John Lennon , McCartney turned the decision over to Yoko Ono , who denied permission because she was uncomfortable with the parody idea .
Yankovic had also intended to record a parody of the U2 song " Numb " and a parody of The Rembrandts 's hit song " I 'll Be There for You " . The " Numb " spoof would have been called " Green Eggs and Ham " , a song in which Yankovic recited various lines from the Dr. Seuss book of the same name . U2 approved the parody , but Yankovic was unable to get permission from the Seuss estate . Likewise , Yankovic had wanted to turn " I 'll Be There for You " into " I 'll Repair For You " , and write it about the popular 1990s sitcom Home Improvement . The Rembrandts had also given approval when Yankovic asked , but the producers of Friends did not want the theme song to get overexposed and refused permission . All of the rejected parodies were later performed in concert .
= = Controversy = =
The album 's lead single , " Amish Paradise " , caused a minor controversy after rapper Coolio said that Yankovic had never asked for permission to record the parody . Yankovic traditionally secures permission from the artists he parodies , even though this is not legally required , as parodies are covered under fair use guidelines , but when he inquired about " Gangsta 's Paradise " , Yankovic was told by Scotti Brothers Records that Coolio had given permission . Coolio later claimed that he had not given such permission , making a statement at the Grammys saying that he did not appreciate Yankovic " desecrating " his song .
Speculation surfaced that Coolio had actually given permission but later changed his mind , or that Yankovic 's record label had lied to Yankovic in the hopes that the song would become popular . Yankovic later stated on VH1 's Behind the Music that he had written a sincere letter of apology to Coolio which was never returned , and that Coolio never complained when he received his royalty check from proceeds of the song . A series of photos taken at the XM Satellite Radio booth at the 2006 Consumer Electronics Show , and a post on the " Ask Al " feature on Yankovic 's website suggested that Yankovic and Coolio made amends . According to Yankovic , he was very surprised when Coolio came over to chat . He later joked on his site 's Q & A feature that , " I doubt I 'll be invited to Coolio 's next birthday party but at least I can stop wearing that bulletproof vest to the mall . "
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Scotti Brothers Records developed a promotion strategy for Bad Hair Day , which included Yankovic dressing up in exaggerated Coolio @-@ styled hair and presenting an award at the American Music Awards in January 1996 . According to Billboard , this was " a hint as to who would be the next victim of a Yankovic parody " . " Amish Paradise " was then released in the very beginning of March as a radio and commercial single , when " Gangsta 's Paradise " was still receiving radio airplay . Four days later , the video was released . The album 's success was also bolstered by the release of " Gump " as a single on April 25 , and a video four days later . In addition , WEA , who had taken over distributing Scotti Brothers ' albums from BMG , helped with the initial release of the album .
To promote the album , Yankovic undertook the " Bad Hair Tour " , which spanned from May 24 , 1996 to October 19 , 1997 . The tour was largely centered in the United States , although the first half saw Yankovic perform in Canada . Yankovic performed over 130 shows during the tour . Initially , there were preliminary plans to have Yankovic tour Europe , based on whether All American Music Group would secure the album 's international release , although this venture never came to fruition .
= = = Reviews = = =
Mike Joyce of The Washington Post wrote that " Amish Paradise " was " by far the cleverest and funniest track that Bad Hair Day has to offer [ and ] it ranks right up there with such Yankovic classics as ' Another One Rides the Bus , ' ' Smells Like Nirvana ' and ' Eat It . ' " He also enjoyed " Gump " , but felt that the remainder of the parodies were weak , particularly citing " Cavity Search " as " a sophomoric attempt to extract yuks " . However , Joyce noted that " some of the biggest laugh @-@ getters " on the album were Yankovic 's originals . A record review from the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette concluded that " ' Weird Al ' Yankovic 's ninth collection of original songs and parodies reinforces his reign as pop music 's King of Comedy " , and that the record " showcases Yankovic 's unparalleled ability to capture the styles of other bands and turn boring pop songs into fun tunes . " J.D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun noted that while Yankovic 's music can be " sophomoric and silly " , Yankovic himself " can also be pretty smart " . The review highlighted , among other songs , " The Alternative Polka " and " The Night Santa Went Crazy " , as some of the album 's best songs .
Not all reviews were positive . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic criticized the lack of humor on the album saying " the music on Bad Hair Day not only lacks the humor , it lacks the impish energy that made Weird Al 's first albums such fun . " The Rolling Stone Record Guide awarded the album two out of five stars . However , the book later referred to the album 's lead single , " Amish Paradise " , as " gut @-@ busting . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Bad Hair Day was released on March 12 , 1996 , and eventually became Yankovic 's best selling album . Domestically , the album debuted at number 28 on the Billboard 200 on March 30 , 1996 . It eventually peaked at number 14 . The album remained on the chart for a total of 56 weeks , making it Yankovic 's longest @-@ charting album . In 1996 alone , the album sold 1 @,@ 317 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , setting a record for the most copies a comedy album sold in a year during the Nielsen SoundScan era . On May 15 , 1996 , Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified Bad Hair Day gold , and then on June 11 of the same year , it certified the record platinum . As of May 2014 , the album had sold 2 @.@ 025 million copies in the US . The fourth best selling comedy album of the Nielsen Soundscan era . The album was also successful in Canada , where it peaked at number 9 on the Canadian Albums Chart , and was later certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , for sales over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = = Outtakes = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
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= Loser like Me =
" Loser Like Me " is a song performed by the cast of American television series Glee , taken from their sixth soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , Volume 5 . The song was written by the series ' music producer Adam Anders , Swedish pop music producer Max Martin , and Peer Åström , Savan Kotecha , and Johan Schuster ( Shellback ) . Anders , Martin , Åström and Shellback produced the track . The song , with another track " Get It Right " , were the first two original songs to be featured on the show . The song is their first official single , being sent to US radio on March 1 , 2011 . In order for the song to have radio appeal , Anders recruited Martin to produce " Loser Like Me " while he was in the United States working on Britney Spears ' Femme Fatale .
Lea Michele and Cory Monteith front the song , with Michele providing lead vocals in the chorus and a verse , and Monteith having a verse . Other cast members provide vocals in the chorus and in a rap breakdown . Naya Rivera and Heather Morris have some spoken words and some solo work during the chorus . Musically , the song is a dance @-@ pop song , and it features a " pop funk " guitar . The production drew comparisons to similar Max Martin productions released at the time , notably Pink 's " Raise Your Glass " ( 2010 ) . Lyrically , it follows in the footsteps of previous self @-@ empowerment anthems released around the same time , with the incorporation of lines about revenge fantasies .
Critics generally praised the song in Glee 's first step at original music , including its production , lyrics , and the vocals of Lea Michele . However , common criticisms were that the song sounded like a cover of another song , and that it would have been better suited for other artists Martin usually works with , such as Pink or Avril Lavigne . The song debuted at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became the cast 's third top @-@ ten hit to date . It reached number thirty @-@ six on the US Adult Pop Songs chart , becoming their first song other than a Christmas song to appear on an airplay chart . Internationally , it reached the top thirty in at least five other markets . The song 's performance was featured in the Glee episode " Original Song " which first aired on March 15 , 2011 , and included choreography and the group throwing confetti from slushie cups at the audience . The song was redone by Jenna Ushkowitz , Kevin McHale , Darren Criss and Chord Overstreet in the second part of Glee 's two @-@ part 100th episode , " New Directions " , which aired on March 25 , 2014 .
= = Background = =
On February 23 , 2011 , it was announced that Glee , for the first time , would feature two original songs , entitled " Loser Like Me " and " Get It Right " on their March 15 , 2011 episode . The series ' music producer , Adam Anders , called the song a " Gleek anthem , " and it was " a very uptempo , kind @-@ of @-@ summery hit " . It was also revealed that pop music producer , Max Martin , known for his work with Britney Spears , among other singers , would produce " Loser Like Me " . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly called this a " major pop music coup " by Glee . Anders also went on to comment , " The thing about Max is that he ’ s a huge fan of pop culture and he just loved the idea of being part of something that ’ s such a cultural phenomenon . So it was actually not hard to convince him at all . He was all about it . "
According to Anders , the Swedish @-@ based Martin was in the United States at the time working on Spears ' then @-@ new record , and then was " exposed to exactly how enormous [ Glee ] is " . According to the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers database , co @-@ writers on the song include Anders , Peer Åström , Savan Kotecha , and Johan Schuster . " Loser Like Me " and " Get It Right " both premiered on On Air with Ryan Seacrest on February 25 , 2011 , and were performed in the episode " Original Song " , on March 15 , 2011 . The song was also released on iTunes in the United States on March 15 , 2011 .
= = = Radio impact = = =
" Loser Like Me " became the first radio single for Glee , and was sent to radio on March 1 , 2011 for mainstream and Hot AC stations . Pete Cosenza , senior vice president of promotion and adult formats for Columbia Records told Billboard ,
We 've promoted Glee music to radio for the past couple of years and week @-@ by @-@ week , programmers have embraced the show and its music more and more . ( Adult radio ) has created weekly , and , in some cases , daily , features , and played snippets of songs . Now , more have put " Loser Like Me " into regular rotation . Glee is one of the biggest shows on television and it 's a music show . What a win for us and radio .
Barb Richards , director of music for WAJI said that the cast 's introduction of new music prompted the station to finally add music from the cast . Richards referenced the 21 @.@ 9 million downloads and 5 @.@ 2 million albums sold since the series since its May 2009 premiere , but commented , " Still , I believe that people want to hear originals over remakes , so up until the ' Glee ' cast 's original music it didn 't make sense for us to play each latest cover , other than to spotlight it the day of the show . " However , Richards complimented the original " Loser Like Me " saying its lyrics would " resonate with kids and parents " and said that she liked it when she first heard it and when she saw it on the show . She also commented that it " is good on its own , and having the Glee name on it gives it a leg up " . Dave McKay , program director at WPST also echoed Richards ' sentiments that the Glee sales were reason to add them to airplay , adding " Not many artists or songs enjoy the type of exposure that ' Glee ' provides . Plus , the audience that watches the show is the audience we target , so the fit seems perfect [ ... ] since ' Glee ' music sells , there is definitely an appetite for it . "
Responding to the song being an original as opposed to their traditional covers , McKay said , " If ' Loser Like Me ' were a bad song , then it wouldn 't matter whether it was original or a cover : we wouldn 't be playing it . That the song is good , and that it has the ' Glee ' reach , makes it an easy song to play . " Keith Kennedy , program director at WKDD said the single made him ponder why they haven 't played Glee songs prior to " Loser Like Me " . Kennedy said , " How many times have you heard radio programmers claim that they use sales numbers to shape their stations ' playlists ? Look at iTunes every Wednesday : Glee often dominates the top 10 . " Kennedy 's station , WKDD , holds a " Glee O 'clock " segment daily and he said " While some of the remakes have leaned toward show tunes , several probably should have received more airplay . "
= = Composition = =
" Loser Like Me " is a song that features " pop @-@ funk chicken @-@ scratch guitars , " and according to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , a hopped @-@ up beat . The song is fronted by Lea Michele singing lead on the chorus and a verse , with Cory Monteith providing an additional verse . Other Glee cast members back the two up the chorus and a rap breakdown . It bears resemblance to then @-@ recent Max Martin @-@ produced singles , particularly " Raise Your Glass " , which contains a similar guitar @-@ intro . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy even called " Loser Like Me " a sequel to " Raise Your Glass " .
After the guitar riffs , Michele sings about becoming a future superstar , " Yeah , you may think that I 'm a zero / But hey , everyone you wanna be / Probably started off like me " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said " Loser Like Me " is " a sunny pop track that finds Lea Michele and Cory Monteith railing against conformity and celebrating their individuality in their verses " . Other cast member lyrics include the lyric " You may think I 'm a freak show " , responded to by Naya Rivera with the spoken " I don 't care " . The song features self @-@ empowerment lyrics which revolve around revenge fantasies , such as in Monteith 's lines - " I could be a superstar / I 'll see you when you wash my car " . According to Melinda Newman of HitFix the song is about " being a loser now , but turning in to a winner now who never , ever looks back " . Aly Semigran of MTV News said the lyrics of the " peppy pop ditty " keep " in tune with the themes of the show " .
= = Critical reception = =
Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave the song four out of five stars , and called it " predictably fizzy " and " fiendishly catchy " . Rosen also said that the " lyric , belted out with bright @-@ sided earnestness by Lea Michele and Cory Monteith , distills the show 's theme : the mystical power of a good tune and a well @-@ choreographed jazz hands routine to turn geeks into gods " . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote , " Max Martin and Shellback chuck the Pinks , Keshas and Katy Perrys into the kitchen sink and add a generous coat of gloss and shimmer ( and Auto @-@ Tune ) to create what is ultimately an audacious , unabashed and , crucially , authentic pop stomper that remains true to what Glee is all about " . Melinda Newman of HitFix liked the song , but said that it could have had " more of an edge " . Newman also said , " For any kid who ’ s ever been bullied or adult who remembers being bullied , it 's a bulls @-@ eye . " Newman wrote that that Michele , who opens the song , had a " classic voice " but it had no " grit " to it , and recommended that Pink cover it . Becky Bain of Idolator said that the song could have been a track for Pink or Avril Lavigne , two common artists who work with Martin . Bain said the song fit in with " Raise Your Glass " , and better yet , Kesha 's " We R Who We R " . Christopher Rosen of Movieline said the song had " total home run potential " , and that it " sounds like a blend of Pink , Katy Perry , Avril Lavigne , early Mandy Moore , and Kidz Bop . And that ’ s a good thing ! " On the point that the song sounds like a cover itself , Rosen asked , " who wants to listen to an original song on a television show that relies on covers unless it sounds like a cover itself ? "
Upon first listen , Kirsten Coachman of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer said that she was " semi @-@ horrified " at the song , but since it was a Max Martin @-@ produced track she " gave it another chance " , and commented : " It ’ s definitely a Max Martin song . It has a good beat and cheesy , yet catchy lyrics . " However , Coachman said that the song should have been sung by Mark Salling ( Puck ) and Jenna Ushkowitz ( Tina ) rather than Monteith and Michele . Coachman liked the fact that this song and " Get It Right " fit in with the episode , and wrote , " I think both songs are pretty good anthems , and hopefully they do speak to the audience . She stated , however , that she " probably won ’ t be singing along to them in my car anytime soon " . In an album review giving Glee : The Music , Vol . 5 a total of two out of five stars , Andrew Leahey of Allmusic said that the new Glee songs " aren ’ t good enough to make much of a difference " . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair gave the song four stars for its lyrics , but said that the tune " sucked " .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 26 , 2011 , " Loser Like Me " debuted at number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 selling 210 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . The debut was the cast 's largest sales frame since their cover of Katy Perry 's " Teenage Dream " , which sold 214 @,@ 000 downloads . The song became their third top @-@ ten US hit , following " Teenage Dream " , which debuted at number eight , and their first cover , " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , which debuted at number four . For the week ending April 9 , 2011 , the song debuted on the US Adult Pop Songs chart at number thirty @-@ seven . " Loser Like Me " became the first entry on the Adult Pop chart , and became their first song to appear on an airplay chart since a string of Christmas songs from Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album charted on the Adult Contemporary Songs chart in 2009 and 2010 . " Loser Like Me " remains the fourth best @-@ selling recording in the history of the show , having sold 617 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Outside the United States , the song appeared on several other charts worldwide , debuting at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 , as well as appearing at number fifteen on the Australian Singles Chart , number twenty @-@ five on the Irish Singles Chart , and number twenty @-@ seven on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Glee performance = =
" Original Song " first aired on March 15 , 2011 , and is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the television series . The episode 's plot revolves around McKinley High 's glee club , New Directions , decides to prepare original songs for the Regionals competition . In order to do better in the competition , due to Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) ' s assistance the group decided to sing original songs . " Loser Like Me " falls in line after Rachel performs her solo ballad " Get It Right " . In the performance the Glee club girls donned light @-@ blue dresses tied with black ribbons , and black boots . The guys wore black dress shirts and slacks with black ties . During the performance , the group performs sectional and group choreography . Midway , it is received by a standing ovation led by Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) . The performance ends with the club throwing slushie cups filled with confetti at the audience , alluding to the numerous slushie cups taken in the face by them earlier in the show .
Bobby Hankinson of Houston Chronicle said " It 's fun and summery and it 's all capped off with a confetti slushee attack to the crowd . Loved it . " Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone wrote , " It 's a true anthem , and it ends triumphantly , with the New Directions tossing confetti @-@ filled Slushie cups into the crowd — and then going on to win regionals . " Brett Berk of Vanity Fair noted that " the lovable dorks sing about being the lovable dorks we fell in love with ( even if we often no longer recognize them as such ) " .
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
|
= Enthiran =
Enthiran ( English : Robot ) is a 2010 Indian Tamil @-@ language science fiction film directed by S. Shankar and co @-@ written by him and Sujatha Rangarajan . The film stars Rajinikanth and Aishwarya Rai in lead roles ; Danny Denzongpa , Santhanam and Karunas play supporting roles . The soundtrack album and background score were composed by A. R. Rahman while the dialogues , cinematography , editing and art direction were handled by Madhan Karky , R. Rathnavelu , Anthony and Sabu Cyril respectively .
The story revolves around a scientist 's struggle to control his creation , an android ( both played by Rajinikanth ) , whose software is upgraded to give it the ability to comprehend and exhibit human emotions . The project backfires when the robot falls in love with the scientist 's girlfriend ( Rai ) , and is manipulated by a rival scientist ( Denzongpa ) into becoming homicidal .
After being stalled in the development phase for nearly a decade , the film 's principal photography began in 2008 and lasted two years . Enthiran marked the debut of Legacy Effects studio , which was responsible for the film 's prosthetic make @-@ up and animatronics , in Indian cinema . Enthiran was released worldwide on 1 October 2010 , along with its dubbed versions : Robot in Hindi and Robo in Telugu . Produced by Kalanithi Maran , it was India 's most expensive film up to that point .
The film received generally positive reviews upon release . Critics were particularly appreciative of Rajinikanth 's performance , Rathnavelu 's cinematography , Cyril 's art direction and the visual effects by V. Srinivas Mohan . Enthiran emerged as the top @-@ earning Indian film of 2010 and is the second highest @-@ grossing South Indian film of all time after Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) . It won two Indian National Film Awards , three Filmfare Awards , seven Vijay Awards and two Screen Awards . A spiritual successor , titled 2 @.@ 0 , is scheduled for release in 2017 .
= = Plot = =
After a decade of research , the scientist Dr. Vaseegaran creates a sophisticated android robot with the help of his assistants , Siva and Ravi , to commission it into the Indian Army . He introduces the robot , named Chitti , at a robotics conference in Chennai . Chitti helps Sana , Vaseegaran 's medical student girlfriend , cheat in her examination , then saves her from being assaulted by a group of thugs . Vaseegaran 's mentor , Professor Bohra , is secretly engaged in a project to create similar android robots for a terrorist organisation , but has so far been unsuccessful .
Vaseegaran prepares Chitti for an evaluation by the Artificial Intelligence Research and Development ( AIRD ) Institute , which is headed by Bohra . During the evaluation , Chitti attempts to stab Vaseegaran at Bohra 's command , which convinces the evaluation committee that the robot is a liability and cannot be used for military purposes . Vaseegaran 's effort to prove Bohra wrong fails when he deploys Chitti to rescue people from a burning building . The robot saves most of them , including a girl named Selvi who was bathing at the time , but she is ashamed at being seen naked on camera and flees , only to be hit and killed by a truck . Vaseegaran asks for one month to modify Chitti 's neural schema to enable it to understand human behaviour and emotions , to which Bohra agrees . While nearing the deadline , Chitti becomes angry with Vaseegaran , demonstrating to him that it can manifest emotions .
Chitti uses Sana 's textbooks to successfully help Sana 's sister Latha give birth to a child . Bohra congratulates Vaseegaran on the achievement and allows Chitti to pass the AIRD evaluation . Chitti develops romantic feelings for Sana after she congratulates Chitti by kissing it . When Vaseegaran and Sana realise this , Sana explains to Chitti that they are only friends . Saddened by her rejection , yet still in love with her , Chitti deliberately fails an evaluation conducted by the Indian Army . Enraged , Vaseegaran chops Chitti into pieces , which are dumped into a landfill site .
Bohra visits the site to retrieve Chitti , which has now reassembled itself , albeit in a damaged state . Bohra embeds a red chip inside Chitti while reconstructing it , converting it into a ruthless killer . It then gatecrashes Vaseegaran and Sana 's wedding , kidnaps Sana , creates replicas of itself and kills Bohra . Using its robot army , Chitti occupies AIRD and causes mayhem in the city . After informing Sana that it has acquired the human ability to reproduce , Chitti wishes to marry her so that a machine and a human being can give birth to a preprogrammed child , but Sana refuses . It eventually finds Vaseegaran , who entered AIRD to stop it , and nearly kills him before the police appear . The ensuing battle between Chitti 's robot army and the police personnel leads to many casualties and much property destruction . Vaseegaran eventually captures Chitti using a magnetic wall and accesses its internal control panel , whereby he instructs all the other robots to self @-@ destruct . He removes Chitti 's red chip , calming it .
In a court hearing , Vaseegaran is sentenced to death for the casualties and damages caused by the robot army , but Chitti explains that it was Bohra who caused its deviant behaviour and shows the court video footage of Bohra installing the red chip . The court releases Vaseegaran , while ordering that Chitti be dismantled . Left with no choice , Vaseegaran asks Chitti to dismantle itself . While saying goodbye , Chitti apologises to Vaseegaran and Sana before dismantling itself .
The film 's setting then shifts to 2030 . Chitti is now a museum exhibit . A curious school student on excursion asks her guide why it was dismantled , to which Chitti responds , " Naan sinthikka arambichen " ( English : I started thinking ) .
= = Cast = =
Rajinikanth as Dr. Vaseegaran and Chitti
Aishwarya Rai as Sana
Danny Denzongpa as Professor Bohra
Santhanam as Siva
Karunas as Ravi
Cochin Haneefa as the traffic police officer
Kalabhavan Mani as Pachaimuthu
Delhi Kumar as Vaseegaran 's father
Raaghav as the neighbourhood bully
Devadarshini as Latha , Sana 's sister
Revathi Sankaran as Vaseegaran 's mother
Sabu Cyril as Shah
Sugunthan as Police Inspector
Shriya Sharma as the curious student
Chaams as one of the barbers working at The Park Hotel
= = Production = =
= = = Origin = = =
Following the completion of his first directorial venture in Hindi , Nayak ( 2001 ) , S. Shankar announced his next project , Robot , which was to feature Kamal Haasan and Preity Zinta . The film was to be produced by the now @-@ defunct company Media Dreams , a division of Pentamedia Graphics . The film was reported to be a futuristic techno @-@ thriller set in Chennai in around 2200 or 3000 AD . Despite the completion of a photoshoot featuring Haasan and Zinta , the project was shelved as a result of scheduling conflicts with Haasan . Shankar consequently started work on Boys ( 2003 ) .
After Boys , Shankar began work on his next feature starring Vikram , which was initially reported by Rediff to be Robot revived , but was later revealed as Anniyan ( 2005 ) . One month post the release of his action film Sivaji in June 2007 , he approached Shah Rukh Khan for the lead in Robot . Khan was about to produce it under his own banner , Red Chillies Entertainment , but in October the same year the project was officially aborted due to creative differences between the two .
The project was revived in January 2008 with Eros International and the London @-@ based production company Ayngaran International willing to produce the film . The state government of Tamil Nadu granted tax exemptions for films titled in Tamil , resulting in the new production being renamed Enthiran . While Sujatha Rangarajan was originally assigned to write the dialogue for the film , Madhan Karky took over after Rangarajan 's death in February 2008 . In December 2008 , Eros International withdrew after financial difficulties caused by the box @-@ office failure of Drona ( 2008 ) and Yuvvraaj ( 2008 ) , with the subsequent departure of Ayngaran International , who struggled with the global financial crisis of 2008 . The film 's production and release rights were sold to Sun Pictures .
= = = Cast and crew = = =
In January 2008 , Rajinikanth accepted the lead role in the film for a salary of ₹ 450 million ( Indian rupees ) . Shankar rewrote the original script to suit Rajinikanth 's acting style . Although Aishwarya Rai was Shankar 's original choice for the female lead in 2001 , she declined it owing to a busy schedule and was replaced by Zinta . When Shankar revived the project with Rajinikanth , contenders for the part included Deepika Padukone , Shriya Saran and Rai , who was ultimately selected and paid ₹ 60 million . Rai 's voice was dubbed by Savitha Reddy .
Several actors were considered for the role of Professor Bohra , including Amitabh Bachchan , J. D. Chakravarthy , Sathyaraj and British actor Ben Kingsley , but it was Danny Denzongpa who eventually received it , making Enthiran his first film in Tamil . Dubbing for Denzongpa was provided by Kadhir . Comedians Santhanam and Karunas were cast to portray Vaseegaran 's assistants Siva and Ravi respectively in their first collaboration with Shankar .
The soundtrack album and background score were composed by A. R. Rahman . Vairamuthu , P. Vijay and Madhan Karky authored the lyrics for the songs . Manoj Bharathiraja , son of filmmaker P. Bharathiraja , was signed on to be an assistant director after he approached Shankar . Also working as assistant directors were Atlee , Shree and Karthik G. Krish . Sabu Cyril , in a guest appearance as Shah , an interpreter between Bohra and the terrorist organisation , was signed as the art director .
R. Rathnavelu was hired as the cinematographer after Ravi K. Chandran , Nirav Shah and Thiru were considered . Anthony was the film 's editor . Yuen Woo Ping , known for his work in The Matrix trilogy and the Kill Bill films , was selected to be the stunt co @-@ ordinator , while Legacy Effects , a visual effects studio based in the United States , were in charge of the prosthetic make @-@ up and animatronics in the film . Munich @-@ based film technical company , Panther , were responsible for the crane shots . The film 's subtitle captioning was done by Rekha Haricharan .
= = = Costume design = = =
Manish Malhotra and Mary E. Vogt were chosen to design the film 's costumes . Fifty @-@ seven costumes were used for Rai , including a " Mexican tribal " look that she sported during the filming of the " Kilimanjaro " segment . According to make @-@ up artist Banu , no prosthetics were used for Rajinikanth to avoid bothering him by withholding his time on set . Additional make @-@ up was by Vance Hartwell , an employee of Legacy Effects .
The visual appearance of Chitti was based on the G.I. Joe action figures . For Chitti 's " villain robot " look , its hair was spiked and brown coloured lenses were used for its eyes , whereas for its " good robot " look , green coloured lenses were used . The wig used for Chitti 's " villain robot " look had a silver streak in the middle , made out of Yak hair , while its leather jacket was designed by Vogt . To make Vaseegaran look mature , the team made Rajinikanth sport an Oakley beard . Suits made of copper were used for Chitti 's costumes .
= = = Principal photography = = =
For Sabu Cyril 's sets , Shankar required approximately twice as much studio floor space as for his previous film . After rejecting Ramoji Film City for technical reasons , Enthiran 's producer , Kalanithi Maran , took six months to set up three air @-@ conditioned studio floors on land in Perungudi owned by Sun TV Network . Filming began on 15 February 2008 at AVM Studios in Chennai . After the initial stages of filming , Shankar and Rathnavelu toured the world for three weeks , scouting for exotic filming locations . They visited Austria , Germany , Peru , Brazil and Argentina , looking for a backdrop to shoot the " Kilimanjaro " and " Kadhal Anukkal " segments , eventually deciding on Peru and Brazil . " Kilimanjaro " was filmed at the ruins of the Incan city of Machu Picchu in Peru , with some 100 Brazilian extras . It was choreographed by Raju Sundaram and supervised by Fernando Astete , director of the Machu Picchu archaeological park . " Kadhal Anukkal " was filmed in Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in northeastern Brazil .
The set for " Arima Arima " , a sequence choreographed by Prabhu Deva , was designed and constructed by Sabu Cyril at Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad . Filming of the number took place over 22 days in April 2009 . Junior artists were employed by Rathnavelu to wear masks of Rajinikanth . For the sequence entitled " Irumbile Oru Irudhaiyam " , choreographed by Remo D 'Souza and featuring Rai and Rajinikanth as Chitti , three different sets were used : one of copper , one of gold and one in silver . The musical number , which was filmed in AVM Studios for eight days , was the last portion of the film 's principal photography . D 'Souza incorporated the popping style of street dances , but encountered difficulties in performing the dance movements in tandem with the robot , and with the restrictions created by the rigid costumes .
The filming for Chitti 's introduction to the international robotics conference was completed in December 2008 at Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering and Vellore Institute of Technology , where more than 400 students were used as extras . Further footage was shot over five days at the Ennore Port on the Mitsui O.S.K. Lines car carrier , Neptune Ace . An action sequence where Chitti saves Sana from thugs was filmed in Lonavla , under the supervision of the action choreographer Peter Hein . Scenes featuring Rajinikanth as Chitti were captured over five days at the Perungudi Dump Yard in Chennai . Sabu Cyril told Uma Kannan of The New Indian Express that the sets for the climax sequence , which was filmed at Mayajaal , consisted of a tar road and glass buildings which rose to 65 feet ( 20 m ) , and that aluminium composite panels , reported to have cost ₹ 50 million , were also used to design the sets . Principal photography ended on 7 July 2010 .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Impressed with the film 's script , V. Srinivas Mohan became the visual effects supervisor in December 2007 . He asked Shankar to increase the filming schedules by six months to include pre @-@ production requirements . Both Mohan and Shankar visited several visual effects companies , including the New Zealand @-@ based Weta Digital and the United States @-@ based Industrial Light & Magic , Cafe FX and Tippett Studio before partnering with Legacy Effects . The original Eros @-@ Ayngaran visual effects budget was ₹ 700 million , but after Sun Pictures took over production , it was significantly reduced to ₹ 200 million . As a result , the visual effects team had to omit and alter some sequences , making Chitti wear sunglasses for most of the film to reduce the cost and difficultly of animating his eyes .
After a series of previsualisation tests , including a scene in which Chitti jumps on a train to save Sana , Mohan eventually decided to use the technique in 40 out of the 60 visual effects scenes featured in the film , consisting of 2 @,@ 000 takes . Further previsualisation supervision was conducted by P. C. Sanath of Firefly Creative Studios , a visual effects company based in Hyderabad . 3D storyboards were constructed using 3D animation programs for every scene in the film and were shot from different angles . In an interview with Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu , Mohan said that all the pre @-@ production work took one and a half years to complete .
Rathnavelu used the 435 Xtreme camera and also wrote a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ page manual , in which he listed all of the possible angles from which the characters played by Rajinikanth could be filmed . Legacy Effects and the Hong Kong @-@ based visual effects companies Kinomotive Studios and Menfond Electronics took responsibility for the film 's CGI work . To create the robots with Rajinikanth 's appearance , a complete scan of his face in 3D digital format in all possible lighting conditions was conducted using the Doom Light Stage , so that his face could be replicated on the mannequins . The technique , according to Shankar , was previously used in The Curious Case of Benjamin Button ( 2008 ) . The robot Chitti featured in the film was a mannequin made by a Legacy Effects team of 100 technicians in Los Angeles . For every robotic mannequin used , six puppeteers were employed to control the mannequin 's movements .
= = Themes and influences = =
Enthiran focuses on the battle between man and machine . Despite Shankar 's claim that Enthiran was a purely original idea , it has been compared to Mary Shelley 's 1818 novel Frankenstein , owing to the similar personae of Chitti and Frankenstein 's monster , both of which turn against their respective creators . K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake , in their book Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas , noted the similarity between the two works , arguing that Chitti was " manipulated by Bohra to become a Frankenstein @-@ like figure " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Genevieve Koski observed , " The plot of Enthiran is essentially Frankenstein via [ Isaac ] Asimov 's Three Laws of Robotics . "
Director and film critic Sudhish Kamath called Enthiran " a superhero film , a sci @-@ fi adventure , a triangular love story with a hint of the Ramayana " , while remarking that Enthiran 's similarities to The Terminator ( 1984 ) were " more than obvious . Not just visually – where we see the Superstar with one human eye and one scarred metallic eye but also intentionally spelt out when the bad robot announces that he has created Terminators . " Kamath compared two of the film 's robots to C @-@ 3PO and R2 @-@ D2 , droids from the Star Wars film series , which was referenced in Enthiran when Vaseegaran refers to one of his creations as " R2 " .
Although Shankar initially claimed that Enthiran would be made for all audiences , including those lacking computer literacy , the film is influenced by and makes references to many scientific principles relating to the fields of engineering , computer science and robotics , including terabytes and Asimov 's laws of robotics . Visual references are made to the science books A Briefer History of Time ( 2005 ) and Freakonomics ( 2005 ) . In his book Visual Perception and Cultural Memory : Typecast and Typecast ( e ) ing in Malayalam Cinema , Dr. Sujith Kumar Parayil notes the similarities between Kalabhavan Mani 's role in the film to the one Mani played in the Malayalam film Sallapam ( 1996 ) .
= = Music = =
For Enthiran 's soundtrack and score , A. R. Rahman made use of the Continuum Fingerboard , an instrument he had experimented with previously in the song " Rehna Tu " from Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra 's drama film Delhi @-@ 6 ( 2009 ) . The film also marked the debut of Rahman 's daughter Khatija as a playback singer .
The soundtrack album to Enthiran was released on 31 July 2010 at the Putrajaya International Convention Centre in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia . The Tamil and Telugu versions were released by Think Music , while the Hindi version was released by Venus Music . Think Music purchased the release rights of the Tamil and Telugu versions of the album for ₹ 70 million . The album of the film 's Telugu version , Robo , was released on 6 August 2010 , while its Hindi version , Robot , was released on 14 August 2010 . After the second day of release , the album 's Tamil version reached the number one position in the Top 10 World Albums chart on iTunes , making it the first Tamil album to do so .
Reviewing the album 's Tamil version , Divya Kumar of The Hindu commented that " with its blend of melody , trance and rhythm , Enthiran – The Robot sounds like a winner " . Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff.com rated the Tamil version of the album three out of five and commented that , " Endhiran [ sic ] is , in fact , a perfect superstar album . Where the collection does manage to veer from the usual , Rahman has managed to add his own quirky , creative notes to the songs . " However , IANS gave the Hindi version two out of five stars , concluding that " On the whole , the music of Robot does not appeal . They may suit the script of the sci @-@ film , but the audio is not impressive . "
= = Release = =
Enthiran was released on 1 October 2010 in three languages – in Tamil as Enthiran , in Hindi as Robot and in Telugu as Robo . The original version was in Tamil , while the Hindi and Telugu versions were dubbed . The film was released in 2 @,@ 250 theatres worldwide , including 500 theatres in Tamil Nadu , 350 theatres in Andhra Pradesh , 128 theatres in Kerala , 23 theatres in Karnataka , and 750 theatres in North India . With an estimated budget of ₹ 1 @.@ 32 billion , Enthiran was India 's most expensive film up to that point , surpassing the Hindi film Blue ( 2009 ) , which was filmed on a budget of ₹ 750 million .
Enthiran became the first Tamil film to be released at the Colosseum Kino , a Norwegian theatre complex in Oslo , and it was screened at the 21st Bath Film Festival , held in the United Kingdom in 2011 . Additionally , a version of the film , edited to a running length of two hours , was released in Japan in May 2012 , and later screened at the 24th Tokyo International Film Festival , where it won a special award under the section " Winds of Asia – Middle East " . By public demand , the original , unedited version was later released in that country .
= = = Marketing and distribution = = =
The first poster for Enthiran was released on 8 September 2008 . The film 's trailer was released on 11 September 2010 , at the Sathyam Cinemas theatre complex in Chennai . To promote it , AGS Entertainment organised a festival from 25 September 2010 until the film 's release date , in which they screened the popular films of Rajinikanth at the company 's theatre in Villivakkam . In Coimbatore , the Department of Posts printed 100 @,@ 000 post cards advertising the film . Sun Pictures invested a total of ₹ 500 million on promotional activities . Advance bookings for the film began two weeks before the release date in the United States . In the Jackson Heights neighbourhood in New York , tickets were sold out within ten minutes of going on sale .
In Kerala the distribution rights were sold for ₹ 50 million , while in Karnataka they were sold for ₹ 100 million . The distribution rights in Mumbai were sold to Shringar Films . In the United Kingdom , Enthiran was released by Ayngaran International , while Robot was released by B4U Network . The satellite rights were purchased by Sun TV . DVD marketing in India was handled by Moser Baer ; Ayngaran International released the two @-@ DVD set of the film in early 2011 .
= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =
The novelist Aarur Thamizhnadan made a complaint with the Chennai Metropolitan Police against the filmmakers in November 2010 , stating that the producers plagiarised his 1996 novel Jugiba . Thamizhnadan demanded ₹ 10 million from the director and producers for damages and filed a case against Kalanithi Maran . In June 2011 , the Madras High Court dismissed the case after a petition filed by Maran denying the allegation was approved .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Business Line reported that Enthiran grossed ₹ 580 million from all versions in the opening weekend , and The Economic Times stated it earned ₹ 1 @.@ 17 billion by the end of its opening week . The Sun TV Network 's quarterly earnings press release report revealed that the box office collections accounted for approximately 30 per cent of the total revenue for the company 's fourth @-@ quarter in 2010 , while also stating that Enthiran yielded a global revenue of ₹ 1 @.@ 79 billion . Enthiran became the top @-@ earning Indian film of 2010 ahead of My Name Is Khan and Dabangg and became the highest grossing Tamil film of all time at that point . In 2015 , S. S. Rajamouli 's Baahubali : The Beginning surpassed it to become the highest grossing South Indian film of all time .
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = India = = = =
Enthiran received positive reviews from critics in India , with praise particularly directed at Rathnavelu 's cinematography , Cyril 's art direction , Srinivas Mohan 's visual effects and Rajinikanth 's performance as Chitti . Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis gave the film a rating of four out of five stars and believed it had the " best special effects ever seen in a Tamil film " and that it was " one of the most entertaining Tamil films – across all languages – ever made . " Both Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India and Kaveree Bamzai of India Today rated the film four out of five stars . Kazmi called it " the perfect getaway film " . Bamzai praised Rajinikanth 's acting in the film and said , " Rajni tells us why robot sapiens are superior to homo sapiens " .
Both Anupama Chopra of NDTV and Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff.com gave Enthiran a rating of three and a half out of five stars . Chopra criticised the film 's portions in the second half , describing them as " needlessly stretched and cacophonous " , but concluded her review by saying , " Robot rides on Rajinikanth ’ s shoulders and he never stoops under the burden . Aided by snazzy clothes , make @-@ up and special effects , he makes Chitti endearing . " Srinivasan , however , said that Shankar " strikes the balance between science fiction and masala quotient . " She concluded that , " Whichever way you look at it , Endhiran [ sic ] is one of those rare films that give you just enough material to pull you in , and enjoy yourself . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ News18 gave a rating of three out of five stars and said , " In the end , it 's the fantastic special effects and an inspired performance from Rajnikant [ sic ] that keeps the film fresh . " Mayank Shekhar , writing for Hindustan Times , rated it three stars and said , " Leave aside jokes running on the Internet . This film , just a few feet too long , is fine entertainment by itself . "
Malini Mannath of The New Indian Express noted Enthiran for having " An engaging script , brilliant special effects , and a debonair hero who still carries his charisma effortlessly . " Karthik Subramanian of The Hindu observed that actors " tend to get lost in special effects movies . " Subramanian believed it was not the case in Enthiran : " Rajinikanth and [ Aishwarya Rai ] carry the movie on their shoulders , and considering the fact that much of the acting must have been in front of green screens , one has to say that nothing looks artificial right through . " In contrast , Gautaman Bhaskaran of Hindustan Times rated it two out of five stars , writing that " Shankar 's work slips into a loud , overdramatic and exaggerated mess " .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
Enthiran has received a rating of 56 % on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on nine reviews , with an average rating of 4 @.@ 8 / 10 . Lisa Tsering from The Hollywood Reporter said , " Rajinikanth is such a badass that Chuck Norris is afraid of him . " She praised the filming locations , especially the " Kilimanjaro " song sequence , but criticised the length of the film 's climax portions . Genevieve Koski from The A. V. Club believed that Enthiran was " pretty good " and concluded that " if you prefer elaborate costumes and dance music mixed in with your killer @-@ robot action , expect to enjoy up to an hour of Enthiran . " Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle called Enthiran " the best apocalyptic sci @-@ fi @-@ romcom @-@ melodrama @-@ dance @-@ off date movie of the year . " Roger Moore , writing for the Orlando Sentinel , gave a mixed review , evaluating it as a " melodramatic kitschy Indian musical about a robot built for national defense but who discovers his human side . "
Following the film 's screening at the Mumbai International Film Festival , the American film director Oliver Stone praised Enthiran 's originality . Conversely , Joe Leydon of Variety believed that Shankar " riffs on everything " from Frankenstein to The Terminator , but suggested that the film was an " overwhelming mash @-@ up of American @-@ style , f / x @-@ driven sci @-@ fi spectacle and a Bollywood musical . " Akifumi Sugihara , director of the Film Business division of Nikkatsu , stated that the film was " rather unique , interesting , funny and marketable . " Miwako Fujioka , a member of the Japan @-@ based Happinet Corporation , called Enthiran " a Bollywood Transformers type of film with a lot of Indian flavours in it . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
At the 58th National Film Awards , Enthiran won for Best Special Effects and Best Production Design . It won in three categories at the 58th Filmfare Awards South for Best Cinematographer , Best Art Director and Best Costume Design . At the 5th Vijay Awards , it was nominated in fourteen categories and won in seven , including Best Villain and Favourite Hero for Rajinikanth , Favourite Film and Favourite Director . At the 17th Screen Awards , the film won awards under the Best Special Effects and Spectacular Cutting Edge Technology categories .
= = Legacy = =
In a personal appreciation letter to Shankar following the film 's release , the director K. Balachander described Shankar as India 's James Cameron , Enthiran as India 's Avatar ( 2009 ) and Sun Pictures as India 's Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu said that Rajinikanth 's style and mannerisms are similar to his performances in the films Moondru Mudichu ( 1976 ) , Avargal ( 1977 ) and Moondru Mugam ( 1982 ) . Enthiran was the only Tamil film featured on the Internet Movie Database ( IMDb ) list of the 50 best films of 2010 . The film was also included as a case study in a postgraduate elective course of the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad , " Contemporary Film Industry : A Business Perspective " .
Scenes from Enthiran , particularly one known as the " Black Sheep " scene , have been parodied in subsequent films , including Mankatha ( 2011 ) , Osthe ( 2011 ) , Singam II ( 2013 ) , as well as in the Telugu films Dookudu ( 2011 ) and Nuvva Nena ( 2011 ) . In the film , Chitti often introduces himself by stating the clock rate of his central processing unit , which is 1 terahertz ( 1012 hertz ) , and his random @-@ access memory limit , which is 1 zettabyte ( 1021 bytes ) . This introduction dialogue , which is spoken by Chitti as " Hi , I 'm Chitti , speed 1 terahertz , memory 1 zettabyte " became popular . Rajinikanth featured in a cameo role as Chitti in the science @-@ fiction film Ra.One ( 2011 ) .
On Rajinikanth 's 64th birthday , an agency named Minimal Kollywood Posters designed posters of Rajinikanth 's films , in which the Minion characters from the Despicable Me franchise are dressed as Rajinikanth . The digital art was hand drawn on a digital pad by Gautham Raj . One of the posters depicted a mutated Minion , reminiscent of Chitti 's " villain robot " look in Enthiran . In March 2015 , Kamath , in his review of the science fiction film Chappie , compared its eponymous lead character to Chitti in terms of learning human emotions .
= = Spiritual successor = =
In September 2015 , writer Jeyamohan announced that the pre @-@ production stage of a sequel to Enthiran was " going on in full swing " and that principal photography would commence once Rajinikanth finished filming for Kabali , by the end of the year . Nirav Shah will be the cinematographer and A. R. Rahman will return as music director , while Muthuraj will handle the art direction . The sequel will be shot in 3D , unlike its predecessor which was shot in 2D and converted to 3D in post @-@ production . Titled 2 @.@ 0 , the film entered production in December 2015 , for a scheduled 2017 release . The film stars Rajinikanth , reprising his role as Dr. Vaseegaran and Chitti with the additional cast played by Akshay Kumar and Amy Jackson . Resul Pookutty , the sound designer for 2 @.@ 0 revealed in June 2016 that the film will not serve as a sequel , but a spiritual successor .
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= Trinity ( nuclear test ) =
Trinity was the code name of the first detonation of a nuclear weapon , conducted by the United States Army on July 16 , 1945 , as part of the Manhattan Project . The test was conducted in the Jornada del Muerto desert about 35 miles ( 56 km ) southeast of Socorro , New Mexico , on what was then the USAAF Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range ( now part of White Sands Missile Range ) . The only structures originally in the vicinity were the McDonald Ranch House and its ancillary buildings , which scientists used as a laboratory for testing bomb components . A base camp was constructed , and there were 425 people present on the weekend of the test .
The code name " Trinity " was assigned by J. Robert Oppenheimer , the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , inspired by the poetry of John Donne . The test was of an implosion @-@ design plutonium device , informally nicknamed " The Gadget " , of the same design as the Fat Man bomb later detonated over Nagasaki , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 . The complexity of the design required a major effort from the Los Alamos Laboratory , and concerns about whether it would work led to a decision to conduct the first nuclear test . The test was planned and directed by Kenneth Bainbridge .
Fears of a fizzle led to the construction of a steel containment vessel called Jumbo that could contain the plutonium , allowing it to be recovered , but Jumbo was not used . A rehearsal was held on May 7 , 1945 , in which 108 long tons ( 110 t ) of high explosive spiked with radioactive isotopes were detonated . The Gadget 's detonation released the explosive energy of about 22 kilotons of TNT ( 92 TJ ) . Observers included Vannevar Bush , James Chadwick , James Conant , Thomas Farrell , Enrico Fermi , Richard Feynman , Leslie Groves , Robert Oppenheimer , Geoffrey Taylor , and Richard Tolman .
The test site was declared a National Historic Landmark district in 1965 , and listed on the National Register of Historic Places the following year .
= = Background = =
The creation of nuclear weapons arose from scientific and political developments of the 1930s . The decade saw many new discoveries about the nature of atoms , including the existence of nuclear fission . The concurrent rise of fascist governments in Europe led to a fear of a German nuclear weapon project , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries . When their calculations showed that nuclear weapons were theoretically feasible , the British and United States governments supported an all @-@ out effort to build them .
These efforts were transferred to the authority of the U.S. Army in June 1942 , and became the Manhattan Project . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , was appointed its director in September 1942 . The weapons development portion of this project was located at the Los Alamos Laboratory in northern New Mexico , under the directorship of physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer . The University of Chicago , Columbia University and the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California , Berkeley conducted other development work .
Production of the fissile isotopes uranium @-@ 235 and plutonium @-@ 239 were enormous undertakings given the technology of the 1940s , and accounted for 80 % of the total costs of the project . Uranium enrichment was carried out at the Clinton Engineer Works near Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Theoretically , enriching uranium was feasible through pre @-@ existing techniques , but it proved difficult to scale to industrial levels and was extremely costly . Only 0 @.@ 71 percent of natural uranium was uranium @-@ 235 , and it was estimated that it would take 27 @,@ 000 years to produce a gram of uranium with mass spectrometers , but kilogram amounts were required .
Plutonium is a synthetic element with complicated physical , chemical and metallurgical properties . It is not found in nature in appreciable quantities . Until mid @-@ 1944 , the only plutonium that had been isolated had been produced in cyclotrons in microgram amounts , whereas weapons required kilograms . In April 1944 , physicist Emilio Segrè , the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's P @-@ 5 ( Radioactivity ) Group , received the first sample of reactor @-@ bred plutonium from the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge . He discovered that , in addition to the plutonium @-@ 239 isotope , it also contained significant amounts of plutonium @-@ 240 . The Manhattan Project produced plutonium in nuclear reactors at the Hanford Engineer Works near Hanford , Washington .
The longer the plutonium remained irradiated inside a reactor — necessary for high yields of the metal — the greater the content of the plutonium @-@ 240 isotope , which undergoes spontaneous fission at thousands of times the rate of plutonium @-@ 239 . The extra neutrons it released meant that there was an unacceptably high probability that plutonium in a gun @-@ type fission weapon would detonate too soon after a critical mass was formed , producing a " fizzle " — a nuclear explosion many times smaller than a full explosion . This meant that the Thin Man bomb design that the laboratory had developed would not work properly .
The Laboratory turned to an alternative , albeit more technically difficult , design , an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . In September 1943 , mathematician John von Neumann had proposed a design in which a fissile core would be surrounded by two different high explosives that produced shock waves of different speeds . Alternating the faster- and slower @-@ burning explosives in a carefully calculated configuration would produce a compressive wave upon their simultaneous detonation . This so @-@ called " explosive lens " focused the shock waves inward with enough force to rapidly compress the plutonium core to several times its original density . This reduced the size of a critical mass , making it supercritical . It also activated a small neutron source at the center of the core , which assured that the chain reaction began in earnest at the right moment . Such a complicated process required research and experimentation in engineering and hydrodynamics before a practical design could be developed . The entire Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized in August 1944 to focus on design of a workable implosion bomb .
= = Preparation = =
= = = Decision = = =
The idea of testing the implosion device was brought up in discussions at Los Alamos in January 1944 , and attracted enough support for Oppenheimer to approach Groves . Groves gave approval , but he had concerns . The Manhattan Project had spent a great deal of money and effort to produce the plutonium and he wanted to know if there would be a way to recover it . The Laboratory 's Governing Board then directed Norman Ramsey to investigate how this could be done . Ramsey reported back in February 1944 , proposing a small @-@ scale test in which the explosion was limited in size by reducing the number of generations of chain reactions , and that it take place inside a sealed containment vessel from which the plutonium could be recovered .
The means of generating such a controlled reaction were uncertain , and the data obtained would not be as useful as that from a full @-@ scale explosion . Oppenheimer argued that the " implosion gadget must be tested in a range where the energy release is comparable with that contemplated for final use . " In March 1944 , he obtained Groves 's tentative approval for testing a full @-@ scale explosion inside a containment vessel , although Groves was still worried about how he would explain the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate Committee in the event of a failure .
= = = Code name = = =
The exact origin of the code name " Trinity " for the test is unknown , but it is often attributed to Oppenheimer as a reference to the poetry of John Donne , which in turn references the Christian notion of the Trinity ( three @-@ fold nature of God ) . In 1962 , Groves wrote to Oppenheimer about the origin of the name , asking if he had chosen it because it was a name common to rivers and peaks in the West and would not attract attention , and elicited this reply :
I did suggest it , but not on that ground ... Why I chose the name is not clear , but I know what thoughts were in my mind . There is a poem of John Donne , written just before his death , which I know and love . From it a quotation :
As West and East
In all flatt Maps — and I am one — are one ,
So death doth touch the Resurrection .
That still does not make a Trinity , but in another , better known devotional poem Donne opens ,
Batter my heart , three person 'd God .
= = = Organization = = =
In March 1944 , planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge , a professor of physics at Harvard University , working under explosives expert George Kistiakowsky . Bainbridge 's group was known as the E @-@ 9 ( Explosives Development ) Group . Stanley Kershaw , formerly from the National Safety Council , was made responsible for safety . Captain Samuel P. Davalos , the assistant post engineer at Los Alamos , was placed in charge of construction . First Lieutenant Harold C. Bush became commander of the Base Camp at Trinity . Scientists William Penney , Victor Weisskopf and Philip Moon were consultants . Eventually seven subgroups were formed :
TR @-@ 1 ( Services ) under John H. Williams
TR @-@ 2 ( Shock and Blast ) under John H. Manley
TR @-@ 3 ( Measurements ) under Robert R. Wilson
TR @-@ 4 ( Meteorology ) under J. M. Hubbard
TR @-@ 5 ( Spectrographic and Photographic ) under Julian E. Mack
TR @-@ 6 ( Airborne Measurements ) under Bernard Waldman
TR @-@ 7 ( Medical ) under Louis H. Hempelmann
The E @-@ 9 group was renamed the X @-@ 2 ( Development , Engineering and Tests ) Group in the August 1944 reorganization .
= = = Test site = = =
Safety and security required a remote , isolated and unpopulated area . The scientists also wanted a flat area to minimize secondary effects of the blast , and with little wind to spread radioactive fallout . Eight candidate sites were considered : the Tularosa Valley ; the Jornada del Muerto Valley ; the area southwest of Cuba , New Mexico , and north of Thoreau ; and the lava flats of the El Malpais National Monument , all in New Mexico ; the San Luis Valley near the Great Sand Dunes National Monument in Colorado ; the Desert Training Area and San Nicolas Island in Southern California ; and the sand bars of Padre Island , Texas .
The sites were surveyed by car and by air by Bainbridge , R. W. Henderson , Major W. A. Stevens and Major Peer de Silva . The site finally chosen , after consulting with Major General Uzal Ent , the commander of the Second Air Force on September 7 , 1944 , lay at the northern end of the Alamogordo Bombing Range , in Socorro County between the towns of Carrizozo and San Antonio , in the Jornada del Muerto ( 33 @.@ 6773 ° N 106 @.@ 4754 ° W / 33 @.@ 6773 ; -106.4754 ) .
The only structures in the vicinity were the McDonald Ranch House and its ancillary buildings , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the southeast . Like the rest of the Alamogordo Bombing Range , it had been acquired by the government in 1942 . The patented land had been condemned and grazing rights suspended . Scientists used this as a laboratory for testing bomb components . Bainbridge and Davalos drew up plans for a base camp with accommodation and facilities for 160 personnel , along with the technical infrastructure to support the test . A construction firm from Lubbock , Texas built the barracks , officers ' quarters , mess hall and other basic facilities . The requirements expanded and , by July 1945 , 250 people worked at the Trinity test site . On the weekend of the test , there were 425 present .
Lieutenant Bush 's twelve @-@ man military police unit arrived at the site from Los Alamos on December 30 , 1944 . This unit established initial security checkpoints and horse patrols . The distances around the site proved too great for the horses , so they resorted to using jeeps and trucks for transportation . The horses were used for playing polo . Maintenance of morale among men working long hours under harsh conditions along with dangerous reptiles and insects was a challenge . Bush strove to improve the food and accommodation , and to provide organized games and nightly movies .
Throughout 1945 , other personnel arrived at the Trinity Site to help prepare for the bomb test . They tried to use water out of the ranch wells , but found the water so alkaline they could not drink it . They were forced to use U.S. Navy saltwater soap and hauled drinking water in from the firehouse in Socorro . Gasoline and diesel were purchased from the Standard Oil plant there . Military and civilian construction personnel built warehouses , workshops , a magazine and commissary . The railroad siding at Pope , New Mexico , was upgraded by adding an unloading platform . Roads were built , and 200 miles ( 320 km ) of telephone wire was strung . Electricity was supplied by portable generators .
Due to its proximity to the bombing range , the base camp was accidentally bombed twice in May . When the lead plane on a practice night raid accidentally knocked out the generator or otherwise doused the lights illuminating their target , they went in search of the lights , and since they had not been informed of the presence of the Trinity base camp , and it was lit , bombed it instead . The accidental bombing damaged the stables and the carpentry shop , and a small fire resulted .
= = = Jumbo = = =
Responsibility for the design of a containment vessel for an unsuccessful explosion , known as " Jumbo " , was assigned to Robert W. Henderson and Roy W. Carlson of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's X @-@ 2A Section . The bomb would be placed into the heart of Jumbo , and if the bomb 's detonation was unsuccessful , the outer walls of Jumbo would not be breached , making it possible to recover the bomb 's plutonium . Hans Bethe , Victor Weisskopf , and Joseph O. Hirschfelder , made the initial calculations , followed by a more detailed analysis by Henderson and Carlson . They drew up specifications for a steel sphere 13 to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) in diameter , weighing 150 long tons ( 150 t ) and capable of handling a pressure of 50 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 340 @,@ 000 kPa ) . After consulting with the steel companies and the railroads , Carlson produced a scaled @-@ back cylindrical design that would be much easier to manufacture , but still difficult to transport . Carlson identified a company that normally made boilers for the Navy , Babcock & Wilcox , had made something similar and were willing to attempt its manufacture .
As delivered in May 1945 , Jumbo was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) long with walls 14 inches ( 360 mm ) thick , and weighed 214 long tons ( 217 t ) . A special train brought it from Barberton , Ohio , to the siding at Pope , where it was loaded on a large trailer and towed 25 miles ( 40 km ) across the desert by tractors . At the time , it was the heaviest item ever shipped by rail .
For many of the Los Alamos scientists , Jumbo was " the physical manifestation of the lowest point in the Laboratory 's hopes for the success of an implosion bomb . " By the time it arrived , the reactors at Hanford produced plutonium in quantity , and Oppenheimer was confident that there would be enough for a second test . The use of Jumbo would interfere with the gathering of data on the explosion , the primary objective of the test . An explosion of more than 500 tons of TNT ( 2 @,@ 100 GJ ) would vaporize the steel and make it hard to measure the thermal effects . Even 100 tons of TNT ( 420 GJ ) would send fragments flying , presenting a hazard to personnel and measuring equipment . It was therefore decided not to use it . Instead , it was hoisted up a steel tower 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the explosion , where it could be used for a subsequent test . In the end , Jumbo survived the explosion , although its tower did not .
The development team also considered other methods of recovering active material in the event of a dud explosion . One idea was to cover it with a cone of sand . Another was to suspend the bomb in a tank of water . As with Jumbo , it was decided not to proceed with these means of containment either . The CM @-@ 10 ( Chemistry and Metallurgy ) group at Los Alamos also studied how the active material could be chemically recovered after a contained or failed explosion .
= = = 100 @-@ ton test = = =
Because there would be only one chance to carry out the test correctly , Bainbridge decided that a rehearsal be carried out to allow the plans and procedures to be verified , and the instrumentation to be tested and calibrated . Oppenheimer was initially skeptical , but gave permission , and later agreed that it contributed to the success of the Trinity test .
A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high wooden platform was constructed 800 yards ( 730 m ) to the south @-@ east of Trinity ground zero ( 33 @.@ 67123 ° N 106 @.@ 47229 ° W / 33 @.@ 67123 ; -106.47229 ) and 108 long tons ( 110 t ) of TNT were stacked on top of it . Kistiakowsky assured Bainbridge that the explosives used were not susceptible to shock . This was proven correct when some boxes fell off the elevator lifting them up to the platform . Flexible tubing was threaded through the pile of boxes of explosives . A radioactive slug from Hanford with 1 @,@ 000 curies ( 37 TBq ) of beta ray activity and 400 curies ( 15 TBq ) of gamma ray activity was dissolved , and Hempelmann poured it into the tubing .
The test was scheduled for May 5 , but was postponed for two days to allow for more equipment to be installed . Requests for further postponements had to be refused because they would have impacted the schedule for the main test . The detonation time was set for 04 : 00 Mountain Daylight Time , also known as Mountain War time , on May 7 , but there was a 37 @-@ minute delay to allow the observation plane , a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit flown by Major Clyde " Stan " Shields , to get into position .
The fireball of the conventional explosion was visible from Alamogordo Army Air Field 60 miles ( 97 km ) away , but there was little shock at the base camp 10 miles ( 16 km ) away . Shields thought that the explosion looked " beautiful " , but it was hardly felt at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . Herbert L. Anderson practiced using a converted M4 Sherman tank lined with lead to approach the 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep and 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide blast crater and take a sample of dirt , although the radioactivity was low enough to allow several hours of unprotected exposure . An electrical signal of unknown origin caused the explosion to go off 0 @.@ 25 seconds early , ruining experiments that required split @-@ second timing . The piezoelectric gauges developed by Anderson 's team correctly indicated an explosion of 108 tons of TNT ( 450 GJ ) , but Luis Alvarez and Waldman 's airborne condenser gauges were far less accurate .
In addition to uncovering scientific and technological issues , the rehearsal test revealed practical concerns as well . Over 100 vehicles were used for the rehearsal test but it was realized more would be required for the main test , and they would need better roads and repair facilities . More radios were required , and more telephone lines , as the telephone system had become overloaded . Lines needed to be buried to prevent damage by vehicles . A teletype was installed to allow better communication with Los Alamos . A town hall was built to allow for large conferences and briefings , and the mess hall had to be upgraded . Because dust thrown up by vehicles interfered with some of the instrumentation , some 20 miles ( 32 km ) of road was sealed at a cost of $ 5 @,@ 000 a mile .
= = = The Gadget = = =
The term " Gadget " was a laboratory euphemism for a bomb , from which the laboratory 's weapon physics division , " G Division " , took its name in August 1944 . At that time it did not refer specifically to the Trinity Test device as it had yet to be developed , but once it was , it became the laboratory code name . The Trinity Gadget was officially a Y @-@ 1561 device , as was the Fat Man used a few weeks later in the bombing of Nagasaki . The two were very similar , with only minor differences , the most obvious being the absence of fuzing and the external ballistic casing . The bombs were still under development , and small changes continued to be made to the Fat Man design .
To keep the design as simple as possible , a near solid spherical core was chosen rather than a hollow one , although calculations showed that a hollow core would be more efficient in its use of plutonium . The hollow core design was initially pursued , but it was found difficult to produce the more stringent hollow pit implosion requirements that would be necessary . The core 's sub @-@ critical mass was instead manufactured into a geometry that closely resembled a near perfect solid sphere , which could then be compressed to prompt super @-@ criticality by a less technically demanding implosion , generated by the high explosive lens . This design became known as a " Christy Core " or " Christy pit " after physicist Robert F. Christy , who made the solid pit design a reality after it was initially proposed by Edward Teller . Along with the pit , the whole physics package was also informally nicknamed " Christy [ ' s ] Gadget " .
Of the several allotropes of plutonium , the metallurgists preferred the malleable δ phase . This was stabilized at room temperature by alloying it with gallium . Two equal hemispheres of plutonium @-@ gallium alloy were plated with silver , and designated by serial numbers HS @-@ 1 and HS @-@ 2 . The 6 @.@ 19 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 6 lb ) radioactive core generated 15 W of heat , which warmed it up to about 100 to 110 ° F ( 38 to 43 ° C ) , and the silver plating developed blisters that had to be filed down and covered with gold foil ; later cores were plated with nickel instead . The Trinity core consisted of just these two hemispheres . Later cores also included a ring with a triangular cross @-@ section to prevent jets forming in the gap between them .
A trial assembly of the Gadget without the active components or explosive lenses was carried out by the bomb assembly team headed by Norris Bradbury at Los Alamos on July 3 . It was driven to Trinity and back . A set of explosive lenses arrived on July 7 , followed by a second set on July 10 . Each was examined by Bradbury and Kistiakowsky , and the best ones were selected for use . The remainder were handed over to Edward Creutz , who conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon near Los Alamos without nuclear material . This test brought bad news : magnetic measurements of the simultaneity of the implosion seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail . Bethe worked through the night to assess the results , and reported that they were consistent with a perfect explosion .
Assembly of the nuclear capsule began on July 13 at the McDonald Ranch House , where the master bedroom had been turned into a clean room . The polonium @-@ beryllium " Urchin " initiator was assembled , and Louis Slotin placed it inside the two hemispheres of the plutonium core . Cyril Smith then placed the core in the uranium tamper plug , or " slug . " Air gaps were filled with 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mil ( 0 @.@ 013 mm ) gold foil , and the two halves of the plug were held together with uranium washers and screws which fit smoothly into the domed ends of the plug . The completed capsule was then driven to the base of the tower .
At the tower a temporary eyebolt was screwed into the 105 @-@ pound ( 48 kg ) capsule , and a chain hoist was used to lower the capsule into the gadget . As the capsule entered the hole in the uranium tamper , it stuck . Robert Bacher realized that the heat from the plutonium core had caused the capsule to expand , while the explosives assembly with the tamper had cooled during the night in the desert . By leaving the capsule in contact with the tamper , the temperatures equalized and in a few minutes the capsule had slipped completely into the tamper . The eyebolt was then removed from the capsule and replaced with a threaded uranium plug , a boron disk was placed on top of the capsule , an aluminum plug was screwed into the hole in the pusher , and the two remaining high explosive lenses were installed . Finally , the upper Dural polar cap was bolted into place . Assembly was completed at about 16 : 45 on July 13 .
The Gadget was hoisted to the top of a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) steel tower . The height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber , as detonation in the air would maximize the amount of energy applied directly to the target ( as the explosion expanded in a spherical shape ) and would generate less nuclear fallout . The tower stood on four legs that went 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) into the ground , with concrete footings . Atop it was an oak platform , and a shack made of corrugated iron that was open on the western side . The Gadget was hauled up with an electric winch . A truckload of mattresses was placed underneath in case the cable broke and the Gadget fell . The seven man arming party , consisting of Bainbridge , Kistiakowsky , Joseph McKibben and four soldiers including Lieutenant Bush , drove out to the tower to perform the final arming shortly after 22 : 00 on July 15 .
= = = Personnel = = =
In the final two weeks before the test , some 250 personnel from Los Alamos were at work at the Trinity site , and Lieutenant Bush 's command had ballooned to 125 men guarding and maintaining the base camp . Another 160 men under Major T.O. Palmer were stationed outside the area with vehicles to evacuate the civilian population in the surrounding region should that prove necessary . They had enough vehicles to move 450 people to safety , and had food and supplies to last them for two days . Arrangements were made for Alamogordo Army Air Field to provide accommodation . Groves had warned the Governor of New Mexico , John J. Dempsey , that martial law might have to be declared in the southwestern part of the state .
Shelters were established 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) due north , west and south of the tower , known as N @-@ 10 @,@ 000 , W @-@ 10 @,@ 000 and S @-@ 10 @,@ 000 . Each had its own shelter chief : Robert Wilson at N @-@ 10 @,@ 000 , John Manley at W @-@ 10 @,@ 000 and Frank Oppenheimer at S @-@ 10 @,@ 000 . Many other observers were around 20 miles ( 32 km ) away , and some others were scattered at different distances , some in more informal situations . Richard Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the goggles provided , relying on a truck windshield to screen out harmful ultraviolet wavelengths .
Bainbridge asked Groves to keep his VIP list down to just ten . He chose himself , Oppenheimer , Richard Tolman , Vannevar Bush , James Conant , Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , Charles Lauritsen , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Sir Geoffrey Taylor and Sir James Chadwick . The VIPs viewed the test from Compania Hill , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) northwest of the tower . The observers set up a betting pool on the results of the test . Edward Teller was the most optimistic , predicting 45 kilotons of TNT ( 190 TJ ) . He wore gloves to protect his hands , and sunglasses underneath the welding goggles that the government had supplied everyone with . Teller was also one of the few scientists to actually watch the test ( with eye protection ) , instead of following orders to lie on the ground with his back turned . He also brought suntan lotion , which he shared with the others .
Others were less optimistic . Ramsey chose zero ( a complete dud ) , Robert Oppenheimer chose 300 tons of TNT ( 1 @,@ 300 GJ ) ) , Kistiakowsky 1 @,@ 400 tons of TNT ( 5 @,@ 900 GJ ) , and Bethe chose 8 @,@ 000 tons of TNT ( 33 @,@ 000 GJ ) . Rabi , the last to arrive , won the pool with a prediction of 18 @,@ 000 tons of TNT ( 75 @,@ 000 GJ ) . Bethe 's choice of 8 kt was exactly the value calculated by Segrè , with Bethe stating that he was swayed by Segrè 's authority over that of a more junior member of Segrè 's group who had calculated 20 kt . Enrico Fermi offered to take wagers among the top physicists and military present on whether the atmosphere would ignite , and if so whether it would destroy just the state , or incinerate the entire planet . This last result had been previously calculated by Bethe to be almost impossible , although for a while it had caused some of the scientists some anxiety . Bainbridge was furious with Fermi for scaring the guards who , unlike the physicists , did not have the advantage of their knowledge about the scientific possibilities . His own biggest fear was that nothing would happen , in which case he would have to head back to the tower to investigate .
Julian Mack and Berlyn Brixner were responsible for photography . The photography group employed some fifty different cameras , taking motion and still photographs . Special Fastax cameras taking 10 @,@ 000 frames per second would record the minute details of the explosion . Spectrograph cameras would record the wavelengths of light emitted by the explosion , and pinhole cameras would record gamma rays . A rotating drum spectrograph at the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) station would obtain the spectrum over the first hundredth of a second . Another , slow recording one would track the fireball . Cameras were placed in bunkers only 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the tower , protected by steel and lead glass , and mounted on sleds so they could be towed out by the lead @-@ lined tank . Some observers brought their own cameras despite the security . Segré brought in Jack Aeby 's 35 mm Perfex 44 . It would take the only known well @-@ exposed color photograph of the detonation explosion .
= = Explosion = =
= = = Detonation = = =
The scientists wanted good visibility , low humidity , light winds at low altitude and westerly winds at high altitude for the test . The best weather was predicted between July 18 and 21 , but the Potsdam Conference was due to start on July 16 and President Harry S. Truman wanted the test to be conducted before the conference began . It was therefore scheduled for July 16 , the earliest date at which the bomb components would be available .
The detonation was initially planned for 04 : 00 MWT but was postponed because of rain and lightning from early that morning . It was feared that the danger from radiation and fallout would be increased by rain , and lightning had the scientists concerned about a premature detonation . A crucial favorable weather report came in at 04 : 45 , and the final twenty @-@ minute countdown began at 05 : 10 , read by Samuel Allison . By 05 : 30 the rain had gone . There were some communication problems . The shortwave radio frequency for communicating with the B @-@ 29s was shared with the Voice of America , and the FM radios shared a frequency with a railroad freight yard in San Antonio , Texas .
Two circling B @-@ 29s observed the test , with Shields again flying the lead plane . They carried members of Project Alberta , who would carry out airborne measurements during the atomic missions . These included Captain Deak Parsons , the Associate Director of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the head of Project Alberta ; Luis Alvarez , Harold Agnew , Bernard Waldman , Wolfgang Panofsky and William Penney . The overcast obscured their view of the test site .
At 05 : 29 : 21 MWT ( ± 2 seconds ) , the device exploded with an energy equivalent to around 20 kilotons of TNT ( 84 TJ ) . The desert sand , largely made of silica , melted and became a mildly radioactive light green glass , which was named trinitite . It left a crater in the desert 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide . At the time of detonation , the surrounding mountains were illuminated " brighter than daytime " for one to two seconds , and the heat was reported as " being as hot as an oven " at the base camp . The observed colors of the illumination changed from purple to green and eventually to white . The roar of the shock wave took 40 seconds to reach the observers . It was felt over 100 miles ( 160 km ) away , and the mushroom cloud reached 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) in height .
Ralph Carlisle Smith , watching from Compania Hill , wrote :
I was staring straight ahead with my open left eye covered by a welder 's glass and my right eye remaining open and uncovered . Suddenly , my right eye was blinded by a light which appeared instantaneously all about without any build up of intensity . My left eye could see the ball of fire start up like a tremendous bubble or nob @-@ like mushroom . I dropped the glass from my left eye almost immediately and watched the light climb upward . The light intensity fell rapidly hence did not blind my left eye but it was still amazingly bright . It turned yellow , then red , and then beautiful purple . At first it had a translucent character but shortly turned to a tinted or colored white smoke appearance . The ball of fire seemed to rise in something of toadstool effect . Later the column proceeded as a cylinder of white smoke ; it seemed to move ponderously . A hole was punched through the clouds but two fog rings appeared well above the white smoke column . There was a spontaneous cheer from the observers . Dr. von Neumann said " that was at least 5 @,@ 000 tons and probably a lot more . "
In his official report on the test , Farrell wrote :
The lighting effects beggared description . The whole country was lighted by a searing light with the intensity many times that of the midday sun . It was golden , purple , violet , gray , and blue . It lighted every peak , crevasse and ridge of the nearby mountain range with a clarity and beauty that cannot be described but must be seen to be imagined ...
William L. Laurence of The New York Times had been transferred temporarily to the Manhattan Project at Groves 's request in early 1945 . Groves had arranged for Laurence to view significant events , including Trinity and the atomic bombing of Japan . Laurence wrote press releases with the help of the Manhattan Project 's public relations staff . He later recalled that
A loud cry filled the air . The little groups that hitherto had stood rooted to the earth like desert plants broke into dance , the rhythm of primitive man dancing at one of his fire festivals at the coming of Spring .
After the initial euphoria of witnessing the explosion had passed , Bainbridge told Oppenheimer , " Now we are all sons of bitches . " Rabi noticed Oppenheimer 's reaction : " I 'll never forget his walk ; " Rabi recalled , " I 'll never forget the way he stepped out of the car ... his walk was like High Noon ... this kind of strut . He had done it . "
Oppenheimer later recalled that , while witnessing the explosion , he thought of a verse from the Hindu holy book , the Bhagavad Gita ( XI , 12 ) :
कालोऽस ् मि लोकक ् षयकृत ् प ् रवृद ् धो लोकान ् समाहर ् तुमिह प ् रवृत ् तः । ऋतेऽपि त ् वां न भविष ् यन ् ति सर ् वे येऽवस ् थिताः प ् रत ् यनीकेषु योधाः ॥ ११- ३२ ॥
If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky , that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time :
We knew the world would not be the same . A few people laughed , a few people cried . Most people were silent . I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture , the Bhagavad Gita ; Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince that he should do his duty and , to impress him , takes on his multi @-@ armed form and says , ' Now I am become Death , the destroyer of worlds . ' I suppose we all thought that , one way or another .
John R. Lugo was flying a U.S. Navy transport at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Albuquerque , en route to the west coast . " My first impression was , like , the sun was coming up in the south . What a ball of fire ! It was so bright it lit up the cockpit of the plane . " Lugo radioed Albuquerque . He got no explanation for the blast but was told , " Don 't fly south . "
= = = Energy measurements = = =
The T ( Theoretical ) Division at Los Alamos had predicted a yield of between 5 and 10 kilotons of TNT ( 21 and 42 TJ ) . Immediately after the blast , the two lead @-@ lined Sherman tanks made their way to the crater . Radiochemical analysis of soil samples that they collected indicated that the total yield ( or energy release ) had been around 18 @.@ 6 kilotons of TNT ( 78 TJ ) .
Fifty beryllium @-@ copper diaphragm microphones were also used to record the pressure of the blast wave . These were supplemented by mechanical pressure gauges . These indicated a blast energy of 9 @.@ 9 kilotons of TNT ( 41 TJ ) ± 0 @.@ 1 kilotons of TNT ( 0 @.@ 42 TJ ) , with only one of the mechanical pressure gauges working correctly that indicated 10 kilotons of TNT ( 42 TJ ) .
Fermi prepared his own experiment to measure the energy that was released as blast . He later recalled that :
About 40 seconds after the explosion the air blast reached me . I tried to estimate its strength by dropping from about six feet small pieces of paper before , during , and after the passage of the blast wave . Since , at the time , there was no wind I could observe very distinctly and actually measure the displacement of the pieces of paper that were in the process of falling while the blast was passing . The shift was about 2 1 / 2 meters , which , at the time , I estimated to correspond to the blast that would be produced by ten thousand tons of T.N.T.
There were also several gamma ray and neutron detectors , although few survived the blast , with all the gauges within 200 feet ( 61 m ) of ground zero being destroyed , however sufficient data were recovered to measure the gamma ray component of the ionizing radiation released .
The official estimate for the total yield of the Trinity gadget , which includes the energy of the blast component together with the contributions from the explosion 's light output and both forms of ionizing radiation , is 21 kilotons of TNT ( 88 TJ ) , of which about 15 kilotons of TNT ( 63 TJ ) was contributed by fission of the plutonium core , and about 6 kilotons of TNT ( 25 TJ ) was from fission of the natural uranium tamper . However , a re @-@ analysis of data published in 2016 put the yield at 22 @.@ 1 kilotons of TNT ( 92 TJ ) , with a margin of error estimated at 2 @.@ 7 kilotons of TNT ( 11 TJ ) .
As a result of the data gathered on the size of the blast , the detonation height for the bombing of Hiroshima was set at 1 @,@ 885 feet ( 575 m ) to take advantage of the mach stem blast reinforcing effect . The final Nagasaki burst height was 1 @,@ 650 feet ( 500 m ) so the Mach stem started sooner . The knowledge that implosion worked led Oppenheimer to recommend to Groves that the uranium @-@ 235 used in a Little Boy gun @-@ type weapon could be used more economically in a composite core with plutonium . It was too late to do this with the first Little Boy , but the composite cores would soon enter production .
= = = Civilian detection = = =
Civilians noticed the bright lights and huge explosion . Groves therefore had the Second Air Force issue a press release with a cover story that he had prepared weeks before :
Alamogordo , N.M. , July 16
The commanding officer of the Alamogordo Army Air Base made the following statement today : " Several inquiries have been received concerning a heavy explosion which occurred on the Alamogordo Air base reservation this morning . A remotely located ammunition magazine containing a considerable amount of high explosives and pyrotechnics exploded . There was no loss of life or injury to anyone , and the property damage outside of the explosives magazine was negligible . Weather conditions affecting the content of gas shells exploded by the blast may make it desirable for the Army to evacuate temporarily a few civilians from their homes . "
The press release was written by Laurence . He had prepared four releases , covering outcomes ranging from an account of a successful test ( the one which was used ) to catastrophic scenarios involving serious damage to surrounding communities , evacuation of nearby residents , and a placeholder for the names of those killed . As Laurence was a witness to the test he knew that the last release , if used , might be his own obituary . A newspaper article published the same day stated that " the blast was seen and felt throughout an area extending from El Paso to Silver City , Gallup , Socorro , and Albuquerque . " An Associated Press article quoted a blind woman 150 miles ( 240 km ) away who asked " What 's that brilliant light ? " These articles appeared in New Mexico , but East Coast newspapers ignored them .
Information about the Trinity test was made public shortly after the bombing of Hiroshima . The Smyth Report , released on August 12 , 1945 , gave some information on the blast , and the edition released by Princeton University Press a few weeks later incorporated the War Department 's press release on the test as Appendix 6 , and contained the famous pictures of a " bulbous " Trinity fireball . Groves , Oppenheimer and other dignitaries visited the test site in September 1945 , wearing white canvas overshoes to prevent fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes .
= = = Official notifications = = =
The results of the test were conveyed to the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson at the Potsdam Conference in Germany in a coded message from his assistant George L. Harrison :
Operated on this morning . Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations . Local press release necessary as interest extends great distance . Dr. Groves pleased . He returns tomorrow . I will keep you posted .
The message arrived at the " Little White House " in the Potsdam suburb of Babelsberg and was at once taken to Truman and Secretary of State James F. Byrnes . Harrison sent a follow @-@ up message which arrived on the morning of July 18 :
Doctor has just returned most enthusiastic and confident that the little boy is as husky as his big brother . The light in his eyes discernible from here to High Hold and I could have heard his screams from here to my farm .
Because Stimson 's summer home at High Hold was on Long Island and Harrison 's farm near Upperville , Virginia , this indicated that the explosion could be seen 200 miles ( 320 km ) away and heard 50 miles ( 80 km ) away .
= = = Fallout = = =
Film badges used to measure exposure to radioactivity indicated that no observers at N @-@ 10 @,@ 000 had been exposed to more than 0 @.@ 1 roentgens , but the shelter was evacuated before the radioactive cloud could reach it . The explosion was more efficient than expected and the thermal updraft drew most of the cloud high enough that little fallout fell on the test site . The crater was far more radioactive than expected due to the formation of trinitite , and the crews of the two lead @-@ lined Sherman tanks were subjected to considerable exposure . Anderson 's dosimeter and film badge recorded 7 to 10 roentgens , and one of the tank drivers , who made three trips , recorded 13 to 15 roentgens .
The heaviest fallout contamination outside the restricted test area was 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the detonation point , on Chupadera Mesa . The fallout there was reported to have settled in a white mist onto some of the livestock in the area , resulting in local beta burns and a temporary loss of dorsal or back hair . Patches of hair grew back discolored white . The Army bought 75 cattle in all from ranchers ; the 17 most significantly marked were kept at Los Alamos , while the rest were shipped to Oak Ridge for long @-@ term observation .
Unlike the 100 or so atmospheric nuclear explosions later conducted at the Nevada Test Site , fallout doses to the local inhabitants have not been reconstructed for the Trinity event , due primarily to scarcity of data . In 2014 , a National Cancer Institute study commenced that will attempt to close this gap in the literature and complete a Trinity radiation dose reconstruction for the population of the state of New Mexico .
In August 1945 , shortly after the bombing of Hiroshima , the Kodak Company observed spotting and fogging on their film , which was at that time usually packaged in cardboard containers . Dr. J. H. Webb , a Kodak employee , studied the matter and concluded that the contamination must have come from a nuclear explosion somewhere in the United States . He discounted the possibility that the Hiroshima bomb was responsible due to the timing of the events . A hot spot of fallout contaminated the river water that the paper mill in Indiana used to manufacture the cardboard pulp from corn husks . Aware of the gravity of his discovery , Dr. Webb kept this secret until 1949 .
This incident along with the next continental US tests in 1951 set a precedent . In subsequent atmospheric nuclear tests at the Nevada test site , United States Atomic Energy Commission officials gave the photographic industry maps and forecasts of potential contamination , as well as expected fallout distributions , which enabled them to purchase uncontaminated materials and take other protective measures .
= = Site today = =
In September 1953 , about 650 people attended the first Trinity Site open house . Visitors to a Trinity Site open house are allowed to see the ground zero and McDonald Ranch House areas . More than seventy years after the test , residual radiation at the site is about ten times higher than normal background radiation in the area . The amount of radioactive exposure received during a one @-@ hour visit to the site is about half of the total radiation exposure which a U.S. adult receives on an average day from natural and medical sources .
On December 21 , 1965 , the 51 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 20 @,@ 800 ha ) Trinity Site was declared a National Historic Landmark district , and on October 15 , 1966 , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The landmark includes the base camp , where the scientists and support group lived ; ground zero , where the bomb was placed for the explosion ; and the McDonald ranch house , where the plutonium core to the bomb was assembled . One of the old instrumentation bunkers is visible beside the road just west of ground zero . An inner oblong fence was added in 1967 , and the corridor barbed wire fence that connects the outer fence to the inner one was completed in 1972 . Jumbo was moved to the parking lot in 1979 ; it is missing its ends from an attempt to destroy it in 1946 using eight 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs . The Trinity monument , a rough @-@ sided , lava @-@ rock obelisk about 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high , marks the explosion 's hypocenter . It was erected in 1965 by Army personnel from the White Sands Missile Range using local rocks taken from the western boundary of the range . A simple metal plaque read : " Trinity Site Where the World 's First Nuclear Device Was Exploded on July 16 , 1945 . " A second memorial plaque on the obelisk was prepared by the Army and the National Park Service , and was unveiled on the 30th anniversary of the test in 1975 .
A special tour of the site was conducted on July 16 , 1995 , to mark the 50th anniversary of the Trinity test . About 5 @,@ 000 visitors arrived to commemorate the occasion , the largest crowd for any open house . Since then , the open houses have usually averaged two to three thousand visitors . The site is still a popular destination for those interested in atomic tourism , though it is only open to the public twice a year during the Trinity Site Open House on the first Saturdays of April and October . In 2014 , the White Sands Missile Range announced that due to budgetary constraints , the site would only be open once a year , on the first Saturday in April . In 2015 , this decision was reversed , and two events were scheduled , in April and October . The base commander , Brigadier General Timothy R. Coffin , explained that :
Trinity Site is a national historic testing landmark where the theories and engineering of some of the nation 's brightest minds were tested with the detonation of the first nuclear bomb , technologies which then helped end World War II . It is important for us to share Trinity with the public even though the site is located inside a very active military test range . We have travelers from as far away as Australia who travel to visit this historic landmark . Facilitating access twice per year allows more people the chance to visit this historic site .
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= Jason Voorhees =
Jason Voorhees is a fictional character from the Friday the 13th series . He first appeared in Friday the 13th ( 1980 ) as the young son of camp cook @-@ turned @-@ murderer , Mrs. Voorhees , in which he was portrayed by Ari Lehman . Created by Victor Miller , with contributions by Ron Kurz , Sean S. Cunningham , and Tom Savini , Jason was not originally intended to carry the series as the main antagonist . The character has subsequently been represented in various other media , including novels , video games , comic books , and a cross @-@ over film with another iconic horror film character , Freddy Krueger .
The character has primarily been an antagonist in the films , whether by stalking and killing the other characters , or acting as a psychological threat to the protagonist , as is the case in Friday the 13th : A New Beginning . Since Lehman 's portrayal , the character has been represented by numerous actors and stuntmen , sometimes by more than one at a time ; this has caused some controversy as to who should receive credit for the portrayal . Kane Hodder is the best known of the stuntmen to portray Jason Voorhees , having played the character in four consecutive films .
The character 's physical appearance has gone through many transformations , with various special makeup effects artists making their mark on the character 's design , including makeup artist Stan Winston . Tom Savini 's initial design has been the basis for many of the later incarnations . The trademark hockey goalie mask did not appear until Friday the 13th Part III . Since Friday the 13th Part VI : Jason Lives , filmmakers have given Jason superhuman strength , regenerative powers , and near invulnerability . He has been seen as a sympathetic character , whose motivation for killing has been cited as being driven by the immoral actions of his victims and his own rage over having drowned as a child . Jason Voorhees has been featured in various humor magazines , referenced in feature films , parodied in television shows , and was the inspiration for a horror punk band . Several toy lines have been released based on various versions of the character from the Friday the 13th films . Jason Voorhees 's hockey mask is a widely recognized image in popular culture .
= = Appearances = =
Jason Voorhees first appears during a nightmare of the main character Alice ( Adrienne King ) in the original Friday the 13th film ; he becomes the main antagonist of the series in its sequels . As well as the films , there have been books and comics that have either expanded the universe of Jason , or been based on a minor aspect of him .
= = = Films = = =
Jason made his first cinematic appearance in the original Friday the 13th on May 9 , 1980 . In this film , 10 @-@ year @-@ old Jason is portrayed in the memories of his mother , Mrs. Voorhees ( Betsy Palmer ) , and as a hallucination of the film 's protagonist , Alice . Though the character makes no contemporary appearance onscreen , he propels the film 's plot — Mrs. Voorhees , the cook at Camp Crystal Lake , seeks revenge for his death , which she blames on the camp counselors . Jason 's second appearance was in the sequel , Friday the 13th Part 2 ( 1981 ) . Revealed to be alive , an adult Jason exacts revenge on Alice for decapitating his mother in the original film . Jason ( Warrington Gillette ) , returns to Crystal Lake , living there as a hermit and guarding it from all intruders . Five years later a group of teenagers arrive to set up a new camp , only to be murdered one by one by Jason , who wears a pillow case over his head to hide his face . Ginny ( Amy Steel ) , the lone survivor , finds a cabin in the woods with a shrine built around the severed head of Mrs. Voorhees , and surrounded by mutilated corpses . Ginny fights back and slams a machete through Jason 's shoulder . Jason is left for dead as Ginny is taken away in an ambulance . In Friday the 13th Part III ( 1982 ) , Jason ( Richard Brooker ) escapes to a nearby lake resort , Higgins Haven , to rest from his wounds . At the same time , Chris Higgins ( Dana Kimmell ) returns to the property with some friends . An unmasked and reclusive Jason kills anyone who wanders into the barn where he is hiding . Taking a hockey mask from a victim to hide his face , he leaves the barn to kill the rest of the group . Chris fends off Jason by slamming an axe into his head , but the night 's events drive her into hysteria as the police take her away .
Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter ( 1984 ) continues the story , with a presumed @-@ dead Jason ( Ted White ) found by the police and taken to the morgue . Jason awakens at the morgue and kills an attendant and a nurse , and makes his way back to Crystal Lake . A group of teens renting a house there fall victim to Jason 's rampage . Jason then seeks out Trish ( Kimberly Beck ) and Tommy Jarvis ( Corey Feldman ) next door . While Trish distracts Jason , Tommy evidently kills him with his own machete . Friday the 13th : A New Beginning follows Tommy Jarvis ( John Shepherd ) , who was committed to a mental hospital after the events of The Final Chapter , and has grown up constantly afraid that Jason ( Tom Morga ) will return . Jason 's body was supposedly cremated after Tommy killed him . Roy Burns ( Dick Wieand ) uses Jason 's persona to become a copycat killer at the halfway home to which Tommy was moved . Jason appears in the film only through Tommy 's dreams and hallucinations . In Friday the 13th Part VI : Jason Lives ( 1986 ) , Tommy ( Thom Mathews ) , who has run away from a mental institution , visits Jason 's grave and learns that Jason 's body was never actually cremated , but buried in a cemetery near Crystal Lake . While attempting to destroy his body , Tommy inadvertently resurrects Jason ( C. J. Graham ) via a piece of cemetery fence that acts as a lightning rod . Now possessing superhuman abilities , Jason returns to Crystal Lake , now renamed Forest Green , and begins his killing spree anew . Tommy eventually lures Jason back to the lake where he drowned as a child and chains him to a boulder on the lake floor , leaving him for dead .
Friday the 13th Part VII : The New Blood ( 1988 ) begins an undisclosed amount of time after Jason Lives . Jason ( Kane Hodder ) is freed from his chains by the telekinetic Tina Shepard ( Lar Park Lincoln ) , who was attempting to resurrect her father . Jason begins killing those who occupy Crystal Lake , and after a battle with Tina , is dragged back to the bottom of the lake by an apparition of Tina 's father . Friday the 13th Part VIII : Jason Takes Manhattan ( 1989 ) sees Jason return from the grave , brought back to life via an underwater electrical cable . He follows a group of students on their senior class trip to Manhattan , boarding the Lazarus to wreak havoc . Upon reaching Manhattan , Jason kills all the survivors but Rennie ( Jensen Daggett ) and Sean ( Scott Reeves ) ; he chases them into the sewers , where he is transformed into a child by toxic waste . Jason Goes to Hell : The Final Friday ( 1993 ) marked the second time Jason was officially killed according to studio canon . Through an unexplained resurrection , he returns to Crystal Lake , where he is hunted by the FBI . The FBI sets up a sting to kill Jason , which proves successful . Through mystical possession , however , Jason survives by passing his demon @-@ infested heart from one being to the next . Though Jason does not physically appear throughout most of the film , it is learned he has a half @-@ sister and a niece , and that he needs them to retrieve and reinhabit his body . After resurrecting it , Jason is stabbed by his niece Jessica Kimble ( Kari Keegan ) and dragged into Hell .
Jason X ( 2002 ) marked Kane Hodder 's last performance as Jason . The film starts off in 2010 ; Jason has returned after an unexplained resurrection . Captured by the U.S. government in 2008 , Jason is being experimented upon in a research facility , where it has been determined that he has regenerative capabilities and that cryonic suspension is the only possible solution to stop him , since numerous attempts to execute him have proved unsuccessful . Jason escapes , killing all but one of his captors , and slices through the cryo @-@ chamber , spilling cryonics fluid into the room , freezing himself and the only other survivor , Rowan ( Lexa Doig ) . A team of students 445 years later discover Jason 's body . On the team 's spacecraft , Jason thaws from his cryonic suspension and begins killing the crew . Along the way , he is enhanced by a regenerative nanotechnology process , which gives him an impenetrable metal body . Finally , he is ejected into space and falls to the planet Earth 2 , burning in the atmosphere .
Set before the events of Jason X , Freddy vs. Jason ( 2003 ) is a crossover film in which Jason battles A Nightmare on Elm Street 's villain Freddy Krueger ( Robert Englund ) , a supernatural killer who murders people in their dreams . Krueger has grown weak , as people in his home town of Springwood have suppressed their fear of him . Freddy , who is impersonating Jason 's mother ( Paula Shaw ) , resurrects Jason ( Ken Kirzinger ) from Hell and sends him to Springwood to cause panic and fear . Jason accomplishes this , but refuses to stop killing . A battle ensues in both the dream world and Crystal Lake . The identity of the winner is left ambiguous , as Jason surfaces from the lake holding Freddy 's severed head , which winks and laughs .
In the 2009 Friday the 13th reboot , young Jason ( Caleb Guss ) witnesses his mother 's ( Nana Visitor ) beheading as a child and follows in her footsteps , killing anyone who comes to Crystal Lake . The adult Jason ( Derek Mears ) kidnaps Whitney Miller ( Amanda Righetti ) , a girl who looks like his mother , and holds her prisoner in his underground tunnels . Months later , Whitney 's brother Clay ( Jared Padalecki ) comes to Crystal Lake and rescues her . Eventually , Whitney uses Jason 's devotion to his mother against him , stabbing him with his own machete while he is distracted when she appears .
= = = Literature = = =
Jason first appeared outside of film in the 1982 novelization of Friday the 13th Part 3 by Michael Avallone . Avallone chose to use an alternate ending , which was filmed for Part 3 but never used , as the ending for his 1982 adaptation . In the alternate film ending , Chris , who is in the canoe , hears Rick 's voice and immediately rushes back to the house . When she opens the door , Jason is standing there with a machete , and he decapitates her . Jason next appears in print in the 1986 novelization of Jason Lives by Simon Hawke , who also adapted the first three films in 1987 and 1988 . Jason Lives specifically introduced Elias Voorhees , Jason 's father , a character that was slated to appear in the film but was cut by the studio . In the novel , instead of being cremated , Elias has Jason buried after his death .
Jason made his comic book debut in the 1993 adaptation of Jason Goes to Hell , written by Andy Mangels . The three @-@ issue series was a condensed version of the film , with a few added scenes that were never shot . Jason made his first appearance outside of the direct adaptations in Satan 's Six No. 4 , published in 1993 , which is a continuation of the events of Jason Goes to Hell . In 1995 , Nancy A. Collins wrote a three @-@ issue , non @-@ canonical miniseries involving a crossover between Jason and Leatherface . The story involves Jason stowing away aboard a train , after being released from Crystal Lake when the area is drained due to heavy toxic waste dumping . Jason meets Leatherface , who adopts him into his family after the two become friends . Eventually they turn on each other . In 1994 four young adult novels were released under the title of Friday the 13th . They did not feature Jason explicitly , but revolve around people becoming possessed by Jason when they put on his mask .
In 2003 and 2005 , Black Flame published novelizations of Freddy vs. Jason and Jason X respectively . In 2005 they began publishing a new series of novels ; one set was published under the Jason X title , while the second set utilized the Friday the 13th title . The Jason X series consisted of four sequels to the novelization of the film . Jason X : The Experiment was the first published . In this novel , Jason is being used by the government , who are trying to use his indestructibility to create their own army of " super soldiers " . Planet of the Beast follows the efforts of Dr. Bardox and his crew as they try to clone the body of a comatose Jason , and shows their efforts to stay alive when Jason wakes from his coma . Death Moon revolves around Jason crash @-@ landing at Moon Camp Americana . Jason is discovered below a prison site and unknowingly awakened in To The Third Power . Jason has a son in this book , conceived through a form of artificial insemination .
On May 13 , 2005 , Avatar Press began releasing new Friday the 13th comics . The first , titled Friday the 13th , was written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Greg Waller . The story takes place after the events of Freddy vs. Jason , where siblings Miles and Laura Upland have inherited Camp Crystal Lake . Knowing that Jason caused the recent destruction , Laura , unknown to her brother , sets out to kill Jason using a paramilitary group , so that she and her brother can sell the property . A three @-@ issue miniseries titled Friday the 13th : Bloodbath was released in September 2005 . Written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Andrew Dalhouse , the story involves a group of teenagers who come from Camp Tomorrow , a camp that sits on Crystal Lake , for work and a " party @-@ filled weekend " . The teenagers discover they share common family backgrounds , and soon awaken Jason , who hunts them . Brian Pulido returned for a third time in October 2005 to write Jason X. Picking up after the events of the Jason X film , Über @-@ Jason is now on Earth II where a biological engineer , Kristen , attempts to subdue Jason , in hopes that she can use his regenerative tissue to save her own life and the lives of those she loves . In February 2006 Avatar published Friday the 13th : Jason vs. Jason X. Written and illustrated by Mike Wolfer , the story takes place after the events of the film Jason X. A salvage team discovers the spaceship Grendel and awakens a regenerated Jason Voorhees . The " original " Jason and Über @-@ Jason are drawn to each other , resulting in a battle to the death . In June 2006 a one @-@ shot comic entitled Friday the 13th : Fearbook was released , written by Mike Wolfer with art by Sebastian Fiumara . The comic has Jason being captured and experimented upon by the Trent Organization ; Jason escapes and seeks out Violet , the survivor of Friday the 13th : Bloodbath , who is being contained by the Trent Organization in their Crystal Lake headquarters .
The Friday the 13th novella storyline was not connected to the Jason X series , and did not continue the stories set forth by the films , but furthered the character of Jason in its own way . Friday the 13th : Church of the Divine Psychopath has Jason resurrected by a religious cult . Jason is stuck in Hell , when recently executed serial killer Wayne Sanchez persuades Jason to help him return to Earth in Friday the 13th : Hell Lake . In Hate @-@ Kill @-@ Repeat , two religious serial killers attempt to find Jason at Crystal Lake , believing that the three of them share the same contempt for those that break the moral code . In The Jason Strain , Jason is on an island with a group of convicts placed there by television executives running a reality game show . The character of Pamela Voorhees returns from the grave in Carnival of Maniacs . Pamela is in search of Jason , who is now part of a traveling sideshow and about to be auctioned off to the highest bidder .
In December 2006 DC Comics imprint Wildstorm began publishing new comic books about Jason Voorhees under the Friday the 13th moniker . The first set was a six @-@ issue miniseries involving Jason 's return to Camp Crystal Lake , which is being renovated by a group of teenagers in preparation for its reopening as a tourist attraction . The series depicts various paranormal phenomena occurring at Crystal Lake . Jason 's actions in this storyline are driven by the vengeful spirits of a Native American tribe wiped out on the lake by fur traders sometime in the 19th century . On July 11 and August 15 , 2007 , Wildstorm published a two @-@ part special entitled Friday the 13th : Pamela 's Tale . The two @-@ issue comic book covers Pamela Voorhees ' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie , a camp counselor who was killed in the original film . Wildstorm released another two @-@ part special , entitled Friday the 13th : How I Spent My Summer Vacation , that was released on September 12 and October 10 , 2007 . The comic book provides new insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity . Wildstorm released a six @-@ issue series called Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash , starring the two killers and Ash from the Evil Dead series . In this story , Freddy uses the Necronomicon , which is in the Voorhees ' basement , to escape from Jason 's subconscious and " gain powers unlike anything he 's had before " . Freddy attempts to use Jason to retrieve the book , stating it will make him a real boy . Ash , who is working at the local S @-@ Mart in Crystal Lake , learns of the book 's existence and sets out to destroy it . Wildstorm released another two @-@ issue miniseries on January 9 and February 13 , 2008 , titled Friday the 13th : Bad Land , written and illustrated by Ron Marz and Mike Huddleston respectively . The miniseries features Jason stalking a trio of teenaged hikers taking shelter from a blizzard in Camp Crystal Lake .
A sequel to Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash , subtitled The Nightmare Warriors , was released by Wildstorm in 2009 . Jason escapes from the bottom of Crystal Lake to resume his hunt for Ash , but is captured by the U.S. government . Freddy helps him escape and appoints him the general of his Deadite army , using the Necronomicon to heal his accumulated injuries and decomposition ; it removes his natural deformities in the process . At the climax of the story , Jason battles his nemesis Tommy Jarvis and his great @-@ niece Stephanie Kimble ; Stephanie impales him before Tommy decapitates him with a shard of glass . Jason 's soul is then absorbed by Freddy , who uses it to increase his own power .
= = Concept and creation = =
= = = Creating a monster = = =
Initially created by Victor Miller , Jason 's final design was a combined effort by Miller , Ron Kurz , and Tom Savini . The name " Jason " is a combination of " Josh " and " Ian " , Miller 's two sons , and " Voorhees " was inspired by a girl that Miller knew at high school whose last name was Van Voorhees . Miller felt it was a " creepy @-@ sounding name " , which was perfect for his character . Miller initially wrote Jason as a normal @-@ looking child , but the crew behind the film decided he needed to be deformed . Victor Miller explained Jason was not meant to be a creature from the " Black Lagoon " in his script , and scripted Jason as a mentally disabled young boy ; it was Savini who made Jason deformed . Ron Kurz confirmed that Miller 's version of Jason was that of a normal child , but claims that it was his idea to turn Jason into a " mongoloid creature " , and have him " jump out of the lake at the end of the film " . Miller later agreed the ending would not have been as good if he looked like " Betsy Palmer at eight years old " . Miller wrote a scene where Alice dreams she is attacked in a canoe by Jason , and then she wakes up in a hospital bed . Miller 's intention was to get as close to Carrie 's ending as possible . Savini believed having Jason pop out of the lake would be psychologically disturbing to the audience , and since Alice is supposed to be dreaming , the crew could get away with adding anything they wanted .
When it came time to cast the role of Jason , Ari Lehman , who had received a part in Sean Cunningham 's Manny 's Orphans , arrived to read for the character of Jack . Before he could get started , Cunningham walked in and offered him a different part : Jason . Without having read a single word , Cunningham just looked at Ari and said , " You 're the right size , you 've got it . " In the original Friday the 13th , Ari Lehman is seen only in a brief flashback as the surprise ending . Subsequent actors who portrayed a young Jason include Timothy Burr Mirkovich in Jason Takes Manhattan and Spencer Stump in Freddy vs. Jason . The adult role of Jason Voorhees has been played by various actors , some not credited , others taking great pride in their parts . Due to the physical demands the adult character requires , and the lack of emotional depth depicted , many of the actors since have been stuntmen . The most well @-@ known among them is Kane Hodder , who is cited as the best to play the role .
Many ideas were suggested for the sequel to Friday the 13th , including making the title part of a serialized franchise , where each succeeding film would be its own story and not related to any previous film under the Friday the 13th moniker . It was Phil Scuderi , one of the producers for the original film , which suggested bringing Jason back for the sequel . The director Steve Miner felt it was the obvious direction to take the series , as he felt the audience wanted to know more about the child who attacked Alice in the lake . Miner decided to pretend as if Alice did not see the " real Jason " in her dream , and Jason had survived his drowning as a boy and had grown up . After killing Jason in The Final Chapter , it was the director Joseph Zito 's intention to leave the door open for the studio to make more films with Tommy Jarvis as the main antagonist . Screenwriter Barney Cohen felt Jarvis would become a substitute for Jason , but the idea was never fully developed in A New Beginning . Director and co @-@ screenwriter Danny Steinmann disliked the idea of Jason not being the killer , but decided to use Tommy 's fear of Jason as the primary story . This idea was immediately abandoned in Jason Lives , when A New Beginning did not spark the " creative success " the studio was looking for . Executive producer Frank Mancuso , Jr. wanted to bring Jason back , and he did not care how it was achieved . In yet another alteration of the series ' continuity , Tom McLoughlin chose to ignore the idea that Jason had survived his drowning , instead presenting him as always having been some sort of supernatural force . Since A New Beginning , no sequel has attempted to replace Jason as the main antagonist . Miller , who has not seen any of the sequels , took issue with all of them because they made Jason the villain . Miller believes the best part of his screenplay was that it was about a mother avenging the senseless death of her son . Miller stated , " Jason was dead from the very beginning ; he was a victim , not a villain . "
= = = Men behind the mask = = =
Jason Voorhees went from deceased child to full @-@ grown man for Friday the 13th Part 2 , and Warrington Gillette was hired to play the role . Gillette auditioned for the role of Paul ; that role eventually went to John Furey . Under the belief that he had attended the Hollywood Stuntman 's School , Gillette was offered the role of Jason Voorhees . Initially Gillette was unsure about the character , but the idea of starring in his first film grew on Gillette , and he also thought the role was amusing . It became apparent Gillette could not perform the necessary stunts , so the stunt coordinator Cliff Cudney brought in Steve Daskawisz . Daskawisz filmed all of the scenes except the opening sequence and the unmasking shot at the end ; Gillette returned for the unmasking scenes . Gillette received credit for playing Jason , while Daskawisz was given credit as the stunt double . When Part 3 was released the following year , Daskawisz was credited as Jason for the reused footage from the climax of the film . Initially , Daskawisz was asked to return to the role for Part 3 , but it would have required him to pay for his own transportation and housing during filming . Having secured a part on Guiding Light , Daskawisz declined .
Now wanting a " bigger and stronger @-@ looking " Jason , one that was also " more athletic and powerful " , Steve Miner hired former British trapeze artist Richard Brooker . After a simple conversation , Miner decided he was the right person for the job . Being new to the country , Brooker believed that " playing a psychopathic killer " was the best way into the movie business . Brooker became the first actor to wear Jason 's now @-@ signature hockey mask . According to Brooker , " It felt great with the mask on . It just felt like I really was Jason because I didn 't have anything to wear before that . " For The Final Chapter , Joseph Zito brought his own spin to the character , one that required a " real hardcore stuntman " ; Ted White was hired to perform the role . White , who only took the job for the money , did " get into the Jason psychology " when he arrived on the set . White went so far as to not speak to any of the other actors for long stretches . As filming continued , White 's experience was not pleasant , and in one instance , he went to battle for co @-@ star Judie Aronson , who played Samantha , when the director kept her naked in the lake for extended periods of time . Displeased with his experience from filming , White had his name removed from the credits . As with Friday the 13th Part 2 , there was confusion over who performed the role in A New Beginning , partly because Jason is not the literal antagonist in the film . When Ted White turned down the opportunity to return , Dick Wieand was cast . Wieand is credited as Roy Burns , the film 's actual murderer , but it was stuntman Tom Morga who performed in the few flashes of Jason , as well as portraying Roy in almost all of the masked scenes . Wieand has been outspoken about his lack of enthusiasm over his role in the film . Feeling alienated during the shoot , Wieand spent most of his time in his trailer . By comparison , Morga enjoyed his time as Jason and made sure he " really got into the character " .
A nightclub manager in Glendale , C. J. Graham , was interviewed for the role of Jason in Jason Lives , but was initially passed over because he had no experience as a stuntman . Dan Bradley was hired , but Paramount executives felt Bradley did not have the right physique to play the role , and Graham was hired to replace him . Although Bradley was replaced early during filming , he can be seen in the paintball sequence of the film . Graham opted to perform most of his own stunts , including the scene where Jason catches on fire while battling Tommy in the lake . The rest of the cast spoke highly of Graham , remarking that he never complained during all the uncomfortable situations he was placed in . Graham had no intention of being an actor or a stuntman , but the idea of playing the " bad guy " , and the opportunity to wear the prosthetics , intrigued him . Graham was not brought back to reprise the role , but has often been cited as speaking highly of his time in the part .
Kane Hodder took over the role in The New Blood , and played Jason in the next four films . He previously worked alongside director John Carl Buechler on a film called Prison . Based on his experience working with Hodder , Buechler petitioned Frank Mancuso Jr. to hire him , but Mancuso was apprehensive about Hodder 's limited size . Knowing he planned to use full body prosthetics , Buechler scheduled a test screening , the first in Friday the 13th history for the character , and Mancuso immediately gave Hodder approval upon seeing him . It is Buechler 's contention that Hodder gave Jason his first true personality , based on the emotions , specifically the rage , that Hodder would emit while acting the part . According to Hodder , he wanted to " get in touch with Jason 's thirst for revenge " and try to better understand his motivation to kill . After viewing the previous films , Hodder decided that he would approach Jason as a more " quick and agile " individual than he had been portrayed in the previous sequels . John Carl Buechler felt that Kane had " natural affinity for the role " — so much that Kane 's appearance , when wearing the mask , would often terrify the cast , the crew , and in one incident a lone stranger that he came across on his walk back to his trailer . Initially Frank Mancuso Jr. and Barbara Sachs planned to use a Canadian stuntperson for Jason Takes Manhattan . Hodder acted as his own voice , calling and requesting that he be allowed to reprise the role ; the ultimate decision was left to director Rob Hedden , who intended to use Hodder , because he felt Hodder knew the lore of the series . With Sean Cunningham 's return as producer for Jason Goes to Hell , Hodder felt his chances of reprising the role were even better : Hodder had worked as Cunningham 's stunt coordinator for years . Regardless , Adam Marcus , the director for Jason Goes to Hell , always intended to hire Hodder for the role . Jason X would mark Hodder 's last performance as Jason , to date . Todd Farmer , who wrote the screenplay for Jason X , knew Hodder would play Jason from the beginning . Jim Isaac was a fan of Hodder 's work on the previous films , so hiring him was an easy decision .
New Line believed Freddy vs. Jason needed a fresh start , and choose a new actor for Jason . Cunningham disagreed with their decision , believing Hodder was the best choice for the role . Hodder did receive the script for Freddy vs. Jason , and had a meeting with director Ronny Yu and New Line executives , but Matthew Barry and Yu felt the role should be recast to fit Yu 's image of Jason . According to Hodder , New Line failed to provide him with a reason for the recasting , but Yu has explained he wanted a slower , more deliberate Jason , and less of the aggressive movements that Hodder had used in the previous films . Yu and development executive Jeff Katz recognized the outcry among fans over the replacement of Hodder as Jason , but stood by their choice in recasting .
The role eventually went to Ken Kirzinger , a Canadian stuntperson who worked on Jason Takes Manhattan . There are conflicting reports over the reason Kirzinger was cast . According to Yu , Kirzinger was hired because he was taller than Robert Englund , the actor who portrays Freddy Krueger . Kirzinger stands 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) , compared to the 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) of Kane Hodder , and Yu wanted a much larger actor to tower over the 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) Englund . Kirzinger believes his experience on Part VIII helped him land the part , as Kirzinger doubled for Hodder on two scenes for the film , but also believes he was simply sized up and handed the job . Although he was hired by the creative crew , New Line did not officially cast Kirzinger until first seeing him on film . Kirzinger 's first scene was Jason walking down Elm Street . New Line wanted a specific movement in Jason 's walk ; Kirzinger met their expectations and signed a contract with the studio . However , concerns that test audiences were confused by the film 's original ending caused the studio to reshoot the final scene . Actor Douglas Tait was brought in to film the new ending , as he was available for the reshoot and had been the production 's second choice to portray the role of Jason during the original casting .
For the 2009 remake , stuntman Derek Mears was hired to portray Jason Voorhees at the recommendation of makeup special effects supervisor Scott Stoddard . Mears 's pleasant demeanor had the studio worried about his ability to portray such a menacing character on screen , but Mears assured them he would be able to perform the role . When Mears auditioned for the role he was asked why they should hire an actor over just another guy in a mask . As Mears explained , portraying Jason is similar to Greek mask work , where the mask and the actor are two separate entities , and , based on the scene , there will be various combinations of mask and actor in the performance .
= = = Design = = =
The physical design of Jason Voorhees has gone through changes , some subtle and some radical . For Friday the 13th , the task of coming up with Jason 's appearance was the responsibility of Tom Savini , whose design for Jason was inspired by someone Savini knew as a child whose eyes and ears did not line up straight . The original design called for Jason to have hair , but Savini and his crew opted to make him bald , so he would look like a " hydrocephalic , mongoloid pinhead " , with a dome @-@ shaped head . Savini created a plaster mold of Ari Lehman 's head and used that to create prosthetics for his face . Lehman personally placed mud — from the bottom of the lake — all over his body to make himself appear " really slimy . "
For Part 2 , Steve Miner asked Carl Fullerton , the make @-@ up effects supervisor , to stick to Savini 's original design , but Fullerton only had one day to design and sculpt a new head . Fullerton drew a rough sketch of what he believed Jason should look like , and had it approved by Miner . Fullerton added long hair to the character . Gillette had to spend hours in a chair as they applied rubber forms all over his face , and had to keep one eye closed while the " droopy eye " application was in place . Gillette 's eye was closed for twelve hours at a time while he was filming the final scenes of the film . False teeth created by a local dentist were used to distort Gillette 's face . Much of the basic concept of Fullerton 's design was eliminated for Part 3 . Miner wanted to use a combination of the designs from Tom Savini and Carl Fullerton , but as work progressed the design began to lean more and more toward Savini 's concept . Stan Winston was hired to create a design for Jason 's head , but the eyes were level and Doug White , the make @-@ up artist for Part 3 , needed a droopy right eye . White did keep Winston 's design for the back of the head , because the crew did not have the time to design an entirely new head for Jason . The process of creating Jason 's look was hard work for White , who had to constantly make alterations to Richard Brooker 's face , even up to the last day of filming .
The script for Part 3 called for Jason to wear a mask to cover his face , having worn a bag over his head in Part 2 ; what no one knew at the time was that the mask chosen would become a trademark for the character , and one instantly recognizable in popular culture in the years to come . During production , Steve Miner called for a lighting check . None of the effects crew wanted to apply any make @-@ up for the light check , so they decided to just throw a mask on Brooker . The film 's 3D effects supervisor , Martin Jay Sadoff , was a hockey fan , and had a bag of hockey gear with him on the set . He pulled out a Detroit Red Wings goaltender mask for the test . Miner loved the mask , but it was too small . Using a substance called VacuForm , Doug White enlarged the mask and created a new mold to work with . After White finished the molds , Terry Ballard placed red triangles on the mask to give it a unique appearance . Holes were punched into the mask and the markings were altered , making it different from Sadoff 's mask . There were two prosthetic face masks created for Richard Brooker to wear underneath the hockey mask . One mask was composed of approximately 11 different appliances and took about six hours to apply to Brooker 's face ; this mask was used for scenes where the hockey mask was removed . In the scenes where the hockey mask is over the face , a simple head mask was created . This one @-@ piece mask would slip on over Brooker 's head , exposing his face but not the rest of his head .
Tom Savini agreed to return to make @-@ up duties for The Final Chapter because he felt he should be the one to bring Jason full circle in terms of his look from child to man . Savini used his design from the original Friday the 13th , with the same practice of application as before , but molded from Ted White 's face . Since Jason is not the actual killer in A New Beginning , it was not necessary to do any major designing for Jason 's look . Only a head mask to cover the top and back of the head , like the one Brooker wore while wearing the hockey mask , was needed for the film . Make @-@ up artist Louis Lazzara , who cites A New Beginning as almost a direct sequel to The Final Chapter , did base his head @-@ mask on Tom Savini 's design for The Final Chapter .
Friday the 13th Part VII : The New Blood sought to make Jason more of a " classic monster along the lines of Frankenstein . " From the beginning , Buechler tried to tie the previous films together by having Jason 's appearance reflect that of the damage he received in the previous installments . Buechler wanted the motor boat damage from Jason Lives , and the axe and machete cuts Jason received in Part 3 and Part 4 to part of the design for The New Blood . Since Jason had been submerged under water in the previous entry , the effects team wanted Jason to appear " rotted " , with bones and ribs showing , and for Jason 's features to have a more defined feel to them . Howard Berger was inspired by Carl Fullerton 's design in The New Blood , and wanted to incorporate the exposed flesh concept into his model for Jason Goes to Hell . Berger designed Jason 's skin to overlap with the mask , to make it appear as if the skin and mask had fused and the mask could no longer be removed . Gregory Nicotero and Berger sculpted a full @-@ body , foam latex suit for Kane Hodder to wear under the costume . The idea was to reveal as much of Jason 's skin as possible , because Nicotero and Berger knew the physical character would not be seen for most of the film .
Stephen Dupuis was given the task of redesigning Jason for the tenth Friday the 13th film . One concept brought into the film was Jason 's regenerative abilities . Dupuis gave the character more hair and more of a natural flesh appearance to illustrate the constant regeneration the character goes through ; Dupuis wanted a more " gothic " design for Jason , so he added chains and shackles , and made the hockey mask more angular . Jim Isaac and the rest of his crew wanted to create an entirely new Jason at some point in the film . The idea was for the teens to completely destroy Jason 's body , allowing the futuristic technology to bring him back to life . What was referred to as Über @-@ Jason was designed to have chunks of metal growing from his body , bonded by tendrils that grew into the metal , all pushing through a leather suit . The metal was created from VacuForm , the same material used to increase the size of the original hockey mask , and was attached by Velcro . The tendrils were made from silicone . All of the pieces were crafted onto one suit , including an entire head piece , which Hodder wore . The make @-@ up effects team added zippers along the side of the suit , which allowed Hodder to enter and exit the suit within 15 minutes .
By the time Freddy vs. Jason entered production there had been ten previous Friday the 13th films . Make @-@ up effects artist Terezakis wanted to put his own mark on Jason 's look — he wanted Jason to be less rotted and decomposed and more defined , so that the audience would see a new Jason , but still recognized the face . Terezakis tried to keep continuity with the previous films , but recognized that had he followed them too literally , then " Jason would have been reduced to a pile of goo . " Ronny Yu wanted everything surrounding the hockey mask to act as a frame , making the mask the focal point of each shot . To achieve this , Terezakis created a " pooled @-@ blood look " for the character by painting the skin black , based on the idea the blood had pooled in the back of his head because he had been lying on his back for a long time . As with other make @-@ up artists before him , Terezakis followed Savini 's original skull design , and aged it appropriately .
For the 2009 version of Friday the 13th , effects artist Scott Stoddard took inspiration from Carl Fullerton 's design in Friday the 13th Part 2 and Tom Savini 's work in Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter . Stoddard wanted to make sure that Jason appeared human and not like a monster . Stoddard 's vision of Jason includes hair loss , skin rashes , and the traditional deformities in his face , but he attempted to craft Jason 's look in a way that would allow for a more human side to be seen . Stoddard took inspiration from the third and fourth films when designing Jason 's hockey mask . The make @-@ up artist managed to acquire an original set piece , which he studied and later sculpted . Although he had a model of one of the original masks , Stoddard did not want to replicate it in its entirety . As Stoddard explains , " Because I didn 't want to take something that already existed , there were things I thought were great , but there were things I wanted to change a bit . Make it custom , but keep all the fundamental designs . Especially the markings on the forehead and cheeks . Age them down a bit , break them up . " In the end , Stoddard crafted six versions of the mask , each with varying degrees of wear .
= = Characteristics = =
In his original appearance , Jason was scripted as a mentally disabled young boy . Since Friday the 13th , Jason Voorhees has been depicted as a non @-@ verbal , indestructible , machete @-@ wielding mass murderer . Jason is primarily portrayed as being completely silent throughout the film series . Exceptions to this include flashbacks of Jason as a child , and a brief scene in Jason Takes Manhattan where the character cries out " Mommy , please don 't let me drown ! " in a child 's voice before being submerged in toxic waste , and in Jason Goes To Hell where his spirit possesses other individuals . Online magazine Salon 's Andrew O 'Hehir describes Jason as a " silent , expressionless ... blank slate . " When discussing Jason psychologically , Sean S. Cunningham said , " ... he doesn 't have any personality . He 's like a great white shark . You can 't really defeat him . All you can hope for is to survive . " Since Friday the 13th Part VI : Jason Lives , Jason has been a " virtually indestructible " being . Tom McLoughlin , the film 's director , felt it was silly that Jason had previously been just another guy in a mask , who would kill people left and right , but get " beaten up and knocked down by the heroine at the end " . McLoughlin wanted Jason to be more of a " formidable , unstoppable monster " . In resurrecting Jason from the dead , McLoughlin also gave him the weakness of being rendered helpless if trapped beneath the waters of Crystal Lake ; inspired by vampire lore , McLoughlin decided that Jason had in fact drowned as a child , and that returning him to his original resting place would immobilize him . This weakness would be presented again in The New Blood , and the idea that Jason had drowned as a child was taken up by director Rob Hedden as a plot element in Jason Takes Manhattan .
Many have given suggestions as Jason 's motivation for killing . Ken Kirzinger refers to Jason as a " psychotic mama 's boy gone horribly awry ... very resilient . You can 't kill him , but he feels pain , just not like everyone else . " Kirzinger goes on to say that Jason is a " psycho @-@ savant " , and believes his actions are based on pleasing his mother , and not anything personal . Andrew O 'Hehir has stated , " Coursing hormones act , of course , as smelling salts to prudish Jason , that ever @-@ vigilant enforcer of William Bennett @-@ style values . " Todd Farmer , writer for Jason X , wrote the scene where Jason wakes from cryonic hibernation just as two of the teenagers are having sex . Farmer liked the idea that sex acts triggered Jason back to life . Whatever his motivations , Kane Hodder believes there is a limit to what he will do . According to Hodder , Jason might violently murder any person he comes across , but when Jason Takes Manhattan called for Hodder to kick the lead character 's dog , Hodder refused , stating that , while Jason has no qualms against killing humans , he is not bad enough to hurt animals . Another example from Jason Takes Manhattan , involves Jason being confronted by a street gang of young teenage boys one of whom threatens him with a knife , however Jason chooses not to kill them and instead scares them off by lifting up his mask and showing them his face . Likewise , director Tom McLoughlin chose not to have Jason harm any of the children he encounters in Jason Lives , stating that Jason would not kill a child , out of a sympathy for the plight of children generated by his own death as a child .
In an early draft of Freddy vs. Jason , it was decided that one of the villains needed a redeemable factor . Ronald D. Moore , co @-@ writer of the first draft , explained that Jason was the easiest to make redeemable , because no one had previously ventured into the psychology surrounding the character . Moore saw the character as a " blank slate " , and felt he was a character the audience could really root for . Another draft , penned by Mark Protosevich , followed Moore 's idea of Jason having a redeemable quality . In the draft , Jason protects a pregnant teenager named Rachel Daniels . Protosevich explained , " It gets into this whole idea of there being two kinds of monsters . Freddy is a figure of actual pure evil and Jason is more like a figure of vengeance who punishes people he feels do not deserve to live . Ultimately , the two of them clash and Jason becomes an honorable monster . " Writers Damian Shannon and Mark Swift , who wrote the final draft of the film , disagreed about making Jason a hero , although they drew comparisons between the fact that Freddy was a victimizer and Jason was a victim . They stated , " We did not want to make Jason any less scary . He 's still a brutal killer ... We never wanted to put them in a situation where Jason is a hero ... They 're both villains to be equally feared . " Brenna O 'Brien , co @-@ founder of Fridaythe13thfilms.com , saw the character as having sympathetic qualities . She stated , " [ Jason ] was a deformed child who almost drowned and then spent the rest of his childhood growing up alone in the woods . He saw his mother get murdered by a camp counselor in the first Friday the 13th , and so now he exacts his revenge on anyone who returns to Camp Crystal Lake . Teenage fans can identify with that sense of rejection and isolation , which you can 't really get from other killers like Freddy Krueger and Michael Myers . "
As Jason went through some characterization changes in the 2009 film , Derek Mears likens him more to a combination of John Rambo , Tarzan , and the Abominable Snowman from Looney Tunes . To him , this Jason is similar to Rambo because he sets up the other characters to fall into his traps . Like Rambo , he is more calculated because he feels that he has been wronged and he is fighting back ; he is meant to be more sympathetic in this film . Fuller and Form contend that they did not want to make Jason too sympathetic to the audience . As Brad Fuller explains , " We do not want him to be sympathetic . Jason is not a comedic character , he is not sympathetic . He 's a killing machine . Plain and simple . "
In 2005 , California State University 's Media Psychology Lab surveyed 1 @,@ 166 people Americans aged from 16 to 91 on the psychological appeal of movie monsters . Many of the characteristics associated with Jason Voorhees were appealing to the participants . In the survey , Jason was considered to be an " unstoppable killing machine . " Participants were impressed by the " cornucopic feats of slicing and dicing a seemingly endless number of adolescents and the occasional adult . " Out of the ten monsters used in the survey — which included vampires , Freddy Krueger , Frankenstein 's monster , Michael Myers , Godzilla , Chucky , Hannibal Lecter , King Kong , and the Alien — Jason scored the highest in all the categories involving killing variables . Further characteristics that appealed to the participants included Jason 's " immortality , his apparent enjoyment of killing [ and ] his superhuman strength . "
= = In popular culture = =
Jason Voorhees is one of the leading cultural icons of American popular culture . In 1992 Jason was awarded the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award . He was the first of only three completely fictional characters to be presented the award ; Godzilla ( 1996 ) and Chewbacca ( 1997 ) are the others . Jason was named No. 26 in Wizard magazine 's " 100 greatest villains of all time " . Universal Studios theme parks , in collaboration with New Line Cinema , used the character for their Halloween Horror Nights event .
The character has been produced and marketed as merchandise over the years . In 1988 Screamin ' Toys produced a model kit where owners could build their own Jason statuette . The kit required the owner to cut and paint various parts in order to assemble the figure . Six years later , Screamin ' Toys issued a new model kit for Jason Goes to Hell . Both kits are now out of production . McFarlane Toys released two toy lines , one in 1998 and the other in 2002 . The first was a figure of Jason from Jason Goes to Hell , and the other was of Über @-@ Jason from Jason X. Since McFarlane 's last toy line in 2002 , there has been a steady production of action figures , dolls , and statuettes . These include tie @-@ ins with the film Freddy vs. Jason ( 2003 ) . In April 2010 Sideshow Toys released a polystone statue of Jason , based on the version appearing in the 2009 remake .
Jason has made an appearance in four video games . He first appeared in a 1985 Commodore 64 game . His next appearance was in 1989 , when LJN , an American game company known for its games based on popular movies in the 1980s and early 1990s , released Friday the 13th on the Nintendo Entertainment System . The premise involved the gamer , who picks one of six camp counselors as their player , trying to save the campers from Jason , while battling various enemies throughout the game . On October 13 , 2006 , a Friday the 13th game was released for mobile phones . The game puts the user in the persona of Jason as he battles the undead . Jason also appears as a playable character in the fighting game Mortal Kombat X as a downloadable content bonus character .
The character has been referenced , or made cameo appearances , in various entertainment mediums . Outside of literature sources based on the character , Jason has been featured in a variety of magazines and comic strips . Cracked magazine has released several issues featuring parodies of Jason , and he has been featured on two of their covers . Mad magazine has featured the character in almost a dozen stories . He has appeared twice in the comic strip Mother Goose and Grimm .
Many musical artists have made references to Jason Voorhees . Inspired by his own experience , Ari Lehman founded a band called FIRSTJASON . Lehman 's band is classified as horror punk , and is influenced by the sounds of the Dead Kennedys and The Misfits . The band 's name pays homage to Lehman 's portrayal of Jason Voorhees in the original Friday the 13th . One of the band 's songs is entitled " Jason is Watching " . In 1986 , coinciding with the release of Jason Lives , Alice Cooper released " He 's Back ( The Man Behind the Mask ) " from his album Constrictor . The song was written to " signal Jason 's big return " to the cinema , as he had been almost entirely absent in the previous film . Rapper Eminem has referenced Jason in several of his songs . The song " Criminal " , from the album The Marshall Mathers LP , mentions Jason specifically , while songs " Amityville " and " Off the Wall " — the latter featured fellow rapper Redman — contain Harry Manfredini 's music " ki , ki , ki ... ma , ma , ma " from the film series . Eminem sometimes wears a hockey mask during concerts . Other rap artists that have referenced Jason include Tupac Shakur , Dr. Dre , LL Cool J , and Insane Clown Posse . In 1989 , Puerto Rican rapper Vico C had a song titled " Viernes 13 " which featured Jason in Puerto Rico . The song was so popular in the island that Vico C wrote a second part titled " Viernes 13 , Parte II " . VH1 issued an advertisement for their Vogue Fashion Awards which was labeled " Friday the 20th " , and featured Jason 's mask created out of rhinestone .
Jason has been referenced or parodied in other films . In the film Scream , directed by Freddy Krueger creator Wes Craven , actress Drew Barrymore 's character is being stalked by a killer who calls her on her home phone . In order to survive , she must answer the man 's trivia questions . One question is " name the killer in Friday the 13th . " She incorrectly guesses Jason , who did not become the killer for the franchise until Part 2 . Writer Kevin Williamson claimed his inspiration for this scene came when he asked this question in a bar while a group was playing a movie trivia quiz game . He received a free drink , because nobody got the answer right . In another Wes Craven film , Cursed , a wax sculpture of Jason , from Jason Goes to Hell , can be seen in a wax museum .
Jason has also been referenced by several television shows . The stop motion animated television show Robot Chicken features Jason in three of its comedy sketches . In episode seventeen , " Operation : Rich in Spirit " , the mystery @-@ solving teenagers from Scooby @-@ Doo arrive at Camp Crystal Lake to investigate the Jason Voorhees murders , and are killed off one by one . Velma is the only survivor , and in typical Scooby @-@ Doo fashion , she rips off Jason 's mask to reveal his true identity : Old Man Phillips . In episode nineteen , " That Hurts Me " , Jason reappears , this time as a housemate of " Horror Movie Big Brother " , alongside other famous slasher movie killers such as Michael Myers , Freddy Krueger , Leatherface , Pinhead , and Ghostface . Three years later , in episode sixty @-@ two , Jason is shown on the days before and after a typical Friday the 13th . Jason is spoofed in the season five episode of Family Guy entitled " It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One " . The so @-@ called " Mr. Voorhees " explains to Asian reporter Trisha Takanawa how happy he is to see local wildlife return following the cleanup and rejuvenation of Lake Quahog . He reappears later in the episode as the manager of the " Britches and Hose " clothing store . As opposed to his monstrous personality in the films , Jason is depicted here as polite and articulate , albeit still a psychopath ; he murders random swimmers and threatens to kill his employee if she screws up . In an episode of The Simpsons , Jason appears in a Halloween episode sitting on the couch with Freddy Krueger waiting for the family to arrive . When Freddy asks where the family is , Jason responds , " Ehh , whaddya gonna do ? " and turns the TV on . He also appears in The Simpsons episode " Stop , or My Dog Will Shoot ! " , alongside Pinhead , menacing Bart in a fantasy sequence . The South Park episodes " Imaginationland Episode II " and " III " feature Jason among an assortment of other villains and monsters as an inhabitant of the " bad side " of Imaginationland , a world populated by fictional characters . This version of Jason has an effeminate voice and describes the removal of Strawberry Shortcake 's eyeball as " super hardcore " . Experimental pop artist Eric Millikin created a large mosaic portrait of Jason Voorhees out of Halloween candy and spiders as part of his " Totally Sweet " series in 2013 .
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= Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! =
Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! is the debut studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . It was released on June 12 , 1985 , through Combat Records . At the beginning of 1985 , the band was given $ 8 @,@ 000 by Combat to record and produce its debut album . After spending half of the album 's budget on drugs , alcohol and food , the band was forced to fire their original producer and produce the album themselves . Despite the resulting poor production , the album was a well @-@ received effort that obtained strong reviews in various music publications . Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! played an essential role in establishing thrash metal as an authentic subgenre of heavy metal music . It explores themes of death , violence , and occultism .
The album features a controversial cover of " These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' " and the track " Mechanix " , a song frontman Dave Mustaine originally wrote for Metallica . A deluxe edition , completely remixed and remastered with several bonus tracks , was released through Loud Records in 2002 . It features vastly different artwork , with its cover based on the version originally designed by Mustaine in 1985 . All songs from the album were performed frequently during Megadeth 's initial tour but have been steadily dropped from the setlist since .
= = Background = =
Dave Mustaine served as the lead guitarist for Metallica during their early days . However , due to drinking , substance abuse , violent behavior , and personality conflicts with band mates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich , Mustaine was soon fired from Metallica . Two months after being dismissed , he and bassist David Ellefson formed Megadeth in Los Angeles . Mustaine later recalled : " After getting fired from Metallica , all I remember is that I wanted blood . Theirs . I wanted to be faster and heavier than them . " Fueled by the desire for revenge , Mustaine elevated the intensity of Megadeth 's music in order to challenge his former band . He sped up existing songs such as " Mechanix " , which Metallica 's new line @-@ up adapted into the slower paced " The Four Horsemen " . Mustaine included his original version of the song on the album to " straighten Metallica up " , as Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar .
After unsuccessfully searching for a vocalist for nearly six months , Mustaine decided to handle the vocal duties himself , while also serving as the band 's primary lyricist , main songwriter and co @-@ lead and rhythm guitarist . Early in 1984 , Megadeth recorded a three song demo engineered by Karat Faye , and on the strength of that demo , the band was asked to sign with the New York @-@ based independent label Combat Records . Early in 1985 , Megadeth was given $ 8 @,@ 000 by Combat to record and produce its debut album . However , this proved not to be enough and the band was given a further $ 4 @,@ 000 . Instead , a majority of the budget was spent on drugs , alcohol , and food , forcing the group to fire the original producer and produce the record themselves . The album was successfully recorded at the Indigo Ranch Studios , in Malibu , California .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album 's artwork , featuring a plastic skull with tinfoil , was not intended to be the original artwork . Both Mustaine and Ellefson had many phone conversations with Combat Records to get the cover artwork properly reproduced from a sketch given to them by Mustaine of a picture of Megadeth mascot Vic Rattlehead on the cover . However the studio lost the artwork , and instead made their own improvised and low @-@ budget replacement , with which Mustaine and the whole band were mortified .
Megadeth began with live performances before the record was released . Although not a member of the band , Kerry King of Slayer played lead guitar for a short period because Mustaine had not recruited a full @-@ time guitarist yet . In mid @-@ 1985 , the group toured the United States and Canada for the first time , supporting Killing Is My Business ... with Exciter . During the tour , guitarist Chris Poland abruptly left the band , and was replaced by touring guitarist Mike Albert . However , Poland rejoined Megadeth in October 1985 , and stayed with the band up to the recording of the next album .
The album was released on June 12 , 1985 . To date it remains the only Megadeth album that did not chart on the Billboard 200 , primarily because it was released through an independent label with little promotion . Nevertheless , the album still went on to become one of Combat Records ' highest selling releases . Later that year , Capitol Records signed Megadeth as they began working on their second album , Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? , released the following year . A limited edition of Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! was released in 2009 . The CD itself is pressed on black plastic with grooves on the top to imitate an LP . This version 's cover is redesigned to match Mustaine 's original sketch , and the song " These Boots " was removed . Over 254 @,@ 000 copies of the album were sold in the United States since the beginning of the Nielsen SoundScan era .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to writer Peter Buckley , the record presented a faster , " thrashier kind of heavy metal " . Steve Huey of AllMusic opined that the music on Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! is predominantly " chaotic " , accompanied by " lightning @-@ fast " solo sections . Sputnikmusic 's Mike Stagno said that the original pressing greatly suffered from the poor production , which made the record difficult to listen to . However , he noted that the music is performed at rapid speed , with precise riffing by both Poland and Mustaine . In his book Mean Deviation : Four Decades of Progressive Heavy Metal , editor Jeff Wagner wrote the album displayed unusual rhythms and unorthodox guitar riffs , which carried " like a runaway train " . Speaking about the intensity of the record , Ellefson said that " extreme speed was deemed the cool factor in thrash metal back in those days " . Although Ellefson considers the album as a solid debut release , he wanted some of the songs to be recorded in slower tempo .
The album explores gloomy lyrical subjects such as death , violence , and occultism . Speaking about the themes on the album , author Bob Larson asserted that Megadeth " cranks out songs about spilling blood and stomping guts with venomous anger " . The album 's title , as well as its lyrics , led to accusations whether the band was promoting Satanism . These allegations were rigidly denied by Mustaine , who said that the band consciously kept away from the Satanic image . " I mean , it 's great to thrash and pound , cut yourself up , scream and have fun , but you don 't have to take out a Pagan attitude . Why support the Devil ? He 's already there . I 'd rather just fucking thrash and be a metalist and listen to whatever I want to than be forced to listen to one style of music . "
= = Songs = =
The album 's opening track , " Last Rites / Loved to Deth " , consists of two parts . The first part , " Last Rites " , is an instrumental segue featuring a piano intro , a reinterpretation of J.S. Bach 's Toccata and Fugue in D Minor . Mustaine explained that " Loved to Deth " was his " version of a love song " to his girlfriend at the time . The title track was inspired by The Punisher comic book , and tells of a paid serial assassin . The song caused minor media controversy when a man posted an online request to a radio station to play the tune , saying it was " good music to go postal and kill a bunch of people to " . The man was later arrested under suspicion of commencing a potential shooting spree . " The Skull Beneath the Skin " was developed under the working title " Self Destruct " . The song graphically describes a horrendous human torture , while also probing into the occult and black magic . Mustaine pointed that the creation of Vic Rattlehead was explained throughout that track . " Rattlehead " , according to Dave Mustaine , was dedicated to the band 's mascot and their fans .
" Looking Down the Cross " was penned by Mustaine in 1983 under the working title " Speak No Evil " . The song tells about the temptation of Jesus Christ , using religious metaphors and imagery . " Chosen Ones " was partially inspired by Tim the Enchanter from the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail . " Mechanix " was originally written by Mustaine during his tenure in Metallica ; lyrically , it talks about having sex at a gas station . The album features the first of many covers performed by Megadeth : a speed metal version of Nancy Sinatra 's classic " These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' " , with lyrics altered by Mustaine . The song sparked controversy in later years when the song 's original author , Lee Hazlewood , deemed Mustaine 's changes to be " vile and offensive " and demanded that the song be removed from the album . Under threat of legal action , the song was removed from all pressings released after 1995 . In 2002 , the album was re @-@ released with a modified version of the song ; the altered lyrics were censored because Hazlewood has not given permission to the band to release the cover in its original version . In the liner notes of the album 's reissue , Mustaine was strongly critical of Hazlewood , noting that he received royalties for almost 10 years before objecting to the altered version .
= = Critical reception = =
Killing Is My Business ... and Business Is Good ! received mostly positive reviews , not just from metal @-@ oriented magazines , but from the mainstream press too . Colin Larkin , writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music , called the album a " ferocious blast of high @-@ energy thrash metal " , weakened by a thin production . Similarly , Steve Huey from AllMusic observed that the album is " as raw as Megadeth gets " . However , Huey noted that the riffs and compositions weren 't completely developed , and called Mustaine 's vocals " amateurish at best " . Chad Bowar from About.com said that Megadeth were still " finding their way " on their debut album , but remarked that the band showed great potential through angry and passionate musicianship .
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters dismissed the original recording , but praised the re @-@ release , writing that the album " blazes on at a furious pace " . According to him , the record greatly influenced the heavy metal genre in the upcoming two decades . Sputnikmusic staff member Mike Stagno agreed with the praise for the remaster , saying that the " fuzzy " sound of the original release was replaced with a clearer production . Even so , he opined that the album still retained the " thrashy " sound characteristic for the band during this period . Mike Marsh of Drowned in Sound recommended the music " for people who want it loud , fast and brutal " . In a retrospective review for KNAC , Frank Meyer said that the album put Megadeth at the forefront of heavy metal scene in the early 1980s and credited it for paving the way for thrash metal 's arrival . CMJ New Music Report praised Mustaine 's " masterful " wordplay and called the record a representative of " the golden age of speed metal " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine , except " These Boots " by Lee Hazlewood .
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
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= Pennsylvania Route 363 =
Pennsylvania Route 363 ( PA 363 ) is a state highway located in Montgomery County , Pennsylvania that is a spur of PA 63 . The route runs 11 @.@ 86 mi ( 19 @.@ 09 km ) from an interchange with U.S. Route 422 ( US 422 ) near Valley Forge northeast to PA 63 in Lansdale . The route runs through suburban areas of central Montgomery County , passing some farmland in Worcester Township . PA 363 is designated along Trooper Road , Ridge Pike , Park Avenue , and Valley Forge Road . In the community of Worcester , the route crosses PA 73 .
PA 363 was first designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways in 1928 to run from PA 23 in Port Kennedy to PA 63 in Lansdale . Between the 1940s and the 1960s , PA 363 extended west on present @-@ day PA 23 to end near Valley Forge . In the 1960s , the route was redirected to follow Gulph Road to US 202 in King of Prussia . By 1989 , the south end of PA 363 was relocated to the US 422 interchange . The Betzwood Bridge , which had carried PA 363 over the Schuylkill River , was removed in the 1990s . The partial interchange with US 422 became a full interchange in 2015 .
= = Route description = =
PA 363 begins at an interchange with US 422 ( Pottstown Expressway ) near Valley Forge National Historic Park in Montgomery County . From this point , the route heads northeast on four @-@ lane divided Trooper Road , forming the border between Lower Providence Township to the northwest and West Norriton Township to the southeast . The road passes a business park to the northwest and residential neighborhoods to the southeast as it narrows into an undivided road and enters areas of shopping centers . Here , the route becomes a divided highway again and intersects Egypt Road .
PA 363 continues as a two @-@ lane undivided road past more homes as it continues to the Ridge Pike intersection . At this point , the route turns northwest onto Ridge Pike and fully enters Lower Providence Township , passing businesses as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . PA 363 turns northeast onto two @-@ lane Park Avenue and runs through more residential areas . A short distance after crossing into Worcester Township , the route comes to the community of Fairview Village and crosses Germantown Pike in commercial areas .
Upon crossing Germantown Pike , PA 363 becomes known as Valley Forge Road and continues into agricultural areas with scattered residential neighborhoods . The amount of development increases until the road comes to the junction with PA 73 ( Skippack Pike ) in the community of Worcester . After the PA 73 intersection , PA 363 continues past areas of housing developments to the west and farmland to the east before it reaches Morris Road . At this point , the route becomes the border between Towamencin Township to the northwest and Upper Gwynedd Township to the southeast , crossing under I @-@ 476 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension ) along this stretch .
The road passes through residential neighborhoods before entering commercial areas and crossing Sumneytown Pike . PA 363 heads to the southeast of North Penn High School and runs past a mix of homes and businesses as it gains a center left @-@ turn lane on the approach to the Allentown Road junction . A short distance later , the route enters Lansdale and passes homes as a two @-@ lane road . PA 363 reaches its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 63 in Lansdale .
= = History = =
When Pennsylvania first legislated routes in 1911 , present @-@ day PA 363 was not given a number with the exception of the Ridge Pike portion , which was designated as part of Legislative Route 146 . In 1928 , PA 363 was designated to run between PA 23 in the Port Kennedy section of Upper Merion Township and PA 63 in Lansdale . The route headed north across the Schuylkill River near the present US 422 bridge , before heading north on Trooper Road and east on Egypt Road to an intersection with US 422 ( Ridge Pike ) . PA 363 headed west concurrent with US 422 before heading north on Park Avenue and following its current alignment north to Lansdale . At this time , the route was paved between PA 23 and the north end of the US 422 concurrency . By 1930 , PA 363 was rerouted to follow Trooper Road between Egypt Road and US 422 . At this time , the entire length of the route was paved .
By 1945 , PA 363 was extended west to end at PA 23 a short distance to the east of the community of Valley Forge . This portion of route was cosigned with PA 23 Truck by 1950 . PA 363 was rerouted to follow Gulph Road from Port Kennedy to US 202 in King of Prussia , with PA 23 being rerouted to follow the former PA 363 between Valley Forge and Port Kennedy , by 1967 . Also by this time , the US 422 concurrency on Ridge Pike had been removed and a freeway had been built that connected PA 363 a short distance north of the Schuylkill River to the US 202 freeway on the border of Chester and Montgomery counties .
By 1989 , the southern terminus of PA 363 was cut back to its current location at the US 422 interchange . In 1991 , the Betzwood Bridge , which had carried PA 363 over the Schuylkill River , was closed because of structural issues . The bridge was removed in 1995 and limited bicycle and pedestrian access to Valley Forge National Historical Park from the north , with a temporary bike path being erected on the parallel US 422 bridge . There were plans to replace the Betzwood Bridge with a structure carrying two vehicle traffic lanes and a multi @-@ use trail . These plans never advanced . Ultimately the National Park Service secured federal funding for a mixed @-@ use trail bridge to connect the trails in the north and south sides of Valley Forge Park at the site of the old bridge . Construction of the new bridge at this site began in 2014 . This new bridge , which will be named Sullivan 's Bridge after Revolutionary War General John Sullivan , is planned to be for bicycles and pedestrians only and will provide better access to Valley Forge National Historical Park . In addition , improvements to the interchange between PA 363 and US 422 , which will add a ramp from PA 363 to westbound US 422 and from eastbound US 422 to PA 363 , started in 2013 . The new ramps opened to traffic on December 1 , 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Montgomery County .
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= Scott Niedermayer =
Scott Niedermayer ( born August 31 , 1973 ) is a Canadian former ice hockey defenceman and current Special Assignment Coach of the Anaheim Ducks . He played 18 seasons and over 1 @,@ 000 games in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the New Jersey Devils and Anaheim Ducks . Niedermayer is a four @-@ time Stanley Cup champion and played in five NHL All @-@ Star Games . He won the James Norris Memorial Trophy in 2003 – 04 as the NHL 's top defenceman and the Conn Smythe Trophy in 2007 as the most valuable player of the playoffs .
As a junior , Niedermayer was a member of a Kamloops Blazers team that won two Western Hockey League championships and was voted the most valuable player of the 1992 Memorial Cup , leading the Blazers to the Canadian Hockey League championship . A third overall selection at the 1991 NHL Entry Draft by New Jersey , Niedermayer played the majority of his professional career with the Devils before moving to Anaheim in 2005 .
Internationally , Niedermayer played with Team Canada on several occasions . He is a member of the Triple Gold Club , signifying he has won the Stanley Cup , the World Championship ( 2004 ) and an Olympic gold medal ( 2002 , 2010 ) . Niedermayer also played on gold medal @-@ winning squads at the 1991 World Junior Championship and the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , making him and Joe Sakic the only players in history to win every major North American and international championship available to a Canadian player .
Regarded as one of the greatest defencemen in NHL history , Niedermayer has earned numerous accolades throughout his career . He was inducted into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 2012 and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in November 2013 . The New Jersey Devils and Kamloops Blazers have both retired his uniform number .
= = Early life = =
Niedermayer was born in Edmonton , Alberta , but spent the first three years of his life in Cassiar , British Columbia before his family settled in Cranbrook , British Columbia . His father , Bob , was a doctor in Cassiar and then Cranbrook , and his mother Carol was a teacher . He has a younger brother , Rob .
Scott and his brother were inseparable when they were younger and often played hockey together . While their father was often their team doctor , their mother taught them to skate . She enrolled them in figure skating to aid their skills development and taught power skating classes in Cranbrook in exchange for ice time for her sons . An offensive defenceman , Scott led his Cranbrook midget team in scoring with 55 goals and 92 points in 1988 – 89 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Niedermayer played three seasons of junior hockey with the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) between 1989 and 1992 . He recorded 69 points in 64 games in his first season , 1989 – 90 , and helped the Blazers win the President 's Cup as WHL champions . The Blazers advanced to the 1990 Memorial Cup as the top ranked team in Canada , but disappointed in the tournament by losing all three games . Niedermayer earned several accolades in 1990 – 91 . He scored 26 goals and 82 points in 57 games to earn a place on the Western Conference All @-@ Star Team . Additionally , he was named the recipient of the Daryl K. ( Doc ) Seaman Trophy as the WHL 's scholastic player of the year and won the Canadian Hockey League Scholastic Player of the Year award .
A top prospect for the 1991 NHL Entry Draft , Niedermayer was selected in the first round , third overall , by the New Jersey Devils . He began the 1991 – 92 season with New Jersey as the team wanted him to experience the NHL before being returned to Kamloops . After sitting out the Devils first five games , Niedermayer made his NHL debut on October 16 , 1991 , against the New York Rangers . He appeared in four games with the Devils , recording one assist , before he was sent back to junior . Though he appeared in only 35 games in the 1991 – 92 WHL season , Niedermayer 's 39 points were enough to earn him a second berth on the West All @-@ Star Team . After losing in the Western Conference Final the previous season , the Blazers rebounded to win their second WHL championship in three years in 1992 . Niedermayer tied for third place in playoff scoring with 23 points . At the 1992 Memorial Cup , he scored seven points in five games to lead the Blazers to the national championship . He was voted the recipient of the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player of the Memorial Cup .
= = = New Jersey Devils = = =
Niedermayer joined the Devils full @-@ time in 1992 – 93 . He scored his first NHL goal on November 8 , 1992 , against goaltender Brian Hayward in a 6 – 1 victory over the San Jose Sharks . Overall , Niedermayer appeared in 80 games , scoring 11 goals and 40 points and was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team on defence . Niedermayer improved to 48 points in 1993 – 94 , and added 4 points in 20 playoff games as the Devils reached the Eastern Conference Final against the New York Rangers , a series they lost in seven games . The Devils made another long playoff run in the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , reaching the Stanley Cup Final for the first time in franchise history . Niedermayer scored 11 points in 20 playoff games , including a key goal in game two of the Final as the Devils won the Stanley Cup with a four @-@ game sweep of the Detroit Red Wings .
A 33 @-@ point season followed for Niedermayer in 1995 – 96 , but the Devils became the first defending champion in 26 years to miss the playoffs . After a 35 @-@ point season in 1996 – 97 , Niedermayer 's best statistical season in New Jersey came in 1997 – 98 with a 14 @-@ goal , 57 @-@ point campaign . He played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , scoring a goal , and was named to the NHL 's Second All @-@ Star Team at the season 's end . After finishing second in league scoring amongst defencemen , despite playing in New Jersey 's stifling defensive system that suppresses offence , Niedermayer demanded a significant raise . He rejected an offer that would have paid him a base salary of $ 3 @.@ 25 million and , unable to come to terms before the start of the 1998 – 99 season , began the year as a holdout . As the dispute dragged into the season , he joined the Utah Grizzlies of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) . After missing the first month of the NHL season , Niedermayer and the Devils finally agreed to a multi @-@ year contract , the terms of which were not released . He appeared in 71 games with the Devils that season , recording 46 points .
Late in the 1999 – 2000 season , Niedermayer was involved in a violent incident with Peter Worell of the Florida Panthers . After being elbowed by Worell , Niedermayer responded by swinging his stick at his opponents head . Worell suffered a concussion and missed six games , while Niedermayer was suspended for ten games – nine in the regular season , and New Jersey 's first playoff game . After returning from his ban , Niedermayer 's steady defensive contributions in the playoffs helped the Devils win their second Stanley Cup by defeating the Dallas Stars in six games in the 2000 Stanley Cup Final . While celebrating his day with the Cup , Niedermayer took the trophy to Fisher Peak , overlooking his hometown of Cranbrook and was famously pictured hoisting it over his head .
The expiration of his contract following the season resulted in another lengthy dispute with the Devils . While he wanted a contract similar to the $ 5 @.@ 3 million per season average the top ten paid defencemen in the league made , the Devils offered a deal with a base salary of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . He was again a holdout at the start of the 2000 – 01 season , and missed nearly two months of play before finally agreeing to a four @-@ year , $ 16 million contract . Niedermayer recorded 35 points in 57 games and played in his second All @-@ Star Game . Late in game four of New Jersey 's first round playoff series against the Toronto Maple Leafs , Niedermayer was knocked unconscious by a vicious elbow from Toronto 's Tie Domi . Niedermayer later claimed that Domi had threatened to retaliate against him over a previous hit earlier in the series . Domi apologized for the incident , calling it a " stupid reaction " , but was suspended for the remainder of the 2001 Stanley Cup Playoffs . New Jersey reached the 2001 Stanley Cup Final , but lost the series to the Colorado Avalanche in seven games .
Niedermayer missed several games early in the 2001 – 02 season due to back pain , and his 33 points on the season was his lowest in six seasons . Niedermayer and the Devils reached their fourth Stanley Cup Final in 2002 – 03 . The series was a family affair , as Scott 's brother Rob was a member of the opposing Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . When asked , their mother admitted she was hoping Rob 's Mighty Ducks would win as Scott already had two championships to his name . Scott dashed his brother and mother 's hopes , recording two assists in the deciding seventh game to lead the Devils to a 3 – 0 victory , and win his third Stanley Cup .
Niedermayer cemented his reputation as an elite NHL defenceman in 2003 – 04 , earning praise from both teammates and opponents for his play throughout the season . Injuries to fellow defencemen Scott Stevens and Brian Rafalski resulted in Niedermayer averaging over 25 minutes of ice time per game , sometimes topping 30 , and he temporarily inherited the Devils ' captaincy from Stevens . Offensively , Niedermayer posted his second career 50 @-@ point season , finishing with 14 goals and 40 assists . He played in his third All @-@ Star Game and was named a First Team All @-@ Star for the first time . After finishing second in league scoring amongst defencemen , recording a plus @-@ minus rating of + 20 and leading the Devils to a modern NHL record low 164 goals against , Niedermayer was voted the winner of the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league 's top defenceman .
Upon the expiration of his previous contract , Niedermayer was again a restricted free agent , and he again endured a difficult negotiation with the Devils , even after he changed agents . Initially demanding a five @-@ year , $ 45 million contract , Niedermayer chose to go to arbitration . He was awarded a one @-@ year contract for the 2004 – 05 season , and the $ 7 million salary he was given tied John LeClair 's award in 2000 as the highest ever given in arbitration . However , the contract was wiped out when the entire season was cancelled as a result of the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout .
= = = Anaheim Ducks = = =
As an unrestricted free agent in the summer of 2005 , Niedermayer was in considerable demand ; 14 teams contacted his agent on the first day they were allowed to talk to him . The Devils offered him a five @-@ year contract that would have paid him $ 7 @.@ 8 million per season , the maximum allowed under the new salary cap , but Niedermayer chose instead to sign a four @-@ year contract worth $ 6 @.@ 75 million per season with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . He chose to take the shorter term and lower salary to play and try to win a Stanley Cup with his brother . The Ducks immediately named Scott the team 's captain . In his first season in Anaheim , 2005 – 06 , Niedermayer scored 63 points and was named a First Team All @-@ Star for the second time . In the playoffs , the Ducks reached the Western Conference Final , but were eliminated by the Edmonton Oilers .
Joined on Anaheim 's blueline by Chris Pronger , Niedermayer helped the Ducks set franchise records in 2006 – 07 for most wins ( 48 ) and points ( 110 ) . Both were named finalists for the Norris Trophy , but lost to Detroit 's Nicklas Lidström . Individually , Niedermayer played his 1,000th career game , against the Edmonton Oilers on November 28 , 2006 . He set career highs of 15 goals , 54 assists and 69 points during the regular season and was named a First Team All @-@ Star . He added 11 points in the 2007 Stanley Cup Playoffs , and was named recipient of the Conn Smythe Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player of the post @-@ season after leading Anaheim to the franchise 's first championship in a five @-@ game series victory over the Ottawa Senators in the final . As team captain , Niedermayer was the first player given the chance to hoist the Stanley Cup . He passed the trophy to his brother ; it was Rob 's first championship victory . Of the moment , Scott stated : " You don 't really dream of passing it to your brother . I never have . To be able to do that is definitely a highlight of my career . "
Coming off his fourth championship , the 34 @-@ year @-@ old Niedermayer contemplated retirement . Remaining undecided on his future as the 2007 – 08 season began , he failed to report to the team and was suspended by the Ducks as a formality . Pronger replaced him as captain , and Niedermayer remained undecided until early December when he finally chose to return . He appeared in only 48 games that season , scoring 25 points , but played in his fourth All @-@ Star Game .
After the Ducks were eliminated in the first round of the 2008 playoffs , he again contemplated retirement , but quickly made the decision to return for the 2008 – 09 season . He regained captaincy of the Ducks , and played in his fifth All @-@ Star Game during the season in which he scored 59 points in 82 games . In what proved to be his final season , 2009 – 10 , Niedermayer scored 48 points in 80 games . He announced his retirement as a player on June 22 , 2010 , but remained with the Ducks organization as a consultant to general manager Bob Murray . He turned to coaching in 2012 – 13 season , serving as a Special Assignment Coach with the Ducks .
= = = International = = =
Niedermayer enjoyed a long and successful international career , winning championships at all levels . He made his international debut as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old with the Canadian junior team at the 1991 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . He appeared in three games as Team Canada used a late goal by John Slaney in the final game of the tournament , against the Soviet Union , to win the gold medal . He returned for the 1992 tournament , one which The Sports Network described as one of the most disappointing in Canadian history , as the team finished sixth in the eight team event .
Four years later , in 1996 , Niedermayer first joined the senior team at the inaugural World Cup of Hockey . He had a goal and three assists in eight games , but Canada lost the championship final to the United States . Niedermayer next made his Olympic debut in 2002 . He appeared in six games , and helped Canada defeat the United States , 5 – 2 in the final as the country won its first Olympic gold medal in hockey in 50 years .
Gold medal victories followed in 2004 as Niedermayer scored five points in nine games at the World Championship then added two points in six games at the World Cup of Hockey . In the latter event , Niedermayer scored a goal in the championship game , a 3 – 2 victory over Finland . He was set to make his second Olympic appearance in 2006 , however a knee injury suffered during NHL play that required surgery forced him to withdraw from the tournament .
Niedermayer 's final international competition came at the 2010 Olympics , four months before his retirement as a player . He was named captain of the team for the tournament that was held in his home province , in Vancouver . He led Canada to the gold medal , culminating in a 3 – 2 overtime win over the United States .
= = Playing style = =
An offensively @-@ minded defenceman , Niedermayer was best known for his skating ability and drew comparison 's to the game 's offensive greats from the time he broke into the NHL . He was compared to Paul Coffey for his ability to take the puck from his own goal line and convert a defensive situation into an offensive rush . He often chafed at playing within the Devils ' defence @-@ oriented system , feeling it restricted his offensive creativity , but also admitted that he learned to place greater emphasis on his defence and develop his overall game . Niedermayer earned a reputation for inconsistency early in his career . He often played his best games against top opposition , but his failure to consistently apply his skills against all opposition occasionally frustrated his teammates and left his coaches lamenting that he was a player capable of being dominant but often was not . By the end of his career however , and following his Norris Trophy win in 2004 , Niedermayer was regarded as one of the top offensive defencemen of his generation and as one of the game 's greatest winners . Niedermayer is the only player in hockey history to win every major contemporary North American and International Competitive titles : the Memorial Cup , World Junior championship , Stanley Cup , World Championship , World Cup and Olympic Games .
Niedermayer has been honoured on several occasions . The New Jersey Devils retired his jersey number 27 in 2011 , and the Kamloops Blazers retired the number 28 he wore in junior in 2013 . He has been inducted into the BC Hockey Hall of Fame and Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame . Niedermayer was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as part of its 2013 class , and was inducted on November 11 , 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Niedermayer and his wife Lisa have four sons : Logan , Jackson , Joshua and Luke . The family resides in Newport Beach , California , but often returns to Cranbrook , where they spent the off @-@ seasons while he was playing . Scott and Lisa are active in the community . They serve as honorary co @-@ chairs of the Walk for Kids , a charity event that supports the Ronald McDonald House of Orange County , while Scott and his brother Rob operate a hockey school in Cranbrook and established a fund that offers grants to community associations . An active environmentalist , Scott has also joined with WWF @-@ Canada to speak out in favour of efforts to maintain British Columbia 's natural wilderness .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Sauvignon blanc =
Sauvignon blanc is a green @-@ skinned grape variety that originates from the Bordeaux region of France . The grape most likely gets its name from the French words sauvage ( " wild " ) and blanc ( " white " ) due to its early origins as an indigenous grape in South West France . It is possibly a descendant of Savagnin . Sauvignon blanc is planted in many of the world 's wine regions , producing a crisp , dry , and refreshing white varietal wine . The grape is also a component of the famous dessert wines from Sauternes and Barsac . Sauvignon blanc is widely cultivated in France , Chile , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , Washington and California . Some New World Sauvignon blancs , particularly from California , may also be called " Fume Blanc " .
Depending on the climate , the flavor can range from aggressively grassy to sweetly tropical . In cooler climates , the grape has a tendency to produce wines with noticeable acidity and " green flavors " of grass , green bell peppers and nettles with some tropical fruit ( such as passion fruit ) and floral ( such as elderflower ) notes . In warmer climates , it can develop more tropical fruit notes but risk losing a lot of aromatics from over @-@ ripeness , leaving only slight grapefruit and tree fruit ( such as peach ) notes .
Wine experts have used the phrase " crisp , elegant , and fresh " as a favorable description of Sauvignon blanc from the Loire Valley and New Zealand . Sauvignon blanc , when slightly chilled , pairs well with fish or cheese , particularly chèvre . It is also known as one of the few wines that can pair well with sushi .
Along with Riesling , Sauvignon blanc was one of the first fine wines to be bottled with a screwcap in commercial quantities , especially by New Zealand producers . The wine is usually consumed young , as it does not particularly benefit from aging , as varietal Sauvignon blancs tend to develop vegetal aromas reminiscent of peas and asparagus with extended aging . Dry and sweet white Bordeaux , including oak @-@ aged examples from Pessac @-@ Léognan and Graves , as well as some Loire wines from Pouilly @-@ Fumé and Sancerre are some of the few examples of Sauvignon blancs with aging potential .
Since 2010 , 24 April has been International Sauvignon Blanc Day .
= = History = =
The Sauvignon blanc grape traces its origins to western France in the Loire Valley and Bordeaux Regions . As noted above , it is not clear that the vine originated in western France . Ongoing research suggests it may have descended from Savagnin . It has also been associated with the Carmenere family . At some point in the 18th century , the vine paired with Cabernet Franc to parent the Cabernet Sauvignon vine in Bordeaux . In the 19th century , plantings in Bordeaux were often interspersed with Sauvignon vert ( In Chile , known as Sauvignonasse ) as well as the Sauvignon blanc pink mutation Sauvignon gris . Prior to the phylloxera epidemic , the insect plague which devastated French vineyards in the 19th century , these interspersed cuttings were transported to Chile where the field blends are still common today . Despite the similarity in names , Sauvignon blanc has no known relation to the Sauvignon rosé mutation found in the Loire Valley of France .
The first cuttings of Sauvignon blanc were brought to California by Charles Wetmore , founder of Cresta Blanca Winery , in the 1880s . These cuttings came from the Sauternes vineyards of Château d 'Yquem . The plantings produced well in Livermore Valley . Eventually , the wine acquired the alias of " Fumé Blanc " in California by promotion of Robert Mondavi in 1968 . The grape was first introduced to New Zealand in the 1970s as an experimental planting to be blended with Müller @-@ Thurgau .
= = Climate and geography = =
The Sauvignon blanc vine often buds late but ripens early , which allows it to perform well in sunny climates when not exposed to overwhelming heat . In warm regions such as South Africa , Australia and California , the grape flourishes in cooler climate appellations such as the Alexander Valley area . In areas where the vine is subjected to high heat , the grape will quickly become over @-@ ripe and produce wines with dull flavors and flat acidity . Rising global temperatures have caused farmers to harvest the grapes earlier than they have in the past .
The grape originated in France , in the regions of Bordeaux and the Loire Valley . Plantings in California , Australia , Chile and South Africa are also extensive , and Sauvignon blanc is steadily increasing in popularity as white wine drinkers seek alternatives to Chardonnay . The grape can also be found in Italy and Central Europe .
= = Wine regions = =
= = = France = = =
In France , Sauvignon blanc is grown in the maritime climate of Bordeaux ( especially in Entre @-@ Deux @-@ Mers , Graves and Pessac @-@ Leognan as a dry wine , and in Sauternes as a sweet wine ) as well as the continental climate of the Loire Valley ( as Pouilly Fumé , Sancerre , and Sauvignon de Touraine ) . The climates of these areas are particularly favorable in slowing the ripening on the vine , allowing the grape more time to develop a balance between its acidity and sugar levels . This balance is important in the development of the intensity of the wine 's aromas . Winemakers in France pay careful attention to the terroir characteristics of the soil and the different elements that it can impart to the wine . The chalk and Kimmeridgean marl of Sancerre and Pouilly produces wines of richness and complexity while areas with more compact chalk soils produces wines with more finesse and perfume . The gravel soil found near the Loire River and its tributaries impart spicy , floral and mineral flavors while in Bordeaux , the wines have a fruitier personality . Vines planted in flint tend to produce the most vigorous and longest lasting wines .
Pouilly Fumé originate from the town of Pouilly @-@ sur @-@ Loire , located directly across the Loire River from the commune of Sancerre . The soil here is very flinty with deposits of limestone which the locals believed imparted a smoky , gun flint flavor to the wine and hence Fumé , the French word for " smoke " was attached to the wine . Along with Sémillon , Muscadelle and Ugni blanc , Sauvignon blanc is one of only four white grapes allowed in the production of white Bordeaux wine . Mostly used as a blending grape , Sauvignon blanc is the principal grape in Château Margaux 's Pavillon Blanc , In the northern Rhône Valley , Sauvignon Blanc is often blended with Tresallier to form a tart white wine .
In the Sauternes region , the grape is blended with Sémillon to make the late harvest wine , Sauternes . The composition of Sauvignon blanc varies from producer and can range from 5 @-@ 50 % with the Premier Cru Supérieur Château d 'Yquem using 20 % . A traditional practice often employed in Sauternes is to plant one Sauvignon Blanc vine at regular intervals among rows of Semillon . However , Sauvignon blanc 's propensity to ripen 1 – 2 weeks earlier can lead the grapes to lose some of their intensity and aroma as they hang longer on the vine . This has prompted more producers to isolate their parcels of Sauvignon blanc .
Near the edge of the Chablis commune is an AOC called Saint @-@ Bris that is gaining attention for its Sauvignon blanc production .
= = = Australia = = =
In Australia , particularly the Margaret River region , the grape is often blended with Sémillon . Varietal styles , made from only the Sauvignon blanc grape , from Adelaide Hills and Padthaway have a style distinctive from their New Zealand neighbors that tend to be more ripe in flavor with white peach and lime notes and slightly higher acidity .
= = = Chile and Brazil = = =
In the early 1990s , ampelographers began to distinguish Sauvignon blanc from Sauvignonasse plantings in Chile . The character of non @-@ blended Chilean Sauvignon blanc are noticeably less acidic than the wines of New Zealand and more similar to the French style that is typical of Chilean wines . The region of Valparaíso is the most notable area for Sauvignon blanc in Chile due to its cooler climate which allows the grapes to be picked up to six weeks later than in other parts of Chile . In Brazil , ampelographers have discovered that the vines called Sauvignon blanc planted in the region are really Seyval blanc .
= = = New Zealand = = =
In the 1990s , Sauvignon blanc wines from the maritime climatic regions of New Zealand , particularly the South Island , became popular on the wine market . In the Marlborough region , sandy soils over slate shingles have become the most desirable locations for plantings due to the good drainage of the soil and poor fertility that encourages the vine to concentrate its flavors in lower yields . In the flood plain of the Wairau River Valley , the soil runs in east @-@ west bands across the area . This can create a wide diversity of flavors for vineyards that are planted north @-@ south with the heavier soils producing more herbaceous wines from grapes that ripen late and vines planted in stonier soils ripening earlier and imparting more lush and tropical flavors . It is this difference in soils , and the types of harvest time decisions that wine producers must make , that add a unique element to New Zealand Sauvignon blanc .
The long narrow geography of the South Island ensures that no vineyard is more than 80 miles ( 130 km ) from the coast . The cool , maritime climate of the area allows for a long and steady growing season in which the grapes can ripen and develop a natural balance of acids and sugars . This brings out the flavors and intensity that distinguish New Zealand Sauvignon blancs . More recently , Waipara in the South Island and Martinborough , Gisborne and Hawkes Bay in the North Island have been attracting attention for their Sauvignon blanc releases , which often exhibit subtle differences to those from Marlborough . The asparagus , gooseberry and green flavor commonly associated with New Zealand Sauvignon blanc is derived from flavor compounds known as methoxypyrazines that becomes more pronounced and concentrated in wines from cooler climate regions . Riper flavors such as passion fruit , along with other notes such as boxwood , may be driven by thiol concentrations .
= = = North America = = =
In North America , California is the leading producer of Sauvignon blanc with plantings also found in Washington state and on the Niagara Peninsula and Okanagan Valley in Canada . In California wine produced from the Sauvignon blanc grape is also known as Fumé Blanc . This California wine was first made by Napa Valley 's Robert Mondavi Winery in 1968 . Mondavi had been offered a crop of particularly good Sauvignon blanc grapes by a grower . At that time the variety had a poor reputation in California due to its grassy flavor and aggressive aromas . Mondavi decided to try to tame that aggressiveness with barrel agings and released the wine under the name Fumé Blanc as an allusion to the French Pouilly @-@ Fumé . The usage of the term is primarily a marketing base one with California wine makers choosing whichever name they prefer . Both oaked and unoaked Sauvignon blanc wines have been marketed under the name Fumé Blanc . California Sauvignon blancs tend to fall into two styles . The New Zealand @-@ influenced Sauvignon blanc have more tropical fruit undertones with citrus and passion fruit notes . The Mondavi @-@ influenced Fumé Blanc are more round with melon notes .
= = = Other areas = = =
Sauvignon blanc is also beginning to gain prominence in areas like South Africa 's Stellenbosch and Durbanville and Italy 's Collio Goriziano areas . It is also one of the main ingredients in Muffato della Sala , one of Italy 's most celebrated sweet wines .
= = Viticulture = =
Winemakers in New Zealand and Chile harvest the grapes at various intervals for the different blending characteristics that the grape can impart depending on its ripeness levels . At its most unripe stage , the grape is high in malic acid . As it progresses further towards ripeness the grape develops red & green pepper flavors and eventually achieves a balance of sugars . The flavors characteristic of Sauvignon blanc come from the chemicals methoxypyrazines . Grapes grown in Marlborough 's Wairau Valley may exhibit different levels of ripeness over the vineyard , caused by slight unevenness in the land and giving a similar flavor profile to the resulting wine .
Sauvignon blanc can be greatly influenced by decisions in the winemaking process . One decision is the amount of contact that the must has with the skins of the grape . In the early years of the New Zealand wine industry , there were no wineries on the South Island which meant that freshly harvested grapes had to be trucked and then ferried to the North Island , often all the way up to Auckland . This allowed for prolonged exposure of the skins and juice which sharpened the intensity and pungency of the wine . Some winemakers , like the Loire , intentionally leave a small amount of must to spend some time in contact with the skin for later blending purposes . Other winemakers , like in California , generally avoid any contact with the skin due to the reduced aging ability of the resulting wine .
Another important decision is the temperature of fermentation . French winemakers prefer warmer fermentations ( around 16 @-@ 18 ° C ) that bring out the mineral flavors in the wine while New World winemakers prefer slightly colder temperatures to bring out more fruit and tropical flavors . A small minority of Loire winemakers will put the wine through malolactic fermentation , a practice more often associated with New Zealand wines . Oak aging can have a pronounced effect on the wine , with the oak rounding out the flavors and softening the naturally high acidity of the grape . Some winemakers , like those in New Zealand and Sancerre , prefer stainless steel fermentation tanks over barrels with the intention of maintaining the sharp focus and flavor intensity .
= = Synonyms = =
Sauvignon blanc is also known under the synonyms Beyaz Sauvignon , Blanc Doux , Blanc Fume , Bordeaux bianco , Douce blanche , Feher Sauvignon , Feigentraube , Fie , Fie dans le Neuvillois , Fume , Fume Blanc , Fume Surin , Genetin , Gennetin , Gentin a Romorantin , Gros Sauvignon , Libournais , Melkii Sotern , Muskat Silvaner , Muskat Sylvaner , Muskatani Silvanec , Muskatni Silvanec , Muskatsilvaner , Painechon , Pellegrina , Petit Sauvignon , Picabon , Piccabon , Pinot Mestny Bely , Pissotta , Puinechou , Punechon , Punechou , Quinechon , Rouchelin , Sampelgrina , Sarvonien , Sauternes , Sauvignon , Sauvignon bianco , Sauvignon Bijeli , Sauvignon blanco , Sauvignon Fume , Sauvignon Gros , Sauvignon jaune , Sauvignon jeune , Sauvignon Petit , Sauvignon vert , Sauvignon White , Savagnin , Savagnin blanc , Savagnin Musque , Savagnou , Savignon , Servanien , Servonien , Servoyen , Souternes , Sovinak , Sovinjon , Sovinjon Beli , Sovinon , Spergolina , Surin , Sylvaner Musque , Uva Pelegrina , Weisser Sauvignon , and Zöld Ortlibi .
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