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= Syro =
Syro ( pronounced / saɪroʊ / ; often stylised as SYRO ) is the sixth studio album by the electronic musician Richard D James , released under the pseudonym Aphex Twin on 19 September 2014 on Warp . It is his first studio album release under the name Aphex Twin in 13 years since Drukqs ( 2001 ) and his first album of new material since Analord ( 2005 ) . The album is also his first official release as Aphex Twin since Chosen Lords ( 2006 ) , a compilation of tracks from the Analord series .
Recorded over a period of several years in various studios — including James ' own studio in rural Scotland — Syro features 12 tracks and incorporates several subgenres of electronic music including techno , glitch , jungle and ambient . The album also features edited vocal tracks provided by James and his family . Syro 's cryptic promotional campaign included an announcement made available only on the Deep Web , as well as several press releases in broken English and events in various international cities . Upon its release Syro received widespread acclaim from music critics and placed in several international charts , as well as earning a nomination for the Choice Music Prize and winning the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Dance / Electronic Album . It was nominated for the 2015 Mercury Music Prize .
= = Background = =
Following the release of Drukqs in October 2001 Richard D James released a compilation album , 26 Mixes for Cash ( 2003 ) , and the penultimate installment of an extended play series titled Analord under the AFX pseudonym . A selection of tracks from Analord were later released on the compilation album Chosen Lords ( 2006 ) . A long absence followed , during which time James ceased releasing Aphex Twin material and only performed occasional disc jockey sets in the United Kingdom and Europe . He also relocated to rural Scotland , where he constructed a recording studio .
Warp founder Steve Beckett mentioned on BBC Radio 6 Music in 2009 that a new Aphex Twin studio album would " hopefully " be available by the end of the year , though no album was released . Later in 2010 , James revealed in an interview with culture and fashion magazine Another Man that he had six studio albums completed . Describing the records , he said among them were two " very non @-@ commercial abstract , modular @-@ synthesis field recordings " which were completed in 2006 , as well as Melodies from Mars , a collection of unreleased material from 1995 which James reworked in 2007 .
In April 2014 Fact reported that an anonymous record collector had listed a test pressing of Caustic Window — an unreleased album James recorded under the Caustic Window alias — on Discogs . The album was on sale for US $ 13 @,@ 500 ( £ 8 @,@ 050 ) . In response , members of We Are the Music Makers , an electronic music internet forum , negotiated a deal between the collector , the forum 's administrator , James and Rephlex Records and launched a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter with a funding goal of $ 9 @,@ 300 ( £ 5 @,@ 000 ) in order to purchase the album . The campaign eventually raised over $ 67 @,@ 000 ( £ 41 @,@ 000 ) from 4 @,@ 124 contributions . A digital transfer of the album was made available to the campaign 's contributors and the LP was auctioned on eBay , where it was purchased for $ 46 @,@ 300 ( £ 28 @,@ 100 ) by Minecraft creator Markus Persson . The proceeds from Caustic Window 's sale were split between James , Rephlex and Médecins Sans Frontières , also known as Doctors Without Borders . James said in retrospect that the campaign was " really touching , and really sweet " and , upon realising the continued interest in his music , he was inspired to release Syro .
= = Composition = =
Syro is an electronic music album . All 12 songs on the album were written by James in @-@ studio . According to James , the songs were written over an extended period ; Syro features both archived and more recent compositions , with the album 's oldest track around " six or seven years old " . The album was recorded in six different studios , including James ' own studio in Scotland , which he spent three years building and which was completed in 2006 . One audio engineer spent three months with James , helping him wire together patch panels and " then [ the engineer ] realized he was doing it all wrong and had to start again " . Describing the overall process as " brutal " , James referred to the in @-@ studio technical issues as the catalyst for writing new music that would be featured on Syro .
James used various audio setups when composing Syro 's material . He noted that by rearranging equipment — and often keeping the same setup for around just five minutes — it allowed him to explore more writing possibilities ; he said " that will achieve some sort of purpose , so the way I 've wired it together becomes the track in itself . " James also explained that when composing the " logical thing to do is not change anything and just do another one using the same set of sounds " , but during Syro 's recording sessions he would often " get bored and swap things out " .
A total of 138 pieces of equipment were used on Syro , including synthesisers , samplers , sequencers , processing units , MIDI interfaces , drum machines , vocoders , graphic equalisers and mixing desks . Among the brands James used were Yamaha , SSL , Sennheiser , Boss , Roland , Korg and AKG . Several pieces of equipment were further modified by James himself .
In addition to instrumentation , Syro features several vocal tracks . Among them are edited " unintelligible " tracks of James , his wife Anastasia Rybina and his two sons , as well as both his mother and father , who appear on " XMAS _ EVET10 [ 120 ] " . He recorded several additional " poppy " vocals of his parents — none of which were used on Syro — and stored " entire sample packs of their voices " during the process . On the album 's overall sound , James said it 's " [ his ] pop album , or as poppy as it 's going to get " and " pleasurable to listen to … maybe just the composition 's changed , but there 's no next @-@ level beats on there " . He attributed this change in style to the fact he no longer used computer @-@ controlled percussion during Syro 's sessions .
= = Packaging = =
Syro ( pronounced / saɪroʊ / ) is a neologism that was coined by one of James ' children . It is a shortened version of " Syrobonkus " , a " nonsense word one of his sons blurted out while listening to [ the album ] . " The majority of the album 's track titles are named after the working titles stored on James ' hard drives and reference individual pieces of equipment James used in its recording , as well as the tracks ' respective BPM values . A comprehensive list of all equipment featured on Syro is included as part of the album 's packaging ; Creative Review referred to the list as a " disinfographic " .
Syro 's cover artwork was designed by the Designers Republic , a graphic design studio that provided designs for previous Aphex Twin releases , including the 1999 single " Windowlicker " and the compilation album 26 Mixes for Cash . The cover art resembles a receipt , with the official Aphex Twin logo and album title printed upon it . According to Creative Review , the receipt on the album cover details the production and promotional costs of Syro , " from courier charges to photoshoot expenses , expressed per disc and tailored for both vinyl and CD versions . "
Ian Anderson , the founder of the Designers Republic , noted that the final concept for the album cover was conceived after receiving a number of suggestions from James . Among James ' other suggestions for the album 's packaging was " the idea of pressing the album or a single track into the fabric of the cover , effectively as a deboss " , or using various images of the raw vinyl pucks from which all copies of Syro are pressed . These suggestions were implemented into Syro 's final LP packaging , with James ' wife Anastasia Rybina credited for additional design and " puckography " .
= = Release = =
The promotional campaign for Syro began when a chartreuse @-@ coloured blimp featuring the Aphex Twin logo and the number " 2014 " appeared over London , England on 16 August 2014 . On the same day Aphex Twin graffiti was reported outside Radio City Music Hall and various other locations in New York , United States . Two days later Aphex Twin 's official Twitter account posted a link to a hidden service , accessible using the Deep Web software Tor , detailing the album 's title and track listing . The service accumulated over 133 @,@ 000 views in less than a day , according to The Guardian .
In the following week several purported leaks of Syro appeared on YouTube and Soundcloud ; Richard D James subsequently denied that any of the leaks were legitimate . " Listening events " for Syro were then organised in various cities in the UK , Belgium , Canada , Netherlands and the US as part of the album 's promotional campaign . Beginning on 5 September in London and concluding on 10 September in Utrecht , the events allowed applicants who had won an online lottery ballot to hear the album in its entirety prior to its international release . " minipops 67 [ 120 @.@ 2 ] " , Syro 's opening track , was released as the album 's lead single on 4 September . It was made available for stream and as a digital download following its premiere on BBC Radio 1 earlier that day .
Syro was released on Warp on 19 September 2014 in Australia , Germany , Ireland , New Zealand and Switzerland ; 22 September in the UK and various European countries , including Denmark and Netherlands ; 23 September in the US ; and 24 September in Japan . The album was released on triple LP , CD and various digital formats , including MP3 , AAC , WAV and FLAC . A limited @-@ edition box set version of Syro , featuring a bonus track debossed on perspex vinyl , was released through Bleep.com. Limited to 200 pressings , interested users had to first enter a lottery , " in the interest of fairness " , to become eligible .
In a Rolling Stone interview about the release of Syro , James replied :
Horny . I 'm feeling really horny about it . And very smug … I 'm in that mode now , so hopefully I 'll stay in it for a while … I 've got a few more things planned — at least a couple more albums , some EPs , things like that . Some more dance @-@ y things I did about 10 years ago . Experimental things , noise things , weird things . Shitloads of stuff . They 're all pretty much ready to go .
Following Syro 's release , Computer Controlled Acoustic Instruments pt2 and a collection of 155 unreleased tracks were released in early 2015 . The tracks were uploaded by James to several Soundcloud accounts under different usernames , including " user487363530 " , " user4873635301 " and " user48736353001 " . Though there was initial speculation as to the authenticity of the recordings , James ' friend and collaborator Mike Paradinas confirmed that the tracks were legitimate . The Guardian 's Stuart Aitken drew comparisons between the surprise online releases and the promotional campaign for Syro , calling them " the latest example of a new willingness on the part of Aphex Twin to embrace digital media in very unexpected ways " and " explor [ ing ] the creative possibilities offered by the internet " .
On 5 March 2015 , it was announced that Syro 's Japanese bonus track " MARCHROMT30A edit 2b 96 " would be released as a 12 @-@ inch single on 6 April 2015 , backed with alternative versions of the title track and Syro 's " XMAS _ EVET10 [ 120 ] ( thanaton3 mix ) " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Syro received an average score of 86 , based on 36 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . Clash editor Mike Diver referred to the album as " an effortless comeback " and described it as " a more immediately engaging collection " than Drukqs ( 2001 ) and " an album that plays almost exclusively to its maker 's long @-@ established strengths " , rating it eight out of ten . Writing for The Guardian , Tim Jonze said that " [ Syro ] doesn 't do what some fans will have been hoping , in that it does not completely reshape the sonic landscape in the way Richard D James repeatedly did through the [ 19 ] 90s … and yet by sounding simply like a series of Aphex Twin tracks , Syro is still utterly engrossing and remains , somewhat unbelievably , on a completely different planet " . Jonze awarded the album a four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five star rating .
NME reviewer Louis Pattison rated Syro 9 out of 10 and surmised that the album is " a banging reminder of why the Cornish raver is one of music 's true innovators " . Pattison further stated that " whereas Drukqs sometimes felt alienating or punishing , Syro charms and beguiles … [ it is ] amazing : bug @-@ eyed , banging rave that sounds quintessentially Aphex while not quite sounding like anything he 's done before . " In his review for The Wire , Derek Walmsley wrote positively about the album . He said that " Syro feels like a perfected memory of [ 19 ] 80s music " , adding " its sweeping melodies , with echoes of 1991 's Analogue Bubblebath , could be seen as a return to his roots " but concluded that " Aphex Twin 's music seems as new as it ever was . " Rolling Stone reviewer Will Hermes gave Syro a four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five star rating and stated that the record is " thick with Seventies jazz @-@ funk nods " and " answers Daft Punk 's Random Access Memories with future @-@ shock electronics supplanting nostalgic dazzle … graying snobs once called this ' intelligent dance music . ' Even now , few do it better . "
The Independent 's Andy Gill awarded a four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five star rating to Syro and called it " a collection primarily concerned with the somatic rather than cerebral sides of Richard James ' music , overdosing somewhat on staccato , bouncing synth twangs and jittery drum 'n'bass beats . " " aisatsana [ 102 ] " , Syro 's closing track , drew comparisons to the works of French composer Erik Satie from both The Independent and Drowned in Sound , whose reviewer Tom Fenwick awarded the album a full 10 @-@ out @-@ of @-@ 10 rating . Summarising the album , Fenwick said that " Syro sees a master craftsman return with renewed inspiration . And while it might not technically be James ' most innovative album , it way [ sic ] well be his best … and once you let the hype drain away — what 's revealed is pretty much flawless . "
Resident Advisor 's Jordan Rothlein described Syro as " look [ ing ] in no obvious direction … Syro is freewheeling and playful , but its every warbled note and compositional hard @-@ left betray consideration and technical expertise that didn 't come overnight . In terms of impressive twists and turns , they 're myriad . Tracks morph , pressurize and reorganize — but never break down , exactly — following a completely unpredictable if utterly natural logic . " He rated the album a full five @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five rating . Writing for AllMusic , Andy Kellman referred to Syro as " one of James ' most inviting and enjoyable releases " and said the album is " decked in accents and melodies that are lively even at their most distressed " in his four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five @-@ star review . Derek Staples of Consequence of Sound commented on the album 's wide range of genres , including glitch , chillwave , techno , acid jazz and jungle , and said Syro " peaks as Aphex Twin 's most accessible album since his ambient works " , ultimately giving the album a B + rating . Pitchfork highlighted Syro as part of the publication 's " Best New Music " ; editor Mark Richardson rated the album 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 , writing that Syro " has few extremes , no hyper @-@ intense splatter @-@ breaks or satanic ' Come to Daddy ' vocals or rushes of noise . On the other end of the spectrum , Syro doesn 't cast James in a quasi @-@ classical light ; there 's no ' serious composer ' tracks … without all that , what 's left ? Sixty @-@ five minutes of highly melodic , superbly arranged , precisely mixed , texturally varied electronic music that sounds like it could have come from no other artist . "
Australian national radio station Double J selected Syro as its " Feature Album " for the week beginning 22 September 2014 . The station concluded its review with the statement : " This is another fascinating record from one of the few artists on this planet who can make something very weird sound utterly amazing . " Syro was also selected as " Album of the Week " by Mojo and The Sunday Times , ranked number one on The Washington Post 's September list of " best new music " , featured among Dazed 's " top ten albums of the month " for September , and was the highest @-@ scoring album on Metacritic that month .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Syro placed on the mid @-@ week UK Albums Chart at number 2 , selling 9 @,@ 000 copies less than This Is All Yours by alt @-@ J. It subsequently debuted at number 8 on the weekly chart , selling 17 @,@ 751 copies in its first week of release . Syro is James ' first album to reach the top 10 in the chart , and his highest peaking album in the UK to date ; Selected Ambient Works Volume II had previously peaked at number 11 in March 1994 . Syro also appeared on four other British charts ; it placed at number 2 on the Independent Albums Chart and number 7 on the Scottish Albums Chart , as well as reaching number 1 on both the Dance Albums and Official Record Store Albums charts .
Syro entered the top 10 in several international charts , including the Irish Albums Chart , the Irish Independent Albums Chart and the Russian Albums Chart , where it debuted at number 10 with first week sales of 10 @,@ 029 . The album entered the weekly Japanese Albums Chart at number 8 and sold 10 @,@ 553 physical copies in its first week of release . Syro debuted at number 35 on the Belgian Albums Chart in Flanders and subsequently entered the top 10 , rising to number 7 in its second week .
On the United States ' Billboard charts , Syro placed in the top 10 in several charts , having sold 23 @,@ 000 first @-@ week copies — 22 per cent of which were LP copies and responsible for " the largest sales week in 2014 for a dance / electronic album on vinyl " , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Syro topped the Vinyl Albums , Dance / Electronic Albums and Tastemaker Albums charts , and entered the Digital Albums chart at number 8 and the Independent Albums chart at number 2 . As of February 2015 , Syro had sold 54 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = = Accolades = = =
Syro was featured on several publications ' year @-@ end critics ' lists . The album fared particularly well in the British press ; The Guardian selected Syro as the fourth @-@ best album of 2014 , and the album placed at number 9 on the newspaper 's reader poll . The Wire named Syro album of the year , while NME placed Syro at number 4 on its list " Top 50 Albums of 2014 " , Q ranked the album at number 10 on its " Top 50 Albums of 2014 " feature and Uncut selected it as the third @-@ best album on its list of the " Best Albums of 2014 " . Syro was also featured at number 6 on Dazed 's " top 20 albums of 2014 " and number 8 on Clash 's " Fuss @-@ Free Top 40 Albums Of 2014 " .
Elsewhere , Syro was featured in Rolling Stone at number 41 on its " 50 Best Albums of 2014 " list , on Stereogum 's " 50 Best Albums of 2014 " at number 33 and Pitchfork Media 's " 50 Best Albums of 2014 " at number 4 . Critics on behalf of Billboard selected Syro as the eighth @-@ best album of 2014 and PopMatters placed the album at number 9 on its " Best Albums of 2014 " feature , while Resident Advisor ranked it at number 4 on its " Top 20 albums of 2014 " . In its end @-@ of @-@ year roundup Bleep.com selected Syro as the top album of the 2014 , surmising that the album is " a poignant reminder of the relevance of one of the most important artists of our time . "
Syro won a Grammy Award for Best Dance / Electronic Album at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015 ; sales of the album in the US increased 101 per cent following James ' win . Syro was nominated for IMPALA 's European Independent Album of the Year and is also shortlisted for the 2015 Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year , due to be awarded in March 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Richard D James .
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from Syro 's album notes .
Performer
Richard D James – piano , synthesizers , keyboards , drums , percussion , vocoder , programming , production
Technical personnel
Mandy Parnell – mastering ( 2 – 13 )
Beau Thomas – mastering ( 1 )
Design personnel
The Designers Republic – design , cover art
Anastasia Rybina – design , " puckography "
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
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= Tengo Un Amor =
" Tengo Un Amor " ( English : " I Have One Love " ) is the debut single by Puerto Rican @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Toby Love from his self @-@ titled debut studio album . It was released on November 6 , 2006 by Sony BMG Norte . A remix version with R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y was also recorded and included on the album . After separating from the Bachata group Aventura in 2006 , Toby Love set out on his own to record his debut album . The song became a success in the Latin market , reaching number one in the Billboard Latin Rhythm Airplay chart , the top five of both the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks and Billboard Latin Tropical Airplay charts while peaking at # 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States .
= = Background = =
Toby Love was born and raised in the Bronx , New York to Puerto Rican parents . Toby exclaimed that he fell in love with the genre of bachata , after being exposed to it as a child . He explained that his mother had always listened to that type of music . His mother had remarried to a Dominican and Love was raised around both cultures . He stated that he is a big fan of R & B and found it easy to incorporate it in his music .
After spending six years with the Bachata group Aventura , first appearing on the album Generation Next at the age of 16 , Love embarked on his solo career . He met with Aventura while he was still in a merengue group as a teenager . Living in the same neighborhood as the group , he became close friends with the member Max " Mikey " Santos , who later asked Love to join .
= = Composition = =
" Tengo Un Amor " was written by Love with additional composition by Edwin Perez who also handled production for the song . The song was written with Spanglish lyrics combining crunk hip hop with bachata . David Jefferies , while reviewing the parent album , called the song an " incredibly smooth , lush , and glittery ballad " while listing the song as a selected " Allmusic Pick " . Love later called " Tengo Un Amor " the " door @-@ opener " for all of his future success .
His influential musicians include Michael Jackson , Lauryn Hill , Juan Luis Guerra and Héctor Lavoe , which helped combined the mixture of R & B and bachata found on " Tengo Un Amor " . According to Billboard , the original version of the song is a " straightforward bachata song while the remix with R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y , known then as Rakim & Ken @-@ Y provides " urban street cred " . The remix also features a verse by R.K.M where he raps to a rhythm of bachata infused with reggaetón , or bachaton .
= = Release and chart performance = =
" Tengo Un Amor " was released digitally on November 6 , 2006 by Sony BMG Norte . After reaching number three on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 , the song debuted and peaked at # 100 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the week of November 18 , 2006 . On the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart , the song debuted for the issue week of August 5 , 2006 and peaked at number two for the week of November 11 , 2006 . This gave R.K.M & Ken @-@ Y their third Top 10 single following " Down " and " Me Matas " . On the Billboard Latin Tropical Airplay chart , the song debuted for the week of August 19 , 2006 and peaked at number three for the week of November 11 , 2006 . On the Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart , the song debuted for the week of October 7 , 2006 and peaked at # 25 for the week of October 28 , 2006 . In Los Angeles , the song became one of the top five most requested tracks on the Rhythmic Top 40 KXOL ( 96 @.@ 3 ) , the Senior Vice President of which called the song a " smash " while citing its success as an acceptance of Hispanic audiences and urban tastes .
= = Accolades = =
" Tengo Un Amor " received three nominations at the 2007 Latin Billboard Music Awards for Best Vocal Duet or Collaboration and Tropical Airplay Song of the Year , Duo or Group for the remix version while winning the award for Tropical Airplay Song of the Year , New Artist category . He was also awarded Best Rap / Hip @-@ Hop Album for Toby Love . The song was award an ASCAP award for Urban Song of the Year from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers . According to Jon Caramanica of New York Times , " Tengo Un Amor " is Love 's " biggest hit " .
= = Charts = =
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= Ode to Psyche =
" Ode to Psyche " is a poem by John Keats written in spring 1819 . The poem is the first of his 1819 odes , which include " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and " Ode to a Nightingale " . " Ode to Psyche " is an experiment in the ode genre , and Keats 's attempt at an expanded version of the sonnet format that describes a dramatic scene . The poem serves as an important departure from Keats 's early poems , which frequently describe an escape into the pleasant realms of one 's imagination . Keats uses the imagination to show the narrator 's intent to resurrect Psyche and reincarnate himself into Eros ( love ) . Keats attempts this by dedicating an " untrodden region " of his mind to the worship of the neglected goddess .
= = Background = =
Keats was never a professional writer . Instead , he supported himself with a small income that he earned as a surgeon for Guy 's Hospital . At the age of 23 , Keats left the hospital , losing his source of income , in order to devote himself to writing poetry . He lived with Charles Brown , a friend who collected Keats 's poetry while supporting him , during spring 1819 and composed poetry . The early products of this effort included La Belle Dame sans Merci and " Ode to Psyche " , the first of a series of odes that he would write that year . It is uncertain as to when the poem was actually completed , but Keats sent the poem to his brother on 3 May 1819 with an attached letter saying , " The following poem , the last I have written , is the first and only one with which I have taken even moderate pains ; I have , for the most part , dashed off my lines in a hurry ; this one I have done leisurely ; I think it reads the more richly for it , and it will I hope encourage me to write other things in even a more peaceable and healthy spirit . "
Keats was exposed to a few sources of the Psyche myth . His contemporary sources for the myth included Lempriere 's Classical Dictionary and Mary Tighe 's Psyche , an 1805 work that Keats read as a child and returned to in 1818 . Keats wrote to his brother George , just a few months before writing " Ode to Psyche " , to say that he was no longer delighted by Tighe 's writing . Dissatisfied , he turned to Apuleius 's Golden Ass , translated by William Adlington in 1566 , and read through the earlier version of the Cupid and Psyche myth . After reading the work and realizing that the myth was established during the twilight of Roman mythology , Keats wrote to George : " You must recollect that Psyche was not embodied as a goddess before the time of Apuleius the Platonist who lived after the Augustan age , and consequently the Goddess was never worshipped or sacrificed to with any of the ancient fervour — and perhaps never thought of in the old religion — I am more orthodox than to let a heathen Goddess be so neglected . "
= = Structure = =
" Ode to Psyche " , Keats 's 67 line ode , was the first of his major odes of 1819 . As such , the poem is an experiment in the ode structure that he was to then rely on for his next five odes . Although Keats spent time considering the language of the poem , the choice of wording and phrasing is below that found within his later works , including Hyperion or the odes that followed . " Ode to Psyche " is important because it is Keats 's first attempt at an altered sonnet form that would include longer more lines and would end with a message or truth . Also , he did not want the poem to be based simply around that message , so he incorporated narrative elements , such as plot and characters , along with a preface to the poem . Of these additions , the use of a preface was discontinued in his next odes along with the removal of details that describe setting within the poems ; they would only be implied within later odes .
H. W. Garrod , in his analysis of Keats 's sonnet form , believes that Keats took various aspects of sonnet forms and incorporated only those that he thought would benefit his poetry . In particular , Keats relies on Petrarch 's sonnet structure and the " pouncing rhymes " that are found within Petrarch 's octave stanzas . However , M. R. Ridley disputes that Keats favours Petrarch and claims that the odes incorporate a Shakespearean rhyme scheme . Regardless of which sonnet structure was favoured over the other , Keats wanted to avoid the downsides of both forms . " Ode to Psyche " begins with an altered Shakespearean rhyme scheme of ababcdcdeffeef . The use of rhyme does not continue throughout the poem , and the lines that follow are divided into different groups : a quatrain , couplets , and a line on its own . These are then followed by a series of twelve lines that are modelled after the Shakespearean sonnet form , but lack the final couplet . The next lines are of two quatrains , with cddc rhyme , followed by two lines that repeat the previous rhymes , and then a final quatrain , with efef rhyme .
= = Poem = =
The poem does not describe the plot of the original Cupid and Psyche myth : according to Harold Bloom , the poem " has little to do with the accepted myth " . In the original myth , Aphrodite punishes Psyche , a well admired girl , by having Cupid use his power to make her fall in love . Cupid , instead , falls in love with her , but he could only be with her in the cover of darkness in order to disguise his identity . Curious , she uses a light to reveal Cupid 's identity , but he flees from her presence . Psyche begins to search after Cupid , and Aphrodite forces her to perform various tasks before she could be united with her love . After nearly dying from one of the tasks , Cupid asks Zeus to transform Psyche into a goddess so the two can be together .
The action of " Ode to Psyche " begins with a narrator witnessing two individuals embracing . The narrator immediately recognizes Cupid and is astonished when he recognizes Psyche :
I wandered in a forest thoughtlessly ,
And , on the sudden , fainting with surprise ,
Saw two fair creatures , couched side by side
In deepest grass , beneath the whisp 'ring roof
Of leaves and trembled blossoms , where there ran
A brooklet , scarce espied :
* * * * *
The winged boy I knew ;
But who wast thou , O happy , happy dove ?
His Psyche true ! ( lines 7 – 12 , 21 – 23 )
The third stanza describes how Psyche , though a newer Goddess , is better than the other deities . However , she is neglected while the others were worshipped :
O latest born and loveliest vision far
Of all Olympus ' faded hierarchy !
Fairer than Phoebe 's sapphire @-@ regioned star ,
Or Vesper , amorous glow @-@ worm of the sky ;
Fairer than these , though temple thou hast none ,
Nor altar heaped with flowers ;
Nor virgin @-@ choir to make delicious moan
Upon the midnight hours ; ( lines 24 – 31 )
The previous list of what Psyche lacks in terms of religious worship only describes external symbols of worship . In the fourth stanza , the narrator emphasizes the internal when he describes how he is inspired by Psyche :
O brightest ! though too late for antique vows ,
Too , too late for the fond believing lyre ,
When holy were the haunted forest boughs ,
Holy the air , the water , and the fire ;
Yet even in these days so far retired
From happy pieties , thy lucent fans ,
Fluttering among the faint Olympians ,
I see , and sing , by my own eyes inspired . ( lines 36 – 43 )
The narrator , inspired by young goddess , becomes her priest . His imagination allows him to join with both the natural and supernatural elements of Psyche , and his form of worship is within himself while " Ode to Psyche " the poem serves as a song in praise of the goddess . The narrator becomes the prophet for Psyche and says in the final stanza :
Yes , I will be thy priest , and build a fane
In some untrodden region of my mind ,
Where branched thoughts , new grown with pleasant pain ,
Instead of pines shall murmur in the wind : ( lines 50 – 53 )
In the conclusion of the poem , the narrator metaphorically says that he will expand his consciousness , which would allow him to better understand both the good and the bad of the world . This will allow the narrator to attain a new sense of inspiration while providing Psyche with a sanctuary :
And in the midst of this wide quietness
A rosy sanctuary will I dress
With the wreathed trellis of a working brain ,
With buds , and bells , and stars without a name ,
With all the gardener Fancy e 'er could feign ,
Who breeding flowers , will never breed the same :
And there shall be for thee all soft delight
That shadowy thought can win ,
A bright torch , and a casement ope at night ,
To let the warm Love in ! ( lines 58 – 67 )
= = Theme = =
The moment that Cupid and Psyche are revealed is an example of " Keatsian intensity " as they are neither in a state of separation nor are they united ; they exist in a state somewhere in between in a similar manner to the figures depicted in Keats 's " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The narrator 's ability to witness the union is unique to Keats 's version of the Psyche myth because the lovers in the original story were covered in darkness . However , the narrator questions if he was able to see them at all or if he was dreaming . This inability of the narrator to know if he was awake is a theme that appears in many of Keats 's odes that followed , including " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , and " Ode to a Nightingale " . Regardless of the narrator 's state of consciousness , he is able to relate himself to Cupid as he believes himself to be in love with Psyche , representing the mind .
Part of the problem within " Ode to Psyche " is in the narrator 's claim that Psyche was neglected since she became a goddess later than the other Greco @-@ Roman deities . As such , the narrator serves as a prophetic figure who is devoted to the soul . Worship towards the soul is through use of the imagination , an idea that shows the influence of William Wordsworth upon the poem 's themes . In particular , the lines are reminiscent of the description of inspiration and the muse within Wordsworth 's " The Recluse . " To serve Psyche , the narrator of " Ode to Psyche " seeks to worship her by thoroughly exploring the regions of his mind . However , the temple dedicated to the goddess within his mind does not yet exist .
This reveals that there is a struggle between the acceptance of imaginative experience that exists only within a small part of the mind . This struggle , according to Walter Evert , has " no relevance to the world of external action and perhaps no truth to offer even the visionary dreamer himself . " However Anthony Hecht looks at the problem in a different way and believes that there must be a connection between the external and internal worlds for the narrator to even face the problem . Regardless , the narrator never states that this worship of Psyche or embracing the imagination would aid mankind , but the poem does rejoice in exercising the imagination .
In addition to the theme of dedicating one 's self to the mind , the theme of reception plays heavily upon the poem 's presentation ; Andrew Bennett states that the poem , like all poems , is " ' heard ' both by itself ( and therefore not heard ) and by an audience that reads the poem and ' hears ' it differently " . Bennett implies that the word " wrung " in line one contains a double entendre as it also alludes to the " ringing in the ears " involved with active listening . The poem 's treatment of the reader as a third @-@ party to the conversation between the narrator and the goddess exemplifies the narrative question common among many of Keats 's odes and leads Bennett to question how exactly the reader should regard his place within the poem , or outside of it .
= = Critical reception = =
Responding to the poem , Keats 's friend Leigh Hunt declared that " When Mr Keats errs in his poetry , it is from the ill management of the good things , --exuberance of ideas . Once or twice , he does so in a taste positively bad , like Marino or Cowley , as in a line in his ' Ode to Psyche ' ... but it is once or twice only , in his present volume . "
Robert Bridges , turn of the 19th @-@ century literary critic , wrote " for the sake of the last section ( l . 50 to end ) , tho ' this is open to the objection that the imagery is work 'd up to outface the idea — which is characteristic of Keats ' manner . Yet the extreme beauty quenches every dissatisfaction . The beginning of this ode is not so good , and the middle part is midway in excellence . " Later , T. S. Eliot thought very highly of Keats 's work and wrote " The Odes — especially perhaps the Ode to Psyche — are enough for his reputation . "
Kennet Allott , in defending against any possible harsh criticism of " Ode to Psyche " , argues that the poem " is the Cinderella of Keats 's great odes , but it is hard to see why it should be so neglected , and at least two poets imply that the conventional treatment of the poem is shabby and undeserved " . Allott then cites Bridges and Eliot as views that he sympathizes with , and he believes that the poem " is neither unflawed nor the best of odes , but to me it illustrates better than any other Keats 's possession of poetic power in conjunction with what was for him an unusual artistic detachment , besides being a remarkable poem in its own right . This may be another way of saying that it is the most architectural of the odes , as it is certainly the one that culminates most dramatically . "
Walter Jackson Bate states that the poem has " always puzzled readers [ ... ] But finding the poem so elusive , we return to it only after we know the others far better . If we had hope to use them as keys , we discover they do not quite fit the lock . Meanwhile they have given us a standard hard to equal . Hence we either feel a disappointment about the ' Ode to Psyche ' or else , remembering the care Keats supposedly gave it , we once more put the poem aside for future consideration . " However , he also states that " The modern , respectful attitude toward this ode is deserved . But the itch for novelty has encouraged a few critics to suggest that the poem , in some dark but fundamental way , has more to it as a whole than do the later odes . "
To Harold Bloom , the last lines of Keats 's ode " rivals any as an epitome of the myth @-@ making faculty " . He elaborates further on this when he writes , " The poem Ode to Psyche is unique , and also central , for its art is a natural growth out of nature , based as it is upon a very particular act of consciousness , which Keats arrests in all its concreteness . "
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= Stanisław August Poniatowski =
Stanisław II August ( also Stanisław August Poniatowski ; born Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski ; 17 January 1732 – 12 February 1798 ) was the last King and Grand Duke of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1764 – 95 ) . He remains a controversial figure in Polish history . Recognized as a great patron of the arts and sciences . Initiatior and firm supporter of progressive reforms , he is also remembered as the last king of the Commonwealth whose election was marred by Russian involvement . Main criticism resonates around being the one who failed to stand against the partitions , and in the end to prevent the destruction of Poland .
Arriving at the Russian imperial court in Saint Petersburg in 1755 , he became romantically involved with the twenty @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old Catherine Alexeievna ( the future Empress Catherine the Great , reigned 1762 – 1796 ) , three years his senior . With her support , in 1764 he was elected king of Poland . Against expectations , he attempted to reform and strengthen the ailing Commonwealth . His efforts met with external opposition from Prussia , Russia and Austria , all interested in keeping the Commonwealth weak ; and from internal conservative interests , which saw reforms as threatening their traditional liberties and prerogatives .
The defining crisis of his early reign , the War of the Bar Confederation ( 1768 – 1772 ) , led to the First Partition of Poland ( 1772 ) . The latter part of his reign saw reforms wrought by the Great Sejm ( 1788 – 1792 ) and the Constitution of 3 May 1791 . These reforms were overthrown by the 1792 Targowica Confederation and by the War in Defense of the Constitution , leading directly to the Second Partition of Poland ( 1793 ) , the Kościuszko Uprising ( 1794 ) and the final Third Partition of Poland ( 1795 ) , marking the end of the Commonwealth . Stripped of all meaningful power , Poniatowski abdicated in November 1795 and spent the last years of his life in semi @-@ captivity in Saint Petersburg .
A Polish noble of the Ciołek coat of arms and a member of the Poniatowski family , he was the son of Count Stanisław Poniatowski , Castellan of Kraków , and Princess Konstancja Czartoryska ; brother of Michał Jerzy Poniatowski ( 1736 – 94 ) , Primate of Poland ; and uncle to Prince Józef Poniatowski , ( 1763 – 1813 ) .
= = Royal titles = =
The English translation of the Polish text of the 1791 Constitution gives his title as : Stanisław August , by the grace of God and the will of the people , King of Poland , Grand Duke of Lithuania and Duke of Ruthenia , Prussia , Masovia , Samogitia , Kiev , Volhynia , Podolia , Podlasie , Livonia , Smolensk , Severia and Chernihiv .
= = Life = =
= = = Youth = = =
Stanisław August Poniatowski was born on 17 January 1732 in Wołczyn , then located in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth and now part of Belarus , to Stanisław Poniatowski and Konstancja née Czartoryska . The Poniatowski family of the Ciołek coat of arms was among the highest of the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) . He spent the first few years of his childhood in Gdańsk ; afterward , his family moved to Warsaw . He was educated by his mother , then by private tutors , including Russian ambassador Herman Karl von Keyserling . He did not have many friends in his teenage years ; instead , he developed a fondness for books , which continued throughout his life . He made his first foreign voyage in 1748 , when he accompanied the Russian army as it advanced to Germany . During that trip he visited Aachen and the Netherlands . Later that year he returned to the Commonwealth , stopping in Dresden .
= = = Political career = = =
Poniatowski spent the following year as an apprentice in the chancellery of Michał Fryderyk Czartoryski , then the Deputy Chancellor of Lithuania . In 1750 , he traveled to Berlin . There he met the British diplomat Charles Hanbury Williams , who became his mentor and friend . In 1751 , Poniatowski was elected to the Treasury Tribunal in Radom , where he served as a commissioner the following year . He spent most of January 1752 at the Austrian court in Vienna . Later that year , after serving at a Radom Tribunal and meeting with King Augustus III of Poland , he was a sejm ( Polish parliament ) deputy . During that Sejm his father acquired for him the title of starost of Przemyśl . In March 1753 he left on another foreign trip , this time through Hungary to Vienna , where he met Williams again .
He spent more time in the Netherlands , where he met many key members of that country 's political and economical sphere . By late August he arrived in Paris , where he again entered the high social circles . In February 1754 he left Paris and traveled to England , where he spent the next few months . There he befriended Charles Yorke , future Lord Chancellor of Great Britain . He returned to the Commonwealth later that year , this time not participating in the Sejm , as his parents wanted to keep him out of the political drama surrounding the Ostrogski family 's fee tail ( Ordynacja Ostrogska ) . Next year he received a title of stolnik of Lithuania .
Ultimately , Poniatowski owed his career to his family connections with the powerful Czartoryski family and their political faction , known as Familia , to whom he grew closer . It was the Familia who sent him in 1755 to Saint Petersburg in the service of Williams , who had been named British ambassador to Russia .
In Saint Petersburg , Poniatowski met the 26 @-@ year @-@ old Catherine Alexeievna ( the future empress Catherine the Great ) . The two became lovers . Whatever his feelings for Catherine , it is likely Poniatowski also saw an opportunity to use the relationship for his own benefit , using her influence to bolster his career .
Poniatowski had to leave St. Petersburg in July 1756 due to court intrigue . Through the combined influence of Catherine , Russian empress Elizabeth and chancellor Bestuzhev @-@ Ryumin , Poniatowski rejoined the Russian court as ambassador of Saxony the following January . In St. Petersburg , he became the source of more intrigue between various European governments , some supporting his appointment , others demanding his withdrawal . Eventually , he left the Russian capital on 14 August 1758 .
Poniatowski attended the Sejms of 1758 , 1760 and 1762 . He continued his involvement with the Familia , and supported a pro @-@ Russian and anti @-@ Prussian stance in Polish politics . His father died in 1762 , leaving him a moderate inheritance . In 1762 , when Catherine ascended to the Russian throne , she sent him several letters professing her support for his ascension to the Polish throne , but asking him to stay away from St. Petersburg . Nevertheless , Poniatowski hoped that Catherine would consider marriage , an idea that was seen as plausible by some international observers . He was involved with the unrealized plans of the Familia for a coup d 'état against Augustus III . In August 1763 , however , Catherine advised him and the Familia that she would not support a coup as long as Augustus III were alive .
= = = King = = =
= = = = Years of hope = = = =
Upon the death of Poland 's King Augustus III in October 1763 , negotiations began concerning the election of the new king . Catherine threw her support behind Poniatowski . The Russians spent about 2.5m rubles supporting his election , Poniatowski 's supporters and opponents engaged in some military posturing and even minor clashes , and in the end , the Russian army was deployed only a few miles from the election sejm , which met at Wola near Warsaw . In the end , there were no other serious contenders , and during the convocation sejm on 7 September 1764 , the 32 @-@ year @-@ old Poniatowski was elected king , with 5 @,@ 584 votes . He swore the pacta conventa on 13 November , and the formal coronation took place in Warsaw on 25 November . The new King 's uncles in the Familia would have preferred another nephew on the throne , Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski , characterized by one of his contemporaries as débauché , sinon dévoyé ( debauched if not depraved ) , but Czartoryski had declined to seek the office .
Stanisław August , as he now styled himself , combining the names of his two immediate royal predecessors , began his rule with rough support within the nation ; particularly , the lower nobility was favorable towards him . In his first years , he attempted to introduce a number of reforms . He founded the Knights School , and began to form a diplomatic service , with semi @-@ permanent diplomatic representatives throughout Europe , Russia and the Ottoman Empire . On 7 May 1765 , Poniatowski established the Order of the Knights of Saint Stanislaus , Bishop and Martyr , in honor of Poland 's and his own patron saint , as Poland 's second order of chivalry , to reward Poles for noteworthy service to the king . Together with the Familia he tried to reform the ineffective government , reducing the powers of the hetmans ( Commonwealth 's top military commanders ) and treasurers , moving them to commissions elected by the Sejm and responsible to the king . In his memoirs , Poniatowski called this period the " years of hope . " The Familia , which was interested in strengthening the power of their own faction , was dissatisfied with his conciliatory policy as he reached out to many former opponents of their policies . This uneasy alliance between Poniatowski and the Familia continued for most of the first decade of his rule . One of the points of contention between Poniatowski and the Familia concerned the rights of the religious minorities in Poland ; whereas Poniatowski reluctantly supported a policy of religious tolerance , the Familia was opposed to it . The growing rift between Poniatowski and the Familia was exploited by the Russians , who used this issue as a pretext to intervene in the Commonwealth 's internal politics and destabilize the country . Catherine had no desire to see Poniatowski 's reform succeed ; she had supported his ascent to the throne to ensure that the Commonwealth would remain a weak state under Russian control , and his attempts to reform the state 's ailing machinery were a threat to the status quo .
= = = = Bar Confederation and First Partition of Poland = = = =
Matters came to a head in 1766 . During the Sejm in October of that year , Poniatowski attempted to push a radical reform , restricting the disastrous liberum veto policy . He was opposed by conservatives such as Michał Wielhorski , who were supported by the Prussian and Russian ambassadors , who threatened war if the reform was passed . The dissidents , supported by the Russians , formed a confederation , the Radom Confederation . Abandoned by the Familia , Poniatowski 's reforms failed to pass at the Repnin Sejm , named after Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin , who promised to guarantee the Golden Liberties of the Polish nobility , enshrined in the Cardinal Laws , with all the might of the Russian Empire .
Although it had abandoned the cause of Poniatowski 's reforms , the Familia did not receive the support it expected from the Russians , who continued to press for the dissidents ' rights . Meanwhile , some factions now rallied under the banner of the Bar Confederation , aimed against the dissidents , Poniatowski and the Russians . After an unsuccessful attempt to find allies in Western Europe ( France , England and Austria ) , Poniatowski and the Familia had no choice but to rely more heavily on the Russian Empire , which treated Poland as a protectorate . In the War of the Bar Confederation ( 1768 – 1772 ) , Poniatowski supported the Russian army 's repression of the Bar Confederation . In 1770 , the Council of the Bar Confederation proclaimed him dethroned . The following year , he was kidnapped by Bar Confederate sympathizers and briefly held prisoner outside of Warsaw , but managed to escape . Faced with the weakness of Poland and continuing chaos , Austria , Russia and Prussia decided to intervene militarily , in exchange for significant territorial concessions from the Commonwealth – a decision they made without consulting Poniatowski or other Polish parties .
Although Poniatowski protested the First Partition of the Commonwealth ( 1772 ) , he was powerless to do anything about it . He considered abdication , but decided against it . During the Partition Sejm of 1773 – 1775 , in which Russia was represented by ambassador Otto von Stackelberg , with no help forthcoming from abroad and the armies of the partitioning powers occupying Warsaw to compel the Sejm by force of arms , no alternative was available save submission to their will . Eventually Poniatowski and the Sejm acceded to the partition treaty ; at the same time , several other reforms were passed . The Cardinal Laws were confirmed and guaranteed by the partitioning powers . Royal power was restricted , as the king lost the power to give out titles , and positions of military officers , ministers and senators , the starostwo territories , and Crown lands would be awarded through an auction . The Sejm also created two notable institutions : the Permanent Council , a main governmental body in continuous operation , and the Commission of National Education . The partitioners intended the Council to be easier to control than the unruly Sejms , and indeed it remained under the influence of the Russian Empire . Nevertheless , it was a significant improvement in the Commonwealth governance . The new legislation was guaranteed by the Russian Empire , giving it another excuse to interfere in Commonwealth politics if the legislation it favored was changed .
The political scene in the aftermath of the Partition Sejm saw the rise of a conservative faction which was opposed to the Permanent Council , seeing it as a threat to their Golden Freedoms . This faction was supported by the Czartoryski family , but not by Poniatowski , who proved to be quite adept at making the Council follow his wishes ; this marked the formation of new anti @-@ royal and pro @-@ royal factions in Polish politics . The royal faction was made up primarily of people indebted to the king , who planned to build their careers on service to him ; few were privy to his plans for reforms , which were kept hidden from the conservative opposition and Russia . Poniatowski scored a political victory during the Sejm of 1776 , which further strengthened the Council . Chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski was tasked with the codification of the Polish law , a project that became known as the Zamoyski Code . Russia supported some , but not all , of the 1776 reforms , and to prevent Poniatowski from growing too powerful , it supported the opposition during the Sejm of 1778 . This marked the end of Poniatowski 's reforms , as he found himself without sufficient support to carry them through .
= = = = Great Sejm and Constitution of 3 May 1791 = = = =
In the 1780s , Catherine slightly favored Poniatowski over the opposition , but did not support any of his plans for significant reforms . Despite repeated attempts , Poniatowski failed to confederate the sejms , which would have made them immune to liberum veto . Thus , although he had a majority in the Sejms , Poniatowski was unable to pass even the smallest reform . The Zamoyski Code was rejected by the Sejm of 1780 , and opposition attacks on the king dominated the Sejms of 1782 and 1786 .
Reforms became possible again in the late 1780s . In the context of the wars being waged against the Ottoman Empire by both the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire , Poniatowski tried to draw Poland into the Austro @-@ Russian alliance , seeing a war with the Ottomans as an opportunity to strengthen the Commonwealth . Catherine gave permission for the next Sejm to be confederated , as she considered some form of limited military alliance with Poland against the Ottomans might be useful .
The Polish @-@ Russian alliance was not implemented , as in the end the only acceptable compromise proved unattractive to both sides . However , in the ensuing Four @-@ Year Sejm of 1788 – 92 ( known as the Great Sejm ) , Poniatowski threw his lot with the reformers associated with the Patriotic Party of Stanisław Małachowski , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , and co @-@ authored the Constitution of 3 May 1791 . The Constitution introduced sweeping reforms . According to Jacek Jędruch , the constitution , in the liberality of its provisions , " fell somewhere below the French , above the Canadian , and left the Prussian far behind " , but was " no match for the American Constitution " . George Sanford notes that the Constitution gave Poland " a constitutional monarchy close to the English model of the time . " Poniatowski himself described it , according to a contemporary account , as " founded principally on those of England and the United States of America , but avoiding the faults and errors of both , and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country . " The Constitution of 3 May remained to the end a work in progress . A new civil and criminal code ( tentatively called the Stanisław August Code ) was in the works . Poniatowski also planned a reform improving the situation of the Polish Jews .
In foreign policy , spurned by Russia , Poland turned to another potential ally , the Triple Alliance , represented on the Polish diplomatic scene primarily by the Kingdom of Prussia , which led to the formation of the ultimately futile Polish – Prussian alliance . The pro @-@ Prussian shift was not supported by Poniatowski , who nevertheless acceded to the decision of the majority of Sejm deputies . The passing of the Constitution of 3 May , although officially applauded by Frederick William II of Prussia , who sent a congratulatory note to Warsaw , caused further worry in Prussia . The contacts of Polish reformers with the revolutionary French National Assembly were seen by Poland 's neighbors as evidence of a conspiracy and a threat to their absolute monarchies . Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives : " The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution " , elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition ; a similar sentiment was later expressed by Prussian Foreign Minister Friedrich Wilhelm von Schulenburg @-@ Kehnert . Russia 's wars with the Ottomans and Sweden having ended , Catherine was furious over the adoption of the Constitution , which threatened Russian influence in Poland . One of Russia 's chief foreign policy authors , Alexander Bezborodko , upon learning of the Constitution , commented that " the worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw : the Polish king has become almost sovereign . "
= = = = War in Defense of the Constitution and end of the Commonwealth = = = =
Shortly thereafter , conservative Polish nobility formed the Targowica Confederation to overthrow the Constitution , which they saw as a threat to the traditional freedoms and privileges they enjoyed . The confederates aligned themselves with Russia 's Catherine the Great , and the Russian army entered Poland , marking the start of the Polish – Russian War of 1792 , also known as the War in Defense of the Constitution . The Sejm voted to increase the Polish Army to 100 @,@ 000 men , but due to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved . Poniatowski and the reformers could field only a 37 @,@ 000 @-@ man army , many of them untested recruits . This army , under the command of the King 's nephew Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko , managed to defeat the Russians or fight them to a draw on several occasions . Following the victorious Battle of Zieleńce , in which Polish forces were commanded by his nephew , the king founded a new order , the Order of Virtuti Militari , to reward Poles for exceptional military leadership and courage in combat .
Despite Polish requests , Prussia refused to honor its alliance obligations . In the end , the numerical superiority of the Russians was too great , and defeat looked inevitable . Poniatowski 's attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile . In July 1792 , when Warsaw was threatened with siege by the Russians , the king came to believe that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat . Having received assurances from Russian ambassador Yakov Bulgakov that no territorial changes would occur , a cabinet of ministers called the Guard of Laws ( or Guardians of Law , Polish : Straż Praw ) voted eight to four in favor of surrender . On 24 July 1792 , Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation . The Polish Army disintegrated . Many reform leaders , believing their cause lost , went into self @-@ exile , although they hoped that Poniatowski would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians , as he had done in the past . Poniatowski had not saved the Commonwealth , however . He and the reformers had lost much of their influence , both within the country and with Catherine . Neither were the Targowica Confederates victorious . To their surprise , there ensued the Second Partition of Poland . With the new deputies bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops , the Grodno Sejm took place . On 23 November 1793 , it annulled all acts of the Great Sejm , including the Constitution . Faced with his powerlessness , Poniatowski once again considered abdication ; in the meantime he tried to salvage whatever reforms he could .
= = = Final years = = =
Poniatowski 's plans were ruined by the Kościuszko Uprising . The king did not encourage it , but once it began he supported it , seeing no other honorable option . Its defeat marked the end of the Commonwealth . Poniatowski tried to govern the country in the brief period after the defeat of the Uprising , but on 2 December 1794 , Catherine demanded that he leave Warsaw , a request to which he acceded on 7 January 1795 , leaving the capital under Russian military escort and settling briefly in Grodno . On 24 October 1795 , the act of the final , Third Partition of Poland was signed ; one month and one day later , on 25 November , Poniatowski signed his abdication . Catherine died on 17 November 1796 , succeeded by Paul I of Russia . On 15 February 1797 , Poniatowski left for Saint Petersburg , Russia . He hoped to be allowed to travel abroad , but was not able to secure permission to do so . A virtual prisoner in St. Petersburg 's Marble Palace , he subsisted on a pension granted to him by Catherine . Despite financial troubles , he still supported some of his former allies , and he tried to represent the Polish case at the Russian court . He also worked on his memoirs .
Poniatowski died after a stroke on 12 February 1798 . Paul I sponsored a royal state funeral , and on 3 March he was buried at the Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg . In 1938 , when the Soviet Union planned to demolish the Church , his remains were transferred to the Second Polish Republic , and put in a church at Wołczyn , his birthplace . This was done in secret , and it caused a controversy in Poland when the issue became known . In the 1990 , due to poor state of the Wołoczyn Church ( then in Belarus ) , his body was transferred to Poland once more , to St. John 's Cathedral in Warsaw , where , on 3 May 1791 , he had celebrated the adoption of the Constitution he had co @-@ authored and endorsed . A final funeral ceremony was held on 14 February 1995 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Patron of culture = = =
Poniatowski may have been the most important patron of the arts of the Polish Enlightenment . His political goals included the overthrow of the myth of the Golden Freedoms and the reform of the backwards culture of sarmatism , and many of his artistic projects aimed to eradicate the negative qualities he associated with them . The " Thursday Dinners " he hosted were considered the most brilliant social functions in the Polish capital .
He founded the Warsaw National Theatre , the first Polish public theatre , and sponsored many of its expenses , actors and an associated ballet school . He remodeled the Ujazdów Castle and the Royal Castle in Warsaw , and erected the elegant Royal Baths in Warsaw 's most romantic park . He was deeply involved with the details of the architectural projects , and his eclectic style became known as the Stanisław August style , a term coined by Polish art historian Władysław Tatarkiewicz . His chief architects included Domenico Merlini and Jan Kamsetzer . He was also a patron of numerous painters , many of them on personal retainer . They included Poles Anna Rajecka , Franciszek Smuglewicz , Jan Bogumił Plersch , Józef Wall and Zygmunt Vogel , as well as foreign painters , namely Marceli Bacciarelli , Bernardo Canalatto , Jean Pillement , Louis Marteau and Per Krafft the Elder . His retinue of sculptors was led by Andrzej Le Brun , and included Giacomo Monaldi , Franciszek Pinck and Tommaso Righi . Jan Filip Holzhaeusser was his court engraver and designer of many commemorative medals . According to a 1795 inventory , his art collection , spread throughout numerous buildings , contained 2 @,@ 889 pieces , including ones by Rembrandt , Rubens , van Dyck and others . His plan to create a large painting gallery in Warsaw was interrupted by the dismembering of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ; nonetheless , most of the paintings he ordered can now be seen at the Dulwich Picture Gallery in London . Poniatowski also planned to fund an Academy of Fine Arts , but this dream was also never realized .
Poniatowski accomplished much in the realm of education and literature . He established the School of Chivalry ( also called the " Corps of Cadets " ) , which functioned from 1765 to 1794 and whose alumni included Tadeusz Kościuszko ; he supported the creation of the Commission of National Education , considered to be the world 's first Ministry of Education . In 1765 he helped found the Monitor , one of the first Polish newspapers and the leading periodical of the Polish Enlightenment . He sponsored many articles that appeared in the Monitor ( and perhaps even wrote some himself ) . Writers and poets who received his patronage included Stanisław Trembecki , Franciszek Salezy Jezierski , Franciszek Bohomolec and Franciszek Zabłocki . He also supported publishers , including Piotr Świtkowski , and library owners such as Józef Lex .
He supported the development of the sciences , particularly cartography ; he hired a personal cartographer ( Karol de Perthees ) even before his election as king . A plan he initiated to map the entire territory of the Commonwealth , however , was never finished . At the Royal Castle in Warsaw , he organized an astronomical observatory and supported astronomers Jan Śniadecki and Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt . He also sponsored historical studies , including the collection , cataloging and copying of historical manuscripts . He encouraged publications of biographies of famous Polish historical figures , and sponsored their paintings and sculptures .
For his contributions to the arts and sciences , Poniatowski was awarded membership in 1766 to the Royal Society , where he was the first royal member outside the British royalty . In 1778 , he was awarded membership to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences , and in 1791 to the Berlin Academy of Sciences .
He also supported the development of industry and manufacturing , fields in which the Commonwealth lagged behind most of Western Europe . Among the endeavors in which he invested were the manufacture of cannons and firearms and the mining industry .
Poniatowski himself left several literary works : his memoirs , some political brochures and recorded speeches from the Sejm . He was considered a great orator and a skilled conversationalist .
= = = Conflicting assessments = = =
King Stanisław August remains a controversial figure . In Polish historiography and popular works , he has been criticized or marginalized by Szymon Askenazy , Joachim Lelewel , Jerzy Łojek ( whom Andrzej Zahorski describes as Poniatowski 's most vocal critic among modern historians ) , Tadeusz Korzon , Karol Zyszewski and Krystyna Zienkowska , whereas more neutral or positive views have been expressed by Paweł Jasienica , Walerian Kalinka , Władysław Konopczyński , Stanisław Mackiewicz , Emanuel Rostworowski and Stanisław Wasylewski .
When elected to the throne , he was seen by many as a simple " instrument for displacing the somnolent Saxons from the throne of Poland " , yet as Norman Davies notes , " he turned out to be an ardent patriot , and a convinced reformer . " Still , according to many , his reforms did not go far enough , leading to accusations that he was being overly cautious , even indecisive , a fault to which he himself admitted . His decision to rely on Russia has been often criticized . Poniatowski saw Russia as a " lesser evil " – willing to support the independence of a weak Poland within the Russian sphere of influence ; however in the end Russia chose to support the partitions of Poland rather than reform . He was accused by others of weakness and subservience , even of treason , especially in the years following the Second Partition ; during the Kościuszko Uprising , some rumors claimed that Polish Jacobins were planning a coup d 'état and his assassination . Another line of criticism alleged poor financial planning on his part . Poniatowski had little personal wealth ; most of his income came from royal lands and monopolies . His patronage of the arts and sciences was a major drain on his treasury ; he also supported numerous public initiatives , and attempted to use the royal treasury to cover the country 's expenses when tax revenue was insufficient . The Sejm promised to compensate him several times , with little practical effect . Nonetheless the accusation of being a spendthrift was frequently levied at him by his contemporary critics .
Andrzej Zahorski dedicated a book to the discussion of Poniatowski , The Dispute over Stanisław August ( Spór o Stanisława Augusta , Warsaw , 1988 ) . He notes that the discourse concerning Poniatowski is significantly colored by the fact that he was the last king of Poland – the king who failed to save the country . This failure , and his prominent position , made him a convenient scapegoat for many . Zahorski argues that Poniatowski made an error by joining the Targowica Confederation ; he wanted to preserve the Polish state , but it was too late for that – he only succeeded in damaging his reputation for centuries to come .
= = = Remembrance = = =
Poniatowski has been the subject of numerous biographies and many works of art . Voltaire , who saw Poniatowski as a model reformist , modeled King Teucer in his drama Les Lois de Minos ( 1772 ) after him . At least 58 contemporary poems were dedicated to him or praised him . Since then , he has been a major character in many works of Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , in the Rok 1794 trilogy by Władysław Stanisław Reymont , in the novels of Tadeusz Łopalewski , and in the dramas of Ignacy Grabowski , Tadeusz Miciński , Roman Bradstaetter and Bogdan Śmigielski . He is discussed in Luise Mühlbach 's novel Joseph II and His Court , and appears in Jane Porter 's Thaddeus of Warsaw .
On screen he has been played by Wieńczysław Gliński in the 1976 3 Maja directed by Grzegorz Królikiewicz . He will appear in an upcoming Russian TV series .
He has been a subject of numerous portraits , medals and coins . Poniatowski is prominent figure in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of 3 May 1791 . Matejko also portrayed him on another large painting , Rejtan , and in his series of portraits of Polish monarchs . His bust was unveiled in Łazienki in 1992 . Numerous cities in Poland have streets named after him , including Warsaw and Kraków .
= = Family = =
Poniatowski was the son of Stanisław Poniatowski ( 1676 – 1762 ) and Princess Konstancja Czartoryska ( 1700 – 1759 ) ; brother of Michał Jerzy Poniatowski ( 1736 – 94 ) , Kazimierz Poniatowski ( 1721 – 1800 ) , Andrzej Poniatowski , ( 1734 – 1773 ) ; and uncle to Józef Poniatowski ( 1763 – 1813 ) .
He never married . In his youth , he had loved his cousin Elżbieta Czartoryska , but her father August Aleksander Czartoryski disapproved because he did not think him influential or rich enough . When this was no longer an issue , she was already married . His pacta conventa specified that he should marry a Polish noblewoman , although he himself always hoped to marry into some royal family . Upon his accession to the throne , he had hopes of marrying Catherine II , writing to her on 2 November 1763 in a moment of doubt , " If I desired the throne , it was because I saw you on it . " When she made it clear through his envoy Rzewuski that she would not marry him , there were hopes of an Austrian archduchess .
A few historians believe that he later undertook a secret marriage to Elżbieta Szydłowska . However , according to Wirydianna Fiszerowa , a contemporary who knew them both , this rumour only spread after the death of Poniatowski , was generally disbelieved , and moreover , was circulated by Elżbieta herself , so the marriage is considered by most to be unlikely .
He had several notable lovers , two of whom bore him children . Magdalena Agnieszka Sapieżyna ( Lubomirska ) ( 1739 – 1780 ) bore Konstancja Żwanowa ( 1768 – 1810 ) and Michał Cichocki ( 1770 – 1828 ) . Elżbieta Szydłowska ( 1748 – 1810 ) bore him Stanisław Konopnicy @-@ Grabowski ( 1780 – 1845 ) , Michał Grabowski ( 1773 – 1812 ) , Kazimierz Grabowski ( 1770- ? ) , Konstancja Grabowska and Izabela Grabowska ( 1776 – 1858 ) . It is also very likely that Anna Petrovna ( 1757 – 1758 ) , Catherine the Great 's second child , was his daughter .
= = = Ancestors = = =
= = = Issue = = =
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= Elgato =
Elgato is a brand of consumer technology products . The manufacturer , also called Elgato , was founded in 1992 by Markus Fest and is headquartered in Munich , Germany .
Elgato is best known for a line of video @-@ recording products called EyeTV , which record video from over @-@ the @-@ air antennas , satellite TV , or mobile devices . The first EyeTV product was introduced in November 2002 .
More recently , Elgato introduced a line of " smart " products , such as a key fob that track 's the user 's distance from their car or purse and provides notifications to help them find it . In 2014 , it introduced a home monitoring system called Eve , which provides alerts to users regarding things like air pressure , temperature and water use . Elgato also developed light bulbs that can respond to programming on a mobile device and respond to commands over Bluetooth and it produces two Thunderbolt products : a dock for MacBooks and an external hard drive .
= = EyeTV = =
= = = History = = =
The first EyeTV hardware device was introduced in November 2002 . It was a small USB @-@ powered device that contained a cable tuner and hardware encoder in order to convert television video into an MPEG @-@ 1 format for watching on a computer . It also had coaxial and RCA plugs to connect it with a VCR or camcorder . A 2002 article in Macworld said it was the " first step " in bridging computers and television , but at this point still had " some kinks " .
The next iteration was released in 2004 and called EyeTV 200 . EyeTV 200 introduced a digital remote control and converted video programming into the higher @-@ quality MPEG @-@ 2 format . A Macworld review gave it 4 out of 5 stars for " very good " and emphasized the video quality and ease @-@ of @-@ use . A story in the Washington Post said it was more expensive than some alternatives , but worked on a Mac and had good @-@ quality recordings . Also in 2004 the first EyeTV product for satellite television was introduced with the EyeTV 310 , which was later discontinued and replaced with EyeTV Sat .
That same year a home media server called EyeHome was introduced . It had recording features similar to other EyeTV products , but was also intended for steaming a computer display to a television . It connected Mac computers and televisions that share the same home network . A review in Macworld gave it three stars or a " good " rating , saying that it was easy to install and worked well with Apple applications , but some aspects were quirky or frustrating . Sound and Vision Magazine said it was " pretty darn cool " and an easy , inexpensive way to get media server functionality , though there were some user interface quirks . It gave the product an 89 out of 100 rating .
By 2005 , several other EyeTV products had been introduced , such as the EyeTV for DTT , the EyeTV EZ and the EyeTV Wonder . The EyeTV for DTT ( digital terrestrial TV ) is a small USB @-@ powered device with an antenna for receiving free over @-@ the @-@ air television broadcasts . It received a 4 out of 5 rating in TechRadar . A review in The Register gave it an 85 percent rating . The Eye TV Wonder was only available from July 2005 to January 2006 , before being discontinued and replaced with the Eye TV EZ . The EZ was a basic , entry @-@ level product with an analog tuner for watching TV on a Mac computer .
In 2006 , version 2 @.@ 1 of the EyeTV software was introduced with a new user @-@ interface , an integrated TV guide from TitanTV and compatibility with Apple remotes . The interface was similar to that of other Apple products . An article in Macworld praised the update and especially the new editing features , but said it had some quirks , such as a difficult @-@ to @-@ find Edit button . Some of the iHome software , which plays video content from a computer onto a television , was released in 2006 as a universal binary .
Version 2 @.@ 4 of the EyeTV software was released in 2007 and added an export tool for Apple TV .
= = = = Exit from the ATSC tuner market = = = =
As of February 2015 , Elgato no longer sells ATSC tuners . ( ATSC is the digital television standard used in the United States , Canada , South Korea , Mexico and the Dominican Republic . ) The Elgato web site explicitly declines to give a reason : " Elgato Technical Support is not able to comment on this business decision . "
= = = Current products = = =
= = = = Over the air = = = =
The EyeTV Diversity is a USB @-@ powered device with dual tuners for receiving over the air television broadcasts . The tuners can be used simultaneously for an optimized signal , or one tuner can be used to record a channel , while another is used to watch a separate show . Diversity was first introduced in November 2006 . A driver in 2009 added compatibility with Windows 7 . A review in TechRadar gave EyeTV Diversity five out of five stars . PC advisor and Pocket @-@ Lint both gave it four out of five stars .
EyeTV Hybrid , which can pick up digital or analog television broadcasts , was first released in early 2009 . A CNET review said the device was easy and effective to use , but that buffering was often too slow to make watching live TV practical . Macworld said EyeTV 's " core strength " was recording scheduled TV shows . A review in PC Magazine gave the product 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . The review said it " works exceptionally well " but doesn 't come with Windows software .
= = = = Satellite = = = =
In June 2010 , the EyeTV HD product for recording high @-@ definition cable and satellite programming was introduced . Because cable and satellite signals are encoded , the device must be connected to a tuner from a television provider . Then it provides remote controls , recording and DVR @-@ functionality from a connected computer . A Macworld review gave the product four out of five stars . A review in Laptop Magazine gave EyeTV HD 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . It said the interface was intuitive and the video quality was good , but noted it was only compatible with Macs .
The EyeTV Netstream 4Sat has four satellite tuners , allowing four channels to be watched simultaneously from different devices . It was introduced in 2014 . A review in Macworld gave it 5 out of 5 stars . The review said Elgato had addressed some of the limitations of prior EyeTV satellite tuners like Netstream Sat / DTT . Pocket @-@ Lint gave it 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars CNET gave it five stars . The EyeTV Sat product , which receives free @-@ to @-@ air television , was introduced in Europe in late 2009 . The Register gave it an 80 % rating , saying that it " works well " and that the documentation did not make it clear how to install the Apple and Windows versions of the software .
= = = = Software = = = =
The EyeTV software was updated to version 3 @.@ 0 in 2008 . 3 @.@ 0 made user interface improvements , such as being able to mark favorites or automatically record shows in a series . A review in TechRadar gave it 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . The review noted that EyeTV was the de facto software for TV and computer video integration and praised its new features , but said it was expensive when purchased separately . A 2007 article in MacLife said their " top picks " for USB @-@ powered tuners were those using the EyeTV software , such as the EyeTV hybrid or EyeTV 250 . In addition to Elgato 's EyeTV line of consumer devices , other brands such as Terratec and Miglia use the EyeTV software in their products through licensing agreements with Elgato .
= = = = Mobile = = = =
The EyeTV W was introduced in November 2013 . It is a small 44 gram device that receives free digital over @-@ the @-@ air television broadcasts and makes it available to portable devices through a wireless hot spot . A review in Macworld said it was portable , easy to use and had good battery life , but noted that users can 't connect to other wi @-@ fi networks and watch TV at the same time . It gave the product 4 out of 5 stars . An EyeTV Mobile device for iPads was announced at the 2011 International Franchise Conference as the first tuner for the new Freeview system in the United Kingdom .
Subsequently the EyeTV Mobile and EyeTV Micro products were released for iPhones and Android respectively . The Micro and Mobile allow users to watch or record free over @-@ the @-@ air television programming from their smartphone . Reviews of the mobile products ranged from 2 out of 5 stars by CNET 4 out of 5 stars in Macworld and 3 out of 5 stars in PC Magazine . There is also an EyeTV iPhone app that allows the user to watch their recorded shows on their iPhone , control their EyeTV recordings or watch live TV while connected to Wi @-@ Fi . A compact version for laptops , the EyeTV GO , was introduced in May 2014 .
= = Smart product line = =
= = = Smart key = = =
Elgato manufactures and markets a smart @-@ key system . The system comes with a small 10 @-@ gram device that is placed on a key ring , in a purse , inside a car , or somewhere else . Then it communicates with an Elgato app on an iOS device . If it is set up for keys , the app will alert the user when they are 10 meters away from their keys , indicating that they may have forgotten them . It takes advantage of the " Smart Bluetooth " Apple implemented in iOS 7 . A review in TheNextWeb said it was " money well spent " and worked " exactly as described " , but that the beeping of the device could be louder and users will still need to supplement it with the Find my Phone app . A review in Macworld gave it 4 out of 5 stars .
= = = Smart home = = =
In September 2014 , Elgato announced a home monitoring system called Eve , which monitors a home 's air pressure , water usage , temperature , air quality and other factors . Elgato said the product won 't be available until the HomeKit software , which is expected to come with Apple iOS 8 , is released . It also introduced smart light bulbs , which communicate with iOS devices through Bluetooth and allow users to adjust home lighting from their mobile device .
= = = Smart power = = =
In late 2014 , Elgato introduced the Smart Power battery backup for mobile devices . It communicates with the user 's bluetooth @-@ enabled device to provide notifications and calendar reminders when it needs to be charged .
= = Thunderbolt = =
= = = Thunderbolt dock = = =
Elgato introduced a Thunderbolt docking station in June 2014 . A computer is plugged into the dock using a Thunderbolt port in order to gain access to the dock 's three USB ports , audio jacks , HDMI and ethernet . It is typically used to plug a Macbook into an office setting ( printer , monitor , keyboard ) or to provide additional ports not available in the Macbook Air . A review in The Register said it was compact and useful , but Windows users should consider a USB 3 @.@ 0 dock . The Register and CNET disagreed on whether it was competitively priced . Reviews in TechRadar and Macworld gave it 4 out of 5 stars .
= = = Thunderbolt SSD = = =
Elgato introduced two firewire external hard drives in September 2012 called Thunderbolt Drive . Benchmark tests by MacWorld and Tom 's Hardware said that the hard drive was slower than other products they tested , despite being connected through a faster Thunderbolt port , rather than Firewire . The following year , in 2013 , Elgato replaced them with similar drives identified as " Thunderbolt Drive + " , which added USB 3 @.@ 0 support and was claimed to be faster than the previous iteration . A CNET review of a Thunderbolt Drive + drive gave it a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 star rating . It said the drive was " blazing fast " and " the most portable drive to date " but was also expensive . An article in The Register explained that the original drives introduced in 2012 didn 't perform well in benchmark tests , but the newer " plus " version had impressive speed results during testing .
= = Gaming = =
Game Capture HD , which connects to gaming consoles to record gameplay , was introduced in 2012 . It was created in response to gamers that were hacking EyeTV products for gameplay recording . The device connects between a gaming console and the TV and is powered by a USB connection . It captures video as the console sends it to the television , compresses and stores it . A review in iPhone Life gave it 4 out of 5 stars and noted that it could also be used to record iPad games with the right setup .
In October 2014 Elgato released a new version called HD 60 . It recorded in 60 frames per second and 1080p high definition video , whereas typical low @-@ end video game recording devices capture in 720p and 30 frames per second . The Telegraph gave it four out of five stars . A review in Gizmodo said that it captured extremely high @-@ quality footage , but it may be higher @-@ end than needed for many gamers that would be satisfied with the recording features built @-@ in to the console .
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= Hurricane Juliette ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Juliette was the strongest hurricane and final tropical cyclone of the inactive 1995 Pacific hurricane season . The tenth named storm of the season , Juliette formed on September 16 from a tropical wave off the southwest coast of Mexico . For the majority of its track , the storm moved toward the west @-@ northwest , and Juliette quickly intensified to major hurricane status . On September 20 , the hurricane reached peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Later it turned toward the northeast , briefly threatening the Baja California Peninsula , although the hurricane never affected land .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa behind Hurricane Luis on August 31 . Strong outflow from Luis prevented development of the wave , and it continued westward until crossing into the eastern Pacific Ocean on September 12 . Convection increased as it moved through the Gulf of Tehuantepec , and the cloud pattern organized sufficiently to warrant Dvorak classifications for the system on September 15 . Based on the development of a low @-@ level circulation , it is estimated the system organized into Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E on September 16 while located around 290 miles ( 465 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . Due to the tropical depression moving over an area of warm water temperatures with favorable upper level outflow , the National Hurricane Center forecast the tropical depression to slowly intensify to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds within 72 hours the forecast early on September 16 .
The tropical depression was small in size , and moving to the west @-@ northwest , intensified into a tropical storm on September 17 . Juliette quickly organized with a well @-@ defined band of convection drawn into the circulation . The storm quickly intensified , and subsequent to the development of a small eye Juliette attained hurricane status on September 18 , just 42 hours after developing . The eye became better defined as the hurricane moved to the west @-@ northwest , a motion caused by a weak ridge to its north , and Juliette attained major hurricane status early on September 19 . Possibly due to increased northeasterly wind shear from an upper @-@ level trough , Juliette stopped its intensification trend , though as it turned to the west it again re @-@ organized . On September 20 , while located 420 miles ( 680 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Juliette attained a peak strength of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , the strongest tropical cyclone of the season and a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
After maintaining its peak intensity for less than 12 hours , Juliette began to weaken due to an eyewall replacement cycle . After turning to the west @-@ northwest , the winds of the hurricane dropped to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) by September 22 , and the eyewall expanded to about 80 miles ( 130 km ) in diameter . The eyewall contracted to about 40 miles ( 65 km ) , and as a result Juliette re @-@ strengthened to attain winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . An eastward moving trough of low pressure turned the hurricane to the north @-@ northeast into an area of cooler water temperatures and increased wind shear . Juliette quickly weakened to a tropical storm late on September 24 . The eastward moving trough moved past the storm , resulting in the motion of Juliette turning to a southeast drift . The convection waned and disappeared on September 25 , and on September 26 Juliette dissipated while located 450 miles ( 730 km ) west of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When the motion of Juliette turned to the northeast , some computer models predicted it to continue northeastward and strike Baja California Sur . As a result , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch as a precautionary measure for portions of the state . When the storm weakened rapidly and turned from the coast , the watch was canceled . Juliette remained away from land masses for its lifetime , and as a result there were no reports of damage or deaths . In southern California , however , the hurricane produced high waves that created dangerous surfing conditions . These waves wiped out a fishing derby . The remnants of Hurricane Juliette moved into New Mexico and western Texas , producing scattered showers and thunderstorms .
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= Debut ( Björk album ) =
Debut is the first international solo studio album by Icelandic recording artist Björk . The album was released in July 1993 on One Little Indian and Elektra Records , and was produced by Björk in collaboration with artist Nellee Hooper . Her first recording following the dissolution of her previous band the Sugarcubes , the album departed from the from the rock @-@ oriented style of her previous work and instead drew on an eclectic variety of styles across electronic pop , house music , jazz and trip hop .
Debut received widespread critical acclaim from British music critics , though United States reviewers doled out more mixed reviews . Upon its initial release , the album sold far greater than her label predicted , charting at number three in the United Kingdom and 61 in the United States . It was certified gold in Canada and platinum in the United States , where it remains her best @-@ selling album to date .
Five singles were released from Debut : " Human Behaviour " , " Venus as a Boy " , " Play Dead " , " Big Time Sensuality " and " Violently Happy " . All five singles charted in the United Kingdom with only " Human Behaviour " , " Violently Happy " and " Big Time Sensuality " charting on dance and modern rock charts in the United States .
= = Background and production = =
While still performing as the vocalist of Icelandic alternative rock group the Sugarcubes , Björk approached both Ásmundur Jónsson of Bad Taste and producer Derek Birkett of One Little Indian Records with a demo cassette of her own songs on which she had been working . These demos included versions of songs that would appear on Debut , including " The Anchor Song " and " Aeroplane " . After the Sugarcubes went on hiatus , she moved to London , England , where she and Birkett worked on the details of what would become Debut . Björk has admitted that The Sugarcube 's music was not her taste , and that her contact with London 's underground club culture of the late 1980s / early 1990s helped her find her own musical identity . She said : " ... as a music nerd , I just had to follow my heart , and my heart was those beats that were happening in England . And maybe what I 'm understanding more and more as I get older , is that music like Kate Bush has really influenced me . Brian Eno . Acid . Electronic beats . Labels like Warp . "
Many of the songs on the album were written years before Björk moved to London , including " Human Behaviour " which was written when the singer was a teenager . Björk had put aside these songs stating that " I was in punk bands and [ the songs ] weren 't punk . " Björk had already written half the songs for Debut in some form , but had nothing recorded . With no producer in line to work with , she continued to compose songs with 808 State member Graham Massey in a friend 's home in Manchester where she would write songs that would be included on later albums , including " Army of Me " and " The Modern Things " .
While creating more electronic based tracks with Massey , Björk developed a desire to work with a jazz producer . Wanting to work with a harpist , producer Paul Fox who had previously worked with the Sugarcubes , introduced her to jazz harpist Corky Hale . Hale was going to politely refuse to work with Björk until her stepson , who was a Sugarcubes fan , insisted that she take the job . Björk recorded a handful of jazz standards with Hale including " I Remember You " and an early version of " Like Someone in Love " . Fox also introduced Björk to Oliver Lake and the pair recorded another jazz standard , " Life Is Just a Bowl of Cherries " , with Lake 's jazz group for the John Hughes film Curly Sue . Hughes turned down the idea of the recording for the film , but it led to the idea of Debut being produced by Fox and arranged by Oliver Lake . Björk contracted Lake for working with some session saxophonists in London for Debut . Lake 's contributions to the album are heard on tracks including " Aeroplane " and " The Anchor Song " .
Björk was intending to have several producers work on the album , but this idea never came to fruition . Björk was then going to have the album produced with Paul Fox until she was introduced to producer Nellee Hooper by her boyfriend Dominic Thrupp . Hooper had previously produced albums by Soul II Soul , Sinéad O 'Connor and Massive Attack , which made Björk skeptical about working with him , stating that " I thought Nellee was too ' good taste ' for my liking . But then I met him , got to know him , [ and ] got to hear about his fabulous ideas ... " Björk and Hooper 's recording ideas were very similar , which led to the decision to end production work with Massey and Fox . Hooper introduced Björk to studio technology and studio programmer Marius de Vries who gave Debut a modern style with the use of keyboards and synthesizers . Hooper produced the first ten tracks on the album , while Björk co @-@ produced " Like Someone in Love " with Hooper and produced " The Anchor Song " solely herself . Björk and Hooper spent many sessions in the studio working on Debut until the album was finished in early 1993 .
= = Composition = =
The music of Debut draws on an eclectic variety of sources . Treblezine described the album as " [ melding ] alternative dance and electronic with a graceful flow . " It is said that the album " [ shook ] the status quo " of the contemporary musical climate , in the sense that its eclectic experimental pop leanings distanced it from the music " primarily being made by men with guitars " that was popular at the time , like grunge and the burgeoning britpop . Michael Cragg of The Guardian has described it as an " indefinable conflation of electronic pop , trip @-@ hop , world music and otherworldly lyrics " . AllMusic described the album 's style as " creative , tantalizing electronic pop . " The The New York Times review stated that " Debut often recalls the early 70 's jazz @-@ fusion of bands like Weather Report . But where these fusionists combined jazz harmony with funk and acid rock , Björk marries her scat @-@ vocalese and off @-@ kilter melodies with the futuristic textures and programmed percussion of today 's techno and acid house . Furthermore , The Face 's Mandi James felt Debut was " a delightful fusion of thrash metal , jazz , funk and opera , with the odd dash of exotica thrown in for good measure . " The singer also took influence from the music of Bollywood and " the buzz of London nightlife . "
A main element of Debut 's sound is its incorporation of dance music , reflecting the contemporary styles of London 's club culture , with which the singer had established close ties . While the echoes of subgenres such as Euro @-@ house , acid jazz , worldbeat and IDM can be noted , " they hadn ’ t yet broken free from the primal thump of four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor house music . " Tom Breihan of Stereogum asserts that " even as dance music took on all these new sounds , that basic pulse was still the most important thing about it , and that pulse reverberates all through Debut . " Björk said : " A lot of the songs on my record have dance beats , but I think they ’ re beats that are more reflective of daily life — like life in the middle of the day in a city , as opposed to the night life of the clubs . " The " four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor " style — typical of house music — is mostly evident in songs such as " Human Behaviour " , " Crying " , " Big Time Sensuality " , " There 's More to Life Than This " and " Violently Happy " . Björk felt house music was " the only pop music that [ was ] truly modern , " stating in 1993 that it was " the only music where anything creative is happening today . "
Her departure from the guitar @-@ driven rock of her previous works stemmed from the feeling that it was outdated , arguing that " as soon as any form becomes traditional , like the guitar , bass and drums , then people start to behave traditionally , " and that " it 's really difficult to get a band to stay on the edge using typical bass , guitar and drums set @-@ up because it tends to lapse into a predictable form . " Being a fan of dance music since the early days of acid house , she thus used it as the framework for her songs . However , in a Rolling Stone interview she also stated that " [ she ] was more influenced by ambient music than what you 'd call dance music , and by things that were happening way back in Chicago and Detroit that were sensual and daring and groundbreaking in their time ; " also adding : " Ninety @-@ five percent of the dance music you hear today is crap . It 's only that experimental five percent that I 'm into — the records that get played in clubs after 7 o 'clock in the morning , when the DJs are playing stuff for themselves , rather than trying to please people . " Björk 's embracement of England 's dance culture also extended to her looks , with her style at the time now considered a representative of 1990s acid house fashion .
Björk 's adoption of " the contemporary musical environment of London " also included the burgeoning trip @-@ hop scene of bands like Portishead and Massive Attack . Co @-@ producer Nellee Hooper had been a member of Bristol 's " Wild Bunch " collective , a group that took from acid jazz , funk and hip hop and catalyzed the appearance of trip @-@ hop . Thus , the electronically backed songs of the album that are not dance @-@ oriented have a more trip @-@ hop style sound . These non @-@ dance tracks have been described as having a " more delicate atmosphere " . i @-@ D noted that Debut — and Björk 's following album , Post — also integrate ambient techno and jungle , stating that they " couldn 't have existed without Aphex Twin , Black Dog , A Guy Called Gerald , LFO and all the other producers who reshaped the language of music since 1988 . " Also present are elements of jazz , with WUOG stating that " while many see Debut as Björk ’ s clubbiest album , it may also be her jazziest . " Likewise , Brad Shoup of Stereogum wrote that " though her electronic bent gets the most attention , it 's her interest in jazz that courses through the set . " Tim Perlich of Now felt Debut " bridges jazz and pop " , and Simon Reynolds characterized it as " jazzy love songs tinged with an oceanic feeling . "
= = = Songs = = =
For the most part , the lyrics of Debut are concerned with love . The love themes range from " flesh @-@ and @-@ blood passion " for another person to the love of life itself . According to i @-@ D , with a couple of exceptions , the songs of Debut fell into two types : " those where Björk addressed the listener as someone in pain and told them fireworks would light their nights and all would be well ; " and " songs where she sang about her own pain . " The Face stated that the album 's lyrics " [ consolidated ] her love affair with language , " while The Sunday Times felt that Björk " rigorously [ avoided ] the obvious " by using lyrics that do not rhyme .
Album opener " Human Behaviour " features a " bouncing riff " sampled from Antônio Carlos Jobim , with " its syncopated beat consigned to a venerable orchestral instrument , the timpani . " Its lyrics refer to Björk 's experience as a child , finding the behaviour of adults " rather chaotic and nonsensical , " instead finding harmony with other children , nature and animals . Inspired by naturalist David Attenborough , she sings from the point of view of an animal , with its opening line being " If you ever get close to a human / And human behaviour / Be ready , be ready to get confused " . Following track " Crying " shows a contradiction between its " bubbly , shiny @-@ surfaced acid disco @-@ pop " sound and lyrics that describe the turmoil of feeling alienated in a big city . " Venus as a Boy " — considered an ambient track by Rolling Stone — reflected Björk 's newly found interest in Bollywood , having befriended people of Indian origin in London , most notably Talvin Singh . In a spontaneous fashion , the song 's strings — and also those of " Come to Me " — were recorded by a fim studio orchestra in India . The lyrics of the track are about the sensitivity of her then boyfriend Dominic Thrupp , with lyrics that have been described as " sweet and just the slightest bit naughty . " In the dancefloor @-@ oriented " There 's More to Life Than This " , Björk leaves romance behind , with " her mischievous side [ coming ] to the fore " . Its lyrics were inspired by a party she attended and promptly left . " Like Someone in Love " is one of the several jazz standards the singer recorded with Corky Hale , with her voice " cradled in harp and swoony strings . "
" Like Someone in Love " is followed by the techno @-@ tinged " Big Time Sensuality " in an " intentionally startling " leap . An " anthem to emotional bravery , " it contains lyrics described as " simple but passionate " , concerning Björk 's relationship with her co @-@ producer Nellee Hooper . The songs " The Anchor Song " , " One Day " , and " Aeroplane " draw on what Björk refers to as her more " academic , clever side " . " One Day " also presents a sudden shift of mood , featuring a " gently pulsing bass " that builds into an " itchily impassioned , housey pop euphoria . " " Aeroplane " is one of Debut 's most musically complicated pieces with off @-@ kilter arrangement from Oliver Lake ; its backdrop is inspired by exotica music . This song is also about Thrupp , written when he was living in the United Kingdom and Björk still lived in Iceland . " Come to Me " features a " hazy musical backdrop of raindrop synths , padded drums and sweeping strings " ; lyrically , it explores a " sensually intense need to nurture . " " Violently Happy " is the most hardcore techno track on the album . In the song , over " brisk house beats " Björk sings in a stammering fashion , as she " struggles to express feelings of excitement so intense she seems on the brink of leaping out of her skin . " As a gesture to inexpressible feelings , the song samples one syllable and " [ turns ] it into a stuttering vocal tic . " Closing track " The Anchor Song " is the only one in the album solely produced by Björk . One of the three songs to appear on her first demo cassette of 1990 , it features Oliver Lake playing the saxophone , in an arrangement that replicated the " ebb and tide of an ocean 's peaking tops , an image reinforced by Björk 's fiercely patriotic lyrics . "
= = Release = =
Debut was released on 5 July 1993 on compact disc and cassette on One Little Indian Records in the United Kingdom and 13 July 1993 on Elektra Records in the United States . One Little Indian estimated that Debut would sell a total of 40 @,@ 000 copies worldwide based on a guess of the Sugarcubes fan base at the time . However , within three months of Debut 's release , over 600 @,@ 000 copies had been sold worldwide . On the album 's initial release , it charted in the United States , peaking at number one on the Top Heatseekers chart and at number sixty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 . In the United Kingdom , Debut entered the charts on 17 July 1993 , staying in the charts for sixty @-@ nine weeks and peaking at number three . Debut has been re @-@ issued several times in different formats . In November 1993 , the album was re @-@ issued in the United Kingdom with the bonus track " Play Dead " , a song written for the film The Young Americans , shortly after Debut 's completion . The album was later issued on vinyl and DualDisc formats . The Japanese version of Debut included two bonus tracks : " Play Dead " and " Atlantic " . The DualDisc release featured the full album on the CD side while the DVD side included the album with superior sound quality and the music videos for the singles . On 5 May 1994 , The Canadian Recording Industry Association certified that Debut had sold over 50 @,@ 000 units making it a Gold record in Canada . On 31 August 2001 , the RIAA certified that Debut had sold over one million units making it a Platinum record in the United States . Worldwide sales of the album stand at 4 @.@ 7 million copies .
= = = Singles = = =
In 1993 Björk contacted French director Michel Gondry to create a music video for " Human Behaviour " after seeing a video he made for his own band Oui Oui . " Human Behaviour " was the first single taken from Debut , and was issued a month before the album 's release in June 1993 . Three more singles were released from Debut in 1993 . " Venus as a Boy " was the second single , released in August with a music video directed by Sophie Muller . " Play Dead " was released in August 1993 as a non @-@ album single , that would be included on later releases of the album . " Play Dead " had an accompanying music video directed by Danny Cannon . The final single released in 1993 was " Big Time Sensuality " remixed by Fluke with a music video by Stéphane Sednaoui . A further single , " Violently Happy " , was released in March 1994 with an accompanying video by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino . All five singles from Debut charted within the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart while only " Human Behaviour " , " Violently Happy " and " Big Time Sensuality " charted in the American Billboard charts .
= = Reception = =
At the 1994 Grammy Awards , Michel Gondry 's music video for " Human Behavior " was nominated for best Best Short Form Music Video , but lost to Stephen Johnson 's video for the Peter Gabriel song " Steam " . At the 1994 Brit Awards , Björk won awards for " Best Newcomer " and " Best International Female " . Shortly after the Brit Awards , Björk was sued by Simon Fisher , a musician she collaborated with in 1990 . Fisher 's claim stated that he had co @-@ written " Human Behaviour " , " Venus as a Boy " , " Crying " , and " Aeroplane " and sought damages of over ₤ 20 @,@ 000 . Hooper and Björk went to court with Fisher shortly after the release of Björk 's album Post . Judge Robin Jacob found Fisher only seeking credit for one song instead of four and cleared Hooper and Björk of all charges stating that Fisher 's charges rendered him " unreliable , diffuse , and vague " .
Critical reaction to Debut was generally positive . The British music press spoke positively about the album , with Q giving it four out of five stars calling it " a surprising , playful collection " while the NME wrote that Debut was " an album that believes music can be magical and special . " The Independent gave Debut a favorable review noting that Björk had " fashioned an amazing array of contrasting arrangements , whose musical diversity never interferes with their clarity of vision . " American reception was more mixed . Musician magazine praised the vocals of the album , stating " what makes [ Björk 's ] singing memorable isn 't the odd assortment of growls , moans and chirps she relies upon , but the emotions those sounds convey . " The New York Times described Debut as " an enchanting album " . American critic Robert Christgau gave the album a " neither " rating , indicating an album that " may impress once or twice with consistent craft or an arresting track or two . Then it won 't " . A negative review came from Rolling Stone who gave the album two stars out of five calling the album " utterly disappointing " blaming producer Nellee Hooper , suggesting he " sabotaged a ferociously iconoclastic talent with a phalanx of cheap electronic gimmickry . " Michele Romero of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a C , saying , " On a few songs , [ Björk 's ] breathy mewl is a pleasant contrast to the mechanical drone of Sugarcube @-@ like techno @-@ tunes . But most of Debut sounds annoyingly like the monotonous plinking of a deranged music box . Wind it up if you like -- eventually it will stop . " Debut rated highly in British end of year polls . The NME ranked Debut at number one on their list of " Top 50 LPs of 1993 " . Melody Maker placed the album at number six on their list of " Albums of the Year for 1993 " calling it " a fantastic debut " . In 1994 , Q included the album on their list for top fifty albums of 1993 . Björk reacted to the positive reviews hesitantly , stating that if she 'd " delivered exactly the same album and I came from Nottingham , I 'd have got completely different reviews , normal down @-@ to @-@ earth ones " and that Debut " was a bit of a rehearsal and it 's really not that good . I can do much better . "
Later reception was also positive . In Spin magazine 's alternative record guide , the album received a rating of nine out of ten stating that the choice of Nellee Hooper as producer was a " stroke of genius " and Björk 's vocals were " awe @-@ inspiring " . Heather Phares of AllMusic gave the album a five @-@ star rating , stating that Debut is " Possibly her prettiest work , Björk 's horizons expanded on her other releases , but the album still sounds fresh , which is even more impressive considering electronic music 's whiplash @-@ speed innovations . "
= = Legacy = =
Debut is widely regarded as one of the greatest albums of 1993 and the 1990s in general . In 2013 , John Hamilton of Idolator called the album " highly influential " , and wrote " in spite of its advancing age , Debut ’ s futurism has aged exquisitely . " The album has also been credited as one of the first albums to introduce electronic music into mainstream pop . Stereogum 's Tom Breihan wrote : " House music didn 't quite have critical respect before Björk came along , and plenty of American writers didn ’ t know what to make of the sound of Debut when it came out . [ ... ] Debut didn 't just establish Björk ; it helped make sounds like that cool to a segment of the music @-@ dork universe that might ’ ve remained deaf to its charms otherwise . At this point , it 's virtually impossible to imagine a big publication slamming an adventurous dance @-@ pop album for " cheap electronic gimmickry , " and Debut is a big part of that change . Celebrating the album 's twenty @-@ year anniversary , Emily Mackay of NME wrote the album " put the lie to the post @-@ grunge assumption that heartfelt , passionate solo artistry came in the form of acoustic guitar and heartbreak , creating a new breed of singer @-@ songwriter . " Dubbing it an " influential masterpiece " , she found influences of the album in the work of musicians such as M.I.A. , Grimes , These New Puritans and Tune @-@ Yards , writing : " It 's in fascinatingly individual artists like those that you 'll find [ Björk 's ] influence — not , as many would have you believe , in every pretty @-@ faced girl with a big voice . " Mackay also noted that the album 's legacy echoes through dance @-@ pop artists like Lady Gaga and Robyn .
Furthermore , in 2013 Michael Cragg of The Guardian pointed out that " two decades after its release , the Icelandic artist 's first album has never sounded more relevant . " He argued that Debut " reconstructed pop music " , also writing that " while pop in 2013 looks back to the early 90s for inspiration , Björk 's ability on Debut to innovate by using disparate genres without losing a sense of her own identity should be the blueprint for any new artist with desires to break the mould . " In the album 's entry in their list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " — where the album was included at number 46 — , NME claimed that " Debut achieved the remarkable feat of turning an idiosyncratic vocalist from a feted cult band into a significant global pop star , without losing one iota of the experimental mindset and creative cool that made her so special . " In 2005 , Björk stated that she thought the album wasn 't as strong as her later efforts : " It 's hard to judge yourself but I don 't think [ Debut and Post are ] my best . Debut was the album that went the highest up there in terms of what is ' Bjork music ' . But I think that the persona I created , which was entirely accidental , is better captured on the later albums " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Debut is adapted from Acclaimed Music , except where otherwise noted .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= M @-@ 11 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 11 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in the Grand Rapids metropolitan area . The highway runs through the western and southern sides of the metro area , starting over the border in Ottawa County at an interchange with Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) . It runs through both rural woodlands and busy commercial areas before it terminates at another interchange with I @-@ 96 in Cascade Township . Locally known as Wilson Avenue and 28th Street , the trunkline is listed on the National Highway System , M @-@ 11 carries between 8 @,@ 000 and 42 @,@ 000 vehicles on average each day .
When the original state trunklines were designated , an M @-@ 11 ran the length of the Lake Michigan shoreline from the Indiana state line to Mackinaw City . That highway was replaced in 1926 by two of the then @-@ newly created US Highways . A second highway was given the M @-@ 11 designation at that time in the Saline area . This highway was removed from the highway system and the designation decommissioned in 1954 . The current M @-@ 11 was designated in 1961 along a set of roads in the Grand Rapids area that includes portions of a former route of US Highway 16 ( US 16 ) in Michigan .
= = Route description = =
The western terminus is at exit 24 on I @-@ 96 , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Marne . In Ottawa County , the road is called Ironwood Drive . Beginning at the Kent County border , the street is called Remembrance Road ( in honor of those who died in battle ) . From its western terminus , the road angles southeast – northwest for about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) . Then M @-@ 11 turns south on Wilson Avenue to run north – south through Walker . Wilson Avenue intersects M @-@ 45 ( Lake Michigan Drive ) in the Standale Business District . South of Lake Michigan Drive , the trunkline continues on Wilson Avenue through the edge of a rural area . The highway runs through forest land near Millennium Park until it crosses the Grand River at I @-@ 196 .
Past I @-@ 196 , M @-@ 11 curves to run east – west and becomes 28th Street . Wilson continues southwards as a local road and 28th Street is the route through Grandville and Wyoming . Chicago Drive runs under 28th Street in Grandville ; there is a ramp from eastbound Chicago Drive to eastbound 28th Street , but all other connections are through the " 28th Street Cutoff " to the east of the grade @-@ separated junction . Continuing eastward through Wyoming , M @-@ 11 passes through that city 's central business district . The highway intersects US Highway 131 and crosses into Grand Rapids at Division Avenue . Near Kalamazoo Avenue , 28th Street passes the Indian Hills Golf Course . From Breton Avenue eastward , 28th Street is dominated by retail establishments as it continues into Kentwood . M @-@ 11 meets an intersection with East Beltline Avenue near the Woodland Mall . East Beltline carries M @-@ 37 through the eastern side of the Grand Rapids metro area , and M @-@ 44 north of 28th Street . M @-@ 11 continues eastward to its terminus at exit 44 on I @-@ 96 while 28th Street continues farther east to Cascade Road .
M @-@ 11 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 11 were the 41 @,@ 214 vehicles daily between Kalamazoo and Breton avenues in Grand Rapids ; the lowest counts were the 8 @,@ 153 vehicles per day in Ottawa County . All of M @-@ 11 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
The first M @-@ 11 originally ran along Lake Michigan between the Indiana state line near New Buffalo and Mackinaw City on July 1 , 1919 . On November 11 , 1926 , the New Buffalo – Benton Harbor segment was used for US 12 and the Watervliet – Mackinaw City section was used for US 31 ; between Benton Harbor and Watervliet , M @-@ 11 was used for a concurrent US 12 / US 31 . Streets are still designated as Old M @-@ 11 in places such as Chikaming Township .
Immediately after the debut of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , M @-@ 11 was designated from M @-@ 50 at Napoleon to US 112 in Saline . The last section of this highway was fully paved between Bridgewater and Saline in late 1948 or early 1949 . In the middle of 1954 , M @-@ 92 was extended southward from Chelsea to Manchester . From there , that highway replaced M @-@ 11 west to Bridgewater before turning south to Clinton ; at the same time , the remainder of M @-@ 11 was removed from the state highway system and the designation was decommissioned .
= = = Current designation = = =
The modern M @-@ 11 was added to the state highway system as a component of M @-@ 114 c . 1930 . By 1942 , the trunkline was completed and reassigned a Bypass US 16 designation , until the mainline US 16 was rerouted over the bypass in 1953 . In the latter half of 1961 , the M @-@ 11 designation was first assigned in the Grand Rapids area along the current routing when US 16 was moved to the newly opened I @-@ 96 freeway . The routing has remained unchanged since .
= = = Memorial designations = = =
The current M @-@ 11 follows Remembrance Road , Wilson Avenue and 28th Street . The first two of these names were chosen to memorialize the roadway in honor of local people . Remembrance Road was dedicated in 1923 on the initiative of the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution . They planted 231 elms in a double row on each side of the highway and erected a boulder bearing a bronze plaque dedicated to the veterans of Kent County . Wilson Avenue was named for Samuel H. Wilson , a local realtor . He had developed a series of local residential subdivisions in the area up until his 1931 death , In 1942 , the county road commission named Wilson Avenue in his honor to comply with a state law requiring roads that benefitted from state funds to have proper names .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Wessagusset Colony =
Wessagusset Colony ( sometimes called the Weston Colony or Weymouth Colony ) was a short @-@ lived English trading colony in New England located in present @-@ day Weymouth , Massachusetts . It was settled in August 1622 by between fifty and sixty colonists who were ill @-@ prepared for colonial life . The colony was settled without adequate provisions , and was dissolved in late March 1623 after harming relations with local Native Americans . Surviving colonists joined Plymouth Colony or returned to England . It was the second settlement in Massachusetts , predating the Massachusetts Bay Colony by six years .
Historian Charles Francis Adams , Jr. referred to the colony as " ill @-@ conceived , " ill @-@ executed , [ and ] ill @-@ fated " . It is best remembered for the battle ( some say massacre ) there between Plymouth troops led by Miles Standish and an Indian force led by Pecksuot . This battle scarred relations between the Plymouth colonists and the natives and was fictionalized two centuries later in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's 1858 poem The Courtship of Miles Standish .
In September 1623 , a second colony led by Governor @-@ General Robert Gorges was created in the abandoned site at Wessagusset . This colony was rechristened as Weymouth and was also unsuccessful , and Governor Gorges returned to England the following year . Despite that , some settlers remained in the village and it was absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 .
= = Origins = =
The colony was coordinated by Thomas Weston , a London merchant and ironmonger . Weston was associated with the Plymouth Council for New England which , fifteen years earlier , had funded the short @-@ lived Popham Colony in modern Maine . During the period when the Pilgrims were in the Netherlands , Weston helped to arrange the colonists ' passage to the New World with help from the Merchant Adventurers . Historian Charles Francis Adams , Jr. writing in the 1870s glowingly called him a " sixteenth century adventurer " in the mold of John Smith and Walter Raleigh and that his " brain teemed with schemes for deriving sudden gain from the settlement of the new continent " . In later years , Plymouth Governor William Bradford called him " a bitter enemy unto Plymouth upon all occasions . "
The primary purpose of Weston 's new colony was profit , rather than the religious reasons of the Plymouth settlers , and this dictated how the colony would be assembled . Weston believed that families were a detriment to a well @-@ run plantation and so he selected able @-@ bodied men only but not men experienced in colonial life . In total , there were several advanced scouts and fifty to sixty other colonists . The final complement also included one surgeon and one lawyer . The party was outfitted with enough supplies to last the winter .
= = First Wessagusset colony = =
An advance team of several settlers arrived at the Plymouth Colony in May 1622 . They had voyaged to the new world on board the Sparrow , an English fishing @-@ vessel which was sailing to the coast of modern @-@ day Maine . After arriving at the coast of Maine , they traveled the final 150 miles ( 240 km ) in a shallop with three members of the Sparrow 's crew . These colonists stayed only briefly in Plymouth before scouting the coast in their shallop to find a site for their colony . After finding one , they negotiated with the sachem Aberdecest for the land and returned to Plymouth , sending the shallop and her small crew back to the Sparrow , and awaited the remainder of the colonists .
The main body of colonists set off from London in April 1622 on board two ships , the Charity and the Swan . Richard Greene , Thomas Weston 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , was the initial leader of the group . The group arrived in Plymouth in late June and moved into their settlement the following month . By the end of September , the colony was established , the Swan moored in Weymouth Fore River , and the Charity returned to England .
At first , the relationship between the two groups was cordial and the men of the Wessagusset assisted Plymouth with their harvest , but they were accused of stealing from the elder colony . Shortly after relocating to Wessagusset , angry Indians complained to Plymouth that the colonists were stealing their corn . In response , Plymouth could only send a " rebuke " to the new colony . Because of the disorder of the colony , as subsequently reported by Plymouth 's Governor Bradford , Wessagusset was consuming food too quickly and it became apparent that they would run out before the end of the winter . In addition , Plymouth was also low on supplies due to spending additional time during the growing season building fortifications , rather than growing crops . To prevent hunger or famine for both colonies , Plymouth and Wessagusset colonists organized a joint trading mission with the natives with goods brought by the Wessagusset colonists . That trading mission was somewhat successful and the two colonies split the proceeds . In November , Greene died and John Sanders was made governor of the colony . By January , the colonists continued to trade with the natives for food , but at a severe disadvantage . This drove up the barter @-@ price of corn and they were forced to trade their clothes and other needed supplies . Some colonists entered a form of servitude , building canoes and performing other labors for the natives , in exchange for food . Ten colonists died . After an incident where one settler was caught stealing by the natives , the colonists hanged him in their view as a show of good faith . However , sources disagree whether the man hanged was the culprit and the colonists may have hanged an older , possibly dying man , instead . The legend that the Wessagusset colonists hanged an innocent man was later popularized by a satirical depiction of this event in Samuel Butler 's 1660s poem Hudibras . In February , Sanders petitioned to Plymouth for a joint attack on the natives , but this was rejected by Plymouth 's governor .
= = = Killings at Wessagusset = = =
Throughout the winter , tensions continued to build between the settlers at Wessagusset and Plymouth and the natives . Perhaps in response to the Wessagusset thefts against them , there was at least once instance where a native was caught stealing from Plymouth . Near the end of the winter , the natives near Wessagusset moved some of their huts to a swamp near the colony . At least some of the colonists felt that they were under siege .
One colonist at Wessagusset , seeing these signs and other indications of hostility , fled to Plymouth to bring word of an imminent attack . Adding to his desperation and the perception of imminent hostility , he was pursued by natives during his flight . Arriving at Plymouth on March 24 , he met with the Governor and town council . It is unclear whether this colonist 's report was the tipping point , or whether Plymouth had already decided to mount a preemptive attack . Plymouth 's Edward Winslow had recently been warned by Massasoit , a sachem whose life he saved using English medicine , of a conspiracy of several tribes against Wessagusset and Plymouth . The threatening tribes , he was told , was led by the Massachusett but also included the Nauset , Paomet , Succonet , Mattachiest , Agowaywam , and Capawack tribes from as far away as Martha 's Vineyard . In either case , Plymouth colony sent a small force under Miles Standish to Wessagusset . They arrived there on March 26 .
Standish called all of the Wessagusset colonists into the stockade for defense . The following day , several natives including the local chief , Pecksuot , were at Wessagusset . Historical sources give different accounts of the killings . In some manner , four of the natives , including the local chief , were in the same room as Standish and several of his men . One source , from the 1880s , suggests that it was the natives that arranged to be alone with Standish to allow them to attack the colonist . Others sources state that it was Standish who had invited the natives into the situation on peaceful pretenses . When four of them , including the local chief , were in a room within the village , Standish gave the order to strike , quickly killing Pecksuot with his own knife . Several other natives in the village were attacked next ; only one escaped to raise the alarm . As many as five Englishmen were also killed in the brief battle and one native 's head was cut off , to be displayed in Plymouth as a warning to others .
In 1858 , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow included a fictionalized depiction of the killings in his epic poem , The Courtship of Miles Standish . In his version , the Indians are depicted as begging for weapons to use against other tribes . Standish responds by offering them bibles . After being the target of boasts and taunts by the Indians , Standish attacks first :
= = = Aftermath = = =
Following the brief conflict , Standish offered to leave several soldiers to defend the colony , but the offer was rejected . Instead , the colonists divided : some , including John Sanders , returned to England in the Swan , while others remained behind and joined the Plymouth colony . By spring of 1623 , the village was empty and the colony was dissolved . Thomas Weston arrived in Maine several months later , seeking to join his colony , only to discover that it was already failed . Some of his former settlers apparently had gone north to Maine , and were living on House Island in Casco Bay in a home built by explorer Capt. Christopher Levett , who had been granted land to found an English colony . ( Levett 's settlement also failed , and the fate of Weston 's men is uncertain . )
Due to the fighting at Wessagusset , Plymouth trade with the Indians was devastated for years . Local tribes which had previously been favorable to Plymouth , began to forge bonds with other tribes in defense against the English . This latent hostility would eventually boil over during the Pequot War and later , King Philip 's War . Historians differ on whether the conflict could have been avoided or the colony saved . Some historians saw the preemptive strike as a necessary one , " saving the lives of hundreds " , while others see it as a sad misunderstanding . Speaking shortly after the 150th anniversary of the colony , historian Charles Francis Adams summarized the Wessagusset experience as " ill @-@ conceived , " ill @-@ executed , [ and ] ill @-@ fated " .
= = Second Wessagusset colony = =
At approximately the same time , the Plymouth Council for New England was sponsoring a new colony for New England . A patent for a settlement covering 300 square miles ( 780 km2 ) of what is now north @-@ east of Boston Bay was given to an English captain and son of Sir Ferdinando Gorges , Robert Gorges . This settlement was intended to be a spiritual and civil capital of the council 's New England colonies . Gorges was commissioned as Governor @-@ General with authority over Plymouth and presumably future colonies . His government was also to consist of a leadership council , of which Plymouth 's Governor Bradford would be a member . Unlike Weston , who had brought only working men , Gorges brought families intending for a permanent settlement . And unlike the Puritans , Gorges brought the Church of England with him , in the form of two clergymen who would oversee the spiritual health of the region .
Gorges arrived in Massachusetts in September 1623 , only four months after Weston 's colony collapsed . Instead of founding his colony at the location described in the patent , he instead chose the abandoned settlement at Wessagusset for his site . It was rechristened Weymouth after Weymouth , Dorset , the town where the expedition began . Over the following weeks , he visited Plymouth and ordered the arrest of Thomas Weston who had arrived in that colony in the Swan . This was his only official act as Governor @-@ General . Weston was charged with neglect in his colony and with selling weapons were supposed to have been used for the defense of the colony . Weston denied the first charge , but confessed to the second . After consideration , Gorges released Weston " on his word " and he eventually settled as a politician in Virginia and Maryland .
After wintering in Weymouth , Gorges abandoned his new colony in the spring of 1624 due to financial difficulties . Most of his settlers returned to England , but some remained in as colonists in Weymouth , Plymouth , or Virginia . The remaining Weymouth settlers were supported by Plymouth until they were made part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630 . Massachusetts Bay Governor John Winthrop visited the settlement in 1632 . In time , the location of the original settlement was lost to history and development . The location of the original fort was not rediscovered until 1891 .
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= Craig Nelthorpe =
Craig Robert Nelthorpe ( born 10 June 1987 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays for Northern Premier League Premier Division club Matlock Town . His favoured positions are either at left back or on the left wing .
Nelthorpe played for Brodsworth Miners Welfare and Frickley Athletic before joining Doncaster Rovers in 2004 and he made his first team debut in 2005 . He was loaned out on six occasions , playing for Hucknall Town , Kidderminster Harriers , Gateshead , Halifax Town and Darlington . He joined Oxford United in 2009 and after being released by them he joined York City . Having left York after a season he rejoined Gateshead .
= = Career = =
= = = Doncaster Rovers = = =
Born in Doncaster , South Yorkshire , Nelthorpe played for Brodsworth Miners Welfare before joining Northern Premier League Premier Division side Frickley Athletic in April 2004 . He made his debut as a 74th minute substitute in a 2 – 1 defeat at Vauxhall Motors on 3 April 2004 . He made three appearances for Frickley before he joined the Doncaster Rovers youth system . He made his first team debut as a 56th @-@ minute substitute for Steve Foster in a 3 – 3 draw against Luton Town in League One on 7 May 2005 . His first appearance of the 2005 – 06 season came after being introduced as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Jonathan Forte against Cambridge United in the Football League Trophy , which Doncaster lost 3 – 2 . He joined Conference North team Hucknall Town on work experience on 23 November 2005 and he made his debut in a 4 – 0 victory over Redditch United , during which he scored two goals . He made five appearances for Hucknall , with his final appearance coming in a 2 – 0 defeat to Stafford Rangers , before returning to Doncaster in January 2006 . He made one more appearance for Doncaster this season , against Tranmere Rovers on 6 May 2006 , which he finished with two appearances for the club .
Nelthorpe signed a professional contract with Doncaster on 28 June 2006 and he joined Conference National team Kidderminster Harriers on a one @-@ month loan on 10 October . He made his debut the same day in a 0 – 0 draw with Oxford United , and he nearly scored for Kidderminster during the first half . He scored his first career goal against Droylsden in the FA Cup , and after Kidderminster decided against extending his loan spell , he returned to Doncaster in November after making six appearances . This was followed by a loan spell at Northern Premier League Premier Division team Gateshead , after joining in November , where he made 19 appearances and scored eight goals . While at Gateshead he still appeared for Doncaster and he had a run of seven appearances , which started after coming on during the 3 – 2 victory over Crewe Alexandra in the Football League Trophy at the Keepmoat Stadium on 13 February 2007 . In the final game of the 2006 – 07 season on 5 May 2007 , Nelthorpe scored his first goal for Doncaster against Northampton Town , which finished as a 2 – 2 draw . He had a trial with recently relegated League Two side Chesterfield in May 2007 , with a view to him joining on loan .
After making four appearances for Doncaster during the 2007 – 08 season , he joined Conference Premier club Halifax Town on a one @-@ month loan on 10 January 2008 . Nelthorpe scored four minutes into his Halifax debut against Northwich Victoria on 26 January 2008 , which finished as a 2 – 2 draw , and he netted three minutes into his next appearance , a 2 – 2 draw with Rushden on 9 February . He finished the loan spell in March , after making 10 appearances and scoring 3 goals , after which he joined League Two team Darlington on loan until the end of the season on 27 March 2008 . He made his debut in a 3 – 1 defeat at Bradford City on 29 March 2008 and entered the play @-@ off semi @-@ final second leg tie against Rochdale on 17 May 2008 as an 88th @-@ minute substitute for Clark Keltie , which finished as a 5 – 4 defeat in a penalty shoot @-@ out . He finished the loan spell with eight appearances .
Nelthorpe was handed a new one @-@ year contract at Doncaster in July 2008 . He rejoined Gateshead on a three @-@ month loan in August 2008 , which he completed in November with 15 appearances and one goal .
= = = Oxford United = = =
He was released by Doncaster at his own request on 13 January 2009 and joined Conference Premier team Oxford United the next day on a contract until the end of the 2008 – 09 season . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 victory over Altrincham on 17 January 2009 and scored his first goal four days later with a shot into the top @-@ left corner of the goal , which gave Oxford a 1 – 0 victory against Mansfield Town . Nelthorpe was named on standby for the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , in February 2009 , for a friendly against Malta under @-@ 21s . He was sent off against Torquay United after clashing with Mustapha Carayol , which resulted in a three @-@ match suspension , and following this he said he was looking to use his aggression more effectively . He made his return in a 2 – 1 victory over Kettering Town on 19 March 2009 , during which he opened the scoring with a 20 yard free kick and assisted the second goal with a corner kick that was headed in by Chris Willmott . He finished the season with 16 appearances and 2 goals for Oxford .
= = = York City = = =
Nelthorpe was released by Oxford at the end of the season and he subsequently signed for fellow Conference Premier team York City on 19 May 2009 . He suffered from illness during much of York 's pre @-@ season , and during a friendly against FC Halifax Town he was sent off for jumping dangerously with his arm raised . He made his debut as a stoppage time substitute in a 2 – 1 defeat to former club Oxford on 8 August 2009 . After failing to start any games for York , he requested a loan move away from the club in October 2009 . On 10 November 2009 , he joined league rivals Barrow on loan until 1 January 2010 . He made his debut in a 2 – 2 with AFC Wimbledon on 14 November 2009 , assisting Jason Walker 's goal through a corner kick . He scored his first goal for Barrow in a 2 – 2 draw with Grays Athletic on 24 November 2009 with a free kick and finished the loan spell with six appearances and two goals . He joined Conference Premier rivals Luton Town on trial in January 2010 , starting a reserve team match against Peterborough United , before signing on loan until the end of the 2009 – 10 season on 22 January . He made his debut a day later as an 83rd @-@ minute substitute for Tom Craddock in a 1 – 0 victory over Gateshead . His loan period at Luton came to an end on 7 May 2010 , having made eight appearances for the club . He finished the season with eight appearances for York and was released by the club on 18 May 2010 .
= = = Gateshead = = =
He signed for former club Gateshead , now playing in the Conference Premier , on 21 June 2010 . He made his debut in the opening game of the 2010 – 11 season , a 0 – 0 draw with Kettering on 14 August 2010 . Nelthorpe 's first goal came after scoring a 90th @-@ minute winner in a 1 – 0 victory over Southport , turning in Josh Gillies ' cross from six yards . He made 41 appearances for Gateshead during the 2010 – 11 season , scoring 5 goals , before he was released on 4 May 2011 .
= = = Later career = = =
Nelthorpe signed with Conference North side Gainsborough Trinity on June 2011 . However , he was released by the club in November alongside defender Rory Coleman , with manager Steve Housham claiming " they haven 't lived up to expectations " . Later that month he turned out for Winterton Rangers of the Northern Counties East League Premier Division . He then signed for Matlock Town of the Northern Premier League Premier Division and made his debut on 3 December 2011 in a 2 – 2 draw away at Bradford Park Avenue , in which he was substituted after half an hour due to a hamstring injury . He then joined Conference North club Eastwood Town in early March 2012 but stayed less than a month , joining Northern Premier League Division One South side Brigg Town . He left soon after , re @-@ signing for Frickley of the Northern Premier League Premier Division , a club he had played for earlier in his career , in late March 2012 . His debut came on 24 March 2012 as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat at home Marine , and was sent off after nine minutes for a needless challenge on Neil Harvey . Shortly after that appearance , he was released by the club on 3 April 2012 .
Nelthorpe returned to Gainsborough Trinity in August 2012 . In May 2013 Nelthorpe signed with Harrogate Town to become their first signing of the summer . He joined Northern Premier League Premier Division team Buxton on a one @-@ month loan in February 2015 , before he emigrated to Australia with his family . Here he joined Mornington , an amateur club in the Victoria State League 1 . Nelthorpe returned to England later that year , and re @-@ joined Matlock in October 2015 , scoring the winning goal less than a minute into his debut in a 1 – 0 home victory over Rushall Olympic .
= = Style of play = =
Nelthorpe is left footed and is able to play either as a left back or as a left winger . He has also been played at left wingback , although he has stated his preference in playing a more attacking role , saying " I ’ m not really the best defensively – I ’ d sooner go at people " . While playing as a winger , he is " adventurous " and has a " willingness to run at defenders " . His skills have been praised as being " deft and quick " and his set pieces have been described as being " excellent " .
= = Personal life = =
Nelthorpe has two children with his girlfriend . He was arrested along with York players Michael Gash , Michael Ingham and Michael Rankine in August 2009 following an incident involving two other men at a Subway outlet on a night out . The four appeared at York Magistrates ' Court on 14 January 2010 after being charged with affray . Nelthorpe pleaded guilty to the charge of affray after appearing at York Crown Court on 1 September 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 14 November 2015 .
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= Sitric Cáech =
Sitric Cáech , also known as Sitric Gále , ( Old Norse : Sigtryggr , died 927 ) was a Viking leader who ruled Dublin and then Viking Northumbria in the early 10th century . He was a grandson of Ímar and a member of the Uí Ímair . Sitric was most probably among those Vikings expelled from Dublin in 902 , whereafter he may have ruled territory in the eastern Danelaw in England . In 917 , he and his kinsman Ragnall ua Ímair sailed separate fleets to Ireland where they won several battles against local kings . Sitric successfully recaptured Dublin and established himself as king , while Ragnall returned to England to become King of Northumbria . In 919 , Sitric won a victory at the Battle of Islandbridge over a coalition of local Irish kings who aimed to expel the Uí Ímair from Ireland . Six Irish kings were killed in the battle , including Niall Glúndub , overking of the Northern Uí Néill and High King of Ireland .
In 920 Sitric left Dublin for Northumbria , with his kinsman Gofraid ua Ímair succeeding him as king . That same year he led a raid on Davenport , Cheshire , perhaps as an act of defiance against Edward the Elder , King of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . In 921 Ragnall ua Ímair died , with Sitric succeeding him as King of Northumbria . Though there are no written accounts of conflict , numismatic evidence suggests there was a Viking reconquest of a large part of Mercia in the following few years . An agreement of some sort between the Vikings of Northumbria and the Anglo @-@ Saxons was achieved in 926 when Sitric married a sister of Æthelstan , perhaps Edith of Polesworth . Sitric also converted to Christianity , though this did not last long and he soon reverted to paganism . He died in 927 and was succeeded by his kinsman Gofraid ua Ímair . Sitric 's son Gofraid later reigned as King of Dublin , his son Aralt as King of Limerick , and his son Amlaíb Cuarán as king of both Dublin and Northumbria .
= = Background = =
The ruling Vikings of Dublin were expelled from the city in 902 by a joint force led by Máel Finnia mac Flannacán , overking of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin , overking of Leinster . Those Vikings that survived the capture of the city split into different groups ; some went to France , some to England , and some to Wales . Archaeological evidence suggests Dublin remained occupied in the years immediately following this expulsion , perhaps indicating only the ruling elite were forced to leave . However , Viking raids on Irish settlements continued , and in 914 , a large Viking fleet travelled to Waterford . The arrival of this fleet marked the re @-@ establishment of Viking rule over parts of Ireland , and was followed by more Vikings settling in Limerick the following year .
The main historical sources for this period are the Norse sagas and the Irish annals . Some of the annals , such as the Annals of Ulster , are believed to be contemporary accounts , whereas the sagas were written down at dates much later than the events they describe and are considered far less reliable . A few of the annals such as the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland and the Annals of the Four Masters were also complied at later dates , in part from more contemporary material and in part from fragments of sagas . According to Downham : " apart from these additions [ of saga fragments ] , Irish chronicles are considered by scholars to be largely accurate records , albeit partisan in their presentation of events " .
= = Biography = =
Sitric is presumed to have left Dublin with the rest of the ruling Vikings in 902 . Coins dating from the period bearing the legend " Sitric Comes " ( Earl Sitric ) , and the mintmark " Sceldfor " ( Shelford ) , have been found as part of the Cuerdale Hoard , perhaps indicating that he ruled territory in the eastern Danelaw during his exile from Ireland . The Anglo @-@ Saxons conquered all of the Danelaw south of the Humber by 918 , but there is no mention of Earl Sitric in English sources , suggesting he was no longer ruling there at the time .
The earliest mention of Sitric in the Irish Annals is in 917 when he and Ragnall , another grandson of Ímar , are described as leading their fleets to Ireland . Sitric sailed his fleet to Cenn Fuait in Leinster , and Ragnall sailed his fleet to Waterford . Niall Glúndub , overking of the Northern Uí Néill saw these Vikings as a threat , and he marched an army south to repel them . The Vikings fought against the men of the Uí Néill at Mag Femen in County Tipperary and claimed victory , though only through timely reinforcement by Ragnall and his army . This was followed by another at the Battle of Confey ( also known as the Battle of Cenn Fuait ) , against Augaire mac Ailella , overking of Leinster , who died in the battle . Augaire 's death marked the end of effective opposition to the Vikings ' return to Ireland . Sitric led his men on a triumphant return to Dublin , where he established himself as king , while Ragnall returned to England and soon became King of Northumbria .
According to Downham , the departure of Ragnall and his contingent of warriors may have emboldened Niall Glúndub to try to expel the Uí Ímair from Ireland once again . In 919 Niall led a coalition of northern Irish kings south to Dublin . The forces of Sitric and Niall met near Islandbridge in modern @-@ day County Dublin ( dated 14 September by the Annals of Ulster ) . The resulting Battle of Islandbridge was an overwhelming victory for Sitric and his forces , with Niall falling in battle alongside one of his kinsmen . Five other kings , and a kinsman of the ruler of the Southern Uí Néill also died fighting against Sitric 's army .
In 920 the Annals of Ulster report that Sitric left Dublin " through the power of God " . Sitric travelled to Northumbria where he assumed the kingship of Northumbria , succeeding his kinsman Ragnall who died the following year . Sitric was followed as King of Dublin by his brother or cousin Gofraid ua Ímair . In 920 Ragnall had submitted to Edward the Elder , King of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . That same year , following his departure from Dublin , Sitric led a raid in Davenport , Cheshire , in violation of the terms of submission agreed between Ragnall and Edward . Smyth has suggested that this was an act of defiance by Sitric , indicating to Edward that he would not submit to him like Ragnall .
Neither the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle nor Æthelweard 's Chronicon makes mention of Sitric in the years 921 – 924 , i.e. between his installation as King of Northubmria and the death of Edward the Elder . However , there are coins in existence which were minted at Lincoln during the period that bear Sitric 's name . These are an important piece of evidence since they suggest Sitric ruled a large area south of the Humber , a claim contradicted by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle which says that all the ' Danes ' in Mercia ( i.e. south of the Humber ) submitted to Edward in 918 . These coins might indicate Viking reconquest of a large area in the years 921 – 924 , which if it did happen went unremarked upon by the Chronicle . Edward 's control of Mercia likely stretched the kingdom 's resources to breaking point , allowing Sitric to exploit the ill @-@ will towards Edward that existed among the populace there , with Edward being unable to effectively oppose Sitric . Downham suggests that the silence of the Chronicle might be due to Edward 's failing power in the latter years of his reign , and its tendency to only record successes and not failures . His death in 924 is not recorded by a number of important Frankish , Welsh and Irish annals , suggesting a fall in importance and standing from the zenith of his power in 920 .
Edward the Elder 's successor , Æthelstan , met with Sitric at Tamworth in 926 . The Chronicle does not mention the reason for the meeting , but it reports that an unnamed sister of Æthelstan was married to Sitric . Several years previously , in 918 , Æthelstan 's predecessor had used a royal marriage to bring Mercia under Wessex control . According to Smyth , the fact the marriage between Sitric and Æthelstan 's sister occurred at the old Mercian royal centre at Tamworth reinforces the suggestion that this marriage was supposed to perform as a similar function to the one in 918 . The agreement reached at Tamworth seems to have necessitated Sitric 's conversion to Christianity , though he soon reverted to paganism . Sitric died the following year and was succeeded by his kinsman Gofraid ua Ímair . The Annals of Ulster describe his death :
= = Family = =
In the annals Sitric is sometimes identified by the use of one of his epithets , or by the use of " ua Ímair " , meaning " grandson of Ímar " , but never with a patronymic . As such , it is not possible to identify which of the three known sons of Ímar ( Bárid , Sichfrith or Sitriuc ) - if any - was the father of Sitric . One possible reason for the lack of a patronym might be that Sitric was the child of a son of Ímar who never ruled Dublin , or who spent most of his time outside Ireland , thus making Sitric 's legitimacy to rule Dublin dependent the identity of his grandfather , not his father . Another possibility is that Sitric was a grandson of Ímar through a daughter , again with his right to rule dependent on his grandfather . Sitric 's kinsmen Ímar , Ragnall , Amlaíb and Gofraid are the other known grandsons of Ímar identified by the use of " ua Ímair " . All except for Amlaíb ruled as either King of Dublin or King of Northumbria at one time or another .
The Annals of Clonmacnoise mention two sons of Sitric , Auisle and Sichfrith , falling at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 . Another son , Aralt , ruled as King of Limerick for an unknown length of time until his death in battle in 940 . Sitric 's son Amlaíb Cuarán ( d . 981 ) reigned twice each as King of Dublin and King of Northumbria , and may have been the basis of the Middle English romance character Havelok the Dane . Gofraid ( d . 954 ) may have been another son though his father his only named as " Sitric " so it is not possible to say conclusively he was a son . According to the Orkneyinga saga , a daughter of Sitric named Gytha was married to Olaf Tryggvason , King of Norway . According to Hudson , this is unlikely to be correct , since the marriage is said to have occurred sixty @-@ three years after Sitric 's death . It is much more likely that Gytha was actually a granddaughter of Sitric through his son Amlaíb Cuarán .
Sitric married an unnamed sister of Æthelstan in 926 . Historians generally describe her as Æthelstan 's only full sister , but Maggie Bailey points out that this rests on the late testimony of William of Malmesbury , and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle makes no such distinction when recording her marriage to Sitric . William did not know her name , but traditions first recorded at Bury in the early twelfth century identify her as Saint Edith of Polesworth . The truth of his identification is debated , but regardless of her name but it is likely that she entered a nunnery in widowhood . According to some late sources , such as the chronicler John of Wallingford , Amlaíb Cuarán was the son of Sitric and this West Saxon princess .
= = = Family tree = = =
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= Mykola Leontovych =
Mykola Dmytrovych Leontovych ( LE @-@ ən @-@ TOH @-@ vich , Ukrainian : Микола Дмитрович Леонтович ; sometimes spelled Leontovich ; Dec 13 [ O.S. Dec 1 ] 1877 – January 23 , 1921 ) was a Ukrainian composer , choral conductor , and teacher of international renown . His music was inspired by Mykola Lysenko and the Ukrainian national music school . Leontovych specialized in a cappella choral music , ranging from original compositions , to church music , to elaborate arrangements of folk music .
Leontovych was born and raised in the Podolia Governorate of the Russian Empire ( present @-@ day Ukraine ) . He was educated as a priest in the Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi Theological Seminary and later furthered his musical education at the Saint Petersburg Court Capella and private lessons with Boleslav Yavorsky . With the independence of the Ukrainian state in the 1917 revolution , Leontovych moved to Kiev where he worked at the Kiev Conservatory and the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama . He is recognized for composing " Shchedryk " in 1904 ( which premiered in 1916 ) , known to the English @-@ speaking world as " Carol of the Bells " or " Ring , Christmas Bells " . He is known as a martyr in the Eastern Orthodox Ukrainian Church , where he is also remembered for his liturgy , the first liturgy composed in the vernacular , specifically in the modern Ukrainian language . He was assassinated by a Soviet agent in 1921 .
During his lifetime Leontovych 's compositions and arrangements became popular with professional and amateur groups alike across Ukraine . Performances of his works in western Europe and North America earned him the nickname " the Ukrainian Bach " in France . Apart from his very popular Shchedryk , Leontovych 's music is performed primarily in Ukraine and the Ukrainian diaspora .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Mykola Leontovych was born on Dec 13 [ O.S. Dec 1 ] 1877 in the Monastyrok community , near the village of Selevyntsi , in the Podolia region of Ukraine ( then a part of the Russian Empire ) . His father , grandfather , and great grandfather were village priests . His father , Dmytro Feofanovych Leontovych , was skilled at singing and playing cello , double bass , harmonium , violin , and guitar , in addition to directing a school choir . Leontovych received his first musical lessons from him . His mother , Mariya Yosypivna Leontovych , was also a singer .
Other members of Leontovych 's family also grew up to have careers in music . His younger brother became a professional singer , his sister Mariya studied singing in Odessa , his sister Olena studied fortepiano at the Kiev Conservatory , and his sister Victoriya also knew how to play several musical instruments .
In the summer of 1879 Dmytro Leontovych was moved to a new parish located in the village Shershni where he would spend his childhood . Then in 1887 Leontovych was admitted to Nemyriv gymnasium . Due to financial problems a year later , however , his father transferred him to the Sharhorod Spiritual Beginners School , whose pupils received full financial support . At the school Leontovych mastered singing , and was able to freely read difficult passages from religious choral texts .
= = = Theological seminary = = =
In 1892 , Leontovych began his studies at the theological seminary in Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , which both his father and grandfather had attended . His younger brother Oleksandr was enrolled as well , graduating two years after Mykola .
During his studies there , Leontovych continued to advance his skills on the violin and learned to play a variety of other instruments . He also participated in the seminary ’ s choir , and when an orchestra was formed during his third year of study , Leontovych joined , playing the violin until his graduation . Leontovych studied music theory and started writing choral arrangements as a student at the seminary .
When the seminary ’ s choir director died , the school administration requested that Leontovych take over this position . As the conductor of the choir , Leontovych added secular music to the repertoire of traditional church music . This included Ukrainian folk songs arranged by Mykola Lysenko , Profyriy Demutskiy , and himself . Leontovych graduated from the Kamianets @-@ Podilskiy Theological Seminary in 1899 and broke the family tradition by becoming a music teacher instead of a priest .
= = = Early musical career and family = = =
At the time , a career in music in Ukraine meant having an unstable income , causing Leontovych to seek employment wherever he could find it . Leontovych worked in Kiev , Yekaterinoslav , and Podolia guberniyas over the next few years in order to remain gainfully employed . His first position after graduating was in a secondary school in the village of Chukiv ( present @-@ day Vinnytsia Oblast ) as a vocal and math teacher . During this time Leontovych continued to transcribe and arrange folk songs . He completed his " First compilation of songs from Podolia " and began working on his second compilation . He also inspired the children at the school to sing in the choir and play in the orchestra . He would later write a book about this as a professor at the Kiev Conservatory , titled " Як я організував оркестр у сільській школі " ( How I organized an orchestra in a village school ) .
After several conflicts with the school 's administration , Leontovych got a new job as a teacher of church music and calligraphy at the Theological College in Tyvriv . Besides working with the college choir , Leontovych organized an amateur orchestra that often performed at college events . As he did earlier with choirs , Leontovych included arrangements of folk songs among the usual religious works sung in theological schools . These included arrangements by Mykola Lysenko , his own choral arrangements of folk songs , and entirely original works . One such work was based on a poem by Taras Shevchenko titled “ Зоре моя вечірняя ” ( Oh my evening star ) .
During this period Leontovych met a Volynhian girl named Claudia Feropontivna Zhovtevych , whom he married on March 22 , 1902 . The young couple 's first daughter , Halyna , was born in 1903 . They later had a second daughter named Yevheniya .
Financial hardships prompted Leontovych to accept an offer to move to the city of Vinnytsia to instruct at the Church @-@ Educators ' College . Again he organized a choir and , later , a concert band , with which he performed both secular and spiritual music . In 1903 he published his “ Second compilation of songs from Podolia ” which he dedicated to Mykola Lysenko .
In 1903 and 1904 , during his vacation from the Church @-@ Educators ' College , Leontovych traveled to Saint Petersburg . There he attended lectures held at the St. Petersburg Court Capella , which was associated with composers Maksym Berezovsky , Dmytro Bortniansky , and Mikhail Glinka . He studied music theory , harmony , and polyphony with Semen Barmotin , and choral performance with Puzarevskiy , both of whom were well known at the time . On April 22 , 1904 , he earned his credentials as a choirmaster of church choruses .
Again , disputes with the administration of the college resulted in Leontovych seeking new employment . In the spring of 1904 , he left Podolia and moved to the Donbas region in eastern Ukraine , where he became a teacher of vocal and instrumental music in a school for railroad workers ' children . During the Russian Revolution of 1905 , Leontovych organized a choir of workers that performed in meetings . These works included arrangements of Ukrainian , Jewish , Armenian , Russian , and Polish folk songs . Leontovych 's activity caught the attention of local authorities , and in the spring of 1908 he was forced to move back to his native Podolia region to the city of Tulchyn .
= = = Tulchyn period = = =
Leontovych 's move to Tulchyn marked the beginning of a period of compositional maturity and major artistic achievements in the life of the composer .
In Tulchyn , Leontovych taught vocal and instrumental music at the Tulchyn Eparchy Women 's college to the daughters of village priests . There he met composer Kyrylo Stetsenko who was a student of Mykola Lysenko and also specialized in choral music . Stetsenko lived in a nearby village at the time where he was working as a priest , and their acquaintance developed into a lasting friendship that influenced Leontovych 's music . Stetsenko was the first critic of Leontovych 's music , saying , " Leontovych is a famous music expert from Podolia . He recorded many folk songs ... These songs are harmonized for mixed choir . These harmonizations have revealed the author to be a great expert of both choral singing and theoretical studies " . Leontovych also transitioned to more renowned music during his choir performances , such as Russian composers Mikhail Glinka , Alexey Verstovsky , and Peter Tchaikovsky in addition to Ukrainian composers Mykola Lysenko , Kyrylo Stetsenko , and Petro Nishchynskyi .
From 1909 , he studied under musical theoretic Boleslav Yavorsky , whom he periodically visited in Moscow and Kiev over the next twelve years . Leontovych also became involved with theatrical music in Tulchyn and its community life by taking charge of a local organization called " Prosvita " , meaning " Englightenment " .
This period in his career was among the most productive , as he created numerous choral arrangements . These included his famous " Shchedryk " , as well as " Піють півні " ( The roosters are singing ) , " Мала мати одну дочку " ( A mother had one daughter ) , " Дударик " ( Little Dudka player ) , " Ой зійшла зоря " ( Oh , the star has risen ) , and others . In 1914 Stetsenko convinced Leontovych to have his music performed by the student choir of the Kiev University under the leadership of Alexander Koshetz . On December 26 , 1916 , the performance of his arrangement of " Shchedryk " brought Leontovych great success from the public in Kiev and raised the interest of intellectuals .
= = = Career in Kiev = = =
During the October Revolution and the establishment of the Ukrainian People 's Republic in 1918 , Leontovych relocated without his family to Ukraine 's capital Kiev , where he was active as both a conductor and composer . Several of his pieces gained popularity among professional and amateurs groups alike , who added them to their repertoire . In the beginning of 1919 the rest of his family also relocated to Kiev . During this period Leontovych also began teaching choir conducting alongside Hryhoriy Veryovka at the Kiev Conservatory , and also taught at the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama . Leontovych was one of the organizers of the first Ukrainian State Orchestra . He participated in the founding of the Ukrainian Republic Capella of which he was the commissioner .
= = = Move back to Tulchyn and assassination = = =
During the conquest of Kiev on August 31 , 1919 , the Denikin Army persecuted the Ukrainian intelligentsia . Because of this , Leontovych returned to Tulchyn with his family . There he started the city 's first music school , since the college where he had worked was closed down by the Bolsheviks . He also began to work on his first major symphonic work , the opera Na Rusalchyn Velykden ' ( On the water nymph 's Great Day ) .
During the night of January 22 – 23 , 1921 , Mykola Leontovych was murdered by Chekist ( Soviet state security ) agent Afanasy Grishchenko . Leontovych was staying at the home of his parents , whom he was visiting for the Orthodox Feast of the Nativity ( December 25 of the Julian calendar – which on the Gregorian calendar , adopted by the USSR only in 1918 , falls in January ) . The undercover Chekist had also asked to stay the night at the house and shared a room with Mykola . At dawn he shot the composer ( who died of blood loss a few hours later ) after robbing his family .
Several facts point to a political motive behind the assassination . Leontovych 's participation in the independence movement , such as commissioning Ukrainian Republic Capella , aimed at promoting Ukraine as an independent state , earned him many enemies . His older daughter Halyna later recalled her father saying , shortly before his death , that he had documents to leave the country to Romania , and that he had these documents with him among his sheet music during a concert . However , after returning from tea following the concert , Leontovych noticed that someone had gone through his papers . His plans to leave the country , along with the fact that he was killed by a Soviet agent , also indicate political reasons for his death .
= = Character = =
Mykola Leontovych was highly critical of himself . According to his first biographer Oles ' Chapkivskyi , a contemporary of the composer , Leontovych would sometimes work on one choral setting without letting anyone else see it for up to four years . After the publication of his " Second Compilation of Songs from Podolia " , he changed his mind and was not fully satisfied with it , and as a result he bought all 300 copies and had them destroyed .
Chapkivskyi also described Leontоvych as having a shy personality , saying " He abstained from fame , feared attention and advertisement . " On the other hand , Chapkivskyi claimed that Leontovych 's jealousy , fear of competition , and fear of non @-@ acceptance from the established musical society , caused the music of Leontovych to be little known .
Zynoviy Yaropud of the Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi State Pedagogical University writes that " all of [ Leontovych 's ] contemporaries called him a quiet , gentle person . He was not an active leader of the national @-@ revolutionary movement , which revealed in the years of 1917 @-@ 1921 a whole handful of prominent fighters for the Ukrainian republic , " revealing that the composer was politically quiet , but not indifferent .
Leontovych 's friend , O. Buzhanskiy , recalls that the composer was " always full of humor ; spoke so that everyone was laughing to tears , but he remained serious and stayed calm . " Stetsenko also described Leontovych to be a " witty storyteller " and that his students at the Church Educator 's School in Tulchyn were " in love with him " because of his storytelling .
= = = Religious views = = =
Mykola Leontovych grew up in a highly religious environment . He was a member of the Orthodox Church , descended from a line of village priests . He was also a graduate of the Podollia Theological Seminary in Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , which for the most part trained Orthodox Christian clergy .
As a person with a professional theological education , Leontovych kept up with the movement of the establishment and recognition of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church , which was reestablished in 1918 . The composer 's output during this period became rich in new sacred music , following the examples of Kyrylo Stetsenko ( a close friend of Leontovych , also an orthodox priest and composer ) and Alexander Koshetz . Leontovych 's works form this time included " На воскресіння Христа " ( On the Resurrection of Christ ) , " Хваліте ім ’ я Господнє " ( Praise ye the name of the Lord ) , and " Світе тихий " ( Oh quiet light ) , among others . A milestone in the development of Ukrainian spiritual music was the composition of his liturgy , which was first performed in the Mykolaiv Cathedral at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra on May 22 , 1919 .
= = Commemoration = =
On February 1 , 1921 , nine days after Leontovych 's death , a large number of artists , professors , and students of the Mykola Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama in Kiev gathered to commemorate him , as is expected according to Christian tradition . They established the Committee for the Memory of Mykola Leontovych , which later became the All @-@ Ukrainian Mykola Leontovych Music Society , and promoted Ukrainian music until 1928 .
Ukrainian writer and politician of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic , Pavlo Tychyna , was an admirer of Leontovych and wrote about the composer 's death in prose . Poets Maksym Rylskyi and Mykola Bazhan also dedicated poetry to him .
The name of Leontovych is carried by musical groups , such as the Leontovych Bandurist Capella , and by educational institutions such as the Vinnytsia College of Arts and Culture . Streets in Kiev and other cities have been named after him . There is a memorial museum dedicated to him in the city of Tulchyn , and another was established in 1977 in the village of Markivka where he was buried .
In 2002 , to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the composer 's birth , the city of Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi held an all @-@ Ukrainian scientific conference entitled " Mykola Leontovych and modern education and science , " with guests from the Ukrainian ministry of education and science , the Ukrainian composers ' Union , and many local authorities . During this event the city held a ceremonial opening of a memorial plaque to the composer , placed next to the old building formerly used by the Podollia Theological Seminary .
= = Music = =
Mykola Leontovych specialized in a cappella choral music . He is remembered today mostly through the musical works he left behind , which include over 150 choral compositions . These range from artistic arrangements of folk songs , religious works ( including his liturgy ) , cantatas , and choral compositions set to the words of various Ukrainian poets . His two most famous works are the choral miniatures " Schedryk " and " Dudaryk " .
Leontovych also commenced work on an opera ( Na rusalchyn velykden ’ - On the Water Nymph 's Easter ) based on Ukrainian myths and the works of Borys Hrinchenko . By the end of 1920 he had finished the first of three acts . However , Leontovych was murdered before he could complete the opera . Attempts to complete and edit the opera were made by Ukrainian composer Mykhailo Verykivsky . Composer Myroslav Skoryk and poet Diodor Bobyr used the musical material of the unfinished opera to make a one act operetta ; this premiered in 1977 at the Kiev State Opera and Ballet Theatre , one hundred years after Leontovych 's birth . The North American premiere took place in Toronto on April 11 , 2003 .
One of the largest influences in Mykola Leontovych 's music is that of Mykola Lysenko who is considered " the father of Ukrainian classical music " . Leontovych admired Lysenko 's music ever since he was a student at the Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi Theological Seminary , when he had the seminary 's choir perform the composer 's music . Since then he would perform Lysenko 's music in concerts wherever he worked .
= = = Shchedryk / Carol of the Bells = = =
Mykola Leontovych 's " Shchedryk " is the composer 's most well @-@ known piece . In its English version as a Christmas carol , it is known as the holiday favorite " Carol of the Bells " . It is famous for its four @-@ note ostinato motif and has been arranged over 150 times since 2004 . The original Ukrainian text of " Shchedryk " used hemiola , a shifting of accents within each measure between 6 / 8 and 3 / 4 , which is lost in the English versions . The most popular English adaptation was composed in 1936 by Peter J Wilhousky who was influenced by the culture of his Eastern European parents and the traditional Christian story of carols ringing out at the birth of Jesus , although other English adaptations of the song were also made in 1947 by M. L. Holman , 1957 and 1972 .
The song has been used many times in the soundtracks for films and television . For example , it was used in the box office hits The Santa Clause and Home Alone , Will Vinton 's award @-@ winning A Claymation Christmas Celebration , and as a parody called " Carol of the Meows " in The O.C. show 's " The Chrismukkah That Almost Wasn 't " . It has also been arranged and performed by many groups , regardless of singing style or genre , ranging from classical ( Vienna Boys Choir ) , to traditional music groups ( Celtic Woman ) , to pop singers and groups ( Jessica Simpson , Destiny 's Child ) .
= = = Musical style = = =
Leontovych had an original style . Many of his works have " deft use of imitative counterpoint " and impressionistic harmony . He had a strong desire for his music to arouse the senses , especially sight , saying , " I 'm interested in which colors you used for high tones , and which for the low ones . I myself often think about that , to combine sound and color . "
His choral compositions feature rich harmony , vocal polyphony , and imitation . His earlier choral arrangements of folk songs were primarily strophic arrangements of the melody . As the composer gained more experience , the structure of his choral compositions and arrangements of folk songs became more frequently intertwined with text .
Leontovych arranged many Ukrainian folk songs , creating artistically independent choral compositions based on their melodies and lyrics . He followed the traditions of improvisation of Ukrainian kobzars , who would interpret every new strophe differently . He also employed humming and the variability in timbre of singers ' voices as techniques in reaching a desired emotional or sensual effect .
A central topic of Leontovych 's work is choral music about everyday life . His music frequently reflect actual actions and events . An example of this is his shchedrivka “ Ой там за горою ” ( Oh there behind the mountain ) in which a tenor initially starts the song with a solo and the rest of the voices of the choir gradually come in , reflecting carolling when new groups of singers join in . Then , a switching of parts begins between different groups of the choir , recreating the clamorous atmosphere of the New Year 's Eve .
= = = Reception and popularity = = =
For most of his career , Leontovych kept his music to himself , only performing it during his own concerts . This was because of the composer 's highly self @-@ critical and shy personality . Leontovych 's first critic was his friend and fellow priest and composer Kyrylo Stetsenko , who described him to be " a great expert of both choral singing and theoretical studies " . He also convinced Leontovych to publish his music and have it performed by the Kiev University .
The successful debut of " Shchedryk " earned Leontovych popularity among specialists and fans of choral music in Kiev . Leontovych 's mentor @-@ turned @-@ coworker at the Kiev Conservatory , Boleslav Yavorsky , also positively evaluated his newly written works . During another concert , Leontovych 's " Lehenda " , set to a poem by Mykola Voronyi , gained great popularity .
After reviewing Leontovych 's " Second Compilation of Songs from Podolia " , Lysenko wrote : " Leontovych has an original , illustrious gift . In his arrangements I found separate passages , movement of voices , which later developed in a geniously weaved musical network . "
The increase in popularity of Leontovych 's music was aided by the head of the Ukrainian National Republic , Symon Petliura , who created and sponsored two choirs that would promote the awareness of and the culture of Ukraine . One choir headed by Kyrylo Stetsenko toured across Ukraine , while the Ukrainian Republic Capella headed by Alexander Koshetz toured Europe and the Americas . Performances by the Ukrainian Republic Capella made Leontovych known throughout the western world . In France Leontovych earned the nickname , " Ukrainian Bach " . On October 5 , 1921 the Capella performed " Shchedryk " in the Carnegie Hall in New York City . In 1936 , ethnically Ukrainian Peter J. Wilhousky , who worked for radio NBC , wrote his own lyrics for the song , which became known as the " Carol of the Bells " .
Apart from " Shchedryk " , or the Carol of the Bells , Leontovych 's music is currently performed mostly in Ukraine and few recordings are dedicated to him exclusively . The Ukrainian diaspora remember him and perform his works . For example , the Olexander Koshetz Choir based in Winnipeg , Canada performs music of Ukrainian composers including Leontovych and have made a recording of his music .
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= The Boat Race 1964 =
The 110th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1964 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Oxford crew was the heaviest in Boat Race history . The race was won by Cambridge by six @-@ and @-@ half lengths . Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by five lengths , while Cambridge led overall in the event with 60 victories to Oxford 's 48 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . This year 's women 's race was the first to be held since 1952 .
Writing in the Financial Times , Joseph Mallalieu noted that the Boat Race was subsidised by The Varsity Match every year . Despite Oxford being " firm favourites " upon their arrival at the Tideway , Cambridge put in better performances in training , and by the time of the race were considered the favourites themselves . The main race was umpired for the eighth and final time by the former Olympian Kenneth Payne who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
= = Crews = =
Although it was the heaviest Cambridge crew ever , they weighed an average of 13 st 4 @.@ 75 lb ( 84 @.@ 5 kg ) , almost 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower less than Oxford , who were the heaviest crew in Boat Race history . Oxford saw two former Blues return in Miles Morland and Duncan Spencer , while Cambridge 's crew included four Boat Race veterans in Donald Legget , Mike Bevan , John Lecky and Christopher Davey . Lecky was a Canadian international rower who had won a silver medal in the men 's eight at the 1960 Summer Olympics . Six of Oxford 's crew came from Keble College , five of those schooled at Eton College .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . With a " calm , following wind " , the race commenced at 2.20pm , and within a minute , Cambridge had a quarter @-@ length lead before Oxford closed the gap at Craven Cottage . The Light Blues reached the Mile Post three seconds ahead and crossed over to the midstream . By Harrods Furniture Depository they had extended their lead out to two lengths and passed below Hammersmith Bridge a further half @-@ length ahead . Despite a surge from Oxford , Cambridge were sixteen seconds ahead at Chiswick Steps and increased the gap to twenty seconds by Barnes Bridge . Cambridge won by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 18 seconds , 23 seconds ahead of Oxford .
The victory was Cambridge 's 61st in the contest , taking the overall score to 61 – 48 . The Cambridge boat club president and stroke Christopher Davey said : " Everything went as planned , but Oxford hung on more than I would have liked at the end . I would have liked to have taken it to 10 lengths if possible but Oxford kept going splendidly at the end . "
In the 20th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their third consecutive victory .
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= Social Credit Board =
The Social Credit Board was a committee in Alberta , Canada from 1937 until 1948 . Composed of Social Credit backbenchers in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , it was created in the aftermath of the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt . Its mandate was to oversee the implementation of social credit in Alberta . To this end , it secured the services of L. Dennis Byrne and George Powell , two lieutenants of social credit 's British founder , C. H. Douglas .
After requiring all Social Credit Members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) to sign loyalty oaths to it , the Social Credit Board proceeded to recommend radical legislation regulating banking , taxing banks , and restricting freedom of the press and access to courts . Most of this legislation was either disallowed by the federal government or ruled ultra vires ( beyond the powers of ) the province by the Supreme Court of Canada ; these defeats and the advent of World War II made the Social Credit Board increasingly irrelevant . In its later years it became highly anti @-@ Semitic , and it was dissolved by the government of Ernest Manning in 1948 .
= = Beginnings = =
William Aberhart 's Social Credit League won the 1935 Alberta general election on a platform of ending the Great Depression by implementing social credit , a new economic theory that posited that poverty could be ended by increasing citizens ' purchasing power . By 1937 , many Social Credit backbenchers in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta were becoming frustrated with the government 's lack of progress . This frustration became the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt . As a condition of regaining the rebels ' support , Aberhart agreed to create the Social Credit Board , to be composed of five Social Credit MLAs and responsible for the implementation of social credit in Alberta . The chair of the Social Credit Board was Glenville MacLachlan ; he and three other members had been insurgents during the revolt , while the fifth member , Floyd Baker , had remained loyal to Aberhart .
The Social Credit Board was tasked with the appointment of a Social Credit commission , composed of experts on social credit , to advise on the implementation of social credit in Alberta . Most Social Crediters hoped that C. H. Douglas , the British founder of the social credit movement , would agree to head this commission . Douglas refused MacLachlan 's entreaties to do so , but sent two representatives , George Frederick Powell and L. Dennis Byrne , in his stead . One of Powell 's first acts was to demand that all Social Credit MLAs sign an oath of loyalty to the Social Credit Board , which almost all did .
= = Proposals , disallowance , and judicial defeat ( 1937 – 1938 ) = =
The first round of legislation recommended by the commission and subsequently passed by the legislature included the Credit of Alberta Regulation Act , which required every bank and all their employees to be licensed by the provincial government and to be overseen by a Social Credit Board @-@ appointed directorate , the Bank Employees Civil Rights Act , which prohibited unlicensed banks and their employees from initiating legal proceedings , and amendments to the Judicature Act prohibiting court actions alleging that any of Alberta 's legislation was unconstitutional . Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Alberta John Campbell Bowen , asked to give royal assent to these bills , asked Attorney @-@ General John Hugill if he considered them to be valid under the Canadian constitution . Hugill responded in the negative and , after being asked to do so by Aberhart , resigned . Aberhart appointed himself Attorney @-@ General and told Bowen that it was his opinion that the laws were constitutional . Bowen provided royal assent , but all three acts were subsequently disallowed by the federal government .
In 1937 's Bankers ' Toadies incident , Powell ( along with Social Credit whip Joe Unwin ) was convicted of criminal libel , sentenced to six months hard labour , and deported to the United Kingdom . The charges stemmed from a pamphlet listing nine men as " bankers ' toadies " and advocating their " extermination " .
The Social Credit Board 's second round of bills included a rewritten version of the Credit of Alberta Regulation Act . The previous version had been disallowed partly on the basis that , under the British North America Act , 1867 , banking was a responsibility of the federal government , and the government of Alberta therefore lacked the authority to regulate it . In an attempt to address this concern , the new version substituted the words " credit institutions " for " banks " . The Social Credit Board 's proposals also included the Bank Taxation Act , which imposed extremely high taxes on banks operating in Alberta , and the Accurate News and Information Act , which severely restricted freedom of the press . All of these bills were passed by the legislature . Bowen , not wishing to have more laws to which he had assented disallowed , reserved assent from all three until the Supreme Court of Canada could comment on their constitutional validity . It did so in 1938 's Reference re Alberta Statutes , which found all three to be unconstitutional . The Social Credit Board 's major initiatives had failed .
= = Decline and dissolution ( 1939 – 1948 ) = =
World War II further reduced the Social Credit Board 's importance , as implementation of social credit took a backseat to the war effort . Instead of proposing new policy , the board devoted itself to propaganda ; its members spoke across the province about social credit , and it distributed vast numbers of pamphlets and leaflets ( 272 @,@ 900 in 1939 ) . When Aberhart died in 1943 , he was replaced by Ernest Manning , who was by this time considerably less open to radical social credit proposals than Aberhart had been . He soon transferred many of the Social Credit Board 's responsibilities to the new department of Economic Affairs , of which L. D. Byrne was the deputy minister .
Byrne , the remaining Douglas lieutenant after Powell 's deportation , shared both Douglas 's economic theories and his antisemitism . Under his influence , the Social Credit Board began to propagate anti @-@ Jewish conspiracy theories , including those espoused by the Russian forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion . Its 1943 report alleged " a plot , world @-@ wide in scope , deliberately engineered by a small number of ruthless international financiers " , most of whom were Jewish . Its 1947 report repeated these allegations , and also proposed a new voting system in which voters would state their choices publicly , and be taxed only for those government programs they supported during the election . Political parties were to be abolished in favour of " leagues of electors " , and all farmland was to be appropriated by the government . Manning , benignly neglectful of the Social Credit Board to this point , took this as " a direct challenge to his leadership , a shot across the bow " . He quickly introduced a resolution in the legislature to " condemn , repudiate , and completely dissociate " the legislature from " any statements or publications which are incompatible with the established British ideals of democratic freedom , or which endorse , excuse , or incite anti @-@ Semitism or racial or religious intolerance in any form " . In November 1947 he announced that the Social Credit Board would cease to exist effective March 1948 , and in February 1948 he asked for and received Byrne 's resignation as deputy minister of Economic Affairs .
Despite its beginnings as a vehicle of intended economic revolution , the board achieved nothing of lasting importance . Once its early efforts were foiled by the federal government and the courts , it ceased to have much influence . By 1948 , the dire conditions that had sparked Albertans ' enthusiasm for radical economic reform had vanished , and with it their interest in social credit . While the Social Crediters remained in government until 1971 , the revolutionary spirit of the 1930s was all but forgotten : as Athabasca University historian Alvin Finkel notes , post @-@ war Social Credit " had been transformed from a mass , eclectic movement for social reform led by monetary reformers to a relatively small government party that enjoyed considerable support from various sectors of the Alberta population for its judicious combination of right @-@ wing rhetoric and social service and road @-@ building programs . " The Social Credit Board , with its reform mandate and its direct pipeline to Douglas , was no longer needed .
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= Farewell ( Rihanna song ) =
" Farewell " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . The song was written by Ester Dean and Alexander Grant , with production helmed by Grant under his production name Alex da Kid . Instrumentation consists of a piano .
Music critics were divided in their response to " Farewell " . Rihanna 's vocal performance was praised and criticized alike , with some critics citing the song as her best vocal performance to date , while others wrote it lacked any sense of feeling . It also received comparisons to Beyoncé 's " Halo " and Adele 's " Someone like You " , as well as Rihanna 's own " Fire Bomb " ( from her album Rated R ) . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted at number 69 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart and number 155 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
The song was written by Ester Dean and Alexander Grant , with production helmed by Grant under his production name Alex da Kid . " Farewell " contains lyrics that revolve around saying goodbye to a lover who is not able to be physically present in the relationship for long periods of time . Instrumentation consists of a piano . The song was composed in the key of G major and set in common time signature , and has a moderately slow tempo of 88 beats per minute . Rihanna 's vocals span from the low note of G3 to the high note of D5 . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine noted that the song 's structure was similar to Beyoncé Knowles ' song " Halo " , while Priya Elan for NME wrote that the song was reminiscent of Rihanna 's song " Fire Bomb " , from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . Lipshutz also noted that Rihanna delivered the bridge with " powerhouse " vocals . A reviewer for Flavour Magazine wrote that Rihanna displayed " great vocals " in the lyric " Somebody 's gonna miss you ... Farewell . " Melissa Maerz for Entertainment Weekly wrote that Rihanna " wails " the lyrics " ' Even though it kills me that you have to go / I know I 'd be sadder if you didn 't hit the road . "
= = Critical reception = =
Music critics were divided on " Farewell " ; Rihanna 's vocal performance was praised as well as criticized . Kyle Jamon for Parlé Magazine wrote that " Farewell " is a " fitting finish to an album that presents a brand new Rihanna . " He praised the song for not incorporating a " morbid " feel or " dark " tones , which were prominent on Rated R. T 'Cha Dunlevy for The Montreal Gazette described the song as " epic , " and is a " stark contrast " to the songs which appear before it on the album , specifically " Roc Me Out " and " Watch n ' Learn " . A reviewer for Flavour Magazine described the song as " epic " and " heart @-@ curdling " . The reviewer concluded by writing that " Farewell " is a " winning end " to Talk That Talk . Pip Ellwood for Entertainment @-@ Focus wrote that the song " puts paid to any criticism concerning Rihanna 's vocal ability . " Claire Suddath for Time Entertainment did not praise nor criticize " Farewell , " but simply wrote that it is an " obligatory torch ballad that every female pop singer is required to include on an album these days . "
Andy Kellman from Allmusic was critical of the ballads " Farewell " and " We All Want Love " , labeling the former as " bombastic " and the latter " drippy . " Jon Caramanica for The New York Times called " Farewell " the most " bombastic " song on Talk That Talk , and cited his reason as " it 's tough to tell if the words have feeling , because Rihanna 's voice doesn 't . " Nathan Slavik for DJ Booth was critical of the song , writing that it lacked any originality . Slavik continued to write that the song is not necessarily bad , but it is " not good in any meaningful way . " Simon Price of The Independent slated " Farewell " , writing that it is a " shameless rewrite " of Adele 's " Someone like You " .
= = Track listing = =
Album version
" Farewell " – 4 : 16
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Sofitel Paris Le Faubourg , Room 538 ; Fasthalle Venue Dressing Room , Frankfurt , Germany .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , " Farewell " charted in South Korea and the United Kingdom on the strength of digital download sales . The song debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 69 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 547 digital downloads . It also debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 155 in the chart issue December 3 , 2011 .
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= Octopus card =
The Octopus card is a reusable contactless stored value smart card for making electronic payments in online or offline systems in Hong Kong . Launched in September 1997 to collect fares for the territory 's mass transit system , the Octopus card system is the second contactless smart card system in the world , after the Korean Upass , and has since grown into a widely used payment system for all public transport in Hong Kong , leading to the development of Oyster Card in London .
The Octopus card has also grown to be used for payment in many retail shops in Hong Kong , from convenience stores , supermarkets , fast @-@ food restaurants , on @-@ street parking meters , car parks , to other point @-@ of @-@ sale applications such as service stations and vending machines .
The Octopus card won the Chairman 's Award of the World Information Technology and Services Alliance 's 2006 Global IT Excellence Award for , among other things , being the world 's leading complex automatic fare collection and contactless smartcard payment system . According to Octopus Cards Limited , operator of the Octopus card system , there are more than 20 million cards in circulation , nearly three times the population of Hong Kong . The cards are used by 95 % of the population of Hong Kong aged 16 to 65 , generating over 12 million daily transactions worth a total over HK $ 130 million .
Octopus Card Limited 's and the cards ' slogan is Making Everyday Life Easier , which is also part of the corporation 's mission statement .
= = History = =
Previously , Hong Kong 's Mass Transit Railway ( MTR ) adopted a system to recirculate magnetic plastic cards as fare tickets when it started operations in 1979 . Another of the territory 's railway networks , the Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway ( KCR ) , adopted the same magnetic cards in 1984 , and the stored value version was renamed Common Stored Value Ticket . In 1989 , the Common Stored Value Ticket system was extended to Kowloon Motor Bus ( KMB ) buses providing a feeder service to MTR and KCR stations and to Citybus , and was also extended to a limited number of non @-@ transport applications , such as payments at photobooths and for fast food vouchers .
The MTR Corporation eventually decided to adopt more advanced technologies , and in 1993 announced that it would move towards using contactless smartcards . To gain wider acceptance , it partnered with four other major transit companies in Hong Kong to create a joint @-@ venture business to operate the Octopus system in 1994 , then known as Creative Star Limited .
The Octopus system was launched after three years of trials on 1 September 1997 . Three million cards were issued within the first three months of the system 's launch . The quick success of the system was compelled by the fact that MTR and KCR required all holders of Common Stored Value Tickets to replace their tickets with Octopus cards in three months or have their tickets made obsolete , which drove commuters to switch quickly . Another reason was the coin shortage in Hong Kong in 1997 . With the transfer of Hong Kong away from British rule , there was a belief that the older Queen 's Head coins in Hong Kong would rise in value , so many people hoarded these older coins and waited for their value to increase .
The Octopus system was quickly adopted by other Creative Star joint venture partners , and KMB reported that by 2000 , most bus journeys were completed using an Octopus card , with few coins used . Boarding a bus in Hong Kong without using the Octopus card requires giving exact change , making it cumbersome compared to using the Octopus card . By November 1998 , 4 @.@ 6 million cards were issued , and this rose to 9 million by January 2002 .
In 2000 , the Hong Kong Monetary Authority granted a deposit @-@ taking company license to the operator , removing previous restrictions that prohibited Octopus from generating more than 15 percent of its turnover from non @-@ transit @-@ related functions . This allowed the Octopus card to be widely adopted for non @-@ transit @-@ related sales transactions . On 29 June 2003 , the Octopus card found another application when the Hong Kong Government started to replace all its 18 @,@ 000 parking meters with a new Octopus card @-@ operated system . The replacement was completed on 21 November 2004 .
= = Etymologies and logo = =
The Cantonese name for the Octopus card , Baat Daaht Tùng ( Chinese : 八達通 ) , translates literally as " eight @-@ arrived pass " ( though in Chinese it was accepted as " go @-@ everywhere pass " ) , where Baat Daaht may translate as " reaching everywhere " . It was selected by the head of the MTR Corporation , the parent company of Octopus Cards Limited , in a naming competition held in 1996 . The number eight refers to the cardinal and ordinal directions , and the four @-@ character idiom sei tùng baat daaht ( Chinese : 四通八達 ) , a common expression loosely translated as " reachable in all directions " . It is also considered a lucky number in Chinese culture , and the phrase baat daaht can possibly be associated with the similar @-@ sounding faat daaht , which means " getting wealthy " ( Chinese : 發達 ) in Cantonese .
The English name Octopus card was also selected from the naming competition . Coincidentally , the English name coincides with the number eight in the Chinese name , since an octopus has eight tentacles . The logo used on the card features a Möbius strip in the shape of an infinity symbol .
The slogan of Octopus Card Limited and its products ( the cards ) is Making Everyday Life Easier , which is part of the mission statement of the corporation .
= = Card usage = =
The Octopus card was originally introduced for fare payment on the MTR ; however , the use of the card quickly expanded to other retail businesses in Hong Kong . The card is now commonly used in most major public transport , fast food restaurants , supermarkets , vending machines , convenience stores , photo booths , parking meters , car parks and many other retails business where small payments are frequently made by customers . With over 20 million Octopus cards in circulation in 2010 , the card has become very popular among Hong Kongers .
Notable businesses that started accepting Octopus cards at a very early stage include PARKnSHOP , Wellcome , Watsons , 7 @-@ Eleven , Starbucks , McDonald 's , and Circle K. As of 21 November 2004 , all parking meters in Hong Kong were converted . They no longer accept coins and Octopus became the only form of payment accepted .
Octopus cards also double as access control cards in buildings and for school administrative functions . At certain office buildings , residential buildings , and schools , use of an Octopus card is required for entry .
= = = Payments = = =
Making or recording a payment using the card for public transport or purchases at Octopus @-@ enabled retailers can be done by holding the card against or waving it over an Octopus card reader from up to a few centimetres away . The reader will acknowledge payment by emitting a beep , and displaying the amount deducted and the remaining balance of the card . Standard transaction time for readers used for public transport is 0 @.@ 3 seconds , while that of readers used for retailers is 1 second . When using the MTR system , the entry point of commuters is noted when a passenger enters , and the appropriate amount based on distance traveled will be deducted when the users validate their cards again at the exit point .
The MTR usually charges less for journeys made using an Octopus card instead of conventional single @-@ journey tickets . For example , the adult fare of a single journey from Chai Wan to Tung Chung is HK $ 25 @.@ 20 with an Octopus card , and HK $ 28 with a single journey ticket . Other public transport operators also offer intermittent discounts for using Octopus cards on higher fares and round @-@ trip transits on select routes .
On 6 November 2005 , Octopus Cards Limited launched Octopus Rewards , a program that allows cardholders to earn rewards at merchants that are partners in the program . Participating merchants provide consumers with tailor @-@ made offers and privileges . The rewards that the program offers are in the form of points , or reward dollars , stored on the card . Once a card is registered for the program , the cardholder may accumulate reward points by making purchases at participating merchants , and payments may be made in the form of cash , credit cards , or Octopus cards themselves . The rate at which reward points are earned per dollar @-@ amount purchase differs by the merchant at which that the purchases are made . At Wellcome , for example , one point is earned for every purchase of HK $ 200 ; and at Watsons , points are earned at a rate of 0 @.@ 5 percent per dollar amount of a purchase . Once these reward dollars are accumulated , they may be redeemed as payment for purchases at partner merchants for at least HK $ 1 per reward dollar . To redeem the accumulated reward dollars , cardholders must use the entire value amount in whole , and may not elect to use it partially . If the purchase price is lower than the amount of reward dollars available , the amount difference remains stored on the card . Founding partners for the Octopus Rewards program include HSBC , UA Cinemas and Wellcome .
= = = Balance enquiries , reloading and refunds = = =
In MTR stations , enquiry machines can be found where cardholders can place their Octopus cards on the machines and the machines will display the balance along with a history of last ten usages .
Money can be credited to the card through a number of ways . " Add Value Machines " , located at MTR stations , can be used to top up the balance of the cards . The machines accept cash , and selected machines are also able to accept the electronic transfer of funds . Alternatively , cards may be topped up with cash at authorised service providers such as PARKnSHOP , Wellcome , Watsons , 7 @-@ Eleven , Circle K , and Café de Coral , and also at customer service centres and ticketing offices at other transport stations .
An Octopus card may store a maximum value of HK $ 1 @,@ 000 , with an On @-@ Loan card having an initial deposit value of HK $ 50 and a Sold card having no initial deposit value . Negative value is incurred on a card if it is used with insufficient funds — both types of cards may carry a maximum negative value of HK $ 35 before value needs to be added to them again for use . At the time , the maximum cost of a trip on any of the rail networks except the Airport Express and first class of the MTR East Rail line was HK $ 34 @.@ 8 , the cost of travelling between East Tsim Sha Tsui Station and Lo Wu Station ; the current maximum cost is HK $ 55 @.@ 3 , the cost of travelling between Disneyland Resort Station and either Lo Wu Station or Lok Ma Chau Station .
The Octopus " Automatic Add Value Service " ( AAVS ) is another method by which cardholders may reload their cards . This service allows for money to be automatically deducted from a credit card and credited to an Octopus card when the value of the Octopus card is less than zero dollars . The credit card used must be one offered by one of 22 financial institutions that participate in AAVS . Participating banks include HSBC , Bank of China , and Hang Seng Bank . HK $ 150 / 250 / 500 is added to the card each time value is automatically added .
An Octopus card may be returned to any MTR Customer Service Centre for a refund of the remaining credit stored on it . A handling fee may be charged for the refund — HK $ 7 for an anonymous On @-@ Loan card that had been in use for fewer than three months , and HK $ 10 for a Personalised On @-@ Loan card that was issued on or after 1 November 2004 . A refund is immediately provided at the time an anonymous On Loan card is returned , unless it has more than HK $ 500 stored on it . A Personalised On @-@ Loan card or an anonymous On @-@ Loan card with more than HK $ 500 stored on it needs to be sent back to Octopus Cards Limited for refund processing , in which case , the refund for a Personalised On @-@ Loan card would be available in eight days , and that of an anonymous On @-@ Loan card would be available in five days . If a damaged card is returned for refund , a HK $ 30 levy would be charged to the cardholder .
= = = Outside Hong Kong = = =
Usage of the Octopus card was extended to the Chinese city of Shenzhen and Macau in 2006 . In collaboration with China UnionPay , Octopus Cards Limited introduced Octopus card usage to two Fairwood restaurants in Shenzhen in August 2006 . In 2008 , five Café de Coral locations in Shenzhen also started accepting Octopus . Value cannot be reloaded to Octopus cards in Shenzhen , but the Automatic Add Value Service is available to automatically deduct money value from a customer 's credit card to reload an Octopus card . The two Fairwood restaurants in Shenzhen that were enabled for Octopus card payments are located at Luohu Commercial City and Shenzhen Railway Station . Shenzhen became the first city outside Hong Kong in which Octopus cards may be accepted as payment . In Macau , the Octopus card was introduced in December 2006 when two Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurants in the territory adopted its usage as payment . Similar to its usage in Shenzhen , an Octopus card may not be reloaded in Macau , and the currency exchange rate between the Macanese pataca and the Hong Kong dollar when using an Octopus card is MOP1 : HKD1 . The two Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurants in Macau that adopted the Octopus card for payment are located at the Rua Do Campo and the Sands Casino .
= = Types of cards = =
There are two main types of Octopus card ( On @-@ Loan and Sold ) , and two less common types ( the Airport Express Tourist and the MTR Airport Staff ) .
= = = Main types of cards = = =
= = = = On @-@ Loan cards = = = =
On @-@ Loan cards are issued for usage in day @-@ to @-@ day functions , primarily for fare payment in transport systems . They are further classified into Child , Adult , Elder , and Personalised categories , with the first three based on age and different amounts of fare concession . With the exception of the Personalised cards , On @-@ Loan cards are anonymous ; no personal information , bank account , or credit card details are stored on the card , and no identification is required for the purchase of these cards . If an owner loses a card , only the stored value and the deposit of the card are lost . On @-@ Loan Octopus cards may be purchased at all MTR stations , the KMB Customer Service Centre , New World First Ferry ( NWFF ) Octopus Service Centres , and the New World First Bus ( NWFB ) Customer Service Centre . A student on @-@ loan Octopus Card was initially issued , but was discontinued in 2005 .
= = = = Personalised cards = = = =
The multi @-@ coloured Personalised card is available on registration . The name and , if opted , a photo of the holder are imprinted on the cards . They can function automatically as a Child , Adult , or Elder card by recognising the cardholder 's age stored on the card , hence accounting for different concessionary fares . As of 2003 , there were 380 @,@ 000 holders of Personalised Octopus cards . In addition to all the functions of an ordinary card , this card can be used as a key card for access to residential and office buildings . If a Personalised card is lost , the holder may report the loss by phone to prevent unauthorised use of the card . A refund would then be issued to the holder of the card for the deposit and the value that remained on the card six hours after the loss is reported , minus a HK $ 30 card cost and a HK $ 20 handling fee .
A Personalised card with " student status " is available for students in Hong Kong . To be eligible for this card , the applicant must be a full @-@ time Hong Kong student aged between 12 and 25 . This type of Personalised card is automatically issued to a student who applies for student concessionary privileges . Additionally , they can be used for school administrative tasks such as the recording of student attendance and the management of library loans .
= = = = Sold cards = = = =
In contrast to On @-@ Loan cards , Sold cards are sponsored and branded cards . They are souvenir cards that are frequently released by Octopus Cards Limited . The designs for these cards usually come from fictional characters in popular culture , or they are inspired by Chinese cultural events such as Chinese New Year . These cards are sold at a premium , have limited or no initial stored value , and cannot be refunded , but they can otherwise be used as ordinary cards . An example of the Sold card is the Mcmug and Mcdull collection . It was launched at the end of January 2007 to coincide with the beginning of the Year of the Pig , it features two differently designed versions of the card and is sold for HK $ 138 per set . Each set comes with an Adult Octopus card , with a pouch for the card , a matching strap and a Mcmug or Mcdull ornament . Octopus Cards Limited has launched new collections of these cards for such occasions as the Mid @-@ Autumn Festival , the passing of the year 2004 , and the release of the movie DragonBlade . Sold Octopus cards may be purchased at selected MTR stations , and all 7 @-@ Eleven stores .
= = = Special @-@ purpose cards = = =
The special @-@ purpose card , Airport Express Tourist Octopus , was introduced by Octopus Cards Limited to target tourists in Hong Kong . Two versions of this card are offered , a HK $ 220 card with a free single ride on the Airport Express , the Mass Transit Railway ( MTR ) train line that runs between the Hong Kong International Airport and the urban areas of Hong Kong , and a HK $ 300 card with two free single rides included . The airport journeys are valid for 180 days from the date of purchase . Both versions allow three days of unlimited rides on the MTR and include a HK $ 50 refundable deposit . Usable value on these cards may be added if necessary . These tourist Octopus cards may be used only by tourists staying in Hong Kong for 14 or fewer days ; users may be required to produce a passport showing their arrival date in Hong Kong . Airport Express Tourist Octopus is available for purchase at all MTR stations .
The other special @-@ purpose card , the MTR Airport Staff Octopus , is available for the staff of Hong Kong International Airport and AsiaWorld @-@ Expo , a convention centre close to the airport , for commuting at a reduced fare between the airport and MTR stations via the Airport Express . Staff who apply for the card may use it for a discount of up to 64 percent for Airport Express single journey fares . The MTR Airport Staff Octopus is available upon application via the company for which that a staff member works .
= = = Alternative designs = = =
Other than the Octopus card itself , operator Octopus Cards Limited also sells watches and mobile phone covers that function as anonymous Octopus cards . The types of watches available include wrist watches , pocket watches , and watch key chains . The mobile phone covers were specifically designed for Nokia models 3310 and 3330 , and iPhone 4 and 4S . As with the card itself , these products are used by waving them over a card reader . They may be reloaded with money value the same way as the card itself , including automatic reloading via the Automatic Add Value Service , with the exception that they cannot be reloaded at Add Value Machines due to their shapes . An Octopus watch or mobile phone cover may be stored with a maximum of HK $ 1 @,@ 000 , but do not have any initial stored value at the time of its purchase . It may have a maximum negative value of HK $ 35 as with an Octopus card . These products are not refundable for their costs , but the remaining value stored on them may be refunded if they are damaged , with the damaged product itself also returned to the customer .
In June 2007 , a new set of limited edition products was announced , featuring Mini Octopus cards and Child Octopus Wristbands . The Mini Octopus cards , available in Adult and Elder editions , measure 4 @.@ 7 cm by 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 85 in by 1 @.@ 18 in ) and work as regular ( anonymous ) Adult and Elder , respectively , Octopus cards . The Child Octopus Wristbands are plastic wristbands with a watch @-@ like round face and work as regular Child Octopus cards . The same value @-@ adding abilities and limitations as the aforementioned watches and mobile phone apply .
They also would cooperate with different companies . Octopus can be tailored to promotional needs with companies logo or special design . In 2008 , Octopus has cooperated with Commercial Radio Hong Kong , launched a collection of " 903 20 Plus Octopus " .
= = Technology = =
The Octopus system was designed by Australia @-@ based company ERG Group ( now Vix Technology ) . The company was selected in 1994 to lead the development of the Octopus project and was responsible for the building and installation of the components of the Octopus system . Operations , maintenance and development was undertaken by Octopus Cards Limited , and in 2005 , it replaced the central transaction clearing house with its own system .
The Octopus card uses the Sony 13 @.@ 56 MHz FeliCa radio frequency identification ( RFID ) chip , with Hong Kong being the world 's first major public transport system using this technology . It is a " touch and go " system , so users need only hold the card in close proximity of the reader , and thus physical contact is not required . Data is transmitted at up to 212 kbit / s ( the maximum speed for Sony FeliCa chips ) , compared to 9 @.@ 6 kbit / s for other smart card systems like Mondex and Visa Cash . The card has a storage capacity of 1 KB to 64 KB compared to the 125 bytes provided by traditional magnetic stripe card .
Octopus uses a nonstandard system for RFID instead of the more popular ISO / IEC 14443 standards , since there were no standards in the nascent industry during its development in 1997 . The operating range of the reader / writer is between 30 and 100 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 and 3 @.@ 94 in ) depending on the type of model being used .
Octopus is specifically designed so that card transactions are relayed for clearing on a store and forward basis , without any requirement for reader units to have realtime round @-@ trip communications with a central database or computer . The stored data about the transaction may be transmitted by network after hours , or in the case of offline mobile readers may be retrieved by a hand held device , for example a Pocket PC .
In practice , different data collection mechanisms are used by different transport operators , depending on the nature of their business . The MTR equips its stations with local area networks that connect the components that deal with Octopus cards — turnstiles , Add Value Machines , value @-@ checking machines and customer service terminals . Transactions from these stations are relayed to the MTR 's Kowloon Bay headquarters through a frame relay wide area network , and hence onwards to the central clearing house system ( CCHS ) for clearing . Similar arrangements are in place for retailers such as 7 @-@ Eleven . Handheld devices are used to scan offline mobile readers , including those installed on minibuses . Buses either use handheld devices or a wireless system , depending on operator .
= = = Security = = =
The Octopus card uses encryption for all airborne communication and performs mutual authentication between the card and reader based on the ISO 9798 @-@ 2 three @-@ pass mutual authentication protocol . In other words , data communications are only established when the card and reader have mutually authenticated based on a shared secret access key . This means that the security of the Octopus card system would be jeopardized should the access key be exposed . A stolen Octopus card reader could be used with stolen Octopus software , for example , to add value ( up to HK $ 1 @,@ 000 ) to any Octopus card without authorization . Nevertheless , as of 2003 , the Octopus card and system have never been successfully hacked .
Octopus card reader includes a fail @-@ safe that prevents reader from initiating transaction when more than one card is being detected at the same time . On 11 February 2009 , Sing Tao Daily reported that the fail @-@ safe has been abused for fare evasion through the railway station turnstile . A large amount of dishonest passengers at Sheung Shui Station and Lo Wu Station were stacking up 4 or more cards before breaking through the turnstile , pretending their cards have been touched with the reader correctly but triggering the fail @-@ safe deliberately to avoid card value deduction . Because of this , if they get caught by the station staff , they can make an excuse of a hardware malfunction and offer the Octopus card with an unsuccessful transaction .
= = Operator = =
The Octopus card system is owned and operated by Octopus Cards Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Octopus Holdings Limited . The company was founded as Creative Star Limited in 1994 to oversee the development and implementation of the Octopus card system , and was renamed as its current name of Octopus Cards Limited in 2002 . Creative Star was formed as a joint @-@ venture company by five major transit companies in Hong Kong — MTR Corporation , Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , Kowloon Motor Bus , Citybus , and Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry . In January 2001 , the shares of Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry in the company was transferred to New World First Bus and New World First Ferry . In the same year , together with MTR Corporation , the company was transformed from its previous non @-@ profit making status to a profit making enterprise .
Due to the expansion of the company 's businesses , Octopus Holdings Limited was established in 2005 and Octopus Cards Limited was restructured as its subsidiary . The business of Octopus Cards Limited , being a payment business , is regulated by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority , while Octopus ' non @-@ payment businesses are not subjected to such regulation and are operated by other subsidiaries of Octopus Holdings Limited that are independent of Octopus Cards Limited . As of 2007 , Octopus Holdings Limited was a joint @-@ venture business owned by five transport companies in Hong Kong ; 54 @.@ 4 % by the MTR Corporation , 22 @.@ 1 % by the Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , 12 @.@ 4 % by Kowloon Motor Bus , 5 % by Citybus , and 3 @.@ 1 % by New World First Bus . Since the Government of Hong Kong owns 76 @.@ 54 % of the MTR Corporation ( as of 31 December 2005 ) and wholly owns the Kowloon @-@ Canton Railway Corporation , it is the biggest effective shareholder of Octopus Holdings Limited , and thus also the biggest effective shareholder of Octopus Cards Limited .
Initially , Octopus Cards Limited , then known as Creative Star Limited , was restricted to having at most 15 percent of Octopus card transactions for non @-@ transport transactions , as it operated under the Hong Kong government 's Banking Ordinance . On 20 April 2000 , the Hong Kong Monetary Authority authorised the company for deposit @-@ taking , which allowed for 50 percent of Octopus card transactions to be unrelated to transport . HK $ 416 million ( US $ 53 @.@ 3 million ) is deposited in the Octopus system at any given time as of 2000 .
= = In taxis = =
Although a popular form of transport , taxis in Hong Kong do not accept the Octopus card . On 27 June 2006 , after 10 years of negotiations between Octopus Cards Limited and the taxi industry , the first trial of taxis equipped with Octopus card readers was launched in the New Territories with taxis operated by the Yellow Taxi Group . But it was reported on 30 October that of the 20 taxis that participated in the trial , eight had dropped out . Part of the reason was technical — drivers must return to the office every day for accounting . The Octopus card company said it would be upgrading the system to allow automatic account updating in the future . Wong Yu @-@ ting , managing director of the Yellow Taxi Group , also noted that they had been " trying to convince restaurants and retailers " to offer discounts to Octopus taxi passengers , but the Transport Department had been a major obstacle . The Transport Department is against this approach for legal reasons .
= = Awards = =
The Octopus card is recognised internationally , winning the Chairman 's Award of the World Information Technology and Services Alliance 's 2006 Global IT Excellence Award for being the world 's leading complex automatic fare collection and contactless smartcard payment system , and for its innovative use of technologies .
= = Issues = =
= = = EPS add @-@ value glitch = = =
In February 2007 it was found that when customers added value to their cards at self @-@ service add @-@ value points located in MTR and Light rail stations , their bank accounts were debited even if the transactions had been cancelled . Octopus Cards Limited claimed that the fault was due to an upgrade of communication systems . Initially , two cases were reported . The company then announced that the use of the payment system , Electronic Payment Services ( EPS ) , at add @-@ value service points would be suspended until further notice , and that it had started an investigation into the reasons for the problem .
On 27 July 2007 it was announced that the faulty transactions could be traced back to 2000 , and that a total of 3 @.@ 7 million Hong Kong dollars had been wrongly deducted in 15 @,@ 270 cases . The company reported that there might be cases dating to before 2000 , but that only transactions from the past seven years were kept . The company stated that it would co @-@ operate with EPS Company Limited , operator of Electronic Payment Services , and banks , to contact customers involved and arrange a refund within ten weeks ' time .
On 21 December 2007 the company announced that it would permanently cease all transactions using EPS because it could not guarantee that such problems would not occur again .
= = = Privacy abuse = = =
On 15 July 2010 , despite Octopus ' claims to have never sold data , a former employee of the CIGNA insurance company claimed CIGNA purchased records for 2 @.@ 4 million Octopus users . On 20 July , Octopus acknowledged selling customers ' personal details to Cigna and CPP , and started an internal review of their data practices . Octopus Holdings made 44 million Hong Kong dollars ( $ 5.7M USD ) over 4 @.@ 5 years . Roderick Woo Bun , Hong Kong 's Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data , gave radio interviews and called for transparent investigation , but his term expired at the end of July 2010 . Allan Chiang Yam @-@ wang was announced as the incoming Privacy Commissioner . This news was met with protests and international outrage , due to his prior history of privacy invasions involving cameras used to spy on his employees at the Post Office , and disclosing hundreds of job applicants ' personal data to corporations . Outgoing Privacy Commissioner Woo pledged to finish a preliminary report on the Octopus privacy abuse before his term ends , and called for a new law making it a criminal offence for companies to sell personal data .
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= Znám 's problem =
In number theory , Znám 's problem asks which sets of k integers have the property that each integer in the set is a proper divisor of the product of the other integers in the set , plus 1 . Znám 's problem is named after the Slovak mathematician Štefan Znám , who suggested it in 1972 , although other mathematicians had considered similar problems around the same time . One closely related problem drops the assumption of properness of the divisor , and will be called the improper Znám problem hereafter .
One solution to the improper Znám problem is easily provided for any k : the first k terms of Sylvester 's sequence have the required property . Sun ( 1983 ) showed that there is at least one solution to the ( proper ) Znám problem for each k ≥ 5 . Sun 's solution is based on a recurrence similar to that for Sylvester 's sequence , but with a different set of initial values .
The Znám problem is closely related to Egyptian fractions . It is known that there are only finitely many solutions for any fixed k . It is unknown whether there are any solutions to Znám 's problem using only odd numbers , and there remain several other open questions .
= = The problem = =
Znám 's problem asks which sets of integers have the property that each integer in the set is a proper divisor of the product of the other integers in the set , plus 1 . That is , given k , what sets of integers
<formula>
are there , such that , for each i , ni divides but is not equal to
<formula>
A closely related problem concerns sets of integers in which each integer in the set is a divisor , but not necessarily a proper divisor , of one plus the product of the other integers in the set . This problem does not seem to have been named in the literature , and will be referred to as the improper Znám problem . Any solution to Znám 's problem is also a solution to the improper Znám problem , but not necessarily vice versa .
= = History = =
Znám 's problem is named after the Slovak mathematician Štefan Znám , who suggested it in 1972 . Barbeau ( 1971 ) had posed the improper Znám problem for k |
= 3 , and Mordell ( 1973 ) , independently of Znám , found all solutions to the improper problem for k ≤ 5 . Skula ( 1975 ) showed that Znám 's problem is unsolvable for k < 5 , and credited J. Janák with finding the solution { 2 , 3 , 11 , 23 , 31 } for k =
5 .
= = Examples = =
One solution to k
= 5 is { 2 , 3 , 7 , 47 , 395 } . A few calculations will show that
An interesting " near miss " for k =
4 is the set { 2 , 3 , 7 , 43 } , formed by taking the first four terms of Sylvester 's sequence . It has the property that each integer in the set divides the product of the other integers in the set , plus 1 , but the last member of this set is equal to the product of the first three members plus one , rather than being a proper divisor . Thus , it is a solution to the improper Znám problem , but not a solution to Znám 's problem as it is usually defined .
= = Connection to Egyptian fractions = =
Any solution to the improper Znám problem is equivalent ( via division by the product of the xi 's ) to a solution to the equation
<formula>
where y as well as each xi must be an integer , and conversely any such solution corresponds to a solution to the improper Znám problem . However , all known solutions have y = 1 , so they satisfy the equation
<formula>
That is , they lead to an Egyptian fraction representation of the number one as a sum of unit fractions . Several of the cited papers on Znám 's problem study also the solutions to this equation . Brenton & Hill ( 1988 ) describe an application of the equation in topology , to the classification of singularities on surfaces , and Domaratzki et al . ( 2005 ) describe an application to the theory of nondeterministic finite automata .
= = Number of solutions = =
As Janák & Skula ( 1978 ) showed , the number of solutions for any k is finite , so it makes sense to count the total number of solutions for each k .
Brenton and Vasiliu calculated that the number of solutions for small values of k , starting with k
= 5 , forms the sequence
2 , 5 , 18 , 96 ( sequence A075441 in the OEIS ) .
Presently , a few solutions are known for k =
9 and k = 10 , but it is unclear how many solutions remain undiscovered for those values of k . However , there are infinitely many solutions if k is not fixed : Cao & Jing ( 1998 ) showed that there are at least 39 solutions for each k ≥ 12 , improving earlier results proving the existence of fewer solutions ( Cao , Liu & Zhang 1987 , Sun & Cao 1988 ) . Sun & Cao ( 1988 ) conjecture that the number of solutions for each value of k grows monotonically with k .
It is unknown whether there are any solutions to Znám 's problem using only odd numbers . With one exception , all known solutions start with 2 . If all numbers in a solution to Znám 's problem or the improper Znám problem are prime , their product is a primary pseudoperfect number ( Butske , Jaje & Mayernik 2000 ) ; it is unknown whether infinitely many solutions of this type exist .
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= Constitution of May 3 , 1791 ( painting ) =
The Constitution of May 3 , 1791 ( Polish : Konstytucja 3 Maja 1791 roku ) is an 1891 Romantic oil painting on canvas by the Polish artist Jan Matejko . It is a large piece , and one of Matejko 's best known . It memorializes the Polish Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , a milestone in the history of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth and the high point of the Polish Enlightenment .
Like many Matejko works , the picture presents a grand scene populated with numerous historic figures , including Poland 's last King , Stanisław August Poniatowski ; Marshals of the Great Sejm Stanisław Małachowski and Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ; co @-@ authors of the Constitution such as Hugo Kołłątaj and Ignacy Potocki ; and other major contemporary figures such as Tadeusz Kościuszko . Some twenty individuals have been identified by modern historians ; another ten or so who had been reported in older sources as being present , await definitive identification .
The picture was painted between January and October 1891 to commemorate the Constitution 's centenary . It was one of the last works by Matejko , who died in November 1893 . The painting was displayed in Lwów ( now Lviv , Ukraine ) until 1920 , when it was moved to Kraków . It was hidden during World War II and later moved to Warsaw , where it now hangs in the Royal Castle .
= = Constitution of May 3 , 1791 = =
The Constitution of May 3 , 1791 was adopted as a " Government Act " ( Polish : Ustawa rządowa ) on that date by the Sejm ( parliament ) of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . It has been called " the first constitution of its type in Europe " and the world 's second oldest constitution .
It was designed to redress long @-@ standing political defects of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Commonwealth 's system of " Golden Liberty " , which conferred disproportionate rights on the nobility , had increasingly corrupted the Commonwealth 's politics . The Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the country 's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy . It introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility ( szlachta ) and placed the peasants under the protection of the government , thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom . The Constitution abolished pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto , which at one time had put the Sejm at the mercy of any deputy who might choose , or be bribed by an interest or foreign power , to undo the legislation adopted by that Sejm .
The adoption of the May 3 Constitution met with hostile political and military responses from the Commonwealth 's neighbors . In the Polish – Russian War of 1792 ( sometimes called the " War in Defense of the Constitution " ) , the Commonwealth was attacked by Catherine the Great 's Imperial Russia allied with the Targowica Confederation , a coalition of Polish magnates and landless nobility who opposed reforms that might weaken their influence . The Commonwealth 's ally Prussia , under Frederick William II , broke its alliance , and the Commonwealth was defeated . In the end , the Constitution of May 3 remained in force for little more than one year . Despite the Commonwealth 's defeat in the Polish – Russian War and the ensuing partitions which eliminated the Commonwealth , the May 3 Constitution remained for more than 123 years a beacon in the struggle to restore Polish sovereignty . In the words of two of its co @-@ authors , Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , it was " the last will and testament of the expiring Country . "
= = History = =
The sketch of the work was presented in the cycle History of Civilization in Poland .
Matejko began work on the painting in the middle of January 1891 , to coincide with the centenary of the Constitution . Although the painting was not finished until October , by May 3 it was sufficiently advanced to be shown at the anniversary exhibition in Sukiennice , Kraków . On April 7 , 1892 , Matejko transferred the painting to Prince Eustachy Stanisław Sanguszko , marshal of Galician Sejm in Lwów , and it was displayed in the Sejm building ( now the main building of the Lviv University ) . This painting was one of the last works by Matejko , who died in November 1893 .
In 1920 , two years after Poland regained independence , the painting was moved to Kraków , where from 1923 it was displayed in the building of the Polish Sejm . The painting was hidden by the Polish resistance during World War II , when Poland was occupied by the Germans . After the war the painting was transferred to the National Museum in Warsaw , and occasionally displayed in the Sejm building . Since 1984 the painting has been in the collection of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , where Matejko himself declared he would like the painting to be shown . The painting is displayed in the anteroom of the Chamber of Senators , where the Constitution was adopted . The painting was restored in 2007 .
= = Significance and historiography = =
The painting is one of Matejko 's best known works and today it is commonly seen as one of his masterpieces , an " education in national history . " However , it was less well received by his contemporaries , with turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century reviews criticizing it for being " too crowded " and with unclear composition ; supporters of Matejko 's previous works were much more guarded in their praise of this painting .
Matejko 's technique in this painting was subtly but noticeably different compared to his other paintings ; authors Wrede et al. attribute this to Matejko 's exploration of new techniques , but note that contemporary critiques saw this departure from his old style as the weakening form of the dying master , and did not applaud the changes . They also note that Matejko usually dedicated two years to paintings of that size ; this one was completed in less than a year , during a period in which Matejko was working on other projects and suffering from stress and depression . Matejko himself was not fond of the 18th century and the Polish Enlightenment , remarking that he " would rather prefer to paint any other century " . He felt compelled , however , by the anniversary of the Constitution to create an artwork commemorating the event , which he recognized as historically significant .
Matejko commonly identified the characters in his paintings with a written legend , but he did not create one for the Constitution . Consequently , some characters in the painting have not been identified . A partial legend was written by Matejko 's secretary , Marian Gorzkowski , and even though it provides a list of 39 characters , Wrede et al. write that his " chaotic description " is not very helpful . Modern analysis has been done by Polish historians Jarosław Krawczyk and Emanuel M. Rostworowski .
= = Content = =
The painting , set in the late afternoon of May 3 , 1791 , shows the procession of deputies from the Royal Castle ( background ) , where the Constitution has just been adopted by the Great Sejm , to St. John 's Collegiate Church ( left , now an archcathedral ) , where a Te Deum will be sung . The procession moves down St. John 's Street ( ulica Świętojańska ) , surrounded by enthusiastic Warsaw residents and visitors . The deputies are protected by soldiers .
While the procession was an actual historic event , Matejko took many artistic liberties , such as including persons who were not in fact present or had died earlier . He did so because he intended the painting to be a synthesis of the final years of the Commonwealth . He also felt that there was no real historic moment or location that fully captured the spirit of the Constitution , and so he , the artist , needed to create such a moment .
= = = Center = = =
The painting is centered on the Sejm marshal Stanisław Małachowski ( 1 ) , who is wearing a white , French @-@ inspired costume . Małachowski holds the marshal staff in his left hand and in his right hand , he triumphantly raises the text of the Constitution . Although the historical document was titled Ustawa rządowa ( Government Ordinance ) , Matejko chose to make the title page of the document as portrayed in his painting more explicit — and at the same time put the name of the painting right in its center . He is carried by deputies Aleksander Linowski of Kraków ( 2 ) ( on his right ) and Ignacy Zakrzewski of Poznań ( 3 ) ( on his left ) . Their significance is that Kraków and Poznań are principal cities of two major regions of Poland : Lesser Poland and Greater Poland , respectively . Under Małachowski 's right hand there is a figure with a bandaged head holding a flag ; this is Tadeusz Kościuszko ( 4 ) , and his head wound is a reference to the battle of Maciejowice , which took place during the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794 , three years after the event depicted in the painting . To the left of Kościuszko , is a figure identified by Wrona et al. as Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski , although this is disputed by other sources .
Another figure , to the right of Małachowski , is being carried ; he is Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ( 5 ) , marshal of the Lithuanian confederation and the second Sejm marshal . He is dressed in more traditional Polish clothing . Between Małachowski and Sapieha , the head of Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz ( 6 ) , a well @-@ known writer , is visible . He appears to be carrying Sapieha . The other figure carrying Sapieha , to his right , is Michał Zabiełło ( 7 ) .
In the lower center of the painting , Matejko shows a scene that took place in the Royal Castle . Jan Suchorzewski ( 8 ) , deputy from Kalisz and an opponent of the Constitution , has fallen to the ground , holding his young son with one arm ; his other hand , holding a knife , is held by Stanisław Kublicki ( 9 ) , standing to his right . Kublicki was a deputy from Inflanty , a supporter of the townsfolk and peasant causes , and of the Constitution . The artist here alludes to Suchorzewski 's unsuccessful attempt to prevent the king from signing the Constitution , during which he threatening to kill his own son to save him from the " slavery of the Constitution " . A deck of cards has fallen out of Suchorzewski 's pocket , a reference to the manner in which he was bribed by the anti @-@ Constitution Russian ambassador Otto Magnus von Stackelberg and hetman Branicki ; Suchorzewski suddenly started winning large sums of money in games , despite his poor skills as a gambler . Branicki ( 10 ) can be seen standing between the king and Suchorzewski , dressed in a Russian uniform , foreshadowing the rank of general he received several years later in the Russian Army . In reality Suchorzewski , like most of those opposed to the Constitution , refused to participate in the procession .
Notable figures in the center of the painting , to the left of Małachowski , include other supporters of the Constitution . Priest Hugo Kołłątaj ( 11 ) is the most prominent , gesturing in disdain at Suchorzewski . Several other figures in the vicinity are described in sources , but their precise location is unclear , or the sources contradict one another . The priest holding the Bible ( 12 ) is probably Feliks Turski , although some identify him as Tymoteusz Gorzeński . The figures to the right of Kołłątaj represents the Grand Lithuanian Marshal , Ignacy Potocki ( 13 ) , and perhaps Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski ( 14 ) ( although some sources identify Czartoryski elsewhere in the painting , in the vicinity of Kościuszko ) . Surrounding Kołłątaj are likely the priest Scipione Piattoli ( 15 ) and Tadeusz Matuszewicz or Matusiewicz ( 16 ) .
= = = Left = = =
On the stairs of the church , King Stanisław August Poniatowski ( 17 ) is ascending . Matejko was not very fond of Poniatowski , and he portrayed him in a rather pompous posture , with his hand extended to be kissed , and in the company of numerous pretty ladies , supporting his reputation as a " lady 's man " . Poniatowski 's inclusion in the procession is one of Matejko 's artistic liberties , as he had arrived at the church before the procession . A woman hands him a laurel wreath ( 18 ) ; sources have identified her as the Courland princess Dorothea von Medem ( Dorothea Biron ) or Róża z Martynkowskich , wife of former Warsaw mayor Jan Dekert . Behind her ( leftmost in the group of two women , with only her face showing ) stands Elżbieta Grabowska ( 19 ) , the king 's mistress and mother of his children . Bowing at the church doors is the former mayor of Warsaw , Jan Dekert ( 20 ) . He is accompanied by his daughter Marianna ( in a yellow dress , facing away from the viewer ) taking a prominent position near the king ( 38 ) . Dekert 's inclusion in the painting is another example of Matejko taking liberties with history , as he died in October 1790 ; he was an important burghers figure associated with the Free Royal Cities Act , which was incorporated into the Constitution .
Behind the king , holding his hands to his head , is Prince Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński @-@ Światopełk ( 21 ) , another opponent of the Constitution , known for being on a Russian payroll . Below him is another opponent of the Constitution , Antoni Złotnicki ( 22 ) . An anonymous black @-@ clad French royalist ( 23 ) is shown looking terrified at the scene , seeing another revolution in the making . He raises his hand over the king 's head .
In the group of people gathered below the king , in another acknowledgement of the burghers ' importance , is burgher Jan Kiliński ( 24 ) , one of the leaders of the Kościuszko Uprising . To his right , at the edge of the crowd , is the priest Clemens Maria Hofbauer ( 25 ) , who ran an orphanage and a school in Warsaw and is canonized as a saint in the Catholic church .
= = = Right = = =
To the right of Sapieha are reformer Stanisław Staszic ( 26 ) and , with his hand around Staszic , Andrzej Zamoyski ( 27 ) , author of the Zamoyski Codex , an earlier attempt to reform the state . To the left of Staszic , the head of bishop of Smoleńsk , Tymoteusz Gorzeński ( 28 ) , is visible in the crowd . Beneath Staszic and Zamoyski , with an outstretched hand , is Kazimierz Konopka ( 29 ) , Kołłątaj 's secretary and one of the Polish Jacobins ; Konopka has a French blue @-@ white @-@ red flower in his hat and a czekan , an ax- and hammer @-@ like weapon , in his hand . Above them is an unnamed Eastern Orthodox priest ( 30 ) ; the figure on his right ( 31 ) is either Paweł Ksawery Brzostowski , pioneer of agricultural reforms , or Józef Stępkowski , a less progressive figure . This line of figures ends with Antoni Tyzenhauz ( 32 ) , Lithuanian official and reformer . To the right of Zamoyski is an unnamed peasant ( 33 ) . His passive attitude is seen as a representation of the unconcerned attitude of Polish peasantry towards the reforms .
To their right is the king 's nephew , prince Józef Poniatowski ( 34 ) , in the uniform of the light cavalry of the Duchy of Warsaw and riding a grey horse . The uniform is another instance of foreshadowing ; Poniatowski became the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Duchy 's army and died during the Battle of Leipzig . At the time of the passing of the Constitution , he was the commander of the Warsaw garrison , and is shown keeping an eye on the procession , with his soldiers lined up and guarding the street . To his right , partially obscured by Poniatowski 's horse 's head , is Stanisław Mokronowski ( 35 ) , deputy , general , and future leader of the Kościuszko Uprising in Lithuania .
At the very bottom right corner , two Polish Jews are on the edge of the scene ; the younger ( 36 ) one is usually described as enthralled by the events , watching them with hope , but most analysis focuses on the older man ( 37 ) , whose hand is making a Sy , git ( " that 's good " ) gesture . Interpretation of this figure varies ; while some suggest that he express his interest and support for the Constitution , which he sees as a promise of further reforms that will improve the situation of the Jews — the Constitution had not addressed them in any significant way — others put him , or both of the Jews , among the opponents of the Constitution , describing them as frowning and disturbed , gleefully anticipating the end of the Commonwealth , or at least concerned with the liberal reforms . The latter interpretation can be also supported by the fact that Matejko tended to portray Jews in his paintings in negative roles .
= = = List of characters = = =
Historians have positively identified a number of characters . This is the list of characters portrayed on the painting and indicated with numbers on the associated guide picture :
Stanisław Małachowski ( 1736 @-@ 1809 ) , Crown Marshal of the Grand Sejm , holding the Constitution in his handl
Aleksander Linowski , deputy of Kraków , and supporter of the Constitution
Ignacy Zakrzewski ( 1745 @-@ 1802 ) , City President ( Mayor ) of Warsaw
Tadeusz Kościuszko ( 1746 @-@ 1817 ) , Crown Army General
Kazimierz Nestor Sapieha ( 1754 @-@ 1798 ) , Lithuanian Artillery General
Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , deputy of Inflanty , supporter of the Constitution
Michał Zabiełło , deputy of Inflanty , general of the Lithuanian Army
Jan Suchorzewski ( d . 1809 ) , Wojski of Wschowa , opposed to the Constitution
Stanisław Kublicki ( or Jan Kublicki ) , deputy of Inflanty , an active supporter of the Constitution and of the causes of townsfolk and peasants ( sources vary with regards to his name )
Franciszek Branicki ( ca . 1730 @-@ 1819 ) , Grand Hetman of the Crown , opposed to the Constitution
Hugo Kołłątaj ( 1750 @-@ 1812 ) , Underchancellor of the Crown , co @-@ author of the Constitution
Feliks Turski , bishop of Kraków
Ignacy Potocki ( 1750 @-@ 1809 ) , Grand Marshal of Lithuania , co @-@ author of the Constitution ( location indicated on the picture could be incorrect )
Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski ( 1734 @-@ 1832 ) , Prefect General of Podolia , supporter of the Constitution ( the location of this figure is disputed by some sources )
Scipione Piattoli , priest , secretary of king Poniatowski , supporter of the Constitution
Tadeusz Matuszewicz ( Matusiewicz ) , deputy , supporter of the Constitution
Stanisław August Poniatowski ( 1732 @-@ 1798 ) , King of Poland 1764 @-@ 1795
Dorothea von Medem ( Dorothea Biron ) , Courland princess ( also identified as Róża z Martynkowskich , wife of Dekert )
Elżbieta Grabowska ( 1748 @-@ 1810 ) , king 's mistress
Jan Dekert ( 1738 @-@ 1790 ) , former City President ( Mayor ) of Warsaw
Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński @-@ Światopełk ( 1748 @-@ 1794 ) , Castellan of Przemyśl , opposed to the Constitution
Antoni Złotnicki , deputy of Podolia , opponent of the Constitution
An unnamed French royalist
Jan Kiliński ( 1760 @-@ 1819 ) , shoemaker , member of the Warsaw City Council
Clemens Maria Hofbauer ( 1751 @-@ 1820 ) , Redemptorist ( priest )
Stanisław Staszic ( 1755 @-@ 1826 ) , scientist and political writer
Andrzej Zamoyski ( 1716 @-@ 1792 ) , Grand Chancellor of the Crown
Tymoteusz Gorzeński , bishop of Smoleńsk
Kazimierz Konopka ( 1769 @-@ 1805 ) , Hugo Kołłątaj 's secretary
An unnamed Orthodox priest
Paweł Ksawery Brzostowski , Catholic priest , pioneer of agricultural reforms
Antoni Tyzenhauz , Lithuanian official and reformer .
An unnamed peasant
Józef Poniatowski ( 1763 @-@ 1813 ) , General @-@ Major
Stanisław Mokronowski , deputy , general , leader of the Kościuszko Uprising in Lithuania
An unnamed young Jew
An unnamed old Jew
Several more figures have been identified by historians as likely present in the painting , but their exact location is unknown , and they are also not present on the guide picture :
Marianna Dekert , Dekert 's daughter
Antoni Barnaba Jabłonowski , castellan of Kraków , supporter of the Constitution and of the townsfolk cause - his location on the picture was described by Wrona et. all as unknown ; probably near Małachowski
Stanisław Badeni , king 's secretary - like Jabłonkowski , his exact location is unknown , likely near Małachowski
Pious Kiliński , king 's secretary , his exact location uncertain , likely near Gorzeński
Joachim Chreptowicz , Foreign Minister and Chancellor
Antoni Józef Lanckoroński , treasury official and member of the Commission of National Education
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= Océan @-@ class ironclad =
The Océan class ironclads were a group of three wooden @-@ hulled armored frigates built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s . Océan attempted to blockade Prussian ports in the Baltic Sea in 1870 during the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Marengo participated in the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881 . Suffren was often used as the flagship for the squadron she was assigned to . She was flagship of the Cherbourg Division , the Channel Division , Mediterranean Squadron and the Northern Squadron during her career . The ships were discarded during the 1890s .
= = Design and description = =
The Océan @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as an improved version of the Provence @-@ class ironclads . The ships were central battery ironclads with the armament concentrated amidships . For the first time in a French ironclad three watertight iron bulkheads were fitted in the hull . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
The ships measured 87 @.@ 73 meters ( 287 ft 10 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 52 meters ( 57 ft 6 in ) . They had a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 09 meters ( 29 ft 10 in ) and displaced 7 @,@ 749 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 627 long tons ) . Their crew numbered between 750 and 778 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ships was very low , between 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Océan @-@ class ships had one horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engines were powered by eight oval boilers . On sea trials the engines produced between 3 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 700 – 3 @,@ 100 kW ) and the ships reached 13 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 – 26 @.@ 5 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 – 16 @.@ 5 mph ) . They carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The Océan @-@ class ships were barque or barquentine @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 000 square meters ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
These ships had their main armament mounted in four barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery , with the remaining guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . The original armament consisted of four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in the barbettes , and on the battery deck , four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) and four 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns . This was upgraded in Océan to four 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in the barbettes and eight 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) on the battery deck before she was commissioned . The two later ships , Marengo and Suffren , were armed with 274 @-@ millimeter guns in the barbettes , and four 240 @-@ millimeter guns and seven 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) on the battery deck .
The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modéle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 476 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 216 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 22 @.@ 84 long tons ( 23 @.@ 21 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ( 434 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modele 1870 gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ( 466 m / s ) . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
By 1885 all of the 138 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four or six 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns . At some point the ships received a dozen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . The hull was not recessed to enable any of the guns on the battery deck to fire forward or aft . However , the guns mounted in the barbettes sponsoned out over the sides of the hull did have some ability to fire fore and aft . Late in the ships ' careers four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added .
= = = Armor = = =
The Ocean @-@ class ships had a complete 178 – 203 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 0 in ) waterline belt of wrought iron . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron . The barbette armor was 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates . Gardiner says that the barbette armor was later removed to improve their stability , but this is not confirmed by any other source .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
During the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 Océan was assigned to the Northern Squadron that attempted to blockade Prussian ports on the Baltic until recalled on 16 September 1870 and ordered to return to Cherbourg . Afterward she was assigned to the Evolutionary Squadron until 1875 when she was placed in reserve . Océan was recommissioned in 1879 for service with the Mediterranean Squadron . She had a lengthy refit in 1884 – 85 and was assigned to the Northern Squadron after it was completed . Around 1888 the ship was transferred back to the Mediterranean Squadron until she was reduced to reserve around 1891 . Océan was assigned to the Gunnery School that same year and later became a training ship for naval apprentices before being condemned in 1894 .
Marengo was running her sea trials when the Franco @-@ Prussian War began and was immediately put in reserve . She was recommissioned in 1872 for service with the Mediterranean Squadron until 1876 when she was again placed in reserve . On 2 October 1880 the ship was recommissioned and assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron . Marengo was transferred to the Levant Squadron ( French : Division Navale du Levant ) on 13 February 1881 and bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax in July 1881 as part of the French conquest of Tunisia . She remained in the Mediterranean until she was assigned to the Reserve Squadron in 1886 . In 1888 Marengo became the flagship of the Northern Squadron and led the squadron during its port visit to Kronstadt in 1891 . She was reduced to reserve the following year and sold in 1896 .
Suffren was placed into reserve after she completed her sea trials and was not commissioned until 1 March 1876 when she became flagship of the Cherbourg Division . Throughout her career the ship was often used as a flagship because of her spacious admiral 's quarters . On 1 September 1880 the ship was assigned to the division that participated in the international naval demonstration at Ragusa later that month under the command of Vice Admiral Seymour of the Royal Navy in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . Suffren was reduced to reserve in 1881 and not recommissioned until 23 August 1884 when she was assigned to the Northern Squadron . The ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron about 1888 and remained there until paid off in 1895 and condemned in 1897 .
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= The Boat Race 1984 =
The 130th Boat Race took place on 18 March 1984 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was originally scheduled to take place the day before but the Cambridge boat struck a barge before the start and the race was postponed until the following day , making it the first Boat Race to be held on a Sunday . Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths and both crews beat the existing course record .
Cambridge 's Goldie won the reserve race , while Cambridge were victorious in the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 60 .
Originally scheduled to take place on Saturday 17 March , the Cambridge cox , Peter Hobson , steered their boat into a moored barge during the warmup , destroying the bow . The crew paddled to the side of the river where most were able to disembark , but some were forced to swim to safety . The race was postponed to the following day where Cambridge competed in a boat borrowed from the Amateur Rowing Association . It was the first Boat Race to be held on a Sunday in the history of the competition . The disagreement over the inclusion of Boris Rankov in Oxford 's crew for the sixth time in the previous year 's race had not been resolved . Rankov , however , had left the university after completing his studies so the dispute would have no impact on this year 's race .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites and their crew were an average of 11 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 kg ) heavier than their Cambridge opponents . The race saw the return of five Blues for Oxford and four for Cambridge . Oxford 's crew contained two Canadian brothers ( the Evans twins , Mark and Michael ) , two Australians and an American cox , while Cambridge 's predominantly British crew was completed by a Canadian and an American .
= = Race = =
Oxford started from the Surrey station and despite rating higher , were slightly behind Cambridge after a minute . Aggressive steering from Hobson resulted in warnings from umpire Mike Sweeney , and by the mile post , Oxford held a two @-@ second lead . A push by Oxford at Harrods saw them five seconds clear by Hammersmith Bridge and two lengths clear by Chiswick Steps . Nine seconds ahead by Barnes Bridge , Oxford passed the finishing post officially 12 seconds and three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths ahead of Cambridge , in a time of 16 minutes 45 seconds , beating the previous best of 16 minutes 58 seconds recorded by Oxford in the 1976 race . This was Oxford 's ninth consecutive victory , and their tenth in eleven years , and took the overall record to 68 – 61 in favour of Cambridge .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths , while Cambridge won the 39th Women 's Boat Race .
= = Reaction = =
Cambridge cox Hobson reacted to the pre @-@ race crash : " It was the worst nightmare in the world coming true . " Regarding the race , the Cambridge number 5 , John Garrett stated " the borrowed boat was better than ours but we weren 't used to it . " Oxford cox Seth Lesser said he was aware that his crew were setting a record @-@ breaking pace : " I knew the record was on ... We made another burn at St Paul 's School just to make sure . "
As a result of Saturday 's collision and the associated publicity , Sunday 's race was viewed on British television by more than 12 million people .
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= Steel =
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements , primarily carbon , that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost . Steel 's base metal is iron , which is able to take on two crystalline forms ( allotropic forms ) , body centered cubic ( BCC ) and face centered cubic ( FCC ) , depending on its temperature . It is the interaction of those allotropes with the alloying elements , primarily carbon , that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties . In the body @-@ centred cubic arrangement , there is an iron atom in the centre of each cube , and in the face @-@ centred cubic , there is one at the center of each of the six faces of the cube . Carbon , other elements , and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the crystal lattices of iron atoms .
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2 @.@ 1 % of its weight . Varying the amount of alloying elements , their presence in the steel either as solute elements , or as precipitated phases , retards the movement of those dislocations that make iron comparatively ductile and weak , and thus controls its qualities such as the hardness , ductility , and tensile strength of the resulting steel . Steel 's strength compared to pure iron is only possible at the expense of iron 's ductility , of which iron has an excess .
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years , but its extensive use began after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century , with the production of blister steel and then crucible steel . With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid @-@ 19th century , a new era of mass @-@ produced steel began . This was followed by Siemens @-@ Martin process and then Gilchrist @-@ Thomas process that refined the quality of steel . With their introductions , mild steel replaced wrought iron .
Further refinements in the process , such as basic oxygen steelmaking ( BOS ) , largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product . Today , steel is one of the most common materials in the world , with more than 1 @.@ 3 billion tons produced annually . It is a major component in buildings , infrastructure , tools , ships , automobiles , machines , appliances , and weapons . Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations .
= = Definitions and related materials = =
The noun steel originates from the Proto @-@ Germanic adjective stakhlijan ( made of steel ) , which is related to stakhla ( standing firm ) .
The carbon content of steel is between 0 @.@ 002 % and 2 @.@ 1 % by weight for plain iron – carbon alloys . These values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese , chromium , nickel , iron , tungsten , carbon and so on . Basically , steel is an iron @-@ carbon alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction . In contrast , cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction . Too little carbon content leaves ( pure ) iron quite soft , ductile , and weak . Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy , commonly called pig iron , that is brittle ( not malleable ) . While iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel , alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel . Common alloying elements include : manganese , nickel , chromium , molybdenum , boron , titanium , vanadium , tungsten , cobalt , and niobium . Additional elements are also important in steel : phosphorus , sulfur , silicon , and traces of oxygen , nitrogen , and copper , that are most frequently considered undesirable .
Alloys with a higher than 2 @.@ 1 % carbon content , depending on other element content and possibly on processing , are known as cast iron . Cast iron is not malleable even when hot , but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties . Certain compositions of cast iron , while retaining the economies of melting and casting , can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron objects . Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron ( now largely obsolete ) , which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag .
= = Material properties = =
Iron is commonly found in the Earth 's crust in the form of an ore , usually an iron oxide , such as magnetite , hematite etc . Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing the oxygen through combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon that is lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide . This process , known as smelting , was first applied to metals with lower melting points , such as tin , which melts at about 250 ° C ( 482 ° F ) and copper , which melts at about 1 @,@ 100 ° C ( 2 @,@ 010 ° F ) and the combination , bronze , which is liquid at less than 1 @,@ 083 ° C ( 1 @,@ 981 ° F ) . In comparison , cast iron melts at about 1 @,@ 375 ° C ( 2 @,@ 507 ° F ) . Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times , in the solid state , by heating the ore in a charcoal fire and welding the clumps together with a hammer , squeezing out the impurities . With care , the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire .
All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age . Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) , it is important that smelting take place in a low @-@ oxygen environment . Unlike copper and tin , liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily . Smelting , using carbon to reduce iron oxides , results in an alloy ( pig iron ) that retains too much carbon to be called steel . The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step .
Other materials are often added to the iron / carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties . Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make the austenite form of the iron @-@ carbon solution more stable , chromium increases hardness and melting temperature , and vanadium also increases hardness while making it less prone to metal fatigue .
To inhibit corrosion , at least 11 % chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface ; this is known as stainless steel . Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite , allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates , resulting in high speed steel . On the other hand , sulfur , nitrogen , and phosphorus make steel more brittle , so these commonly found elements must be removed from the steel melt during processing .
The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7 @,@ 750 and 8 @,@ 050 kg / m3 ( 484 and 503 lb / cu ft ) , or 7 @.@ 75 and 8 @.@ 05 g / cm3 ( 4 @.@ 48 and 4 @.@ 65 oz / cu in ) .
Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel , a number of different metallurgical structures , with very different properties can form . Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel . At room temperature , the most stable form of pure iron is the body @-@ centered cubic ( BCC ) structure called alpha iron or α @-@ iron . It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon , no more than 0 @.@ 005 % at 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) and 0 @.@ 021 wt % at 723 ° C ( 1 @,@ 333 ° F ) . The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ferrite . At 910 ° C pure iron transforms into a face @-@ centered cubic ( FCC ) structure , called gamma iron or γ @-@ iron . The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite . The FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon , as much as 2 @.@ 1 % ( 38 times that of ferrite ) carbon at 1 @,@ 148 ° C ( 2 @,@ 098 ° F ) , which reflects the upper carbon content of steel , beyond which is cast iron . When carbon moves out of solution with iron it forms a very hard , but brittle material called cementite ( Fe3C ) .
When steels with exactly 0 @.@ 8 % carbon ( known as a eutectoid steel ) , are cooled , the austenitic phase ( FCC ) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase ( BCC ) . The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure , resulting in an excess of carbon . One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as cementite , leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite that is able to hold the carbon in solution . The two , ferrite and cementite , precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called pearlite , named for its resemblance to mother of pearl . In a hypereutectoid composition ( greater than 0 @.@ 8 % carbon ) , the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite grain boundaries and then when the composition left behind is eutectoid , the pearlite structure forms . For steels that have less than 0 @.@ 8 % carbon ( hypoeutectoid ) , ferrite will first form until the remaining composition is 0 @.@ 8 % at which point the pearlite structure will form . No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries . The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow , allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate .
As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains ; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains , resulting in hardening of the steel . At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching , the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face center austenite and forms martensite . Martensite is highly strained and stressed supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle . Depending on the carbon content , the martensitic phase takes different forms . Below 0 @.@ 2 % carbon , it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form , but at higher carbon content it takes a body @-@ centered tetragonal ( BCT ) structure . There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite . Moreover , there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors .
Martensite has a lower density ( it expands ) than does austenite , so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume . In this case , expansion occurs . Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite , with a fair amount of shear on both constituents . If quenching is done improperly , the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools . At the very least , they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections . It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched , although they may not always be visible .
= = = Heat treatment = = =
There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel . The most common are annealing , quenching , and tempering . Heat treatment is effective on compositions above the eutectoid compositions ( hypereutectoid ) . Hypoeutectoid steel does not harden from heat treatment . Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses . It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material . This process goes through three phases : recovery , recrystallization , and grain growth . The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the constituents of the alloy .
Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase then quenching it in water or oil . This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure . The steel is then tempered , which is just a specialized type of annealing , to reduce brittleness . In this application the annealing ( tempering ) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite , or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects . The result is a more ductile and fracture @-@ resistant steel .
= = Steel production = =
When iron is smelted from its ore , it contains more carbon than is desirable . To become steel , it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount , at which point other elements can be added . In the past , steel facilities would cast the raw cast iron product into ingots which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product . In modern facilities , the initial product is close to the final composition and is continuously cast into long slabs , cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product . Today only a small fraction is cast into ingots . Approximately 96 % of steel is continuously cast , while only 4 % is produced as ingots .
The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs , billets , or blooms . Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates . Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars , rods , and wire . Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel , such as I @-@ beams and rails . In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line , with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out . Sometimes after a steel 's final rolling it is heat treated for strength , however this is relatively rare .
= = History of steelmaking = =
= = = Ancient steel = = =
Steel was known in antiquity , and possibly was produced in bloomeries and crucibles .
The earliest known production of steel are pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia ( Kaman @-@ Kalehoyuk ) and are nearly 4 @,@ 000 years old , dating from 1800 BC . Horace identifies steel weapons like the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula , while Noric steel was used by the Roman military .
The reputation of Seric iron of South India ( wootz steel ) amongst the rest of the world grew considerably . South Indian and Mediterranean sources including Alexander the Great ( 3rd c . BC ) recount the presentation and export to the Greeks of 100 talents worth of such steel . Metal production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds , capable of producing high @-@ carbon steel . Large @-@ scale Wootz steel production in Tamilakam using crucibles and carbon sources such as the plant Avāram occurred by the sixth century BC , the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy .
The Chinese of the Warring States period ( 403 – 221 BC ) had quench @-@ hardened steel , while Chinese of the Han dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron , gaining an ultimate product of a carbon @-@ intermediate steel by the 1st century AD . The Haya people of East Africa invented a type of furnace they used to make carbon steel at 1 @,@ 802 ° C ( 3 @,@ 276 ° F ) nearly 2 @,@ 000 years ago . East African steel has been suggested by Richard Hooker to date back to 1400 BC .
= = = Wootz steel and Damascus steel = = =
Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent are found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu area , Golconda in Andhra Pradesh area and Karnataka , and in Samanalawewa areas of Sri Lanka . This came to be known as Wootz steel , produced in South India by about sixth century BC and exported globally . The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of Sangam Tamil , Arabic and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans , Egyptian , Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called Seric Iron . A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama , in the South East of Sri Lanka , brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period . The Chinese and locals in Anuradhapura , Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel from the Chera Dynasty Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD . In Sri Lanka , this early steel @-@ making method employed a unique wind furnace , driven by the monsoon winds , capable of producing high @-@ carbon steel . Since the technology was acquired from the Tamilians from South India , the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400 – 500 BC .
Wootz , also known as Damascus steel , is famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge . It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements , apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis . However , the steel was an old technology in India when King Porus presented a steel sword to the Emperor Alexander in 326 BC . It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component . Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure , which might explain some of its legendary qualities , though given the technology of that time , such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design . Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood . The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil , a remarkable feat at the time . One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did .
Crucible steel , formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon ( typically in the form of charcoal ) in a crucible , was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD . In the 11th century , there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques : a " berganesque " method that produced inferior , inhomogeneous , steel , and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that used partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast .
= = = Modern steelmaking = = =
Since the 17th century the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace . Originally employing charcoal , modern methods use coke , which has proven more economical .
= = = = Processes starting from bar iron = = = =
In these processes pig iron was refined ( fined ) in a finery forge to produce bar iron , which was then used in steel @-@ making .
The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601 . A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589 . The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s .
The raw material for this process were bars of iron . During the 17th century it was realized that the best steel came from oregrounds iron of a region north of Stockholm , Sweden . This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century , almost as long as the process was used .
Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged , with the result that it is more homogeneous . Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel . The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s . Blister steel ( made as above ) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace , and cast ( usually ) into ingots .
= = = = Processes starting from pig iron = = = =
The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer 's Bessemer process in 1855 , the raw material for which was pig iron . His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply , thus mild steel came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used . The Gilchrist @-@ Thomas process ( or basic Bessemer process ) was an improvement to the Bessemer process , made by lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus .
Another 19th @-@ century steelmaking process was the Siemens @-@ Martin process , which complemented the Bessemer process . It consisted of co @-@ melting bar iron ( or steel scrap ) with pig iron .
These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz @-@ Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking ( BOS ) , developed in the 1950s , and other oxygen steel making methods . Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities , primarily nitrogen , that previously had entered from the air used . Today , electric arc furnaces ( EAF ) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel . They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel , but they use a lot of electrical energy ( about 440 kWh per metric ton ) , and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity .
= = Steel industry = =
It is common today to talk about " the iron and steel industry " as if it were a single entity , but historically they were separate products . The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress , because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development .
In 1980 , there were more than 500 @,@ 000 U.S. steelworkers . By 2000 , the number of steelworkers fell to 224 @,@ 000 .
The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years . Between 2000 and 2005 , world steel demand increased by 6 % . Since 2000 , several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence , such as Tata Steel ( which bought Corus Group in 2007 ) , Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and Shagang Group . ArcelorMittal is however the world 's largest steel producer .
In 2005 , the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one @-@ third of the world share ; Japan , Russia , and the US followed respectively .
In 2008 , steel began trading as a commodity on the London Metal Exchange . At the end of 2008 , the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut @-@ backs .
The world steel industry peaked in 2007 . That year , ThyssenKrupp spent $ 12 billion to build the two most modern mills in the world , in Calvert , Alabama and Sepetiba , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . The worldwide Great Recession starting in 2008 , however , sharply lowered demand and new construction , and so prices fell . ThyssenKrupp lost $ 11 billion on its two new plants , which sold steel below the cost of production .
= = Recycling = =
Steel is one of the world 's most @-@ recycled materials , with a recycling rate of over 60 % globally ; in the United States alone , over 82 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 81 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 long tons ) was recycled in the year 2008 , for an overall recycling rate of 83 % .
= = Contemporary steel = =
= = = Carbon steels = = =
Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes . Carbon steel , composed simply of iron and carbon , accounts for 90 % of steel production . Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements , usually molybdenum , manganese , chromium , or nickel , in amounts of up to 10 % by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections . High strength low alloy steel has small additions ( usually < 2 % by weight ) of other elements , typically 1 @.@ 5 % manganese , to provide additional strength for a modest price increase .
Recent Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( CAFE ) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel ( AHSS ) . This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material . There are several commercially available grades of AHSS , such as dual @-@ phase steel , which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable , high strength steel . Transformation Induced Plasticity ( TRIP ) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite @-@ free low @-@ alloy ferritic steels . By applying strain , the austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat . Twinning Induced Plasticity ( TWIP ) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy .
Carbon Steels are often galvanized , through hot @-@ dip or electroplating in zinc for protection against rust .
= = = Alloy steels = = =
Stainless steels contain a minimum of 11 % chromium , often combined with nickel , to resist corrosion . Some stainless steels , such as the ferritic stainless steels are magnetic , while others , such as the austenitic , are nonmagnetic . Corrosion @-@ resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES .
Some more modern steels include tool steels , which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening . This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy 's temperature resistance . Tool steel is generally used in axes , drills , and other devices that need a sharp , long @-@ lasting cutting edge . Other special @-@ purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor @-@ ten , which weather by acquiring a stable , rusted surface , and so can be used un @-@ painted . Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements , but unlike most steel contains little carbon ( 0 @.@ 01 % ) . This creates a very strong but still malleable steel .
Eglin steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low @-@ cost steel for use in bunker buster weapons . Hadfield steel ( after Sir Robert Hadfield ) or manganese steel contains 12 – 14 % manganese which when abraded strain hardens to form an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing . Examples include tank tracks , bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life .
In 2016 a breakthrough in creating a strong light aluminium steel alloy which might be suitable in applications such as aircraft was announced by researchers at Pohang University of Science and Technology . Adding small amounts of nickel was found to result in precipitation as nano particles of brittle B2 intermetallic compounds which had previously resulted in weakness . The result was a cheap strong light steel alloy — nearly as strong as titanium at ten percent the cost — which is slated for trial production at industrial scale by POSCO , a Korean steelmaker .
= = = Standards = = =
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations . For example , the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel . The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards , which define alloys such as A36 steel , the most commonly used structural steel in the United States .
= = Uses = =
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads , railways , other infrastructure , appliances , and buildings . Most large modern structures , such as stadiums and skyscrapers , bridges , and airports , are supported by a steel skeleton . Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing . In addition , it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars . Despite growth in usage of aluminium , it is still the main material for car bodies . Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials , such as bolts , nails , and screws and other household products and cooking utensils .
Other common applications include shipbuilding , pipelines , mining , offshore construction , aerospace , white goods ( e.g. washing machines ) , heavy equipment such as bulldozers , office furniture , steel wool , tools , and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour ( better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role ) .
= = = Historical = = =
Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques , steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed , particularly for the cutting edge of knives , razors , swords , and other items where a hard , sharp edge was needed . It was also used for springs , including those used in clocks and watches .
With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods , steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper . It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes . However , the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight . Carbon fiber is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as aircraft , sports equipment and high end automobiles .
= = = Long steel = = =
As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete
Railroad tracks
Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
Wires
Input to reforging applications
= = = Flat carbon steel = = =
Major appliances
Magnetic cores
The inside and outside body of automobiles , trains , and ships .
= = = Weathering steel ( COR @-@ TEN ) = = =
Intermodal containers
Outdoor sculptures
Architecture
Highliner train cars
= = = Stainless steel = = =
Cutlery
Rulers
Surgical instruments
Watches
Guns
Rail passenger vehicles
Tablets
Trash Cans
= = = Low @-@ background steel = = =
Steel manufactured after World War II became contaminated with radionuclides due to nuclear weapons testing . Low @-@ background steel , steel manufactured prior to 1945 , is used for certain radiation @-@ sensitive applications such as Geiger counters and radiation shielding .
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= Hamdi Qandil =
Hamdi Qandil ( Arabic : حمدى قنديل , surname also spelled Qandeel or Kandil ; born 1936 ) is a prominent Egyptian journalist , news anchor , talk show host and activist . Qandil started his journalism career in the 1950s when he wrote for the Akher Sa 'a ( " Last Hour " ) magazine at the invitation of veteran journalist Mustafa Amin . In 1961 he began broadcasting a news show called Aqwal al @-@ Suhf ( " In the Press " ) until 1969 when he was appointed director of the Arab Broadcasting Studios Union . In 1971 he left his post in protest at a government inspection of his technical staff . He later worked with UNESCO from 1974 to 1986 , specializing in the field of international media . In 1987 he co @-@ founded a satellite broadcasting company that later became known as MBC , where he worked for three months before leaving because of political differences with its management . Qandil briefly presented the show Ma 'a Hamdi Qandil ( " With Hamdi Qandil " ) for ART , but left amid disagreements between him and his managers regarding Qandil 's planned interviews with Muammar Gaddafi and Tariq Aziz .
He returned to Egyptian television in 1998 , hosting the current affairs and press review talk show Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir ( " Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief " ) . The program became one of the most popular and respected in Egypt . After apparent trouble with the state censors , Qandil moved the show to Dubai TV in 2004 under the name Qalam Rosas ( " Pencil . " ) The new program was highly watched throughout the Arab world . He was forced to quit Dubai TV after criticizing Arab governments and subsequently hosted the show on the Libyan channel Al @-@ Libia for two months before the Libyan government cancelled it . He returned to Egypt and wrote for the Al @-@ Masry Al @-@ Youm newspaper and then Al @-@ Shorouk , but his association with the latter ended as a result of a libel suit brought on by then @-@ Egyptian foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit in response to a column critical of Egyptian foreign policy written by Qandil in May 2010 . The case was later dropped following the 2011 Egyptian Revolution .
Qandil is well known for his pan @-@ Arabist discourse and fierce criticism of the Egyptian and other Arab governments . According to Al @-@ Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies political analyst Diaa Rashwan , Qandil " is a great Egyptian journalist and highly credible , he is bold and gives constructive criticism ... people listen to him and take what he says seriously , which is why he poses a threat " to the government . Prior to the Egyptian revolution , Qandil co @-@ founded the National Association for Change , a reformist group headed Mohamed ElBaradei . Since September 2012 , Qandil has lent his support to the Egyptian Popular Current opposition movement .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Qandil was born in Cairo in 1936 to a father from Menoufia . He was the eldest of five children . Qandil spent much of his childhood and had his primary schooling in the Nile Delta city of Tanta . His father had moved the middle @-@ income family to that city , where he owned a few feddans of land mostly planted with pears and grapes . Qandil 's father primarily distributed them to neighbors and others close to him .
During Qandil 's boyhood , he borrowed and read books from a medical practice and a culture and sporting association in Tanta on a near weekly basis . He also learned field hockey there . Qandil was at the top of his class throughout his later school years and initially sought to enter the medical profession , a typical career aspiration for students with high marks . His mother particularly encouraged him to become a doctor . Qandil simultaneously took an interest in writing , Arabic calligraphy and foreign languages .
= = = Journalism career and education = = =
Qandil was introduced to journalism when he began writing a secondary school research paper . During that time , he also wrote an article for the low @-@ budget Tanta newspaper Al Ikhlas , criticizing King Farouk for spending one million pounds from the treasury to purchase a yacht called the " Mahrousa . " He was fired soon after , but had since grown fond of journalism . Due to this new interest and his father 's increasingly poor health , Qandil did not complete the first stage of his medical studies , causing his 1952 application to medical school to be rejected . He instead enrolled in the department of geology at Alexandria University . In July of that year , King Farouk was overthrown by a group of dissenting officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser , leading to the subsequent establishment of a republican system under the presidency of leading officer Muhammad Naguib .
Qandil spent two months studying geology and decided to retake his high school examinations in order to enter into medical school . He performed well and was admitted to Cairo University 's Qasr El @-@ Ainy Faculty of Medicine in 1953 . He continued in his studies until 1956 , by which time Nasser had become president . During this period he also joined the National Guard . Together with some of his fellow students he founded his college 's official magazine , which they printed through the Akhbar el @-@ Yom publishing house . The magazine 's first edition was confiscated due to an article Qandil wrote that was critical of university professors and regulations . Shortly after completing his final exams in 1956 , Qandil was offered a writing position with Akher Sa 'a ( " Last Hour " ) magazine by its owners , the prominent journalists and brothers Mustafa Amin and Ali Amin . Mustafa employed Qandil with a salary of 15 Egyptian pounds and initially tasked him with writing the horoscope and a column that responded to letters from readers . Qandil was asked by Amin to serve as an editor for Akher Sa 'a in 1961 .
That year Qandil also attended the International Union of Students in Prague , Czechoslovakia , where he met Yasser Arafat , then the head of the General Union of Palestinian Students . Later in 1956 Qandil was accepted into the department of journalism , obtaining a license ( bachelor 's degree ) in journalism in 1960 . Four years later he received a diploma in journalism from the Berlin Institute . Throughout this period he wrote for the magazine Al @-@ Tahrir , earning a salary of 25 Egyptian pounds , and also worked with Al @-@ Jamahir magazine in Damascus .
= = Career in television and the UN = =
In 1961 Qandil began to work in broadcast television as the presenter of the program Aqwal al @-@ Suhf ( " In the Press " ) . In 1966 he became a media adviser to a television studio in Jordan , a role which ended after six weeks ; the single broadcast of Aqwal al @-@ Suhf in Jordan was met with consternation from the Jordanian royal government and after Qandil was notified of this disapproval , he immediately returned to Egypt where he continued presenting the program . His position in Aqwal al @-@ Suhf ended in 1969 with his appointment as director of the Arab Broadcasting Stations Union ( ABSU ) .
In early May 1971 Qandil left the ABSU after refusing to launch a disciplinary investigation of the technical team that recorded the Labor Day speech given by Anwar Sadat , who became president following Nasser 's death in 1970 . He left at a time when numerous broadcasters and media personalities were removed from their positions during Sadat 's Corrective Revolution . However , he briefly returned to television in 1973 to announce Egypt 's claimed victory in the Yom Kippur War with Israel in October of that year .
Qandil was appointed manager of the Department of the Free Flow of Information and Communication Policies for UNESCO in 1974 . In an interview with Al @-@ Ahram Weekly , Qandil stated that while at UNESCO he " specialised in satellite communications and published several books and studies " dealing with global media and broadcasting . During this time he strongly pushed to include Palestine as a member and attempted to remove the United States , the United Kingdom and Singapore from the organization . According to his own account , he was also able to master the English and French languages , and gain experience in diplomacy . He left UNESCO in 1986 .
Together with partners from Egypt and the Arab world , Qandil co @-@ founded the Eastern Satellite Communications Company in 1987 . Its main purpose was to serve broadcasting station that would target Arabic @-@ speaking communities in the Western world and to counter what Qandil perceived as Western bias in global media . However , in 1992 , as a result of financial difficulties the company was sold and subsequently became the Middle East Broadcasting Center ( MBC ) . Qandil worked at MBC for roughly three months until he quit , citing political differences with the station 's managers , who considered him a Nasserist . That same year , he was offered to host his own show at Arab Radio and Television ( ART ) , but initially opted to work on a project setting up a private Egyptian station for Al @-@ Ahram . The station was not launched and Qandil took up a position at ART in 1996 where he hosted his own show called With Hamdi Qandil . Qandil 's arrangements to interview Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi on the anniversary of the 1969 coup that brought him to power , and also Tariq Aziz , the vice president of Iraq at the time , aroused controversy among ART 's managers . He quit thereafter .
= = = Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir and Qalam Rosas = = =
In 1998 Qandil responded favorably to the invitation of Safwat El @-@ Sherif , the Information Minister in Hosni Mubarak 's government , to return to Egyptian television . In March his program Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir ( " Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief " ) began airing . Qandil stated he returned to Egyptian television because he felt he owed " a debt of gratitude to the institution that built my fame when I was in my twenties . Also , working in Egypt is more immediately rewarding than anywhere else . " With the relaxation of media restrictions during this period , Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir became one of the most popular and respected television programs in Egypt . Describing the relative freedom afforded to the media , Qandil stated in 2001 that the situation was an improvement from when he first began the program , but " as long as there remains a censor , we will continue to ask for more [ freedom of expression ] . "
Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir was intended to serve as a weekly review of the pan @-@ Arab press , but in practice the program became a medium through which Qandil expressed his opinions on various issues confronting Egypt and the Arab world , views which he claimed were representative of the popular Egyptian sentiment . Al @-@ Ahram Weekly ′ s Amina Elbandary wrote that during the show , Qandil spoke " in histrionic style , his commentary replete with daring questions and remarks . Viewers are fascinated by his apparent lack of inhibition . "
In the wake of the Second Intifada , the Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation that began in 2000 , the show became dominated by the conflict , which Qandil generally regarded as a campaign of Israeli aggression . He frequently broadcast the Israeli military 's actions during the Intifada and called for viewers to support the uprising and boycott Israeli products . Qandil responded to a query regarding his extensive coverage of the Intifada by saying , " How are news shows expected to react to events such as the Intifada ? Are we supposed to keep silent ? "
Ra 'is el @-@ Tahrir later moved to Dream TV , an Egypt @-@ based television station . Qandil continued to express his frustrations regarding the Israel and the Intifada , the run @-@ up to the invasion of Iraq , and what he perceived as the United States ' maligned intentions for the Middle East . According to author and researcher Andrew Hammond , " The show 's combination of current affairs , press reviews and talk @-@ shows became the most talked @-@ about television in Egypt since Al @-@ Jazeera 's al @-@ Ittijah al @-@ Mu 'akis . " His show on Dream TV was cancelled abruptly in early 2003 amid rumors that he had been crossing political red lines during his broadcasts , including stinging criticism of the government of Hosni Mubarak . This reasoning was dismissed by Dream TV manager Sanaa Mansour , who stated that Qandil had not been let go , was free to express himself and left the show without offering an explanation to management .
In 2004 Qandil moved to the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) began hosting a program on Dubai TV called Qalam Rosas ( " Pencil " ) . The program was virtually a continuation of Ra 'is al @-@ Tahrir , a highly watched show dealing with the Arab world 's major political , economic and social affairs of the day . Qalam Rosas would normally open with Qandil interviewing an Arab intellectual and discussing a current event . The show would then continue to a round table discussion with other journalists analyzing various social and political events and movements concerning the citizens of the Arab world . At its closing , Qandil would summarize the show with a well @-@ known maxim or saying . The London @-@ based Arab Media Watch organization awarded Qandil the 2006 Media Accomplishment Award to commend him for his " creativity and participation in the media world " over the course of his five decade career . In 2008 Qandil was forced to leave Dubai TV for criticizing Arab leaders , while commending Hassan Nasrallah , the secretary @-@ general of the Lebanese political party and paramilitary group Hezbollah .
After his departure from Dubai TV he entered into a contract with Al @-@ Libia , although he only remained with the Libyan channel for two months . Qandil 's show was cancelled when the state @-@ owned Al Jamahiriya Radio 's General Authority took control of the channel . There was no official reason for the cancellation , but Qandil stated it was because of " instructions from high @-@ ranking Libyan officials due to pressures from Egypt . " He was reportedly offered to present Qalam Rosas on the Hezbollah @-@ linked Al @-@ Manar TV in early 2009 , but opted not to join citing an unclear situation regarding his contract with Al @-@ Libia .
= = Political activism and Aboul Gheit lawsuit = =
After his brief stint on Al @-@ Libia , Qandil returned to Egypt to write for the newspaper Al @-@ Masry Al @-@ Youm in 2008 and later began writing for Al @-@ Shorouk . He co @-@ founded and served as the media spokesman for National Association for Change ( NAC ) headed by Mohamed ElBaradei in early 2010 . The NAC 's stated purpose is push for democratic and other reforms in Egypt . In May Egyptian foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit brought a lawsuit for libel against Qandil in response to a critical column about Aboul Gheit and Egyptian foreign policy that Qandil wrote for Al @-@ Shorouk , called " The Homeland ’ s Disgrace and that of the Citizen . " In the column Qandil lambasted the contradictory statements made by Aboul Gheit and Egypt 's ambassador to Israel , in which the latter said Israel was a friendly state , while Aboul Gheit had just previously stated that Israel was an enemy . Qandil wrote that the ambassador sought to cover up Aboul Gheit 's statement , and that Aboul Gheit 's words " usually ... fall from his mouth like droppings of a torn rubbish bag . " The matter was transferred to the criminal court . His relationship with Al @-@ Shorouk consequently ended as a result of the controversy .
In June 2010 Qandil quit his position as the NAC 's media spokesman . He did not give an official reason for resigning , but was reportedly upset that ElBaradei was frequently outside of Egypt . In mid @-@ December Qandil appeared in court and his defense team , which included his brother Assem and Gamal Eid requested that the " biased " court quit and that the case be transferred to a civil jurisdiction . On 24 January 2011 the court refused the referral and also refused to summon Aboul Gheit at the request of Qandil 's defense team . On 25 January mass demonstrations demanding President Hosni Mubarak 's downfall erupted across Egypt , eventually overthrowing the government , including Aboul Gheit , on 11 February . In April Aboul Gheit dropped the lawsuit . According to Hafez Abu Seada of the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights , the revolution was the clear reason Aboul Gheit withdrew the suit , and had it not occurred , " the court could have handed [ Qandil ] a prison sentence . "
= = Political views = =
Qandil describes himself as a supporter of Nasserism , which he defines not as a political affiliation , but rather an ideal of " social justice " and " national liberation " that " goes beyond generation and class . " He did not join any of Egypt 's Nasserist political parties or organizations , but viewed the era of late president Nasser as a period in which his " generation was taught self @-@ respect , national pride and the courage to stand up against the great powers . " Qandil was described by Hammond as a " secular @-@ nationalist ... embodying the ' conscience of the Arab nation ' " .
In a 1999 interview Qandil stated his view that the pan @-@ Arab media was not able to counter what he perceived as the influence of Zionism in American media and that the state of Arab media reflected the state of stagnation in the Arab world in general . Qandil is vociferously opposed to United States foreign policy in the Middle East . He referred to the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 as the " biggest modern disaster for the Arabs since 1948 , " the year in which the newly established state of Israel defeated a coalition of Arab armies , causing a mass exodus of Palestinians from their homes .
Qandil supported the 2011 Egyptian revolution and called for Mubarak to step down from the start of the protests . In a lecture to students from the American University of Cairo in early March 2011 , Qandil hailed the young protesters who started the revolution as " brave " and expressed hope that it would open an era of democracy and press freedom in Egypt . During the 2012 Egyptian presidential election , Qandil endorsed Nasserist candidate Hamdeen Sabahi after the Revolutionary Youth Coalition ( RYC ) announced their support for him . In late September 2012 , during the post @-@ revolution period in Egypt during Mohamed Morsi 's presidency , Qandil announced his support for the Egyptian Popular Current movement founded by Sabahi . At the inaugural conference , Qandil stated that " a major political battle " would soon be launched for the next parliamentary elections and that Egypt 's diverse make @-@ up could never be changed .
= = Personal life = =
Qandil met and married Egyptian actress Naglaa Fathi in 1992 . He was married twice before . Fathi said of Qandil " He is the first man who has fascinated me . It is not easy to bewitch me , but he did . I feel like a student when I 'm with him : I discover new qualities in him every day , " while Qandil said he felt an " immediate chemical bond " with Fathi .
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= Kalamazoo @-@ class monitor =
The Kalamazoo @-@ class monitors were a class of ocean @-@ going ironclad monitors begun during the American Civil War . Unfinished by the end of the war , their construction was suspended in November 1865 and the unseasoned wood of their hulls rotted while they were still on the building stocks . If the four ships had been finished they would have been the most seaworthy monitors in the US Navy . One was scrapped in 1874 while the other three were disposed of a decade later .
= = Design and description = =
John Lenthall , Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair , ordered Benjamin F. Delano , naval constructor at New York City , to design a wooden @-@ hulled ironclad that would carry her armament in two gun turrets . The deck was to be 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor . The ship 's side armor was to be 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick , backed by 12 – 15 inches ( 305 – 381 mm ) of wood ; it was to cover the entire ship 's side , down to a depth three feet below the waterline . It should carry enough coal to steam one week at full power with " sufficient speed to make good use of its ram " . Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , called them enlarged versions of the Miantonomoh @-@ class monitors with greater speed and " adapted to coast service " , meaning more seaworthy .
The Kalamazoo @-@ class ships were 345 feet 5 inches ( 105 @.@ 3 m ) long overall and had a length between perpendiculars of 332 feet 6 inches ( 101 @.@ 3 m ) . They had a beam of 56 feet 8 inches ( 17 @.@ 27 m ) and a draft of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) . The ships were designed to displace 5 @,@ 660 long tons ( 5 @,@ 750 t ) and were 3 @,@ 200 tons burthen . They were the largest ships to be built in navy shipyards to date .
Their unseasoned wooden hulls were massively reinforced by iron straps as well as iron stanchions to bear the enormous weight of their armor and guns . They retained the typical monitor overhang introduced by John Ericsson , designer of the Monitor , where the upper part of the hull was 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) wider than the lower part of the hull . The Kalamazoo 's wrought iron side armor consisted of two layers of three @-@ inch plates , backed by 21 inches of wood , six feet in height . The outer layer of armor extended 18 inches ( 460 mm ) further below the waterline . The three @-@ inch deck armor rested on 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of wood and was covered in another three inches of wood .
They were powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving one 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) propellers , using steam generated by eight tubular boilers . The engines were rated at 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They had a bore of 46 @.@ 5 inches ( 1 @,@ 181 mm ) and a stroke of 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 270 mm ) . Two large funnels were positioned between the turrets to handle the combustion gases from the boilers . The Kalamazoos were intended to carry 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of coal .
The ships ' main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° . The turrets were protected by 15 inches of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and fate = =
Construction of the ships began between late 1863 and early 1864 and they were still being built when the war ended in early 1865 . Construction was suspended on all four on 17 November 1865 ; they remained on the stocks . The ships were renamed , usually twice , in 1869 to conform to several new ship naming conventions . Vice Admiral David D. Porter ordered that Colossus be rebuilt to carry 10 large broadside guns and fitted with iron masts in a ship rig , but this never happened . The unseasoned wood in their hulls quickly began to rot after construction was suspended and they were broken up beginning in 1874 . Unusually , Passaconaway was condemned by an Act of Congress on 5 August 1882 before she was finally broken up in 1884 .
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= Franklin half dollar =
The Franklin half dollar is a coin that was struck by the United States Mint from 1948 to 1963 . The fifty @-@ cent piece pictures Founding Father Benjamin Franklin on the obverse and the Liberty Bell on the reverse . A small eagle was placed to the right of the bell to fulfill the legal requirement that half dollars depict the figure of an eagle . Produced in 90 percent silver with a reeded edge , the coin was struck at the Philadelphia , Denver , and San Francisco mints . At the end of April 2016 the metal value of the $ 0 @.@ 50 coin was approximately $ 6 @.@ 48 , an increase of approximately 1300 % .
Mint director Nellie Tayloe Ross had long admired Franklin , and wanted him to be depicted on a coin . In 1947 , she instructed her chief engraver , John R. Sinnock , to prepare designs for a Franklin half dollar . Sinnock 's designs were based on his earlier work , but he died before their completion . The designs were completed by Sinnock 's successor , Gilroy Roberts . The Mint submitted the new designs to the Commission of Fine Arts ( " Commission " ) for its advisory opinion . The Commission disliked the small eagle and felt that depicting the crack in the Liberty Bell would expose the coinage to jokes and ridicule . Despite the Commission 's disapproval , the Mint proceeded with Sinnock 's designs .
After the coins were released in April 1948 , the Mint received accusations that Sinnock 's initials " JRS " on the cutoff at Franklin 's shoulder were a tribute to Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin ( Stalin did not have a middle name that began with an ' R ' ) . No change was made , with the Mint responding that the letters were simply the artist 's initials ( The same accusation was made after the release of the Sinnock designed Roosevelt Dime in 1946 ) . The coin was struck regularly until 1963 ; beginning in 1964 it was replaced by the Kennedy half dollar , issued in honor of the assassinated President , John F. Kennedy . Though the coin is still legal tender , its value to collectors or as silver both greatly exceed its face value .
= = Background and selection = =
Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross had long been an admirer of Benjamin Franklin , and wished to see him on a coin . In 1933 , Sinnock had designed a medal featuring Franklin , which may have given her the idea . Franklin had opposed putting portraits on coins ; he advocated proverbs about which the holder could profit through reflection . In a 1948 interview , Ross noted that Franklin only knew of living royalty on coins , and presumably would feel differently about a republic honoring a deceased founder . Indeed , Franklin might have been more upset at the reverse design : as numismatic writer Jonathan Tepper noted , " Had Benjamin Franklin known that he would be appearing on a half dollar with an eagle , he most likely would have been quite upset . He detested the eagle , and numismatic lore has it that he often referred to it as a scavenger . Given the practical man that he was , Franklin proposed the wild turkey as our national bird . "
An 1890 statute forbade the replacement of a coin design without congressional action , unless it had been in service for 25 years , counting the year of first issuance . The Walking Liberty half dollar and Mercury dime had been first issued in 1916 ; they could be replaced without congressional action from and after 1940 . Mint officials considered putting Franklin on the dime in 1941 , but the project was shelved due to heavy demands on the Mint for coins as the United States entered World War II . During the war , the Mint contemplated adding one or more new denominations of coinage ; Sinnock prepared a Franklin design in anticipation of a new issue , which did not occur . The dime was redesigned in 1946 to depict fallen President Franklin Roosevelt , who had been closely associated with the March of Dimes . The Walking Liberty design seemed old @-@ fashioned to Mint officials , and the only other coin being struck which was eligible for replacement was the Lincoln cent . Abraham Lincoln remained a beloved figure , and Ross did not want to be responsible for removing him from the coinage .
In 1947 , Ross asked Sinnock to produce a design for a half dollar featuring Franklin . The chief engraver adapted his earlier work for the obverse . He had designed the medal from a bust of Franklin by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon . Sinnock based his design for the reverse on the 1926 commemorative half dollar for the sesquicentennial ( 150th anniversary ) of American Independence . Numismatic writer Don Taxay later discovered that Sinnock had based his Liberty Bell ( as depicted on both the Sesquicentennial half dollar and the Franklin half ) on a sketch by John Frederick Lewis . Sinnock died in May 1947 , before finishing the reverse design , which was completed by the new chief engraver , Gilroy Roberts . Similar to Sinnock 's work for the Roosevelt dime , the portrait is designed along simple lines , with Franklin depicted wearing a period suit . The small eagle on the reverse was added as an afterthought , when Mint officials realized that the Coinage Act of 1873 required one to be displayed on all coins of greater value than the dime .
The Mint sought comments on the designs from the Commission of Fine Arts , which was provided with a lead striking of the obverse and a view of the reverse ; Taxay suggests they were shown a plaster model . On December 1 , 1947 , Commission chairman Gilmore Clarke wrote to Ross saying that they had no objection to the obverse , in which they recognized Sinnock 's " good workmanship " . As for the reverse ,
The eagle shown on the model is so small as to be insignificant and hardly discernible when the model is reduced to the size of a coin . The Commission hesitate to approve the Liberty Bell as shown with the crack in the bell visible ; to show this might lead to puns and to statements derogatory to United States coinage .
The Commission disapprove the designs .
Numismatist Paul Green later noted , " Over the years there would probably have been even more puns and derogatory statements if there had been an attempt to depict the bell without a crack . " The Commission suggested a design competition under its auspices . Its recommendations , which were only advisory , were rejected by the Treasury Department and the coin was approved by Treasury Secretary John W. Snyder , which Taxay ascribes to an unwillingness to dishonor Sinnock .
= = Release and production = =
On January 7 , 1948 , the Treasury issued a press release announcing the new half dollar . The Commission 's disapproval went unreported ; instead the release noted that the design had been Ross 's idea and had received Secretary Snyder 's " enthusiastic approval " . The release noted Franklin 's reputation for thrift , and expressed hope that the half dollar would serve as a reminder that spare cash should be used to purchase savings bonds and savings stamps . Franklin became the fifth person and first non @-@ president to be honored by the issuance of a regular @-@ issue US coin , after Lincoln , Roosevelt , George Washington and Thomas Jefferson .
In a speech given when she unveiled the design in January 1948 , Ross indicated that she had been urged to put Franklin on the cent because of his association with the adage " a penny saved is a penny earned " ( in Franklin 's original , " A penny saved is twopence dear " . ) Ross stated , " You will agree , I believe , that the fifty @-@ cent piece , being larger and of silver , lends itself much better to the production of an impressive effect . " On April 29 , 1948 , the day before the coin 's public release , Ross held a dinner party for 200 at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia ; each guest received a Franklin half dollar in a card signed by Ross .
The new half dollars first went on sale at noon on April 30 , 1948 , the anniversary of George Washington 's 1789 inauguration as President . They were sold from a booth on the steps of the Sub @-@ Treasury Building in New York , by employees of the Franklin Savings Bank dressed in Revolutionary @-@ era garb .
The Roosevelt dime had been designed by Sinnock , and had provoked complaints by citizens viewing Sinnock 's initials " JS " on the coin as those of Joseph Stalin , placed there by some Kremlin infiltrator within the Mint . Even though Sinnock 's initials ( placed on the cutoff of Franklin 's bust ) were expressed " JRS " , the Mint still received similar complaints , to which they responded with what numismatic historian Walter Breen termed " outraged official denials " . According to The New York Times , " People wrote in demanding to know how the Bureau of the Mint had discovered that Joe Stalin had a middle name . " Another rumor was that the small " o " in " of " was an error , and that the coins would be recalled . This claim died more quickly than the Stalin rumor .
After the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22 , 1963 , Congress and the Mint moved with great speed to authorize and produce a half dollar in tribute to him . With the authorization of the Kennedy half dollar on December 30 , 1963 , the Franklin half dollar series came to an end . Breen reports rumors of 1964 Franklin half dollars , produced possibly as trial strikes to test 1964 @-@ dated dies , but none has ever come to light . A total of 465 @,@ 814 @,@ 455 Franklin half dollars were struck for circulation ; in addition , 15 @,@ 886 @,@ 955 were struck in proof .
= = Collecting = =
The Franklin half dollar was struck in relatively small numbers in its first years , as there was limited demand due to a glut of Walking Liberty halves . No half dollars were struck at Denver in 1955 and 1956 due to a lack of demand for additional pieces . The San Francisco Mint closed in 1955 ; it did not reopen until 1965 . In 1957 , with improved economic conditions , demand for the pieces began to rise . They were struck in much greater numbers beginning in 1962 , which saw the start of the greatly increased demand for coins which would culminate in the great coin shortage of 1964 . No Franklin half dollar is rare today , as even low @-@ mintage dates were widely saved . Proof coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint from 1950 . " Cameo proofs " , with frosted surfaces and mirror @-@ like fields , were struck in small numbers and carry a premium . Just under 498 million Franklin half dollars , including proofs , were struck .
There are only 35 different dates and mintmarks in the series , making it a relatively inexpensive collecting project . A widely known variety is the 1955 " Bugs Bunny " half . This variety was caused by a die clash between an obverse die and a reverse die . The impact of the eagle 's wings on the other die caused a marking outside of Franklin 's mouth which , according to some , resembles buck teeth . The quality of half dollars struck by the Mint decreased in the late 1950s , caused by deterioration of the master die from which working dies were made for coinage .
In an initial attempt to improve the quality of the pieces , the Mint made slight modifications to the designs , though both the old ( Type I ) and new ( Type II ) were struck in 1958 and 1959 . One obvious difference between the types is the number of long tail feathers on the eagle — Type I half dollars have four tail feathers , Type II only three . Approximately 20 % of the 1958 Philadelphia coinage is Type II , struck from dies which were first used to strike the 1958 proofs . About 70 % of the 1959 half dollars struck at Philadelphia are Type II ; all 1958 @-@ D and 1959 @-@ D half dollars are Type I. The Mint recut the master die before beginning the 1960 coinage , improving quality .
An especially well @-@ struck Franklin half dollar is said to have full bell lines . To qualify , the seven parallel lines making up the bottom of the bell must be fully visible , and the three wisps of hair to the right of Franklin 's ear on the obverse must also fully show , and not blend together . Many Franklins have been damaged by " roll friction " : the tendency of pieces in a loose coin roll to rub together repeatedly , causing steel @-@ gray abrasions , usually on Franklin 's cheek and on the center of the Liberty Bell .
By mintages , the key dates in this series are the 1948 , 1949 @-@ S , 1953 and 1955 . Franklin half dollars have been extensively melted for their silver , and many dates are rarer than the mintage figures indicate . For example , although more than nine million 1962 halves were struck for circulation , and an additional three million in proof , the coin was more valuable as bullion than in any condition when silver prices reached record levels in 1979 – 1980 . In 2010 , the 1962 half in MS @-@ 65 condition sold for about US $ 145 , second only to the 1953 @-@ S in price in that grade .
= = = Mintage figures = = =
Note : Numbers in parentheses represent coins which were distributed in proof sets , which are also included in the totals .
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= Lofty Large =
Donald " Lofty " Large ( 27 September 1930 – 22 October 2006 ) was a British soldier and author .
Having joined the Army as a boy , Large fought in the Korean War and was wounded and taken prisoner at the Battle of Imjin . He spent two years in a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , where his injuries went untreated and he lost more than a third of his body weight . After his release and rehabilitation , he joined the Special Air Service ( SAS ) and went on to serve in various conflicts around the world , hunting communist guerrillas in Malaya , suppressing rebellions in Oman and Aden , and conducting deniable cross @-@ border reconnaissance and raids during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation .
An imposing figure – he was almost 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) tall – he was given the nickname " Lofty " after joining the Army .
After his retirement , Large wrote two books about his Army career , preceding such authors as Andy McNab and Chris Ryan . Andy McNab has said that Large and his books were " instrumental in setting the template for future members of the [ SAS ] Regiment " .
= = Early life = =
Large was born in Oxfordshire , the first child of Joseph Large and his wife Emily ( née Pratley ) . His sister , Janet , was nine years his junior . In 1939 , the family moved to a cottage 2 miles ( 3 km ) outside the village of Guiting Power in the Gloucestershire Cotswolds . As a child his father taught him how to shoot game ; he later said of this experience , " little did I realise I would spend a lot of time , many years later [ in the SAS ] , being trained in exactly that type of instinctive shooting " .
Large would later dedicate his first book to " the best parents a man could ask for " .
Growing up during the Second World War , and having watched British and American soldiers on field exercises in the Cotswold Hills , Large said that he had always wanted to be a soldier . He also joined the Army Cadet Force .
= = Army career = =
Large joined the British Army as a " band boy " at the age of 15 . Unable to join his county regiment ( the Gloucestershire Regiment ) because of a lack of vacancies , he instead joined the Wiltshire Regiment , with whom he served for five years in England , Germany and Hong Kong . During this time he was given the nickname " Lofty " , having reached his adult height of 6 feet 5 3 ⁄ 4 inches ( 1.975m ) . In 1951 , by requesting a transfer to the Gloucestershire Regiment , Large volunteered to fight in the Korean War . After a combat training course in Japan , he was deployed to the front line .
= = = Korean War = = =
In March 1951 , along with half a dozen other newly badged Glosters , Large was sent to B Company 's position in the low hills above the Imjin River . The Glosters , as part of the 29th Brigade , were defending routes through the valley that could potentially be used by the Chinese in a southbound offensive towards Seoul . On 22 April 1951 , they engaged with Chinese troops in the Battle of Imjin . By the morning of 24 April , B Company had fought off seven assaults before they were able to rejoin the remainder of their battalion on what became known as Gloster Hill . By this time the battalion was vastly outnumbered , low on ammunition and cut off from United Nations lines . Large himself was shot in the left shoulder and , along with most of the remaining Glosters , was forced to surrender .
After a 10 @-@ day forced march north , and having received only basic medical attention , Large arrived at a prison camp outside Chongsung , about 50 miles north east of Sinuiju . He spent two years in the camp and celebrated his 21st birthday there . Throughout his incarceration he had two bullets and at least 18 pieces of shrapnel embedded in his body . To help Large cope with the chronic pain of his untreated injuries , an American POW introduced him to marijuana , which grew wild in the area . Although he found it to be a highly effective – and enjoyable – painkiller , he was somewhat alarmed by its psychoactive effects and subsequently tried to limit his use of the drug . Like many of his fellow prisoners , Large also suffered from beri @-@ beri and dysentery .
In March 1953 , a Chinese doctor operated on Large and removed a tracer round from his ribs as a preliminary to his being released as part of an exchange of wounded prisoners . Having weighed 217 pounds ( 98 kg ) in March 1951 , he had dropped to 136 pounds ( 62 kg ) by the time of his release . He also still had very limited movement in his atrophied and wasted left arm and was later told that if he had been treated by a British doctor at the time of his injury his arm would probably have been amputated .
Large was one of a batch of 22 exchanged British POWs whose release and subsequent return to Britain became front @-@ page news : The Guardian newspaper reported that the group had been unaware of the death of King George VI ( which had occurred over a year earlier ) , but were now looking forward to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . Interviewed after his release , Large described the war as " useless " and said that he believed the communist 's claims that the US had engaged in germ warfare .
For its defence of Gloster Hill in the Battle of Imjin , the 1st Battalion , Gloucestershire Regiment was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation . The citation is conferred on units of the armed forces of the United States and of allied nations , and was awarded to the Glosters for " exceptionally outstanding performance of duty and extraordinary heroism in action against the armed enemy ... Every yard of ground they surrendered was covered with enemy dead , until the last gallant soldier of the fighting battalion was over @-@ powered by the final surge of the enemy masses . "
After returning to the UK , Large was offered a discharge on medical grounds , which he declined . He went on to serve briefly in the quartermaster 's stores , as an instructor , and in the regimental police . Throughout this time he worked on regaining his fitness and rehabilitating his arm .
= = = Special Air Service = = =
In 1957 , wanting to escape the " stupidities of drill " and the " bullshit " of the regular Army , Large volunteered for the SAS ; however , while riding home from the Brecon Beacons within hours of successfully completing the notoriously tough selection course , he crashed his motorbike , and , having injured his ankle , he had to repeat selection – this time with one boot two sizes larger than the other to accommodate the bandages and swelling . He went on to serve with 22 SAS in Malaya , Oman , Borneo and Aden .
Large 's first operation with the SAS was in Malaya , hunting the Malayan Races Liberation Army ( MRLA ) guerrillas engaged in the Malayan Emergency uprising . By the time of Large 's involvement there was little communist activity and , despite months of jungle patrols and encounters with leeches , scorpions , civet cats and tigers , he never had any contact with MRLA guerrillas .
While suppressing a rebellion in Oman in 1958 , Large infamously lost his temper with a recalcitrant donkey . Recalling the incident in a 2003 interview , he said :
All the donkey handler did was laugh . Just as I turned round , the donkey 's face was right by me and it shook its head and I stuck a punch in among it somewhere , and the donkey went down like it was shot ... much to my amazement . But not to as much amazement as the donkey handler 's – I 've never seen a bloke sober up so quick . It was a hole in one : the donkey struggled to its feet and looked really willing to go up the hill and the donkey handler lost his laugh .
Several weeks later , in January 1959 , Large was part of the " A " and " D " Squadron assault on the Jebel Akhdar . This entailed a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ metre ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) overnight ascent of the south side of the jebel , with each soldier carrying up to 120 pounds ( 54 kg ) of kit . Having completed the ascent the SAS were able to surprise and defeat the rebels , who had previously held the plateau as a virtually impregnable stronghold .
During the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation in Borneo , Large took part in Operation Claret . As the leader of a four @-@ man SAS patrol , he spent up to two weeks at a time hidden in the jungle on deniable incursions into Indonesia , performing reconnaissance or ambushing Indonesian forces . While hidden on the banks of the Sungei Koemba River during one of these incursions , Large and his patrol had the opportunity to assassinate Colonel Leonardus Moerdani , the commander of the Indonesian special forces in the area ( and later Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces and subsequently Indonesia 's Minister of Defence and Security ) , who was passing by on a river boat . However , at the last moment Large spotted a woman on the boat . He later described the incident :
There could have been other women and there could have been children on the boat . And we don 't do that sort of target , so ... it went . And it was in fact the very man we 'd been looking for for three months : Colonel Moerdani of the Indonesian paracommando unit , and he was on the end of my rifle and I let him go – but ... you can 't blat women and kids .
For his service in Borneo , he was mentioned in despatches .
Parachuting was an important part of SAS training and operations , but it was not an experience that Large enjoyed : He suffered from a fear of heights and his considerable bulk meant that he descended far too quickly to have any chance of a comfortable landing . Despite this , he eventually qualified as a parachute instructor , although the footnote on his course report read , " not suited to parachuting – either in size or inclination . "
In his memoirs Large recalls that the last shots he fired on active duty were warning shots . Fired at long range at the ground a few feet in front of a local woman ( it is unclear where the incident took place ) , they were intended to dissuade her from heading into " certain danger " . Despite firing increasingly close to the woman 's feet , she continued forward , moving out of sight , only to reappear moments later leading the previously unseen bull which she had been intent on retrieving – " What a player ! God help any poor son @-@ in @-@ law she might have . "
Large spent the final years of his 27 @-@ year Army career as an instructor with 23 SAS Regiment ( one of the SAS 's two reserve regiments ) , eventually leaving the Army in 1973 as a Squadron Sergeant Major and Warrant Officer Class 2 .
= = Legacy = =
In his book SAS Heroes : Remarkable Soldiers , Extraordinary Men , former SAS soldier Pete Scholey describes Large as " simply the finest soldier [ I ] had ever met ... an inspiration to those around him ... with an admirable sense of fair play " .
Andy McNab , who joined the SAS 11 years after Large 's departure , has written about Large 's enduring impact on the Regiment :
Being like Lofty was something I aspired to without realising it . When I joined the Regiment I was told that the best way to survive those first years in the Sabre squadron was to pick out someone who you thought you would like to be . Shut up , watch and listen . For me there were a number of the ' old and bold ' who fitted that requirement . It wasn 't until later in my service that I learned that most of them , as newly ' badged ' members to a squadron , had picked Lofty .
A memorial bench was donated to the Allied Special Forces Memorial Grove at the National Memorial Arboretum by a group of Large 's former SAS colleagues . The inscription reads :
= = Personal life = =
Before leaving for Hong Kong with the Wiltshire Regiment in 1951 , Large had met Ann , a nanny at the Regiment 's depot in Devizes . She wrote to him five times a week during his captivity in Chongsung , although only about 90 of these letters were actually delivered to Large . They eventually married in 1955 and afterwards lived in an Army rental property on the top floor of a farmhouse in Longford , on the outskirts of Gloucester .
When Large volunteered for the SAS in 1957 it was not a unit that was well known outside of military circles – a fact that Large took advantage of by initially telling his wife that the Regiment 's job was to air drop supplies to troops in the jungle .
In 1960 the couple moved with the Regiment to Hereford , where they later had two children , Andy and Donna .
= = Later years = =
After leaving the Army Large worked in the UK and the Middle East . Having earned a heavy goods vehicle driving licence and a qualified testing officer 's certificate during his time in the Army , he spent the last 14 years of his working life as a driving instructor .
He wrote two books about his time in the Army : One Man 's SAS and One Man 's War in Korea , and was one of the first non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) to write about the SAS , preceding such soldiers @-@ turned @-@ authors as Andy McNab and Chris Ryan . A third book , Soldier Against the Odds : From Korean War to SAS , consisted of revised versions of his first two books together with some additional material . Andy McNab has said that " [ Large 's first two books ] were recommended reading for Regiment candidates . He was instrumental in setting the template for future members of the Regiment . "
In his seventies , Large , along with Pete Scholey , returned to the Borneo jungle as part of a 2003 Channel 4 documentary about the history of the SAS , taking the camera crew to the exact spot on the bank of the Sungei Koemba River where his patrol had successfully ambushed an Indonesian Army river boat in 1965 .
Having been ill with leukaemia for three years , Large died aged 76 at St Michael 's Hospice , Hereford . His funeral was held on 1 November 2006 at St Martin 's Church ( which has a long association with the SAS ) .
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= Empedocles ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Empedocles " is the seventeenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 2001 . The episode was written by Greg Walker and directed by Barry K. Thomas . " Empedocles " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 7 @.@ 46 million households and over 12 @.@ 46 million viewers . Overall , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) enlists Mulder ’ s help investigating a killer ’ s connection to the unsolved murder of Doggett ’ s son , but Mulder soon finds himself clashing with Doggett .
" Empedocles " was named after the famed Greek pre @-@ Socratic philosopher of the same name . The episode marked the return of Special Agent Monica Reyes , who was first introduced in the earlier season eight episode " This is Not Happening " . Reyes would later become Doggett 's partner , in the show 's ninth season . The episode included an elaborate special effects sequence wherein actor Jay Underwood rips off his face to reveal fire underneath his skin , which was created via green screen technology .
= = Plot = =
In New Orleans , Jeb Larold Dukes is fired from his job . After he leaves the office , Jeb witnesses a car chase which ends in a fiery crash . A burning figure that only Jeb can see emerges from the wreck and seems to merge with him . Jeb , now possessed by the being , returns to his office to fatally shoot his boss and co @-@ workers .
Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) arrives at the crime scene and meets NOPD detective Franklin Potter , who has called her in out of his belief that the murders are related to satanism . Reyes merely answers the detective that it was not devil worship , and that the killer probably was under stress . As she is leaving , she witnesses one of the bodies carbonize into a charred corpse in front of her , only to have it revert to normal .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) takes a pregnant Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to the hospital when she doubles over in pain . There , Reyes phones him to ask about the case , but Mulder cedes to the authority of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , who is formally running the X @-@ Files . However , Reyes says she can 't call Doggett since it is about him . Meanwhile , Jeb is in a hotel room in Georgia trying to shoot himself in the head . Suddenly , he notices something wrong with his face ; he claws at his face , peeling away the skin to reveal burning embers beneath the skin .
Mulder and Reyes meet in an FBI records room , where she divulges the story about the death of Doggett ’ s son , Luke : years ago , when Doggett ’ s son disappeared , the FBI were called in to investigate . Reyes was one of the agents on the case . They never found the killer , and when they discovered Luke ’ s body , both Reyes and Doggett saw it transform into ashes instantly . Reyes says that Doggett has spent the last few years convincing himself he did not see it . Reyes believes it was a psychic clue , and now with the other crime scene , she has seen it again .
Doggett soon attacks Mulder for looking into his son 's case , but Reyes explains why they are investigating . She reveals that Bob Harvey , a suspect in Luke 's murder , died in the car crash in New Orleans . Reyes stresses her vision 's importance , but Doggett dismisses it . Reyes goes to visit Jeb 's sister , Katha , and learns he did not know Bob Harvey . While Reyes is there , Katha receives a call from Jeb , but tells him to call later . As Jeb leaves the phone booth , he kills a female motorist . Meanwhile , Doggett learns from Scully that she has suffered a placental abruption . He asks her what made her start to believe in the paranormal . She says she realized she was “ afraid to believe . ” Scully later tells Mulder to keep trying to help Doggett .
As Doggett approaches the body of Jeb 's latest victim , he has a flashback of when he found Luke 's body . Doggett storms off , but Reyes refuses to let it go , finally revealing her theory : she believes that the boy 's murder was part of a “ thread of evil , ” an interconnected series of terrible events . Meanwhile , Katha returns home with her daughter and finds Jeb there . He insists that it wasn 't him who committed the murder , and pleads to his sister for help . Katha calls the agents and tries to separate her daughter from Jeb , but he realizes what she is planning and uses his niece as a hostage . Before Jeb can shoot Doggett , Reyes incapacitates him with a round to the throat .
Doggett finally embraces the memory of his vision . Mulder tells him that when he worked in violent crimes and saw the horrible things people did , he began to think of evil like a disease that infected people . Some lack immunity to this disease of evil because of some tragedy in their lives . Jeb dies while Reyes and Katha are in the room . After the doctors leave , Katha ’ s eyes glow , much like Jeb 's . She hits Reyes over the head with an oxygen tank and takes her gun . Before she can execute Reyes for killing her brother , Doggett appears and wrestles her to the ground .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by Greg Walker and directed by Barry K. Thomas , marking his directoral debut . The episode takes its title from the famed Greek pre @-@ Socratic philosopher of the same name . Empedocles believed that out of the four classic elements — earth , wind , fire , and water — fire was the most superior . According to legend , in order to become a god , Empedocles threw himself into a volcano in Mount Etna . As such , Empedocles is often associated with fire .
The episode marked the return of Special Agent Monica Reyes , who was first introduced in the earlier season eight episode " This is Not Happening " . Although Reyes would later become Doggett 's partner , the series attempted to differentiate the Doggett / Reyes relationship from the Mulder / Scully relationship . Robert Patrick later noted , " We 're not going to try to duplicate [ the Mulder and Scully relationship ] , we 're not going to try to regenerate the magic chemistry . "
= = = Special effects = = =
In order to create the " Lava Face " effect , actor Jay Underwood 's face was painted green . A mask with pre @-@ cut slits was then placed over the skin . Underwood then tore the mask off of his own face , revealing streaks of the green coloring . A matte of the scene was then cut and various fire effects were placed into Underwood 's face via green screen technology . In order to make the " cracks " appear , digital technology was created to " smooth over " the skin and then slowly reveal the pre @-@ cut slits . Producer Paul Rabwin later joked that Underwood " had fire for brains " .
= = Reception = =
" Empedocles " first aired on Fox on April 22 , 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 3 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 3 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 46 million households and over 12 @.@ 46 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 40th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending April 22 . The episode subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on July 28 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " The murder of Doggett 's son is about to become an X @-@ file . "
Critical reception to the episode was mostly mixed . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that the " X @-@ File in itself is an interesting concept , but left frustratingly vague . " Shearman and Pearson , however , did positively write that the episode is " a character study which gives its new leads some background and depth and , better yet , somewhere new to develop . " VanDerWerff later awarded the episode an " C + " and wrote that " there are a lot of things to like in “ Empedocles , ” but the central conceit is just too stupid for the episode as a whole to work . " While he enjoyed the " way that [ the episode ] features all four FBI agents in the same episode " , he was critical of both the plot and the Mulder and Scully dynamic , noting that it fell flat .
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She criticized several of the plot points in the episode , most notably how a " big @-@ city " New Orleans detective could mistake Marilyn Manson CDs as signs of blatant satanic imagery . Vitaris further criticized the " sidelined " behavior of Scully and the " shoehorned " characterization of Reyes . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , wrote a largely negative review of the episode . He criticized the down @-@ sized role Mulder and Scully played in the episode , noting that they had been " reduced to mere footnotes " . Furthermore , Kessenich reasoned that , by trying to " prep for [ a ] future " of just Doggett and Reyes and " [ connect ] to the past " with Mulder and Scully , the episode ultimately " served to remind us how Doggett and Reyes pale in comparison to the magic of Mulder and Scully . "
Not all reviews were negative . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a B − . Sarah Stegall awarded the episode five stars out of five and noted " Being dead has done wonders for Fox Mulder . " Stegall concluded that the episode " is one of the best episodes of the new era . Mulder and Scully get one last chance to remind us why we will miss them , and Doggett and Reyes get a chance to earn their stripes . [ ... ] If this is the season where the torch gets passed , it 's good to see that it 's got one last flare in it . "
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= Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? =
Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? is author and poet Maya Angelou 's fourth volume of poetry , published by Random House in 1983 . It was published during one of the most productive periods in Angelou 's career ; she had written four autobiographies and published three other volumes of poetry up to that point . Angelou considers herself a poet and a playwright , but is best known for her seven autobiographies , especially her first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , although her poetry has also been successful . She began , early in her writing career , alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Many of the poems in Shaker focus on survival despite threatened freedom , lost love , and defeated dreams . Over half of them are love poems , and emphasize the inevitable loss of love . " Caged Bird " , which refers to Angelou 's first autobiography , is contained in this volume .
= = Background = =
Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing is Maya Angelou 's fourth volume of poetry . She studied and began writing poetry at a young age . After her rape at the age of eight , as recounted in her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , she dealt with her trauma by memorizing and reciting great works of literature , including poetry , which helped bring her out of her self @-@ imposed muteness .
The publication of Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing occurred during one of the most productive periods of Angelou 's career . She had written songs for Roberta Flack and had composed movie scores . She had written articles , short stories , TV scripts and documentaries , autobiographies , and poetry , she produced plays , and was named a visiting professor of several colleges and universities . Angelou was given a multitude of awards during this period , including over thirty honorary degrees from colleges and universities from all over the world . In 1981 , after ten years of marriage , Angelou and her husband Paul du Feu divorced . Angelou returned to the southern United States , where she accepted the lifetime Reynolds Professorship of American Studies at Wake Forest University in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina , and taught a variety of subjects that reflected her interests , including philosophy , ethics , theology , science , theater , and writing .
Although Angelou considered herself a playwright and poet when her editor Robert Loomis challenged her to write Caged Bird , she has been best known for her autobiographies . Many of Angelou 's readers identify her as a poet first and an autobiographer second , but like Lynn Z. Bloom , many critics consider her autobiographies more important than her poetry . Critic William Sylvester agrees , and states that although her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has " received little serious critical attention " . Bloom also believes that Angelou 's poetry is more interesting when she recites them . Bloom calls her performances " characteristically dynamic " , and says that Angelou " moves exuberantly , vigorously to reinforce the rhythms of the lines , the tone of the words . Her singing and dancing and electrifying stage presence transcend the predictable words and phrases " .
Angelou 's began , early in her writing career , alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . By the time Shaker was published in 1983 , she had published four autobiographies , eventually going on to publish seven . Her publisher , Random House , placed the poems in Shaker in her first collection of poetry , The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou ( 1994 ) , perhaps to capitalize on her popularity following her reading of her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration in 1993 . Also in the 1994 collection were her three previous collections , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well , and And Still I Rise ( 1978 ) , along with I Shall Not Be Moved , published in 1990 . Angelou 's publisher placed four poems in a smaller volume , entitled Phenomenal Woman in 1995 .
= = Themes = =
According to critic Carol E. Neubauer , like Angelou 's previous poetry collections , " Shaker celebrates the ability to survive despite threatened freedom , lost love , and defeated dreams . Neubauer also states that the poems in this volume are full of " the control and confidence that have become characteristic of Angelou 's work in general " . Their tone moves from themes of strength to humor and satire , and captures , more than her previous poetry , the loneliness of lovers and the sacrifice that many slaves experienced without succumbing to defeat or despair .
Over half the poems in Shaker focus on love and doomed relationships . In " The Lie " , for example , the speaker feels compelled to use deception to protect herself from her lover 's abandonment . In the brief poem " Prelude to a Parting " , the speaker instinctively senses the inevitable and implicit end of her relationship , especially when her lover draws away from her touch . Not all the love poems in the volume focus on dishonesty or deception , but most , such as the title poem " Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? " , describe the inevitable loss of love .
The rest of the poems in Shaker emphasize determination despite the " unabiding anguish over the oppression of the black race " , and deal with the cruel treatment of slaves in the South . In the poem " Family Affairs " , Angelou uses the German fairy tale " Rapunzel " as a framework to summarize her painful origins of slavery and to compare Black / white tensions . Critic J. T. Keefe calls it " a wise and deeply felt poem " . Neubauer considers Angelou 's poem " Caged Bird " , which she says " inevitably brings Angelou 's audience full circle " with her first autobiography , as the most powerful poem in the volume . Keefe agrees , and calls it Angelou 's " central motif " and a rhythmical and hypnotic chant that cries out to be sung " . Neubauer states , " Her poems in Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing imply that as long as such melodies are sung and heard , hope and strength will overcome defeated dreams " . Scholar Yasmin Y. DeGout agrees , and cites " A Plagued Journey " as an example of Angelou 's themes of liberation found in all her poetry . In the poem , Angelou calls for a reconsideration of the beliefs that limit human beings , and insists that " hope allows action and forces engagement with the world " .
= = Reviews = =
Janet B. Blundell , in Library Journal , finds Angelou 's poetry lacking in comparison to her prose , and states , " The reader is jarred by stilted , ' poetic ' language and stilted , sing @-@ song , school @-@ girlish rhyme " . She finds the best poems in Shaker are the ones that are structured like blues music . Mary S. Cosgrove , in Horn Book Magazine , calls the poems in Shaker " a lyrical outpouring of seasoned feelings from the heart and mind " , and calls Angelou " musical , rhythmical , and enchanting " . J.T. Keefe , in World Literature Today , says about Shaker " : " Deceptively light and graceful , Maya Angelou 's poems are lyrical , emotional , melancholy " . Keefe compares Angelou 's poems to music , especially the music of French singer Édith Piaf , and also states , " These poems are full of shining hurt as , like curving scimitars , they skillfully pierce the hearts of their readers " .
= = Poems = =
Shaker , Why Don 't You Sing ? , which contains 28 poems , is dedicated to Angelou 's son , Guy Johnson , and to her grandson , Colin Ashanti Murphy Johnson .
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= Juventus F.C. =
Juventus Football Club S.p.A. ( from Latin iuventūs , " youth " ; Italian pronunciation : [ juˈvɛntus ] ) , colloquially known as Juve ( pronounced [ ˈjuːve ] ) , is a professional Italian association football club based in Turin , Piedmont . The club is the third oldest of its kind in the country and has spent the majority of its history , with the exception of the 2006 – 07 season , in the top flight First Division ( known as Serie A since 1929 ) .
Founded in 1897 as Sport @-@ Club Juventus by a group of young Torinese students , among them , who was their first president , Eugenio Canfari , and his brother Enrico , author of the company 's historical memory ; they have been managed by the industrial Agnelli family since 1923 , which constitutes the oldest sporting partnership in Italy , thus making Juventus the first professional club in the country .
Over time , the club has become a symbol of the nation 's Italianità ( " Italianness " ) , due to their tradition of success , some of which have had a significant impact in Italian society , especially in the 1930s and the first post @-@ war decade ; and the ideological politics and socio @-@ economic origin of the club 's sympathisers . This is reflected , among others , in the club 's contribution to the national team , uninterrupted since the second half of the 1920s and recognised as one of the most influential in international football , having performed a decisive role in the World Cup triumphs of 1934 , 1982 and 2006 . The club 's fan base is larger than any other Italian football club and is one of the largest worldwide . Support for Juventus is widespread throughout the country and abroad , mainly in countries with a significant presence of Italian immigrants .
Juventus is historically the most successful club in Italian football and one of the most laureated and important globally . Overall , they have won sixty @-@ one official titles on the national and international stage , more than any other Italian club : a record thirty @-@ two official league titles , a record eleven Coppa Italia titles , a record seven Supercoppa Italiana titles , and , with eleven titles in confederation and inter @-@ confederation competitions ( two Intercontinental Cups , two European Champion Clubs ' Cup / UEFA Champions Leagues , one European Cup Winners ' Cup , three UEFA Cups , one UEFA Intertoto Cup and two UEFA Super Cups ) the club ranks fourth in Europe and eighth in the world with the most trophies won .
In 1985 , under the management of Giovanni Trapattoni , who led the Torinese team to thirteen official trophies in ten years until 1986 , including six league titles and five international titles ; Juventus became the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major competitions organised by the Union of European Football Associations : the European Champions ' Cup , the ( now @-@ defunct ) Cup Winners ' Cup and the UEFA Cup ( the first Italian and Southern European side to win the tournament ) . After their triumph in the Intercontinental Cup the same year , the club also became the first in football history — and remains the only one at present — to have won all possible official continental competitions and the world title . According to the all @-@ time ranking published in 2009 by the International Federation of Football History and Statistics , an organisation recognised by FIFA , based on clubs ' performance in international competitions , Juventus were Italy 's best club and second in Europe of the 20th century .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Juventus were founded as Sport @-@ Club Juventus in late 1897 by pupils from the Massimo D 'Azeglio Lyceum school in Turin , but were renamed as Foot @-@ Ball Club Juventus two years later . The club joined the Italian Football Championship during 1900 . In 1904 the businessman Ajmone @-@ Marsan revived the finances of the football club Juventus , making it also possible to transfer the training field from Piazza d 'Armi to the more appropriate Velodrome Umberto I. During this period the team wore a pink and black kit . Juventus first won the league championship in 1905 while playing at their Velodrome Umberto I ground . By this time the club colours had changed to black and white stripes , inspired by English side Notts County .
There was a split at the club in 1906 , after some of the staff considered moving Juve out of Turin . President Alfred Dick was unhappy with this and left with some prominent players to found FBC Torino which in turn spawned the Derby della Mole . Juventus spent much of this period steadily rebuilding after the split , surviving the First World War .
= = = League dominance = = =
Fiat owner Edoardo Agnelli gained control of the club in 1923 , and built a new stadium . This helped the club to its second scudetto ( league championship ) in the 1925 – 26 season beating Alba Roma with an aggregate score of 12 – 1 , Antonio Vojak 's goals were essential that season . The club established itself as a major force in Italian football since the 1930s , becoming the country 's first professional club and the first with a decentralised fan base , which led it to win a record of five consecutive Italian championships the first four under the management of Carlo Carcano and form the core of the Italy national team during the Vittorio Pozzo 's era , including the 1934 world champion squad . With star players such as Raimundo Orsi , Luigi Bertolini , Giovanni Ferrari and Luis Monti amongst others .
Juventus moved to the Stadio Comunale , but for the rest of the 1930s and the majority of the 1940s they were unable to recapture championship dominance . After the Second World War , Gianni Agnelli was appointed honorary president . The club added two more league championships to its name in the 1949 – 50 and 1951 – 52 seasons , the latter of which was under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver . Two new strikers were signed during 1957 – 58 ; Welshman John Charles and Italo @-@ Argentine Omar Sivori , playing alongside longtime member Giampiero Boniperti . That season saw Juventus awarded with the Golden Star for Sport Excellence to wear on their shirts after becoming the first Italian side to win ten league titles . In the same season , Omar Sivori became the first ever player at the club to win the European Footballer of the Year . The following season they beat Fiorentina to complete their first league and cup double , winning Serie A and Coppa Italia . Boniperti retired in 1961 as the all @-@ time top scorer at the club , with 182 goals in all competitions , a club record which stood for 45 years .
During the rest of the decade , the club won the league just once more in 1966 – 67 , The 1970s , however , saw Juventus further solidify their strong position in Italian football . Under former player Čestmír Vycpálek , they won the scudetto in 1971 – 72 and 1972 – 73 , with players such as Roberto Bettega , Franco Causio and José Altafini breaking through . During the rest of the decade , they won the league twice more , with defender Gaetano Scirea contributing significantly . The later win was under Giovanni Trapattoni , who also led the club to their first ever major European title , the UEFA Cup , in 1977 , and helped the club 's domination continue on into the early part of the 1980s . During Trapattoni 's tenure , many Juventus players also formed the backbone of the Italy national team during Enzo Bearzot 's successful managerial era , including the 1978 World Cup , UEFA Euro 1980 and 1982 world champion squads .
= = = European stage = = =
The Trapattoni era was highly successful in the 1980s ; the club started the decade off well , winning the league title three more times by 1984 . This meant Juventus had won 20 Italian league titles and were allowed to add a second golden star to their shirt , thus becoming the only Italian club to achieve this . Around this time , the club 's players were attracting considerable attention ; Paolo Rossi was named European Footballer of the Year following his contribution to Italy 's victory in the 1982 World Cup , where he was named Player of the Tournament .
Frenchman Michel Platini was also awarded the European Footballer of the Year title for three years in a row in 1983 , 1984 and 1985 , which is a record . Juventus are the only club to have players from their club winning the award in four consecutive years . Indeed , it was Platini who scored the winning goal in the 1985 European Cup final against Liverpool , however this was marred by a tragedy which changed European football . That year , Juventus became the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major UEFA competitions and , after their triumph in the Intercontinental Cup , the club also became the first in association football history — and remain the world 's only one at present — to have won all possible confederation competitions and the club world title .
With the exception of winning the closely contested Italian Championship of 1985 – 86 , the rest of the 1980s were not very successful for the club . As well as having to contend with Diego Maradona 's Napoli , both of the Milanese clubs , Milan and Internazionale , won Italian championships ; Juventus did win a Coppa Italia @-@ UEFA Cup double in 1990 under the guidance of former club legend Dino Zoff , however . In 1990 , Juventus also moved into their new home , the Stadio delle Alpi , which was built for the 1990 World Cup . Despite the arrival of Italian star Roberto Baggio later that year for a world record transfer fee , the early 1990s under Luigi Maifredi and subsequently Trapattoni once again also saw little success for Juventus , as they only managed to win the UEFA Cup in 1993 .
= = = Lippi era of success = = =
Marcello Lippi took over as Juventus manager at the start of the 1994 – 95 campaign . His first season at the helm of the club was a successful one , as Juventus recorded their first Serie A championship title since the mid @-@ 1980s , as well as the Coppa Italia . The crop of players during this period featured Ciro Ferrara , Roberto Baggio , Gianluca Vialli and a young Alessandro Del Piero . Lippi led Juventus to their first Supercoppa Italiana , and the Champions League the following season , beating Ajax on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw in which Fabrizio Ravanelli scored for Juve .
The club did not rest long after winning the European Cup : more highly regarded players were brought into the fold in the form of Zinedine Zidane , Filippo Inzaghi and Edgar Davids . At home , Juventus won the 1996 – 97 and 1997 – 98 Serie A titles , as well as the 1996 UEFA Super Cup and the 1996 Intercontinental Cup . Juventus reached the 1997 and 1998 Champions League finals during this period , but lost out to Borussia Dortmund and Real Madrid respectively .
After a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ season absence , Lippi returned to the club in 2001 , following his replacement Carlo Ancelotti 's dismissal , signing big name players such as Gianluigi Buffon , David Trezeguet , Pavel Nedvěd and Lilian Thuram , helping the team to two more scudetto titles during the 2001 – 02 and 2002 – 03 seasons . Juventus were also part of an all Italian Champions League final in 2003 but lost out to Milan on penalties after the game ended in a 0 – 0 draw . At the conclusion of the following season , Lippi was appointed as the Italy national team 's head coach , bringing an end to one of the most fruitful managerial spells in Juventus ' history .
= = = " Calciopoli " scandal = = =
Fabio Capello was appointed as Juventus 's coach in 2004 and led the club to two more consecutive Serie A titles . In May 2006 , however , Juventus became one of the five clubs linked to a 2006 Italian football scandal , the result of which saw the club relegated to Serie B for the first time in its history . The club was also stripped of the two titles won under Capello in 2005 and 2006 .
Many key players left following the demotion to Serie B , including Lillian Thuram , star striker Zlatan Ibrahimović and defensive stalwart Fabio Cannavaro . Other big name players , however , such as Gianluigi Buffon , Alessandro Del Piero , David Trezeguet and Pavel Nedvěd , remained to help the club return to Serie A , while youngsters from the Primavera ( youth team ) , such as Sebastian Giovinco and Claudio Marchisio , were integrated into the first team . Juventus were promoted straight back up to the top division as league winners after the 2006 – 07 season , while captain Del Piero claimed the top scorer award with 21 goals .
As early as 2010 , Juventus considered challenging the stripping of their Scudetti from 2005 and 2006 , dependent on the results of trials connected to the 2006 scandal . Subsequent investigations found in 2011 that Juventus ' relegation in 2006 was without merit . When former general manager Luciano Moggi 's conviction in criminal court in connection with the scandal was thrown out by an appeals court in 2015 , the club sued the Italian Football Federation ( FIGC ) for € 443 million for damages caused by their 2006 relegation . FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio offered to discuss reinstatement of the lost Scudetti in exchange for Juventus dropping the lawsuit .
= = = Return to Serie A = = =
After returning to Serie A in the 2007 – 08 season , Juventus appointed Claudio Ranieri as manager . They finished in third place in their first season back in the top flight , and qualified for the Champions League third qualifying round in the preliminary stages . Juventus reached the group stages , where they beat Real Madrid in both home and away legs , before losing in the knockout round to Chelsea . Ranieri was sacked following a string of unsuccessful results , and Ciro Ferrara was appointed as manager on a temporary basis for the last two games of the 2008 – 09 season , before being subsequently appointed as the manager for the 2009 – 10 season .
Ferrara 's stint as Juventus manager , however , proved to be unsuccessful , with Juventus knocked out of Champions League and Coppa Italia , and just lying on the sixth place in the league table at the end of January 2010 , leading to the dismissal of Ferrara and the naming of Alberto Zaccheroni as caretaker manager . Zaccheroni could not help the side improve , as Juventus finished the season in seventh place in Serie A. For the 2010 – 11 season , Jean @-@ Claude Blanc was replaced by Andrea Agnelli as the club 's president . Agnelli 's first action was to replace Zaccheroni and director of sport Alessio Secco with Sampdoria manager Luigi Delneri and director of sport Giuseppe Marotta . Delneri , however , failed to improve their fortunes and was dismissed . Former player and fan favourite Antonio Conte , fresh after winning promotion with Siena , was named as Delneri 's replacement . In September 2011 , Juventus relocated to the new Juventus Stadium .
= = = Conte and Allegri era of success = = =
With Conte as manager , Juventus went unbeaten for the entire 2011 – 12 Serie A season . Towards the second half of the season , the team was mostly competing with northern rivals Milan for first place in a tight contest . Juventus won the title on the 37th matchday , after beating Cagliari 2 – 0 , and Milan losing to Internazionale 4 – 2 . After a 3 – 1 win in the final matchday against Atalanta , Juventus became the first team to go the season unbeaten in the current 38 @-@ game format . Other noteworthy achievements include the biggest away win ( 5 – 0 at Fiorentina ) , best defensive record ( 20 goals conceded , fewest ever in the current league format ) in Serie A and second best in the top six European leagues that year .
In 2013 – 14 , Juventus won a third consecutive Scudetto with a record 102 points and 33 wins . The title was the 30th official league championship in the club 's history . They also achieved the semi @-@ finals of Europa League being eliminated at home against ten @-@ man Benfica 's catenaccio , missing the final at the Juventus Stadium . In 2014 – 15 , Massimiliano Allegri was appointed as manager , with whom Juventus won their 31st official title , making it a fourth @-@ straight , as well as achieving a record tenth Coppa Italia for the double . The club also beat Real Madrid in the semi finals of the Champions League 3 – 2 on aggregate to face Barcelona in the final in Berlin for the first time since the 2002 – 03 Champions League . Juventus lost the final to Barcelona 3 – 1 after an early fourth @-@ minute goal from Ivan Rakitić , followed by an Álvaro Morata equalizer in the 55th minute ; Barcelona took the lead again with a goal from Luis Suárez in the 70th minute , followed by a final minute goal by Neymar as Juventus were caught out on the counterattack . On 14 December 2015 , Juventus won the Serie A Football Club of the Year award for the 2014 – 15 season , the fourth time in succession . On 25 April 2016 , the club won their fifth @-@ straight title ( and 32nd overall ) since last winning five @-@ straight between 1930 – 31 and 1934 – 35 , after second place Napoli lost to Roma to give Juventus mathematical certainty of the title with three games to spare ; last losing to Sassuolo on 25 October 2015 , which left them in 12th place , before taking 73 points of a possible 75 . On 21 May , the club then won the Coppa Italia for the 11th time , and their second @-@ straight title , becoming the first team in Italy 's history to complete Serie A and Coppa Italia doubles in back @-@ to @-@ back seasons .
= = Colours , badge , nicknames and mascot = =
Juventus have played in black and white striped shirts , with white shorts , sometimes black shorts since 1903 . Originally , they played in pink shirts with a black tie . The father of one of the players made the earliest shirts , but continual washing faded the colour so much that in 1903 the club sought to replace them .
Juventus asked one of their team members , Englishman John Savage , if he had any contacts in England who could supply new shirts in a colour that would better withstand the elements . He had a friend who lived in Nottingham , who being a Notts County supporter , shipped out the black and white striped shirts to Turin . Juve have worn the shirts ever since , considering the colours to be aggressive and powerful .
Juventus Football Club 's official emblem has undergone different and small modifications since the 1920s . The last modification of the Juventus badge took place before 2004 – 05 season . Since then , the emblem of the team is a black @-@ and @-@ white oval shield of a type used by Italian ecclesiastics . It is divided in five vertical stripes : two white stripes and three black stripes , inside which are the following elements ; in its upper section , the name of the society superimposed on a white convex section , over golden curvature ( gold for honour ) . The white silhouette of a charging bull is in the lower section of the oval shield , superimposed on a black old French shield ; the charging bull is a symbol of the Comune di Torino .
There is also a black silhouette of a mural crown above the black spherical triangle 's base . This is a reminiscence to Augusta Tourinorum , the old city of the Roman era which the present capital of Piedmont region is its cultural heiress .
Juventus was also the first team in association football history to adopt a star who added one above their badge in 1958 to represent their tenth Italian Football Championship and Serie A title , at the time and has since become popularized with other clubs as well .
In the past , the convex section of the emblem had a blue colour ( another symbol of Turin ) and , furthermore , its shape was concave . The old French shield and the mural crown , also in the lower section of the emblem , had a considerably greater size with respect to the present . The two Golden Stars for Sport Excellence were located above the convex and concave section of Juventus ' emblem . During the 1980s , the club emblem was the silhouette of a zebra , to both sides of the equide 's head , the two golden stars and , above this badge , forming an arc , the club 's name .
Juventus unofficially won their 30th league title in 2011 – 12 , but a dispute with the Italian Football Federation , who stripped Juventus of their 2004 – 05 and 2005 – 06 titles due to their involvement in a 2006 Italian football scandal , left their official total at 28 . However , they elected to wear no stars at all the following season . Juventus won their 30th title in 2013 – 14 and thus earned the right to wear their third star , however , club president Andrea Agnelli stated that the club suspended the use of the stars until another team wins their 20th championship , thus having the right to wear two stars , " to emphasise Juventus ' superiority " . However , for the 2015 – 16 season , Juventus reintroduced the stars and added the third star to their jersey as well with new kit manufacturers Adidas . For the 2016 – 17 season , Juventus re @-@ designed their kit with a different take on the trademark white and black stripes .
During its history , the club has acquired a number of nicknames , la Vecchia Signora ( the Old Lady ) being the best example . The " old " part of the nickname is a pun on Juventus which means " youth " in Latin . It was derived from the age of the Juventus star players towards the middle of the 1930s . The " lady " part of the nickname is how fans of the club affectionately referred to it before the 1930s . The club is also nicknamed la Fidanzata d 'Italia ( the Girlfriend of Italy ) , because over the years it has received a high level of support from Southern Italian immigrant workers ( particularly from Naples and Palermo ) , who arrived in Turin to work for FIAT since the 1930s . Other nicknames include ; [ La ] Madama ( Piedmontese for : Madam ) , i bianconeri ( the black @-@ and @-@ whites ) , le zebre ( the zebras ) in reference to Juventus ' colours . I gobbi ( the hunchbacks ) is the nickname that is used to define Juventus supporters , but is also used sometimes for team 's players . The most widely accepted origin of gobbi dates to the fifties , when the Bianconeri wore a large jersey . When players ran on the field , the jersey , which had a laced opening at the chest , generated a bulge over the back ( a sort of parachute effect ) , making the players look hunchbacked .
On 10 September 2015 , Juventus officially announced a new project called JKids for its junior supporters on its website . Along with this project , Juventus also introduced a new mascot to all its fans which is called " J " . " J " is a cartoon @-@ designed zebra , black and white stripes with golden edge piping on its body , golden shining eyes , and three golden stars on the front of its neck . " J " made its debut at Juventus Stadium on 12 September 2015 .
= = Stadiums = =
After the first two years ( 1897 and 1898 ) , during which Juventus played in the Parco del Valentino and Parco Cittadella , their matches were held in the Piazza d 'Armi Stadium until 1908 , except in 1905 , the first year of the scudetto , and in 1906 , years in which it played at the Corso Re Umberto .
From 1909 to 1922 , Juventus played their internal competitions at Corso Sebastopoli Camp , and before moving the following year to Corso Marsiglia Camp where they remained until 1933 , winning four league titles . At the end of 1933 they began to play at the new Stadio Mussolini stadium inaugurated for the 1934 World Championships . After the Second World War , the stadium was renamed as Stadio Comunale Vittorio Pozzo . Juventus played home matches at the ground for 57 years , a total of 890 league matches . The team continued to host training sessions at the stadium until July 2003 .
From 1990 until the 2005 – 06 season , the Torinese side contested their home matches at Stadio delle Alpi , built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup , although in very rare circumstances , the club played some home games in other stadia such as Renzo Barbera at Palermo , Dino Manuzzi at Cesena and the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza at Milan .
In August 2006 , Juventus returned to play in the Stadio Comunale , then known as Stadio Olimpico , after the restructuring of the stadium for the 2006 Winter Olympics onward . In November 2008 , Juventus announced that they would invest around € 120 million to build a new ground , the Juventus Stadium , on the site of delle Alpi . Unlike the old ground , there is not a running track ; instead the pitch is only 7 @.@ 5 metres away from the stands . The capacity is 41 @,@ 475 . Work began during spring 2009 and the stadium was opened on 8 September 2011 ahead of the start of the 2011 – 12 season .
= = Supporters = =
Juventus are the best @-@ supported football club in Italy , with over 12 million fans or tifosi , which represent approximately 29 % of the total Italian football fans according to a research published in September 2010 by Italian research agency Demos & Pi , and one of the most supported football clubs in the world , with 180 million supporters ( 43 million in Europe alone ) , particularly in the Mediterranean countries , to which a large number of Italian diaspora have emigrated . The Torinese side has fan clubs branches across the globe .
Demand for Juventus tickets in occasional home games held away from Turin is high ; suggesting that Juventus have stronger support in other parts of the country . Juve is widely and especially popular throughout mainland Southern Italy , Sicily and Malta , leading the team to have one of the largest followings in its away matches , more than in Turin itself .
= = Club rivalries = =
Juventus have significant rivalries with two clubs . Their traditional rivals are fellow Turin club Torino and matches between the two side are known as the Derby della Mole ( Turin Derby ) . The rivalry dates back to 1906 as Torino was founded by break @-@ away Juventus players and staff . Their most high @-@ profile rivalry is with Internazionale , another big Serie A club located in Milan , the capital of the neighbouring region of Lombardy . Matches between these two clubs are referred to as the Derby d 'Italia ( Derby of Italy ) and the two regularly challenge each other at the top of the league table , hence the intense rivalry . Until the Calciopoli scandal which saw Juventus forcibly relegated , the two were the only Italian clubs to have never played below Serie A. Notably the two sides are the first and the second most supported clubs in Italy and the rivalry has intensified since the later part of the 1990s ; reaching its highest levels ever post @-@ Calciopoli , with the return of Juventus to Serie A. They also have rivalries with Milan , Roma , Fiorentina , and Napoli .
= = Youth programme = =
The Juventus youth set @-@ up has been recognised as one of the best in Italy for producing young talents . While not all graduates made it to the first team , many have enjoyed successful careers in the Italian top flight . Under long @-@ time coach Vincenzo Chiarenza , the Primavera ( Under @-@ 20 ) squad enjoyed one of its successful periods , winning all age @-@ group competitions from 2004 to 2006 .
The youth system is also notable for its contribution to the Italian national senior and youth teams . 1934 World Cup winner Gianpiero Combi , 1936 Gold Medal and 1938 World Cup winner Pietro Rava , Giampiero Boniperti , Roberto Bettega , 1982 World Cup hero Paolo Rossi and more recently , Claudio Marchisio and Sebastian Giovinco are a number of former graduates who have gone on to make the first team and full Italy squad .
Like Dutch club Ajax and many Premier League clubs , Juventus operates several satellite clubs and football schools outside of the country ( i.e. United States , Canada , Greece , Saudi Arabia , Australia and Switzerland ) and numerous camps in the local region to expand talent scouting .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 26 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Primavera = = =
= = = Management Staff = = =
See also List of Juventus F.C. managers
Source : Juventus.com ( archive link )
= = Presidential history = =
Juventus have had numerous presidents over the course of their history , some of which have been the owners of the club , others have been honorary presidents , here is a complete list of them :
= = Managerial history = =
Below is a list of Juventus managers from 1923 when the Agnelli family took over and the club became more structured and organised , until the present day .
= = Honours = =
Italy 's most successful club of the 20th century , and the most successful club in the history of Italian football , Juventus have won the Italian League Championship , the country 's premier football club competition and organised by Lega Nazionale Professionisti Serie A ( LNPA ) , a record 32 times and have the record of consecutive triumphs in that tournament ( five , between 1930 – 31 and 1934 – 35 as well as between 2011 – 12 and 2015 – 16 ) . They have also won the Coppa Italia , the country 's primary cup competition , a record eleven times , and becoming the first team to retain the trophy successfully with their triumph in the 1959 – 60 season . In addition , the club holds the record for Supercoppa Italiana wins with seven , the most recent coming in 2015 .
Overall , Juventus have won 61 official competitions , more than any other team in the country : 50 domestic trophies , which is also a record , and 11 official international competitions , making them , in the latter case , the second most successful Italian club in European competition . The club is fourth in Europe and eighth in the world with the most international titles won officially recognised by their respective association football confederation and Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) .
In 1977 , the Torinese side become the first in Southern Europe to have won the UEFA Cup and the first — and only to date — in Italian football history to achieve an international title with a squad composed by national footballers . In 1993 the club won its third competition 's trophy , an unprecedented feat in the continent until then and the most for an Italian club . Juventus was , also , the first Italian club to achieve the title in the European Super Cup , having won the competition in 1984 , and the first European club to win the Intercontinental Cup , in 1985 , since it was restructured by Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) and Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol ( CONMEBOL ) ' s organizing committee five years beforehand .
The club has earned the distinction of being allowed to wear three Golden Stars ( it . Stelle d 'oro ) on its shirts representing its league victories , the tenth of which was achieved during the 1957 – 58 season , the twentieth in the 1981 – 82 season and the thirtieth in the 2013 – 14 season . Juventus were the first Italian team to have achieved the national double thrice ( winning the Italian top tier division and the national cup competition in the same season ) , in the 1959 – 60 , 1994 – 95 and 2014 – 15 seasons . They achieved the double in the 2015 – 16 season as well .
The club is unique in the world in having won all official international competitions , and they have received , in recognition to winning the three major UEFA competitions — first case in the history of the European football — The UEFA Plaque by the Union of European Football Associations on 12 July 1988 .
The Torinese side was placed seventh — but the top Italian club — in the FIFA Club of the Century selection of 23 December 2000 .
Juventus have been proclaimed World 's Club Team of the Year twice ( 1993 and 1996 ) and was ranked in 3rd place — the highest ranking of any Italian club — in the All @-@ Time Club World Ranking ( 1991 – 2009 period ) by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics .
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = League = = = =
Italian Football Championship / Serie A
Winners ( 32 ) – record : 1905 , 1925 – 26 , 1930 – 31 , 1931 – 32 , 1932 – 33 , 1933 – 34 , 1934 – 35 , 1949 – 50 , 1951 – 52 , 1957 – 58 , 1959 – 60 , 1960 – 61 , 1966 – 67 , 1971 – 72 , 1972 – 73 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 , 1980 – 81 , 1981 – 82 , 1983 – 84 , 1985 – 86 , 1994 – 95 , 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Serie B
Winners ( 1 ) : 2006 – 07
= = = = Cups = = = =
Coppa Italia
Winners ( 11 ) – record : 1937 – 38 , 1941 – 42 , 1958 – 59 , 1959 – 60 , 1964 – 65 , 1978 – 79 , 1982 – 83 , 1989 – 90 , 1994 – 95 , 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Supercoppa Italiana
Winners ( 7 ) – record : 1995 , 1997 , 2002 , 2003 , 2012 , 2013 , 2015
= = = European = = =
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
Winners ( 2 ) : 1984 – 85 , 1995 – 96
European Cup Winners ' Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1983 – 84
UEFA Cup
Winners ( 3 ) : 1976 – 77 , 1989 – 90 , 1992 – 93
UEFA Intertoto Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1999
European Super Cup / UEFA Super Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1984 , 1996
= = = Worldwide = = =
Intercontinental Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 1985 , 1996
= = Club statistics and records = =
Alessandro Del Piero holds Juventus ' official appearance record of 705 appearances . He took over from Gaetano Scirea on 6 March 2008 against Palermo . He also holds the record for Serie A appearances with 478 .
Including all official competitions , Alessandro Del Piero is the all @-@ time leading goalscorer for Juventus , with 290 — since joining the club in 1993 . Giampiero Boniperti , who was the all @-@ time topscorer since 1961 comes in second in all competitions with 182 .
In the 1933 – 34 season , Felice Borel scored 31 goals in 34 appearances , setting the club record for Serie A goals in a single season . Ferenc Hirzer is the club 's highest scorer in a single season with 35 goals in 26 appearances in the 1925 – 26 season ( record of Italian football ) . The most goals scored by a player in a single match is 6 , which is also an Italian record . This was achieved by Omar Enrique Sivori in a game against Internazionale in the 1960 – 61 season .
The first ever official game participated in by Juventus was in the Third Federal Football Championship , the predecessor of Serie A , against Torinese ; Juve lost 0 – 1 . The biggest ever victory recorded by Juventus was 15 – 0 against Cento , in the second round of the Coppa Italia in the 1926 – 27 season . In terms of the league ; Fiorentina and Fiumana were famously on the end of the Juventus 's biggest championship wins , both were beaten 11 – 0 and were recorded in the 1928 – 29 season . Juventus ' heaviest championship defeats came during the 1911 – 12 and 1912 – 13 seasons ; they were against Milan in 1912 ( 1 – 8 ) and Torino in 1913 ( 0 – 8 ) .
The sale of Zinédine Zidane to Real Madrid of Spain from Juventus in 2001 , was the world football transfer record at the time , costing the Spanish club around € 75 million .
The intake of Gianluigi Buffon in 2001 from Parma cost Juventus € 45 million , making it the most expensive transfer for a goalkeeper of all @-@ time . On 20 March 2016 Gianluigi Buffon set a new Serie A record for the longest period without conceding a goal , 974 minutes , in the Derby della Mole during the 2015 – 16 season .
On 26 July 2016 , Juventus signing Gonzalo Higuaín became the third highest football transfer of all @-@ time and highest ever transfer for an Italian club , when he signed for € 90 million from Napoli .
= = Contribution to the Italian national team = =
Overall , Juventus are the club that has contributed the most players to the Italian national team in history , they are the only Italian club that has contributed players to every Italian national team since the 2nd FIFA World Cup . Juventus have contributed numerous players to Italy 's World Cup campaigns , these successful periods principally have coincided with two golden ages of the Turin club 's history , referred as Quinquennio d 'Oro ( The Golden Quinquennium ) , from 1931 until 1935 , and Ciclo Leggendario ( The Legendary Cycle ) , from 1972 to 1986 .
Below are a list of Juventus players who represented the Italian national team during World Cup winning tournaments ;
1934 FIFA World Cup ( 9 ) ; Gianpiero Combi , Virginio Rosetta , Luigi Bertolini , Felice Borel IIº , Umberto Caligaris , Giovanni Ferrari , Luis Monti , Raimundo Orsi , and Mario Varglien Iº
1938 FIFA World Cup ( 2 ) ; Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava
1982 FIFA World Cup ( 6 ) ; Dino Zoff , Antonio Cabrini , Claudio Gentile , Paolo Rossi , Gaetano Scirea , and Marco Tardelli
2006 FIFA World Cup ( 5 ) ; Fabio Cannavaro , Gianluigi Buffon , Mauro Camoranesi , Alessandro Del Piero , and Gianluca Zambrotta
Two Juventus players have won the golden boot award at the World Cup with Italy ; Paolo Rossi in 1982 and Salvatore Schillaci in 1990 . As well as contributing to Italy 's World Cup winning sides , two Juventus players Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava , represented Italy in the gold medal winning squad at the 1936 Summer Olympics . Three Juventus players represented their nation during the 1968 European Football Championship win for Italy ; Sandro Salvadore , Ernesto Càstano and Giancarlo Bercellino .
The Torinese club has also contributed to a lesser degree to the national sides of other nations . Zinédine Zidane and captain Didier Deschamps were Juventus players when they won the 1998 World Cup with France , making it as the association football club which supplied the most FIFA World Cup winners globally ( 24 ) ( three other players in the 1998 squad , Patrick Vieira , David Trezeguet and Lilian Thuram have all played for Juventus at one time or another ) . Three Juventus players have also won the European Football Championship with a nation other than Italy , Luis del Sol won it in 1964 with Spain , while the Frenchmen Michel Platini and Zidane won the competition in 1984 and 2000 respectively .
= = Financial information = =
Since 27 June 1967 , Juventus Football Club has been a joint @-@ stock company ( it. società per azioni ) and since 3 December 2001 the torinese side is listed on the Borsa Italiana . At 31 December 2015 , the Juventus ' shares are distributed between 63 @.@ 8 % to EXOR S.p.A , the Agnelli family 's holding ( a company of the Giovanni Agnelli & C.S.a.p.a Group ) , 5 @.@ 0 % to Lindsell Train Ltd. and 31 @.@ 2 % to other shareholders . ( < 2 @.@ 0 % ) As report at 5 July 2016 , Lindsell Train Ltd. increased its holding to 10 % and Exor S.P.A decreased to 60 @.@ 0 % . Since 2012 , Jeep became the new sponsor of Juventus , a car brand acquired by FIAT after the 2000s Global Financial Crisis .
Along with Lazio and Roma , Juventus is one of only three Italian clubs quoted on Borsa Italiana ( Italian stock exchange ) . Juventus was also the only association football club in the country member of STAR ( Segment of Stocks conforming to High Requirements , it . Segmento Titoli con Alti Requisiti ) , one of the main market segment in the world . However , due to 2011 financial results , Juventus had to move from the STAR segment to MTA market .
The club 's training ground was owned by Campi di Vinovo S.p.A , controlled by Juventus Football Club S.p.A. to 71 @.@ 3 % . In 2003 the club bought the lands from the subsidiary and later the company was dissolved . Since then , Juventus FC did not had any subsidiary .
From 1 July 2008 , the club has implemented a safety management system for employees and athletes in compliance with the requirements of international OHSAS 18001 : 2007 regulation and a Safety Management System in the medical sector according to the international ISO 9001 : 2000 resolution .
The club is one of the founders of the European Club Association ( ECA ) , which was formed after the dissolution of the G @-@ 14 , an international group of Europe 's most elite clubs of which Juventus were also a founding member .
According to the Deloitte Football Money League , a research published by consultants Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu on 17 January 2014 , Juventus are the ninth @-@ highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of € 272 @.@ 4 million , the most for an Italian club . The club is also ranked ninth on Forbes ' list of the most valuable football clubs in the world with an estimate value of US $ 850 million ( € 654 million ) , making them the second richest association football club in Italy . The club was located in 2012 in top 50 sporting teams at worldwide level in terms of value .
Juventus re @-@ capitalized on 28 June 2007 , increased € 104 @,@ 807 @,@ 731 @.@ 60 shares capital . The team made an aggregate net loss in the following seasons ( 2006 to date ) : – € 927 @,@ 569 ( 2006 – 07 ) , – € 20 @,@ 787 @,@ 469 ( 2007 – 08 ) , net income € 6 @,@ 582 @,@ 489 ( 2008 – 09 ) and net loss € 10 @,@ 967 @,@ 944 ( 2009 – 10 ) . After an unaudited € 43 @,@ 411 @,@ 481 net loss was recorded in the first nine months of 2010 – 11 season , the BoD announced that a capital increase of € 120 million was planned , scheduled to submit to the extraordinary shareholder 's meeting in October . Eventually , the 2010 – 11 season net loss was € 95 @,@ 414 @,@ 019 . In the 2012 – 13 season Juventus continued to recover from recent seasons ' net losses thanks to the biggest payment in Uefa 's Champions League 2012 – 13 revenue distribution , earning € 65 @.@ 3 million . Despite being knocked out in the quarterfinal stage , Juventus took the lion 's share thanks to the largesse of the Italian national TV market and the division of revenues with the only other Italian team attended at the competition 's final phase , AC Milan . Confirming the trend of marked improvement in net result , the 2013 – 14 financial year closed with a loss of € 6 @.@ 7 million but with the first positive operating income since 2006 . In the 2014 – 15 season , by the excellent sports results achieved ( the fourth year in a row of Serie A titles , the tenth Coppa Italia title , and playing the Champions League Final ) , net income reached at € 2 @.@ 3 million . Compared to the loss of € 6 @.@ 7 million last year , 2014 – 15 shows a positive change of € 9 million and returns to a profit after six years since 2008 – 09 .
= = = Shirt sponsors and manufacturers = = =
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= Apollo , Apollo =
" Apollo , Apollo " is the sixteenth episode of the third season of American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 52nd episode of the series overall . It was written by executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by Millicent Shelton . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on March 26 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Adam West and Dean Winters .
The episode is set on the fiftieth birthday of Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , and much of the plot revolves around his concerns with his age and desire to reclaim the happiness of his childhood . At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is forced to deal with her ex @-@ boyfriend Dennis Duffy ( Winters ) and his self @-@ diagnosis as a sex addict as well as the fact that Dennis slept with her close friend Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) . A final plotline in the episode involves the desire of Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to travel in space , and the efforts by Liz and Jack to deceive him into thinking he has done so .
" Apollo , Apollo " was generally well received by television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 2 million households during its original broadcast . " Apollo , Apollo " was nominated for four Primetime Emmy Awards and won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . Robert Carlock won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy for his work on this episode .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with an announcement by Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) on television that he plans to travel to outer space , and is willing to pay up to thirty million dollars to do so . Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) agrees to help Tracy with his dream of traveling in space , promising to call his friends at NASA . Instead of doing this , however , he asks The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) to create a fake space experience for Tracy . Pete and the TGS crew construct a model space shuttle and place Tracy in it after disorienting him by flying him in a helicopter blindfolded . The deception is a success , and Tracy believes that he is , in fact , flying in space .
At the same time , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is visited by her ex @-@ boyfriend , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) , who informs her that he is a sex addict , now atoning for his past errors . Liz is unimpressed and asks Dennis to leave , before going to work . Later , after arriving at work , Liz answers Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) cellphone , and is surprised to find that Dennis is calling Jenna . Liz pretends to be Jenna and discovers that Jenna and Dennis slept together . Liz is determined not to let this revelation affect her friendship with Jenna , so the two go to confront Dennis about his behavior . During the confrontation , Liz discovers that Jenna and Dennis actually slept together in her bed , leading her to resent Jenna 's actions . As a result , she fails to tell Jenna about an improperly attached piece of equipment , leading Jenna to injure her leg .
Meanwhile , Jack 's fiftieth birthday is approaching and he has received home movies of some of his earlier birthdays from his mother , Collen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) . While watching the tapes , Jack discovers just how happy he was when he was younger , and is determined to reclaim that happiness and innocence . After examining a list he made while he was younger , he discovers that he has done all of the things but one , befriending Batman . Thus , he arranges for actor Adam West , who played Batman , to come to his birthday party . At the party , however , West calls Jack by the wrong name , leading him to realize that he is in fact unhappy , despite his accomplishments . In an effort to reclaim his happiness , Jack attempts to find the same toy that made him so happy on his tenth birthday , a model of an Apollo Lunar Module . He buys one from a vintage toy store , but still remains unhappy .
Later , Liz apologizes to Jenna for allowing her to be injured , and agrees to let Jenna tell the TGS writing staff about her role in an advertisement for a phone sex line . The writers find the ad online , and greatly enjoy watching it . Jack comes in while the writers are watching and laughs so hard that he vomits . The laughter lifts Jack out of his bad mood , and he tells Liz what an important friend she is .
= = Production = =
" Apollo , Apollo " was written by executive producer Robert Carlock , making it his eleventh writing credit after " Jack the Writer " , " Jack @-@ Tor " , " The Source Awards " , " Cleveland " , " Jack Gets in the Game " , Episode 210 , " Subway Hero " , " Sandwich Day " , " Believe in the Stars " , and " Generalissimo " . This was Millicent Shelton 's first 30 Rock directed episode , and would later return to helm the fourth season episode " Floyd " . Shelton had spent two years in negotiations with the show 's producers before she was hired to direct this episode . " Apollo , Apollo " originally aired in the United States on March 26 , 2009 , on NBC as the sixteenth episode of the show 's third season and the 52nd overall episode of the series .
In this episode of 30 Rock , actor Dean Winters reprised his role as Dennis Duffy , a former boyfriend of Liz Lemon , for the sixth time , having appeared in " Jack Meets Dennis " , " Tracy Does Conan " , " The Break @-@ Up " , " Subway Hero " , and " Cooter " . Actor Adam West played himself on the show , in which he introduces Jack Donaghy by the wrong name at Jack 's fiftieth birthday party . Liz 's phone sex line commercial , the full @-@ length version , is featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the Bonus features .
In a scene in " Apollo , Apollo " , Jack wonders what it would be like to see the world through NBC page Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) eyes , revealing that Kenneth sees everyone as Muppets . To accommodate this , Sesame Street puppeteers Joey Mazzarino , Carmen Osbahr , and Matt Vogel were brought in to do the muppet versions of Jack , Liz , and Tracy Jordan . This angle would later be used again in the show 's fourth season episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show " in which Kenneth appears as a muppet while walking by a high @-@ definition camera . In addition , the program was parodied by Sesame Street , in the show 's 39th season , entitled " 30 Rocks " .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens , and while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In " Apollo , Apollo " , Tracy reveals to Liz and Jack that going into space has been a childhood dream of his , and that when he is there , he would like to kill the Ewok . Tina Fey , the series creator of 30 Rock , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , an average of 7 @.@ 2 million viewers watched " Apollo , Apollo " during its original United States broadcast , placing it in third place for its timeslot . The show also claimed a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 8 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 4 percent of all people in that group , and 8 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was an increase from the previous episode , " The Bubble " , which was watched by 7 million American viewers .
" Apollo , Apollo " was generally , though not universally , well received among critics . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the episode was " easily the best 30 Rock of the season , and one of the series ' best episodes to date " . He complimented Robert Carlock for " [ zooming ] in on the narcissistic worldview " of the Dennis character as it " cranked those qualities up to appropriately absurd 30 Rock proportions . " In addition , Sepinwall wrote that all of the elements featured in the episode " all came together " . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was similarly laudatory , writing that it was " one of the most explosively hysterical and imaginative half hours of TV this season , and one of this show 's best episodes ever " . Time contributor James Poniewozik was favorable to the episode , observing that it was " [ e ] asily the funniest 30 Rock in months , and probably the whole season . " Poniewozik said it " nailed it , from the too @-@ many @-@ good @-@ jokes ... to the sweet heart at the center of each character . " The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Adam West 's cameo , but noted that Tracy 's plot " felt awfully shticky and sitcommy to me . " He opined that " Apollo , Apollo " was " pretty great " for Jane Krakowski 's Jenna , and in conclusion , Rabin said " I had initially pegged this episode as good but not great and essentially minor in the grand scheme of things but while writing this post I came to realize just how much of it I loved . 30 Rock is pretty great even when it 's not that great . " Rick Porter , a contributor for Zap2it , said he " loved " the episode , writing that it made " perfect sense " for Kenneth to see everyone around him as muppets , and noted that Liz 's commercial was a " strong ending " to the episode .
Margaret Lyons of Entertainment Weekly agreed that the episode was " another solid 30 Rock " , but was somewhat less positive , writing that it " didn 't quite slay me like the last few episodes have . " In addition , Lyons was not thrilled with the Jenna character , reporting " It 's been a long time since we 've seen Jenna do something redemptive – and I 'd settle for anything not strenuously vacant and narcissistic . I get that that 's her bit , but ... that note is starting to drive me crazy . " IGN contributor Robert Canning also delivered a mixed review of the episode , writing that he laughed " quite a bit " but said it ultimately " felt like it could have been so much more . " Canning also concluded his review by stating that it " fell shy of being an absolute classic . " Writing for The Palm Beach Post Kevin D. Thompson said " While last night 's episode was far from unwatchable , it wasn 't one of the show 's best , either . But as I 've written before , a so @-@ so 30 Rock is still better than 99 percent of TV 's other so @-@ called comedies . " Thompson noted that he was not thrilled with the return of Dean Winters as Dennis , and called his plot with Liz and Jenna " the show 's least interesting plot " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Apollo , Apollo " received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations , winning one ; Millicent Shelton received a nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , Robert Carlock received a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , Matthew Clark received a nomination for Outstanding Cinematography for a Half @-@ Hour Series nomination , and Ken Eluto won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards .
At the February 2010 ceremony for the Writers Guild of America Awards , Carlock won for Episodic Comedy , tieing with Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for their work on the pilot episode . Eluto garnered the American Cinema Editors " Eddie " Award for Best Edited Half @-@ Hour Series for Television . In addition , " Apollo , Apollo " was nominated for the ADG Excellence in Production Design Award for Half Hour Single @-@ Camera Television Series .
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= Edward Coke =
Sir Edward Coke SL PC ( / ˈkʊk / ( " cook " ) , formerly / ˈkuːk / ; 1 February 1552 – 3 September 1634 ) was an English barrister , judge and , later , opposition politician , who is considered to be the greatest jurist of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras . Born into a middle @-@ class family , Coke was educated at Trinity College , Cambridge , before leaving to study at the Inner Temple , where he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578 . As a barrister he took part in several notable cases , including Slade 's Case , before earning enough political favour to be elected to Parliament , where he served first as Solicitor General and then as Speaker of the House of Commons . Following a promotion to Attorney General he led the prosecution in several notable cases , including those against Robert Devereux , Sir Walter Raleigh , and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators . As a reward for his services he was first knighted and then made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas .
As Chief Justice , Coke restricted the use of the ex officio ( Star Chamber ) oath and , in the Case of Proclamations and Dr. Bonham 's Case , declared the King to be subject to the law , and the laws of Parliament to be void if in violation of " common right and reason " . These actions eventually led to his transfer to the Chief Justiceship of the King 's Bench , where it was felt he could do less damage . Coke then successively restricted the definition of treason and declared a royal letter illegal , leading to his dismissal from the bench on 14 November 1616 . With no chance of regaining his judicial posts , he instead returned to Parliament , where he swiftly became a leading member of the opposition . During his time as a Member of Parliament he wrote and campaigned for the Statute of Monopolies , which substantially restricted the ability of the monarch to grant patents , and authored and was instrumental in the passage of the Petition of Right , a document considered one of the three crucial constitutional documents of England , along with the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 .
Coke is best known in modern times for his Institutes , described by John Rutledge as " almost the foundations of our law " , and his Reports , which have been called " perhaps the single most influential series of named reports " . Historically , he was a highly influential judge ; within England and Wales , his statements and works were used to justify the right to silence , while the Statute of Monopolies is considered to be one of the first actions in the conflict between Parliament and monarch that led to the English Civil War . In America , Coke 's decision in Dr. Bonham 's Case was used to justify the voiding of both the Stamp Act 1765 and writs of assistance , which led to the American War of Independence ; after the establishment of the United States his decisions and writings profoundly influenced the Third and Fourth amendments to the United States Constitution while necessitating the Sixteenth .
= = Family background and early life = =
The surname " Coke " , or " Cocke " , can be traced back to a William Coke in the hundred of South Greenhoe , now the Norfolk town of Swaffham , in around 1150 . The family was relatively prosperous and influential – members from the 14th century onwards included an Under @-@ Sheriff , a Knight Banneret , a barrister and a merchant . The name " Coke " was pronounced / ˈkuːk / during the Elizabethan age , although it is now pronounced / ˈkʊk / . The origins of the name are uncertain ; theories are that it was a word for " river " among early Britons , or was descended from the word " Coc " , or leader . Another hypothesis is that it was an attempt to disguise the word " cook " .
Coke 's father , Robert Coke , was a barrister and Bencher of Lincoln 's Inn who built up a strong practice representing clients from his home area of Norfolk . Over time , he bought several manors at Congham , Westacre and Happisburgh and was granted a coat of arms , becoming a minor member of the gentry . Coke 's mother , Winifred Knightley , came from a family even more intimately linked with the law than her husband . Her father and grandfather had practised law in the Norfolk area , and her sister Audrey was married to Thomas Gawdy , a lawyer and Justice of the Court of King 's Bench with links to the Earl of Arundel . This connection later served Edward well . Winifred 's father later married Agnes , the sister of Nicholas Hare .
Edward Coke was born on 1 February 1552 in Mileham , one of eight children . The other seven were daughters – Winifred , Dorothy , Elizabeth , Ursula , Anna , Margaret and Ethelreda – although it is not known in which order the children were born . Two years after Robert Coke died on 15 November 1561 , his widow married Robert Bozoun , a property trader noted for his piety and strong business acumen ( once forcing Nicholas Bacon to pay an exorbitant amount of money for a piece of property ) . He had a tremendous influence on the Coke children : from Bozoun Coke learnt to " loathe concealers , prefer godly men and briskly do business with any willing client " , something that shaped his future conduct as a lawyer , politician , and judge .
= = Education and call to the Bar = =
At the age of eight in 1560 , Coke began studying at the Norwich Free Grammar School . The education there was based on erudition , the eventual goal being that by the age of 18 the students would have learned " to vary one sentence diversely , to make a verse exactly , to endight an epistle eloquently and learnedly , to declaim of a theme simple , and last of all to attain some competent knowledge of the Greek tongue " . The students were taught rhetoric based on the Rhetorica ad Herennium , and Greek centred on the works of Homer and Virgil . Coke was taught at Norwich to value the " forcefulness of freedom of speech " , something he later applied as a judge . Some accounts relate that he was a diligent student who applied himself well .
After leaving Norwich in 1567 he matriculated to Trinity College , Cambridge , where he studied for three years until the end of 1570 , when he left without gaining a degree . Little is known of his time at Trinity , though he certainly studied rhetoric and dialectics under a program instituted in 1559 . His biographers felt he had all the intelligence to be a good student , though a record of his academic achievements has not been found . Coke was proud of Cambridge and the time he spent there , later saying in Dr. Bonham 's Case that Cambridge and Oxford were " the eyes and soul of the realm , from whence religion , the humanities , and learning were richly diffused into all parts of the realm . "
After leaving Trinity College he travelled to London , where he became a member of Clifford 's Inn in 1571 . This was to learn the basics of the law – the Inns of Chancery , including Clifford 's Inn , provided initial legal education before transfer to the Inns of Court , where one could be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister . Students were educated through arguments and debates — they would be given precedents and writs each day , discuss them at the dinner table and then argue a moot court based on those precedents and their discussions . Coke also studied various writs " till they turned honey sweet on his tongue " , and after completing this stage of his legal education transferred to the Inner Temple on 24 April 1572 .
At the Inner Temple he began the second stage of his education , reading legal texts such as Glanville 's Treatises and taking part in moots . He took little interest in the theatrical performances or other cultural events at the Inns , preferring to spend his time at the law courts in Westminster Hall , listening to the Serjeants argue . After six years at the Inner Temple he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578 , a remarkably fast rate of progress given the process of legal education at the time , which normally required eight years of study . Polson , a biographer of Coke , suggests that this was due to his knowledge of the law , which " excited the Benchers " .
= = Practice as a barrister = =
After being called to the Bar on 20 April 1578 Coke immediately began practising as a barrister . His first case was in the Court of King 's Bench in 1581 , and was known as Lord Cromwell 's Case after the claimant , Lord Henry Cromwell , a landlord in Coke 's home county of Norfolk . The case was a charge of slander against a Mr Denny , the Vicar of Northlinham and Coke 's client . In a dispute with Denny , Cromwell had hired two unlicensed preachers to harass him , denounce the Book of Common Prayer and preach the gospel in his area . Denny retorted by telling Cromwell " you like not of me , since you like those that maintain sedition " . Cromwell argued that Denny was guilty of scandalum magnatum , slander against a peer of the realm , because his statement implied that Cromwell himself was seditious or had seditious tendencies .
The case was actually two actions , with the first judgement being given in Denny 's favour after Coke 's research found a flaw in the pleadings that invalidated Cromwell 's case . His counsel had worked from an inaccurate English copy of the Latin statute of scandalum magnatum which had mistranslated several passages , forcing them to start the case anew . After the case was restarted , Coke argued that Denny had commented on Cromwell 's support of people attacking the Book of Common Prayer , and was not implying any deeper disloyalty . The judge ruled that Denny 's statement had indeed meant this , and from this position of strength Coke forced a settlement . Coke was very proud of his actions in this case and later described it in his Reports as " an excellent point of learning in actions of slander " . The next year he was elected Reader of Lyon 's Inn for three years , something surprising considering his young age and likely related to his conduct in Lord Cromwell 's Case . As Reader he was tasked with reading to the students at the Inn , a group that numbered about thirty at any one time , and the quality of his readings increased his reputation even further . His lectures were on the Statute of Uses , and his reputation was such that when he retired to his house after an outbreak of the plague , " nine Benchers , forty barristers , and others of the Inn accompanied him a considerable distance on his journey " in order to talk to him .
During the 1580s , Coke became intimately linked with the Howard family , the Dukes of Norfolk and Earls of Arundel . His uncle Thomas Gawdy had close links to Earl Arundel himself . In Norfolk Arundel held a liberty – he was essentially a local prince who appointed all officials , maintained his own prison , executed justice and bribed any royal clerks . His power base was his household , particularly the network of lawyers and stewards who held his estates together . Coke 's uncle Thomas Gawdy had served as Steward to the Third Duke of Norfolk , and during the 1580s Coke was employed by the Howards to counter lawyers employed by the Crown , who argued that the Howards ' lands were forfeit owing to the treason of the 4th Duke . As well as defeating these direct attacks Coke traveled to Cardiff to answer a challenge by Francis Dacre , son of William Dacre , 3rd Baron Dacre and uncle @-@ in @-@ law to the 4th Duke 's three sons , Philip Howard and his two half @-@ brothers , Thomas Howard , 1st Earl of Suffolk and Lord William Howard – he proved that Dacre 's evidence was false and had the case dismissed .
Coke became involved in the now classic Shelley 's Case in 1581 , which created a rule in real property that is still used in some common law jurisdictions today ; the case also established Coke 's reputation as an attorney and case reporter . His next famous case was Chudleigh 's Case , a dispute over the interpretation of the Statute of Uses , followed by Slade 's Case , a dispute between the Common Pleas and King 's Bench over assumpsit now regarded as a classic example of the friction between the two courts and the forward movement of contract law ; Coke 's argument in Slade 's Case formed the first definition of consideration .
= = Politics = =
Thanks to his work in their behalf , Coke had earned the favour of the Dukes of Norfolk . When he secured the Lordship of Aldeburgh for them in 1588 he also obtained the Aldeburgh Parliamentary Constituency , which elected two Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . With their support , Coke was returned for Aldeburgh as an MP in February 1589 .
= = = Elizabeth I = = =
= = = = Solicitor General and Speaker = = = =
The political " old guard " began to change around the time Coke became a Member of Parliament . The Earl of Leicester died in 1588 , followed by Sir Walter Mildmay , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , a year later , and Sir Francis Walshingham a year after that . In 1592 the Lord Chief Justice died and , according to custom the Attorney General , John Popham , succeeded him , with the Solicitor General , Thomas Egerton , succeeding Popham . This created a vacancy among the Law Officers of the Crown , and thanks to the influence of the Cecil family , Coke became Solicitor General on 16 June 1592 . This was likely a narrow victory owing to Coke 's defence of unpopular clients ; he was summoned before Elizabeth I , who berated him until he cried before confirming him as Solicitor General .
Coke held the position only briefly ; by the time he returned from a tour of Norfolk to discuss election strategy , he had been confirmed as Speaker of the House of Commons by the Privy Council , having been proposed by Francis Knollys and Thomas Heneage following his return to Parliament as MP for Norfolk . Coke held the positions of Speaker and Solicitor @-@ General at the same time , although he did not take up his post as Speaker until the state opening of Parliament on 19 February 1593 ( despite being confirmed on 28 January 1593 ) . After " disabling " himself in the House of Lords ( a ceremony in which the incoming Speaker apologised for his failings ) Parliament was suspended until 24 February ; Coke returned two days later , having suffered from a stomach problem . The Parliament was intended to be a brief and simple one ; with the Black Death resurgent throughout England and the threat of Spain on the horizon , the only matter was to impose certain taxes to fund the Queen 's campaign against the Spanish , with no bills to be introduced . The taxes were paramount ; subsidies collected in 1589 had been spent , and the war continued .
The idea of a calm , swift Parliament foundered on the rocks of religious conflict . On 27 February James Morice , a Puritan Member of Parliament , proposed two new bills : one against the bishops of the Church of England , and the other against the Court of High Commission . Morice was placed under house arrest , and seven Members of Parliament were later arrested , but the bills remained in Parliament . They were defended by Francis Knollys , one of the few remaining Puritan Members of Parliament , while other Puritans spat and coughed to drown out speeches by opponents . Coke and Cecil , the government 's two strongest defenders in Parliament , made several efforts to put off or end the debate over the bills . Cecil first pointed out that the Queen had forbidden bills on religion ; Parliament ignored him , and the bill went ahead . Coke , as Speaker of the House of Commons ( whose job was to schedule any bills ) , conducted a delaying campaign , first suggesting that the bill was too long to be read in the morning and then that it be delegated to a committee ; both suggestions were voted down by the Commons . Coke continued talking until the end of the Parliamentary day in a filibuster action , granting a day of delay for the government . Immediately afterwards , Coke was summoned by the Queen , who made it clear that any action on the bills would be considered evidence of disloyalty . The warning was accepted by the Commons , and no more action was taken on the two Puritan bills .
= = = = Attorney General = = = =
On 10 April 1594 , Coke was made Attorney General for England and Wales thanks to his partnership with the Cecil family . Francis Bacon , his rival , was supported by Robert Devereux , who waged a constant war against Robert Cecil for control of the English government . The position of Master of the Rolls had become vacant in April 1593 , and Coke was expected to be appointed according to convention ; Bacon , therefore , would become Attorney General . Coke reacted by becoming even more dogmatic in his actions on behalf of the Crown , and when Devereux approached the queen on Bacon 's behalf , she replied that even Bacon 's uncle [ Lord Burghley ] considered him the second best candidate , after Coke . The Attorney General was the main prosecutor of the Crown , expected to bring all charges on its behalf and serve as its legal advisor in any situation . Coke was appointed in a time of particular difficulty ; besides famine and the conflict with Spain , war had recently broken out in Ireland .
Coke primarily dealt with matters of treason , such as the cases of Sir John Smythe and Edward Squire . He also handled religious incidents such as the disputes between the Jesuits and the Church of England , personally interrogating John Gerard after his capture . As the 1590s continued , the infighting between Cecil and Devereux persisted , with Devereux 's raid on Cadiz earning him national fame . In March 1599 Devereux was sent to defeat the growing rebellion in Ireland and was given command of 18 @,@ 000 men , but by November his army was reduced to 4 @,@ 000 , the rest " frittered away " in exchange for " [ conquering ] nothing " . On 5 June 1600 he faced a panel of Privy Councillors , judges and members of the nobility at York House , where he was charged with appointing generals without the Queen 's permission , ignoring orders and negotiating " very basely " with the leader of the rebel forces . While the members of the nobility wished to be gentle with Devereux , the lawyers and judges felt differently , recommending fines and confinement in the Tower of London . In the end a compromise was reached , with Devereux put under house arrest and dismissed from all his government offices .
Devereux immediately began plotting rebellion . Orders were sent out for " bedding " and " draperies " – codenames for weapons – and rebellious gentlemen gathered at Essex House to hear him talk of Elizabeth 's " crooked mind and crooked carcass " . In response , Coke and Cecil began a counter @-@ plot . In 1599 Sir John Hayward had written and published The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie IV , dedicating it to Devereux . Elizabeth , furious , had banned the book , suggesting that it was a " seditious prelude " intended to show her as a corrupt and poor monarch . Against the backdrop of Devereux 's plot , Coke and Cecil started a new investigation into the book , hoping to prove some involvement of Devereux in the publishing . Coke interviewed Hayward 's licensing cleric , Samuel Harsnett , who complained that the dedication had been " foisted " on him by Devereux . In reaction , Coke decided to bring charges of treason against Devereux , saying that he had " plotted and practised with the Pope and king of Spain for the deposing and selling of himself as well as the crown of England ... His permitting underhand that treasonable book of Henry IV to be printed and published ; it being plainly deciphered , not only by the matter , and by the epistle itself , for what end and for whose behalf it was made , but also the Earl himself being present so often at the playing thereof , and with great applause giving countenance to it " .
The charges were never brought because of an incident that soon transpired . On 8 February 1601 Devereux ordered his followers to meet at Essex House . A day later a group of emissaries led by Thomas Egerton and John Popham were sent to Devereux , and immediately taken hostage . After a failed attempt to garner support from the population of London , Devereux found himself surrounded in Essex House ; after burning his personal papers , he surrendered . On 19 February he was tried for treason , along with the Earl of Southampton . Coke led the case for the government , and Devereux was found guilty and executed ; the Earl of Southampton was reprieved .
= = = James I = = =
On 24 March 1603 , Elizabeth I died . James VI of Scotland set out to claim the English throne , taking the title James I , and the Cokes immediately began ingratiating themselves with the new monarch and his family . Elizabeth Hatton , Coke 's wife , travelled to Scotland to meet Anne of Denmark , the incoming Queen , and " the high @-@ tempered beauty somehow pleased that withdrawn , strong @-@ willed woman ... for as long as Anna lived ... Lady Hatton and her husband would retain the queen 's affection and trust " . Coke attended divine service with the new king on 22 May , who , following the service , took a sword from his bodyguard and knighted Coke . Coke was reconfirmed as Attorney General under James , and immediately found himself dealing with " a series of treasons , whether real or imaginary " . The first of these was the trial of Sir Walter Raleigh ; according to Cuthbert William Johnson , one of Coke 's biographers , " There is , perhaps , no reported case in which the proofs against the prisoner were weaker than in this trial ... never was an accused person condemned on slighter grounds " .
Raleigh was brought to trial on 17 November 1603 , on charges of " conspiring to deprive the King of his Government ; to alter religion ; to bring in the Roman superstition ; and to procure foreign enemies to invade the kingdom " . The government alleged that on 11 June 1603 , Raleigh had met with Lord Cobham , and they had agreed to bring Lady Arbella Stuart ( a great great granddaughter of Henry VII ) to the English throne , and to accept 600 @,@ 000 marks from the Spanish government . As such , Raleigh was charged with supporting Stuart 's claim to the throne and claiming Spanish money . He pleaded not guilty , with Coke 's only evidence being a confession from Cobham , who was described as " a weak and unprincipled creature ... who said one thing at one time , and another thing in another , and could be relied upon in nothing " . This case was " no case at all ... It supports the general charges in the indictment only by the vaguest possible reference to ' these practices , ' and ' plots and invasions ' of which no more is said " .
Coke 's behaviour during the trial has been repeatedly criticised ; on this weak evidence , he called Raleigh a " notorious traitor " , " vile viper " and " damnable atheist " , perverting the law and using every slip of the tongue as a way of further showing Raleigh 's guilt . Raleigh was found guilty and imprisoned in the Tower of London for more than a decade before finally being executed . It is generally concluded that the trial was biased strongly against Raleigh , although the assessment of Coke varies . While Magruder , in the Scottish Law Review , writes that Coke 's " fair fame was tarnished and outraged " by his part in the trial , Boyer notes that Coke was , above all , loyal . He prosecuted Raleigh in that fashion because he had been asked to show Raleigh 's guilt by the king , and as Attorney General , Coke was bound to obey .
The next significant government prosecution was the trial of the eight main Gunpowder Plot conspirators in Westminster Hall . The men were indicted on 27 January 1605 and tried by the Lords Commissioners . Coke conducted the prosecution for the government – an easy one , since the conspirators had no legal representation – and through his speeches , " blacken [ ed ] them in the eyes of the world " . The conspirators were all sentenced to death and died through various means . Due to his judicial appointment , this was the last important prosecution Coke participated in .
= = Judicial work = =
Coke 's first judicial postings came under Elizabeth ; in 1585 , he was made Recorder of Coventry , in 1587 Norwich , and in 1592 Recorder of London , a position he resigned upon his appointment as Solicitor General .
= = = Common Pleas = = =
On 20 June 1606 , Coke was made a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law , a requirement for his elevation to Chief Justice of the Common Pleas , which occurred on 30 June . His conduct was noted by Johnson as " from the first , excellent ; ever perfectly upright and fearlessly independent " , although the convention of the day was that the judges held their positions only at the pleasure of the monarch . A biographer of Francis Bacon noted that " [ t ] he most offensive of Attorney Generals [ sic ] transformed into the most admired and venerated of Judges " . Some assert that Coke became Chief Justice due to his prosecutions of Raleigh and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators , but there is no evidence to support this ; instead , it was traditional at the time that a retiring Chief Justice would be replaced with the Attorney General .
= = = = Court of High Commission = = = =
Coke 's changed position from Attorney General to Chief Justice allowed him to openly attack organisations he had previously supported . His first target was the Court of High Commission , an ecclesiastical court established by the monarch with near unlimited power ; it administered a mandatory ex officio oath that deliberately trapped people . The High Commission was vastly unpopular among both common lawyers and Members of Parliament , as the idea of " prerogative law " challenged both authorities . The appointment of Richard Bancroft as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1604 caused the issue to grow in importance ; according to P.B. Waite , a Canadian historian , Bancroft 's zeal and strictness " could hardly fail to produce an atmosphere in which principles and issues would crystallize , in which logic would supplant reasonableness " . The judges , particularly Coke , began to unite with Parliament in challenging the High Commission . In 1607 Parliament openly asked for Coke 's opinion on the High Commission 's practices ; he replied that " No man ecclesiastical or temporal shall be examined upon secret thoughts of his heart or of his secret opinion " .
During this period a " notorious suit " ran through the courts , known as Fuller 's Case after the defendant , Nicholas Fuller . A barrister , Fuller had several clients fined by the High Commission for non @-@ conformity , and stated that the High Commission 's procedure was " popish , under jurisdiction not of Christ but of anti @-@ Christ " . For this , Fuller was held in custody for contempt of court . The Court of King 's Bench argued that this was a lay matter , while the High Commission claimed it fell under their jurisdiction . Coke had no official role , other than acting as a mediator between the two , but in the end Fuller was convicted by the High Commission . This was a defeat for the common law , and in response Coke spent the summer issuing writs of prohibition to again challenge Bancroft and the High Commission . On 6 November 1608 , the common law judges and members of the High Commission were summoned before the king and told that they would argue and allow him to decide . Finding themselves unable to even argue coherently , instead " [ standing ] sullen , merely denying each others ' statements " , the group was dismissed and reconvened a week later . Coke , speaking for the judges , argued that the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts was limited to cases where no temporal matters were involved and the rest left to the common law .
At this point the king 's own position in relation to the law , and his authority to decide this matter , was brought up , in what became known as the Case of Prohibitions . James stated that " In cases where there is not express authority in law , the King may himself decide in his royal person ; the Judges are but delegates of the King " . Coke challenged this , saying " the King in his own person cannot adjudge any case , either criminal – as treason , felony etc , or betwixt party and party ; but this ought to be determined and adjudged in some court of justice , according to the Law and Custom of England " . Coke further stated that " The common law protecteth the King " , to which James replied " The King protecteth the law , and not the law the King ! The King maketh judges and bishops . If the judges interpret the laws themselves and suffer none else to interpret , they may easily make , of the laws , shipmen 's hose ! " . Coke rejected this , stating that while the monarch was not subject to any individual , he was subject to the law . Until he had gained sufficient knowledge of the law , he had no right to interpret it ; he pointed out that such knowledge " demanded mastery of an artificial reason ... which requires long study and experience , before that a man can attain to the cognizance of it " . Coke was only saved from imprisonment by Cecil , who pleaded with the king to show leniency , which he granted . After the conclusion of this dispute , Coke freely left , and continued to issue writs of prohibition against the High Commission .
= = = = Dr. Bonham 's Case = = = =
Thomas Bonham v College of Physicians , commonly known as Dr. Bonham 's Case was a decision of the Court of Common Pleas under Coke in which he ruled that " in many cases , the common law will controul Acts of Parliament , and sometimes adjudge them to be utterly void : for when an Act of Parliament is against common right and reason , or repugnant , or impossible to be performed , the common law will controul it , and adjudge such Act to be void " . Coke 's meaning has been disputed over the years ; some interpret his judgment as referring to judicial review of statutes to correct misunderstandings which would render them unfair , while others argue he meant that the common law courts have the power to completely strike down those statutes they deem to be repugnant .
Whatever Coke 's meaning , after an initial period of application , Bonham 's Case was thrown aside in favour of the growing doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty . Initially written down by William Blackstone , this theory makes Parliament the sovereign law @-@ maker , preventing the common law courts from not only throwing aside but also reviewing statutes in the fashion Coke suggested . Parliamentary sovereignty is now the universally @-@ accepted judicial doctrine in England and Wales . Bonham 's Case met a mixed reaction at the time , with the king and Lord Ellesmere both deeply unhappy with it . Nineteenth and twentieth century academics are scarcely more favourable , calling it " a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra @-@ judicially " , and an " abortion " .
In the United States , Coke 's decision met with a better reaction . During the legal and public campaigns against the writs of assistance and Stamp Act 1765 , Bonham 's Case was given as a justification for nullifying the legislation . Marbury v. Madison , the American case which forms the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the Constitution , uses the words " void " and " repugnant " , seen as a direct reference to Coke . Some academics , such as Edward Samuel Corwin , have argued that Coke 's work in Bonham 's Case forms the basis of judicial review and the declaration of legislation as unconstitutional in the United States . Gary L. McDowell calls this " one of the most enduring myths of American constitutional law and theory , to say nothing of history " , pointing out that at no point during the Constitutional Convention was Bonham 's Case referenced .
= = = King 's Bench = = =
Coke was transferred from the Common Pleas , where he was succeeded by Hobart , to the Court of King 's Bench on 25 October 1613 , on the advice of Bacon , presumably because Bacon and the king felt that if he was moved from a court dedicated to protecting the rights of the people to one dedicated to the rights of the king , " his capacity for harm would be diminished " . From Bacon 's point of view , the King 's Bench was a far more precarious position for someone loyal to the common law rather than the monarch . Coke 's first case of note there was Peacham 's Case , in which he dictated that the writing of a sermon by Thomas Peacham which advocated the death of the king – a sermon which was never preached or published – could not constitute treason . The king was unwilling to accept this decision and instead had him tried by Coke 's opponents on the bench , who " not surprisingly " found him guilty . Refusing to admit his guilt , Peacham was tortured on the rack , but " before torture , between torture and after torture ; nothing could be drawn from him " .
In 1616 , two years after Peacham 's Case , the case of commendams arose . The in commendam writ was a method of transferring ecclesiastical property , which James used in this case to allow Richard Neile to hold his bishopric and associated revenues without actually performing the duties . On 25 April 1616 the courts , at Coke 's bidding , held that this action was illegal , writing to the king that " in case any letters come unto us contrary to law , we do nothing by such letters , but certify your Majesty thereof , and go forth to do the law notwithstanding the same " . James called the judges before him and , furious , ripped up the letter , patronisingly telling them that " I well know the true and ancient common law to be the most favourable to Kings of any law in the world , to which law I do advise you my Judges to apply your studies " . While all the other judges " succumbed to royal pressure and , throwing themselves on their knees , prayed for pardon " , Coke defended the letter and stated that " When the case happens I shall do that which shall be fit for a judge to do " .
This was the last straw ; on advice from Bacon , who had long been jealous of Coke , James I suspended Coke from the Privy Council , forbade him from going on circuit and , on 14 November , dismissed him from his post as Chief Justice of the King 's Bench . This was greeted by deep resentment in the country , which saw the king 's actions as tampering with justice . Coke himself reacted by sinking into a deep depression . James I then ordered Coke to spend his time " expunging and retracting such novelties and errors and offensive conceits as are dispersed in his Reports " . Bacon , now in royal favour , became Lord Chancellor on 3 March 1617 and set up a commission to purge the Reports , also using his authority to expand the powers of the High Commission . With James unable to declare Coke incompetent , some of what Humphry William Woolrych describes as " colorable excuses " were produced to justify Coke 's dismissal ; he was accused of concealing £ 12 @,@ 000 , uttering " high words of contempt " as a judge , and declaring himself Chief Justice of England .
= = Return to politics = =
Now out of favour and with no chance of returning to the judiciary , Coke was re @-@ elected to Parliament as an MP , ironically by order of the king , who expected Coke to support his efforts . Elected in 1620 , Coke sat for Liskeard in the 1621 Parliament , which was called by the king to raise revenues ; other topics of discussion included a proposed marriage between the Prince of Wales and Maria Anna of Spain , and possible military support for the king 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Frederick V , Elector Palatine . Coke became a leading opposition MP , along with Robert Phelips , Thomas Wentworth and John Pym , campaigning against any military intervention and the marriage of the Prince of Wales and Maria Anna . His position at the head of the opposition was unsurprising given his extensive experience in both local and central government , as well as his ability to speak with authority on matters of economics , parliamentary procedure and the law . He subsequently sat as MP for Coventry ( 1624 ) , Norfolk ( 1625 ) and Buckinghamshire ( 1628 ) .
In June 1614 , the University of Cambridge by unanimous vote elected Coke High Steward , honorary office next below Chancellor of the University . Through Cecil , ( previously High Steward and then Chancellor of Cambridge ) , Coke had procured for the University the right to send its own two representatives to Parliament , a matter of much practical benefit . A fervent Cantabrigian , Coke had a habit of naming Cambridge first , including in Parliament . When reminded that precedence belonged to Oxford " by vote of the House , " Coke persisted in giving Cambridge primacy . A Privy Councilor , Sir Thomas Edmondes , interrupted with a rebuke . It was reported that Coke suggested Edmondes not bother worrying about the primacy of Oxford or Cambridge , given that he had not attended either university .
= = = Monopolies = = =
Coke used his role in Parliament as a leading opposition MP to attack patents , a system he had already criticised as a judge . Historically , English patent law was based on custom and the common law , not on statute . It began as the Crown granted patents as a form of economic protection to ensure high industrial production . As gifts from the Crown , there was no judicial review , oversight or consideration , and no actual law concerning patents . To boost England 's economy , Edward II began encouraging foreign workmen and inventors to settle in England , offering letters of protection that protected them from guild policy on the condition that they train English apprentices and pass on their knowledge . The letters did not grant a full monopoly ; rather they acted as a passport , allowing foreign workers to travel to England and practice their trade . This process continued for three centuries , with formal procedures set out in 1561 to issue letters patent to any new industry , allowing monopolies . The granting of these patents was highly popular with the monarch because of the potential for raising revenue ; a patentee was expected to pay heavily for the patent , and unlike a tax raise ( another method of raising Crown money ) any public unrest as a result of the patent was normally directed at the patentee , not the monarch .
Over time , this system became more and more problematic ; instead of temporary monopolies on specific , imported industries , long @-@ term monopolies came about over more common commodities , including salt and starch . These monopolies led to a showdown between the Crown and Parliament , in which it was agreed in 1601 to turn the power to administer patents over to the common law courts ; at the same time , Elizabeth revoked a number of the more restrictive and damaging monopolies . Even given a string of judicial decisions criticising and overruling such monopolies , James I , when he took the throne , continued using patents to create monopolies . Coke used his position in Parliament to attack these patents , which were , according to him , " now grown like hydras ' heads ; they grow up as fast as they are cut off " . Coke succeeded in establishing the Committee of Grievances , a body chaired by him that abolished a large number of monopolies . This was followed by a wave of protest at the patent system . On 27 March 1621 , James suggested the House of Commons draw up a list of the three most objectionable patents , and he would remove them , but by this time a statute was already being prepared by Coke . After passing on 12 May it was thrown out by the House of Lords , but a Statute of Monopolies was finally passed by Parliament on 25 May 1624 .
In response to both this and Coke 's establishment of a sub @-@ committee to establish freedom of speech and discuss the rights of the Commons , James announced that " you usurp upon our prerogative royal and meddle with things far above your reach " . He first adjourned Parliament and then forbade the Commons from discussing " matters of state at home or abroad " . Ignoring this ban , Parliament issued a " Remonstrance to the King " on 11 December 1621 , authored by Coke , in which they restated their liberties and right to discuss matters of state , claiming that such rights were the " ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England " . After a debate , it was sent to James , who rejected it ; the Commons instead resolved to enter it into the Journal of the Commons , which required no royal authorisation . In the presence of Parliament , the king reacted by tearing the offending page from the Journal , declaring that it should be " razed out of all memories and utterly annihilated " , then dissolved Parliament . Coke was then imprisoned in the Tower of London on 27 December , but released nine months later .
= = = Liberty and the Resolutions = = =
James died on 27 March 1625 and was succeeded by his son , who became Charles I of England . Coke was made High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire by the king in 1625 , which prohibited him from sitting in Parliament until his term expired a year later . Following his father 's example , Charles raised loans without Parliament 's sanction and imprisoned without trial those who would not pay . The judges of the Court of Common Pleas and King 's Bench declared this to be illegal , and the Chief Justice Sir Ranulph Crewe was dismissed ; at this , the remaining judges succumbed to the king 's pressure . More and more people refused to pay , leading to Darnell 's Case , in which the courts confirmed that " if no cause was given for the detention ... the prisoner could not be freed as the offence was probably too dangerous for public discussion " . The result of this was that wealthy landowners refused to pay the loan and the Crown 's income fell below Charles 's expectations , forcing him to call a fresh Parliament in March 1627 . With popular anger at Charles 's policies , many MPs were opposed to him , including Pym , Coke and a young Oliver Cromwell .
Martial law was then declared , with continued imprisonment for a failure to pay the forced loans and soldiers billeted in the homes of private citizens to intimidate the population – something which led to Coke 's famous declaration that " the house of an Englishman is to him as his castle " . The Commons responded to these measures by insisting that the Magna Carta , which expressly forbade the imprisonment of freemen without trial , was still valid . Coke then prepared the Resolutions , which later led to the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 . These declared that Magna Carta was still in force , and that furthermore :
no freeman is to be committed or detained in prison , or otherwise restrained by command of the King or the Privy Council or any other , unless some lawful cause be shown ... the writ of habeas corpus cannot be denied , but should be granted to every man who is committed or detained in prison or otherwise restrained by the command of the King , the Privy Council or any other ... Any freeman so committed or detained in prison without cause being stated should be entitled to bail or be freed .
In addition , no tax or loan could be levied without Parliament 's permission , and no private citizen could be forced into accepting soldiers into his home . Coke , John Selden and the rest of the Committee for Grievances presented the Resolutions to the House of Lords , with Coke citing seven statutes and 31 cases to support his argument . He told the Lords that " Imprisonment in law is a civil death [ and ] a prison without a prefixed time is a kind of hell " . The Lords , supportive of the king , were not swayed , and Charles himself eventually rejected the Resolutions , insisting that the Commons trust him .
= = = Petition of Right = = =
Coke undertook the central role in framing and writing the Petition of Right . The ongoing struggles over martial law and civil liberties , along with the rejection of the Resolutions seriously concerned the Commons . Accordingly , Coke convinced the Lords to meet with the Commons in April 1628 in order to discuss a petition to the king confirming the rights and liberties of royal subjects . The Commons immediately accepted this , and after a struggle , the Lords agreed to allow a committee chaired by Coke to draft the eventual document . Hearing of this , the king sent a message to Parliament forbidding the Commons from discussing matters of state . The resulting debate led to some MPs being unable to speak due to their fear that the king was threatening them with the destruction of Parliament . Coke , despite the fear in Parliament , stood and spoke , citing historical precedents supporting the principle that members of the Commons could , within Parliament , say whatever they wished – something now codified as Parliamentary privilege .
The Petition of Right was affirmed by the Commons and sent to the Lords , who approved it on 17 May 1628 ; the document 's publication was met with bonfires and the ringing of church bells throughout England . As well as laying out a long list of statutes which had been broken , it proclaimed various " rights and liberties " of free Englishmen , including a freedom from taxation without Parliamentary approval , the right of habeas corpus , a prohibition on soldiers being billeted in houses without the owner 's will , and a prohibition on imposing martial law on civilians . It was later passed into formal law by the Long Parliament in 1641 and became one of the three constitutional documents of English civil liberties , along with the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 .
= = Retirement = =
When Parliament was dissolved in 1629 , Charles decided to govern without one , and Coke retired to his estate at Stoke Poges , Buckinghamshire , about 20 miles west of London , spending his time making revisions to his written works . He made no attempt to return to politics , stating that the Petition of Right would be left as his " greatest inheritance " ; his desire to complete his writings , coupled with his advanced age , may also have been factors . Despite his age , Coke was still in good health , and exercised daily . Following an accident in which his horse fell on him , he refused to consult doctors , saying that he had " a disease which all the drugs of Asia , the gold of Africa , nor all the doctors of Europe could cure – old age " , and instead chose to remain confined to the house without medical treatment . As he was on his deathbed the Privy Council ordered that his house and chambers be searched , seizing 50 manuscripts , which were later restored ; his will was permanently lost .
Coke died on 3 September 1634 , aged 82 , and lay in state for a month at his home in Godwick to allow for friends and relatives to view the body . He was buried in St Mary 's Church , Tittleshall . His grave is covered by a marble monument with his effigy lying on it in full judicial robes , surrounded by eight shields holding his coat of arms . A Latin inscription on the monument identifies him as " Father of twelve children and thirteen books " . A second inscription , in English , gives a brief chronicle of his life and ends by stating that " His laste wordes [ were ] thy kingdome come , thye will be done . Learne , reader to live so , that thou may 'st so die " . Coke 's estates , including Holkham Hall , passed to his son Henry .
= = Personal life = =
On 13 August 1582 Coke married Bridget , the daughter of John Paston , a Counsellor from Norwich . Paston came from a long line of lawyers and judges – his great grandfather , William Paston , was a Justice of the Court of Common Pleas . Having grown up nearby Coke knew the family , and asked for Bridget 's hand immediately after she turned eighteen . At the time he was a thirty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old barrister with a strong practice , and her father had no qualms about accepting his offer . Six months after they married John Paston died , leaving his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law his entire estate and several of his clients . Bridget maintained a diary , which reveals that she mainly ran the household . Despite this she was an independent woman , travelling without her husband and acting as a helpmate to Coke . Bridget was noted by Woolrych as an " incomparable " woman who had " inestimable value clearly manifested by the eulogies which are lavished on her character " . The couple settled at the manor of Huntingfield , described by Catherine Drinker Bowen as " enchanting , with a legend for every turret ... A splendid gallery ran the length of the house , the Great Hall was built around six massive oaks which supported the roof as they grew " .
The couple had ten children – seven sons and three daughters . The sons were Edward , Robert , Arthur , John , Henry , Clement and Thomas . Edward died young , Robert became a Knight Bachelor and married Theophile , daughter of Thomas Berkeley , Arthur married Elizabeth , heir of Sir George Walgrave , John married Meriel , daughter of Anthony Wheately , bringing Holkham Hall into the Coke family , Henry married Margaret , daughter of Richard Lovelace , and inherited the manor at Holkham from his brother John ( who had seven daughters but no son ) , Clement married Sarah , heiress of Alexander Redich , and Thomas died as an infant . The daughters were Elizabeth , Anne and Bridget . Elizabeth died young , Anne married Ralph Sadleir , son and heir of Sir Thomas Sadleir , and Bridget married William Skinner , son and heir of Sir Vincent Skinner . Coke 's descendants through Henry include the Earls of Leicester , particularly Coke of Norfolk , a landowner , Member of Parliament and agricultural reformer .
Following his first wife 's death in 1598 , Coke married Elizabeth Hatton , a desirable marriage due to her wealth ; when he found out that Bacon was also pursuing her hand , Coke acted with all speed to complete the ceremony . It was held at a private house at the wrong time , rather than at a church between 8 and 12 in the morning ; all involved parties were prosecuted for breaching ecclesiastical law , and Coke had to beg for a pardon . It is said that Coke first suggested marrying Hatton to Sir Robert Cecil , Hatton 's uncle , at the funeral of Lord Burghley , Coke 's patron ; he needed to ensure that he would continue his rise under Burghley 's son , Cecil , and did this by marrying into the family . Hatton was 26 years younger than Coke , hot @-@ tempered and articulate ; Boyer wrote that " if she and Coke were not compatible , at least they were well @-@ matched " . Their marriage having broken down in 1604 , Hatton went on to become a formidable protagonist and thorn in his side .
Coke was buried beside his first wife , who was called his " first and best wife " by his daughter Anne ; his second wife died in 1646 . Coke had two children with his second wife , both daughters : Elizabeth and Frances . Frances married John Villiers , 1st Viscount Purbeck .
= = Writings = =
Coke is best known for his written work – thirteen volumes of law reports , and the four @-@ volume Institutes of the Lawes of England . John Marshall Gest , writing in the Yale Law Journal , notes that " There are few principles of the common law that can be studied without an examination of Coke 's Institutes and Reports which summed up the legal learning of his time " , although " the student is deterred by the too common abuse of Coke 's character and the general criticism of his writings as dry , crabbed , verbose and pedantic " . John Campbell , in The Lives of the Chief Justices of England , said that " His reasoning ... is narrow minded ; [ he had ] utter contempt for method and style in his compositions " , and says that Coke 's Reports were " tinctured with quaintness and pedantry " . Gest , noting this criticism , points out that :
Coke , like every man , was necessarily a product of the age in which he lived . His faults were the faults of his time , his excellencies those of all time . He was diffuse ; he loved metaphor , literary quibbles and verbal conceits ; so did Bacon , and so did Shakespeare . So did all the writers of his day . They were creative , not critical . But Coke as a law writer was as far superior in importance and merit to his predecessors , at least if we except Bracton , as the Elizabethan writers in general were superior to those whom they succeeded , and , as the great Elizabethans fixed the standard of our English tongue , so Coke established the common law on its firm foundation . A modern lawyer who heaps his abuse on Coke and his writings seems as ungrateful as a man who climbs a high wall by the aid of the sturdy shoulders of another and then gives his friend a parting kick in the face as he makes the final leap .
= = = Reports = = =
His Law Reports , known as Coke 's Reports , were an archive of judgements from cases he had participated in , watched or heard of . They started with notes he made as a law student in the winter of 1572 , with full reporting of cases from October 1579 . The Reports were initially written down in seven notebooks , four of which are lost ; the first notebook contains not only law reports , but also a draft version of Coke 's first Institutes of the Lawes of England . Coke began reporting cases in the traditional manner , by copying out and repeating cases found in earlier law reports , such as those of Edmund Plowden . After being called to the Bar in 1578 he began attending court cases at Westminster Hall , and soon drew the attention of court officials – many early reports have notes that he was told " by old Plowden " or " by Wray CJ " . The original reports were kept in a generally chronological order , interspersed with personal memos , obituaries and notes on court practices . They are not entirely chronological ; during his career , Coke took note of earlier cases he had heard of or which had drawn his attention . These were written down with the plea roll reference and the year in which Coke recorded them , but later editions failed to include the plea roll reference and led to inaccuracies .
The Reports have gained significant academic acclaim ; writing in the Cornell Law Quarterly , Theodore Plucknett describes them as works of " incomparable richness " with a " profound influence upon the literature , and indeed the substance , of English law " . John Baker has described them as " perhaps the single most influential series of named reports " , and even Francis Bacon , Coke 's rival , wrote in praise of them , saying " Had it not been for Sir Edward Coke 's Reports ( which though they may have errors , and some peremptory and extrajudicial resolutions more than are warranted , yet they contain infinite good decisions and rulings over of cases ) , for the law by this time had been almost like a ship without ballast ; for that the cases of modern experience are fled from those that are adjudged and ruled in former time " .
Although loaned to friends and family , and therefore in slight public circulation , Coke 's Reports were never formally used during his lifetime . Select cases were published in 1600 , containing the most famous of his decisions and pleadings , while a second volume in 1602 was more chronological in nature . The third part , published in the same year , was also chronological , while the fourth , published in 1604 , was arranged by subject . The fifth part , published in 1605 , is arranged similarly , as is the sixth , published in 1607 . Five more volumes were published until 1615 , but Coke died before he could publish a single bound copy . No trace has been found of the draft manuscript .
Some academics have questioned the accuracy of the Reports . Coke 's famous Case of Proclamations , and his speech there , was first brought into the public consciousness through its inclusion in Volume 12 of his Reports , and Roland G. Usher , writing in the English Historical Review , notes that " Certain manuscripts at Hatfield House and elsewhere seem to throw some doubt upon this famous account of a famous interview " . One of the reasons given for possible inaccuracies in the later volumes of the Reports is that they were published posthumously . In July 1634 , officials acting on order of the king had seized Coke 's papers , but a 1641 motion in the House of Commons restored the extant papers to Coke 's eldest son . The twelfth and thirteenth volumes of the reports were based on fragments of notes several decades old , not on Coke 's original manuscript .
= = = Institutes = = =
Coke 's other main work was the Institutes of the Lawes of England , a four @-@ volume treatise described as his " masterwork " . The first volume , the Commentary upon Littleton , known as Coke on Littleton , was published in 1628 . It is ostensibly a commentary on Sir Thomas Littleton 's Treatise on Tenures , but actually covered many areas of the law of his time . The other three volumes were all published after his death , and covered 39 constitutional statutes of importance ( starting with the Magna Carta ) , the law relating to criminal law , and constitutional and administrative law respectively . While the Reports were intended to give an explanation of the law chronologically , Coke 's intentions with the Institutes were to provide an English language tutorial for students studying law at the Inns of Court . This served as an alternative to the Roman law lectures at university , which were based on Latin ; according to Bowen it was " a double vision ; the Institutes as authority , the Reports as illustration by actual practise " .
Part one , the Commentary upon Littleton , was undoubtedly the most famous ; copies were exported to the United States early in the colonial era . The work was first printed in an American edition in 1812 , by which point the English version was in its sixteenth edition , and had been commented on itself by various later legal authorities . As with the Reports , Coke 's Institutes became a standard textbook in the United States , and was recorded in the law libraries of Harvard College in 1723 and Brown University in 1770 ; John Jay , John Adams , Theophilus Parsons and Thomas Jefferson were all influenced by it . John Rutledge later wrote that " Coke 's Institutes seems to be almost the foundations of our law " , while Jefferson stated that " a sounder Whig never wrote more profound learning in the orthodox doctrine of British liberties " . The Third Institutes has been described as " the first really adequate discussion of treason , a work which went far towards offering the remedy of a humanized common law to the injustices of trial procedures " .
The work had its detractors , with some writers criticising it for " repulsive pedantry " and " overbearing assertions " , as well as incorrect citations to works that were later discredited . There are also factual inaccuracies ; Kenyon Homfray in the Ecclesiastical Law Journal notes that despite being considered the supreme legal authority on the subject of consecration , which Coke covered in the third volume of the Institutes , he offered no legal support for his opinion and ignored those pieces of case law which rejected his interpretation .
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
Coke 's jurisprudence centres on the hierarchy of the judges , the monarch , and Parliament in making law . Coke argued that the judges of the common law were those most suited to making law , followed by Parliament , and that the monarch was bound to follow any legal rules . This principle was justified by the idea that a judge , through his professional training , internalised what political historian and theorist Alan Cromartie referred to as " an infinity of wisdom " , something that mere politicians or laypersons could not understand due to the complexity of the law . Coke 's Commentary on Littleton has been interpreted as deliberately obtuse , with his aim being to write what Cromartie called " a sort of anti @-@ textbook , a work whose very form denied that legal knowledge could be organised . The original edition could not be used for reference purposes , as Coke had published it without an index ... It is a book to be ' read in ' and lived with , rather than consulted , a monument to the uselessness of merely written knowledge unless it is internalised in a trained professional mind " . This theory – that judges were the natural arbiters of the law – is known as the " appeal to reason " , with " reason " referring not to rationality but the method and logic used by judges in upholding and striking down laws . Coke 's position meant that certainty of the law and intellectual beauty was the way to see if a law was just and correct , and that the system of law could eventually become sophisticated enough to be predictable .
John Selden similarly thought that the common law was the proper law of England . He argued that this did not necessarily create judicial discretion to alter it , and that proper did not necessarily equal perfect . The law was nothing more than a contract made by the English people ; this is known as the " appeal to contract " . Thomas Hobbes and Francis Bacon argued against Coke 's theory . They were proponents of natural law , created by the king 's authority , not by any individual judge . Hobbes felt that there was no skill unique to lawyers , and that the law could be understood not through Coke 's " reason " ( the method used by lawyers ) , but through understanding the king 's instructions . While judges did make law , this was only valid because it was " tacitly confirmed ( because not disapproved ) by the [ king ] " .
= = Legacy = =
Coke 's challenge to the ecclesiastical courts and their ex officio oath is seen as the origin of the right to silence . With his decision that common law courts could issue writs of prohibition against such oaths and his arguments that such oaths were contrary to the common law ( as found in his Reports and Institutes ) , Coke " dealt the crucial blow to the oath ex officio and to the High Commission " . The case of John Lilburne later confirmed that not only was such an oath invalid , but that there was a right to silence , drawing from Coke 's decisions in reaching that conclusion . In the trial of Sir Roger Casement for treason in 1916 , Coke 's assertion that treason is defined as " giving aide and comfort to the King 's enemies within the realme or without " was the deciding factor in finding him guilty . His work in Slade 's Case led to the rise of modern contract law , and his actions in the Case of Proclamations and the other pleadings which led to his eventual dismissal went some way towards securing judicial independence . The Statute of Monopolies is considered one of the first steps towards the eventual English Civil War , and also " one of the landmarks in the transition of [ England 's ] economy from the feudal to the capitalist " .
Coke was particularly influential in the United States both before and after the American War of Independence . During the legal and public campaigns against the writs of assistance and Stamp Act 1765 , Bonham 's Case was given as a justification for nullifying the legislation , and in the income tax case of 1895 , Joseph Hodges Choate used Coke 's argument that a tax upon the income of property is a tax on the property itself to have the Supreme Court of the United States declare the Wilson – Gorman Tariff Act unconstitutional . This decision ultimately lead to the passage of the Sixteenth Amendment . The castle doctrine originates from Coke 's statement in the Third Institutes that " A man 's home is his castle – for where shall he be safe if it not be in his house ? " , which also profoundly influenced the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution ; the Third Amendment , on the other hand , was influenced by the Petition of Right . Coke was also a strong influence on and mentor of Roger Williams , an English theologian who founded the Rhode Island colony in North America and was an early proponent of the doctrine of separation of church and state .
= = Character = =
Coke was noted as deriving great enjoyment from and working hard at the law , but enjoying little else . He was versed in the Latin classics and maintained a sizeable estate , but the law was his primary concern . Francis Bacon , his main competitor , was known as a philosopher and man of learning , but Coke had no interest in such subjects . Notably , when given a copy of the Novum Organum by Bacon , Coke wrote puerile insults in it .
Coke 's style and attitude as a barrister are well documented . He was regarded , even during his life , as the greatest lawyer of his time in both reputation and monetary success . He was eloquent , effective , forceful , and occasionally overbearing . His most famous arguments can be read in Complete State Trials Volume I and II . Most early lawyers were not noted for their eloquence , with Thomas Elyot writing that " [ they ] lacked elocution and pronunciation , two of the principal parts of rhetorike " , and Roger Ascham saying that " they do best when they cry loudest " , describing a court case where an advocate was " roaring like a bull " . In court , Coke was insulting to the parties , disrespectful to the judges and " rough , blustering , overbearing " ; a rival once wrote to him saying " in your pleadings you were wont to insult over misery and to inveigh bitterly at the persons , which bred you many enemies " . Coke was pedantic and technical , something which saw him win many cases as a barrister , but when he became Attorney General " he showed the same qualities in a less pleasing form ... He was determined to get a conviction by every means in his power " .
Francis Watt , writing in the Juridical Review , portrays this as Coke 's strongest characteristic as a lawyer : that he was a man who " having once taken up a point or become engaged in a case , believes in it with all his heart and soul , whilst all the time conscious of its weakness , as well as ready to resort to every device to bolster it up " . Writers have struggled to reconcile his achievements as a judge surrounding the rejection of executive power and the rights of man with his tenure as Attorney General , with Gerald P. Bodet noting that his early career as a state prosecutor was one of " arrogance and brutality " .
Coke made a fortune from purchasing estates with clouded titles at a discount , whereupon , through his knowledge of the intricacies of property law , he would clear the titles on the acquired properties to his favor . About the year 1615 , his amassed property acquisitions attracted the attention of the government . James I claimed that Coke " had already as much land as it was proper a subject should possess . " Coke requested the King 's permission to just " add one acre more " to his holdings and upon approval proceeded to purchase the fine estate of Castle Acre Priory in Norfolk , one of the most expensive " acres " in the land .
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= Coprinopsis variegata =
Coprinopsis variegata , commonly known as the scaly ink cap or the feltscale inky cap , is a species of fungus in the family Psathyrellaceae . Distributed in eastern North America , it has a medium @-@ sized , bell @-@ shaped to flattened cap up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , with felt @-@ like , patchy scales . The gills , initially white , turn black in maturity and eventually dissolve into a black " ink " . Fruit bodies grow in clusters or groups on leaf litter or rotted hardwood , although the wood may be buried , giving the appearance of growing in the soil . The fungus is found in the United States , in areas east of the Great Plains . Coprinus ebulbosus and Coprinus quadrifidus are names assigned by Charles Horton Peck to what he believed were species distinct from C. variegata ; they were later shown to represent the same species , and are now synonyms . The mushroom is not recommended for consumption , and has been shown to cause allergic reactions in susceptible individuals .
= = History and taxonomy = =
American mycologist Charles Horton Peck described three similar species over the course of a 24 @-@ year time period . The first , Coprinus variegata ( 1873 ) , followed later by C. ebulbosus ( 1895 ) , and finally C. quadrifidus ( 1897 ) . C. ebulbosus was initially considered a variety of the European species Coprinus picaceus ( Bull. ex Fr . ) S.F.Gray ( currently known as Coprinopsis picacea ) . Four years later , Peck published a more complete description of var. ebulbosus and raised it to species rank , having found it to differ consistently from C. picaceus in its smaller stature , lack of a bulbous stem base , and much smaller spores .
The three species described by Peck were distinguished on the basis of physical features that were later found to be somewhat overlapping . In terms of microscopic characters , spore sizes were not sufficiently different between them to be used as discriminating taxonomic characters . Subsequent investigators of North American mushroom flora had difficulties in interpreting Peck 's concepts of these three taxa and in confirming their presence in their regional investigations . For example , McIlvaine ( 1902 ) , Hard ( 1908 ) , and McDougall ( 1925 ) reported ( as variety or species ) only C. ebulbosus . Bisby ( 1938 ) , Christensen ( 1946 ) , Smith ( 1958 ) , and Groves ( 1962 ) mentioned only C. quadrifidus . Both Kauffman ( 1918 ) and Graham ( 1944 ) described C. ebulbosus and C. quadrifidus ; Graham , however , only included C. quadrifidus in his key to his descriptions of Coprinus species . In 1979 , W. Patrick published a comparative analysis of the three taxa from material collected by Peck , and , after concluding that the three were not sufficiently distinct to be considered separate species , reduced them to synonymy with Coprinopsis variegata , the earliest name .
The specific epithet variegata derives from the Latin passive verb participle variegatus meaning " to have different colors , to variegate " . The synonym name quadrifidus refers to the four segments into which the cap frequently split when mature , while ebulbosus means " not being bulbous " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " scaly ink cap " or the " feltscale inky cap " .
= = Description = =
The cap of C. variegata is thin , initially oval @-@ shaped then bell @-@ shaped , and then flattened with the margin turned upward ; it reaches diameters of up to 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) . When young , the surface of the cap is covered with a woolly whitish or yellowish veil that breaks up into short @-@ lived flakes or scales ; this process reveals the radially striate ( grooved ) gray to grayish @-@ brown cap surface . The gills are broad , thin , crowded closely together , and free from attachment to the stem . They are initially white but turn to dark purplish @-@ brown as the spores mature . The stem is 4 to 12 in ( 10 @.@ 2 to 30 @.@ 5 cm ) and up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick , hollow , and whitish . It is roughly the same width throughout the length of the stem , and may have a wispy , cotton @-@ like ring present near the base . Clusters of fruit bodies have a mass of rhizomorphs at the base called an ozonium .
In deposit , the spores are dark brown . A light microscope may be used to reveal more features of the spores , including smooth surfaces , a dark brown color , an ellipsoid shape in face view and an egg shape in side view , and dimensions of 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 by 4 – 4 @.@ 5 µm . The apex of the spore appears truncated because of the presence of a germ pore . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are hyaline ( translucent ) , with dimensions of 14 – 16 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . The paraphyses are 9 – 11 by 8 – 10 µm , hyaline , and collapse readily . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia present on the gill face ) are abundant , roughly cylindrical , hyaline , and measure 100 – 150 by 20 – 35 µm . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of an gill ) are present in young specimens , and are roughly ellipsoid , measuring 50 – 80 by 15 – 25 µm . Clamp connections are abundant in the hyphae in all tissues through the fruit body .
The edibility of Coprinopsis variegata has not been clearly established , and opinions differ as to its desirability . One 1987 field guide to North American species warns against consumption , calling it " not recommended " , a conclusion shared in a 2006 field guide to Pennsylvanian and mid @-@ Atlantic mushrooms , but not before describing it as " the best of the inky caps , with a richer flavor and better texture than the famous shaggy mane " . The bitter @-@ tasting mushroom is not considered poisonous . However , the fruit bodies are suspected to contain the Antabuse @-@ like chemical coprine , which causes a poisoning reaction when consumed with alcohol . Additionally , cases of allergic reactions against extracts from mushroom tissues have been reported in skin tests .
= = = Similar species = = =
Coprinopsis atramentaria is a cosmopolitan species that is roughly similar in size , color , and stature , but does not have patchy woolly tufts on the cap like C. variegata .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
The species is saprobic — deriving nutrients by decomposing and digesting organic matter — and grows in clusters or in groups on decaying leaf litter or well @-@ decayed wood . It typically fruits in a narrow window from June to July ; this spring and early summer fruiting distinguishes it from the more common Coprinus comatus and Coprinopsis atramentaria , which produce fruit bodies in late autumn . It is found in the United States , in areas east of the Great Plains .
Coprinopsis variegata can attack soil bacteria , such as species of Pseudomonas and Agrobacterium , and use them as nutrient sources . The fungus achieves this by growing specialized hyphae in the direction of the bacteria , sensing them with some chemoattractive mechanism not yet fully understood . The fungus then secretes compounds to digest the bacteria while growing assimilative hyphae to absorb the nutrients . The process is relatively rapid , and bacterial colonies can be assimilated in less than 24 hours .
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= Edward Wright ( mathematician ) =
Edward Wright ( baptised 8 October 1561 ; died November 1615 ) was an English mathematician and cartographer noted for his book Certaine Errors in Navigation ( 1599 ; 2nd ed . , 1610 ) , which for the first time explained the mathematical basis of the Mercator projection , and set out a reference table giving the linear scale multiplication factor as a function of latitude , calculated for each minute of arc up to a latitude of 75 ° . This was in fact a table of values of the integral of the secant function , and was the essential step needed to make practical both the making and the navigational use of Mercator charts .
Wright was born at Garveston and educated at Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge , where he became a fellow from 1587 to 1596 . In 1589 the College granted him leave after Elizabeth I requested that he carry out navigational studies with a raiding expedition organised by the Earl of Cumberland to the Azores to capture Spanish galleons . The expedition 's route was the subject of the first map to be prepared according to Wright 's projection , which was published in Certaine Errors in 1599 . The same year , Wright created and published the first world map produced in England and the first to use the Mercator projection since Gerardus Mercator 's original 1569 map .
Not long after 1600 Wright was appointed as surveyor to the New River project , which successfully directed the course of a new man @-@ made channel to bring clean water from Ware , Hertfordshire , to Islington , London . Around this time , Wright also lectured mathematics to merchant seamen , and from 1608 or 1609 was mathematics tutor to the son of James I , the heir apparent Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , until the latter 's very early death at the age of 18 in 1612 . A skilled designer of mathematical instruments , Wright made models of an astrolabe and a pantograph , and a type of armillary sphere for Prince Henry . In the 1610 edition of Certaine Errors he described inventions such as the " sea @-@ ring " that enabled mariners to determine the magnetic variation of the compass , the sun 's altitude and the time of day in any place if the latitude was known ; and a device for finding latitude when one was not on the meridian using the height of the pole star .
Apart from a number of other books and pamphlets , Wright translated John Napier 's pioneering 1614 work which introduced the idea of logarithms from Latin into English . This was published after Wright 's death as A Description of the Admirable Table of Logarithmes ( 1616 ) . Wright 's work influenced , among other persons , Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord Snellius ; Adriaan Metius , the geometer and astronomer from Holland ; and the English mathematician Richard Norwood , who calculated the length of a degree on a great circle of the earth using a method proposed by Wright .
= = Family and education = =
The younger son of Henry and Margaret Wright , Edward Wright was born in the village of Garveston in Norfolk , East Anglia , and was baptised there on 8 October 1561 . It is possible that he followed in the footsteps of his elder brother Thomas ( died 1579 ) and went to school in Hardingham . The family was of modest means , and he matriculated at Gonville and Caius College , University of Cambridge , on 8 December 1576 as a sizar . Sizars were students of limited means who were charged lower fees and obtained free food and / or lodging and other assistance during their period of study , often in exchange for performing work at their colleges .
Wright was conferred a Bachelor of Arts ( B.A. ) in 1580 – 1581 . He remained a scholar at Caius , receiving his Master of Arts ( M.A. ) there in 1584 , and holding a fellowship between 1587 and 1596 . At Cambridge , he was a close friend of Robert Devereux , later the Second Earl of Essex , and met him to discuss his studies even in the weeks before Devereux 's rebellion against Elizabeth I in 1600 – 1601 . In addition , he came to know the mathematician Henry Briggs ; and the soldier and astrologer Christopher Heydon , who was also Devereux 's friend . Heydon later made astronomical observations with instruments Wright made for him .
= = Foreign expedition = =
In 1589 , two years after being appointed to his fellowship , Wright was requested by Elizabeth I to carry out navigational studies with a raiding expedition organised by the Earl of Cumberland to the Azores to capture Spanish galleons . The Queen effectively ordered Caius to grant him leave of absence for this purpose , although the College expressed this more diplomatically by granting him a sabbatical " by Royal mandate " . Wright participated in the confiscation of " lawful " prizes from the French , Portuguese and Spanish – Derek Ingram , a life fellow of Caius , has called him " the only Fellow of Caius ever to be granted sabbatical leave in order to engage in piracy " . Wright sailed with Cumberland in the Victory from Plymouth on 8 June 1589 ; they returned to Falmouth on 27 December of the same year . An account of the expedition is appended to Wright 's work Certaine Errors of Navigation ( 1599 ) , and while it refers to Wright in the third person it is believed to have been written by him .
In Wright 's account of the Azores expedition , he listed as one of the expedition 's members a " Captaine Edwarde Carelesse , alias Wright , who in S. Frauncis Drakes West @-@ Indian voiage was Captaine of the Hope " . In another work , The Haven @-@ finding Art ( 1599 ) ( see below ) , Wright stated that " the time of my first employment at sea " was " now more than tenne yeares since " . The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography asserts that during the expedition Wright called himself " Captain Edward Carelesse " , and that he was also the captain of the Hope in Sir Francis Drake 's voyage of 1585 – 1586 to the West Indies , which evacuated Sir Walter Raleigh 's Colony of Virginia . One of the colonists was the mathematician Thomas Harriot , and if the Dictionary is correct it is probable that on the return journey to England Wright and Harriot became acquainted and discussed navigational mathematics . However , in a 1939 article , E.J.S. Parsons and W.F. Morris note that in Capt. Walter Bigges and Lt. Crofts ' book A Summarie and True Discourse of Sir Frances Drakes West Indian Voyage ( 1589 ) , Edward Careless was referred to as the commander of the Hope , but Wright was not mentioned . Further , while Wright spoke several times of his participation in the Azores expedition , he never alluded to any other voyage . Although the reference to his " first employment " in The Haven @-@ finding Art suggests an earlier venture , there is no evidence that he went to the West Indies . Gonville and Caius College holds no records showing that Wright was granted leave before 1589 . There is nothing to suggest that Wright ever went to sea again after his expedition with the Earl of Cumberland .
Wright resumed his Cambridge fellowship upon returning from the Azores in 1589 , but it appears that he soon moved to London for he was there with Christopher Heydon making observations of the sun between 1594 and 1597 , and on 8 August 1595 Wright married Ursula Warren ( died 1625 ) at the parish church of St. Michael , Cornhill , in the City of London . They had a son , Samuel ( 1596 – 1616 ) , who was himself admitted as a sizar at Caius on 7 July 1612 . The St. Michael parish register also contains references to other children of Wright , all of whom died before 1617 . Wright resigned his fellowship in 1596 .
= = Mathematician and cartographer = =
= = = Certaine Errors in Navigation = = =
Wright helped the mathematician and globe maker Emery Molyneux to plot coastlines on his terrestrial globe , and translated some of the explanatory legends into Latin . Molyneux 's terrestrial and celestial globes , the first to be manufactured in England , were published in late 1592 or early 1593 , and Wright explained their use in his 1599 work Certaine Errors in Navigation . He dedicated the book to Cumberland , to whom he had presented a manuscript of the work in 1592 , stating in the preface it was through Cumberland that he " was first moved , and received maintenance to divert my mathematical studies , from a theorical speculation in the Universitie , to the practical demonstration of the use of Navigation " .
The most significant aspect of the book was Wright 's method for dividing the meridian ; an explanation of how he had constructed a table for the division ; and the uses of this information for navigation . Essentially , the problem that occupied Wright was how to depict accurately a globe on a two @-@ dimensional map according to the projection used by Gerardus Mercator in his map of 1569 . Mercator 's projection was advantageous for nautical purposes as it represented lines of constant true bearing or true course , known as loxodromes or rhumb lines , as straight lines . However , Mercator had not explained his method .
On a globe , circles of latitude ( also known as parallels ) get smaller as they move away from the Equator towards the North or South Pole . Thus , in the Mercator projection , when a globe is " unwrapped " on to a rectangular map , the parallels need to be stretched to the length of the Equator . In addition , parallels are further apart as they approach the poles . Wright compiled a table with three columns . The first two columns contained the degrees and minutes of latitudes for parallels spaced 10 minutes apart on a sphere , while the third column had the parallel 's projected distance from the Equator . Any cartographer or navigator could therefore lay out a Mercator grid for himself by consulting the table . Wright explained :
I first thought of correcting so many gross errors ... in the sea chart , by increasing the distances of the parallels , from the equinoctial towards the poles , in such sort , that at every point of latitude in the chart , a part of the meridian might have the same proportion to the like part of the parallel , that it has in the globe .
While the first edition of Certaine Errors contained an abridged table six pages in length , in the second edition which appeared in 1610 Wright published a full table across 23 pages with figures for parallels at one @-@ minute intervals . The table is remarkably accurate – American geography professor Mark Monmonier wrote a computer program to replicate Wright 's calculations , and determined that for a Mercator map of the world 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide , the greatest discrepancy between Wright 's table and the program was only 0 @.@ 00039 inches ( 0 @.@ 0099 mm ) on the map . In the second edition Wright also incorporated various improvements , including proposals for determining the magnitude of the Earth and reckoning common linear measurements as a proportion of a degree on the Earth 's surface " that they might not depend on the uncertain length of a barley @-@ corn " ; a correction of errors arising from the eccentricity of the eye when making observations using the cross @-@ staff ; amendments in tables of declinations and the positions of the sun and the stars , which were based on observations he had made together with Christopher Heydon using a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) quadrant ; and a large table of the variation of the compass as observed in different parts of the world , to show that it is not caused by any magnetic pole . He also incorporated a translation of Rodrigo Zamorano 's Compendio de la Arte de Navegar ( Compendium of the Art of Navigation , Seville , 1581 ; 2nd ed . , 1588 ) .
Wright was prompted to publish the book after two incidents of his text , which had been prepared some years earlier , being used without attribution . He had allowed his table of meridional parts to be published by Thomas Blundeville in his Exercises ( 1594 ) and in William Barlow 's The Navigator 's Supply ( 1597 ) , although only Blundeville acknowledged Wright by name . However , an experienced navigator , believed to be Abraham Kendall , borrowed a draft of Wright 's manuscript and , unknown to him , made a copy of it which he took on Sir Francis Drake 's 1595 expedition to the West Indies . In 1596 Kendall died at sea . The copy of Wright 's work in his possession was brought back to London and wrongly believed to be by Kendall , until the Earl of Cumberland passed it to Wright and he recognised it as his work . Also around this time , the Dutch cartographer Jodocus Hondius borrowed Wright 's draft manuscript for a short time after promising not to publish its contents without his permission . However , Hondius then employed Wright 's calculations without acknowledging him for several regional maps and in his world map published in Amsterdam in 1597 . This map is often referred to as the " Christian Knight Map " for its engraving of a Christian knight battling sin , the flesh and the Devil . Although Hondius sent Wright a letter containing a faint apology , Wright condemned Hondius 's deceit and greed in the preface to Certaine Errors . He wryly commented : " But the way how this [ Mercator projection ] should be done , I learned neither of Mercator , nor of any man els . And in that point I wish I had beene as wise as he in keeping it more charily to myself " .
The first map to be prepared according to Wright 's projection was published in his book , and showed the route of Cumberland 's expedition to the Azores . A manuscript version of this map is preserved at Hatfield House ; it is believed to have been drawn about 1595 . Following this , Wright created a new world map , the first map of the globe to be produced in England and the first to use the Mercator projection since Gerardus Mercator 's 1569 original . Based on Molyneux 's terrestrial globe , it corrected a number of errors in the earlier work by Mercator . The map , often called the Wright – Molyneux Map , first appeared in the second volume of Richard Hakluyt 's The Principal Navigations , Voiages , Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation ( 1599 ) . Unlike many contemporary maps and charts which contained fantastic speculations about unexplored lands , Wright 's map has a minimum of detail and blank areas wherever information was lacking . The map was one of the earliest to use the name " Virginia " . Shakespeare alluded to the map in Twelfth Night ( 1600 – 1601 ) , when Maria says of Malvolio : " He does smile his face into more lynes , than is in the new Mappe , with the augmentation of the Indies . " Another world map , larger and with updated details , appeared in the second edition of Certaine Errors ( 1610 ) .
Wright translated into English De Havenvinding ( 1599 ) by the Flemish mathematician and engineer Simon Stevin , which appeared in the same year as The Haven @-@ Finding Art , or the Way to Find any Haven or Place at Sea , by the Latitude and Variation . He also wrote the preface to physician and scientist William Gilbert 's great work De Magnete , Magneticisque Corporibus , et de Magno Magnete Tellure ( The Magnet , Magnetic Bodies , and the Great Magnet the Earth , 1600 ) , in which Gilbert described his experiments which led to the conclusion that the Earth was magnetic , and introduced the term electricus to describe the phenomenon of static electricity produced by rubbing amber ( called ēlectrum in Classical Latin , derived from ' ήλεκτρον ( elektron ) in Ancient Greek ) . According to the mathematician and physician Mark Ridley , chapter 12 of book 4 of De Magnete , which explained how astronomical observations could be used to determine the magnetic variation , was actually Wright 's work .
Gilbert had invented a dip @-@ compass and compiled a table recording the dip of the needle below the horizon . Wright believed that this device would prove to be extremely useful in determining latitude and , with the help of Blundeville and Briggs , wrote a small pamphlet called The Making , Description and Use of the Two Instruments for Seamen to find out the Latitude ... First Invented by Dr. Gilbert . It was published in 1602 in Blundeville 's book The Theoriques of the Seuen Planets . That same year he authored The Description and Use of the Sphære ( not published till 1613 ) , and in 1605 published a new edition of the widely used work The Safegarde of Saylers .
= = = Surveying = = =
Wright also developed a reputation as a surveyor on land . He prepared " a plat of part of the waye whereby a newe River may be brought from Uxbridge to St. James , Whitehall , Westminster [ , ] the Strand , St Giles , Holbourne and London " , However , according to a 1615 paper in Latin in the annals of Gonville and Caius College , he was prevented from bringing this plan to fruition " by the tricks of others " . Nonetheless , early in the first decade of the 17th century , he was appointed by Sir Hugh Myddelton as surveyor to the New River project , which successfully directed the course of a new man @-@ made channel to bring clean water from Chadwell Spring at Ware , Hertfordshire , to Islington , London . Although the distance in a straight line from Ware to London is only slightly more than 20 miles ( 32 km ) , the project required a high degree of surveying skill on Wright 's part as it was necessary for the river to take a route of over 40 miles following the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) contour line on the west side of the Lea Valley . As the technology of the time did not extend to large pumps or pipes , the water flow had to depend on gravity through canals or aqueducts over an average fall of 5 @.@ 5 inches a mile ( approximately 8 @.@ 7 centimetres per kilometre ) .
Work on the New River started in 1608 – the date of a monument at Chadwell Spring – but halted near Wormley , Hertfordshire , in 1610 . The stoppage has been attributed to factors such as Myddelton facing difficulties in raising funds , and landowners along the route opposing the acquisition of their lands on the ground that the river would turn their meadows into " bogs and quagmires " . Although the landowners petitioned Parliament , they did not succeed in having the legislation authorising the project repealed prior to Parliament being dissolved in 1611 ; the work resumed later that year . The New River was officially opened on 29 September 1613 by the Lord Mayor of London , Sir John Swinnerton , at the Round Pond , New River Head , in Islington . It still supplies the capital with water today .
= = = Other mathematical work = = =
For some time Wright had urged that a navigation lectureship be instituted for merchant seamen , and he persuaded Admiral Sir William Monson , who had been on Cumberland 's Azores expedition of 1589 , to encourage a stipend to be paid for this . At the beginning of the 17th century , Wright succeeded Thomas Hood as a mathematics lecturer under the patronage of the wealthy merchants Sir Thomas Smyth and Sir John Wolstenholme ; the lectures were held in Smyth 's house in Philpot Lane . By 1612 or 1614 the East India Company had taken on sponsorship of these lectures for an annual fee of £ 50 ( about £ 6 @,@ 500 as of 2007 ) . Wright was also mathematics tutor to the son of James I , the heir apparent Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , from 1608 or 1609 until the latter 's death at the age of 18 on 6 November 1612 . Wright was described as " a very poor man " in the Prince 's will and left the sum of £ 30 8s ( about £ 4 @,@ 300 in 2007 ) . To the Prince , who was greatly interested in the science of navigation , Wright dedicated the second edition of Certaine Errors ( 1610 ) and the world map published therein . He also drew various maps for him , including a " sea chart of the N.-W. Passage ; a paradoxall sea @-@ chart of the World from 30 ° Latitude northwards ; [ and ] a plat of the drowned groundes about Elye , Lincolnshire , Cambridgeshire , & c " .
Wright was a skilled designer of mathematical instruments . According to the 1615 Caius annals , " [ h ] e was excellent both in contrivance and execution , nor was he inferior to the most ingenious mechanic in the making of instruments , either of brass or any other matter " . For Prince Henry , he made models of an astrolabe and a pantograph , and created or arranged to be created out of wood a form of armillary sphere which replicated the motions of the celestial sphere , the circular motions of the sun and moon , and the places and possibilities of them eclipsing each other . The sphere was designed for a motion of 17 @,@ 100 years , if the machine should last that long . In 1613 Wright published The Description and Use of the Sphære , which described the use of this device . The sphere was lost during the English Civil War , but found in 1646 in the Tower of London by the mathematician and surveyor Sir Jonas Moore , who was later appointed Surveyor General of the Ordnance Office and became a patron and the principal driving force behind the establishment of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich . Moore asked the King to let him have it , restored the instrument at his own expense and deposited it at his own house " in the Tower " .
The Caius annals also report that Wright " had formed many other useful designs , but was hindered by death from bringing them to perfection " . The 1610 edition of Certaine Errors contained descriptions of the " sea @-@ ring " , which consisted of a universal ring dial mounted over a magnetic compass that enabled mariners to determine readily the magnetic variation of the compass , the sun 's altitude and the time of day in any place if the latitude was known ; the " sea @-@ quadrant " , for the taking of altitudes by a forward or backward observation ; and a device for finding latitude when one was not on the meridian using the height of the pole star .
In 1614 Wright published a small book called A Short Treatise of Dialling : Shewing , the Making of All Sorts of Sun @-@ dials , but he was mainly preoccupied with John Napier 's Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio ( Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms ) , which introduced the idea of logarithms . Wright at once saw the value of logarithms as an aid to navigation , and lost no time in preparing a translation which he submitted to Napier himself . The preface to Wright 's edition consists of a translation of the preface to the Descriptio , together with the addition of the following sentences written by Napier himself :
But now some of our countreymen in this Island well affected to these studies , and the more publique good , procured a most learned Mathematician to translate the same into our vulgar English tongue , who after he had finished it , sent the Coppy of it to me , to bee seene and considered on by myselfe . I having most willingly and gladly done the same , finde it to bee most exact and precisely conformable to my minde and the originall . Therefore it may please you who are inclined to these studies , to receive it from me and the Translator , with as much good will as we recommend it unto you .
While working on the translation , Wright died in late November 1615 and was buried on 2 December 1615 at St. Dionis Backchurch in the City of London . The Caius annals noted that although he " was rich in fame , and in the promises of the great , yet he died poor , to the scandal of an ungrateful age " . Wright 's translation of Napier , which incorporated tables that Wright had supplemented and further information by Henry Briggs , was completed by Wright 's son Samuel and arranged to be printed by Briggs . It appeared posthumously as A Description of the Admirable Table of Logarithmes in 1616 , and in it Wright was lauded in verse as " [ t ] hat famous , learned , Errors true Corrector , / England 's great Pilot , Mariners Director " .
According to Parsons and Morris , the use of Wright 's publications by later mathematicians is the " greatest tribute to his life 's work " . Wright 's work was relied on by Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord Snellius , noted for the law of refraction now known as Snell 's law , for his navigation treatise Tiphys Batavus ( Batavian Tiphys , 1624 ) ; and by Adriaan Metius , the geometer and astronomer from Holland , for Primum Mobile ( 1631 ) . Following Wright 's proposals , Richard Norwood measured a degree on a great circle of the earth at 367 @,@ 196 feet ( 111 @,@ 921 m ) , publishing the information in 1637 . Wright was praised by Charles Saltonstall in The Navigator ( 1642 ) and by John Collins in Navigation by the Mariners Plain Scale New Plain 'd ( 1659 ) , Collins stating that Mercator 's chart ought " more properly to be called Wright 's chart " . The Caius annals contained the following epitaph : " Of him it may truly be said , that he studied more to serve the public than himself " .
= = Works = =
= = = Authored = = =
Wright , Edward ( 1599 ) , Certaine Errors in Navigation , arising either of the Ordinarie Erroneous Making or Vsing of the Sea Chart , Compasse , Crosse Staffe , and Tables of Declination of the Sunne , and Fixed Starres Detected and Corrected . ( The Voyage of the Right Ho . George Earle of Cumberl. to the Azores , & c . ) , London : Printed ... by Valentine Sims . Another version of the work published in the same year was entitled Wright , Edward ( 1599 ) , Errors in nauigation 1 Error of two , or three whole points of the compas , and more somtimes [ sic ] , by reason of making the sea @-@ chart after the accustomed maner ... 2 Error of one whole point , and more many times , by neglecting the variation of the compasse . 3 Error of a degree and more sometimes , in the vse of the crosse staffe ... 4 Error of 11 @.@ or 12 @.@ minures [ sic ] in the declination of the sunne , as it is set foorth in the regiments most commonly vsed among mariners : and consequently error of halfe a degree in the place of the sunne . 5 Error of halfe a degree , yea an whole degree and more many times in the declinations of the principall fixed starres , set forth to be obserued by mariners at sea . Detected and corrected by often and diligent obseruation . Whereto is adioyned , the right H. the Earle of Cumberland his voyage to the Azores in the yeere 1589 @.@ wherin were taken 19 . Spanish and Leaguers ships , together with the towne and platforme of Fayal , London : Printed ... [ by Valentine Simmes and W. White ] for Ed . Agas . Later editions and reprints :
Wright , Edward ( 1610 ) , Certaine Errors in Navigation , Detected and Corrected with Many Additions that were not in the Former Edition ... [ with an Addition Touching the Variation of the Compasse ] , London : [ s.n. ] .
Wright , Edward ( 1657 ) , Certaine Errors in Navigation Detected and Corrected , with Many Additions that were not in the Former Edition .. ( 3rd ed . ) , London : J [ oseph ] Moxon .
Wright , Edward ( 1974 ) , Certaine errors in navigation ; the voyage of ... George Earle of Cumberl. to the Azores , Amsterdam ; Norwood , N.J. : Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ; Walter J. Johnson . Photoreprint of the 1599 edition .
Chapter 12 of book 4 of Gilbert , William ( 1600 ) , De Magnete , magneticisque corporibus , et de magno magnete tellure ; Physiologia nova , plurimis & argumentis , & experimentis demonstrata [ The Magnet , Magnetic Bodies , and the Great Magnet the Earth ; New Natural Science , Demonstrated by Many Arguments and Experiments ] , London : Excudebat Petrus Short ( Latin ) .
The Making , Description and Use of the Two Instruments for Seamen to find out the Latitude ... First Invented by Dr. Gilbert , published in Blundeville , Thomas ; Briggs , Henry ; Wright , Edward ( 1602 ) , The Theoriques of the Seuen Planets shewing all their Diuerse Motions , and all other Accidents , called Passions , thereunto Belonging . Now more Plainly set forth in our Mother Tongue by M. Blundeuile , than euer they haue been heretofore in any other Tongue whatsoeuer , and that with such Pleasant Demonstratiue Figures , as euery Man that hath any Skill in Arithmeticke , may easily Vnderstand the same . ... VVhereunto is added by the said Master Blundeuile , a Breefe Extract by him made , of Maginus his Theoriques , for the Better Vnderstanding of the Prutenicall Tables , to Calculate thereby the Diuerse Motions of the Seuen Planets . There is also hereto added , the Making , Description , and Vse , of Two Most Ingenious and Necessarie Instruments for Sea @-@ men ... First Inuented by M. Doctor Gilbert ... and now here Plainely set downe in our Mother Tongue by Master Blundeuile , London : Printed by Adam Islip .
Wright , Edward ( 1613 ) , The Description and Vse of the Sphære . Deuided into Three Principal Partes : whereof the First Intreateth especially of the Circles of the Vppermost Moueable Sphære , and of the Manifould Vses of euery one of them Seuerally : the Second Sheweth the Plentifull Vse of the Vppermost Sphære , and of the Circles therof Ioyntly : the Third Conteyneth the Description of the Orbes whereof the Sphæres of the Sunne and Moone haue beene supposed to be Made , with their Motions and Vses . By Edward Wright . The Contents of each Part are more particularly Set Downe in the Table , London : Printed [ by E. Allde ] for Iohn Tap dwelling at S. Magnus corner . Later editions and reprints :
Wright , Edward ( 1627 ) , The Description and Use of the Sphære . Deuided into Three Principall Parts . Whereof the First Intreateth especially of the Circles of the Vppermost Moueable Sphære , and of the Manifold Vses of euery one of them Seuerally . The Second Sheweth the Plentifull Vse of the Vppermost Sphære , and of the Circles thereof Joyntly . The Third Contayneth the Description of the Orbes whereof the Sphære of the Sunne and Moone haue been supposed to bee Made , with their Motions and Vses . By Edvvard Wright . The Contents of each Part are more particularly Set Downe in the Table , London : Printed by B [ ernard ] A [ lsop ] and T [ homas ] Fawcet for Iohn Tap , and are to bee sold at his shop at S. Magnus corner .
Wright , Edward ( 1969 ) , The Description and Use of the Sphære . London 1613 , Amsterdam ; New York , N.Y. : Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ; Da Capo Press .
Wright , Edward ( 1614 ) , A Short Treatise of Dialling Shewing , the Making of All Sorts of Sun @-@ dials , Horizontal , Erect , Direct , Declining , Inclining , Reclining ; vpon any Flat or Plaine Superficies , howsoeuer Placed , with Ruler and Compasse onely , without any Arithmeticall Calculation , London : Printed by Iohn Beale for William Welby .
= = = Edited and translated = = =
Stevin , Simon ; Wright , Edward , transl . ( 1599 ) , The Hauen @-@ finding Art , or The VVay to Find any Hauen or Place at Sea , by the Latitude and Variation . Lately Published in the Dutch , French , and Latine Tongues , by Commandement of the Right Honourable Count Mauritz of Nassau , Lord High Admiral of the Vnited Prouinces of the Low Countries , Enioyning all Seamen that Take Charge of Ships vnder his Iurisdiction , to Make Diligent Obseruation , in all their Voyages , according to the Directions Prescribed herein : and now Translated into English , for the Common Benefite of the Seamen of England [ by E. Wright ] etc , London : Imprinted by G. B [ ishop ] R. N [ ewberry ] and R. B [ arker ] . Reprinted as :
Stevin , Simon ( 1968 ) , The Haven @-@ finding Art , Amsterdam ; New York , N.Y. : Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ; Da Capo Press .
Norman , Robert , transl . ( 1605 ) , Wright , Edward , ed . , The Safegarde of Saylers , or Great Rutter . Contayning the Courses , Dystances , Deapths , Soundings , Flouds and Ebbes , with the Marks for the Entring of Sundry Harboroughs both of England , Fraunce , Spaine , Ireland . Flaunders , and the Soundes of Denmarke , with other Necessarie Rules of Common Nauigation . Translated out of Dutch ... by Robert Norman ... Newly corrected and augmented by E [ dward ] W [ right ] , London : By E. Allde for H. Astley .
Napier , John ; Wright , E [ dward ] , transl . ( 1616 ) , A Description of the Admirable Table of Logarithmes : With a Declaration of the ... Use thereof . Invented and Published in Latin by ... L. John Nepair ... and Translated into English by ... Edward Wright . With an Addition of an Instrumentall Table to Finde the Part Proportionall , Invented by the Translator , and Described in the Ende of the Booke by Henry Brigs , etc , London : N. Okes . Later editions and reprints :
Napier , John ; Wright , E [ dward ] , transl . ( 1618 ) , A Description of the Admirable Table of Logarithmes : With a Declaration of the Most Plentifull , Easie and Speedy Use thereof in both kinds of Trigonometry , as also in all Mathematicall Calculations . Invented and Published inn Latine by that Honourable Lord John Nepair , Baron of Marchiston , and translated into English by the late learned and famous Mathematician , Edward Wright . With an Addition of the Instrumentall Table to finde the part of the Proportionall , intended by the Translator , and described in the end of the Booke by Henrie Brigs Geometry @-@ reader at Gresham House in London . All Perused and Approved by the Authour , and Published since the Death of the Translator . Whereunto is added New Rules for the Ease of the Student ( 2nd ed . ) , London : Printed for Simon Waterson .
Napier , John ( 1969 ) , A Description of the Admirable Table of Logarithmes , London 1616 , Amsterdam ; New York , N.Y. : Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ; Da Capo Press .
= = = Articles = = =
Edward Wright 's World Chart 1599 , Terrae Incognitae , The Journal of the Society for the History of Discoveries , Volume 46 @.@ 1 , April 2014 , pp 3 – 15 .
Pumfrey , Stephen ; Dawbarn , Frances ( 2004 ) , " Science and Patronage in England , 1570 – 1625 : A Preliminary Study " ( PDF ) , History of Science 42 : 137 – 188 .
Wallis , P.J. ( 1976 ) , " Edward Wright " , in Gillespie , Charles Coulston , Dictionary of Scientific Biography 14 , New York , N.Y. : Charles Scribner 's Sons , pp. 513 – 515 .
= = = Books = = =
Taylor , E [ va ] G [ ermaine ] R [ imington ] ( 1954 ) , The Mathematical Practitioners of Tudor & Stuart England , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , pp. 181 – 182 .
Venn , John , comp . ( 1897 ) , Biographical History of Gonville and Caius College , 1349 – 1897 : Containing a List of All Known Members of the College 1 , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , pp. 88 – 89 .
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= The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes =
The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes is a children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter , and published by Frederick Warne & Co. in October 1911 . Timmy Tiptoes is a squirrel believed to be a nut @-@ thief by his fellows , and imprisoned by them in a hollow tree with the expectation that he will confess under confinement . Timmy is tended by Chippy Hackee , a friendly , mischievous chipmunk who has run away from his wife and is camping @-@ out in the tree . Chippy urges the prisoner to eat the nuts stored in the tree , and Timmy does so but grows so fat he cannot escape the tree . He regains his freedom when a storm topples part of the tree . The tale contrasts the harmonious marriage of its title character with the less than harmonious marriage of the chipmunk .
The book sold well at release , but is now considered one of Potter 's weakest productions . Potter never observed the tale 's indigenous North American mammals in nature , and , as a result , her depictions are thought stiff and unnatural . Other elements in the story have come under fire : the rhymes , for example , reveal nothing about the characters nor do they provide an amusing game for the child reader in the manner of the rhymes in The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin . The storm in the finale is viewed as a weak plot device introduced solely to hurry the tale to its conclusion , and the marriage of the chipmunks has been described as " abrasive and shocking " and an impediment to the flow of the tale .
The tale 's disappointing qualities have been ascribed to Potter 's growing lack of interest in writing for children , to pressure from her publisher for yet another book , and to Potter 's desire to exploit the lucrative American market . Potter 's artistically successful books were written for specific children ; Timmy Tiptoes however was composed for Potter 's amorphous , ill @-@ defined American fanbase . By 1911 , the demands of her aging parents and the business operations at her working farm , Hill Top , occupied much of Potter 's time and attention to the exclusion of nearly everything else , and are accounted as some of the reasons for the author 's declining artistry and her lack of interest in producing children 's books .
Characters from the tale have been reproduced as porcelain figurines , enamelled boxes , music boxes , and various ornaments by Beswick Pottery , Crummles , Schmid , and ANRI .
= = Background = =
Helen Beatrix Potter was born on July 28 , 1866 to barrister Rupert William Potter and his wife Helen ( Leech ) Potter in London . She was educated by governesses and tutors , and passed a quiet childhood reading , painting , drawing , tending a nursery menagerie of small animals , and visiting museums and art exhibitions . Her interests in the natural world and country life were nurtured with holidays in Scotland , the Lake District , and Camfield Place , the Hertfordshire home of her paternal grandparents .
Potter 's adolescence was as quiet as her childhood . She matured into a spinsterish young woman whose parents groomed her to be a permanent resident and housekeeper in their home . She continued to paint and draw , and experienced her first professional artistic success in 1890 when she sold six designs of humanized animals to a greeting card publisher . She hoped to lead a useful life independent of her parents , and tentatively considered a career in mycology , but the all @-@ male scientific community regarded her as nothing more than an amateur and she abandoned fungi .
In 1900 , Potter revised a tale about a humanized rabbit she had written for a child friend in 1893 , fashioned a dummy book of it in imitation of Helen Bannerman 's 1899 bestseller The Story of Little Black Sambo , and privately published her tale for family and friends in December 1901 after several publishers ' rejections . Frederick Warne & Co. had earlier rejected the tale , but , eager to compete in the lucrative small format children 's book market , reconsidered and accepted the " bunny book " ( as the firm called it ) on the recommendation of their prominent children 's book artist L. Leslie Brooke . Potter agreed to colour the pen and ink illustrations of her privately printed edition , chose the then @-@ new Hentschel three @-@ colour process for reproducing her watercolours , and in October 1902 The Tale of Peter Rabbit was released .
Potter continued to publish with Warnes , and , in August 1905 , used sales profits and a small legacy from an aunt to buy Hill Top , a working farm of 34 acres ( 13 @.@ 85 ha ) at Sawrey in the Lake District . In the years immediately following its purchase , she produced tales and illustrations inspired by the farm , its woodland surroundings , and nearby villages .
Potter produced two books per annum for Warne , but by 1910 she was juggling the demands of aging parents with the business of operating Hill Top , and her literary and artistic productivity began to decline . The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse was the only book Potter published in 1910 . She wrote a friend on New Year 's Day 1911 : " I did not succeed in finishing more than one book last year ... I find it very difficult lately to get the drawings done . I do not seem to be able to go into the country for a long enough time to do a sufficient amount of sketching and when I was at Bowness last summer I spent most of my time upon the road going backwards & forwards to the farm – which was amusing , but not satisfactory for work . "
She intended to follow Mrs. Tittlemouse with a tale about a pig in a large format book similar to the original Ginger and Pickles , but was forced to abandon the project after several unproductive attempts at composition . Instead , she occupied the winter of 1910 – 11 with supervising the production of Peter Rabbit 's Painting Book , and composing Timmy Tiptoes , a tale about indigenous North American mammals .
= = Production = =
Potter completed the text of Timmy Tiptoes but decided it was too long . She was also uncertain exactly how to put the bird calls into print . She revised the text , and wrote publisher Harold Warne : " I have compressed the words in the earlier pages , but it seems unavoidable to have a good deal of nuts . The songs of the little birds will be easier to judge as to spelling when one sees it in type . " The illustrations presented another problem . For her earlier productions , Potter was able to observe the species concerned in the wild , and kept specimens at home as pets and models . For Timmy Tiptoes however , she was unable to do so . Instead , she relied on specimens in the London Zoological Gardens as models , and checked photographs in reference books including one from the firm of taxidermist Rowland Ward . " The book obtained from Rowland Ward will be very useful , " she wrote .
At the end of July 1911 , she sent the text and most of the illustrations to Warne from Lindeth Howe , her parents ' summering place in Windermere . An embarrassed Harold Warne wrote her suggesting a few minor alterations , but she was unperturbed . " There is no need to apologize for criticism , " she wrote , " But there is no doubt the animals strongly resemble rabbits , the head which you question was copied from a photograph in the book . " The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes was released in October 1911 to popular and commercial success .
In Beatrix Potter : A Life in Nature ( 2007 ) , biographer Linda Lear describes Timmy Tiptoes as " the least satisfactory " of Potter 's books , and ascribes its literary and artistic shortcomings to the author 's desire to satisfy her publisher 's demand for yet another book , to court her American fans with a tale about North American animals , and to make quick money in the American market . Potter 's output decreased strikingly after Timmy Tiptoes and the length of time between books increased . Two books that followed Timmy Tiptoes , The Tale of Mr. Tod ( 1912 ) and The Tale of Pigling Bland ( 1913 ) , have been described as the culmination of Potter 's well @-@ structured , imaginative art rather than a continuation of that art .
Potter had become tired of writing for children and increasingly unfamiliar with them . The Moore children ( for whom she had written several tales early in her career ) were grown , and Potter had not replaced them with other children , although she continued to write letters to child fans who had written her . She was out of touch with the interests of American children . Her marriage to William Heelis on October 15 , 1913 effectively ended her literary and artistic career . Although she published sporadically in the years following her marriage , her works depended principally upon decades @-@ old concepts filed away in her publisher 's offices and ageing illustrations tucked away in her portfolio . Only The Tale of Johnny Town @-@ Mouse ( 1918 ) brought forth a completely new set of illustrations from the artist . She devoted herself to marriage and farming , and avoided publicity and fans .
= = Plot = =
The tale is set in a forest and begins with " once upon a time " . Timmy Tiptoes is " a little fat comfortable grey squirrel " living in a nest thatched with leaves in the top of a tall tree with his little wife , Goody . Over the course of several days , the two collect nuts in their little sacks for the coming winter and spring , and store the nuts in hollow tree stumps near their home . Timmy wears a red jacket he removes while working , and his wife wears a pink dress and apron . When the stumps are full , the couple make use of a tree @-@ hole that once belonged to a woodpecker . The nuts rattle " down – down – down inside " , and Goody wonders how they will ever retrieve them . Timmy reminds her he will be much thinner by springtime and will be able to pass through the little hole .
In an aside , the narrator tells the reader that the couple had great quantities of nuts because they never lost them , noting that most squirrels lose half their nuts because they cannot remember where they buried them . Silvertail is the most forgetful of squirrels in the wood , and , while trying to find his nuts , digs up another squirrel 's hoard . A commotion erupts among the nutting squirrels , and , as ill luck would have it , a flock of birds fly by singing " Who 's bin [ sic ] digging @-@ up my nuts ? " and " Little bit @-@ a @-@ bread and @-@ no @-@ cheese ! " One bird finds a perch in the bush where Timmy is working and continues to sing about digging up nuts . The other squirrels take notice , suspect Timmy of robbing others of their hoards , rush upon him , scratch and cuff him , chase him up a tree , and stuff him with great difficulty through the woodpecker 's hole . Silvertail suggests they leave him there until he confesses .
Timmy lays " stunned and still " on the peck of nuts he has stored in the hollow tree while Goody searches fruitlessly for him . Eventually , Timmy stirs and discovers himself in a mossy little bed surrounded by ample provisions . Chippy Hackee , a small striped chipmunk , tends him with kindness , mentioning that it has been raining nuts through the top of tree and he has also " found a few buried " . The chipmunk coaxes Timmy to eat the nuts and Timmy grows " fatter and fatter ! "
Goody is very concerned about her husband 's disappearance , but has gone back to work collecting nuts and hiding them under a tree root . Mrs. Hackee , Chippy 's wife , emerges from beneath the root to demand an explanation regarding the shower of nuts into her home . Eventually , the two ladies complain about their runaway husbands , but the chipmunk knows where her husband is camping @-@ out because a little bird has told her . Together , they hurry to the woodpecker 's hole and hear their husbands deep within the tree singing :
" My little old man and I fell out ,
How shall we bring this matter about ?
Bring it about as well as you can ,
And get you gone , you little old man ! "
Mrs. Hackee refuses to enter the tree because her husband bites , but Goody calls to her husband and he comes to the hole with a kiss for her . He is too fat to squeeze through the hole , but Chippy Hackee ( who is not too fat ) refuses to leave and remains below chuckling . A fortnight later , a big wind blows off the top of the tree , and Timmy makes his escape . He hurries home through the rain , huddling under an umbrella with his wife .
Chippy Hackee continues to camp @-@ out in the tree stump for another week , but a bear comes lumbering through the neighbourhood ( looking for nuts perhaps ? ) and Chippy decides it 's time to hurry home . He suffers a cold in his head and is quite uncomfortable . Timmy now keeps the family nuts " fastened up with a little padlock " , and Goody is seen in the accompanying illustration sitting outside the nest tending three tiny babies . " And whenever that little bird sees the Chipmunks , he sings – ' Who 's @-@ been @-@ digging @-@ up my @-@ nuts ? Who 's been digging @-@ up my @-@ nuts ? ' But nobody ever answers ! " Chippy Hackee and his wife are seen in the last illustration trying to drive the little bird away with their tree @-@ leaf umbrella .
Potter 's idea to make the squirrel grow so fat he cannot escape the tree was imitated by A. A. Milne in Winnie the Pooh .
= = Illustrations = =
Anne Stevenson Hobbs in Beatrix Potter 's Art ( 1989 ) asserts " Minute subjects demanded minute strokes : with Bewick , William Hunt , and Birket Foster , [ Potter ] is a descendant of the pictures ' in little ' approach of the Elizabethans . " In addition to the miniaturists , Potter once admitted that the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , with their " somewhat niggling but absolutely genuine admiration for copying natural detail " , had influenced her style .
Timmy Tiptoes is unique amongst Potter 's children 's books : it is the only one depicting American mammals . The title character is an eastern grey squirrel , a species exported from America to Britain , and flourishing there around 1900 . It was unlikely Potter saw the animals in the woods around Hill Top as they had yet to become established in the Lake District . She probably relied for models on specimens in the Small Mammal House of a zoo , and consulted reference works in the library of the Natural History Museum to aid her work .
Potter either had no live models for the eastern chipmunk characters , or borrowed a pet chipmunk from a cousin . Initially , she may have been unsure of how to draw the chipmunks and chose to clothe them , then was forced to follow suit and clothe the two main players as well , while leaving the other squirrels in their natural state . Or , she may have clothed Timmy and Goody because they collect their nuts in sacks ( an unnatural way for squirrels to behave ) in imitation of a ruse she employed in Peter Rabbit when Peter only walks on his hind legs while wearing his blue jacket . When he loses his jacket , he reverts to being an animal and moves about on all fours . Because Timmy and Chippy were not drawn from nature , the two suggest stuffed animals in their lack of engaging facial expressions .
Potter probably modelled the American black bear on a specimen in the London Zoological Gardens in Regent 's Park . She wrote in her manuscript in reference to her drawing of the bear : " Intended to represent the American black bear , it has a smooth coat , like a sealskin coat . " Kutzer suggests the bear in Potter 's two illustrations of the animal would theoretically be recognized by American children , but the depiction of the bear is almost as stiff and unnatural as Potter 's depictions of humans in her other books . The bear lacks any of the species ' " clumsy gracefulness " , she argues , which Potter could only have realized after seeing bears in the wild – an opportunity that simply did not exist for her in England . The inclusion of an American black bear @-@ looking creature in the tale and its depiction in the illustrations only emphasize Potter 's awkward struggle with subject matter she had not directly observed in nature or of which she had little knowledge .
MacDonald points out that the forest backgrounds were imagined and not drawn from nature ; they thus lack the " infusions of warmth [ and ] character " that distinguish the books that were drawn and painted from the Sawrey woodlands . She concludes that it was impossible for Potter to clearly write about or draw her subjects without some sort of inspiration close at hand . Judy Taylor and her collaborators on Beatrix Potter 1866 @-@ 1943 : The Artist and Her World conclude that Timmy Tiptoes is " an uneasy book " and one in which the animals do not fit naturally into the background .
= = Scholarly commentaries = =
Ruth K. MacDonald , Professor of English at New Mexico State University and author of Beatrix Potter ( 1986 ) , observes that the depiction of domestic discord in Timmy Tiptoes is not typical for Potter or for children 's literature of the period . She considers the marital relationship between the chipmunks " abrasive and shocking " . Though their relationship may reflect the non @-@ monogamous mating habits of eastern chipmunks and offer a contrast with the happy pairing of Timmy and Goody , it is an obstacle in the flow of the tale . The reader is forced to turn his attention from the star of the book to a secondary player , and , while Timmy 's story ends with the hero happily reunited with his wife , the reunion dealt the chipmunks is uncertain and less satisfying than that granted Timmy and Goody .
The reader is forced to question the stability of the Hackee union : Chippy stays away from home long after Timmy 's situation is resolved and returns to his wife only after being frightened from the tree by a bear entirely superfluous to the tale . At home , Chippy suffers with a head cold , but Mrs. Hackee 's lack of expression in the illustration leaves the reader wondering how she took his abrupt return . One wonders why Mrs. Hackee did not pursue Chippy once she learned of his whereabouts from a bird . After the reader discovers Goody is the happy mother of triplets and Timmy has made the decision to keep his nuts under lock and key , he may wonder what sort of fate the future holds for the Hackees .
MacDonald observes that the dedication , " For Many Unknown Little Friends , Including Monica " , is evidence that Potter 's audience for Timmy Tiptoes was not as clearly defined as the audiences for her other books , especially those books composed for very specific children . Though " Monica " suggests a particular child of Potter 's acquaintance , Monica was simply one of many children who posted fan letters to the author . " I do not know the child , " Potter wrote , " She is the school friend of a little cousin , who asked for it as a favour , and the name took my fancy . " MacDonald suggests it was this lack of a clearly defined audience that led to Potter 's lack of imagination and control in the tale , and her " false step " with the chipmunks ' marital relationship .
M. Daphne Kutzer , Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter : Writing in Code ( 2003 ) , detects some similarities to The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin ( 1903 ) . Both tales have touches of the pourquoi story in their explanations of why squirrels collect nuts , and both incorporate rhymes and riddles in their narratives . However , there is a crucial difference that diminishes the artistry of Timmy Tiptoes : the rhymes and riddles in Squirrel Nutkin shed light on Nutkin 's character and create a guessing game for the reader while those in Timmy Tiptoes are bland devices that simply move the characters to reunions with their wives and the tale to its conclusion .
Kutzer points out Timmy and his wife wear clothes , but the other squirrels and the bear do not . There is no apparent reason for this differentiation . She admits that this may be Potter 's attempt to separate her anthropomorphized animals from her natural ones , but she believes the attempt fails on both narrative and artistic grounds . Logically , she argues , all the squirrels should wear ( or not wear ) clothes because they all live and behave in a natural manner : Timmy and Goody inhabit a nest in a tree ( not a comfortable little house somewhere ) , and all the squirrels gather nuts for the coming winter . Except for Timmy having a wife , there is no clear distinction between natural and personified squirrel nature . In another stumbling block to logic , Timmy 's red jacket appears then disappears then reappears in the illustrations with no basis either in the plot or Timmy 's character , but apparently in Potter 's personal need for a splash of colour here and there . In this case , Potter has allowed an external force to shape the tale rather than letting the tale find its own shape .
= = Merchandise = =
Potter confidently asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the process in making them so was marketing strategy . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales with a Peter Rabbit doll , an unpublished Peter Rabbit board game , and a Peter Rabbit nursery wallpaper between 1903 and 1905 . Similar " side @-@ shows " ( as she termed the spinoffs ) were produced over the following two decades .
In 1947 , Frederick Warne & Co. granted Beswick Pottery of Longton , Staffordshire rights and licences to produce the Potter characters in porcelain . In 1948 , Timmy Tiptoes became one of the first ten figurines , and was followed by Goody Tiptoes in 1961 , Chippy Hackee in 1979 , and Timmy and Goody under an umbrella in 1986 .
In 1973 , The Eden Toy Company of New York became the first and only American company to be granted licensing rights from Warne to manufacture stuffed Potter characters in plush . In 1975 , Timmy Tiptoes and Goody Tiptoes were released . In 1975 , Crummles of Poole , Dorset began manufacturing enamelled boxes depicting Potter characters on their lids , and eventually produced a 1 and 5 / 8 inch diameter Timmy Tiptoes box .
In 1977 , Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph , Massachusetts were granted licensing rights to Beatrix Potter , and produced a Goody Tiptoes music box , a Chippy Hackee music box playing " Feed the Birds " , and a " Baby 's First Christmas " ornament depicting Goody cuddling one of her babies . In the middle 1980s , the Italian firm of ANRI manufactured ornaments and figurines of Timmy Tiptoes composed of a synthetic substance called Toriart .
= = Reprints and translations = =
As of 2010 , all of Potter 's 23 small format books were still in print and available in a 400 @-@ page omnibus edition , and in complete sets in presentation boxes . Timmy Tiptoes is available in paperback , board book , a Kindle edition , an Audible Audio edition , and an audiocassette format . First editions and reprints were available through antiquarian booksellers .
The English language editions of Potter 's little books still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983 . The printing plates were remade by Penguin from new photographs of the original drawings in 1985 , and all 23 volumes released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition .
Potter 's small format books have been translated into nearly thirty languages including Greek and Russian . The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes was published in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1966 and in Dutch as Het Verhaal van Timmie Tuimelaar in 1968 under licence to Uitgeverij Ploegsma , Amsterdam . The tale was published in Spanish by Grange Books in 1997 , and a German Thesaurus edition intended for German ESL and English GSL students in 2009 . The Thesaurus edition was printed in English with translations of difficult or unusual words and expressions located in footnotes . In 1986 , MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a traditional part of childhood in both English @-@ speaking lands and those in which the books had been translated .
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= Tremella mesenterica =
Tremella mesenterica ( common names include yellow brain , golden jelly fungus , yellow trembler , and witches ' butter ) is a common jelly fungus in the Tremellaceae family of the Agaricomycotina . It is most frequently found on dead but attached and on recently fallen branches , especially of angiosperms , as a parasite of wood decay fungi in the genus Peniophora . The gelatinous , orange @-@ yellow fruit body of the fungus , which can grow up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) diameter , has a convoluted or lobed surface that is greasy or slimy when damp . It grows in crevices in bark , appearing during rainy weather . Within a few days after rain it dries into a thin film or shriveled mass capable of reviving after subsequent rain . This fungus occurs widely in deciduous and mixed forests and is widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions that include Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North and South America . Although considered bland and flavorless , the fungus is edible . Tremella mesenterica produces carbohydrates that are attracting research interest because of their various biological activities .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was originally described from Sweden as Helvella mesenterica by the naturalist Anders Jahan Retzius in 1769 . It was later ( 1822 ) sanctioned by Elias Magnus Fries in the second volume of his Systema Mycologicum . It is the type species of the genus Tremella . Its distinctive appearance has led the species to accumulate a variety of common names , including " yellow trembler " , " yellow brain " , " golden jelly fungus " , and " witches ' butter " , although this latter name is also applied to Exidia glandulosa . The specific epithet is a Latin adjective formed from the Ancient Greek word μεσεντεριον ( mesenterion ) , " middle intestine " , from μεσο- ( meso- , " middle , center " ) and εντερον ( enteron , " intestine " ) , referring to its shape .
The species formerly recognized as Tremella lutescens is now seen as a form of T. mesenterica with washed @-@ out colors and considered a synonym .
Based on molecular analysis of the sequences of the D1 / D2 regions of the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer regions of rRNA , T. mesenterica is most closely related to T. coalescens , T. tropica , and T. brasiliensis . This analysis included 20 of the estimated 120 Tremella species .
= = Description = =
The fruit body has an irregular shape , and usually breaks through the bark of dead branches . It is up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) broad and 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) high , rounded to variously lobed or brain @-@ like in appearance . The fruit body is gelatin @-@ like but tough when wet , and hard when dry . The surface is usually smooth , the lobes translucent , deep yellow or bright yellow @-@ orange , fading to pale yellow , rarely unpigmented and white or colorless . The fruit bodies dry to a dark reddish or orange . The spores , viewed in mass , are whitish or pale yellow .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are ellipsoid to roughly spherical in shape , not or rarely stalked , and typically 15 – 21 µm wide . They contain two to four septa that divide it into compartments ; the septa are most frequently diagonal or vertical . Asexual reproduction in T. mesenterica is carried out through the formation of spores called conidia , which arise from conidiophores — specialized hyphal cells that are morphologically distinct from the somatic hyphae . The conidiophores are densely branched and normally abundant in the hymenium ; young specimens may be entirely conidial . The conidia are roughly spherical , ovoid , or ellipsoid , and about 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 by 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 5 µm . They may be so numerous that young fruit bodies may be covered in a bright yellow , conidial slime . The spores are broadly ellipsoid to oblong , on average 10 @.@ 0 – 16 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 5 µm ; they germinate by germ tube or by yeast @-@ like conidia of identical form to the conidia produced on the conidiophores .
= = = Edibility = = =
Although some have claimed the fungus to be inedible or merely " non @-@ poisonous " , most other sources agree that it is edible but flavorless . The gelatinous to rubbery consistency lends texture to soups . In China , the fungus is used by vegetarians to prepare " an immunomodulating cooling soup with lotus seed , lily bulbs , jujube , etc . "
= = Similar species = =
Tremella mesenterica is frequently confused with Tremella aurantia , a widespread species parasitic on the plant pathogenic fungus Stereum hirsutum . Tremella aurantia can often be recognized by the presence of its host , which typically grows on logs , stumps , and trunks . Though the two species are similarly colored , the surface of T. aurantia is usually matte , not greasy or shiny , and its lobes or folds are thicker than those of T. mesenterica . Fruit bodies of T. aurantia contain unclamped , thick @-@ walled host hyphae and consequently retain their shape when dried , rather than shriveling or collapsing to a film ( as in T. mesenterica ) . Microscopically , T. aurantia has smaller basidia and smaller , differently shaped spores measuring 8 @.@ 5 – 10 by 7 – 8 @.@ 5 µm . T. brasiliensis , known from neotropical areas and Japan , and the North American species T. mesenterella are also similar .
Tremella mesenterica may also be confused with members of the Dacrymycetaceae family , like Dacrymyces chrysospermus ( formerly D. palmatus ) , due to their superficial resemblance . Microscopic examination shows that the Dacrymycetaceae have Y @-@ shaped basidia with two spores , unlike the longitudinally split basidia characteristic of Tremella ; additionally , D. chrysospermus is smaller , has a whitish attachment point to its substrate , and grows on conifer wood .
= = Life cycle = =
Tremella mesenterica has a yeastlike phase in its life cycle that arises as a result of budding of basidiospores . The alternation between asexual and sexual propagation is achieved by mating of yeast @-@ form haploid cells of two compatible mating types . Each mating type secretes a mating pheromone that elicits sexual differentiation of the target cell having the opposite mating type to the pheromone @-@ producing cell . The sexual differentiation is characterized by the arrest of the growth in the G1 phase of the cell division cycle and subsequent formation of an elongated mating tube . Formation of the mating tube , initiated by the pheromones A @-@ 10 and a @-@ 13 , is similar to the process of bud emergence during bipolar budding in yeasts . Tremerogen A @-@ 10 has been purified and its chemical structure found to be S @-@ polyisoprenyl peptide . Fruit bodies arise from a primordium located beneath the wood bark , and sometimes more than one fruit body can originate separately from the same primordia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Tremella mesenterica has a cosmopolitan distribution , having been recorded from Europe , North , Central , and South America , Africa , Asia , and Australia . Fruit bodies are formed during wet periods throughout the year . In British Columbia , Canada , it is sometimes found on maple , poplar , or pine , but is most abundant on red alder . It prefers to grow in habitats ranging from mesic to wet . The fungus grows parasitically on the mycelium of wood @-@ rotting corticioid fungi in the genus Peniophora . Occasionally , T. mesenterica and its host fungus can be found fruiting together .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Some Tremella species produce polysaccharides that are of interest to the medical field , because of their biological activity ; several patents have been filed in China pertaining to the use of these compounds for cancer prevention or immune system enhancement . In 1966 , Slodki reported discovering an acidic polysaccharide from haploid cells of T. mesenterica that closely resembled those produced by the species Cryptococcus laurentii . The structural similarity of the polysaccharides from the two species suggested a phylogenetic relationship between them . Subsequently , researchers chemically synthesized the polysaccharide , and determined the chemical identities of the component sugar units . The polysaccharide , known as glucuronoxylomannan — produced by fruit bodies and in pure culture conditions — has been shown to consist of a mannan backbone that is acetylated with xylan chains in a regular repeating structure . Laboratory tests have associated a number of biological activities with T. mesenterica glucuronoxylomannan , including immunostimulatory , protecting against radiation , antidiabetic , anti @-@ inflammatory , hypocholesterolemic , hepatoprotective , and antiallergic effects .
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= Katherine Reutter =
Katherine Reutter ( / ˈrɔɪtər / ; born July 30 , 1988 ) is a former American short track speed skater . She is a two @-@ time medalist ( one silver , one bronze ) in the Winter Olympics , 2011 overall world silver medalist and the 2010 – 2011 overall ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup champion .
At the 2010 Winter Olympics , Reutter won silver in the 1000 m and bronze in the 3000 m relay . She has won one gold , two silvers , and four bronze medals at the World Championships , including overall silver medal at the 2011 World Championships . She has also won two bronze medal at the World Team Championships .
= = Personal life = =
Reutter was born and raised in Champaign , Illinois . Reutter was inspired to become a speed skater after meeting five @-@ time Olympic gold medalist Bonnie Blair at her high school . She learned to skate with her mother during a figure skating class when she was four years old , but immediately found she was more interested in speed skating . Reutter first started speed skating professionally in 2005 at the age of 17 . She began training at the Olympic Training Center in Marquette , Michigan that year . Reutter graduated from Centennial High School in 2006 . She has trained in Salt Lake City , Utah since 2007 , where she has paid for room , board , and training at her own expense .
= = Career = =
= = = 2008 – 2009 = = =
At the 2008 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships , Reutter won a bronze medal in the 3000 m with a time of 5 : 46 @.@ 518 , finishing behind Zhou Yang and Jung Eun @-@ Ju .
In February 2009 , Reutter completed a 1000 m race in 1 : 29 @.@ 667 in Dresden , Germany . It was less than 0 @.@ 2 of a second short of the world record set the previous year by Chinese short track speed skater Wang Meng . At the 2009 World Short Track Speed Skating Team Championships , in March 2009 , Reutter won a bronze medal along with Kimberly Derrick , Alyson Dudek , Lana Gehring , and Jessica Smith .
Reutter won four silver medals at the 2009 Short Track Speed Skating World Cup . She won the women 's 1500 m at the 2009 – 10 Short Track Speed Skating World Cup on November 7 , 2009 , finishing in 2 : 23 @.@ 275 , beating Cho Ha @-@ Ri of South Korea . Reutter made the 2010 U.S. Olympic team after winning the 1000 and 1500 m at the 2010 U.S. Olympic Team Trials in September 2009 .
= = = 2010 Winter Olympics = = =
Reutter ranked 1st in her qualifying heats for the 500 m with a time of 44 @.@ 187 . She then set an Olympic record in the first quarterfinal with a time of 43 @.@ 834 but the record was beaten by Wang Meng of China in the next heat , with a time of 43 @.@ 284 . Reutter started slow in the semifinals , resulting in a fourth @-@ place finish , eliminating her from medal contention . She finished seventh overall in the women 's 500 m .
Reutter competed in the semifinals for the 3000 m relay with teammates Alyson Dudek , Allison Baver and Kimberly Derrick . The U.S. team qualified for the final in second place behind South Korea with a time of 4 : 15 @.@ 376 . Reutter finished in fourth place in the 1500 m final , behind Zhou Yang of China , with Lee Eun @-@ Byul of South Korea in second , and Park Seung @-@ Hi of South Korea in third . Reutter got tangled up with Wang Meng in the semifinal , causing both skaters and Cho Ha @-@ Ri of South Korea to fall , resulting in Meng being disqualified from the final . Reutter repeated the same move in the final , bumping into Park , and later expressed remorse for both mistakes , stating " I think the room was there but maybe I just wasn 't there . I don 't know . But … I messed up and messed up some people around me , which I 'm very sorry for . " In the heats of the 1000 m , Reutter set an Olympic record and finished first overall in the heats . About an hour and a half later , Reutter competed in the 3000 m relay ( with Allison Baver , Alyson Dudek , Lana Gehring ) and won bronze behind China and Canada due to the disqualification of South Korea . In the final of the 1000 m , Reutter was edged out for the gold medal by Wang Meng , finishing behind her 1 : 29 @.@ 324 to 1 : 29 @.@ 213 .
= = = 2010 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships = = =
At the 2010 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships , in Sofia , Bulgaria , Reutter , who was fighting the flu , won bronze medals in the 1000 m and the 3000 m relay . In her first event , the 1000 m , Reutter placed third with a time of 1 : 31 @.@ 747 , finishing behind Wang Meng and Cho Ha @-@ Ri . Reutter then combined with Alyson Dudek , Kimberly Derrick , and Lana Gehring in the 3000 m relay to finish third behind South Korea and Canada with a time of 4 : 14 @.@ 231 . Reutter also placed 6th in the 500 m , 4th in the 1500 m , and 4th in the 3000 m .
= = = 2011 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships = = =
At the 2011 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships in Sheffield , England , Reutter won one gold , two silvers , and one bronze . She finished second overall with 68 points . In her first event , the 1500 m , Reutter won the gold ahead of Koreans Park Seung @-@ Hi and Cho Ha @-@ Ri in a time of 2 : 33 @.@ 978 . In winning the gold , Reutter became the first American woman to win a gold medal at a World Short Track Speed Skating Championships since Bonnie Blair did in 1986 . After the 1500 m , Reutter competed in the 3000 m relay semifinals but fell during the race , resulting in the United States not advancing to the final . In her next event , the 500 m , Reutter did not advance past the semifinals , finishing 6th overall . In the 1000 m , Reutter finished in third place behind Cho Ha @-@ Ri and Italian Arianna Fontana in a time of 2 : 23 @.@ 268 even though she tripped on a lane block . In her last event , the 3000 m , Reutter just missed the gold medal , finishing behind Cho Ha @-@ Ri 5 : 13 @.@ 677 to 5 : 13 @.@ 353 .
= = = Retirement = = =
In early 2013 due to constant injuries , Reutter announced her retirement at the age of 24 . After that , she became a coach at the Pettit National Ice Center .
= = Appearances and endorsements = =
Reutter appeared as a guest on Comedy Central 's The Colbert Report on December 14 , 2009 . Host Stephen Colbert autographed her thigh , an idea by Reutter that initially caught the comedian off guard ( Although Reutter 's website suggest that it was her manager 's idea and they had discussed it with Colbert beforehand ) . Colbert began raising funds for the U.S. Speedskating team when their sponsor , the Dutch DSB Bank , went bankrupt .
Reutter was sponsored by U.S. Speedskating , Verizon , EyeCare 20 / 20 , Bioenergy Ribose , Nike , Oakley and the Champaign Police Department , who helped pay the costs of her training in Utah .
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= Paul Brown =
Paul Eugene Brown ( September 7 , 1908 – August 5 , 1991 ) was an American football coach and executive in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Brown was the first coach of the Cleveland Browns and later played a role in founding the Cincinnati Bengals . His teams won seven league championships in a professional coaching career spanning 25 seasons . He is the only NFL coach ever to have an NFL team named after him .
Brown began his coaching career at Severn School in 1931 before becoming the head football coach at Massillon Washington High School in Massillon , Ohio , where he grew up . His high school teams lost only 10 games in 11 seasons . He was then hired at Ohio State University and coached the school to its first national football championship in 1942 . After World War II , he became head coach of the Browns , who won four AAFC championships before joining the NFL in 1950 . Brown coached the Browns to three NFL championships – in 1950 , 1954 and 1955 – but was fired in January 1963 amid a power struggle with team owner Art Modell . Brown in 1968 co @-@ founded and was the first coach of the Bengals . He retired from coaching in 1975 but remained the Bengals ' team president until his death in 1991 . The Bengals named their home stadium Paul Brown Stadium in honor of Brown . He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1967 .
Brown is credited with a number of American football innovations . He was the first coach to use game film to scout opponents , hire a full @-@ time staff of assistants , and test players on their knowledge of a playbook . He invented the modern face mask , the taxi squad and the draw play . He also played a role in breaking professional football 's color barrier , bringing some of the first African @-@ Americans to play pro football in the modern era onto his teams . Despite these accomplishments , Brown was not universally liked . He was strict and controlling , which often brought him into conflict with players who wanted a greater say in play @-@ calling . These disputes , combined with Brown 's failure to consult Modell on major personnel decisions , led to his firing as the Browns ' coach in 1963 .
= = Early life = =
Brown grew up in Massillon , Ohio , where he moved with his family from Norwalk when he was nine years of age . His father , Lester , was a dispatcher for the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad . Massillon was a shipping and steel town obsessed with its high school and professional football teams , both called the Tigers . Massillon 's main rival at both levels was nearby Canton , at the time a bigger and richer town . When the professional teams folded in the 1920s , the rivalry between the high school teams took center stage .
Brown entered Massillon Washington High School in 1922 . Although he played football as a child , Brown was undersized for the game at less than 150 pounds and at first focused his athletic energies on the pole vault . Harry Stuhldreher , who went on to be one of Notre Dame 's legendary Four Horsemen , was then the high school quarterback . But Massillon coach Dave Stewart saw Brown 's determination to be a good vaulter despite his small size and brought him onto the football team ; as a junior in 1924 , he took over as the starting quarterback . Massillon posted a win @-@ loss record of 15 – 3 in Brown 's junior and senior years as the starter .
Brown graduated in 1925 and enrolled at Ohio State University the following year , hoping to make the Buckeyes team . He never got past the tryout phase . After his freshman year , he transferred to Miami University in Oxford , Ohio , where he followed Weeb Ewbank as the school 's starting quarterback . Under Coach Chester Pittser , Brown was named to the All @-@ Ohio small @-@ college second team by the Associated Press at the end of 1928 . In two seasons at Miami , Brown guided the team to a 14 – 3 record . He married his high school sweetheart Katie Kester the following year . Brown had taken pre @-@ law at Miami and considered studying history on a Rhodes Scholarship , but after college he instead took his first job as a coach . On Stewart 's recommendation , Severn School , a private prep school in Maryland , hired him in 1930 .
= = High school coaching career = =
= = = Severn School = = =
Brown spent two successful years at Severn . The team was undefeated in his first season and won the Maryland state championship . In 1931 , the team 's win @-@ loss @-@ tie record was 5 – 2 – 1 . Brown 's overall record was 12 – 2 – 1 . After his second year , Massillon 's head coaching job became available , and Brown took the position .
= = = Massillon Tigers = = =
Brown returned to Massillon in 1932 , when he was 24 years old and barely two years out of college . His assignment was to turn around a Tigers team that had fallen into mediocrity over the six seasons since the departure of Stewart , Brown 's old coach . In 1931 , the year before Brown arrived , the Tigers finished with a 2 – 6 @-@ 2 record.Template : Massillon Tiger Football Booster Club Brown 's strategy was to build up a disciplined , hard @-@ working team . He fired an assistant early on for arriving at a practice late because he had to work on his farm . No Tigers player was allowed to sit on the bench during a game ; Brown made them stand . At Massillon , Brown put in an offense and blocking scheme he learned from Duke 's Jimmy DeHart and Purdue 's Noble Kizer . He emphasized quickness over strength .
In his first season at Massillon , Brown 's team posted a 5 – 4 – 1 record , better than the previous year but far from Brown 's exacting standards . The Tigers improved again in 1933 , ending with an 8 – 2 record but losing to their chief rivals , the Canton McKinley High School Bulldogs . In 1934 , Massillon won all of its games until a 21 – 6 defeat to Canton in the final game of the season . As the pressure on Brown grew to turn the tables on Canton , Massillon finally accomplished the feat the following year in an undefeated season , the first of several with Brown at the helm .
By then , Brown had put his system into place : a strict , systematic approach to coaching combined with a well @-@ organized recruitment network that drew promising young players from Massillon 's junior high school football program . He paid no attention to race , and brought several African @-@ American players onto the team at a time when many northern schools excluded them .
In the ensuing five seasons , Massillon lost only one game , a 7 – 0 defeat at New Castle , Pennsylvania in 1937 after several players came down with the flu . As the Tigers ' prestige grew , Brown in 1936 convinced the school to build a new stadium almost triple the size of the existing 7 @,@ 000 @-@ seat facility . The stadium was finished in 1939 , and is now named after Brown . The pinnacle of Brown 's career at Massillon was a victory in the 1940 season against Toledo 's Waite High School . The Tigers and Waite both went undefeated in the 1939 season , and both claimed the state championship . The teams decided to settle the score the following year , and Brown 's team won 28 – 0 . The Massillon 1940 squad is still regarded by historians as one of the best in the history of state high school football .
During his nine years at Massillon , Brown invented the playbook , a detailed listing of formations and set plays , and tested his players on their knowledge of it . He also originated the practice of sending in plays to his quarterback from the sideline using hand signals . His overall record at the school was 80 – 8 – 2 , including a 35 @-@ game winning streak . Between 1935 and 1940 , the team won the state football championship six times and won the High School Football National Championship four times , outscoring opponents by 2 @,@ 393 points to 168 over that span . After the early losses to Canton , the Tigers beat the Bulldogs six straight times .
= = College and military career = =
= = = Ohio State Buckeyes = = =
Brown 's success at Massillon raised his profile in Ohio considerably ; people started calling him the " Miracle Man of Massillon . " When Ohio State was looking for a new coach in 1940 – Francis Schmidt left after losing to the rival Michigan Wolverines three times in a row – Brown was a candidate for the job . Ohio State officials were skeptical about the 33 @-@ year @-@ old making the transition to college football but were worried that they might lose talented high school recruits loyal to Brown if they did not sign him .
Ohio State offered Brown a $ 6 @,@ 500 salary ( $ 104 @,@ 574 in 2016 dollars ) , about $ 1 @,@ 500 above his Massillon pay . He accepted in January 1941 and immediately began to institute his rigorous system . Players were drilled and quizzed , and Brown focused on preparing the freshmen to take starting roles as graduating seniors left . He conditioned his players to emphasize quickness , adopting the 40 @-@ yard dash as a measure of speed because that was the distance players needed to run to cover a punt .
Brown 's first year at Ohio State was a success . The Buckeyes won all but one of eight games in 1941 ; the only loss was to Northwestern University and its star tailback , Otto Graham . The final game of the season was a 20 – 20 tie with Michigan , which the school 's supporters saw as a good outcome given that Ohio State was a heavy underdog . The Buckeyes tied for second place in the Western Conference , a grouping of college teams from the Midwestern United States ( now known as the Big Ten ) , and finished 13th in the AP Poll . Brown was fourth in balloting for national Coach of the Year .
Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 threatened to derail the 1942 season , but most college teams played on , adjusting schedules to include military teams composed of players serving in the military . The Buckeyes opened the season by beating a Fort Knox team 59 – 0 , followed by two more wins against Southern California and Indiana University . In the first AP Poll of the season , Ohio State was ranked best in the nation , the first time the school had achieved that mark . The 1942 team was the first composed mainly of players hand @-@ picked by Brown , including Bill Willis , Dante Lavelli and star halfback Les Horvath . In the middle of the season , the Buckeyes lost to the University of Wisconsin after numerous players drank bad water and got sick . That was the team 's only loss of the season , which culminated with a 21 – 7 victory over Michigan . The Buckeyes won the Western Conference and claimed their first @-@ ever national title after finishing the season at the top of the AP Poll .
The 1943 season was a disaster for Brown and the Buckeyes . Depleted by the military draft and facing tough competition from teams on Army and Navy bases , Brown was forced to play 17 @-@ year @-@ old recruits who had not yet enlisted . Ohio State had affiliated itself with the Army Specialized Training Program , which did not allow its trainees to participate in varsity sports , while schools such as Michigan and Purdue became part of the Navy 's V @-@ 12 training program , which did . The Buckeyes ended with a 3 – 6 record . In three seasons at Ohio State , Brown amassed an 18 – 8 – 1 record .
= = = Great Lakes Bluejackets = = =
Brown was classified 1 @-@ A in 1944 and commissioned as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy . He served at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside Chicago as head coach of its Bluejacket football team , which competed against other service teams and college programs . The station was a waypoint for Navy recruits between training and active service in World War II , but its commanders took athletics seriously and saw winning as a morale @-@ booster and a point of personal pride . Brown could have been called up for active duty – Tony Hinkle , his predecessor , was already serving in the Pacific – but the war began to wind down as Brown arrived . Brown had little time to institute his system , and instead adopted Hinkle 's offensive scheme , borrowed from the Chicago Bears . He had a smattering of talented players , including defensive end George Young and halfback Ara Parseghian . In 1944 , the team lost to Ohio State and Notre Dame , but finished with a 9 – 2 – 1 record and was among the top 20 teams in the AP Poll .
In September 1944 , Arch Ward , the influential sports editor of the Chicago Tribune , proposed a new eight @-@ team professional football league called the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) to compete against the more established National Football League ( NFL ) once the war was over . Ward lined up wealthy owners for the new league , which included teams in Los Angeles , New York City , San Francisco and Cleveland . Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride , a taxi @-@ cab magnate who made a fortune in the newspaper business , was the owner of the Cleveland franchise . As Brown was preparing for the 1945 Bluejackets season , Ward came on McBride 's behalf to ask Brown if he wanted to coach the new team . McBride offered $ 17 @,@ 500 a year ( $ 230 @,@ 023 in today 's dollars ) – more than any coach at any level – plus a stake in the team and a stipend while he was still in the military .
On February 8 , 1945 , Brown accepted the job , saying he was sad to leave Ohio State , but he " couldn 't turn down this deal in fairness to my family . " Brown was still Ohio State 's head coach in absentia , and the decision surprised and outraged school officials who expected him to return after the war . The AAFC did not start play until after the war , however , and Brown continued to get ready for the 1945 season at Great Lakes . That year , many of his best players were transferred to bases on the West Coast as the focus of the war shifted to the Pacific . The team started with a 0 – 4 – 1 record , but rattled off six straight wins after the war ended and players returned from service overseas . Within weeks of Brown 's final Bluejackets game , a 39 – 7 victory over Notre Dame , he set off for his new job in Cleveland .
= = Professional coaching career = =
= = = Cleveland Browns in the AAFC ( 1946 – 1949 ) = = =
By the time Brown arrived in Cleveland , the team had signed a number of players to its roster , including quarterback Otto Graham , whose Northwestern squad had beaten the Buckeyes in 1941 . Many of the players came from Ohio State , Great Lakes and Massillon teams that Brown coached . Lou Groza , a placekicker and tackle , played for Brown at Ohio State before the war intervened . Receiver Dante Lavelli was a sophomore on Ohio State 's championship @-@ winning team in 1942 . Bill Willis , a defensive lineman who Brown coached at Ohio State , and Marion Motley , a running back who grew up in Canton and played for Brown at Great Lakes , became two of the first black athletes to play professional football when they joined the team in 1946 . Other signings included receiver Mac Speedie , center Frank Gatski and back Edgar " Special Delivery " Jones . Brown brought in assistants including Blanton Collier , who had been stationed at Great Lakes and met Brown at Bluejackets practices .
The name of the team was at first left up to Brown , who rejected calls for it to be christened the Browns . McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945 ; " Cleveland Panthers " was the winning choice , but Brown rejected it because it was the name of an earlier failed football team . " That old Panthers team failed , " Brown said . " I want no part of that name . " In August , McBride gave in to popular demand and christened the team the Browns , despite Paul Brown 's objections . With the roster fixed and the team 's name chosen , Brown set out to build a dynasty . " I want to be what the New York Yankees are in baseball or Ben Hogan is in golf , " he said .
After a training camp at Bowling Green State University , the Browns played their first game in September 1946 at Cleveland Stadium . A crowd of 60 @,@ 135 people showed up to see the Browns beat the Miami Seahawks 44 – 0 , then a record attendance mark for professional football . That touched off a string of wins ; the team ended the season with a 12 – 2 record and the top spot in the AAFC 's western division . The Browns then beat the AAFC 's New York Yankees in the championship .
Cleveland won the AAFC championship again in 1947 behind an offensive attack that employed the forward pass more frequently and effectively than was typical at the time . The Browns ' offensive success was driven by Brown 's version of the T formation , which was gradually replacing the single @-@ wing formation as football 's most popular and effective scheme .
The Browns won every game in the 1948 season , a feat that went unmatched until the Miami Dolphins ( coached by Brown disciple Don Shula ) did it in 1972 . Cleveland then won the AAFC championship for the fourth time in a row in 1949 . By then , however , the league was struggling for survival , due in part to the Browns ' dominance . Attendance at games dwindled in 1948 and 1949 as fans lost interest in lopsided victories , and at the end of the 1949 season the AAFC dissolved . Three of its teams , the San Francisco 49ers , the Baltimore Colts and the Browns , merged into the NFL . The Browns picked up a few good former AAFC players from other teams , including offensive guard Abe Gibron and defensive end Len Ford , but some observers saw Brown 's team as the lone standout in an otherwise minor league .
= = = Cleveland Browns in the NFL ( 1950 – 1955 ) = = =
The Browns ' first game in the NFL in 1950 was against the two @-@ time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles in Philadelphia . They won the game 35 – 10 , the first of 10 victories that year . After beating the New York Giants in a playoff game , the Browns went on to win the championship game against the Los Angeles Rams on a last @-@ minute field goal by Groza . " The flag of the late lamented AAFC flies high , and Paul Brown has the last laugh , " the Plain Dealer 's editorial page proclaimed . Brown said his was " the greatest football team a coach ever had , and there was never a game like this one . " In 16 seasons , Brown had led his teams to 12 championships . He was the first head coach to win both a college and NFL championship , a feat not repeated until Jimmy Johnson and later Barry Switzer did it with the Dallas Cowboys in the 1990s , and Pete Carroll who accomplished the feat with USC in 2004 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2013 .
As the Browns climbed to the top of the NFL , speculation began to mount that Brown might return to the Buckeyes . Wes Felser had resigned as the team 's coach , and Brown was seen as a possible replacement . But Brown had also alienated many Ohio State alumni by failing to return to the school after World War II and for signing away players including Groza before their college eligibility expired . He interviewed with the university 's athletic board on January 27 , 1951 , but the board unanimously rejected Brown in favor of Woody Hayes , who was unanimously endorsed by the board of trustees .
The Browns reached the championship each of the next three years , but lost all of those games . In both 1952 and 1953 , Cleveland lost championships to the Detroit Lions , who were then on the rise after decades of mediocrity . Before the 1953 season , McBride sold the team to a group of local businessmen led by David Jones for $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @,@ 306 @,@ 716 in 2016 dollars ) . While Brown was upset that McBride did not consult him about the deal , the new owners said they would stay out of the picture and let Brown run the team . Brown saw this as a crucial issue : he felt he needed full control over personnel decisions and coaching to make his system work .
Graham announced in 1953 that the following season would be his last . But the team won the championship in 1954 in a rematch against the Lions , and Brown convinced Graham to come back . Cleveland finished 1955 with a 9 – 2 – 1 record , reaching the championship game again . The Browns beat the Rams for their second straight championship , and Graham retired after the season .
= = = Later years in Cleveland ( 1956 – 1963 ) = = =
With Graham gone and the quarterback situation in flux , the Browns ended 1956 with a 5 – 7 record , Paul Brown 's first losing season as a professional coach . In the next year 's draft , the team selected Jim Brown out of Syracuse University . As television began to help football leapfrog baseball as America 's most popular sport , Jim Brown became a larger @-@ than @-@ life personality . He was handsome and charismatic in private and dominant on the field . Paul Brown , however , was critical of some aspects of Jim Brown 's game , including his disinclination to block . In Jim Brown 's first season , the team reached the championship game , again against the Lions , but lost 59 – 14 . The Browns did not contend for the championship in the following two years , when a Baltimore Colts team coached by Brown 's former protege Weeb Ewbank won a pair of titles .
As Jim Brown 's star rose , players began to question Paul Brown 's leadership and play @-@ calling in the late 1950s . The skepticism came to a head in a game against the Giants at the end of the 1958 season in which a win or tie would have given the Browns a spot in the championship game against Ewbank 's Colts . In the third quarter , the Browns drove to New York 's 16 @-@ yard line with a 10 – 3 lead and lined up for a field goal . But Coach Brown called a timeout before Groza could make the try , which alerted the Giants to a possible fake kick . Brown indeed called a fake , and the holder stumbled as he got up to throw , ruining the play . The Giants came back to win the game by a field goal and reach the championship , while the Browns went home without a spot in the title game for the second year in a row .
Paul Brown blamed the struggles on quarterback Milt Plum , whom the team had drafted in 1957 , saying the Browns had " lost faith in Plum 's ability to play under stress . " But the players were instead losing faith in Coach Brown and his autocratic style . Jim Brown started a weekly radio show , which Paul Brown did not like ; it undercut his control over the team and its message . But the coach found it hard to question Jim Brown given his feats on the field , and the tension between the two men grew . The team finished second in its division in 1959 and 1960 , even as Jim Brown racked up league @-@ leading seasons in rushing .
Art Modell , a New York advertising executive , bought the team in 1961 for almost $ 4 million ( $ 31 @,@ 674 @,@ 833 today ) . Modell , who was 35 years old at the time , bought out Brown 's 15 % stake in the team for $ 500 @,@ 000 and gave Brown a new eight @-@ year contract . He said he and Brown would have a " working partnership " , and began to play a more direct role than previous owners in the team 's operation . This angered Brown , who was used to having a free hand in football matters . Modell , who was single and only a few years older than most players , started to listen to their concerns about the coach . He became particularly close to Jim Brown , calling him " my senior partner " . Modell sat in the press box during games and could be overheard second @-@ guessing Paul Brown 's play @-@ calling , which drove a deeper wedge between the two men . At that time , Brown was the only coach who insisted on calling every offensive play . When Plum openly questioned Paul Brown 's absolute control over play @-@ calling , he was traded to Detroit .
The conflict between Paul Brown and Modell reached a breaking point when Brown traded star halfback Bobby Mitchell for the rights to Ernie Davis , a Heisman Trophy @-@ winning running back who broke all of Jim Brown 's rushing records at Syracuse . Paul Brown did not inform Modell of the move , and Modell only heard about it after getting a call from Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall . Davis , however , was diagnosed with leukemia before the 1962 season . He came to Cleveland to train after the cancer went into remission , but Brown would not allow him to play . Modell , however , wanted to give Davis a chance to play before he succumbed to the disease . Ultimately , the relationship between coach and owner was never repaired , and Ernie Davis never played in a professional game , dying on May 18 , 1963 .
= = = Departure from Cleveland = = =
As the rift between the players and Brown and between Modell and Brown grew , Modell fired Brown on January 7 , 1963 . A controversy developed over the timing of the decision amid a local newspaper strike , which limited discussion of the move . A printing company executive , however , got together a group of sportswriters and published a 32 @-@ page magazine fielding players ' views on the firing . Opinions were mixed ; Modell came in for his share of criticism , but tackle and team captain Mike McCormack said he did not think the team could win under Brown . Blanton Collier , Brown 's longtime assistant , was named the team 's new head coach , and Brown began to plan his next move as he continued to receive an $ 82 @,@ 500 salary under his eight @-@ year contract .
In exile after more than 30 years of coaching , Brown spent the next five years away from the sidelines , never once attending a Browns contest . While he was secure financially , Brown 's frustration grew with each passing year . " It was terrible , " he later recalled . " I had everything a man could want : leisure , enough money , a wonderful family . Yet with all that , I was eating my heart out . " Because Brown was still receiving his annual salary and liked to golf , it was said that the only two people who made more money playing golf were Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus .
Brown explored coaching possibilities , but he was mindful not to put himself in a position where his control might be challenged as it had been in Cleveland . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the American Football League ( AFL ) , which had formed to compete against the NFL , put a new franchise in Cincinnati . Brown was the third @-@ largest investor in the team and was given the title of coach and general manager . He was also given the right to represent the team in all league matters , a key element of control for Brown .
= = = Cincinnati Bengals = = =
Brown called his new franchise the Bengals because Cincinnati had a team of that name in the 1930s and he thought it would provide a link to the past . Brown 's son Mike joined the front office and became his father 's top assistant and right @-@ hand man . Brown brought in other assistants including Bill Johnson , Rick Forzano and Bill Walsh . In their first two seasons in 1968 and 1969 , the Bengals fared poorly , but the team appeared to be on the upswing as Brown built up a core group of players through the draft , including quarterback Greg Cook .
The Bengals entered the NFL in 1970 as a result of the AFL @-@ NFL merger , and were placed in the newly formed American Football Conference alongside the Browns . A career @-@ ending injury to Cook before the 1970 season forced the Bengals to rely on Virgil Carter , an emergency backup who could make accurate short passes but could not heave the ball like Cook once could . So Brown and Walsh went to work designing an offense around Carter 's limitations , a scheme that was the genesis of the West Coast offense Walsh later used to great effect when he became coach of the San Francisco 49ers .
The Bengals lost their first meeting with the Browns 30 – 27 in 1970 , and Brown was booed when he did not come on the field to shake Collier 's hand after the game . " I haven 't shaken the other coach 's hands after a game for years , " Brown explained . " ... I went up to him before the game , and we did our socializing then . " But the Bengals came back to beat the Browns later in the season . Brown called it " my greatest victory . "
In his years as the Bengals ' head coach , Brown took the team to the playoffs three times , including in 1970 . Yet despite finding a franchise quarterback in Ken Anderson , Brown 's team never got past the first round of the postseason tournament . Four days after the Bengals were eliminated from the playoffs in 1975 , Brown announced he was retiring after 45 years of coaching . The game had changed dramatically during his time in the NFL , growing from America 's second sport to the country 's biggest and most lucrative pastime . Brown was 67 years old .
= = Later life and death = =
Walsh was passed over in favor of Bill " Tiger " Johnson for the head coaching job when Brown retired . In a 2006 interview , Walsh said Brown worked against his candidacy to be a head coach anywhere in the league . " All the way through I had opportunities , and I never knew about them , " Walsh said . " And then when I left him , he called whoever he thought was necessary to keep me out of the NFL . " Brown stayed on as team president following his retirement , and the Bengals later made two trips to the Super Bowl , losing both games to Walsh and the 49ers . He rarely appeared in public , however . He died on August 5 , 1991 at home of complications from pneumonia . He and Katie had three sons : Robin , Mike and Pete . Following Katie 's death of a heart attack in 1969 , he married his former secretary Mary Rightsell in 1973 . His son Robin died of cancer in 1978 . Brown is buried at Rose Hill Cemetery in Massillon .
Brown was succeeded by his son Mike as Bengals ' team president . Subsequently , in 2000 , Cincinnati opened a new football facility on the Ohio River , naming it Paul Brown Stadium . Brown was elected in 1967 to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton , Ohio . " I feel he 's as fine a coach as the game ever has had , " Otto Graham said at the induction ceremony . " I used to cuss him out and complain but now I 'm happy that I played under him . " In 2009 , Sporting News named Brown as the 12th greatest coach of all time ; only two other NFL coaches were listed above him .
= = Legacy = =
Although Brown coached dozens of successful teams at the high school , college and professional levels , his controlling personality and sharp criticisms made him unpopular with many players . Brown was a methodical and disciplined coach who tolerated no deviation from his system . His professional teams ' planes did not wait for players who were late ; anyone who missed the flight was forced to find one on his own and pay a fine to Brown . When the Browns practiced twice in a day in training camp , each session was exactly 55 minutes . Regular practices during the season lasted an hour and 12 minutes . Players who made mistakes in games were held up for ridicule during film review sessions . " There got to be a saying , " longtime Browns safety Ken Konz said years later . " ' There 's a right way , a wrong way and the Paul Brown way . ' If you did it the Paul Brown way , you were right . He was a very strict coach , and he expected you to toe the line . "
Brown was also a tough negotiator over salaries , often refusing to give players raises despite strong performance . He was called " cold and brutal " by sportswriters , and told players to be " ready to fight for your financial lives " . " When I signed with Paul , he felt that $ 1 @,@ 000 was $ 10 million , " said Gene Hickerson , a guard who played for the Browns in the late 1950s and 1960s . Brown 's stingy approach to salaries frustrated his players and was a motivating force behind the formation of the National Football League Players Association , which represents players ' interests in dealings with the league . Browns players including Dante Lavelli and Abe Gibron helped found the union in 1956 along with lawyer and former Browns assistant coach Creighton Miller . Brown was so annoyed by the union that he had a 1946 team photo in his office touched up to remove Miller .
Brown 's acrimonious departure from Cleveland was another source of criticism . His teams ' winning ways had helped obscure his harsh methods and need for control , but Modell 's active involvement in the team exposed them . Despite that Modell owned the team , Brown refused to cede any authority or be diplomatic in his relationship with Modell . Modell felt Brown was unwilling to adapt to the way football was played in the early 1960s . Many players from that time agreed . " Paul didn 't adjust to the changes in the game , " former Browns cornerback Bernie Parrish said in 1997 . " By 1962 , he was more worried about protecting his reputation as the Greatest Coach Who Ever Lived than he was about winning a title . ... By the end of the 1962 season , a lot of us wanted to be traded because we were convinced that we 'd never win a title with Paul Brown – and we never believed Paul Brown was going anywhere . " After his firing , Brown held a grudge against Modell for the rest of his life . He never forgave Collier for taking over as coach when he left , even though Collier had asked for and received his blessing .
Although he was criticized for his autocratic coaching style and strained relationships , Brown played a significant role in the evolution and modernization of football . The draw play he invented – a formation in which the quarterback drops back to pass but then hands off the ball to a running back – is still in wide use . In his autobiography , Brown said the play came about by accident in 1946 when Graham botched a play and improvised by making a late handoff to Marion Motley , who ran past the onrushing defenders for a large gain . He developed detailed pass patterns that were designed to exploit vulnerabilities in the defense . Brown is also credited with the creation of the passer 's pocket , an offensive line protection scheme that is designed to buy a quarterback a few extra precious seconds to find the open receiver .
Brown 's main contribution to the game , however , was not to the development of new plays but to the organization and administration of teams . Before Brown , football was seen as a chaotic affair where winning was a product mostly of physical prowess . Few coaches took strategy and preparation seriously . Brown , by contrast , hired a full @-@ time staff of assistants , tested his players on their intelligence and their knowledge of plays , instituted strict organization of practices and analyzed game film to get an edge on opponents . Brown created a detailed system for scouting college talent as a means to improve the Browns ' college draft .
The success of this systematic approach forced other teams to follow . Most of Brown 's organizational innovations are still in use today . " No one , I mean no one , has ever had total command and respect like Paul Brown , " Paul Wiggin , a former Browns defensive end , said in 1997 . " I believe that Paul Brown could have been a general in the Army ... you put Paul Brown in charge of anything and he would have been one of those special people who could organize and lead . "
Brown 's approach influenced future generations of coaches down to the present day . Men he worked directly with , including Don Shula , Weeb Ewbank , Chuck Noll and Bill Walsh , all adopted his system to some degree .
Brown was more than just a coach . He was a student of the game who had much to do with making professional football the attraction it is today . He made coaching a full @-@ time job for himself and all his assistants . Others had to follow suit or fall behind . So they did the logical thing — they copied his methods , both as a coach and innovator . ... " Paul Brown didn 't invent the game of football . He was just the first to take it seriously , " declared Sport Magazine in a December 1986 story ... Sid Gillman , Brown 's coaching contemporary for many years in the NFL , told the magazine he always felt that " before Paul Brown pro football was a ' daisy chain . ' He brought a system into pro football . He brought a practice routine . He broke down practice into individual areas . He had position coaches . He was an organizational genius . Before Paul Brown , coaches just rolled the ball out on the practice field . "
While Brown 's tenure in Cleveland ended in bitterness , the coach was a prolific innovator with the team . One factor in Brown 's success was his decision to hire a full @-@ time staff of dedicated position coaches , a break from the norm in an era when most assistants took second jobs in the offseason to make ends meet . Brown also invented the " taxi squad " , a group of promising players who did not make the roster but were kept on reserve . Team owner Mickey McBride put them on the payroll of his taxi company , although they did not drive cabs .
Brown sat his players down in classrooms and relentlessly tested them on their knowledge of the playbook , requiring them to copy down every play in a separate notebook for better retention . He was a terse man , and his criticisms of players were often withering and ruthless . He prohibited players from drinking , told them not to smoke in public and made coats and ties mandatory on road trips . They were not to have sex after Tuesday night during the season .
He was the first coach to use intelligence tests to evaluate players , scout opponents using game films and call plays for his quarterback using guards as messengers . He invented the draw play and helped develop the modern face mask after Len Ford and Otto Graham suffered facial injuries . Although critical of Brown 's coaching , Jim Brown said he integrated football in the right way :
Paul Brown integrated pro football without uttering a single word about integration . He just went out , signed a bunch of great black athletes , and started kicking butt . That 's how you do it . You don 't talk about it . Paul never said one word about race . But this was a time in sports when you 'd play in some cities and the white players could stay at the nice hotel , but the blacks had to stay in the homes of some black families in town . But not with Paul . We always stayed in hotels that took the entire team . Again , he never said a word . But in his own way , the man integrated football the right way – and no one was going to stop him .
= = Coaching tree = =
The following coaches are considered to be in Brown 's coaching tree , a grouping of people on whom his approach to the game is thought to have had an influence , either directly or indirectly . This is an excerpt of Brown 's tree , which is so large it is sometimes called a " forest " . Many of Brown 's coaching " descendants " have won NFL titles as head coaches , both before and after the creation of the Super Bowl .
A larger and more extended version of Paul Brown 's coaching tree , which could sometimes be called a forest , can be found here . However , this version completely omits any mention of Bill Walsh , or his tree .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = High School = = =
1930 Severn School ( Maryland ) 7 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State Champion
1931 Severn School ( Maryland ) 5 @-@ 2 @-@ 1
1932 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 5 @-@ 4 @-@ 1
1933 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 8 @-@ 2 @-@ 0
1934 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 0
1935 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 10 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State & National Champion
1936 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 10 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State & National Champion
1937 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 8 @-@ 1 @-@ 1
1938 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 10 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State Champion
1939 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 10 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State & National Champion
1940 Massillon Washington ( Ohio ) 10 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 State & National Champion
= = = College = = =
= = = Professional = = =
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= John Treloar ( museum administrator ) =
John Linton Treloar , OBE ( 10 December 1894 – 28 January 1952 ) was an Australian archivist and the second director of the Australian War Memorial ( AWM ) . During World War I he served in several staff roles and later headed the First Australian Imperial Force 's ( AIF ) record @-@ keeping unit . From 1920 Treloar played an important role in establishing the AWM as its director . He headed an Australian Government department during the first years of World War II , and spent the remainder of the war in charge of the Australian military 's history section . Treloar returned to the AWM in 1946 , and continued as its director until his death .
Treloar 's career was focussed on the Australian military and its history . Prior to World War I he worked as a clerk in the Department of Defence and , after volunteering for the AIF in 1914 , formed part of the Australian Army officer Brudenell White 's staff for most of the war 's first years . He was appointed commander of the Australian War Records Section ( AWRS ) in 1917 . In this position , he improved the AIF 's records and collected a large number of artefacts for later display in Australia . Treloar was appointed the director of what eventually became the AWM in 1920 , and was a key figure in establishing the Memorial and raising funds for its permanent building in Canberra . He left the AWM at the outbreak of World War II to lead the Australian Government 's Department of Information , but was effectively sidelined for much of 1940 . In early 1941 he was appointed to command the Australian military 's Military History and Information Section with similar responsibilities to those he had held during World War I. He attempted to intervene in the management of the AWM during his absence , however , to the increasing frustration of its acting director . Treloar worked intensely in all his roles and suffered periods of ill @-@ health as a result . Following the war , he returned to the Memorial in 1946 but his performance deteriorated over time , possibly due to exhaustion . He died in January 1952 .
Treloar continues to be regarded as an important figure in Australian military history . His principal achievements are seen as gathering and classifying Australia 's records of the world wars and successfully establishing the AWM . The street behind the Memorial and its main storage annex were named in Treloar 's honour following his death .
= = Early life = =
Treloar was born in Melbourne on 10 December 1894 . His father was a sales representative for Carlton & United Breweries and his mother was a strict Methodist . Treloar was educated at Albert Park State School and became a trained Sunday school teacher . He was not able to attend university , but sought self @-@ education in Melbourne 's museums and libraries . Treloar also participated in his school 's cadet unit , and believed that the military offered a means to follow his ambition for a career in a field other than small business . He was also a capable footballer , cricket player , and athlete and was invited to train with the South Melbourne Football Club . He took his father 's advice to wait until he was 21 before playing senior games , however , and instead took a job with the Department of Defence after he left school in 1911 . In this position he worked as a clerk for Brudenell White , who was later a leading Australian staff officer of World War I and the commander of the Australian Army during the early months of World War II .
= = World War I = =
On 16 August 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I , Treloar enlisted in the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and became a staff sergeant working for White in the headquarters of the 1st Division . He landed at Anzac Cove with the rest of the 1st Division 's Headquarters during the morning of 25 April 1915 , and subsequently participated in the Gallipoli Campaign . Treloar 's duties were mainly clerical , and included typing reports , orders and dispatches from senior officers . He frequently worked from 7 am to midnight , and this took a toll on his health . He contracted typhoid in late August , and was evacuated to Egypt on 4 September . Treloar came close to dying from this disease , and was returned to Australia to recuperate . He arrived in Melbourne on 4 December 1915 . During his convalescence , Treloar resumed a pre @-@ war friendship with Clarissa Aldridge and the couple became engaged .
When he recovered his health , Treloar returned to the military . An attempt to rejoin Brudenell White 's staff was unsuccessful , and he instead was posted to the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) with the rank of lieutenant . In February 1916 , Treloar was assigned to No. 1 Squadron AFC in Egypt and served as its equipment officer until July 1916 , when he was transferred to France to become White 's confidential clerk in the headquarters of I Anzac Corps . At the time of the Battle of Pozières in late July Treloar was in charge of the corps headquarters ' Central Registry , which was responsible for communications within the headquarters as well as distributing orders to its subordinate units . During his staff roles Treloar gained a good understanding of military record @-@ keeping . In May 1917 , he was selected by White to command the newly established Australian War Records Section ( AWRS ) , and was promoted to the rank of captain . At the time he knew nothing of the Section 's role , and was unable to find any information about it .
Treloar assumed command of the AWRS on 16 May 1917 . At this time the Section comprised four enlisted soldiers and occupied two rooms in the British Public Record Office 's ( PRO ) building in London . Established upon the urging of the official Australian war correspondent Charles Bean , the unit was responsible for gathering records to serve as source material for the official histories that were to be written after the war . At this stage Australia did not have a national archive or public records office , and the AWRS was the first organisation set up to preserve any Commonwealth Government records .
Treloar 's first challenge was to improve the quality of the war diaries kept by AIF units . These diaries were meant to be maintained by each element of the AIF as a record of its activities for later use by historians , but at the time most units recorded few details . To this end , Treloar met with many of the officers responsible for units ' war diaries and frequently provided written advice and feedback on the quality of the records submitted to the Section ; these methods had previously been used by the Canadian military . Treloar also sought to motivate relevant personnel by demonstrating that the diaries were valued and would be important in ensuring that their unit received recognition for its achievements after the war . In August 1917 the AWRS expanded its activities to include collecting artefacts from the French battlefields . Its tasks increased further in September when it took over responsibility for supervising the official war artists as well as producing and keeping records of non @-@ official publications such as regimental magazines . Individual soldiers were encouraged to contribute artefacts and records , and the AWRS provided museum labels to combat units to encourage them to record the significance and origins of items they submitted . The AWRS established field offices in France and Egypt , and reached a strength of about 600 soldiers and civilians in November 1918 . From November 1917 until August 1918 the war correspondent Henry Gullett commanded the AWRS subsection in Cairo ; in this role he reported directly to Treloar . As a result of the AWRS ' expansion , in March 1918 its headquarters moved from the PRO building to a larger office on Horseferry Road opposite the main offices of the AIF Administrative Headquarters .
As commander of the AWRS , Treloar worked enthusiastically and at times had to be ordered to take holidays . He told Bean that he was motivated " to do something really worthwhile for Australia " by bringing together the records covering Australia 's role in the war . He actively pursued records and artefacts covering a wide range of the AIF 's activities . While Bean was impressed by Treloar 's achievements , he believed that the young man was pushing himself too hard and was in danger of a breakdown . Although they shared accommodations in London for a period in 1918 , the two men were not close . Treloar was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) on 3 June 1918 for " services in connection with the war " and was promoted to major in December 1918 . While this promotion recognised his achievements as commander of the AWRS , it was mainly intended to improve his status when he attended meetings of the War Trophies Commission ; the British representative on this commission was a major general . Treloar arranged for Clarissa Aldridge to travel to Britain in 1918 , and they were married in London on 5 November . The couple eventually had two daughters and two sons .
Following the war , Treloar continued to organise the records the AWRS had collected . In the months after the war the Section was assigned a large number of soldiers to assist with this task . The AWRS also continued to gather artefacts , and by February 1919 it had a collection of over 25 @,@ 000 items ; Treloar regarded this as " a good collection " but still not sufficient . He sought to collect records and memorabilia relevant to all aspects of Australia 's experience in World War I , including material concerning the worst aspects of the Australian military . In doing so , Treloar deliberately did not make judgments on the historical value of the records and items submitted to the AWRS as he believed that this task should be left to others . On 3 June 1919 he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) , for " valuable services rendered in connexion with the war " . Treloar arrived back in Australia on 18 July 1919 .
The large quantity of artefacts and records which the AWRS had gathered were also returned to Australia in 1919 , though work on organising them into an archive was not completed until 1932 . The Australian War Museum was formed in 1919 on the basis of the Section 's collection , and Treloar joined the Museum at some stage during the year . Henry Gullett was appointed the War Museum 's first director on 11 August 1919 after Bean turned down the position so that he could focus on editing and writing the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 . Treloar was appointed the Museum 's deputy director on the same date . Bean , Gullet and Treloar were subsequently the key figures in the establishment of the AWM .
= = Establishing the War Memorial = =
Treloar became the acting director of the Australian War Museum in 1920 after Gullett resigned from the position and became head of the Australian Immigration Bureau . Gullet later wrote the official history of Australia 's involvement in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Treloar was 26 years of age at the time he became director of the Museum and was responsible for the difficult task of establishing the institution . Between 1920 and 1922 he personally undertook much of the work associated with developing the Museum 's first major exhibition , which opened in Melbourne 's Royal Exhibition Building on Anzac Day 1922 . During this period the staff of the Australian War Museum were also responsible for providing administrative support for a program to distribute captured German equipment as war trophies to the Australian states . Treloar was a member of the committee overseeing this effort , and the associated administrative load came close to overwhelming him .
Treloar continued to expand the Australian War Museum 's collections during the 1920s . For instance , in 1921 he wrote to all the Australian Victoria Cross recipients of World War I or their families to ask that they donate their wartime diaries or other personal items . The Museum also actively sought the wartime diaries and letters written by other members of the AIF ; Treloar hoped that these records would allow a psychological study to be conducted on the men who had joined the AIF . Taking up an idea of Bean 's , Treloar also oversaw the development of several dioramas depicting key Australian battles of the war and engaged professional artists to make the models . Several of the dioramas produced in the 1920s remain on display in the AWM and are among its most popular exhibits . Treloar also oversaw the completion of the artworks which had been commissioned from the official war artists during World War I and , in collaboration with Bean , ordered additional works .
During its early years the AWM existed in a parlous state , and Treloar raised funds and advocated construction of a permanent building to house its records and collection of artefacts . Treloar and Bean convinced the Museum 's governing committee that it needed to raise funds so that the Museum was not entirely dependent on Government funding for its permanent building . To this end , Treloar established a sales section in the Museum in 1921 and recruited salesmen to sell books , reproductions of artworks and photographs as well as surplus items from the collection such as German helmets and rifle cartridges . The Government was slow to commit to building a permanent home for the Museum 's collection , however , and Treloar considered resigning in July 1922 to take up a position in the Department of Immigration . He ultimately decided against doing so , however . In mid @-@ 1923 he was temporarily released from the Museum and travelled to London as the secretary of Australia 's contribution to the British Empire Exhibition . He returned to Australia in early 1925 . During Treloar 's absence the Museum moved to Sydney , where its collection was housed in the Sydney Exhibition Building from April 1925 . The institution was renamed the Australian War Memorial during this year , and following the passage of the Australian War Memorial Act by the Parliament of Australia in September was formally established as the national memorial to the Australians killed during World War I. This act specified that the Memorial would be overseen by a twelve @-@ person Board of Management whose members were appointed by the Governor General of Australia . Treolar reported to this board , but it generally allowed him to run the Memorial as he saw fit . Treloar travelled to London again in 1927 to work on the British Empire Exhibition scheduled for that year , but returned after a few months when it was cancelled . On 8 December 1927 Treloar and the rest of the War Memorial 's staff were appointed permanently to their positions ; prior to this date they had been employed under temporary arrangements and Treloar had technically been a member of the Army 's headquarters . Treloar took a brief leave of absence in 1931 to help organise the Empire Exhibition that was planned for Sydney .
The construction of a permanent building for the Memorial was delayed by the Great Depression . In January 1924 the Commonwealth Government 's Cabinet approved a proposal to construct the War Memorial at the foot of Mount Ainslie in Canberra . An architectural competition was subsequently held , and Treloar was responsible for selecting the final designs to be considered after the judging panel had reduced the number of entries from 69 to 29 . None of these designs met all the necessary criteria , but two of the architects responsible for highly placed designs agreed to collaborate to produce a final design . Plans for the Memorial building were approved by the Commonwealth Parliament in 1928 , but funds for construction work were not available due to the impact of the Great Depression . Work finally began on the building in 1933 , and it was completed in 1941 . Until 1935 , Treloar and the Memorial 's administrative staff were located in Melbourne while the collection was split between Sydney and Melbourne . In that year , Treloar , along with 24 other Memorial staff , moved into the uncompleted building in Canberra and the Memorial in Sydney was closed to enable the collection to be relocated .
Treloar continued to seek commercial opportunities to raise funds for the Memorial during the 1920s and 1930s . As well as selling guidebooks , reproductions of artworks and surplus items , the Memorial raised substantial amounts of money from placing an admission fee on Will Longstaff 's painting Menin Gate at Midnight when it went on display in 1929 . This painting proved so popular that Treloar engaged ex @-@ servicemen to sell reproductions of it door to door . In 1931 Treloar ensured that the Memorial took over responsibility for the publication and distribution of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 when the project suffered financial difficulties due to poor sales . As sales continued to be slow , Treloar actively promoted the series to RSL branches and members of the Australian Public Service ; a scheme he developed in which public servants purchased the books through regular pay deductions proved particularly successful . Treloar also engaged more salesmen to sell the series to households . These efforts led to a large increase in sales , and Bean remarked that not only had Treloar been more successful in selling the books than Angus & Robertson , its original publisher , but that " he would do better than [ the department store ] David Jones selling shirts " . This sales work was in addition to Treloar 's regular duties as the Memorial 's director , and he received an honorarium for it .
Treloar would typically work for six days each week , and normally stayed until late at night . In accordance with his Methodist beliefs , he did not work on Sundays . He continued to expand the Memorial 's collections by encouraging individuals to donate letters and diaries to supplement the official records . Treloar also placed an emphasis on safeguarding the collection ; in 1933 he personally investigated the theft of the German cruiser Emden 's bell from the Memorial in Sydney after the New South Wales Police broke off its investigation . With Treloar 's assistance the bell was recovered later that year . In May 1937 Treloar was among the senior public servants who were awarded a Coronation Medal to mark King George VI 's accession to the throne . Despite his enthusiasm , Treloar became frustrated by the repeated delays in opening the Memorial during the 1930s and believed that it would not be as successful as he had hoped . As a result , he began actively looking for a new career at the end of 1938 , starting by applying to be the secretary of the Melbourne Cricket Club .
= = World War II = =
Shortly before the outbreak of World War II Treloar wrote to the members of the AWM 's board to with proposals for how the Memorial should respond to another major war . This letter suggested that if hostilities occurred , the Memorial should suspend most of its activities and reorient its focus to become a memorial to all the wars in which Australia had taken part rather than just World War I. He further proposed that the Memorial building be used as a store and for government offices during the war , and that its staff establish a war records section similar to the AWRS . These proposals " ran counter to all that had been planned in the preceding years " and were rejected by the AWM board in October 1939 . The board did decide , however , to offer the Department of Defence assistance with collecting records and artefacts . Accordingly , work continued on the Memorial throughout World War II , though in February 1941 the board decided to extend its scope to include the new war .
Treloar left his position at the Memorial for the duration of World War II . In September 1939 Treloar 's close friend Henry Gullett , who at the time was the Minister for Information , appointed him the inaugural secretary of the Department of Information ( DOI ) . The DOI was the first of 17 new Australian Government departments to be established during the war , and was responsible for both censorship and disseminating government propaganda . Treloar ran the department in line with traditional Australian Public Service practices and took steps to prevent the its work from being politicised . To achieve this , he implemented tight internal controls over the DOI 's procedures and information dissemination functions and instructed subordinates to not defend the government from criticism . He remained the departmental secretary after Gullett was moved to a different ministry in March 1940 , but lost status when Keith Murdoch was appointed to the new position of Director @-@ General of Information in June that year . Murdoch 's appointment was part of a government campaign to generate public support for increased armaments production following the fall of France , and he placed a stronger emphasis on generating propaganda . Treloar was troubled by the use of the DOI 's photographers to produce publicity photographs instead of images with historical value . Gullet was killed in the Canberra air disaster on 13 August 1940 . Treloar regained full control of the DOI in December that year when Murdoch resigned , though its photographers were still mainly tasked with taking publicity photos .
At some point in 1940 or early 1941 , Treloar requested that he be appointed to command the War Records Section , which formed part of the Second Australian Imperial Force 's administrative headquarters . The Cabinet agreed to this during February 1941 . Treloar 's responsibilities in this role were to coordinate and control the collection of material to be included in the AWM as well as to supervise the official war artists and photographers ; these duties were similar to those he and Bean had undertaken during World War I. While Treloar was appointed to the rank of lieutenant colonel , he primarily worked for the AWM , which reimbursed the Army for his salary and allowances . This arrangement gave Treloar less influence with the Army than he had enjoyed as head of the AWRS during World War I. General Thomas Blamey , the commander of the AIF , subsequently redesignated the War Records Section the Military History and Information Section ( MHIS ) on the grounds that its original name had not adequately described the unit 's role . In contrast to the DOI 's propaganda activities , the MHIS focused on collecting records , images and items that would be useful to historians .
After assuming his new position , Treloar was sent to AIF Headquarters in the Middle East where Australian forces were engaged in the North African Campaign . While en route to the Middle East he visited Malaya . Conditions in North Africa proved more challenging than those in World War I , however , as the combat was fast @-@ moving and the Australian troops felt less motivation to collect artefacts than those of the First AIF . Treloar was supported by a small staff , but fell out with his second in command who questioned both how he administered the unit and his personal efficiency . He also lacked a patron in the AIF and was handicapped by his relatively junior rank . Due to his absence from the Memorial , Treloar had only limited input into the design of its galleries and he was unable to attend its official opening in November 1941 .
Following the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 , most elements of the AIF were returned to Australia . While MHIS teams accompanied the 6th and 7th Divisions when they departed the Middle East in early 1942 , Treloar remained in Egypt until May that year as he was initially unable to secure space on board ships for the Section 's extensive collections . He eventually reached Australia in mid @-@ 1942 and was based in Melbourne for the remainder of the war . At the time , the front line of the Pacific War was in the islands just to the north of Australia . As Treloar argued in a letter to Blamey , Australia had the " opportunity and responsibility to provide the world with the most nearly complete and authoritative ' source ' record " of the fighting . Blamey accepted this view , and in July 1942 , the MHIS was renamed the Military History Section ( MHS ) in recognition of its emphasis on military history rather than propaganda . On 26 June 1942 Treloar received a Mention in Despatches for his service in October 1941 .
The MHS continued the MHIS ' role of facilitating the production of high @-@ quality paper records and photographs of the war and collecting the resulting documents and images . The section had two field teams in April 1943 ( one in Australia and the other in New Guinea ) , and was expanded to nine teams by the end of 1944 . Treloar also focused on the official war artist program , and succeeded in fostering a high @-@ quality collection from a range of artistic styles . He placed a relatively low emphasis on collecting artefacts , however , and did not visit New Guinea even though it was the main Australian battlefield for most of the Pacific War . This concerned Bean , who wrote an unanswered letter to Treloar in July 1943 offering to help organise the collection of more items . In August 1943 Treloar 's son Ian was reported missing while serving as a Royal Australian Air Force warrant officer attached to the Royal Air Force . It was determined after the war that he had been killed in action . Treloar 's other son , Alan , served in the Second AIF and won a Rhodes Scholarship after the war .
By early 1944 Treloar was overworked and unhappy to be in Melbourne instead of at the Memorial . He was also uncomfortable with the way in which Bean and the AWM 's acting director Arthur Bazley were running the Memorial in his absence , and sought to intervene in its management . This degree of intervention frustrated Bazley , and led to increasing conflict between the two men who had worked together since 1917 . Their relationship worsened in 1945 , and the Memorial 's board was eventually forced to make a ruling on what Bazley and Treloar 's responsibilities were . In 1946 , Bazley left the Memorial to take a job in the Department of Immigration due to continuing tensions with Treloar .
One of Treloar 's duties throughout much of the war was to compile and edit service annual books , which were compilations of articles written by military personnel and published by the AWM . He first proposed this in mid @-@ 1941 as an equivalent of The Anzac Book , which was a collection of anecdotes written by Australian soldiers during the Gallipoli Campaign . The first of these books , entitled Active Service , was printed during late 1941 and early 1942 and eventually sold 138 @,@ 208 copies . Seventeen service annual books were produced during and after the war , with combined sales of 1 @,@ 907 @,@ 446 copies . These books were sold at a profit and earned the Memorial large amounts of money . Treloar 's editorial role came on top of his full @-@ time duties as head of the MHS and was one of the main causes of his exhaustion and anxiety in the final years of the war .
= = Post @-@ war years = =
Treloar returned to the AWM on 2 September 1946 and was formally discharged from the Army in 1947 . At the time he believed he was suffering from bad health , but wanted to resume his work at the Memorial rather than enter hospital . While Clarissa Treloar remained in Melbourne , their daughter Dawn moved to Canberra and took up a position in the Memorial 's library . Treloar continued to work long hours in the years after the war . He lived in a cubby hole next to his office and signed the attendance book while walking from bed to his desk . Bean later claimed that Treloar had personally managed all areas of the Memorial other than its library . While Dawn provided him with company , family members and AWM staff believed that Treloar was lonely and did not have a social life . His letters to the official artists engaged by the AWM were frequently relaxed , however , and he became friends with Leslie Bowles and William Dargie . While Treloar was a teetotaler and non @-@ smoker , he occasionally shared wine and cigarettes with Dargie .
The main challenges for the Memorial in the post @-@ war years were integrating the World War II collections with those from World War I and securing funding to expand its building . Treloar did not seek to increase the Memorial 's holdings of World War II artefacts beyond supporting the completion of works commissioned from the official war artists . As a result , the Memorial 's collection of World War II memorabilia was inferior to that assembled during and after World War I , and many of its best @-@ known items such as the bomber G for George were acquired as donations from the Government rather than through Treloar 's efforts . It was not until October 1948 that the Government agreed to fund an expansion of the AWM after lobbying by Treloar and the Memorial 's board .
Treloar experienced difficulties managing the Memorial and its staff in the years after World War II . While the AWM had few difficulties recruiting staff , it struggled to retain them due to housing shortages in Canberra and the way in which the Memorial was run . Treloar 's working style contributed to these problems ; although he was personally friendly and took an interest in the wellbeing of his employees , he did not delegate tasks and it was difficult for AWM staff to meet with him in person to discuss their responsibilities . This made it difficult for staff to complete urgent tasks , and contributed to delays in key projects such as the construction of the Memorial 's Hall of Memory . Tom Hungerford , who worked for the AWM between 1948 and 1949 , wrote in his memoirs that Treloar was " most dedicated , most incredibly hard @-@ working , most unfailingly kind and most ineffectual " . Treloar increasingly obsessed over relatively minor details and gained a reputation for indecisiveness .
Treloar 's work patterns took a toll on his health , and the deterioration in his performance after 1946 was possibly the result of exhaustion . Despite this , the Memorial 's board did not intervene in the institution 's management and allowed Treloar to remain in his position . In January 1952 , Dawn found him ill in bed after noticing that he had not signed the attendance book . Treloar was subsequently admitted to the Canberra Community Hospital where he died on 28 January as a result of an intestinal haemorrhage . His funeral was held two days later at Reid Methodist Church in Canberra , and he was subsequently buried in the returned soldiers section of Woden Cemetery .
Treloar 's death left the AWM in a state of crisis . Due to his close control over the Memorial , none of its staff knew what his plans had been and it was unclear how to continue key tasks such as completing the Roll of Honour , classifying and displaying items collected during World War II and managing the Memorial 's finances . In addition , two fifths of the AWM 's staff positions were vacant as Treloar had chosen to delay filling these vacancies . Jim McGrath , who had been the Memorial 's Assistant Director ( Administration ) since May 1951 , became acting director when Treloar was hospitalised and was confirmed in this position on 15 May 1952 ; Bazley had also applied for this job but lost to McGrath despite having Bean 's support . Under the direction of Bean , who had been appointed the Chairman of the Memorial 's Board in June 1951 , McGrath established a committee to develop strategies for both completing and further developing the Memorial . Bean also personally reviewed the Memorial 's collection of World War I artefacts during 1952 and 1953 , and found that the register of these items was inadequate and it was not possible to locate many of them . He attributed this to the movement of the collection between Melbourne , Sydney and Canberra and the changes of directorship during periods in which Treloar was absent .
= = Legacy = =
Following his death , Treloar was praised for the personal sacrifices he had made to establish the AWM , as well as for the high quality of the Memorial . The Memorial 's storage and display annex at Mitchell , Australian Capital Territory , was subsequently named in Treloar 's honour and a commemorative plaque was located outside the AWM 's archival research centre until 1985 . In 1956 the street behind the Memorial 's main building was named Treloar Crescent . In addition , the AWM named a grant it provided to researchers the ' John Treloar Grant ' .
Treloar continues to be regarded as an important figure in Australian military history . The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History states that " there is little doubt that the Australian War Memorial would have foundered had it not been for Treloar 's tireless and selfless labours , which almost certainly shortened his life " and that he was " Australia 's first great museum professional " . The collection of World War I records he organised is still used by historians and researchers , and is labelled an " archival record of remarkable detail and accessibility " in his Australian Dictionary of Biography entry . In 1993 Alan Treloar published the diary his father had kept during World War I.
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= Østhorn ( station ) =
Østhorn ( until 1939 Korsvoll ) is a station on the Sognsvann Line ( line 6 ) of the Oslo Metro in Norway . It is located 7 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) from Stortinget station between Tåsen and Holstein stations . As one of the original stations on the line , Østhorn was opened on 10 October 1934 . Nordberg was formerly the next northbound station , but it was closed in 1992 , when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded to metro standard . Østhorn is located near a hill named Havnabakken , where local residents toboggan at winter 's time .
= = History = =
Korsvoll station opened on 10 October 1930 , when Akersbanerne had finished the Songsvann Line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann station . The line was double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll , and single @-@ tracked from there to Sognsvann . In 1939 , the section Korsvoll – Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks , and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn . The name " Østhorn " owes its origins to a crag by the same name that was demolished during the construction of the Sognsvann Line . The station is now positioned inside the remains of the crag , with metal nest put up to prevent any crumbling of the surrounding crag .
Østhorn was part of Holmenkolbanen 's operating network until 1975 , when the municipality of Oslo bought all the company 's stock . In 1993 , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard , which involves a heightening and lengthening of the platforms , and installation of third rail power supply and a new signaling system . During the upgrade , Tåsen station was moved 150 metres ( 490 ft ) further north , and Nordberg station was closed . Many local residents opposed the new station upgrades , arguing that Nordberg had served the area well with its close connection to the elderly center Nordberghjemmet . Many wanted to rather close Østhorn or Holstein than Nordberg , since the latter was the most used station in the area . Oslo Sporveier stated that the access roads to Nordberg were very steep and dangerous , and referred to a case in the 1950s where some local youth had been tobogganing over the rail intersection at Nordberg , and hit a truck near the station . They also argued that the 200 metres ( 660 ft ) distance between Nordberg and Holstein was too close for having two stations , and promised to build a walkway from Nordberg to Holstein .
= = Service = =
Østhorn is served by the line 3 on the Sognsvann Line , operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter . The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes , except in the late evening and on weekend mornings , when there is a 30 @-@ minute headway . Travel time along the 7 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 13 minutes .
The station provides correspondence to the bus lines 22 and 25 on the top of Havnabakken , a five @-@ minute walk away .
= = Facilities = =
Østhorn has two platforms , each with a wooden shed . The sheds are designed by Arne Henriksen in a minimalist and standardised style with constructions of wood and steel . Østhorn serves the residential areas Korsvoll and Nordberg . The station is located at the bottom of a small hill named Havnabakken , where local residents toboggan at winter 's time .
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= Taurus ( constellation ) =
Taurus ( Latin for " the Bull " ; symbol : , Unicode : ♉ ) is one of the constellations of the zodiac , which means it is crossed by the plane of the ecliptic . Taurus is a large and prominent constellation in the northern hemisphere 's winter sky . It is one of the oldest constellations , dating back to at least the Early Bronze Age when it marked the location of the Sun during the spring equinox . Its importance to the agricultural calendar influenced various bull figures in the mythologies of Ancient Sumer , Akkad , Assyria , Babylon , Egypt , Greece , and Rome .
A number of features exist that are of interest to astronomers . Taurus hosts two of the nearest open clusters to Earth , the Pleiades and the Hyades , both of which are visible to the naked eye . At first magnitude , the red giant Aldebaran is the brightest star in the constellation . In the northwest part of Taurus is the supernova remnant Messier 1 , more commonly known as the Crab Nebula . One of the closest regions of active star formation , the Taurus @-@ Auriga complex , crosses into the northern part of the constellation . The variable star T Tauri is the prototype of a class of pre @-@ main @-@ sequence stars .
= = Characteristics = =
Taurus is a big and prominent constellation in the northern hemisphere 's winter sky , between Aries to the west and Gemini to the east ; to the north lie Perseus and Auriga , to the southeast Orion , to the south Eridanus , and to the southwest Cetus . In September and October , Taurus is visible in the evening along the eastern horizon . The most favorable time to observe Taurus in the night sky is during the months of December and January . By March and April , the constellation will appear to the west during the evening twilight .
This constellation forms part of the zodiac , and hence is intersected by the ecliptic . This circle across the celestial sphere forms the apparent path of the Sun as the Earth completes its annual orbit . As the orbital plane of the Moon and the planets lie near the ecliptic , they can usually be found in the constellation Taurus during some part of each year . The galactic plane of the Milky Way intersects the northeast corner of the constellation and the galactic anticenter is located near the border between Taurus and Auriga . Taurus is the only constellation crossed by all three of the galactic equator , celestial equator , and ecliptic . A ring @-@ like galactic structure known as the Gould 's Belt passes through the Taurus constellation .
The recommended three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " Tau " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 26 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 03h 23.4m and 05h 53.3m , while the declination coordinates are between 31 @.@ 10 ° and − 1 @.@ 35 ° . Because a small part of the constellation lies to the south of the celestial equator , this can not be a completely circumpolar constellation at any latitude .
= = Notable features = =
During November , the Taurid meteor shower appears to radiate from the general direction of this constellation . The Beta Taurid meteor shower occurs during the months of June and July in the daytime , and is normally observed using radio techniques . In October , between the 18th and the 29th , both the Northern Taurids and the Southern Taurids are active ; though the latter stream is stronger . However , between November 1 and 10 , the two streams equalize .
The brightest member of this constellation is Aldebaran , an orange @-@ hued , spectral class K5 III giant star . Its name derives from الدبران al @-@ dabarān , Arabic for " the follower " , probably from the fact that it follows the Pleiades during the nightly motion of the celestial sphere across the sky . Forming the profile of a Bull 's face is a V or A @-@ shaped asterism of stars . This outline is created by prominent members of the Hyades , the nearest distinct open star cluster after the Ursa Major Moving Group . In this profile , Aldebaran forms the bull 's bloodshot eye , which has been described as " glaring menacingly at the hunter Orion " , a constellation that lies just to the southwest . The Hyades span about 5 ° of the sky , so that they can only be viewed in their entirety with binoculars or the unaided eye . It includes a naked eye double star , Theta Tauri , with a separation of 5 @.@ 6 arcminutes .
In the northeastern quadrant of the Taurus constellation lie the Pleiades ( M45 ) , one of the best known open clusters , easily visible to the naked eye . The seven most prominent stars in this cluster are at least visual magnitude six , and so the cluster is also named the " Seven Sisters " . However , many more stars are visible with even a modest telescope . Astronomers estimate that the cluster has approximately 500 @-@ 1 @,@ 000 stars , all of which are around 100 million years old . However , they vary considerably in type . The Pleiades themselves are represented by large , bright stars ; also many small brown dwarfs and white dwarfs exist . The cluster is estimated to dissipate in another 250 million years . The Pleiades cluster is classified as a Shapley class c and Trumpler class I 3 r n cluster , indicating that it is irregularly shaped and loose , though concentrated at its center and detached from the star field .
In the northern part of the constellation to the northwest of the Pleiades lies the Crystal Ball Nebula , known by its catalogue designation of NGC 1514 . This planetary nebula is of historical interest following its discovery by German @-@ born English astronomer William Herschel in 1790 . Prior to that time , astronomers had assumed that nebulae were simply unresolved groups of stars . However , Herschel could clearly resolve a star at the center of the nebula that was surrounded by a nebulous cloud of some type . In 1864 , English astronomer William Huggins used the spectrum of this nebula to deduce that the nebula is a luminous gas , rather than stars .
To the west , the two horns of the bull are formed by Beta ( β ) Tauri and Zeta ( ζ ) Tauri ; two star systems that are separated by 8 ° . Beta is a white , spectral class B7 III giant star known as El Nath , which comes from the Arabic phrase " the butting " , as in butting by the horns of the bull . At magnitude 1 @.@ 65 , it is the second brightest star in the constellation , and shares the border with the neighboring constellation of Auriga . As a result , it also bears the designation Gamma Aurigae . Zeta Tauri is an eclipsing binary star that completes an orbit every 133 days .
A degree to the northwest of ζ Tauri is the Crab Nebula ( M1 ) , a supernova remnant . This expanding nebula was created by a Type II supernova explosion , which was seen from Earth on July 4 , 1054 . It was bright enough to be observed during the day , and is mentioned in Chinese historical texts . At its peak the supernova reached magnitude − 4 , but the nebula is currently magnitude 8 @.@ 4 and requires a telescope to observe . North American peoples also observed the supernova , as evidenced from a painting on a New Mexican canyon and various pieces of pottery that depict the event . However , the remnant itself was not discovered until 1731 , when John Bevis found it .
The star Lambda ( λ ) Tauri is an eclipsing binary star . This system consists of a spectral class B3 star being orbited by a less massive class A4 star . The plane of their orbit lies almost along the line of sight to the Earth . Every 3 @.@ 953 days the system temporarily decreases in brightness by 1 @.@ 1 magnitudes as the brighter star is partially eclipsed by the dimmer companion . The two stars are separated by only 0 @.@ 1 astronomical units , so their shapes are modified by mutual tidal interaction . This results in a variation of their net magnitude throughout each orbit .
Located about 1 @.@ 8 ° west of Epsilon ( ε ) Tauri is T Tauri , the prototype of a class of variable stars called T Tauri stars . This star undergoes erratic changes in luminosity , varying between magnitude 9 to 13 over a period of weeks or months . This is a newly formed stellar object that is just emerging from its envelope of gas and dust , but has not yet become a main sequence star . The surrounding reflection nebula NGC 1555 is illuminated by T Tauri , and thus is also variable in luminosity . To the north lies Kappa Tauri , a visual double star consisting of two A7 @-@ type components . The pair have a separation of just 5 @.@ 6 arc minutes , making them a challenge to split with the naked eye .
This constellation includes part of the Taurus @-@ Auriga complex , or Taurus dark clouds , a star @-@ forming region containing sparse , filamentary clouds of gas and dust . This spans a diameter of 98 light @-@ years ( 30 parsecs ) and contains 35 @,@ 000 solar masses of material , which is both larger and less massive than the Orion Nebula . At a distance of 490 light @-@ years ( 150 parsecs ) , this is one of the nearest active star forming regions . Located in this region , about 10 ° to the northeast of Aldebaran , is an asterism NGC 1746 spanning a width of 45 arcminutes .
= = History and mythology = =
The identification of the constellation of Taurus with a bull is very old , certainly dating to the Chalcolithic , and perhaps even to the Upper Paleolithic . Michael Rappenglück of the University of Munich believes that Taurus is represented in a cave painting at the Hall of the Bulls in the caves at Lascaux ( dated to roughly 15 @,@ 000 BC ) , which he believes is accompanied by a depiction of the Pleiades . The name " seven sisters " has been used for the Pleiades in the languages of many cultures , including indigenous groups of Australia , North America and Siberia . This suggests that the name may have a common ancient origin .
Taurus marked the point of vernal ( spring ) equinox in the Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age , from about 4000 BC to 1700 BC , after which it moved into the neighboring constellation Aries . The Pleiades were closest to the Sun at vernal equinox around the 23rd century BC . In Babylonian astronomy , the constellation was listed in the MUL.APIN as GU4.AN.NA , " The Bull of Heaven " . As this constellation marked the vernal equinox , it was also the first constellation in the Babylonian zodiac and they described it as " The Bull in Front " . The Akkadian name was Alu .
In the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh , one of the earliest works of literature , the goddess Ishtar sends Taurus , the Bull of Heaven , to kill Gilgamesh for spurning her advances . Some locate Gilgamesh as the neighboring constellation of Orion , facing Taurus as if in combat , while others identify him with the sun whose rising on the equinox vanquishes the constellation . In early Mesopotamian art , the Bull of Heaven was closely associated with Inanna , the Sumerian goddess of sexual love , fertility , and warfare . One of the oldest depictions shows the bull standing before the goddess ' standard ; since it has 3 stars depicted on its back ( the cuneiform sign for " star @-@ constellation " ) , there is good reason to regard this as the constellation later known as Taurus .
The same iconic representation of the Heavenly Bull was depicted in the Dendera zodiac , an Egyptian bas @-@ relief carving in a ceiling that depicted the celestial hemisphere using a planisphere . In these ancient cultures , the orientation of the horns was portrayed as upward or backward . This differed from the later Greek depiction where the horns pointed forward . To the Egyptians , the constellation Taurus was a sacred bull that was associated with the renewal of life in spring . When the spring equinox entered Taurus , the constellation would become covered by the Sun in the western sky as spring began . This " sacrifice " led to the renewal of the land . To the early Hebrews , Taurus was the first constellation in their zodiac and consequently it was represented by the first letter in their alphabet , Aleph .
In Greek mythology , Taurus was identified with Zeus , who assumed the form of a magnificent white bull to abduct Europa , a legendary Phoenician princess . In illustrations of Greek mythology , only the front portion of this constellation are depicted ; this was sometimes explained as Taurus being partly submerged as he carried Europa out to sea . A second Greek myth portrays Taurus as Io , a mistress of Zeus . To hide his lover from his wife Hera , Zeus changed Io into the form of a heifer . Greek mythographer Acusilaus marks the bull Taurus as the same that formed the myth of the Cretan Bull , one of The Twelve Labors of Heracles .
Taurus became an important object of worship among the Druids . Their Tauric religious festival was held while the Sun passed through the constellation . Among the arctic people known as the Inuit , the constellation is called Sakiattiat and the Hyades is Nanurjuk , with the latter representing the spirit of the polar bear . Aldebaran represents the bear , with the remainder of the stars in the Hyades being dogs that are holding the beast at bay . In Buddhism , legends hold that Gautama Buddha was born when the Full Moon was in Vaisakha , or Taurus . Buddha 's birthday is celebrated with the Wesak Festival , or Vesākha , which occurs on the first or second Full Moon when the Sun is in Taurus .
= = = Astrology = = =
As of 2008 , the Sun appears in the constellation Taurus from May 13 to June 21 . In tropical astrology , the Sun is considered to be in the sign Taurus from April 20 to May 20 .
= = = Space exploration = = =
The space probe Pioneer 10 is moving in the direction of this constellation , though it will not be nearing any of the stars in this constellation for many thousands of years , by which time its batteries will be long dead .
= = = Solar eclipse of May 29 , 1919 = = =
Several stars in Hyades cluster include Kappa Tauri were photographed during Solar eclipse of May 29 , 1919 by the expedition of Arthur Eddington in Príncipe and others in Sobral , Brazil that confirmed Albert Einstein 's prediction of the bending of light around the Sun from his general theory of relativity which he published in 1915 .
= = Book references = =
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= L 'incoronazione di Poppea =
L 'incoronazione di Poppea ( SV 308 , The Coronation of Poppaea ) is an Italian opera by Claudio Monteverdi , with a libretto by Giovanni Francesco Busenello , first performed at the Teatro Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Venice during the 1643 carnival season . One of the first operas to use historical events and people , it describes how Poppaea , mistress of the Roman emperor Nero , is able to achieve her ambition and be crowned empress . The opera was revived in Naples in 1651 , but was then neglected until the rediscovery of the score in 1888 , after which it became the subject of scholarly attention in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Since the 1960s , the opera has been performed and recorded many times .
The original manuscript of the score does not exist ; two surviving copies from the 1650s show significant differences from each other , and each differs to some extent from the libretto . How much of the music is actually Monteverdi 's , and how much the product of others , is a matter of dispute . None of the existing versions of the libretto , printed or manuscript , can be definitively tied to the first performance at the Teatro Santi Giovanni e Paolo , the precise date of which is unknown . Details of the original cast are few and largely speculative , and there is no record of the opera 's initial public reception . Despite these uncertainties , the work is generally accepted as part of the Monteverdi operatic canon , his last and perhaps his greatest work .
In a departure from traditional literary morality , it is the adulterous liaison of Poppea and Nerone which wins the day , although this triumph is demonstrated by history to have been transitory and hollow . In Busenello 's version of the story all the major characters are morally compromised . Written when the genre of opera was only a few decades old , the music for L 'incoronazione di Poppea has been praised for its originality , its melody , and for its reflection of the human attributes of its characters . The work helped to redefine the boundaries of theatrical music and established Monteverdi as the leading musical dramatist of his time .
= = Historical context = =
Opera as a dramatic genre originated around the turn from the 16th to the 17th centuries , although the word itself was not in use before 1650 . Precursors of musical drama included pastoral plays with songs and choruses , and the madrigal comedies of the late 16th century . Monteverdi had already established himself as a leading composer of madrigals before writing his first full @-@ length operas in the years 1606 – 08 , while he was in the service of Vincenzo Gonzaga , Duke of Mantua . These works , L 'Orfeo and L 'Arianna , deal respectively with the Greek myths of Orpheus and Ariadne . After a disagreement in 1612 with Vincenzo 's successor , Duke Francesco Gonzaga , Monteverdi moved to Venice to take up the position of director of music at St Mark 's Basilica , where he remained until his death in 1643 .
Amid his official duties at Venice , Monteverdi maintained an interest in theatrical music and produced several stage works , including the substantial Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda ( The battle of Tancred and Clorinda ) for the 1624 – 25 carnival . When the first public opera house in the world opened in Venice in 1637 , Monteverdi , by then in his 70th year , returned to writing full @-@ scale opera . He may have been influenced by the solicitations of Giacomo Badoaro , an aristocratic poet and intellectual who sent the elderly composer the libretto for Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria ( The return of Ulysses ) . For the 1639 – 40 carnival season , Monteverdi revived L 'Arianna at the Teatro San Moisè and later produced his setting of Il ritorno at the Teatro San Cassiano . For the following season he wrote Le nozze d 'Enea in Lavinia ( The marriage of Aeneas to Lavinia ) , now lost , which was performed at the third of Venice 's new opera theatres , Teatro Santi Giovanni e Paulo .
Another wealthy poet @-@ librettist in the Venice milieu was Giovanni Francesco Busenello ( 1598 – 1659 ) , like Badoaro a member of the intellectual society Accademia degli Incogniti . This group of free @-@ thinking intellectuals had significant influence on the cultural and political life of Venice in the mid @-@ 17th century , and was particularly active in the promotion of musical theatre . Busenello had worked with Monteverdi 's younger contemporary Francesco Cavalli , providing the libretto for Didone ( 1641 ) , and according to theatre historian Mark Ringer was " among the greatest librettists in the history of opera " . It is unclear how and when Busenello met Monteverdi , though both had served in the Gonzaga court . Ringer speculates that they drew joint inspiration from their experiences of the Gonzaga style of rule , " a mixture of artistic cultivation and brutality " , and thus developed a shared artistic vision .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
The main sources for the story told in Busenello 's libretto are the Annals of Tacitus ; book 6 of Suetonius 's history The Twelve Caesars ; books 61 – 62 of Dio Cassius 's Roman History ; and an anonymous play Octavia ( once attributed to the real life Seneca ) , from which the opera 's fictional nurse characters were derived . The main story is based on real people and events . According to the analyst Magnus Schneider , the character of Drusilla was taken from Girolamo Bargagli 's 16th @-@ century comedy The Pilgrim Woman .
Busenello condensed historical events from a seven @-@ year period ( AD 58 to AD 65 ) into a single day 's action , and imposed his own sequence . He was open about his intention to adapt history for his own purposes , writing in the preface to his libretto that " here we represent these actions differently . " Thus he gave his characters different attributes from those of their historical counterparts : Nerone 's cruelty is downplayed ; the wronged wife Ottavia is presented as a murderous plotter ; Seneca , whose death in reality had nothing to do with Nerone 's liaison with Poppea , appears as more noble and virtuous than he was ; Poppea 's motives are represented as based on genuine love as much as on a lust for power ; the depiction of Lucano as a drunken carouser disguises the real life poet Lucan 's status as a major Roman poet with marked anti @-@ imperial and pro @-@ republican tendencies .
The libretto has survived in numerous forms — two printed versions , seven manuscript versions or fragments , and an anonymous scenario , or summary , related to the original production . One of the printed editions relates to the opera 's 1651 Naples revival ; the other is Busenello 's final version published in 1656 as part of a collection of his libretti . The manuscripts are all from the 17th century , though not all are specifically dated ; some are " literary " versions unrelated to performances . The most significant of the manuscript copies is that discovered in Udine , Northern Italy , in 1997 by Monteverdi scholar Paolo Fabbri . This manuscript , according to music historian Ellen Rosand , " bristles with the immediacy of a performance " , and is the only copy of the libretto that mentions Monteverdi by name . This , and other descriptive details missing from other copies , leads Rosand to speculate that the manuscript was copied during the course of a performance . This impression is reinforced , she says , by the inclusion of a paean of praise to the singer ( Anna di Valerio according to Schneider ) who played the role of Poppea . Although its dating is uncertain , the manuscript 's affinity with the original scenario has led to speculation that the Udine version may have been compiled from the first performance .
= = = Composition = = =
Two versions of the musical score of L 'incoronazione exist , both from the 1650s . The first was rediscovered in Venice in 1888 , the second in Naples in 1930 . The Naples score is linked to the revival of the opera in that city in 1651 . Both scores contain essentially the same music , though each differs from the printed libretto and has unique additions and omissions . In each score the vocal lines are shown with basso continuo accompaniment ; the instrumental sections are written in three parts in the Venice score , four parts in the Naples version , without in either case specifying the instruments . Conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt , a leading Monteverdi interpreter , refers to the contemporary practice of leaving much of a score open , to allow for differing local performance conditions . Another convention made it unnecessary to write down detail that performers would take for granted . Neither Venice nor Naples score can be linked to the original performance ; although the Venice version is generally regarded as the more authentic , modern productions tend to use material from both .
The question of authorship — essentially of how much of the music is Monteverdi 's — is a contentious one , which Rosand acknowledges might never be entirely resolved . Virtually none of the contemporary documentation mentions Monteverdi , and music by other composers has been identified in the scores , including passages found in the score of Francesco Sacrati 's opera La finta pazza . A particular style of metric notation used in some passages of the L 'incoronazione scores suggests the work of younger composers . The most debated areas of authorship are parts of the prologue , Ottone 's music , the flirtation scene between Valetto and Damigella , and the coronation scene including the final " Pur ti miro " duet .
Modern scholarship inclines to the view that L 'incoronazione was the result of collaboration between Monteverdi and others , with the old composer playing a guiding role . Composers who may have assisted include Sacrati , Benedetto Ferrari and Francesco Cavalli . Ringer suggests that Monteverdi 's age and health may have prevented him from completing the opera without help from younger colleagues ; he speculates about an arrangement resembling " the workshop of Rubens , who might design a painting and handle the important details himself but leave the more mundane aspects ... to younger apprentice artists . " The musicologist Alan Curtis believes that only a single collaborator was involved , and published his 1989 edition of L 'incoronazione under the joint authorship of Monteverdi and Sacrati . The musical analyst Eric Chafe 's study of Monteverdi 's tonal language supports the collaboration theory and postulates that some of the sections in question , including the prologue , the coronation scene and the final duet , reflect Monteverdi 's intentions and may have been written under his direct supervision .
= = = Morality = = =
L 'incoronazione di Poppea is frequently described as a story in which virtue is punished and greed rewarded , running counter to the normal conventions of literary morality . The musicologist Tim Carter calls the opera 's characters and their actions " famously problematic " , and its messages " at best ambiguous and at worst perverted " , while Rosand refers to an " extraordinary glorification of lust and ambition " . The critic Edward B. Savage asserts that despite the lack of a moral compass in virtually all the main characters , Busenello 's plot is itself essentially moral , and that " this morality is sustained by the phenomenon of dramatic irony " . From their knowledge of Roman history , audiences in Venice would have recognised that the apparent triumph of love over virtue , celebrated by Nerone and Poppea in the closing duet , was in reality hollow , and that not long after this event Nerone kicked the pregnant Poppea to death . They would have known , too , that Nerone himself committed suicide a few years later , and that others — Ottavia , Lucano , Ottone — also met untimely deaths .
Seventeenth @-@ century Rome , under autocratic papal rule , was perceived by republican Venetians as a direct threat to their liberties . Rosand has suggested that Venetian audiences would have understood the Poppea story in the context of their own times as a moral lesson demonstrating the superiority of Venice , and that " such immorality was only possible in a decaying society , not [ in ] a civilized nation " . Rosand concludes that the opera 's broad moral compass places it first in a long tradition of operatic works that embraces Mozart 's Don Giovanni and Verdi 's Don Carlos . Music analyst Clifford Bartlett writes that " Monteverdi 's glorious music goes beyond Busenello 's cynical realism , and presents human behaviour in a better light " .
= = Roles = =
The score for L 'incoronazione features 28 singing characters , including 7 ensemble parts , of which the two Amori may only have appeared in the 1651 Naples production . The original Venetian production evidently made use of extensive role @-@ doubling , allowing the opera to be staged with no more than 11 singers : two female sopranos , three male sopranos ( castratos ) , two contraltos ( castratos ) , two tenors and two basses . Schneider has suggested the following reconstruction of the cast and the doubling plan from the 1643 premiere on the basis of an examination of , first , contemporary casting and doubling practices , secondly , the recently discovered correspondence of the impresario Marquess Cornelio Bentivoglio , and finally the libretto for La finta savia , which preceded Poppea on the stage of the Santi Giovanni e Paolo in the 1643 Carnival and was written for the same cast .
= = Synopsis = =
The action takes place in Imperial Rome around AD 60 , in and around Poppea 's villa and in various locations within the imperial palace .
= = = Prologue = = =
The goddesses of Fortune and Virtue dispute which of them has the most power over humankind . They are interrupted by the god of Love , who claims greater power than either : " I tell the virtues what to do , I govern the fortunes of men . " When they have heard his story , he says , they will admit his superior powers .
= = = Act 1 = = =
Ottone arrives at Poppea 's villa , intent on pursuing his love . Seeing the house guarded by the Emperor Nerone 's soldiers he realises he has been supplanted , and his love song turns to a lament : " Ah , ah , perfidious Poppea ! " He leaves , and the waiting soldiers gossip about their master 's amorous affairs , his neglect of matters of state and his treatment of the Empress Ottavia . Nerone and Poppea enter and exchange words of love before Nerone departs . Poppea is warned by her nurse , Arnalta , to be careful of the empress 's wrath and to distrust Nerone 's apparent love for her , but Poppea is confident : " I fear no setback at all . "
The scene switches to the palace , where Ottavia bemoans her lot ; " Despised queen , wretched consort of the emperor ! " Her nurse suggests she take a lover of her own , advice which Ottavia angrily rejects . Seneca , Nerone 's former tutor , addresses the empress with flattering words , and is mocked by Ottavia 's page , Valleto , who threatens to set fire to the old man 's beard . Left alone , Seneca receives a warning from the goddess Pallade that his life is in danger . Nerone enters and confides that he intends to displace Ottavia and marry Poppea . Seneca demurs ; such a move would be divisive and unpopular . " I care nothing for the senate and the people , " replies Nero , and when the sage persists he is furiously dismissed . Poppea joins Nerone , and tells him that Seneca claims to be the power behind the imperial throne . This so angers Nerone that he instructs his guards to order Seneca to commit suicide .
After Nero leaves , Ottone steps forward and after failing to persuade Poppea to reinstate him in her affections , privately resolves to kill her . He is then comforted by a noblewoman , Drusilla ; realising that he can never regain Poppea he offers to marry Drusilla , who joyfully accepts him . But Ottone admits to himself : " Drusilla is on my lips , Poppea is in my heart . "
= = = Act 2 = = =
In his garden , Seneca learns from the god Mercurio that he is soon to die . The order duly arrives from Nerone , and Seneca instructs his friends to prepare a suicide bath . His followers try to persuade him to remain alive , but he rejects their pleading . " The warm current of my guiltless blood shall carpet with royal purple my road to death . " At the palace Ottavia 's page flirts with a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , while Nerone and the poet Lucano celebrate the death of Seneca in a drunken , cavorting song contest , and compose love songs in honour of Poppea . Elsewhere in the palace Ottone , in a long soliloquy , ponders how he could have thought to kill Poppea with whom he remains hopelessly in love . He is interrupted by a summons from Ottavia , who to his dismay orders him to kill Poppea . Threatening to denounce him to Nerone unless he complies , she suggests that he disguise himself as a woman to commit the deed . Ottone agrees to do as she bids , privately calling on the gods to relieve him of his life . He then persuades Drusilla to lend him her clothes .
In the garden of Poppea 's villa , Arnalta sings her mistress to sleep while the god of Love looks on . Ottone , now disguised as Drusilla , enters the garden and raises his sword to kill Poppea . Before he can do so , Love strikes the sword from his hand , and he runs away . His fleeing figure is seen by Arnalta and the now awakened Poppea , who believe that he is Drusilla . They call on their servants to give chase , while Love sings triumphantly " I protected her ! "
= = = Act 3 = = =
Drusilla muses on the life of happiness before her , when Arnalta arrives with a lictor . Arnalta accuses Drusilla of being Poppea 's assailant , and she is arrested . As Nerone enters , Arnalta denounces Drusilla , who protests her innocence . Threatened with torture unless she names her accomplices , Drusilla decides to protect Ottone by confessing her own guilt . Nerone commands her to suffer a painful death , at which point Ottone rushes in and reveals the truth : that he had acted alone , at the command of the Empress Ottavia , and that Drusilla was innocent of complicity . Nerone is impressed by Drusilla 's fortitude , and in an act of clemency spares Ottone 's life , ordering him banished . Drusilla chooses exile with him . Nerone now feels entitled to act against Ottavia and she is exiled , too . This leaves the way open for him to marry Poppea , who is overjoyed : " No delay , no obstacle can come between us now . "
Ottavia bids a quiet farewell to Rome , while in the throne room of the palace the coronation ceremony for Poppea is prepared . The Consuls and Tribunes enter , and after a brief eulogy place the crown on Poppea 's head . Watching over the proceedings is the god of Love with his mother , Venere and a divine chorus . Nerone and Poppea sing a rapturous love duet ( " I gaze at you , I possess you " ) as the opera ends .
= = Reception and performance history = =
= = = Early performances = = =
L 'incoronazione di Poppea was first performed at the Teatro Santi Giovanni e Paolo , Venice , as part of the 1642 – 43 carnival season . The theatre , opened in 1639 , had earlier staged the première of Monteverdi 's opera Le Nozze d 'Enea in Lavinia , and a revival of the composer 's Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria . The theatre was later described by an observer : " ... marvellous scene changes , majestic and grand appearances [ of the performers ] ... and a magnificent flying machine ; you see , as if commonplace , glorious heavens , deities , seas , royal palaces , woods , forests ... " . The theatre held about 900 people , and the stage was much bigger than the auditorium .
The date of the first performance of L 'incoronazione and the number of times the work was performed are unknown ; the only date recorded is that of the beginning of the carnival , 26 December 1642 . A surviving scenario , or synopsis , prepared for the first performances , gives neither the date nor the composer 's name . The identity of only one of the première cast is known for certain : Anna Renzi , who played Ottavia . Renzi , in her early twenties , is described by Ringer as " opera 's first prima donna " and was , according to a contemporary source , " as skillful in acting as she [ was ] excellent in music " . On the basis of the casting of the opera which shared the theatre with L 'incoronazione during the 1642 – 43 season , it is possible that Poppea was played by Anna di Valerio , and Nerone by the castrato Stefano Costa . There are no surviving accounts of the opera 's public reception , unless the encomium to the singer playing Poppea , part of the libretto documentation discovered at Udine in 1997 , relates to the first performance .
There is only one documented early revival of L 'incoronazione , in Naples in 1651 . The fact that it was revived at all is noted by Carter as " remarkable , in an age where memories were short and large @-@ scale musical works often had limited currency beyond their immediate circumstance . " Thereafter there are no records of the work 's performance for more than 250 years .
= = = Rediscovery = = =
After two centuries in which Monteverdi had been largely forgotten as a composer of opera , interest in his theatrical works revived in the late 19th century . A shortened version of Orfeo was performed in Berlin in 1881 ; a few years later the Venice score of L 'incoronazione was rediscovered , leading to a surge of scholarly attention . In 1905 , in Paris , the French composer Vincent d 'Indy directed a concert performance of L 'incoronazione , limited to " the most beautiful and interesting parts of the work . " D 'Indy 's edition was published in 1908 , and his version was staged at the Théâtre des Arts , Paris , on 5 February 1913 , the first recorded theatrical performance of the work since 1651 . The work was not received uncritically ; the dramatist Romain Rolland , who had assisted d 'Indy , wrote that Monteverdi had " sacrifice [ d ] freedom and musical beauty to beauty of line . Here we no longer have the impalpable texture of musical poetry that we admire in Orfeo . "
In April 1926 the German @-@ born composer Werner Josten directed the opera 's first American performance , at Smith College , Massachusetts where he was professor of music . His production was based on d 'Indy 's edition . The following year , on 27 October , L 'incoronazione received its British première , with a performance at Oxford Town Hall by members of the Oxford University Opera Club using a score edited by Jack Westrup . In the 1930s several editions of the opera were prepared by leading contemporary musicians , including Gustav Mahler 's son @-@ in @-@ law Ernst Krenek , Hans Redlich , Carl Orff ( who left his version incomplete ) , and Gian Francesco Malipiero . Malipiero 's edition was used to stage performances in Paris ( 1937 ) and Venice ( 1949 ) . The Redlich edition was performed at Morley College , London in 1948 , under the direction of Michael Tippett .
Richard Strauss made reference to L 'incoronazione in the Act III music lesson scene of his 1935 opera , Die schweigsame Frau , completely recomposing the Act 2 , Scene 5 duet " Sento un certo non so che " in his own florid and late @-@ Romantic idiom as one of many uses of preexisting musical material to set an appreciably antique atmosphere by the standards of the time . In that scene , the duet is used as an excuse for the title role to flirt with her husband , in disguise as a singing teacher .
Until the 1960s performances of L 'incoronazione were relatively rare in commercial opera theatres , but they became increasingly frequent in the decade that saw the quatercentenary of Monteverdi 's birth . The 1962 Glyndebourne Festival anticipated the quatercentenary with a lavish production using a new edition by Raymond Leppard . This version , controversially , was adapted for a large orchestra , and though it was enthusiastically received it has subsequently been described by Carter as a " travesty " , and its continuing use in some modern productions as indefensible . A version by Erich Kraack was conducted by Herbert von Karajan at the Vienna State Opera in 1963 ; the following decades saw performances at Lincoln Center in New York , Turin , Venice and a revival of the Leppard version at Glyndebourne . The Venice performance at La Fenice on 5 December 1980 was based on Alan Curtis 's new edition , described by Rosand as " the first to attempt a scholarly collation and rationalization of the sources " . The Curtis edition was used by Santa Fe Opera in August 1986 , in a production which according to The New York Times " gave music precedence over musicology " , resulting in a performance that was " rich and stunningly beautiful " .
= = = Recent revivals = = =
The 350th anniversary of Monteverdi 's death , celebrated in 1993 , brought a further wave of interest in his works , and since that time performances of L 'incoronazione have been given in opera houses and music festivals all over the world . In April 1994 the Juilliard School in New York presented a version based on Curtis 's edition , with an orchestra that mixed baroque and modern elements . The New York Times 's Allen Kozinn wrote that this production had done well to resolve daunting problems arising from Monteverdi 's having left instrumentation and scoring details open , and from the numerous competing versions of the score . In 2000 the work was chosen by Opéra de Montréal as the company 's first venture into baroque opera , with a performance directed by Renaud Doucet . Opera Canada reported that Doucet had found " a perfect rhetoric for a modern crowd , creating an atmosphere of moral ambivalence that the courtiers of Monteverdi 's day would have taken for granted . " Less successful , in the critics ' eyes , was the innovative English National Opera ( ENO ) production directed by Chen Shi @-@ Zheng in October 2007 . According to The London Evening Standard critic Fiona Maddocks the cast was strong , but they all seemed to be playing in the wrong roles . For unexplained reasons much of the action took place underwater ; at one point " a snorkeller flip @-@ flops across the stage in a harness . " Seneca " wore green Wellington boots and pushed a lawnmower " . At the end of 2007 , in his opera review of the year , The Daily Telegraph 's Rupert Christiansen compared ENO 's production unfavourably with a punk musical version of the opera that had been staged during that year 's Edinburgh Festival .
In May 2008 L 'incoronazione returned to Glyndebourne in a new production by Robert Carsen , with Leppard 's large @-@ scale orchestration replaced by the period instruments of the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment under Emmanuelle Haïm . The Organ 's reviewer praised the vocal quality of the performers , found Haim 's handling of the orchestra " a joy throughout " and declared the whole production " a blessed relief " after the previous year 's ENO staging . On 19 August the Glyndebourne singers and the orchestra , led by Haim , presented a semi @-@ staged version of the opera at the 2008 BBC Proms , at the Royal Albert Hall . Elsewhere the French @-@ based ensemble Les Arts Florissants , under its director William Christie , presented the Monteverdi trilogy of operas ( L 'Orfeo , Il ritorno d 'Ulisse and L 'incoronazione ) in the period 2008 – 10 , with a series of performances at the Teatro Real in Madrid .
= = Music = =
Written early in the history of opera , L 'incoronazione di Poppea broke new ground in matching music to stage action , and in its musical reproductions of the natural inflections of the human voice . Monteverdi uses all the means for vocal expression available to a composer of his time — aria , arioso , arietta , ensemble , recitative — although Ringer comments that in this work the boundaries between these forms are more than usually porous . These elements are woven into a continuous fabric which ensures that the music always serves the drama , while maintaining a tonal and formal unity throughout . The characters have strong emotions , fears and desires which are reflected in their music . Thus Poppea 's and Nerone 's scenes are generally lyrical , sung mainly in the forms of arioso and aria , while Ottavia sings only in dramatic recitative . Seneca 's music is bold and compelling , while Ottone 's is hesitant and limited in range , " entirely inappropriate for anyone aspiring to be a man of action " according to Carter . Within this arrangement Monteverdi creates enough melodies to ensure that the opera is musically as well as dramatically memorable .
Monteverdi employs specific musical devices to signify moods and situations . For example , triple metre signifies the language of love for Nerone and Ottone ( unfulfilled in the latter case ) ; forceful arpeggios are used to represent conflict ; and the interlacing of texts , written as separate verses by Busenello , indicates sexual tension in the scenes with Nerone and Poppea , and escalates the discord between Nerone and Seneca . The technique of " concitato genere " — rapid semiquavers sung on one note — is used to represent rage . Secret truths may be hinted at as , for example , when Seneca 's friends plead with him to reconsider his suicide in a chromatic madrigal chorus which Monteverdi scholar Denis Arnold finds reminiscent of Monteverdi 's Mantuan days , carrying a tragic power rarely seen in 17th century opera . This is followed , however , by a cheerful diatonic section by the same singers which , says Rosand , suggests a lack of real sympathy with Seneca 's predicament . The descending tetrachord ostinato on which the final duet of the opera is built has been anticipated in the scene in which Nerone and Lucano celebrate Seneca 's death , hinting at an ambivalence in the relationship between emperor and poet . According to Rosand : " in both cases it is surely the traditional association of that pattern with sexual love that is being evoked . "
Arnold asserts that the music of L 'incoronazione has greater variety than any other opera by Monteverdi , and that the purely solo music is intrinsically more interesting than that of Il ritorno . The musical peaks , according to commentators , include the final duet ( despite its doubtful authorship ) , Ottavia 's act 1 lament , Seneca 's farewell and the ensuing madrigal , and the drunken Nerone – Lucano singing competition , often performed with strong homoerotic overtones . Ringer describes this scene as arguably the most brilliant in the whole opera , with " florid , synchronous coloratura by both men creating thrilling , virtuosic music that seems to compel the listener to share in their joy . " Rosand finds Nerone 's solo aria that closes the scene something of an anticlimax , after such stimulation .
Despite continuing debates about authorship , the work is almost always treated as Monteverdi 's — although Rosand observes that some scholars attribute it to " Monteverdi " ( in quotation marks ) . Ringer calls the opera " Monteverdi 's last and arguably greatest work , " a unified masterpiece of " unprecedented depth and individuality " . Carter observes how Monteverdi 's operas redefined the boundaries of theatrical music , and calls his contribution to 17th @-@ century Venetian opera " remarkable by any standard " . Harnoncourt reflects thus : " What is difficult to understand ... is the mental freshness with which the 74 @-@ year @-@ old composer , two years before his death , was able to surpass his pupils in the most modern style and to set standards which were to apply to the music theatre of the succeeding centuries . "
= = List of musical items = =
The table uses the numberings from the 1656 printed version of Busenello 's libretto , and includes the two act 2 scenes for which no music exists in the surviving scores . Typically , " scenes " comprise recitative , arioso , aria and ensemble elements , with occasional instrumental ( sinfonia ) passages . The boundaries between these elements are often indistinct ; Denis Arnold , commenting on the musical continuity , writes that " with few exceptions it is impossible to extricate the arias and duets from the fabric of the opera . "
= = Recording history = =
The first recording of L 'incoronazione , with Walter Goehr conducting the Tonhalle @-@ Orchester Zürich in a live stage performance , was issued in 1954 . This LP version , which won a Grand Prix du Disque in 1954 , is the only recording of the opera that predates the revival of the piece that began with the 1962 Glyndebourne Festival production . In 1963 Herbert von Karajan and the Vienna Staatsoper issued a version described by Gramophone as " far from authentic " , while the following year John Pritchard and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra recorded an abridged version using Leppard 's Glyndebourne orchestration . Leppard conducted a Sadler 's Wells production , which was broadcast by the BBC and recorded on 27 November 1971 . This is the only recording of the opera in English .
Nikolaus Harnoncourt 's 1974 version , the first recording without cuts , used period instruments in an effort to achieve a more authentic sound , although Denis Arnold has criticised Harnoncourt 's " over @-@ ornamentation " of the score , particularly his use of oboe and trumpet flourishes . Arnold showed more enthusiasm for Alan Curtis 's 1980 recording , live from La Fenice in Venice . Curtis uses a small band of strings , recorders and continuo , with a trumpets reserved for the final coronation scene . Subsequent recordings have tended to follow the path of authenticity , with versions from baroque specialists including Richard Hickox and the City of London Baroque Sinfonia ( 1988 ) , René Jacobs and Concerto Vocale ( 1990 ) , and John Eliot Gardiner with the English Baroque Soloists . Sergio Vartolo 's production of the opera at Pigna , Corsica , was recorded for Brilliant Classics in 2004 . A feature of this recording is the casting of a soprano Nerone in acts I and III , and a tenor Nerone in act II , to allow for the differing vocal requirements of the role in these acts . Vartolo accepts that " a staged performance would almost certainly require a different approach " .
In more recent years , videotape and DVD versions have proliferated . The first was in 1979 , a version directed by Harnoncourt with the Zurich Opera and chorus . Leppard 's second Glyndebourne production , that of 1984 , was released in DVD form in 2004 . Since then , productions directed by Jacobs , Christophe Rousset and Marc Minkowski have all been released on DVD , along with Emmanuelle Haïm 's 2008 Glyndebourne production in which the Festival finally rejects Leppard 's big band version in favour of Haim 's period instruments , to give an experience closer to that of the original audience .
= = Editions = =
Since the beginning of the 20th century the score of L 'incoronazione has been edited frequently . Some editions , prepared for particular performances ( e.g. Westrup 's for the 1927 Oxford Town Hall performance ) have not been published . The following are the main published editions since 1904 . Years of publication often postdate the first performances from these editions .
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= Apothecaries ' system =
The apothecaries ' system of weights is a historical system of mass units that were used by physicians and apothecaries for medical recipes , and also sometimes by scientists . The English version of the system is closely related with the English troy system of weights , the pound and grain being exactly the same in both . It divides a pound into 12 ounces , an ounce into 8 drachms , and a drachm into 3 scruples or 60 grains . This exact form of the system was used in the United Kingdom ; in some of its former colonies it survived well into the 20th century . The apothecaries ' system of measures is a similar system of volume units based on the fluid ounce . For a long time , medical recipes were written in Latin , often using special symbols to denote weights and measures .
The use of different measure and weight systems depending on the purpose was an almost universal phenomenon in Europe between the decline of the Roman Empire and metrication . This was connected with international commerce , especially with the need to use the standards of the target market and to compensate for a common weighing practice that caused a difference between actual and nominal weight . In the 19th century , most European countries or cities still had at least a " commercial " or " civil " system ( such as the English avoirdupois system ) for general trading , and a second system ( such as the troy system ) for precious metals such as gold and silver . The system for precious metals was usually divided in a different way from the commercial system , often using special units such as the carat . More significantly , it was often based on different weight standards .
The apothecaries ' system often used the same ounces as the precious metals system , although even then the number of ounces in a pound could be different . The apothecaries ' pound was divided into its own special units , which were inherited ( via influential treatises of Greek physicians such as Dioscorides and Galen , 1st and 2nd century ) from the general @-@ purpose weight system of the Romans . Where the apothecaries ' weights and the normal commercial weights were different , it was not always clear which of the two systems was used in trade between merchants and apothecaries , or by which system apothecaries weighed medicine when they actually sold it . In old merchants ' handbooks the former system is sometimes referred to as the pharmaceutical system , and distinguished from the apothecaries ' system .
= = English @-@ speaking countries = =
The traditional English apothecaries ' system of weights is as shown in the table , the pound , ounce and grain being identical to the troy pound , ounce and grain . In the United Kingdom , a reform in 1824 made the troy pound the primary weight unit ( a role in which it was superseded half a century later by the Avoirdupois pound ) , but this had no effect on apothecaries ' weights . However , the Medicinals Act of 1858 completely abolished the apothecaries ' system in favour of the standard Avoirdupois system . The confusing variety of definitions and conversions for pounds and ounces is covered elsewhere in a table of pound definitions . In the United States , the apothecaries ' system remained official until it was abolished in 1971 in favour of the metric system .
From the pound down to the scruple , the English apothecaries ' system was a subset of the Roman weight system except that the troy pound and its subdivisions were slightly heavier than the Roman pound and its subdivisions . Similar systems were used all over Europe , but with considerable local variation described below under Variants .
The English @-@ speaking countries also used a system of units of fluid measure , or in modern terminology volume units , based on the apothecaries ' system . A volume of liquid that was approximately that of an apothecaries ' ounce of water was called a fluid ounce , and was divided into fluid drachms and sometimes also fluid scruples . The analogue of the grain was called a minim .
The Imperial and US systems differ in the size of the basic unit ( the gallon or the pint , one gallon being equal to eight pints ) , and in the number of fluid ounces per pint . Apothecaries ' systems for volumes were internationally much less common than those for weights . Before introduction of the Imperial Units in the UK , all apothecaries ' measures were based on the wine gallon , which survived in the US under the name liquid gallon or wet gallon .
The wine gallon was abolished in Britain in 1824 , and this system was replaced by a new one based on the newly introduced Imperial gallon . Since the Imperial gallon is 20 % more than the liquid gallon , the same is true for the Imperial pint in relation to the liquid pint . This explains why the number of fluid ounces per gallon had to be adjusted in the new system so that the fluid ounce was not changed too much by the reform . Even so , the modern UK fluid ounce is 4 % less than the US fluid ounce , and the same is true for the smaller units . For some years both systems were used concurrently in the UK .
Apothecaries ' measures eventually fell out of use in the UK and were officially abolished in 1971 . In the US , they are still occasionally used , for example with prescribed medicine being sold in four ounce ( ℥ iv ) bottles .
= = Medical recipes = =
Until around 1900 , medical recipes and most European pharmacopoeias were written in Latin . Here is a typical example from the middle of the 19th century .
The use of Latin ensured that the recipes could be read by an international audience . There was a technical reason why 3 ʒ was written ʒiij , and 1 ⁄ 2 ʒ as ʒß or ʒss : The letters " ss " are an abbreviation for the Latin " semis " meaning " half " , which were sometimes written with a sharp S. In Apothecaries ' Latin , numbers were generally written , in Roman numerals , immediately following the symbol . Since only the units of the apothecaries ' system were used in this way , this made it clear that the civil weight system was not meant .
= = Variants = =
= = = Diversity of local standards = = =
The basic form of the apothecaries ' system is essentially a subset of the Roman weight system . An apothecaries ' pound normally consisted of 12 ounces . ( In France this was changed to 16 ounces , and in Spain the customary unit was the marco , a mark of 8 ounces . ) In the south of Europe and in France , the scruple was generally divided into 24 grains , so that one ounce consisted of 576 grains . Nevertheless , the subdivision of an ounce was somewhat more uniform than that of a pound , and a common feature of all variants is that 12 ounces are roughly 100 drachms ( 96 – 128 drachms ) and a grain is roughly the weight of a physical grain .
It is most convenient to compare the various local weight standards by the metric weights of their ounces . The actual mass of an ounce varied by ± 17 % ( 5 g ) around the typical value of 30 g . The table only shows approximate values for the most important standards ; even the same nominal standard could vary slightly between one city and its neighbour . The range from 25 g to 31 g is filled with numerous variants , especially the Italian range up to 28 g . But there is a relatively large gap between the troy ounces of 31 g and the Habsburg ounce of 35 g . The latter is the product of an 18th @-@ century weight reform .
Even in Turkey a system of weights similar to the European apothecaries ' system was used for the same purpose . For medical purposes the tcheky ( approx . 320 g ) was divided in 100 drachms , and the drachm in ( 16 killos or ) 64 grains . This is close to the classical Greek weight system , where a mina ( corresponding roughly to a Roman libra ) was also divided into 100 drachms .
With the beginning of metrication , some countries standardized their apothecaries ' pound to an easily remembered multiple of the French gramme . E.g. in the Netherlands the Dutch troy pound of 369 @.@ 1 g was standardized in 1820 to 375 @.@ 000 g , to match a similar reform in France . The British troy pound retained its value of 373 @.@ 202 g until in 2000 it was legally defined in metric terms , as 373 @.@ 2417216 g . ( At this time its use was already illegal for all purposes except trading precious metals . )
= = = Basic variants = = =
In the Romance speaking part of Europe the scruple was divided in 24 grains , in the rest of Europe in 20 grains . Notable exceptions were Venice and Sicily , where the scruple was also divided in 20 grains .
The Sicilian apothecaries ' ounce was divided in 10 drachms . Since the scruple was divided in only 20 grains , like in the northern countries , an ounce consisted of 600 grains . This was not too different from the situation in most of the other mediterranean countries , where an ounce consisted of 576 grains .
In France , at some stage the apothecaries ' pound of 12 ounces was replaced by the larger civil pound of 16 ounces . The subdivisions of the apothecaries ' ounce were the same as in the other Romance countries , however , and were different from the subdivisions of the otherwise identical civil ounce .
= = Origins = =
= = = Roman weight system = = =
The basic apothecaries ' system consists of the units pound , ounce and scruple from the classical Roman weight system , together with the originally Greek drachm and a new subdivision of the scruple into either 20 ( " barley " ) or 24 ( " wheat " ) grains ( Latin : grana ) . In some countries other units of the original system remained in use , for example in Spain the obolo and siliqua . In some cases the apothecaries ' and civil weight systems had the same ounces ( " an ounce is an ounce " ) , but the civil pound consisted of 16 ounces . Siliqua is Latin for the seed of the carob tree .
Many attempts were made to reconstruct the exact mass of the Roman pound . One method for doing this consists in weighing old coins ; another uses the fact that Roman weight units were derived from Roman units of length similarly to the way the kilogramme was originally derived from the metre , i.e. by weighing a known volume of water . Nowadays the Roman pound is often given as 327 @.@ 45 g , but one should keep in mind that ( apart from the other uncertainties that come with such a reconstruction ) the Roman weight standard is unlikely to have remained constant to such a precision over the centuries , and that the provinces often had somewhat inexact copies of the standard . The weight and subdivision of the pound in the Holy Roman Empire was reformed by Charlemagne , but in the Byzantine Empire it remained essentially the same . Since Byzantine coins circulated up to Scandinavia , the old Roman standard continued to be influential through the Middle Ages .
= = = Weight system of Salerno = = =
The history of mediaeval medicine started roughly around the year 1000 with the school of medicine in Salerno , which combined elements of Latin , Greek , Arabic and Jewish medicine . Galen and Dioscorides ( who had used the Graeco @-@ Roman weight system ) were among the most important authorities , but also Arabic physicians , whose works were systematically translated into Latin .
According to De ponderibus et mensuris , a famous 13th century text that exists in numerous variations and is often ascribed to Dino di Garbo , the system of weights used in Salerno was different from the systems used in Padua and Bologna . As can be seen from the table , it was also different from the Roman weight system used by Galenus and Dioscorides and from all modern apothecaries ' systems : The ounce was divided into 9 drachms , rather than 8 drachms .
Centuries later , the region around Salerno was the only exception to the rule that ( except for skipping units that had regionally fallen out of use ) the apothecaries ' ounce was subdivided down to the scruple in exactly the same way as in the Roman system : It divided the ounce into 10 drachms .
= = Romance countries = =
While there will naturally have been some changes throughout the centuries , this section only tries to give a general overview over the situation that was recorded in detail in numerous 19th century merchants ' handbooks .
Iberian Peninsula
On the Iberian Peninsula , apothecaries ' weights in the 19th century were relatively uniform , with 24 grains per scruple ( 576 grains per ounce ) , the standard in Romance countries . The weight of an apothecaries ' pound was 345 @.@ 1 g in Spain and 344 @.@ 2 g in Portugal . As in Italy , some of the additional subdivisions of the Roman system , such as the obolo , were still in use there . It was standard to use the marco , defined as 8 ounces , instead of the pound .
France
In 18th century France , there was a national weight standard , the marc de Paris of 8 ounces . The civil pound of 16 ounces was equivalent to 2 marks , and it was also used as the apothecaries ' pound . With 30 @.@ 6 g , the ounces were considerably heavier than other apothecaries ' ounces in Romance countries , but otherwise the French system was not remarkable . Its history and connections to the English and Flemish standards are discussed below under Weight standards named after Troyes .
Italy
Due in part to the political conditions in what would become a united Kingdom of Italy only in 1861 , the variation of apothecaries ' systems and standard weights in this region was enormous . ( For background information , see History of Italy during foreign domination and the unification . ) The libbra ( pound ) generally consisted of the standard twelve ounces , however .
The civil weight systems were generally very similar to the apothecaries ' system , and since the libbra ( or the libbra sottile , where different systems were in use for light and heavy goods ) generally had a suitable weight for an apothecaries ' pound it was often used for this purpose . Extreme cases were Rome and Genoa , where the same system was used for everything , including medicine . On the other hand , there were relatively large differences even between two cities in the same state . E.g. Bologna ( in the Papal States ) had an apothecaries ' pound that was less than the local civil pound , and 4 % lighter than the pound used in Rome .
The weight of an apothecaries ' pound ranged generally between 300 g and 320 g , slightly less than that of a pound in the Roman Empire . An important exception to this rule is that the Kingdom of Lombardy – Venetia was under rule of the Habsburg monarchy 1814 – 1859 and therefore had the extremely large Habsburg apothecaries ' pound of 420 g . ( See below under Habsburg standard . ) E.g. in the large city of Milan the apothecaries ' system based on a pound of 326 @.@ 8 g was officially replaced by the metric system as early as 1803 , because Milan was part of the Napoleonic Italian Republic . Since the successor of this little state , the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy , fell to Habsburg in 1814 ( at a time when even in France the système usuel had been introduced because the metric system was not accepted by the population ) , an apothecaries ' system was officially introduced again , but now based on the Habsburg apothecaries ' pound , which weighed almost 30 % more .
The apothecaries ' pound in Venice had exactly the same subdivisions as those in the non @-@ Romance countries , but its total weight of 301 g was at the bottom of the range . During the Habsburg reign of 1814 – 1859 an exception was made for Venice ; as a result the extreme weights of 301 g and 420 g coexisted within one state and in immediate proximity . The Venice standard was also used elsewhere , for example in Udine . In Dubrovnik ( called " Ragusa " until 1909 ) its use was partially continued for a long time in spite of the official Habsburg weight reform .
The measure and weight systems for the large mainland part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were unified in 1840 . The area consisted of the southern half of the Italian Peninsula and included Naples and Salerno . The subdivision of apothecaries ' weight in the unified system was essentially the same as that for gold , silver , coins and silk . It was the most excentric variant in that the ounce was divided in 10 drachms , rather than the usual 8 . The scruple , like in Venice but unlike in the rest of the Romance region , was divided into 20 grains . The existence of a unit called aureo , the equivalent of 1 ½ dramme , is interesting because 6 aurei were 9 dramme . In the original Salerno weight system an ounce was divided into 9 drachms , and so an aureo would have been ⅙ of an ounce .
= = Troyes , Nuremberg and Habsburg = =
= = = Weight standards named after Troyes = = =
As early as 1147 in Troyes in Champagne ( in the Middle Ages an important trading town ) a unit of weight called marc de Troyes was used .
The national French standard until 1799 was based on a famous artefact called the Pile de Charlemagne , which probably dates back to the second half of the 15th century . It is an elaborate set of nesting weight pieces , with a total metric weight of 12 @.@ 238 kg . The set is now shown in the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris . The total nominal value of the set is 50 marcs de Troyes or marcs de Paris , a mark being 8 ounces . The ounce poids de marc had therefore a metric equivalent of 30 @.@ 59 g . The poids de marc was used as a national French standard for trading , for gold , silver and jewels , and for weighing medicine . It was also used in international communications between scientists . In the time before the French Revolution , the civil pound also played the role of the apothecaries ' pound in the French apothecaries ' system , which otherwise remained a standard system of the Romance ( 24 grains per scruple ) type .
In Bruges , Amsterdam , Antwerpen and other Flemish cities , a " troy " unit ( " trooisch pond " ) was also in use as a standard for valuable materials and medicine . As in France , the way in which the Flemish troy ounce was subdivided depended on what was weighed . Unlike the French , the Flemish apothecaries divided the scruple in 20 grains . The Flemish troy pound became the standard for the gold and apothecaries ' system in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands ; it was also used in this way in Lübeck . ( The London troy pound was referred to as the ' trooisch pond ' , after metrification . )
The Dutch troy mark consisted of 8 Flemish troy ounces , with each ounce of 20 engels , and each engel divided into 32 assen . The Amsterdam Pound of two marks , used in commerce , weighed 10 @,@ 280 assen , while the Amsterdam Troy pound weighed 10 @,@ 240 assen , i.e. exactly two troy marks .
In 1414 , six years before the Treaty of Troyes , a statute of Henry V of England gave directions to the goldsmiths in terms of the troy pound . ( In 1304 it had apparently not yet been introduced , since it did not appear in the statute of weights and measures . ) There is evidence from the 15th century that the troy pound was used for weighing metals and spices . After the abolishment of the Tower pound in 1527 by Henry VIII of England , the troy pound was the official basis for English coin weights . The British apothecaries ' system was based on the troy pound until metrication , and it survived in the United States and Australia well into the 20th century .
Since the modern ( English , American and Imperial ) troy ounces are roughly 1 @.@ 5 % heavier than the late Paris ounce , the exact historical relations between the original marc de Troyes , the French poids de marc , the Flemish trooisch pond and the English troy pound are unclear . It is known , however , that the numerical relation between the English and French troy ounces was exactly 64 : 63 in the 14th century .
= = = Nuremberg standard = = =
In the Middle Ages the Imperial Free City of Nuremberg , an important trading place in the south of Germany , produced large amounts of nesting weight pieces to various European standards . In the 1540s , the first pharmacopoeia in the modern sense was also printed there . In 1555 , a weight standard for the apothecaries ' pound of 12 ounces was set in Nuremberg . Under the name Nuremberg pharmaceutical weight ( German : Nürnberger Medizinalgewicht ) it would become the standard for most of the north @-@ east of Europe . However , some cities kept local copies of the standard .
As of 1800 all German states and cities except Lübeck ( which had the Dutch troy standard ) followed the Nuremberg standard . It was also the standard for Denmark , Norway , the Russian Empire and most cantons of Switzerland . Poland and Sweden had their own variants of the standard , which differed from each other by 0 @.@ 6 % .
In 1811 , Bavaria legally defined the apothecaries ' pound as 360 @.@ 00 g ( an ounce of 30 @.@ 00 g ) . In 1815 , Nuremberg lost its status as a free city and became part of Bavaria . From now on the Nuremberg apothecaries ' pound was no longer the official apothecaries ' pound in Nuremberg ; but the difference was only 0 @.@ 6 % . In 1836 the Greek apothecaries ' pound was officially defined by this standard , four years after Otto , the son of the king of Bavaria , became the first king of Greece . But only few German states followed the example of Bavaria , and with a long delay . The apothecaries ' pound of 360 g was also adopted in Lübeck , where it was official as of 1861 .
Austria and the states of the Habsburg monarchy officially had a different standard since 1761 , and Prussia , followed by its neighbours Anhalt , Lippe and Mecklenburg , would diverge in the opposite direction with a reform in 1816 . But in both cases apothecaries continued to use the Nuremberg standard unofficially for a long time after it became illegal .
In Russia the apothecaries ' system survived well into the 20th century . The Soviet Union officially abolished it only in January 1927 .
= = = Habsburg standard = = =
Empress Maria Theresia of Austria reformed the measures and weights of the Habsburg monarchy in 1761 . The weight of an apothecaries ' pound of 12 ounces was increased to a value that was later ( after the kilogramme was defined ) found to be 420 @.@ 009 g ; this was called the libra medicinalis major . It was defined as 3 / 4 of the unusually heavy Habsburg civil pound ( defined as 6 / 5 of the civil pound of Cologne ) and corresponded to a record ounce weight of 35 g .
Before the reform , in the north of the empire the Nuremberg standard had been in effect , and in Italy the local standards had been even lighter . It is not surprising that an increase by 17 % and more met with some inertia . The 1770 edition of the pharmacopoeia Dispensatorium Austriaco @-@ Viennense still used the Nuremberg standard libra medicinalis minor , indicating that even in the Austrian capital Vienna it took some time for the reform to become effective . In 1774 , the Pharmacopoea Austriaco @-@ provincialis used the new standard , and in 1783 all old apothecaries ' weight pieces that were still in use were directed to be destroyed .
Venice was not part of these reforms and kept its standard of approximately 25 g per ounce .
When Austria started producing scales and weight pieces to the new standard with an excellent quality / price ratio , these were occasionally used by German apothecaries as well .
= = Metrication = =
= = = Early metrication = = =
At the time of the Industrial Revolution , the fact that each state had its own system of weights and measures became increasingly problematic . Serious work on a " scientific " system was started in France under Louis XVI , and completed in 1799 ( after the French Revolution ) with its implementation . The French population , however , was initially unhappy with the new system . In 1812 , Napoleon Bonaparte reintroduced some of the old measures and weights , but in a modified form that was defined with respect to the metric system . This système usuel was finally abolished in 1837 and became illegal in 1840 .
Due to the large expansion of the First French Empire under Napoleon I , French metrication also affected what would be ( parts of ) France 's neighbour countries after the Congress of Vienna .
The Netherlands were partially metricated when they were French , in the years 1810 – 1813 . With full metrication , effective January 1821 , the Netherlands reformed the trooisch pond . The apothecaries ' new pound was 375 @.@ 00 g . Apart from rounding issues concerning the subdivisions , this corresponded exactly to the French système usuel . ( The reform was not followed in the north German city of Lübeck , which continued to use the trooisch pond . ) In Belgium , apothecaries ' weight was metricized effective 1856 .
Between 1803 and 1815 all German regions west of the River Rhine were French , organised in the départements Roer , Sarre , Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle , and Mont @-@ Tonnerre . As a result of the Congress of Vienna these became part of various German states . A large part of the Palatinate fell to Bavaria , but having the metric system it was excepted from the Bavarian reform of weights and measures .
= = = Prussia 's path to metrication = = =
In Prussia , a reform in 1816 defined the Prussian civil pound in terms of the Prussian foot and distilled water . It also redefined the apothecaries ' pound as 12 ounces , i.e. 3 / 4 , of the civil pound : 350 @.@ 78 g . This reform was not popular with apothecaries , because it broke the uniformity of the apothecaries ' pound in Germany at a time when a German national state was beginning to form . It seems that many apothecaries did not follow this reduction by 2 % .
Another reform in 1856 increased the civil pound from 467 @.@ 711 g to 500 @.@ 000 g ( the German civil pound defined by the Zollverein ) , as a first step towards metrication . As a consequence the official apothecaries ' pound was now 375 @.@ 000 g , i.e. it was increased by 7 % , and it was now very close to the troy standards . § 4 of the law that introduced this reform said : " Further , a pharmaceutical weight deviating from the civil weight does not take place . " But this paragraph was suspended until further notice .
The abolishment of the apothecaries ' system meant that doctors ' prescriptions had to take place in terms of the current civil weight : grammes and kilograms . This was considered unfeasible by many , and the state received numerous protests and asked for expertises . Nevertheless , by 1868 § 4 of the earlier reform was finally put into force .
= = = Metrication in countries using the troy and avoirdupois systems = = =
Britain was initially involved in the development of the metric system , and the US was among the 17 initial signatories of the Metre Convention in 1875 . Yet in spite of enthusiastic support for the new system by intellectuals such as Charles Dickens , these two countries were particularly slow to implement it .
To unify all weight systems used by apothecaries , the Irish pharmacopœia of 1850 introduced a new variant of the apothecaries ' system which subdivided a new apothecaries ' pound of 12 avoirdupois ounces instead of the troy pound . To allow effective use of the new system , new weight pieces were produced . Since an avoirdupois ounce corresponds to 28 @.@ 35 g , the proposed system was very similar to that in use in Portugal and Spain , and in some locations in Italy . But it would have doubled the value of the avoirdupois drachm ( an existing unit , but by then only used for weighing silk ) . Therefore , it conflicted with other non @-@ standard variations that were based on that nearly obsolete unit .
The Irish proposal was not widely adopted , but British legislation , in the form of the Medicinals Act 1858 , was more radical : It prescribed the use of the avoirdupois system for the United Kingdom ( then including Ireland ) , with none of the traditional subdivisions . This innovation was first used in the united British pharmacopœia of 1864 . In practice the old apothecaries ' system based on the troy pound was still widely used , however , until it was abolished by the Weights and Measures Act of 1976 . Since then it can only be used to measure precious metals and stones . ( The troy pound was already declared illegal for most other uses by the Weights and Measures Act of 1878 . )
In the US , the metric system replaced the apothecaries ' system in the United States Pharmacopoeia of 1971 .
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= First Ward Wardroom =
The First Ward Wardroom is a historic meeting hall at 171 Fountain Street in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . It is a single @-@ story red brick building , with a low @-@ pitch gable @-@ over @-@ hipped roof . Basically rectangular , an enclosed entry pavilion projects from the main block . The building , designed by William R. Walker & Son and built in 1886 , is one of only three ward halls ( structures built by the city and used as polling places and meeting halls ) to survive in the state . Since about 1920 it has been the Major Walter G. Gatchell Post No. 306 of the Veterans of Foreign Wars . The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= = Design = =
Designed by William R. Walker & Son and constructed by S. Mason & H. A. Smith in 1886 , the one story red brick Queen Anne style building is basically rectangular with a low @-@ pitched gable @-@ over @-@ hipped roof . The red bricks are laid in dark red mortar and is contrasted by the granite sill course and the now painted grey brownstone stringcourse , window sills and lintels and the lintels of the doors . The enclosed entry pavilion projects from the main block with two porches oriented to face Fountain Street and Blake Street . Three arched double hung windows with two @-@ over @-@ two sash run along the sides of the building with three smaller windows are in the entry pavilion . At the time of the National Register of Historic Places nomination , these smaller windows were boarded up and the porch oriented to Fountain Street was bricked in with the buildings original materials . One original eight @-@ panel door remained on the Blake Street entry porch , but the rest of the exterior details were extant , including the boarded pavilion pediment with " 1st Ward " in raised lettering .
National Register of Historic Places nomination states that the interior of the building originally opened into a large meeting hall with some auxiliary service rooms at the rear of the building , but did not disclose any alterations made to the interior .
= = Use = =
The Fifth Ward Wardroom was constructed and used as a polling place and meeting hall in a critical time when Pawtucket was incorporated as a city before becoming the Major Walter G. Gatchell Post No. 306 of the Veterans of Foreign Wars . Since about 1920 , the Gatchell Post has occupied the First Ward Wardroom , but the property is owned by the City of Pawtucket . In 2013 , the building was in need of significant roof repairs and the Gatchell Post reached out to the community to help raise the necessary funds .
= = Significance = =
The First Ward Wardroom is significant as a historical reminder of the pivotal time in which Pawtucket was incorporated as a city and gave up its town @-@ meeting form of governance . The building is also architecturally significant as a rare type of building , wardrooms , and is one of three extant examples in Rhode Island . William R. Walker & Son constructed three such structures in Pawtucket with the Fifth Ward Wardroom being extant and the third example having been demolished . Though both constructed by William R. Walker & Son , the two Pawtucket wardrooms are related , but not identical in construction and show variations by the firm . Another wardroom , with a bungalow style , is located in the Cato Hill Historic District in Woonsocket , Rhode Island . The First Ward Wardroom was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 18 , 1983 .
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= Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One is a first @-@ person shooter video game , the first in a series of episodes that serve as the sequel to the 2004 Half @-@ Life 2 . It was developed by Valve Corporation and released on June 1 , 2006 . Originally called Half @-@ Life 2 : Aftermath , the game was later renamed to Episode One after Valve became confident in using an episodic structure for the game . Similar to Half @-@ Life 2 , Episode One also uses the Source game engine . The game debuted new lighting and animation technologies , as well as AI sidekick enhancements .
The game 's events take place immediately after those in Half @-@ Life 2 , in and around war @-@ torn City 17 . Episode One follows scientist Gordon Freeman and his companion Alyx Vance as they fight in humanity 's continuing struggle against the alien civilization known as the Combine . When the story begins , Gordon wakes up outside the enemy 's base of operations , the Citadel , after being left unconscious from the concluding events of Half @-@ Life 2 . During the course of the game , Gordon travels with Alyx as they attempt to evacuate the city . As the game comes to an end , Gordon and Alyx are caught in a major accident , and their fates are revealed in the sequel , Episode Two .
Valve views episodes One through Three as tantamount to a standalone release . Episode One is available as part of a bundle package known as The Orange Box , which also includes Half @-@ Life 2 , Episode Two , Team Fortress 2 , and Portal . Episode One received a generally positive critical reaction , and the co @-@ operative aspects of the gameplay received particular praise , although the game 's short length was criticized .
= = Gameplay = =
In Episode One players make their way through a linear series of levels and encounter various enemies and allies . The gameplay is broken up between combat @-@ oriented challenges and physics @-@ based puzzles . Episode One integrates tutorial @-@ like tasks into the story to familiarize the player with new gameplay mechanics without breaking immersion . A head @-@ up display appears on the screen to display the character 's health , energy , and ammunition . Throughout the course of the game , the player accesses new weapons and ammunition that are used to defend the character from enemy forces . Unlike in Half @-@ Life 2 , where Gordon 's initial weapon is the crowbar , Gordon first acquires the Gravity Gun , which plays a crucial role in the game by allowing the player to use physics to manipulate objects at a distance in both combat and puzzle @-@ solving scenarios .
The AI for Alyx Vance , Gordon 's companion , was designed specifically for co @-@ operative play in Episode One to complement the player 's abilities . The developers described Alyx 's programming for Episode One as a " personality code " as opposed to an " AI code " , emphasizing the attention they gave to make Alyx a unique and believable companion . For part of the code , she was specifically programmed to avoid performing too many mechanical or repetitive actions , such as repeating lines of dialogue or performing certain routines in combat situations . Examples of this co @-@ operative gameplay include combat in underground levels . In this scenario , the player can conserve their ammunition by using a flashlight to help Alyx spot and kill oncoming enemies . Similarly , Alyx will often take up strategic positions and provide covering fire to keep the player safe while they travel to a certain area or perform certain actions .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The original Half @-@ Life takes place at a remote laboratory called the Black Mesa Research Facility . The player takes on the role of Gordon Freeman , a scientist involved in an accident that opens an inter @-@ dimensional portal to the world of Xen and floods the facility with hostile alien creatures . After the player guides him in an attempt to escape the facility and close the portal , the game ends with a mysterious figure who offers Freeman employment . The protagonist is subsequently put into stasis by this mysterious character known as the G @-@ Man .
Half @-@ Life 2 picks up the story , in which the G @-@ Man takes Freeman out of stasis and inserts him on a train en route to City 17 an indeterminate number of years after the events of the first game , with Earth now enslaved by the transhuman forces of the Combine . The player guides Gordon to aid in humanity 's struggle against the Combine and its human representative , Dr. Wallace Breen . He oversees the occupation from his base of operations in the Citadel , a monolithic building at the heart of City 17 . Fighting alongside Gordon is an underground resistance led by former colleague Dr. Eli Vance , as well other allies including Dr. Vance 's daughter Alyx Vance and the enigmatic Vortigaunts , an alien species . Half @-@ Life 2 ends with a climactic battle atop the Citadel that inflicts critical damage to its dark fusion reactor . When it seems as if Alyx and Gordon are to be engulfed by the explosion , the G @-@ Man appears once more . After giving a cryptic speech , he extracts Gordon from danger and places him in stasis once again .
= = = Plot = = =
After the explosion of the Citadel reactor from which Gordon was extracted by the G @-@ Man and where Alyx Vance was left behind , time suddenly freezes . Several Vortigaunts appear and rescue Alyx from the blast . After she is rescued , the Vortigaunts appear before the G @-@ Man and stand between him and Gordon . They teleport Gordon away from the scene , much to the G @-@ Man 's displeasure .
D0g retrieves Gordon out from under some junk outside the Citadel , and Gordon reunites with Alyx , who is relieved to see him . Alyx contacts Eli Vance and Isaac Kleiner , who have escaped the city , and is informed the Citadel 's core is at risk of exploding at any moment . Kleiner states the explosion could be large enough to level the whole of City 17 , and the only way for them to survive is to re @-@ enter the Citadel and slow the core 's progression toward meltdown . Eli reluctantly agrees when he sees no other option .
Alyx and Gordon re @-@ enter the now @-@ decaying Citadel to try to stabilize the core ; Gordon is successful in re @-@ engaging the reactor 's containment field , which delays the explosion . Alyx discovers the Combine are deliberately accelerating the destruction of the Citadel to send a " transmission packet " to the Combine 's homeworld . She downloads a copy of the message , which causes the Combine to prioritize them as targets . Alyx also downloads a transmission from Dr. Judith Mossman , in which she mentions a " project " she has located , before she is cut off by a Combine attack . Afterwards , Alyx and Gordon board a train to escape the Citadel .
The train derails en route , forcing the duo to proceed on foot . As they fight through the disorganized Combine forces and rampant alien infestations , Kleiner appears on the screens Breen once used to pass out propaganda , and gives out useful updates to the evacuating citizens about the latest turn of events as well as reiterating the Citadel 's imminent collapse . Alyx and Gordon eventually meet up with Barney Calhoun and a group of other survivors who are preparing to move on a train station to escape City 17 . Alyx and Gordon provide cover for the passengers as they board .
To keep the survivors safe , Alyx and Gordon opt to take a different train . They manage to escape just as the reactor begins to detonate ; the energy sends out the Combine 's message . Several pods containing Combine Advisors are ejected from the Citadel as it detonates . The resulting shockwave catches the train , derailing it .
= = Development = =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode One is the first in a trilogy of episodes serving as the sequel of the 2004 first @-@ person shooter video game Half @-@ Life 2 . In February 2006 , Valve announced that they would be releasing a trilogy of episodes covering the same story arc . While the plots and dialogue of Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 were written solely by Valve 's in @-@ house writer Marc Laidlaw , the Half @-@ Life 2 Episodes were collaboratively written by Laidlaw , Chet Faliszek , and Erik Wolpaw , with Laidlaw retaining overall leadership of the group .
Valve explained that the focus of Episode One was character development , in particular that of Gordon 's female sidekick and friend Alyx , because she accompanies the player for virtually the entire game . Project lead Robin Walker discussed the reasoning behind this approach in an article announcing the game in the May 2005 issue of PC Gamer UK , saying , " It 's kind of ironic that despite so much of the theme of Half @-@ Life 2 being about other characters and other people , you spent most of the game alone . " Lead writer Marc Laidlaw expanded further on the game 's premise , saying ,
Episode One deals with the events and issues set in motion during Half @-@ Life 2 . You 've done critical damage to the Citadel . The whole place is going to go up , taking out City 17 and what 's in its immediate radius . You and Alyx are leading the flight from the city getting up close and personal with some of the creatures and sights from the end of the game .
It was later confirmed that players would reprise the role of Gordon Freeman , unlike the original Half @-@ Life expansion packs , which all dealt with different characters . Valve decided to develop Episode One in @-@ house , as opposed to working with outside contractors as with previous expansions , because the company was already comfortable with the technology and construction tools of Half @-@ Life 2 .
Because of Alyx 's significant involvement in the game , Valve made modifications to her AI that allowed her to react to the player 's actions . Modifications include commentating on objects the player manipulates or obstacles they have overcome . She also acts as an important device in both plot exposition and directing the player 's journey , often vocalizing what the player is required to do next to progress . The developers explained that a large part of their focus was creating not only a believable companion for the player , but also one that did not obstruct the player 's actions . They wanted to allow the player to dictate his / her own pace and method of overcoming any challenges faced without being hindered . This meant that Valve often had to scale back Alyx 's input and dialogue during the player 's journey so they would not feel pressured to progress and consequently object to her presence . The developers also placed what they described as hero moments throughout the game , which allow the player to single @-@ handedly overcome obstacles such as particularly challenging enemies , during which Alyx takes the role of an observer and gives the player praise and adulation for their heroic feats . Play testers were used extensively by the developers throughout the entirety of the game 's creation in order for Valve to continually gauge the effectiveness of in @-@ game scenarios as well as the difficulty .
The game runs on an upgraded version of Valve 's proprietary Source engine , and features both the engine 's advanced lighting effects , and a new version of its facial animation / expression technology . Upgrades to enemy AI allow Combine soldiers to utilize tactics previously unavailable to them . For example , Combine soldiers were given the ability to crouch while being fired upon in order to duck underneath the player 's line of fire . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Kelly Bailey . The music is used sparingly throughout ; it plays primarily during scenes of major plot developments or particularly important action sequences such as large battles or when encountering a new enemy .
While no new locales were introduced in Episode One , large alterations were made to the appearance of both City 17 where the game takes place and the Citadel from the end of Half @-@ Life 2 to reflect the changing shape of the world and remind the player that their actions have major effects on the story line . The Citadel has degenerated from the cold , alien , and imposing fortress of the previous game into an extremely unstable state . This provides a visual cue to the player of the catastrophic damage they inflicted , and it allows for the introduction of new gameplay elements that accentuate the dangers which come with the Citadel 's imminent collapse . In addition , it serves a thematic purpose by highlighting the weakening of the Combine 's dominance in City 17 . Likewise , City 17 has been altered to reflect the aftermath of the resistance 's open rebellion , with vast swathes of destroyed buildings , and the introduction of foes previously kept outside its confines in Half @-@ Life 2 to emphasize the scale of the uprising .
= = Release and reception = =
Upon release , Episode One was sold in both retail stores and Valve 's online Steam distribution system , where it was sold at a discount price . The game was also distributed by Electronic Arts as both a standalone release and as part of Half @-@ Life 2 : Platinum Collection . It was available for pre @-@ load and pre @-@ purchase through Steam on May 1 , 2006 , with Half @-@ Life Deathmatch : Source and Half @-@ Life 2 : Deathmatch immediately available for play as part of the package . Episode One is available as part of a bundle package known as The Orange Box , which also includes Half @-@ Life 2 , Episode Two , Team Fortress 2 , and Portal ; and is available for Mac , PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 . About 1 @.@ 4 million retail copies of Episode One were sold by 2008 .
Response to Episode One was generally positive , and reviewers praised the game for having more intricate , well @-@ paced gameplay than Half @-@ Life 2 . The game 's interactivity , particularly in the form of Alyx and her reactions to the player 's actions and the events of the game , was also singled out for praise . PC Gamer commented that " while this inaugural episode may not be the essential FPS that Half @-@ Life 2 is , I can 't imagine any shooter fan who 'd want to miss it . " In its review , PC Gamer UK directed particular praise to the balance between puzzle @-@ oriented and action @-@ oriented challenges throughout the game . In Australia , the magazine PC PowerPlay awarded the game 10 out of 10 . Edge praised the " deftness " with which the game was able to direct the player 's eyes , and the strength of Alyx as a companion , concluding , " In an interactive genre bound to the traditions of the pop @-@ up gun and invisible hero , it simply doesn 't get more sophisticated than this . " Episode One earned a scores of 87 / 100 and 85 @.@ 59 % on review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings respectively . IGN awarded Episode One with the title of " Best PC FPS of 2006 " and described it as a " great bang for the buck using Valve 's new episodic plan " , although it did not offer " the complete experience that Half @-@ Life 2 was " . GameSpy ranked Episode One ninth on its 2006 " Games of the Year " list , and it also noted the implementation of Alyx as a believable and useful companion .
A common criticism of the game is its short length . Episode One takes roughly 4 – 6 hours to complete , which raises the issue of whether the game justifies its price . Computer Games Magazine argued the futility of reviewing the game due to its episodic nature ; as the first part of a three @-@ part story arc , it is difficult to judge it when divorced from the final product . Game Revolution expressed disappointment at a lack of new features such as environments and weapons .
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= Pilot whale =
Pilot whales are cetaceans belonging to the genus Globicephala . The two extant species are the long @-@ finned pilot whale ( G. melas ) and the short @-@ finned pilot whale ( G. macrorhynchus ) . The two are not readily distinguished at sea , and analysis of the skulls is the best way to tell the difference between them . Between the two species , pilot whales range in waters nearly worldwide , with long @-@ finned pilot whales living in cold waters and short @-@ finned pilot whales living in tropical and subtropical waters . Pilot whales are among the largest of the oceanic dolphins , exceeded in size only by the killer whale . They and other large members of the dolphin family are also known as blackfish .
Pilot whales are primarily squid eaters , but will feed on fish , as well . They are also highly social , and studies suggest that both males and females remain in their mothers ' pods , an unusual trait among mammals , also found in certain killer whale communities . Short @-@ finned pilot whales are also one of the few mammal species where females go through menopause , and postreproductive females may contribute to the survival of younger members of their pods . Pilot whales are notorious for stranding themselves on beaches , and are among the most common cetacean stranders . Several theories have been proposed to account for this behavior . The status of both species is not understood , and they have been subject to direct and indirect catches by fisheries . Whalers in a few countries continue to hunt pilot whales .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Pilot whales are classified into two species :
Long @-@ finned pilot whale ( Globicephala melas )
Short @-@ finned pilot whale ( Globicephala macrorhynchus ) .
The short @-@ finned pilot whale was described , from skeletal materials only , by John Edward Gray in 1846 . He presumed from the skeleton that the whale had a large beak . The long @-@ finned pilot whale was first classified by Thomas Stewart Traill in 1809 as Delphinus melas . Its scientific name was eventually changed to Globicephala melaena . Since 1986 , the specific name of the long @-@ finned pilot whale was changed to its original form melas . Other species classifications have been proposed but only two have been accepted . There exist geographic forms of short @-@ finned pilot whales off the east coast of Japan , which comprise genetically isolated stocks .
Fossils of an extinct relative , Globicephala baereckeii , have been found in Pleistocene deposits in Florida . Another Globicephala dolphin was discovered in Pliocene strata in Tuscany , Italy , and was named G. eturia . The pilot whales were also close relatives of the extinct blunt @-@ snouted dolphin . Close living relatives of the pilot whales are the melon @-@ headed whale , the pygmy killer whale , the false killer whale , and Risso 's dolphin .
Evolution of Tappanaga , the endemic , larger form of short @-@ finned pilots found in northern Japan have been indicated that the geniture of this form could be caused by the extinction of Long @-@ finned pilots in north Pacific in the 12th century where Magondou , the smaller , southern type possibly filled the former niches of Long @-@ finned pilots , adapting and colonizing into colder waters . Some claims that the Tappanaga , alternatively called Shiogondou are not adapted form of Short @-@ finned pilots but a distinctive species of their own . Today , Tappanaga and Magondou differentiate their respective distributions by the border at around the oceanic front off Chōshi , Chiba .
The animals were named " pilot whales " because pods were believed to be " piloted " by a leader . They are also called " pothead whales " and " blackfish " . The genus name is a combination of the Latin words globus ( " round ball " or " globe " ) and kephale ( " head " ) . Melas is Greek for " black " and macrorhynchus comes from the Greek words macro ( " enlarged " ) and rhynchus ( " snout " or " beak " ) .
= = Description = =
Pilot whales are mostly dark grey , brown , or black , but have some light areas such as a grey saddle patch behind the dorsal fin . Other light areas are an anchor @-@ shaped patch under the chin , a faint blaze marking behind the eye , a large marking on the belly , and a genital patch . The dorsal fin is set forward on the back and sweeps backwards . A pilot whale is more robust than most dolphins , and has a distinctive large , bulbous melon . Pilot whales ' long , sickle @-@ shaped flippers and tail stocks are flattened from side to side . Male long @-@ finned pilot whales develop more circular melons than females , although this does not seem to be the case for short @-@ finned pilot whales off the Pacific coast of Japan .
Long - and short @-@ finned pilot whales are so similar , it is difficult to tell the two species apart . They were traditionally differentiated by the length of the pectoral flippers relative to total body length and the number of teeth . The long @-@ finned pilot whale was thought to have 9 – 12 teeth in each row and flippers one @-@ fifth of total body length , compared to the short @-@ finned pilot whale with its 7 – 9 teeth in each row and flippers one @-@ sixth of total body length . Studies of whales in the Atlantic showed much overlap in these characteristics between the species , making them clines instead of distinctive features . Thus , biologists have since used skull differences to distinguish the two species . The skull of the short @-@ finned pilot whale has a shorter and broader rostum with a premaxilla that covers more of the maxilla . By contrast , the long @-@ finned pilot whale 's skull has a more elongated rostum and a more exposed maxilla .
The size and weight depend on the species , as long @-@ finned pilot whales are generally larger than short @-@ finned pilot whales . Their lifespans are about 45 years in males and 60 years in females for both species . Both species exhibit sexual dimorphism . Adult long @-@ finned pilot whales reach a body length of approximately 6 @.@ 5 m , with males being 1 m longer than females . Their body mass reaches up to 1 @,@ 300 kg in females and up to 2 @,@ 300 kg in males . For short @-@ finned pilot whales , adult females reach a body length of about 5 @.@ 5 m , while males reach 7 @.@ 2 m and may weigh up to 3 @,@ 200 kg .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
Pilot whales can be found in oceans nearly worldwide , but data about current population sizes is deficient . The long @-@ finned pilot whale prefers slightly cooler waters than the short @-@ finned , and is divided into two populations . The smaller group is found in a circumpolar band in the Southern Ocean from about 20 to 65 ° S. It may be sighted off the coasts of Chile , Argentina , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand . An estimated more than 200 @,@ 000 individuals were in this population in 2006 . The second , much larger , population inhabits the North Atlantic Ocean , in a band from South Carolina in the United States across to the Azores and Morocco at its southern edge and from Newfoundland to Greenland , Iceland , and northern Norway at its northern limit . This population was estimated at 778 @,@ 000 individuals in 1989 . It is also present in the western half of the Mediterranean Sea .
The short @-@ finned pilot whale is less populous . It is found in temperate and tropical waters of the Indian , Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . Its population overlaps slightly with the long @-@ finned pilot whale in the temperate waters of the North Atlantic and Southern Oceans . About 150 @,@ 000 individuals are found in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean . More than 30 @,@ 000 animals are estimated in the western Pacific , off the coast of Japan . Pilot whales are generally nomadic , but some populations stay year @-@ round in places such as Hawaii and parts of California . They prefer the waters of the shelf break and slope . Once commonly seen off of Southern California , short @-@ finned pilot whales disappeared from the area after a strong El Niño year in the early 1980s , according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . In October 2014 , crew and passengers on several boats spotted a pod of 50 @-@ 200 off Dana Point , California .
= = = Foraging and parasites = = =
Both species eat primarily squid . The whales make seasonal inshore and offshore movements in response to the dispersal of their prey . Fish that are consumed include Atlantic cod , Greenland turbot , Atlantic mackerel , Atlantic herring , hake , and spiny dogfish in the northwest Atlantic . In the Faroe Islands , whales mostly eat squid , but will also eat fish species such as greater argentine and blue whiting . However , Faroe whales do not seem to feed on cod , herring , or mackerel even when they are abundant .
Pilot whales generally take several breaths before diving for a few minutes . Feeding dives may last over ten minutes . They are capable of diving to depths of 600 meters , but most dives are to a depth of 30 – 60 m . Shallow dives tend to take place during the day , while deeper ones take place at night . When making deep dives , pilot whales often make fast sprints to catch fast @-@ moving prey such as squid . Compared to sperm whales and beaked whales , foraging short @-@ finned pilot whales are more energetic at the same depth . When they reach the end of their dives , pilot whales will sprint , possibly to catch prey , and then make a few buzzes . This is unusual considering deep @-@ diving , breath @-@ holding animals would be expected to swim slowly to conserve oxygen . The animal 's high metabolism possibly allows it to sprint at deep depths , which would also give it shorter diving periods than some other marine mammals . This may also be the case for long @-@ finned pilot whales .
Pilot whales are often infested with whale lice , cestodes , and nematodes . They also can be hosts to various pathogenic bacteria and viruses , such as Streptococcus , Pseudomonas , Escherichia , Staphylococcus , and influenza . One sample of Newfoundland pilot whales found the most common illness was an upper respiratory tract infection .
= = = Social structure and life history = = =
Both species live in groups of 10 – 30 , but some groups may number 100 or more . Data suggest the social structures of pilot whale pods are similar to those of " resident " killer whales . The pods are highly stable and the members have close matrilineal relationships . Pod members are of various age and sex classes , although adult females tend to outnumber adult males . They have been observed making various kin @-@ directed behaviors , such as providing food . Numerous pods will temporarily gather , perhaps to allow individuals from different pods to interact and mate , as well as provide protection .
Both species are loosely polygynous . Data suggest both males and females remain in mother 's pod for life ; despite this , inbreeding within a pod does not seem to occur . During aggregations , males will temporarily leave their pods to mate with females from other pods . Male reproductive dominance or competition for mates does not seem to exist . After mating , a male pilot whale usually spends only a few months with a female , and an individual may sire several offspring in the same pod . Males return to their own pods when the aggregations disband , and their presence may contribute to the survival of the other pod members . No evidence of " bachelor " groups has been found .
Pilot whale pods off southern California have been observed in three different groups : traveling / hunting groups , feeding groups and loafing groups . In traveling / hunting groups , individuals position themselves in chorus lines stretching two miles long , with only a few whales underneath . Sexual and age @-@ class segregation apparently occurs in these groups . In feeding groups , individuals are very loosely associated , but may move in the same direction . In loafing groups , whales number between 12 and 30 individuals resting . Mating and other behavior may take place .
Pilot whales have one of the longest birth intervals of the cetaceans , calving once every three to five years . Most matings and calvings occur during the summer for long @-@ finned pilot whales . For short @-@ finned pilot whales of the Southern Hemisphere , births are at their highest in spring and autumn , while in Northern Hemisphere , the time in which calving peaks can vary by population . For long @-@ finned pilot whales , gestation lasts 12 – 16 months , and short @-@ finned pilot whales have a 15 @-@ month gestation period . The calf nurses for three years , although lactation usually lasts longer , allowing for extensive mother @-@ calf bonds . Short @-@ finned pilot whale females will go though menopause , but this is not as common in females of long @-@ finned pilot whales . Postreproductive females possibly play important roles in the survival of the young . Postreproductive females will continue to lactate and nurse young . Since they can no longer bear young of their own , these females invest in the current young . Short @-@ finned pilot whales grow more slowly than long @-@ finned pilot whales . For the short @-@ finned pilot whale , females become sexually mature at 9 years old and males at about 13 – 16 years . For the long @-@ finned pilot whale , females reach maturity at around eight years and males at around 12 years .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
Pilot whales emit echolocation clicks for foraging and whistles and burst pulses as social signals ( e.g. to keep contact with members of their pod ) . With active behavior , vocalizations are more complex , while less @-@ active behavior is accompanied by simple vocalizations . Differences have been found in the calls of the two species . Compared with short @-@ finned pilot whales , long @-@ finned pilot whales have relatively low @-@ frequency calls with narrow frequency ranges . In one study of North Atlantic long @-@ finned pilot whales , certain vocalizations were heard to accompany certain behaviors . When resting or " milling " , simple whistles are emitted . Surfacing behavior is accompanied by more complex whistles and pulsed sounds . The number of whistles made increases with the number of subgroups and the distance in which the whales are spread apart .
A study of short @-@ finned pilot whales off the southwest coast of Tenerife in the Canary Islands has found the members of a pod maintained contact with each other through call repertoires unique to their pod . A later study found , when foraging at around 800 m deep , short @-@ finned pilot whales make tonal calls . The number and length of the calls seem to decrease with depth despite being farther away from conspecifics at the surface . As such , the surrounding water pressure affects the energy of the calls , but it does not appear to affect the frequency levels .
When in stressful situations , pilot whales produce " shrills " or " plaintive cries " , which are variations of their whistles .
= = = Stranding = = =
Of the cetaceans , pilot whales are among the most common stranders . Because of their strong social bonds , whole groups of pilot whales will strand . Single stranders have been recorded and these are usually diseased . Group stranding tends to be of mostly healthy individuals . Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain group strandings . When using magnetic fields for navigation , the whales have been suggested to get perplexed by geomagnetic anomalies or they may be following a sick member of their group that got stranded . The pod also may be following a member of high importance that got stranded and a secondary social response makes them keep returning . Researchers from New Zealand have successfully used secondary social responses to keep a stranding pod of long @-@ finned pilot whales from returning to the beach . In addition , the young members of the pod were taken offshore to buoys , and their distress calls lured the older whales back out to sea .
= = Human interaction = =
The IUCN lists both species as " Data Deficient " in the Red List of Threatened Species . Long @-@ finned pilot whales in the North and Baltic Seas are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( CMS ) . Those from northwest and northeast Atlantic may also need to be included to Appendix II of CMS . The short @-@ finned pilot whale is listed on Appendix II of CITES .
= = = Hunting = = =
The long @-@ finned pilot whale has traditionally been hunted by " driving " , which involves many hunters and boats gathering in a semicircle behind a pod of whales close to shore , and slowly driving them towards a bay , where they become stranded and are then slaughtered . This practice was common in both the 19th and 20th centuries . At the Faroe Islands , pilot whale hunting started at least in the 16th century , and continued into the modern times , as thousands were killed during the 1970s and 1980s . In other parts of the North Atlantic , such as Norway , West Greenland , Ireland and Cape Cod , pilot whales have also been hunted , but to a lesser extent . Iceland , . One fishery at Cape Cod harvested 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 whales per year during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Newfoundland 's long @-@ finned pilot whale fishery was at its highest in 1956 , but declined shortly after and is now defunct . In the Southern Hemisphere , exploitation of long @-@ finned pilot whales has been sporadic and low . Currently , long @-@ finned pilot whales are only hunted at the Faroe Islands and Greenland .
The short @-@ finned pilot whale has also been hunted for many centuries , particularly by Japanese whalers . Between 1948 and 1980 , hundreds of whales were exploited at Hokkaido and Sanriku in the north and Taiji , Izu , and Okinawa in the south . These fisheries were at their highest in the late 1940s and early 1950s ; 2 @,@ 326 short @-@ finned pilot whales were harvested in the mid- to late 1980s . This had decreased to about 400 per year by the 1990s .
Pilot whales have also fallen victim to bycatches . In one year , around 30 short @-@ finned pilot whales were caught by the squid round @-@ haul fishery in southern California . Likewise , California 's drift gill net fishery took around 20 whales a year in the mid @-@ 1990s . In 1988 , 141 whales caught on the east coast of the US were taken by the foreign Atlantic mackerel fishery , which forced it to be shut down .
= = = Pollution = = =
As with other marine mammals , pilot whales are susceptible to certain pollutants . Off the Faroes , France , the UK , and the eastern US , pilot whales were found to have been contaminated with high amounts of DDT and PCB . The Faroes whales have also been contaminated with cadmium and mercury . However , pilot whales from Newfoundland and Tasmania were found to have had very low levels of DDT . Short @-@ finned pilot whales off the west coast of the US have had high amounts of DDT and PCB in contrast to the low amounts found in whales from Japan and the Antilles .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Pilot whale meat is available for consumption in very few areas of Japan , mainly along the central Pacific coast , and also in other areas of the world , such as the Faroe Islands . The meat is high in protein ( higher than beef ) and low in fat . Because a whale 's fat is contained in the layer of blubber beneath the skin , and the muscle is high in myoglobin , the meat is a dark shade of red . In Japan , where pilot whale meat can be found in certain restaurants and izakayas , the meat is sometimes served raw , as sashimi , but just as often pilot whale steaks are marinated , cut into small chunks , and grilled . When grilled , the meat is slightly flaky and quite flavorful , gamey , though similar to a quality cut of beef , with distinct yet subtle undertones recalling its marine origin .
= = = = Health concerns = = = =
In both Japan and the Faroe Islands , the meat is contaminated with mercury and cadmium , causing a health risk for those who frequently eat it , especially children and pregnant women . In November 2008 , an article in New Scientist reported that research done on the Faroe Islands resulted in two chief medical officers recommending against the consumption of pilot whale meat , considering it to be too toxic . In 2008 , the local authorities recommended that pilot whale meat should no longer be eaten due to the contamination . This has resulted in reduced consumption , according to a senior Faroese health official .
= = = Captivity = = =
Pilot whales , mostly short @-@ finned pilot whales , have been kept in captivity . Since 1973 , some long @-@ finned pilot whales from New England waters were taken and temporarily kept in captivity . Short @-@ finned pilot whales off southern California , Hawaii and Japan have been kept in aquariums and oceanariums . Several pilot whales from southern California and Hawaii were taken into captivity during the 1960s and early 1970s , two of which were placed at SeaWorld in San Diego . During the 1970s and early 1980s , six pilot whales were captured alive by drive hunts and taken for public display . Pilot whales have historically had low survival rates in captivity , with the average annual survival being 0 @.@ 51 during the mid @-@ 1960s to early 1970s .
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= Cook Islands at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
On behalf of the Cook Islands , the Cook Islands Sports and National Olympic Committee sent a team to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China , marking its sixth consecutive appearance at the Olympics since its debut in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea . The country sent four athletes to the Games across three sports and four distinct events ( Gordon Heather and Tereapii Tapoki in track and field , Petero Okotai in swimming , and Sam Pera , Jr. in weightlifting ) . No athlete of the Cook Islander delegation progressed past the first rounds in their events ( with the exception of weightlifting , where the first round was the only round ) and did not go on to win medals . Pera was the nation 's flag bearer at the ceremonies .
= = Background = =
The Cook Islands are a collection of fifteen islands lying in the South Pacific Ocean that are governed under a single parliamentary entity . Some 10 @,@ 000 people live in the dependency . The country is in a free association with New Zealand , who handles the nation 's external affairs . The Cook Islands became self @-@ governing in 1965 . 23 years later , the Cook Islands sent their first delegation to the Olympics at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea . Between 1988 and 2008 , the Cook Islands sent delegations to all six Summer Olympic games . The size of the Cook Islander delegation was largest in 1988 , when it reached seven athletes . The size of the nation 's delegation has not risen past four since then as of the Beijing Olympics .
At Beijing , four athletes competed for the Cook Islands . Of those competitors , three were men ( Heather , Okotai , Pera ) and one was a woman ( Tapoki ) . They competed across three sports ( track and field , swimming and weightlifting ) and four distinct events ( men 's 100 meters and women 's discus throw in track and field , men 's 100 meters breaststroke in swimming , and men 's heavyweight in weightlifting ) . As of the 2008 Olympics , there had not been a Cook Islander who has won a medal at the Olympics . Sam Pera , Jr . , a weightlifter , was the flagbearer for the Cook Islands at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Gordon Heather was the sole male Cook Islander participating in a track event at the Beijing Olympics , marked by his competition in the men 's 100 meters dash . Born on Rarotonga , the most populous of the Cook Islands and the home to its capital city ( district ) , Heather was 18 years old when he participated in the Beijing Olympic . He had not previously competed in any Olympic games . During the 14 August qualification round , Heather participated in the ninth heat , which included eight athletes . He finished the dash in 11 @.@ 41 seconds , placing last in the heat . Micronesia 's Jack Howard placed ahead of Heather ( 11 @.@ 03 seconds ) in seventh place . Heather 's heat was led by Qatar 's Samuel Adelebari Francis ( 10 @.@ 40 seconds ) and Trinidad and Tobago 's Marc Burns ( 10 @.@ 46 seconds ) . Overall , 80 athletes competed in the event 's qualification round , and the Cook Islander sprinter ranked 75th . He did not advance to further rounds .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Tereapii Tapoki was the only female Cook Islander participating in a track and field event in Beijing , and was the only Cook Islander in her nation 's delegation during those games . Born in Oiretumu , a settlement on the island of Mauke , Tapoki 's debut at the Olympics was in the 2004 Athens games when she was 20 years old ; she represented the Cook Islands in the same event during those games . Tapoki was placed in the first heat during the 15 August qualification round , which included 19 athletes . The athletes were given three opportunities to throw the discus . During the first attempt , Tapoki threw the discus 46 @.@ 77 meters , placing 12th out of the 19 competitors in her heat . Her second attempt landed 44 @.@ 11 meters away , placing her 15th out of those who attempted the discus during that round . She marked her highest score , 48 @.@ 35 meters , on her third and final attempt . Of those in her heat , this placed her in 19th place . 37 athletes registered marks during the qualifying round , with Tapoki ranking last . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Swimming = =
Petero Okotai participated on the Cook Islands ' behalf in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke . He was the only Cook Islander participating in the event , or in any swimming event in general in Beijing . Okotai was 27 years old at the time of his participation at the 2008 Summer Olympics , and had not previously participated in any Olympic games . During the preliminary rounds , which took place on 9 August , the Cook Islander participated in the first heat , which included three people . Of those three , Okotai ranked third after finishing the event in 1 : 20 @.@ 20 . Oman 's Mohammed Al @-@ Habsi ranked ahead of Okotai ( 1 : 12 @.@ 28 ) , while Qatar 's Osama Mohammed Ye Alarag took first in the heat ( 1 : 10 @.@ 83 ) . Of the 63 athletes who finished the qualification heats , Okotai ranked last . He did not advance to later rounds .
= = Weightlifting = =
Sam Pera , Jr. was the only Cook Islander participating in weightlifting during the Beijing Olympics . Born on the island of Rarotonga , the most populous Cook Island , Pera is the son of Sam Nunuke Pera , who competed for the Cook Islands in the same event in 1992 ( Barcelona ) , 1996 ( Atlanta ) and 2004 ( Athens ) . Sam Pera , Jr. participated in men 's _ 105kg ( heavyweight ) at age 19 , which marked the first time he competed in any Olympic games . The event occurred on 19 August , and included 14 competitors in all . The snatch phase of the event occurred first , and Pera was given three tries . On the first , he successfully lifted 148 kilograms ; on the second , he unsuccessfully attempted to lift 155 kilograms ; and on the third and final , he lifted the 155 kilograms with success . The clean and jerk phrase followed , and Pera was again given three attempts . He successfully lifted 188 kilograms on his first and second tries , and successfully lifted 195 kilograms on his third attempt . Because his highest score during the snatch round was 155 kilograms and his highest during clean and jerk was 195 kilograms , the total of the two equaled his total score of 350 points . Overall , Pera ranked twelfth of the thirteen finishing athletes . Tonga 's Maamaloa Lolohea ranked behind him ( 313 points ) , while Finland 's Antti Everi ranked ahead ( 366 points ) . The year 's gold medalist , Matthias Steiner , earned 461 points .
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= Some Enchanted Evening ( The Simpsons ) =
" Some Enchanted Evening " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 13 , 1990 . Although it was the first episode produced , it aired as the season finale due to significant animation problems . The episode is the last to feature the original opening sequence starting from " Bart the Genius " . After resolving a marital dilemma , Homer and Marge want to spend a night on the town so they need a babysitter to look after their children , so they hire Ms. Botz ( voiced by former Laverne & Shirley star Penny Marshall ) through a babysitting service . Ms. Botz is later revealed to be the " Babysitter Bandit " and after restraining the eldest children , she robs the family .
The episode features cultural references to such films as The Night of the Hunter and Psycho as well as a musical reference to A Star Is Born . It received mixed reception : some critics deemed it the best episode of the season while others regarded it as the weakest .
= = Plot = =
Marge is depressed that Homer takes her for granted . She calls Dr. Marvin Monroe 's radio call @-@ in therapy show and the doctor urges her to confront Homer , who hears the call on a radio at work , feels bad and wonders how to change the way Marge feels about him . He goes to Moe 's Tavern after work and , on Moe 's advice , brings home a single rose and a box of chocolates . Marge 's mood immediately softens , and Homer tells Marge he will take her to a dinner at a fancy restaurant , dancing , and spend a night at a motel .
Marge and Homer now need a babysitter and hire Ms. Botz through the local " Rubber Baby Buggy Bumper babysitting service " ( however , they have to call themselves the " Samsons " , since their kids have a rather bad reputation with the babysitting service , and are effectively blacklisted ) . On Marge 's advice , Ms. Botz puts Maggie to bed and has Bart and Lisa watch The Happy Little Elves . When Bart tries to suggest alternate viewing , Ms. Botz quickly puts him in his place because she dealt with troubled children like him before . After Ms. Botz leaves the room Bart tunes into a station airing America 's Most Armed and Dangerous ( a parody of America 's Most Wanted ) , which profiles a wanted burglar nicknamed " The Babysitter Bandit . " A mug shot of the suspect shows Bart and Lisa that Ms. Botz is " The Babysitter Bandit . " Ms. Botz enters the living room and realizes that her cover has been blown . Bart and Lisa try to hide , but she easily finds them , ties them up and forces them to watch The Happy Little Elves as she continues packing the family 's possessions into her suitcases . Maggie eventually wakes up and goes downstairs to discover that her siblings are tied up and watching TV . Maggie frees Bart and Lisa , and Bart is able to knock out Ms. Botz with a baseball bat .
After tying up Ms. Botz , the kids find all their telephones disabled ( which Ms. Botz had done earlier ) and go to a nearby payphone to alert the authorities . Meanwhile , Marge tries to call home to check up on the kids but because there is no answer , she and Homer decide to cancel their motel reservation and go home . They find Ms. Botz bound and gagged in front of the TV . Homer , thinking his children have gotten the best of another babysitter and unaware of her true identity , frees her and pays her handsomely . After advising Homer to keep both eyes on Bart , Ms. Botz makes a clean getaway , just seconds before the kids arrive with the police and news media to arrest her . As Bart tries to lead the police to the house , Homer attempts to berate him for his behavior towards Ms. Botz , only to be informed by a news reporter about Ms. Botz 's true identity and that he just freed her . Realizing his mistake , a humiliated Homer attempts to save face by claiming he fought Botz and she escaped , then warning her on camera never to show her face to him again . Later that night , Homer moans about his blunder on TV , but Marge cheers him up by saying that if he raised three children who can hogtie a perfect stranger , he must be doing something right .
= = Production = =
Even though this episode aired as the last episode of the first season , it was the first episode in production and was intended to be the first episode to air from the half @-@ hour show . The series is a spin @-@ off from The Tracey Ullman Show in which the family already appeared in a series of animated one @-@ minute shorts . The characters were already created , but had to be further developed in order to carry a half @-@ hour show . The episode was therefore meant as an introduction to the characters . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening and writer / producer Sam Simon ( of such television series as Cheers ) wrote the script for the episode . Both Groening and Simon are credited with developing the series along with executive producer James L. Brooks . The name of Ms. Botz was based on a real person that once babysat Matt Groening .
The episode was first directed by Kent Butterworth . Klasky @-@ Csupo , the animation studio that produced the earlier Simpsons shorts , was in charge of the animation , with one exception . During the years of producing the shorts , everything was created in @-@ house . As a budgetary consideration production was subcontracted to South Korean animation studio AKOM . While character and background layout was done in Los Angeles , inbetweening , coloring and filming is done by the overseas studio . A debacle erupted when this episode , the first to return from Korea , was screened in front of the production staff at the Gracie Films bungalow . Brooks ' initial reaction to the animation was " This is shit . " Afterwards the room almost cleared . A heated argument ensued between Brooks and Klasky @-@ Csupo animation studio head Gabor Csupo , who denied that there was anything wrong with the animation and suggested that the real problem was the quality of the show 's writing .
The producers felt the animation did not exhibit a distinct style envisioned for the show . At the time there were only a few choices for animation style . Usually , they would follow the style of either Disney , Warner Bros. , or Hanna @-@ Barbera . Disney and Warner Bros. cartoons had a universe that was bendy and the characters seemed to be made of rubber . The producers wanted a realistic environment in which the characters and objects could not do anything that was not possible in the real world . One example with the early animation being cartoonish was that the doors behaved liked rubber when slammed . The style of Hanna @-@ Barbera featured the use of cartoon sounds , which they did not want either .
The producers considered aborting the series if the next episode , " Bart the Genius " , turned out as this episode , but fortunately it turned out to suffer only a few , easily fixable problems . Afterwards , the producers entreated Fox to postpone the series premiere for several months . The premiere then switched to " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , which had to be aired in December , being a Christmas special . This ensured that more time could be spent fixing the animation problems and rewriting much of this episode . Directorial retakes were handled by David Silverman , who already had considerable experience directing the shorts . Silverman estimates that about 70 % of everything had to be redone . Most of these retakes consisted of changing the backgrounds . The result is an episode where the animation is uneven , because it shifts between the early animation and the retakes . It is still possible to see the doors slam like they were made of rubber . The Fox censors wanted to replace the sentence " the blue thing with the things " , which they believed to be too sexual . Due to the fledgling position of the Fox network , Jim Brooks had obtained an unusual contractual provision that ensured the network could not interfere with the creative process by providing show notes , so the producers simply ignored the censors .
The episode featured a few early character designs . Moe Szyslak has black hair in this episode , which was later changed to grey . Barney Gumble has yellow hair , which was later changed to brown in order to differentiate the character 's hair color from that of his skin . Because of the delayed airing , there are also a few continuity errors . Santa 's Little Helper for example does not appear in this episode , despite being introduced in " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . Hank Azaria was at the time credited as a guest star for portraying Moe Szyslak . In this episode Moe was originally voiced by Christopher Collins , but when Azaria came with his version , they decided to overdub Collins ' voice . Azaria became a regular cast member in the second season .
= = Cultural references = =
Ms. Botz 's pursuit of Bart into the cellar is reminiscent of Robert Mitchum 's pursuit of a young boy in the film The Night of the Hunter . Moe 's Tavern plays " The Man That Got Away " from the 1954 remake of A Star Is Born directed by George Cukor and starring Judy Garland and James Mason . Homer hums a song from La Dolce Vita ( Patricia ) as he shaves . The song also plays as Homer and Marge dance in the French restaurant . The babysitting service 's name , " Rubber Baby Buggy Bumper " is a line from one of the Tom Slick series of cartoons produced by Jay Ward .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Some Enchanted Evening " finished 12th for the week in the Nielsen ratings with a rating of 15 @.@ 4 , being seen by approximately 14 @.@ 2 million homes . Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said : " It 's quite a shock to discover that this confident , fully rounded episode was the first to be made . The perfect template . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that he " thought “ Evening ” was a reasonably good episode . " and added that " Still , it ’ s an awkward piece , and not one I enjoyed a great deal . To be sure , “ Evening ” was generally entertaining , but it ’ s nothing special . " In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 1 @.@ 5 / 5 . Another DVD review from The Digital Bits calls the behind the scenes story more interesting than the actual episode .
According to Al Jean , viewers thought this episode was the best episode of the first season after the season ended . However in 2006 , IGN.com named " The Crepes of Wrath " the best episode of the first season . Penny Marshall , who played Ms. Botz , ranked on AOL 's list of their favorite 25 Simpsons guest stars .
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= Standing Liberty quarter =
The Standing Liberty quarter was a 25 @-@ cent coin struck by the United States Mint from 1916 to 1930 . It succeeded the Barber quarter , which had been minted since 1892 . Featuring the goddess of Liberty on one side and an eagle in flight on the other , the coin was designed by sculptor Hermon Atkins MacNeil .
In 1915 , Director of the Mint Robert W. Woolley set in motion efforts to replace the Barber dime , quarter , and half dollar , as he mistakenly believed that the law required new designs . MacNeil submitted a militaristic design that showed Liberty on guard against attacks . The Mint required modifications to the initial design , and MacNeil 's revised version included dolphins to represent the oceans . In late 1916 , Mint officials made major changes to the design without consulting MacNeil . The sculptor complained about the changes after receiving the new issue in January 1917 . The Mint obtained special legislation to allow MacNeil to redesign the coin as he desired . One change made by the sculptor was the addition of a chain mail vest that covered Liberty 's formerly bare breast .
In circulation , the coin 's date wore away quickly , and Mint engravers modified the design to address the issue in 1925 . The Standing Liberty quarter was discontinued in 1931 , a year in which no quarters were struck . By Congressional act the Washington quarter , featuring the first president 's profile was introduced in 1932 to celebrate the bicentennial of his birth .
= = Inception = =
On September 26 , 1890 , the United States Congress passed an act providing :
The Director of the Mint shall have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to cause new designs ... to be prepared and adopted ... But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design ... But the Director of the Mint shall nevertheless have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to engage temporarily the services of one or more artists , distinguished in their respective departments of art , who shall be paid for such service from the contingent appropriation for the mint at Philadelphia .
The Barber coinage had been introduced in 1892 ; dimes , quarter dollars , and half dollars with similar designs by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber . The Barber coinage , after its release , attracted considerable public dissatisfaction . Beginning in 1905 , successive presidential administrations had attempted to bring modern , beautiful designs to United States coins . Following the redesign of the double eagle , eagle , half eagle and quarter eagle in 1907 and 1908 , as well as the cent and nickel redesigns of 1909 and 1913 respectively , advocates of replacing the Barber coins began to push for the change when the coins ' minimum term expired in 1916 . As early as 1914 , Victor David Brenner , designer of the Lincoln cent , submitted unsolicited designs for the silver coins . He was told , in response , that Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo was completely occupied with other matters .
On January 2 , 1915 , an interview with Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce appeared in the Michigan Manufacturer and Financial Record :
So far as I know ... there is no thought of issuing new coins of the 50 @-@ cent , 25 @-@ cent , and 10 @-@ cent values . If , however , a change is made we all hope that more serviceable and satisfactory coins are produced than the recent Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagle and eagle and the Pratt half and quarter eagle . The buffalo nickel and the Lincoln penny are also faulty from a practical standpoint . All resulted from the desire by the government to mint coins to the satisfaction of artists and not practical coiners .
In January 1915 , Assistant Secretary of the Treasury William P. Malburn sent McAdoo a memorandum about the silver subsidiary coinage , noting that " the present silver half dollar , quarter , and dime were changed in 1892 , and a new design may , therefore , be adopted in 1916 . This can be done any time in the year . " In reply , McAdoo wrote " [ l ] et the mint submit designs before we try anyone else . " on the memorandum .
In April 1915 , Robert W. Woolley took office as Mint Director . On April 14 , he asked Superintendent Joyce to request Chief Engraver Barber , then in his 36th year in office , to prepare new designs . The same day , Malburn requested the opinion of the Treasury Department 's Solicitor concerning the Mint view that it could strike new designs for the three denominations in 1916 . On April 17 , the Solicitor 's Office responded that the Mint could change the designs . At the time , the Mint was intensely busy producing the Panama @-@ Pacific commemorative coin issue , and immediate action was not taken . In October , Barber was summoned to Washington to discuss coin designs with Woolley , though it is uncertain whether or not he had already prepared sketches for the new coinage .
On December 3 , Woolley met with the Commission of Fine Arts . Woolley asked the Commission to view sketches produced by the Mint 's engraving department . Barber was present to explain the coinage process to the Commission members . Woolley suggested to the members that if they did not like the Mint 's work , they should select sculptors to submit designs for the new pieces . It was Woolley 's intent to have distinct designs for the dime , quarter and half dollar — previously , the three pieces had been nearly identical . The director informed the Commission that as the existing coinage had been in use for 25 years , it would have to be changed — something which numismatic historian David Lange calls a " misinterpretation of the coinage laws " .
The Commission disliked the sketches from the Mint ( submitted by Barber ) and selected sculptors Adolph Weinman , Hermon MacNeil and Albin Polasek to submit proposals for the new coins . The sculptors could submit multiple sketches . Although the Mint could decide to use a design on a denomination not intended by its sculptor , the designs were not fully interchangeable — by statute , an eagle had to appear on the reverse of the quarter and half dollar , but could not appear on the dime . Woolley hoped that each sculptor would be successful with one piece .
The three sculptors submitted design sketches in mid @-@ February , and on February 23 met with Woolley in New York so the artists could make presentations of the work to him and answer his questions . After discussions between Woolley and McAdoo , Weinman was notified on February 28 that five of his sketches had been selected — for the dime and half dollar , and the reverse of the quarter . The same day , Woolley wrote to MacNeil to tell him he would sculpt the quarter 's obverse , and to Polasek to inform him of his lack of success . Members of the Commission persuaded Woolley that so much should not be entrusted to a single artist , and MacNeil was allowed to design both sides of the quarter , subject to the sculptor producing a design satisfactory to Woolley .
On March 3 , the new coins were publicly announced , with the Treasury noting , " [ d ] esigns of these coins must be changed by law every 25 years and the present 25 year period ends with 1916 . " The press release indicated that the Treasury hoped production of the new coins would begin in about two months , once the designs were finalized . The same day , Woolley wrote to Mint Engraver Barber , telling him that his sketches were rejected , and that models from Weinman and MacNeil would arrive at the Philadelphia Mint no later than May 1 . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Barber became " sullen and totally uncooperative " . Lange notes that " numerous delays were encountered as the artists fine @-@ tuned their models while simultaneously avoiding obstacles thrown in their path by Barber . While his observations regarding many aspects of practical coinage were quite accurate , they clearly could have been presented in a more constructive manner . " In his book on Mercury dimes , Lange notes that Barber , by then aged 75 , had been " compelled over the past ten years to participate in the systematic undoing of a lifetime 's achievements " ; he had to participate in the process which resulted in coins designed by others replacing ones designed by him .
With the new pieces , all American coins would have had a recent change of design ( the Morgan dollar was not then being struck . ) According to a column in The Art World magazine later in 1916 @,@
Since that day [ the 19th century ] much artistic progress has taken place in our coinage . Sculptors of reputation have been employed with admirable results ... And now we are to have a new half dollar and a new dime by Weinman and a new quarter by McNeill [ sic ] . Altogether , in the retrospect , it seems an incredible achievement .
= = Design = =
The identity of the model for the obverse of the quarter is uncertain . As early as May 1917 , the model for the depiction of Liberty was reported to be Doris Doscher , who would later become a silent film actress under the name Doris Doree . This was accepted for many years . Doscher became well known as " the girl on the quarter " ; she died in 1970 at age 88 . In 1972 , however , a quarter @-@ century after MacNeil 's death , newspapers reported that the actual model was Broadway actress Irene MacDowell , then aged 92 ( she died the following year ) whose name was said to have been concealed because her husband ( one of MacNeil 's tennis partners ) disapproved . In an article in the December 2003 edition of The Numismatist , Timothy B. Benford Jr. suggests that the supposed deception was to fool MacNeil 's wife , who saw MacDowell as a potential romantic rival . In 1982 , however , Doscher 's widower stated that despite the MacDowell claim , his wife had posed for the quarter .
MacNeil submitted two designs for the obverse , the one which was successful and another , showing a standing Liberty facing right , which he would later resubmit in modified form in the Peace dollar design competition of 1921 , again unsuccessfully . In the rejected design , MacNeil 's Liberty leans forward , an olive branch extended in her left hand , but her right hand holding the hilt of a broadsword . According to Burdette , the design was intended to send a message to the belligerents in World War I that America wanted peace , but was ready to fight .
MacNeil 's accepted obverse is only slightly less militaristic ; his Liberty faces to the viewer 's right ( heraldic east ) in the direction of the European war , and her shield faces in that direction as well . She holds an olive branch as she strides through a gate in a wall which is inscribed , " In God We Trust " , with the " U " in " Trust " shaped as a V. MacNeil stated that the obverse depicted Liberty " stepping forward in ... the defense of peace as her ultimate goal " . According to art historian Cornelius Vermeule , " Liberty is presented as the Athena of the Parthenon pediments , a powerful woman striding forward " and states that , but for the Stars and Stripes on her shield , " everything else about this Amazon calls to mind Greek sculpture of the period between Pheidias to Praxiteles , 450 to 350 BC . "
Vermeule suggested that the flying eagle on the reverse is simply that of the 1836 Gobrecht dollar , seen flying from left to right instead of the opposite way , as on the earlier piece . He applauded the 1917 change to the reverse , feeling that it made it less cluttered . Vermeule noted that the reverse marked the beginning of the end ( at least for that era ) for naturalistic depictions of eagles on US coins , stating in 1970 that those after 1921 tended to present a heraldic appearance instead .
= = Preparation = =
In a letter to Woolley , MacNeil had promised to " try and produce something that shall be of use to you " . The sculptor had been awarded the reverse of the quarter only provisionally , and he prepared a series of studies for the reverse to show Woolley when he visited his studio in College Point , New York . At that time , Woolley selected a reverse similar to that eventually coined , showing an eagle in flight , wings extended and shown almost in full . Other designs which were shown to Woolley included similar eagle designs , but from different angles .
The Mint 's original schedule called for the designers of the three new coins to complete their models by April 15 , 1916 . This would allow production of the new pieces to begin about July 1 . However , the Mint quickly revised the submission deadline to May 1 ; this proved optimistic as MacNeil did not submit his models , in the form of bronze casts , until May 18 . Even so , he was faster than Weinman , who did not ship the last of his casts to the Mint until June 6 . Woolley formally approved the designs for the quarter by letter dated May 23 , 1916 . Despite the delays , the Mint attempted to meet the July 1 start date .
On June 21 , Woolley wrote to Superintendent Joyce ,
The model of the obverse on the half dollar will have to be made over and Mr. Weinman informs me he is now at work on it . The same is true of the quarter dollar . The reverse of both the quarter dollar and the half dollar , as shown on the coins struck from the polished dies , are satisfactory ... Everyone to whom the coins have been shown here thinks they are beautiful .
No records of Woolley 's objections to the quarter 's obverse are known to exist , but numismatic author Roger Burdette suggests that his major concern was that when experimental pattern coins were struck in June , the obverse was indistinct , making even brand new coins appear worn . MacNeil was given permission to do further work on his design by Woolley in late June , and in mid @-@ August turned in a revised obverse different in detail from the original . " In God We Trust " was displayed on the sash which Liberty holds , a complex chain motif surrounded the design , and two dolphins , emblematic of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans , lay at Liberty 's feet . Liberty 's shield bore an eagle , rather than the Stars and Stripes . Treasury Secretary McAdoo immediately approved the design changes , acting on August 19 .
On July 18 , Woolley wrote to a numismatic enquirer that the new quarters would begin to be struck about September 1 . By the time of that letter , he had resigned as Mint Director to become head of publicity for President Wilson 's reelection campaign ; Fred H. Chaffin became acting director . On August 18 , Wilson nominated Woolley 's successor , Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken , who was promptly confirmed by the Senate . Von Engelken was supposed to be sworn in on the 21st ; his swearing in was delayed until September 1 by President Wilson 's failure to sign his commission . One of von Engelken 's first acts as Mint Director was to inform MacNeil of McAdoo 's acceptance of the design changes , telling him he could place his monogram ( a small " M " ) on the coin ; it appears on the wall , to the right of the two low steps which Liberty descends . The bronze casts were made by the Medallic Art Company ; on September 6 , MacNeil wrote to von Engelken that they would shortly be shipped to the Philadelphia Mint .
By this time , the Mint had experienced considerable difficulties in initiating production of both the dime and half dollar . In the hope of heading off similar problems with the quarter , Mint officials decided to reexamine MacNeil 's designs , and subsequently , to adjust them . A number of pattern coins were struck , and von Engelken decided to abandon the dolphins version . By mid @-@ October , patterns with a modified version of MacNeil 's original obverse were being struck . On the reverse , the eagle was lowered in position , and a pair of olive branches framing the eagle was replaced by stars . According to Burdette , by making major changes in the design without consulting the designer , Mint officials had " duplicated design versions already rejected by MacNeil , wasted government time , alienated one of the country 's best sculptors , and flagrantly bastardized artistic creativity . "
MacNeil , who had no idea the Mint was changing his designs , requested permission to visit the Mint on October 24 to discuss the conversion of his approved models into actual coins . Chaffin ( again briefly acting director in von Engelken 's absence ) declined to pay for his journey , and MacNeil did not come . According to Burdette , " the action saved the government less than $ 20 in October , but may have cost many times that amount before the revised quarter design was accepted the following year . " Von Engelken viewed sample coins about that time . He objected to two leaves of the olive branch on the obverse that lay within the angle of the " L " in " Liberty " and asked that they be removed ; this was done . The Mint Director then met with Secretary McAdoo to view coins struck from the modified dies . McAdoo felt that the figure of Liberty was indistinct , but von Engelken persuaded him that could not be changed without considerable delay . They did decide that the Mint could make the shield clearer , and approved the design with that instruction . Feeling it was impossible to make the change in time to strike coins in 1916 , von Engelken instructed Joyce that beginning in 1917 , the figure of Liberty should be sharpened . By the time dies were finally made , the year 1916 was almost over , and only 52 @,@ 000 quarters were struck . This was done as proof that the Barber design had been replaced in the 25th year , as Mint officials believed was required .
= = Modification = =
Throughout late 1916 , the Mint was intensely busy first sharpening the design to be used in 1917 , and then in large @-@ scale preparation of dies to begin striking the new quarters on a massive scale once the new year began . Small change was in great demand : Mint officials had hoped not to strike any Barber pieces in 1916 , but eventually had to do so in large quantities to satisfy the need . Once new quarters were struck , fearing the new pieces would be hoarded ( especially the low @-@ mintage 1916 coin ) , von Engelken instructed that no pieces be released without his order . Small quantities of the new quarters were available , however , to officials and to prominent numismatists . MacNeil , who had not heard from the Mint about his coins since the formal acceptance of his dolphin design , read in the newspaper in early January that the Mint was starting to strike his quarters . He wrote to von Engelken on January 6 , enclosing a $ 5 money order , and was sent 20 of the new pieces . After seeing what the Mint had done to his designs , MacNeil wrote again to von Engelken , criticizing the artistic nature of the changes in such strong terms that the Mint Director continued his embargo on the coins ' release . The sculptor pointed out , for example , that the lower position of the eagle made it appear about to land — with its talons in a position only assumed at great heights . Von Engelken feared that should the sculptor 's objections become public and not be addressed , the Mint would be exposed to ridicule . MacNeil visited the Philadelphia Mint and its engraving department on January 10 . No records of his visit are extant , but von Engelken telephoned from Washington to Philadelphia the same day to ensure that the new quarters did not leave the Mint .
After receiving MacNeil 's letter , von Engelken conferred with sculptor and Commission of Fine Arts member Herbert Adams , and with Commission Chairman Charles Moore . Von Engelken agreed that the design of the quarter could be modified to meet MacNeil 's wishes . Although no correspondence is known to exist , it appears that the Mint Director and sculptor spoke by telephone over the next several days , as on January 17 , von Engelken sent Secretary McAdoo a letter asking for discretion to allow MacNeil to modify the design . McAdoo summoned MacNeil to Washington for a meeting , and then ordered von Engelken to provide MacNeil with all the facilities and help he would need at the Philadelphia Mint — von Engelken had intended that the redesign take place at the sculptor 's expense . On January 17 , the Mint released the first Standing Liberty quarters , dated both 1916 and 1917 , into circulation . On January 30 , 1917 , von Engelken instructed Joyce to give MacNeil full facilities , and told the Mint Superintendent , " see that Mr. Barber keeps his objections to himself while Mr. MacNeil is there " . George T. Morgan , who had worked under Barber for the Engraver 's entire 37 @-@ year tenure , was assigned to assist MacNeil .
MacNeil hoped to take what he considered to be the best elements of the two versions of the obverse which had been accepted by the Mint the previous year . The figure of Liberty would be taken from the second version ; all other elements would come from the first . No change was to be made to Liberty 's bare right breast , but the dolphins would not regain their place . However , Morgan proved unable , given engraving technology at the time , to combine the two obverses , meaning the coin would have to be entirely redone by MacNeil . His new version , completed in mid @-@ February , for the first time covered Liberty 's breast , giving her a chain mail shirt . Burdette suggests that this change was not unusual for MacNeil , who was increasingly cladding female figures in garments which covered their breasts , as with his statue Intellectual Development , sculpted around that time , and also reflected the deterioration of the international situation in February 1917 , as the United States moved towards war with Germany . The reverse saw modifications to the eagle , which was raised in its position on the coin ; three of the thirteen stars on the reverse were placed between the bird and the words " Quarter Dollar " . Also a dot between the words " QUARTER DOLLAR " and between the words " UNITED STATES " was removed .
The redesign of the obverse has led to an enduring myth that the breast was covered up out of prudishness , or in response to public outcry . Breen stated that " through their Society for the Suppression of Vice , the guardians of prudery at once began exerting political pressure on the Treasury Department to revoke authorization for these ' immoral ' coins " . Ron Guth and Jeff Garrett , in their book on US coins by type , aver that the covering up of Liberty was " a change never authorized by MacNeil " . Numismatic historian David Lange concedes that there is no evidence of outcry from the public , but suggests that the decision to change the coin was " more likely prompted by objections from the Treasury Department " . Numismatist Ray Young , in his 1979 article in Coins magazine about the quarter , suggested that the redesign " came from the symbolism . If Liberty was going to stand up to her foes , she should do so fully @-@ protected — not ' naked to her enemies . ' Thus the war probably had much more to do with the change than any alleged ' public indignation . ' "
Von Engelken had wanted to be president of the Federal Land Bank for the Third District . He was appointed to that post on February 8 , 1917 , but remained as Mint Director until February 20 ; his successor , Raymond T. Baker was nominated on February 10 . Work on the new quarter was briefly interrupted by the death of Chief Engraver Barber at the age of 77 on February 18 . One of von Engelken 's final acts in office was to recommend the appointment of Barber 's successor , Morgan , who was subsequently nominated by Wilson and confirmed by the Senate .
Upon taking office in February 1917 , Baker familiarized himself with the redesign of the quarter . After conferring with other Treasury officials , he decided that the redesign would be in violation of the 1890 act , and would require legislation from Congress . McAdoo concurred , and wrote to Representative William A. Ashbrook ( Democrat @-@ Ohio ) on April 16 , 1917 . Ashbrook was not only chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures , he was a noted coin collector . McAdoo explained the need for the redesign , " since the original dies were made the artist has found that they are not true to the original design and that a great improvement can be made in the artistic value and appearance of the coin by making the slight changes the act contemplates " .
Legislation to authorize a change was debated in the Senate on April 30 , 1917 ; Oklahoma Senator Robert L. Owen represented that the change was needed because the coins would not stack . Wyoming Senator Francis E. Warren complained that the Mint had needed legislation to adjust coin designs in the past and it would be simpler if officials would ensure that coins would stack before releasing them into circulation . Nevertheless , the bill passed . The matter was brought up in the House of Representatives on June 25 , led by Congressman Ashbrook , who told his colleagues both that the issued design was not true to the artist 's concept , and that the coins would not stack well . Debate in the House focused on the fact that the legislation gave the Mint until July 1918 to effect the change as Ashbrook had stated that the Mint , having prepared the new design , was only waiting for the bill to pass to commence production . One congressman offered an amendment to change the date to 1917 , and others spoke in favor of that , but they desisted when they realized that making a change would require the Senate to act again . The bill passed the House , and became law on July 9 , 1917 . In August , MacNeil wrote to Joyce requesting samples of the revised coin and expressing his pleasure it was being struck according to his design .
= = Production and collecting = =
The Standing Liberty quarter was struck at the Philadelphia Mint from 1916 to 1930 with the exception only of 1922 , when no quarters were struck at any mint . It was produced less regularly at Denver and San Francisco beginning in 1917 . The mint mark " D " for Denver or " S " for San Francisco may be found at the base of the wall , just to the left of Liberty 's visible foot . While the key date in the series is the 1916 with a mintage of 52 @,@ 000 ( it catalogs for $ 3 @,@ 250 even in worn Good @-@ 4 condition ) , the 1921 issue from Philadelphia and the 1923 struck at San Francisco ( 1923 @-@ S ) are also expensive , with costs in the hundreds of dollars even for a circulated specimen . The Standing Liberty quarter is the only 20th @-@ century regular issue U.S. coin for which no proof coins were struck . However , a handful of specimen examples of the 1917 Type 1 issue ( that is , the coins struck early in 1917 before MacNeil revised the design ) exist . Breen reported six known , all with exceptionally sharp central details .
It had long been a practice at the Mint to recut unused dies at the end of the year to show the following year 's date . During the 18th and 19th centuries , die cutting was difficult and expensive . As making dies became cheaper and easier , the practice mostly died out around the turn of the 20th century . However , a 1917 @-@ S Type 2 die , unused by the San Francisco Mint , was recut and used to strike several thousand 1918 @-@ S quarters . Few are known , and the coins command prices in the low thousands even in well @-@ circulated conditions .
By late 1924 , Mint officials realized there was a problem with the quarter in circulation . Quarters were returning to the Mint with the date completely worn off . Unwilling to seek another act of Congress , Mint officials made the step on which the date appears recessed into the design , rather than raised from it . This change solved the problem ; quarters from 1925 and after are more common and cheaper in lower grades as they have survived with their dates intact . This action was among the last acts of the Engraver 's Department under Morgan , who died on January 4 , 1925 and was succeeded by John R. Sinnock . The modification meant that the 1927 @-@ S , with a mintage of 396 @,@ 000 is much cheaper in circulated grades than the 1923 @-@ S , with a mintage of 1 @,@ 360 @,@ 000 , though the 1927 @-@ S is more expensive in uncirculated grades .
No quarters were struck in 1931 ; there was no call for them in commerce due to the Depression . Since 1930 , there had been an effort among those organizing the commemoration of the bicentennial of George Washington 's 1732 birth to seek a Washington half dollar , to be struck as the regular issue for 1932 . When a bill for a Washington commemorative was introduced to Congress in February 1931 , it changed the quarter rather than the half dollar . While the reasons for the change were not recorded , the House Coinage Committee issued a memorandum stating that " the new design would replace the present type of quarter dollar " , was on " a popular denomination " and " would replace an unsatisfactory design now being issued " . Congress passed the act on March 4 , 1931 , and the new Washington quarter began to be struck in 1932 , ending the Standing Liberty series . Nevertheless , many Standing Liberty quarters remained in circulation until silver coins began to be hoarded by the public in 1964 , prompting the change to base @-@ metal pieces .
The United States Mint in 2015 announced plans to restrike for collectors , in gold , the three silver coins first issued in 1916 . The quarter will have its weight and fineness inscribed on the obverse . The quarter is to be the original 1916 , with the bared breast .
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= Square Enix =
Square Enix Holdings Co . , Ltd . ( 株式会社スクウェア ・ エニックス ・ ホールディングス , Kabushiki @-@ gaisha Sukuwea Enikkusu Hōrudingusu ) is a Japanese video game developer , publisher , and distribution company that is best known for its role @-@ playing video game franchises , which include Final Fantasy , Dragon Quest , and Kingdom Hearts . Several of its franchises have sold over 10 million copies , with the Final Fantasy franchise selling over 100 million , and the company as a whole made over ¥ 150 billion in revenue in fiscal year 2014 . The Square Enix headquarters are in the Shinjuku Eastside Square Building in Shinjuku , Tokyo , and the company employs over 3800 employees worldwide .
The original Square Enix Co . , Ltd. was formed as the result of a merger between Square Co . , Ltd. and Enix Corporation on April 1 , 2003 . Each share of Square 's common stock was exchanged for 0 @.@ 85 shares of Enix 's common stock . At the time , 80 % of Square Enix staff were made up of former Square employees . As part of the merger , former Square president Yoichi Wada was appointed president of the new corporation , while former Enix president Keiji Honda was named its vice president , and the founder of Enix , Yasuhiro Fukushima , the largest shareholder of the combined corporation , became its honorary chairman .
The company owns Taito , best known for arcade games such as Space Invaders , Bubble Bobble and Bust @-@ a @-@ Move , and game publisher Eidos Interactive , which has been absorbed into Square Enix Europe . Square Enix now publishes all of Eidos 's intellectual property and runs Eidos 's development studios . Eidos was most well known for publishing the Tomb Raider , Hitman , Deus Ex , Legacy of Kain , and Thief series of games .
= = Corporate history = =
= = = Square = = =
Square was founded in Yokohama in September 1983 by Masashi Miyamoto after he graduated from Waseda , one of Japan 's top universities . At that time , Square was a computer game software division of Den @-@ Yu @-@ Sha , a power line construction company owned by Miyamoto 's father . While at the time game development was usually conducted by only one programmer , Miyamoto believed that it would be more efficient to have graphic designers , programmers and professional story writers working together on common projects . In September 1986 , Square spun off from Den @-@ Yu @-@ Sha and became an independent company officially named Square Co . , Ltd . After releasing several unsuccessful games for the Famicom , Square relocated to Ueno , Tokyo in 1987 and developed a role @-@ playing video game titled Final Fantasy , which was inspired by Enix 's success in the genre with Dragon Quest ( released in North America as Dragon Warrior until 2005 ) . With 400 @,@ 000 copies sold , Final Fantasy spawned multiple sequels over the years and became Square 's main franchise .
Buoyed by the success of their Final Fantasy franchise , Square developed many other widely known games such as Chrono Trigger , Chrono Cross , Secret of Mana , Legend of Mana , Xenogears , Brave Fencer Musashi , Parasite Eve , Parasite Eve 2 , Saga Frontier , Romancing Saga , Vagrant Story , Kingdom Hearts ( done in collaboration with Disney Interactive ) , and Super Mario RPG ( done under the guidance of Shigeru Miyamoto ) . By late 1994 they had developed a reputation as a producer of high quality role @-@ playing video games ( RPGs ) . Square was one of the many companies that had planned to develop and publish their games for the Nintendo 64 , but with the cheaper costs associated with developing games on CD @-@ based consoles such as the Sega Saturn and the Sony PlayStation , Square decided to develop titles for the latter system . Final Fantasy VII was one of these games , and it sold 9 @.@ 8 million copies , making it the second @-@ best @-@ selling game for the PlayStation .
= = = Enix = = =
Enix was founded on September 22 , 1975 as Eidansha Boshu Service Center by Japanese architect @-@ turned @-@ entrepreneur Yasuhiro Fukushima . Enix focused on publishing games , often by companies who exclusively partnered with the company , and is perhaps most famous for publishing the Dragon Quest series of console games developed by Chunsoft . Key members of the developer 's staff consisted of director Koichi Nakamura , writer Yuuji Horii , artist Akira Toriyama , and composer Koichi Sugiyama , among others . The first game in the Famicom @-@ based RPG series was released in 1986 , and would eventually sell 1 @.@ 5 million copies in Japan , establishing Dragon Quest as the company 's most profitable franchise . Despite the announcement that Enix 's long @-@ time competitor Square would develop exclusively for Sony PlayStation , Enix announced in January 1997 that it would release games for both Nintendo and Sony consoles . This caused a significant rise in stock for both Enix and Sony . By November 1999 , Enix was listed in the Tokyo Stock Exchange 's 1st section , indicating it as a " large company " .
= = = Merger = = =
A merger between Square and Enix was in consideration since at least 2000 ; however , the financial failure in 2001 of Square 's first movie , Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within , made Enix reluctant to proceed while Square was losing money . With the company facing its second year of financial losses , Square approached Sony for a capital injection and on October 8 , 2001 , Sony Corp purchased 18 @.@ 6 % stake in Square . Following the success of both Final Fantasy X and Kingdom Hearts , the company 's finances stabilized , and it recorded the highest operating margin in its history in fiscal year 2002 . It was announced on November 25 , 2002 , that Square and Enix 's previous plans to merge were to officially proceed , with the goal to mutually decrease development costs and to compete with foreign developers . As described by Yoichi Wada , Square 's president and CEO : " Square has also fully recovered , meaning this merger is occurring at a time when both companies are at their height . "
Some shareholders expressed concerns about the merger , notably Square 's original founder and largest shareholder , Masashi Miyamoto , who would find himself holding a significantly smaller percentage of the combined companies . Other criticism came from Takashi Oya of Deutsche Securities who expressed doubts about the benefits of such a merger : " Enix outsources game development and has few in @-@ house creators , while Square does everything by itself . The combination of the two provides no negative factors but would bring little in the way of operational synergies . " Miyamoto 's concerns were eventually resolved by altering the exchange ratio of the merger so that each Square share would be exchanged for 0 @.@ 85 Enix shares rather than 0 @.@ 81 shares , and the merger was greenlit . The merger was set for April 1 , 2003 , on which date the newly merged entity Square Enix came into being . At the time of the merger , 80 % of Square Enix staff were made up of former Square employees . As part of the merger , former Square president Yoichi Wada was appointed president of the new corporation , while former Enix president Keiji Honda became its vice president . The founder of Enix and the largest shareholder of the newly combined corporation , Yasuhiro Fukushima , was made its honorary chairman . In July of that year , the Square Enix headquarters were moved to Yoyogi , Shibuya , Tokyo , as part of the process of combining the two companies .
= = = Acquisitions and subsidiaries = = =
Since its foundation , Square Enix has acquired a number of companies , as well as creating several subsidiary companies . To strengthen its wireless market , Square Enix acquired mobile application developer UIEvolution in March 2004 , though it was sold in December 2007 , and the company instead founded its own Square Enix MobileStudio in January 2008 to focus on mobile products . In January 2005 Square Enix founded Square Enix China , expanding their interests in the People 's Republic of China . In September of that year Square Enix bought the gaming developer and publisher Taito , renowned for their arcade hits such as Space Invaders and the Bubble Bobble series ; Taito 's home and portable console games divisions were merged into Square Enix itself by March 2010 . In August 2008 , Square Enix made plans for a similar expansion by way of a friendly takeover of video game developer Tecmo by purchasing shares at a 30 percent premium , but Tecmo rejected the proposed takeover . Instead , in February 2009 , Square Enix announced a takeover deal for Eidos plc , the holding company for Eidos Interactive , the UK @-@ based publisher of the Tomb Raider , Hitman , Deus Ex , Thief and Legacy of Kain franchises , along with its multiple subsidiary development studios which developed the games . The acquisition of Eidos was completed in April 2009 , and in November the publisher was merged with Square Enix 's European publishing organization to form Square Enix Europe . In March 2011 Square Enix founded another mobile development studio , Hippos Lab , followed by another in 2012 , Square Enix Montreal . A third mobile studio was founded in Indonesia in June 2013 , Smileworks , but was closed in January 2015 . The latest subsidary company to be created was Shinra Technologies , a cloud gaming company , but it was only in existence from September 2014 to January 2016 . In 2015 , Square created a new studio known as Tokyo RPG Factory to develop what was then dubbed Project Setsuna .
= = Corporate structure = =
On October 1 , 2008 , Square Enix transformed into a holding company and was renamed to Square Enix Holdings . At the same time the gaming , contents and publishing businesses were transferred to a spin @-@ off named Square Enix , sharing the same corporate leadership and offices with the holding . The primary offices for Square Enix and Square Enix Holdings are in the Shinjuku Eastside Square Building in Shinjuku , Tokyo .
= = = Development organization = = =
After the merger in 2003 , Square Enix 's development department was organized into eight Square and two Enix Product Development Divisions ( 開発事業部 , kaihatsu jigyōbu ) , each focused on different groupings of games . The divisions were spread around different offices ; for example , Product Development Division 5 had offices both in Osaka and Tokyo .
According to Yoichi Wada , the development department was reorganized away from the Product Development Division System by March 2007 into a project @-@ based system . Until 2013 , the teams in charge of the Final Fantasy and Kingdom Hearts series were still collectively referred to as the 1st Production Department ( 第1制作部 , dai @-@ ichi seisakubu ) . The 1st Production Department was formed from the fall 2010 combination of Square Enix 's Tokyo and Osaka development studios , with Shinji Hashimoto as its corporate executive .
As of December 2013 , Square Enix 's development was restructured into several Business Divisions . The former Twitter account of the 1st Production Department is now used to distribute information on the games developed by Business Divisions 1 to 4 . Yoshinori Kitase is the Head of Business Division 1 , Hajime Tabata is the Head of Business Division 2 , Shinji Hashimoto is the Head of Business Division 3 , Ichiro Hazama is the Head of Business Division 4 and Naoki Yoshida is the Head of Business Division 5 @,@
= = = Business model = = =
The business model of Square Enix is centered on the idea of " polymorphic content " , which consists of developing franchises on multiple potential hardware or media rather than being restricted by a single gaming platform . An early example of this strategy is Enix 's Fullmetal Alchemist manga series , which has been adapted into two anime TV series , two movies , and several novels and video games . Other polymorphic projects include Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , Code Age , World of Mana , Ivalice Alliance and as of 2016 the ongoing Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy series . According to Yoichi Wada , " It 's very difficult to hit the jackpot , as it were . Once we 've hit it , we have to get all the juice possible out of it " . Similar to Sony 's Greatest Hits program , Square Enix also re @-@ releases their best selling games at a reduced price under a label designated " Ultimate Hits " .
The standard game design model Square Enix employs is to establish the plot , characters and art of the game first . Battle systems , field maps and cutscenes are created next . According to Taku Murata , this process became the company 's model for development after the success of Square 's Final Fantasy VII in 1997 . The team size for Final Fantasy XIII in 2012 peaked at 180 artists , 30 programmers , and 36 game designers , but analysis and restructuring were done to outsource large scale development in the future .
= = Properties = =
= = = Video games = = =
Square Enix 's main concentration is on video gaming , and it is primarily known for its role @-@ playing video game franchises . Of its properties , the Final Fantasy franchise , begun in 1987 , is the best @-@ selling , with a total worldwide sales of over 110 million units as of June 2014 . The Dragon Quest franchise , begun in 1986 , is also high @-@ selling ; it is considered one of the most popular game series in Japan and new installments regularly outsell other games at the times of their release , with a total worldwide sales of over 64 million units as of June 2014 . More recently , the Kingdom Hearts series ( developed in collaboration with Disney 's Buena Vista Games beginning in 2002 ) has become popular , with over 20 million units sold as of March 2014 . Other popular series developed by Square Enix include the SaGa series with nearly 10 million copies sold since 1989 , the Mana series with over 6 million sales since 1991 , and the Chrono series with over 5 million sold since 1995 . In addition to their sales numbers , many Square Enix games have been highly reviewed ; 27 Square Enix games were included in Famitsu magazine 's 2006 " Top 100 Games Ever " , with 7 in the top 10 and Final Fantasy X claiming the number 1 position . The company also won IGN 's award for Best Developer of 2006 for the PlayStation 2 .
Square and Enix initially targeted Nintendo home consoles with their games , but Square Enix currently develops games for a wide variety of systems . In the seventh generation of video game consoles , Square Enix released new installments from its major series across all three systems , including Final Fantasy XIII on both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and Dragon Quest X on the Wii . Square Enix has also developed titles for handheld game consoles , including the Game Boy Advance , Nintendo DS , PlayStation Portable , Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita . In addition , they have published games for Microsoft Windows @-@ based personal computers , and for various models of mobile phones and modern smartphones . Square Enix mobile phone games became available in 2004 on the Vodafone network in some European countries , including Germany , United Kingdom , Spain , and Italy .
Before its launch , Michihiro Sasaki , senior vice president of Square Enix , spoke about the PlayStation 3 , saying " We don 't want the PlayStation 3 to be the overwhelming loser , so we want to support them , but we don 't want them to be the overwhelming winner either , so we can 't support them too much . " Square Enix continued to reiterate their devotion to multi @-@ platform publishing in 2007 , promising more support for the North American and European gaming markets where console pluralism is generally more prevalent than in Japan . Their interest in multi @-@ platform development was made clear in 2008 when the previously PlayStation 3 @-@ exclusive game Final Fantasy XIII was announced for release on the Xbox 360 .
In 2008 , Square Enix released their first game for the iPod , Song Summoner : The Unsung Heroes . Square Enix made a new brand for younger children gaming that same year , known as Pure Dreams . Pure Dreams ' first two games , Snoopy DS : Let 's Go Meet Snoopy and His Friends ! and Pingu 's Wonderful Carnival were released that year . After acquiring Eidos in 2009 , Square Enix combined it with its European publishing wing to create Square Enix Europe , which continues to publish Eidos franchises such as Tomb Raider ( 45 million sales ) , Hitman ( 15 million ) , Deus Ex ( 4 million ) , Thief ( 2 @.@ 5 million ) and Legacy of Kain ( 3 @.@ 5 million ) . Square Enix has also served as the Japanese publisher for Ubisoft games since 2009 .
= = = Game engines = = =
Square Enix does not usually use other companies ' game engines , preferring to code from scratch . Square Enix has developed two notable in @-@ house game engines . In 2004 , Square Enix began to work on a " common 3D format " which would allow the entire company to develop titles without being restricted to a specific platform : this led to the creation of a game engine named Crystal Tools , which is compatible with the PlayStation 3 , the Xbox 360 , Windows @-@ based PCs and to some extent the Wii . It was first shown off at a tech demo shown off at E3 2005 , and was later used for Final Fantasy XIII based on the demo 's reception . Crystal Tools was also used for Final Fantasy Versus XIII before its re @-@ branding as Final Fantasy XV and shift onto next @-@ gen platforms . Refinement of the engine continued through the development of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , and it underwent a major overhaul for Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . No new titles have been announced for the engine , and it is believed that development of the engine has halted permanently in favor of the Square Enix Luminous Studio engine .
The second major in @-@ house engine is Luminous Studio , intended for eighth @-@ generation consoles , which was originally unveiled at E3 2012 through a tech demo titled Agni 's Philosophy . The first major console title to be developed with Luminous Studio was Final Fantasy XV ; the engine 's development was done in tandem with the game , and the game 's development helped the programming team optimize the engine .
In addition to their two major cross @-@ platform engines and the custom engines made for individual games and platforms before and since , Square Enix uses and continues to consider other companies ' engines and programming languages for their video game properties . Known examples are licensing Epic Games ' Unreal Engine in 2007 for use in The Last Remnant , and using the Squirrel language for the WiiWare title Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : My Life as a King .
= = = Online gaming = = =
Before the merger , Enix published its first online game Cross Gate in Japan , mainland China , and Taiwan in 2001 , and Square released Final Fantasy XI in Japan in 2002 for the PlayStation 2 and later the personal computer . With the huge success of Final Fantasy XI , the game was ported to the Xbox 360 two years later , and was the first MMORPG on the console . All versions of the game used PlayOnline , a cross @-@ platform internet gaming platform and internet service developed by Square Enix . The platform was used as the online service for many games Square Enix developed and published throughout the decade . Due to the success of their MMORPG , Square Enix began a new project called Fantasy Earth : The Ring of Dominion . GamePot , a Japanese game portal , got the license to publish Fantasy Earth in Japan and it was released in Japan as " Fantasy Earth ZERO . " In 2006 , however , Square Enix dropped the Fantasy Earth Zero project , and sold it to GamePot . Square Enix released Concerto Gate , the sequel to Cross Gate , in 2007 .
A next @-@ gen MMORPG code named Rapture was developed by the Final Fantasy XI team using the company 's Crystal Tools engine . It was unveiled at E3 2009 that the MMO , Final Fantasy XIV , for PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows , would be released on September 30 , 2010 . Dragon Quest X was announced in September 2011 as an MMORPG being developed for Nintendo 's Wii and Wii U consoles , which released on August 2 , 2012 , and March 30 , 2013 , respectively . Like XIV , it used Crystal Tools .
Square Enix also made browser games and Facebook games , like Legend World , Chocobo 's Crystal Tower and Knights of the Crystals , and online games for Yahoo ! Japan , such as Monster x Dragon , Sengoku Ixa , Bravely Default : Praying Brage , Star Galaxy and Crystal Conquest .
On May 8 , 2012 , Square Enix announced a collaboration with Bigpoint Games to create a free @-@ to @-@ play cloud gaming platform that " throws players into ' limitless game worlds ' directly through their web browser " . The service was launched under the name CoreOnline in August 2012 . Claiming " limited commercial take @-@ up " , the service was cancelled on November 29 , 2013 . Square Enix launched another online game service in Japan called Dive In on October 9 , 2014 that allowed players to stream console games to their iOS or Android devices . The service was monetized by the amount of time players spent playing , with each game offered for free for thirty minutes . The service was cancelled on September 13 , 2015 .
= = = Arcade = = =
With the merger of Taito businesses into Square Enix , the company gained possession of Taito 's arcade infrastructure and facilities , and entered the arcade market in 2005 . In 2010 Taito revealed NESiCAxLive , a cloud @-@ based system of storing games and changing them through the internet instead of acquiring physical copies . This system was added to its many arcade gaming locations . The company continues to cater to the arcade audience in Japan with arcade @-@ only titles , with game producers in 2015 stating that Square Enix as it has a loyal fan base that values the arcade gaming experience .
= = = Film = = =
The company has made two forays into the film industry . The first , Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within ( 2001 ) , was produced by Square subsidiary Square Pictures prior to the merger with Enix ; Square Pictures is now a consolidated subsidiary of Square Enix . Its box @-@ office failure caused Enix to delay the merger , which was already under consideration before the creation of the film , until Square became profitable once again . In 2005 , Square Enix released Final Fantasy VII Advent Children , a CGI @-@ animation movie based on the PlayStation game Final Fantasy VII , set two years after the events of the game . A Deus Ex film is currently in pre @-@ production and as of 2014 is undergoing rewrites . In 2016 Square Enix revealed a new movie called Kingsglaive : Final Fantasy XV based in the world of Final Fantasy XV and a new web series released on YouTube and Crunchyroll entitled Brotherhood : Final Fantasy XV .
= = = Manga = = =
The company has a manga publishing division in Japan ( originally from Enix ) called Gangan Comics , which publishes content for the Japanese market only . However , in 2010 , Square Enix launched a digital manga store for North American audiences via its Members services , which contains several notable series published in Gangan anthologies . Titles published by Gangan Comics include Fullmetal Alchemist , Soul Eater , and many others . Other titles include manga adaptations of various Square Enix games , like Dragon Quest , Kingdom Hearts and Star Ocean . Some of these titles have also been adapted into anime series . Fullmetal Alchemist is the most successful title of Square Enix 's manga branch , with more than 64 million volumes sold worldwide . It is licensed in North America by Viz Media , while its two anime adaptations are licensed by Funimation Entertainment in the United States .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Square Enix has created merchandise for virtually all of their video game franchises , though many items are available only in Japan . Square Enix 's former online gaming portal PlayOnline sold merchandise from game franchises including Parasite Eve , Vagrant Story , Chocobo Racing , Front Mission , Chrono Cross , and Final Fantasy . Mascots from game franchises are a popular focus for merchandise , such as the Chocobo from Final Fantasy which has been seen as a rubber duck , a plush baby Chocobo , and on coffee mugs . Square Enix also designed a Chocobo character costume for the release of Chocobo Tales . The Slime character from Dragon Quest has also been frequently used in Square Enix merchandise , especially in Japan . On the Japanese Square Enix shopping website there is also a Smile @-@ focused section called " Smile Slime " . Slime merchandise includes plush toys , pencil cases , keychains , game controllers , a stylus , and several boardgames including one titled Dragon Quest Slime Racing . In Japan , pork filled steam buns shaped like slimes have been sold . For Dragon Quest 's 25th anniversary , special items were sold including business cards , tote bags , and crystal figurines . Rabites from the Mana series have appeared in several pieces of Square Enix merchandise , including plush dolls , cushions , lighters , mouse pads , straps , telephone cards , and T @-@ shirts . Square Enix has also made merchandise for series they do not own , including figures Mass Effect and Halo .
= = Subsidiaries = =
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= English cuisine =
English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles , traditions and recipes associated with England . It has distinctive attributes of its own , but also shares much with wider British cuisine , partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from North America , China , and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post @-@ war immigration .
Traditional meals have ancient origins , such as bread and cheese , roasted and stewed meats , meat and game pies , boiled vegetables and broths , and freshwater and saltwater fish . The 14th @-@ century English cookbook , the Forme of Cury , contains recipes for these , and dates from the royal court of Richard II .
English cooking has been influenced by foreign ingredients and cooking styles since the Middle Ages . Curry was introduced from the Indian subcontinent and adapted to English tastes from the eighteenth century with Hannah Glasse 's recipe for chicken " currey " . French cuisine influenced English recipes throughout the Victorian era . After the rationing of the Second World War , Elizabeth David 's 1950 A Book of Mediterranean Food had wide influence , bringing Italian cuisine to English homes . Her success encouraged other cookery writers to describe other styles , including Chinese and Thai cuisine . England continues to absorb culinary ideas from all over the world .
= = History = =
= = = Middle Ages = = =
English cookery has developed over many centuries since at least the time of The Forme of Cury , written in the Middle Ages around 1390 in the reign of King Richard II . The book offers imaginative and sophisticated recipes , with spicy sweet and sour sauces thickened with bread or quantities of almonds boiled , peeled , dried and ground , and often served in pastry . Foods such as gingerbread are described . It was not at all , emphasises Clarissa Dickson Wright in her A History of English Food , a matter of large lumps of roast meat at every meal as imagined in Hollywood films .
Instead , mediaeval dishes often had the texture of a pureé , possibly containing small fragments of meat or fish : 48 % of the recipes in the Beinecke manuscript are for dishes similar to stews or pureés . Such dishes could be broadly of three types : somewhat acid , with wine , vinegar , and spices in the sauce , thickened with bread ; sweet and sour , with sugar and vinegar ; and sweet , using then @-@ expensive sugar . An example of such a sweet pureé dish for meat ( it could also be made with fish ) from the Beinecke manuscript is the rich , saffron @-@ yellow " Mortruys " , thickened with egg :
Take brawn of capons & porke , sodyn & groundyn ; tempyr hit up with milk of almondes drawn with the broth . Set hit on the fyre ; put to sigure & safron . When hit boyleth , tak som of thy milk , boylying , fro the fyre & aley hit up with yolkes of eyron that hit be ryght chargeaunt ; styre hit wel for quelling . Put therto that othyr , & ster hem togedyr , & serve hem forth as mortruys ; and strew on poudr of gynger .
= = = Sixteenth century = = =
The early modern period saw the gradual arrival of printed cookery books , though the very first , the printer Richard Pynson 's 1500 Boke of Cokery was compiled from mediaeval texts . The next , A Proper Newe Booke of Cokerye , was published sometime after 1545 . The Secretes of the Reverende Maister Alexis of Piermont was published in 1558 , translated from a French translation of Alessio Piemontese 's original Italian work on confectionery . The number of titles expanded rapidly towards the end of the century to include Thomas Dawson 's The Good Huswifes Jewell in 1585 , the Book of Cookrye by " A. W. " in 1591 , and John Partridge 's The Good Hous @-@ wives Handmaide in 1594 . These books were of two kinds : collections of so @-@ called secrets on confectionery and health remedies , aimed at aristocratic ladies ; and advice on cookery and how to manage a household , aimed at women from more ordinary backgrounds , most likely wives of minor aristocrats , clergymen , and professional men .
English tastes evolved during the sixteenth century in at least three ways . Firstly , recipes emphasise a balance of sweet and sour . Secondly , butter becomes an important ingredient in sauces , a trend which continued in later centuries . Thirdly , herbs , which could be grown locally but had been little used in the Middle Ages , started to replace spices as flavourings . In A. W. ' s Book of Cookrye , 35 % of the recipes for meat stews and sauces include herbs , most commonly thyme . On the other hand , 76 % of those meat recipes still used the distinctly mediaeval combination of sugar and dried fruit , together or separately . New ingredients were arriving from distant countries , too : The Good Huswifes Jewell introduced sweet potatoes alongside familiar Medieval recipes .
Elinor Fettiplace 's Receipt Book , compiled in 1604 ( and first published in 1986 ) gives an intimate view of Elizabethan cookery . The book provides recipes for various forms of bread , such as buttered loaves ; for apple fritters ; preserves and pickles ; and a celebration cake for 100 people . New ingredients such as the sweet potato appear . A recipe for dressing a shoulder of mutton calls for the use of the newly @-@ available citrus fruits :
Take a showlder of mutton and being halfe Roasted , Cut it in great slices and save the gravie then take Clarret wine and sinamond & sugar with a little Cloves and mace beatne and the peel of an oringe Cut thin and minced very smale . Put the mutton the gravie and these thinges together and boyle yt between two dishes , wringe the juice of an oringe into yt as yt boyleth , when yt is boyled enough lay the bone of the mutton beinge first Broyled in the dish with it then Cut slices of limonds and lay on the mutton and so serve yt in .
Pies were important both as food and for show ; the nursery rhyme Sing a Song of Sixpence , with its lines " Four and Twenty blackbirds / Baked in a pie . / / When the pie was opened , The birds began to sing " refers to the conceit of placing live birds under a pie crust just before serving at a banquet .
= = = Seventeenth century = = =
The bestselling cookery book of the early seventeenth century was Gervase Markham 's The English Huswife , published in 1615 . It appears that his recipes were from the collection of a deceased noblewoman , and therefore dated back to Elizabethan times or earlier . Women were thus becoming both the authors of cookery books and their readers , though only about 10 % of women in England were literate by 1640 . Markham 's recipes are distinctively different from mediaeval ones ; three quarters of his sauces for meat and meat pies make use of a combination of sweet and sour , and he advises :
When a broth is too sweet , to sharpen it with verjuice , when too tart to sweet it with sugar , when flat and wallowish to quicken it with orenge and lemmons , and when too bitter to make it pleasant with hearbes and spices .
Robert May 's The Accomplisht Cook was published in 1660 when he was 72 years old . The book included a substantial number of recipes for soups and stews , 38 recipes for sturgeon , and a large number of pies variously containing fish ( including sturgeon ) , meat ( including battalia pie ) , and sweet fillings .
French influence is evident in Hannah Woolley 's The Cooks Guide , 1664 . Her recipes are designed to enable her non @-@ aristocratic readers to imitate the fashionable French style of cooking with elaborate sauces . She combined the use of " Claret wine " and anchovies with more traditional cooking ingredients such as sugar , dried fruit , and vinegar .
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
John Nott 's The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary ( 1723 ) , still with rather few precedents to go by , chose an alphabetical treatment for its recipes , from Al to Zest . The book covered everything from soups and salads to meat and fish , as well as pastries of many kinds , confectionery , and the making of beer , cider , and wine . Bills of fare are given for each month of the year .
James Woodforde 's Diary of a Country Parson gives a good idea of the sort of food eaten in England in the eighteenth century by those who could afford to eat whatever they liked . To welcome some neighbours on 8 June 1781 , he gave them for dinner :
a Couple of Chicken boiled and a Tongue , a Leg of Mutton boiled and Capers and Batter Pudding for the first Course , Second , a couple of Ducks rosted and green Peas , some Artichokes , Tarts and Blancmange . After dinner , Almonds and Raisins , Oranges and Strawberries , Mountain and Port Wines . Peas and Strawberries the first gathered this year by me . We spent a very agreeable day .
Another country clergyman , Gilbert White , in The Natural History of Selborne ( 1789 ) recorded the increased consumption of vegetables by ordinary country people in the south of England , to which , he noted , potatoes had only been added during the reign of King George III :
Green @-@ stalls in cities now support multitudes in comfortable state , while gardeners get fortunes . Every decent labourer also has his garden , which is half his support ; and common farmers provide plenty of beans , peas , and greens , for their hinds to eat with their bacon .
Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy was the best @-@ selling cookery book for a century from its publication in 1747 . It ran to at least 40 editions , and was widely pirated .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
English cooking was systematized and made available to the middle classes by a series of popular books , their authors becoming household names . One of the first was Mrs Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , 1806 ; it went through sixty @-@ seven editions by 1844 , selling hundreds of thousands of copies in Britain and America . This was followed by Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families 1845 , which has been called " the greatest cookery book in our language " , but " modern " only in a nineteenth @-@ century sense .
An example recipe from Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families is her " Quince Blanc @-@ Mange ( Delicious ) " :
Dissolve in a pint of prepared juice of quinces an ounce of the best isinglass ; next , add ten ounces of sugar , roughly pounded , and stir these together over a clear fire , from twenty to thirty minutes , or until the juice jellies in falling from the spoon . Remove the scum carefully , and pour the boiling jelly gradually to half a pint of thick cream , stirring them briskly together as they are mixed : they must be stirred until very nearly cold , and then poured into a mould which has been rubbed in every part with the smallest possible quantity of very pure salad oil , or if more convenient , into one that has been dipped into cold water .
Acton was supplanted by the most famous English cookery book of the Victorian era , Isabella Beeton 's Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , 1861 , which sold nearly two million copies up to 1868 . Where Acton 's was a book to be read and enjoyed , Beeton 's , substantially written in later editions by other hands , was a manual of instructions and recipes , to be looked up as needed . Mrs Beeton was substantially plagiarized from authors including Elizabeth Raffald and Acton . The Anglo @-@ Italian cook Charles Elmé Francatelli became a celebrity , cooking for a series of aristocrats , London clubs , and royalty including Queen Victoria . His 1846 book The Modern Cook ran through 29 editions by 1896 , popularising an elaborate cuisine described throughout with French terminology , and offering bills of fare for up to 300 people .
Three of the major hot drinks popular in England , tea , coffee , and chocolate , originated from outside Europe and were already staple items by Victorian times . Catherine of Braganza brought the Portuguese habit of tea to England around 1660 . Initially , its expense restricted it to wealthy consumers , but the price gradually dropped , until by the 19th century its use was widespread . Introduced in the 16th century , coffee became popular by the 17th century , especially in the coffee houses , the first opening in Oxford in 1650 . Hot chocolate was a popular drink by the 17th century , long before it was used as a food . Chocolate bars were developed and marketed by three English Quaker @-@ founded businesses , Joseph Fry 's ( 1847 ) , Rowntree 's ( 1862 ) , and Cadbury 's ( 1868 ) .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
Rationing was introduced in 1940 to ensure that the supply of food , limited by the U @-@ boat blockade of Britain , was distributed fairly . Foods such as bananas , onions and chocolate became hard to find , while unfamiliar items such as dried egg , dried potato , whale meat , the tinned pork product spam , and the " disgusting " imported fish called snoek appeared in the national diet . Since butter , sugar , eggs and flour were all rationed , English dishes such as pies and cakes became hard to make from traditional recipes . Instead , available foods such as carrots were used in many different dishes , their natural sugars providing sweetness in novel dishes like carrot fudge . The diet was less than enjoyable , but paradoxically , rationing meant that the population was healthier than ever before , and perhaps ever since .
Elizabeth David profoundly changed English cooking with her 1950 A Book of Mediterranean Food . Written at a time of food rationing and scarcity , her book began with " perhaps the most evocative and inspirational passage in the history of British cookery writing " :
The cooking of the Mediterranean shores , endowed with all the natural resources , the colour and flavour of the South , is a blend of tradition and brilliant improvisation . The Latin genius flashes from the kitchen pans . It is honest cooking too ; none of the sham Grand Cuisine of the International Palace Hotel
All five of David 's early books remained in print half a century later , and her reputation among cookery writers such as Nigel Slater and Clarissa Dickson Wright is of enormous influence . The historian of food Panikos Panayi suggests that this is because she consciously brought foreign cooking styles into the English kitchen ; she did this with fine writing , and with practical experience of living and cooking in the countries she wrote about . She deliberately destroyed the myths of restaurant cuisine with phrases like " the sham Grand Cuisine of the International Palace Hotel " , instead describing the home cooking of Mediterranean countries . Her books " opened the floodgates " for other cookery writers to use foreign recipes . Post @-@ David celebrity chefs , often ephemeral , included Philip Harben , Fanny Cradock , Graham Kerr ( " the galloping gourmet " ) , and Robert Carrier .
= = Stereotypes = =
In 1953 , Britain 's first celebrity chef , Philip Harben , published Traditional Dishes of Britain . Panayi observes that " The chapter titles simply list the stereotypical stalwarts of the British diet " , from Cornish pasty and Yorkshire pudding to shortbread , Lancashire hotpot , steak and kidney pudding , jellied eels , clotted cream and fish and chips . Panayi notes that Harben begins with contradictions and unsupported claims , naming Britain 's supposed reputation for the worst food in the world , but claiming that the country 's cooks were technically unmatched and that the repertoire of national dishes was the largest of any country 's .
The sociologist Bob Ashley observes that while people in Britain may agree that the core national diet consists of items such as the full English breakfast , roast beef with all the trimmings , tea with scones , and fish and chips , yet
it is highly probable that few British people have ever actually eaten the core diet in any recent single day and it may very well be the case that many Britons do not regularly eat any single item from the list .
In any case , Ashley notes , the national diet changes with time , and cookery books routinely include dishes of foreign origin . He remarks that a National Trust café whose manager remarked " We 're not allowed to do foreign food ... I can 't do lasagne or anything like that " in fact served curry , because " seemingly curry is English " . Anglo @-@ Indian cuisine has indeed been part of the national diet since the eighteenth century .
Many supposedly traditional English dishes are relatively new and can be dated to the century , and sometimes to the year , of their introduction . Thus piccalilli was introduced from India in the 18th century , as recorded by Hannah Glasse who gave a recipe for it in 1758 . Conversely , dishes and sauces still considered foreign , such as fish in sweet and sour sauce , have been in English recipe books since the Middle Ages . Other dishes took their present form only gradually , as with the so @-@ called " Full English breakfast " . Breakfasts of this kind are indeed described in later editions of " Mrs Beeton " , but as one of many variations . Thus her list of " Family Breakfasts for a Week in Winter " has for Wednesday something that looks fairly modern : " bread , muffins , butter , brawn , grilled bacon , boiled eggs " ; but on other days less modern @-@ looking breakfasts include mince , mutton cutlets , grilled kidneys , baked fresh herrings , and hash of cold game or poultry , while suggestions for " Family Breakfasts for a Week in Summer " included sardine toast , cold tongue , kedgeree and rissoles , and " Guests ' Breakfast ( Autumn ) " included cold pheasant , game pie , and pressed beef .
Stereotypes of English cuisine
= = Foreign influence = =
English cookery has been open to foreign ingredients and influence from as early as the thirteenth century , and in the case of a few foods like sausages from Roman times . The Countess of Leicester , daughter of King John purchased large amounts of cinnamon , while King Edward I ordered large quantities of spices such as pepper and ginger , as well as of what was then an expensive imported luxury , sugar . Dickson Wright refutes the popular idea that spices were used to disguise bad meat , pointing out that this would have been as fatal then as it would be today . She suggests instead that spices were used to hide the taste of salt , which was used to preserve food in the absence of refrigeration .
Panayi introduces his book Spicing Up Britain with the words of the English celebrity cook Fanny Cradock : " The English have never had a cuisine . Even Yorkshire pudding comes from Burgundy . " He cites Nicola Humble 's observation that in Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , there are about the same number of recipes from India as from Wales , Scotland and Ireland together . Panayi created controversy by asserting , with evidence , that fish and chips had foreign origins : the fried fish from Jewish cooking , the potato chips from France ; the dish only became " an important signifier of national identity " from about 1930 . French cuisine powerfully influenced English cooking throughout the nineteenth century , and French celebrity chefs such as the Roux brothers and Raymond Blanc continue to do so in twentyfirst century England .
= = = The role of empire = = =
Curry was created by the arrival of the British in India in the seventeenth century , beginning as bowls of spicy sauce used , Lizzie Collingham writes , to add " bite to the rather bland flavours of boiled and roasted meats . " The 1758 edition of Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery contains what Clarissa Dickson Wright calls a " famous recipe " which describes how " To make a currey the Indian way " ; it flavours chicken with onions fried in butter , the chicken being fried with turmeric , ginger and ground pepper , and stewed in its own stock with cream and lemon juice . Dickson Wright comments that she was " a bit sceptical " of this recipe , as it had few of the expected spices , but was " pleasantly surprised by the end result " which had " a very good and interesting flavour " .
The process of adapting Indian cooking continued for centuries . Anglo @-@ Indian recipes could completely ignore Indian rules of diet , such as by using pork or beef . Some dishes , such as " liver curry , with bacon " were simply ordinary recipes spiced up with ingredients such as curry powder . In other cases like kedgeree , Indian dishes were adapted to British tastes ; khichari was a " simple rice and lentil dish " . Curry was accepted in almost all Victorian era cookery books , such as Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families ( 1845 ) : she offered recipes for curried sweetbreads and curried macaroni , merging Indian and European foods into standard English cooking . By 1895 , curry was included in Dainty Dishes for Slender Incomes , aimed at the poorer classes .
Foreign influence was by no means limited to specific dishes . James Walvin , in his book Fruits of Empire , argues that potatoes , sugar ( entirely imported until around 1900 and the growing of sugar beet ) , tea , and coffee as well as increasing quantities of spices were " Fruits of Empire " that became established in Britain between 1660 and 1800 , so that by the nineteenth century " their exotic origins had been lost in the mists of time " and had become " part of the unquestioned fabric of local life " .
= = = Indian and Anglo @-@ Indian cuisine = = =
Indian cuisine is the most popular alternative to traditional cooking in Britain , followed by Chinese and Italian food . Chicken tikka masala is now considered one of Britain 's most popular dishes .
During the British Raj , Britain first started borrowing Indian dishes , creating Anglo @-@ Indian cuisine , with dishes such as Kedgeree ( 1790 ) and Mulligatawny soup ( 1791 ) .
Indian food was served in coffee houses from 1809 , and cooked at home from a similar date as cookbooks of the time attest . The Veeraswamy restaurant at 99 @-@ 101 Regent Street , London was opened in 1926 , at first serving Anglo @-@ Indian food , and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain . There was a sharp increase in the number of curry houses in the 1940s , and again in the 1970s .
The Anglo @-@ Indian dish chicken tikka masala was apparently invented in Glasgow in the early 1970s , while balti cuisine was introduced to Britain in 1977 in Birmingham .
In 2003 , there were roughly 9000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine in Britain . The majority of Indian restaurants in Britain are run by entrepreneurs of Bangladeshi ( often Sylhet ) and Pakistani origin . According to Britain 's Food Standards Agency , the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom was worth £ 3 @.@ 2 billion in 2003 , accounting for two @-@ thirds of all eating out , and serving about 2 @.@ 5 million British customers every week .
Indian restaurants typically allow the diner to combine base ingredients — chicken , prawns or " meat " ( lamb or mutton ) — with curry sauces — from the mild korma to the scorching phall — without regard to the authenticity of the combination . The reference point for flavour and spice heat is the Madras curry sauce ( the name represents the area of India where restaurateurs obtained their spices , rather than an actual dish ) . Other sauces are sometimes variations on a basic curry sauce : for instance , vindaloo is often rendered as a fiery dish of lamb or chicken in a Madras sauce with extra chilli , rather than the Anglo @-@ Indian dish of pork marinated in wine vinegar and garlic , based on a Goan Portuguese dish carne de vinha d 'alhos .
Indian restaurants and their cuisine in Britain gradually improved from the stereotypical flock wallpaper and standardised menus . One of the pioneers was the Bombay Brasserie , which opened in Gloucester Road , London , in 1982 , serving the kind of food actually eaten in India , and has remained fully booked ever since . It was followed in 1990 by Chutney Mary in Chelsea . In 2001 , two Indian restaurants in London , Tamarind ( opened 1995 ) and Zaika ( opened 1999 ) gained Michelin stars for the quality of their cooking . In 2005 , Veeraswamy , the only Indian restaurant in Britain when it opened in Regent Street , London in 1926 , was relaunched as a top @-@ end eatery .
= = = Other influences = = =
Chinese food became established in England by the 1970s , with large cities often having a Chinatown district ; the first , in London 's Soho , developed between the two world wars . Deriving from Cantonese cuisine , the food served by Chinese restaurants , named " Chinese Food Abroad " by Kenneth Lo , has been adapted to suit western taste .
From around 1980 , other South @-@ East Asian cuisines , especially Thai , began to join the established Asian cuisines of China and the Indian subcontinent .
Italian cuisine is the most popular Mediterranean cuisine in England . In its current form , with plenty of pizza and pasta , inspired by Elizabeth David , its rise began after 1945 . There were some Italian restaurants before World War II , but they mostly served a generalised haute cuisine . Soon after the war , Italian coffee bars appeared , the first places to trade on their Italianness ; they soon started to sell simple and cheap Italian food such as minestrone soup , spaghetti bolognese and pizza . From the early 1960s , the slightly more elegant trattoria restaurants offered " Italian specialities " such as lasagne verde al forno ( baked lasagne , coloured with spinach ) .
French cuisine is largely restricted to expensive restaurants , although there are some inexpensive French bistros .
= = Food establishments = =
= = = Cafes and tea shops = = =
The English cafe is a small , inexpensive eating place . A working men 's cafe serves mainly fried or grilled food , such as fried eggs , bacon , bangers and mash ‚ black pudding , bubble and squeak , burgers , sausages , mushrooms and chips . These may be accompanied by baked beans , cooked tomatoes , and fried bread . These are referred to as " breakfast " even if they are available all day . Traditional cafes have declined with the rise of fast @-@ food chains , but remain numerous all over the UK .
A tea shop is a small restaurant that serves soft drinks and light meals , often in a sedate atmosphere . Customers may eat a cream tea or a Devonshire tea , served from a china set , and a scone with jam and clotted cream .
= = = Fish and chip shops = = =
Fish and chips is a hot dish consisting of battered fish , commonly Atlantic cod or haddock , and chips . It is a common take @-@ away food .
Both fried fish and fried chipped potatoes are of late Victorian origin . Panayi cites the Fish Trades Gazette of 29 July 1922 as stating " Later there was introduced into this country the frying and purveying of chip potatoes from France ... which had made the fried fish trade what it is today . " He also notes that The Times recorded that " potatoes chipped and fried in the French manner were introduced in Lancashire with great success about 1871 . " Panayi further observes that fish and chip shops in the 1920s were often run by Jews or Italians . A slightly earlier date is available for chips in London , however , as Dickens 's 1859 A Tale of Two Cities mentions " husky chips of potatoes , fried with some reluctant drops of oil " .
= = = Pub food = = =
The public house , or pub , is a famous English institution . In the mid @-@ 20th century , pubs were drinking establishments with little emphasis on the serving of food , other than " bar snacks " , such as pork scratchings , pickled eggs , salted crisps , and peanuts , which helped to increase beer sales . If a pub served meals these were usually basic cold dishes such as a ploughman 's lunch , invented in the 1950s .
In the 1950s some British pubs started to offer " a pie and a pint " , with hot individual steak and ale pies made easily on the premises by the landlord 's wife . In the 1960s this was developed into the then @-@ fashionable " chicken in a basket " , a portion of roast chicken with chips , served on a napkin , in a wicker basket , by the Mill pub at Withington . Quality dropped but variety increased with the introduction of microwave ovens and freezer food . " Pub grub " expanded to include British food items such as steak and ale pie , steak and kidney pudding , shepherd 's pie , fish and chips , bangers and mash , Sunday roast , and pasties . The gastropub movement of the 21st century , on the other hand , seeks to serve restaurant @-@ quality food , cooked to order from fresh ingredients , in a pub setting . In 1964 , pubs were serving 9 @.@ 1 % of meals eaten outside the home ; this rose rapidly to 37 @.@ 5 % by 1997 .
= = Vegetarianism = =
Modern western vegetarianism was founded in the United Kingdom in 1847 with the world 's first Vegetarian Society . It has increased markedly since the end of World War II , when there were around 100 @,@ 000 vegetarians in the country . By 2003 there were between 3 and 4 million vegetarians in the UK , one of the highest percentages in the Western world , while around 7 million people claim to eat no red meat . By 2015 , 11 of 22 restaurant chains studied by the Vegan Society had at least one vegetarian main course on their menu , though only 6 of these labelled vegan dishes . Top @-@ end vegetarian restaurants remain relatively few , though they are increasing rapidly : there were some 20 in Britain in 2007 , rising to 30 in 2010 .
= = Quality = =
English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation . Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that " at one time people didn 't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [ eighteenth and nineteenth century ] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking . " English food was popularly supposed to be bland , but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages ; introduced curry to Europe ; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard . It was similarly reputed to be dull , like roast beef : but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad , and few people could afford it ; the " Roast Beef of Old England " lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle , which the French at the " Gate of Calais " ( the other name of his painting ) could only look at with envy . The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century , but the nation 's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War .
In 2005 , 600 food critics writing for the British Restaurant magazine named 14 British restaurants among the 50 best restaurants in the world , the number one being The Fat Duck in Bray , Berkshire and its chef Heston Blumenthal . The global reach of London has elevated it to the status of a leading centre of international cuisine .
Meanwhile , the list of United Kingdom food and drink products with protected status ( PDO ) under European Union law has increased rapidly , with 59 items including Cornish sardines , Yorkshire Wensleydale cheese and Yorkshire forced rhubarb , Fenland celery , West Country lamb and beef and traditional Cumberland sausage listed as registered in 2015 , and a further 13 including Birmingham Balti listed as applied for . By 2016 there were 12 cheeses from England with PDO status .
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= Girl with Ball =
Girl with Ball is a 1961 painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is an oil on canvas Pop art work that is now in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art , after being owned for several decades by Philip Johnson . It is one of Lichtenstein 's earliest Pop art works and is known for its source , which is a newspaper ad that ran for several decades and which was among Lichtenstein 's earliest works sourced from pop culture .
Girl with Ball was exhibited at Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition and was displayed in Newsweek 's review of the show . This work significantly alters the original source and is considered exemplary of Lichtenstein 's works that exaggerate the mechanically produced appearance although the result of his painterly work . It is an enduring depiction of the contemporary beauty figure .
= = Background = =
Girl with Ball was inspired by a 1961 advertisement for the Mount Airy Lodge in the Pocono Mountains . The ad , which started running in 1955 , was widely published in the New York metropolitan area and elsewhere , including several prominent newspapers such as The New York Times and the Daily News . The advertisement was still running in newspapers more than twenty years after Lichtenstein produced the work .
According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website , in autumn 1961 , a fellow teacher at Rutgers University named Allan Kaprow made introductions between Lichtenstein and Leo Castelli Gallery director Ivan Karp . Lichtenstein showed Karp several paintings including Girl with Ball , which was the one that intrigued Karp . Karp agreed to represent Lichtenstein weeks later . After showing the painting to Andy Warhol , he sold it to architect Philip Johnson that November . The painting appeared in Newsweek 's 1962 review of Lichtenstein 's Castelli Gallery show . The work appeared in the April 3 , 1963 " Pop ! Goes the Easel " show at the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston along with his Brattata ( 1962 ) and Head @-@ Red and Yellow ( 1962 ) .
= = Description = =
Girl with Ball depicts a woman wearing a bathing suit holding a beach ball with red stripes in the same color as her lips and tongue . Lichtenstein used a painter 's version of comic strip artist techniques to create his own rendition of the subject of a nostalgic photograph , resulting in a simplified work of art with its own appeal . He produced the work using Ben @-@ Day dots of primary colors . The process is described as exaggerating the " limitations of mechanical reproduction " to strip the photograph of its polish in a startling and intense form . In 1961 , this painting was groundbreaking . Facial features such as nose and mouth are depicted using " commercial shorthand " .
His process of reworking original artwork is described as " abstraction by subtraction " , in which all features of the original are reduced to simple graphic elements . Lichtenstein alters the planar position of the subject of the picture to position her " nearer to the picture plane " . He drew the picture more distorted than might be expected of a cartoonist by augmenting and focusing on her two @-@ dimensionality .
= = Reception = =
The image and technique were regarded as unartistic . However , the painting presented an allusion to printing technology , with its Ben @-@ Day dots , and to art history , with its " Art Nouveau forms " . Though " crude and simplistic " the work demonstrates artistic intellect .
Girl with Ball is described by Diane Waldman as " striking " in the simple and bold way it presents a vacation atmosphere . She notes it is " reminiscent of Picasso 's frolicking bather in one of his paintings on the subject , Bather with Beach Ball ( fig . 48 ) , 1932 , " especially in the way Lichtenstein has scaled down the representation and the way he depicts movement .
The newspaper ad source provided Lichtenstein with " one of the most common tropes of the day for the image of a woman . " The updated Betty Grable @-@ type subject , was a fashionable glamor figure that Lichtenstein used for a symbolic value that ranks her with " iconoclastic female figures , including Manet 's Olympia , 1863 , Picasso 's Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon , 1907 and de Kooning 's three series of Women " .
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= St Edwen 's Church , Llanedwen =
St Edwen 's Church , Llanedwen is a 19th @-@ century parish church near the Menai Strait , in Anglesey , north Wales . The first church was founded here by St Edwen ( daughter of Edwin of Northumbria , king and saint ) in 640 , but the present structure dates from 1856 and was designed by Henry Kennedy , the architect of the Diocese of Bangor . It contains some memorials from the 17th and 18th centuries and a reading desk that reuses panel work from the 14th and 17th centuries . The 18th @-@ century historian Henry Rowlands was vicar here , and is buried in the churchyard . The church is on land that forms part of the Plas Newydd estate , home of the family of the Marquess of Anglesey since 1812 and owned by the National Trust . Some of the Marquesses of Anglesey , and some of their employees , are also buried in the churchyard .
The church is used for worship by the Church in Wales , one of seven in a combined parish . A service is held using the Book of Common Prayer each Sunday morning . St Edwen 's is one of the few churches in regular use in Wales to be lit entirely by candles . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a good example of H Kennedy 's designs for a small @-@ scale rural church . "
= = History and location = =
St Edwen 's Church is in the south of Anglesey , north Wales , in a rural area known as Llanedwen . It is about 5 miles ( 8 km ) from the county town of Llangefni , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the A4080 road between Llanfairpwllgwyngyll and Brynsiencyn and about 250 metres ( 270 yds ) from the Menai Strait that separates Anglesey from the rest of Wales . The church is on land that forms part of the Plas Newydd estate , which has been the home of the family of the Marquess of Anglesey since 1812 ; some of the former marquesses and their employees are buried in the churchyard . Plas Newydd and its grounds are now owned by the National Trust . The area of Llanedwen takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " .
According to the 19th @-@ century Anglesey historian Angharad Llwyd , the first church in the area was established by St Edwen in 640 . Nothing is known of Edwen 's life , but according to the manuscript sources , she was the daughter – perhaps the illegitimate daughter – or the niece of Edwin of Northumbria , a king who converted to Christianity in 627 and who was venerated as a saint after his death in 633 . The 12th @-@ century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth said that Edwin was born whilst his mother was taking refuge in north Wales with Cadfan ap Iago .
Llwyd described the church in 1833 as " a small but neat edifice , of great antiquity " . In 1840 , the church was rebuilt by John Welch . Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Edwen 's was in the Early Perpendicular style , although its windows had been replaced , and measured 52 by 16 feet ( 16 by 5 m ) . The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited in May 1850 . He said that it was " a very small church in a lovely situation " , which had " a beautiful view over the Menai " .
In 1856 , the church seen by Llwyd , Jones and Glynne was demolished and the present structure was erected , designed by Henry Kennedy , architect of the Diocese of Bangor . The only part of the old church to survive was some of the stonework at the base of the west wall . Some repair work was carried out in 1956 .
St Edwen 's , which is used for worship by the Church in Wales , is one of seven churches in the combined benefice ( churches grouped together under an incumbent priest ) of Bro Dwynwen . A service is held every Sunday morning using the 1662 Book of Common Prayer , either Holy Communion or Morning Prayer ; there are no midweek services . The parish is within the deanery of Synod Ynys Mon , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2016 , the priest in charge is the Reverend E Roberts and the associate priest is Canon Professor Leslie Francis .
People associated with the church include Henry Rowlands , vicar of St Nidan 's , Llanidan , and its associated churches ( including St Edwen 's ) in the first part of the 18th century . He wrote a history of Anglesey entitled Mona Antiqua Restaurata , published in 1723 . He is buried in the churchyard to the west of the door . His tombstone is inscribed in Latin with the words : " All things are nought save what he gave to needy ones . These have force when arts perish and writings fall to pieces . " William Bulkeley Hughes , who lived in the parish and died in 1882 , is also buried in the churchyard . He was a Member of Parliament for 40 years . The churchyard contains one Commonwealth war grave , of a First World War officer of the Westmorland and Cumberland Yeomanry .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Edwen 's is built from local red gritstone , formed into square blocks and dressed with sandstone . The roof is made from slate with stone edging . The church , which is in the Late Decorated style , has a tower topped with a broach spire at the north @-@ west corner of the nave , supported by buttresses . The church is entered through a porch with an arched doorway in the lowest of the three stages of the tower . Inside , the woodwork of the roof is exposed ; some of the nave timbers might be medieval beams reused in the 1856 rebuilding . The nave and chancel are divided by an arch and by three steps leading up from the nave . The chancel and sanctuary are separated by an altar rail set on top of some wooden panels .
There is a pair of windows in the west wall decorated with tracery ( stonework within the window frame forming a pattern ) . Scenes from the Bible and geometric patterns are shown in the stained glass , and birds ( phoenix and peacock ) are depicted at the top of the windows . The glass is dedicated to Rice Robert Hughes , a clergyman who died in 1801 . There are three arched windows in the south wall of the nave ; the stained glass of the easternmost ( dedicated to William Bulkeley Hughes ) shows biblical scenes . The easternmost window of the three in the north wall of the nave is dedicated to Thomas Bulkeley Hughes ( who died in 1836 ) , his wife and children . The chancel has one window in the east wall , which has three lights ( sections of window separated by stone mullions ) .
The pulpit has some 19th @-@ century oak panelling and reuses some ornate 17th @-@ century panel work that is decorated with pictures of cherubs , dragons , dogs and lions ' heads . The pews are made of pine ; the choir stalls also have some carved oak panels that may date from the 17th century . A reading desk from the 19th century reuses material from the 14th and 17th centuries , depicting a lion , a griffin and angels . The church also has an eight @-@ sided sandstone font decorated with a carved cross .
A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded seven 17th and 18th century memorials within the church , the oldest in memory of a Thomas Owen who died in 1646 . The tombs in the churchyard include one of a Sidney Griffith ( died 1618 ) and more than 20 others from the 17th and 18th centuries . The survey also noted some oak dog tongs , likely to be from the 19th century , and three 17th @-@ century chairs .
A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded an engraved chalice dated 1842 and a paten dated 1776 – 77 ; both are made from silver and are decorated with foliage . A silver flagon bears an inscription to denote that it was given by William Bulkeley Hughes when the new church was consecrated in 1856 . The survey also noted a flagon from about 1700 and a dish , both made of pewter , but said that an 18th @-@ century silver chalice had been lost some time after 1811 . St Edwen 's is one of the few churches in regular use in Wales to be lit only by candles .
= = Assessment = =
St Edwen 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 23 April 1998 , and has been listed because it is seen as " a good example of H Kennedy 's designs for a small @-@ scale rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the fittings that incorporate " some fine carved work of the 14th and 17th centuries . "
Sabine Baring @-@ Gould , writing in 1908 , said that the rebuilt church was " wholly devoid of interest " . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region notes that the Incorporated Church Building Society ( active in the 19th century ) considered Kennedy 's design was " inconsistent with the gravity of feeling which pervades the ancient churches of Wales . "
Harry Longueville Jones wrote in 1847 that the churchyard was " one of the most interesting in Anglesey , from its picturesque appearance and situation . " A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes St Edwen 's as " a good example of an unspoilt 19th century country church " , adding that is " little changed since it was built . " It says that it is in a " tranquil spot " , and notes that it is a landmark " visible from a considerable distance " .
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= 2014 Russian Grand Prix =
The 2014 Russian Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2014 Formula 1 Russian Grand Prix ; Russian : Гран @-@ при России 2014 года ) was a Formula One motor race held on 12 October 2014 . The fifty @-@ three lap race was held at the Sochi Autodrom , a brand new circuit built on the site of the 2014 Winter Olympics in the city of Sochi in Krasnodar Krai , Russia .
The race was the sixteenth round of the 2014 season , following on from the Japanese Grand Prix at Suzuka one week previously , and preceding the United States Grand Prix at the Circuit of the Americas . The race marked the first time that the Russian Grand Prix had been held in a century , and was also the first time the Russian Grand Prix was run as a round of the Formula One World Championship since the championship was formed in 1950 .
Lewis Hamilton in a Mercedes won the race after starting from pole position and leading every lap . His team @-@ mate Nico Rosberg finished second , after working his way up from the back of field after having to make an unscheduled pit stop on the first lap . Williams 's Valtteri Bottas completed the podium , having set the fastest lap — and a new lap record — on the final lap of the race . Following Jules Bianchi 's serious accident in the Japanese Grand Prix , Marussia entered a single car for Max Chilton , leaving the grid with twenty @-@ one cars . The race ultimately proved to be Marussia 's last of the season , as the team went into administration ahead of the next race in the United States .
The result secured the World Constructors ' Championship for Mercedes with three races remaining in the season , while Hamilton extended his World Drivers ' Championship lead over Rosberg to seventeen points . Bottas 's podium allowed him to overtake Fernando Alonso and Sebastian Vettel in the drivers ' standings .
= = Background = =
= = = Preparations = = =
With the circuit being built on the site of the 2014 Winter Olympics , the International Olympic Committee voiced concerns that construction would interrupt preparations for the Olympics , and so were given the power to postpone the inaugural Russian Grand Prix until the 2015 season if preparations for the race interfered with the Winter Olympics . However , the Olympic Games started without interruption , and the IOC did not exercise their power . FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting inspected the circuit in the week before the 2014 Belgian Grand Prix and gave it the FIA 's final seal of approval , allowing the race to go ahead .
In September 2014 , the circuit hosted a round of the Russian Touring Car Championship as preparation for the Grand Prix .
= = = Controversy = = =
Following the shooting down of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 over eastern Ukraine in July 2014 and amid allegations of Russian involvement in the incident and the Russian military intervention in the country , there were calls from the British Conservative Party for Formula One to abandon the race as part of sanctions placed on the Russian government , as the race was established with financial support from the government . Similar suggestions were made from British and German parliamentarians over Russia 's hosting of the 2018 FIFA World Cup .
When responding to questions about the race — and humanitarian concerns over the revival of the European Grand Prix in Azerbaijan given Azerbaijan 's human rights record — Red Bull Racing team principal Christian Horner refused to offer any kind of judgement , pointing out that it was the responsibility of the FIA to monitor the situation and act accordingly ; a position supported by Mercedes director Toto Wolff . Bernie Ecclestone , CEO of the sport 's commercial rights holder , publicly stated that he had " no doubts " about the race taking place in the wake of the crash , and distanced the sport from ongoing political debates . With Russia facing increased economic sanctions from the European Union and United States , deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Kozak noted that the Grand Prix would not be affected in the event such sanctions were implemented , and the race went ahead as scheduled . Both Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Kozak were in attendance , with Putin presenting the race winner 's trophy .
= = = Support events = = =
The GP2 and GP3 Series — a pair of feeder championships for drivers preparing for Formula One — also made their début at the circuit , racing in support of the Grand Prix as the penultimate round of the 2014 GP2 and GP3 championships .
= = Report = =
= = = Pre @-@ event = = =
= = = = Marussia entry = = = =
Marussia driver Jules Bianchi suffered serious head injuries at the Japanese Grand Prix when he crashed into a tractor trying to recover Adrian Sutil 's Sauber under yellow @-@ flag conditions , ruling him out of the Russian Grand Prix . Per FIA regulations , the team entered two cars , with Alexander Rossi , their testing and reserve driver , being named as Bianchi 's replacement for the event . However , before Friday 's practice sessions and with FIA approval , the team opted not to run the second Marussia MR03 car and Max Chilton was their sole representative , leaving the grid with twenty @-@ one cars . As a sign of respect to Bianchi and his family , the team built up and placed his car in his side of the garage and had his livery placed on the walls for duration of the weekend .
= = = = = Tributes to Jules Bianchi = = = = =
There were several tributes at this Grand Prix to show support for Bianchi :
Marussia adopted a " # JB17 " livery on the cockpit sides of its sole participating car ;
Drivers wore a sticker on their helmets saying " Tous avec Jules # 17 " , and held a one @-@ minute silence just before the race .
= = = = Penalties = = = =
Pastor Maldonado incurred a ten @-@ place penalty at the Japanese Grand Prix for exceeding his quota of five engine components for the season . However , as he qualified seventeenth , he was unable to take the full penalty as doing so would move him past twenty @-@ second and last place on the grid . Under new rules introduced for the 2014 season , the remainder of the penalty was carried over to the Russian Grand Prix , automatically giving him a five @-@ place penalty .
= = = = Tyres = = = =
Tyre supplier Pirelli announced that they would be providing teams with their medium @-@ compound tyre as a " prime " tyre and the soft @-@ compound as the " option " tyre for the Grand Prix to cope with the brand @-@ new surface and to tolerate the high lateral loads placed on the tyre , particularly through turn 4 , an elongated constant @-@ radius corner with estimated speeds of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) that stands out as the longest corner on the 2014 Formula One calendar .
= = = = Drag reduction system = = = =
Two drag reduction system ( DRS ) zones were introduced for the race . The detection point for the first was located on the entry to turn 1 , with the activation zone placed on the apex of the corner . The second detection point was positioned along the circuit 's back straight , with the activation zone encompassing turns 12 and 13 .
= = = Free practice = = =
In accordance with the 2014 regulations , three free practice sessions were held . Two one and a half @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session on Saturday morning . Per the regulations the teams were allowed to replace one of their regular drivers with a test and reserve driver during the first two sessions . Mercedes 's Nico Rosberg set the fastest time in the first free practice session , seven hundredths of a second ahead of team @-@ mate Lewis Hamilton , and two tenths of a second faster than McLaren 's Jenson Button . Elsewhere , Williams 's Valtteri Bottas carried out limited running after the tyre blankets designed to keep his tyres at the optimal operating temperature were found to have failed , damaging his tyres . Russian driver Sergey Sirotkin made his Formula One début , driving for Sauber in the place of Esteban Gutiérrez . He finished the session seventeenth overall , two and a half seconds slower than Rosberg and four tenths of a second behind Sauber teammate Adrian Sutil . Roberto Merhi also took part , driving in the place of Caterham 's Kamui Kobayashi in his third appearance of the season for the team .
Hamilton led the way in the second free practice session , finishing eight tenths of a second ahead of Kevin Magnussen and Ferrari 's Fernando Alonso . Rosberg finished fourth , though he made a mistake on his final flying lap . Hamilton was again fastest in the third practice session , three tenths of a second quicker than Rosberg , with Bottas in third . Several drivers encountered trouble whilst simulating a qualifying lap , most notably Magnussen , who damaged his suspension after running wide over a kerb ; and Hamilton , who spun at the penultimate corner , narrowly avoiding the wall . Pastor Maldonado was unable to set a lap time after his energy recovery system failed . Aided by practice and qualifying sessions from the GP2 and GP3 Series support categories , the track evolved to the point where drivers were setting lap times three and a half seconds quicker ahead of qualifying than they had been at the start of the weekend .
Following the first day 's running , officials made several changes to the circuit , including the installation of speed bumps in the turn 2 – 3 run @-@ off area to discourage drivers from deliberately running wide to carry more speed into turn 4 , a practice that had been observed during the free practice and qualifying sessions for the GP2 and GP3 races . The pit lane speed was also revised from 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) to 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) to address concerns over the narrow pit entry and its tight corners .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Normally qualifying consists of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . However , with Marussia 's permission to run a single car for the race , the qualifying procedure was revised , with five drivers — instead of the usual six — eliminated at the end of the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) .
Lewis Hamilton topped the first period , going under 1 : 39 @.@ 000 for the first time all weekend . Nico Rosberg was a close second , with Valtteri Bottas the only other driver within a second of Hamilton 's lap time . Marcus Ericsson was eliminated in seventeenth place , once again out @-@ qualifying team @-@ mate Kamui Kobayashi , who finished nineteenth . After struggling with another engine fault , Pastor Maldonado could only set a time good enough for twentieth , out @-@ qualifying the sole Marussia of Max Chilton . Williams driver Felipe Massa proved to be a shock elimination , struggling with a fuel flow issue that left him down on power ; he was recorded going through the speed trap on the approach to turn 2 some 23 km / h ( 14 mph ) slower than Bottas , the fastest driver through the speed trap , and qualified eighteenth for his first Q1 elimination since the British Grand Prix .
Hamilton , Rosberg and Bottas once again led the way in Q2 , which saw several drivers in a close fight to avoid elimination . Having struggled with a lack of pace over the course of the weekend , Sebastian Vettel missed out on a Q3 berth by a tenth of a second . He was followed by the Force Indias of Nico Hülkenberg in twelfth and Sergio Pérez in thirteenth , while Esteban Gutiérrez out @-@ qualified Adrian Sutil to give the Saubers fourteenth and fifteenth . Romain Grosjean was the final driver eliminated in Q2 despite having improved upon his Q1 time .
The Mercedes drivers continued to dominate in the final twelve @-@ minute period , but the rapid evolution of the circuit came to an abrupt halt after the first timed laps , and neither Hamilton nor Rosberg were able to improve their times , leaving Hamilton with provisional pole . Despite the lap times dropping off , Valtteri Bottas was able to best Hamilton 's time through the first two sectors , and maintained a pace that suggested he could steal a maiden pole position until he made an unforced error in the final corner . Jenson Button finished fourth , with Kevin Magnussen proving McLaren 's newfound performance was no accident in sixth . Daniil Kvyat secured a career @-@ best fifth place in his home Grand Prix , while Daniel Ricciardo out @-@ qualified team @-@ mate Vettel for the eleventh time in 2014 with seventh . Ferrari endured their most difficult qualifying session since the British Grand Prix , with Fernando Alonso and Kimi Räikkönen closely matched , but over two seconds behind Hamilton . Jean @-@ Éric Vergne finished tenth overall , ensuring two Toro Rossos in the top ten .
= = = = Post @-@ qualifying = = = =
Kevin Magnussen and Nico Hülkenberg received five @-@ place grid penalties for gearbox changes , demoting them to eleventh and seventeenth place respectively . Pastor Maldonado qualified in twentieth which became twenty @-@ first once his carry @-@ over penalty was applied . Maldonado and Max Chilton also received a five @-@ place penalty for a gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
At the start of the race , Nico Rosberg attempted to out @-@ brake Lewis Hamilton into turn 2 , but locked both of his front wheels , running wide and creating a flat spot on both tyres . After returning the position to Hamilton , he pitted at the end of the lap , as the flat spots would create a vibration in the car given the high speeds and lateral loading on the tyres . He immediately changed to the harder Prime compound , with the team switching to a strategy that called for him to do the next fifty @-@ two laps of the race on a single set of tyres . Rosberg took advantage of the pit strategies of other drivers and the straight @-@ line speed of his car to gradually work his way through the field . Behind him , Felipe Massa attempted to replicate his strategy , also pitting on the first lap , but switching to the softer Option compound . He was less successful that Rosberg , hampered by slower mid @-@ field drivers .
At the front of the field , Valtteri Bottas was able to keep up with Hamilton during the early stages of the race , but Hamilton was able to gradually build up a forty @-@ second lead by the time of the first — and only — round of pit stops , giving him enough of a buffer to pit without losing the lead , even when faced with the lowered speed limit and lengthy pit lane of the Sochi Autodrom . Hamilton was unchallenged throughout the race , ultimately winning by thirteen seconds ahead of Rosberg following his recovery and giving the team their ninth one @-@ two finish of the season . Bottas finished in third , his fifth podium of the season , having been overtaken by Rosberg on track . Despite having fresher tyres and setting a series of laps among the fastest in the race — including the fastest lap and the official lap record — he was unable to catch Rosberg in the final laps .
McLaren drivers Jenson Button and Kevin Magnussen finished fourth and fifth , giving Mercedes @-@ powered cars the top five places in the final standings . McLaren attempted to adjust Button 's strategy to place ahead of Rosberg after his pit stop , but were powerless to prevent Rosberg from overtaking . Magnussen spent the early phase of the race in a strategy battle with Fernando Alonso , Daniel Ricciardo and Sebastian Vettel , which he ultimately won . Alonso finished in sixth , the first non @-@ Mercedes @-@ powered driver across the line , having spent most of the race fending off Ricciardo . After spending most of the weekend struggling with an under @-@ powered and under @-@ performing car , Vettel secured four World Championship points with eighth place . Kimi Räikkönen and Sergio Pérez completed the top ten .
Felipe Massa 's attempt at replicating Rosberg 's strategy failed , leaving him outside the points in eleventh place , ahead of Nico Hülkenberg . Despite qualifying in fifth and tenth , Toro Rosso drivers Daniil Kvyat and Jean @-@ Éric Vergne finished in fourteenth and thirteenth place respectively , having been forced to race conservatively in the face of high fuel consumption and a predicted 12 ° C ( 22 ° F ) drop in temperature in the final stages of the race , which never eventuated . Esteban Gutiérrez led Sauber team @-@ mate Adrian Sutil across the line one lap down with the latter 's race having been disrupted by contact with Romain Grosjean at turn 2 for which Grosjean was punished with a five @-@ second stop / go penalty . Grosjean ultimately finished seventeenth ahead of Pastor Maldonado , with Marcus Ericsson the final classified finisher in nineteenth place , two laps behind Hamilton .
The race saw two retirements , with Kamui Kobayashi forced out on lap twenty @-@ one with what the team described as a brake issue , though Kobayashi later suggested that Caterham had deliberately retired the car to avoid damaging its power unit ahead of the next race . He also reported that the team had found damage to a suspension wishbone following free practice 3 , and that with no replacement part available , the team had repaired the damage by fusing the wishbone together with carbon , a solution that Kobayashi felt was unsafe . Marussia 's difficult race lasted just nine laps , with Max Chilton reporting an unusual vibration in his front @-@ left suspension , and the team elected to retire the car rather than risk a suspension failure .
= = = = Post @-@ race = = = =
With twenty @-@ five points for first place , Lewis Hamilton extended his World Drivers ' Championship lead over Nico Rosberg by seven points to carry a seventeen @-@ point margin into the United States Grand Prix . By out @-@ scoring title rivals Red Bull Racing , the result also secured the World Constructors ' Championship for Mercedes , their first title as a Formula One constructor . Hamilton dedicated the win to Jules Bianchi .
Valtteri Bottas 's podium finish elevated him from sixth to fourth in the drivers ' standings , overtaking Sebastian Vettel and Fernando Alonso . The result also allowed Williams to consolidate their hold on third place in the constructors ' standings , ahead of Ferrari . Further down the order , fourth and fifth places for McLaren and minor points placings for Force India saw the British team overtake their rivals for fifth place in the standings .
Both Marussia and Caterham went into administration after the race , citing financial difficulties . Although Caterham returned to compete in the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix , the team collapsed shortly thereafter . Marussia faced a similar fate before a last @-@ minute deal with an investor rescued the team , and they returned to the Formula One grid in 2015 , albeit registered as a British , rather than Russian competitor .
= = = Accolades = = =
In December 2014 , the race was awarded with the Formula One Promotional Trophy . Dmitry Kozak received the award from Bernie Ecclestone in a special ceremony at the circuit .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes :
^ 1 — Kevin Magnussen , Nico Hülkenberg and Max Chilton all received five @-@ place grid penalties for changing their gearboxes .
^ 2 — Pastor Maldonado received a five @-@ place grid penalty to complete the penalty he received for exceeding his quota of five engine components for the season at the Japanese Grand Prix . He then received a further five @-@ place penalty after qualifying for a gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Antonín Kinský =
Antonín Kinský ( born 31 May 1975 ) is a Czech former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper . He played club football in the Czech Republic for nine seasons , winning the national league in 2002 with FC Slovan Liberec . He subsequently moved to Russia , where he played for Saturn Ramenskoye . During his seven years in Russia , he played 200 competitive games and was recognised as the Russian Premier League 's best goalkeeper in the 2007 season .
Kinský played for his country on five occasions . He was part of the Czech Republic squad at UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup , although he played at neither tournament .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kinský played for a number of clubs in his early career , including Dukla Prague , after which he moved to Bohemians 1905 . He later spent time on loan at Motorlet Prague and EMĚ Mělník . Kinský won promotion with FC Dukla to the Gambrinus Liga , where he played for one season .
= = = Liberec = = =
Kinský joined FC Slovan Liberec in 1998 , reaching the final of the 1998 – 99 Czech Cup in his first season . In the summer of 1999 Kinský broke his thumb , resultantly not playing for the autumn half of the 1999 – 2000 season and subsequently sharing goalkeeping duties with Zbyněk Hauzr in the spring . Liberec finished the season by winning the 1999 – 2000 Czech Cup .
In July 2000 , Kinský was diagnosed with infectious mononucleosis , receiving treatment at the Střešovice military hospital in Prague and resultantly being unable to play in the autumn part of the 2000 – 01 season . The following season , he recorded consecutive clean sheets at the beginning of the campaign . Liberec went on to reach the quarter finals of the 2001 – 02 UEFA Cup and won the 2001 – 02 Gambrinus liga .
During a UEFA Cup match in the Georgian capital of Tbilisi in October 2002 , Kinský was targeted by bottles thrown onto the pitch from the crowd as the home team was defeated 1 – 0 in the match and 4 – 2 on aggregate . Three policemen were injured in the incident . He played in goal in a 4 – 0 league defeat against Viktoria Žižkov in October 2002 , a game he described as " probably the worst match in my life . " November 2002 was more successful for Kinský as he saved two penalties in a UEFA Cup penalty shootout , after the second round tie against Ipswich Town had ended level after extra time . Resultantly Liberec qualified for the third round of the competition , although Kinský missed both matches against Panathinaikos due to injury . Kinský 's contract at Liberec was due to expire in the summer of 2004 and he failed to agree a contract extension with the club during the 2003 – 04 season . He left having made a total of 137 appearances in the top division of Czech football .
= = = Russia = = =
Kinský joined Russian side Saturn Ramenskoye in January 2004 , initially signing a three @-@ year contract . Kinský joined the team on 6 January in Turkey at their training camp ahead of the 2004 Russian Premier League . He started the first six matches of the 2004 season as a substitute , before becoming the club 's first @-@ choice goalkeeper . In 2005 he was vice captain for the team , captaining the side in the absence of captain Viktor Onopko .
Following the 2006 World Cup , Kinský signed a contract extension to stay at the club for another three years . He was named the best goalkeeper of the Russian Football Premier League in 2007 . He kept his 100th top division clean sheet in a match against Tomsk in September 2008 , becoming the 17th Czech goalkeeper to reach this figure . In October 2008 , Kinský was offered the chance to move to Chelsea to be the backup goalkeeper for Petr Čech , an offer which he rejected . In November 2010 Kinský played his 200th competitive match for the club . Before the last game of the 2010 season , he was presented with a football shirt with the number 201 on it , intended to represent the number of games he had played for the club . However , due to injury Kinský was unable to take part in the match , so 200 was his actual number of competitive appearances . He left Saturn upon the expiry of his contract in December 2010 .
= = = Post @-@ playing career = = =
Kinský became a goalkeeping coach for the youth team of FC Tempo Prague after finishing his playing career , stating his desire to work as a goalkeeping coach in professional football in the future , but not as a head coach .
= = International career = =
Kinský played for the under @-@ 17 team of Czechoslovakia in 1992 , making two appearances . He went on to make three appearances for the Czech Republic national under @-@ 21 football team in 1997 .
Kinský was called up to the Czech Republic national team by coach Karel Brückner before their participation in two friendly matches in Cyprus in February 2002 . He was one of three uncapped goalkeepers named in the squad , the others being Petr Čech and Martin Vaniak . He made his debut in Cyprus on 13 February , playing the second half of the game against the host country in a 4 – 3 win .
Kinský was named in the Czech Republic squad for two major tournaments , UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup , but didn 't play in either competition . He played in a total of five matches for his national team between 2002 and 2004 . He also made one appearance for the " A2 " team of his country in 2006 , playing the second half of a match against Turkey B on 1 March .
= = Personal life = =
Kinský studied Russian at school . He and his wife , Martina , have two children , Tonda and Andrea , who both take part in sports . His son played youth football for FC Tempo Prague in 2012 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Source :
= = = International = = =
Source :
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Slovan Liberec
Gambrinus Liga : 2001 – 02
Czech Cup : 1999 – 2000
= = = Country = = =
Czech Republic
UEFA European Championship semi @-@ finalist : 2004
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= Pyxis =
Pyxis ( / ˈpɪksᵻs / ; Greek : box ) is a small and faint constellation in the southern sky . Abbreviated from Pyxis Nautica , its name is Latin for a mariner 's compass ( contrasting with Circinus , which represents a draftsman 's compasses ) . Pyxis was introduced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century , and is counted among the 88 modern constellations . The constellation is located close to those forming the old constellation of the ship Argo Navis , and in the 19th century astronomer John Herschel suggested renaming Pyxis to Malus , the mast , but the suggestion was not followed . Pyxis is completely visible from latitudes south of 53 degrees north , with its best evening @-@ sky visibility in February and March .
The plane of the Milky Way passes through Pyxis . A faint constellation , its three brightest stars — Alpha , Beta and Gamma Pyxidis — are in a rough line . At magnitude 3 @.@ 68 , Alpha is the constellation 's brightest star . It is a blue @-@ white star around 22 @,@ 000 times as luminous as the Sun . Near Alpha is T Pyxidis , a recurrent nova that has flared up to magnitude 7 every few decades . Three star systems have planets , all discovered by doppler spectroscopy .
= = History = =
In ancient Chinese astronomy , Alpha , Beta and Gamma Pyxidis formed part of Tianmiao , a celestial temple honouring the ancestors of the emperor , along with stars from neighbouring Antlia .
The French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as la Boussole ( the Marine Compass ) in 1752 , after he had observed and catalogued almost 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honoured instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . Lacaille Latinised the name to Pixis [ sic ] Nautica on his 1763 chart . The Ancient Greeks identified the four main stars of Pyxis as the mast of the great ship Argo Navis .
German astronomer Johann Bode defined the constellation Lochium Funis , the Log and Line — a nautical device once used for measuring speed and distance travelled at sea — around Pyxis in his 1801 star atlas , but the depiction did not survive . In 1844 John Herschel attempted to resurrect the classical configuration of Argo Navis by renaming it Malus the Mast , a suggestion followed by Francis Baily , but Benjamin Gould restored Lacaille 's nomenclature .
= = Characteristics = =
Covering 220 @.@ 8 square degrees and hence 0 @.@ 535 % of the sky , Pyxis ranks 65th of the 88 modern constellations by area . Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 52 ° N. It is most visible in the evening sky in February and March . A small constellation , it is bordered by Hydra to the north , Puppis to the west , Vela to the south , and Antlia to the east . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Pyx ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of eight sides ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 8h 27.7m and 9h 27.6m , while the declination coordinates are between − 17 @.@ 41 ° and − 37 @.@ 29 ° .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Lacaille gave Bayer designations to ten stars now named Alpha to Lambda Pyxidis , skipping the Greek letters iota and kappa . Although a nautical element , the constellation was not an integral part of the old Argo Navis and hence did not share in the original Bayer designations of that constellation , which were split between Carina , Vela and Puppis . Pyxis is a faint constellation , its three brightest stars — Alpha , Beta and Gamma Pyxidis — form a rough line . Overall , there are 41 stars within the constellation 's borders with apparent magnitudes brighter than or equal to 6 @.@ 5 .
With an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 68 , Alpha Pyxidis is the brightest star in the constellation . Located 880 ± 30 light @-@ years distant from Earth , it is a blue @-@ white giant star of spectral type B1.5III that is around 22 @,@ 000 times as luminous as the Sun and has 9 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 7 times its diameter . It began life with a mass 12 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 6 times that of the Sun , almost 15 million years ago . Its light is dimmed by 30 % due to interstellar dust , so would have a brighter magnitude of 3 @.@ 31 if not for this . The second brightest star at magnitude 3 @.@ 97 is Beta Pyxidis , a yellow bright giant or supergiant of spectral type G7Ib @-@ II that is around 435 times as luminous as the Sun , lying 420 ± 10 light @-@ years distant away from Earth . It has a companion star of magnitude 12 @.@ 5 separated by 9 arcseconds . Gamma Pyxidis is a star of magnitude 4 @.@ 02 that lies 207 ± 2 light @-@ years distant . It is an orange giant of spectral type K3III that has cooled and swollen to 3 @.@ 7 times the diameter of the Sun after exhausting its core hydrogen .
Kappa Pyxidis was catalogued but not given a Bayer designation by Lacaille , however Gould felt the star was bright enough to warrant a letter . Kappa has a magnitude of 4 @.@ 62 and is 560 ± 50 light @-@ years distant . An orange giant of spectral type K4 / K5III , Kappa has a luminosity approximately 965 times that of the Sun . It is separated by 2 @.@ 1 arcseconds from a magnitude 10 star . Theta Pyxidis is a red giant of spectral type M1III and semi @-@ regular variable with two measured periods of 13 and 98 @.@ 3 days , and an average magnitude of 4 @.@ 71 , and is 500 ± 30 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It has expanded to approximately 54 times the diameter of the Sun .
Located around 4 degrees northeast of Alpha is T Pyxidis , a binary star system composed of a white dwarf with around 0 @.@ 8 times the Sun 's mass and a red dwarf that orbit each other every 1 @.@ 8 hours . This system is located around 15 @,@ 500 light @-@ years away from Earth . A recurrent nova , it has brightened to the 7th magnitude in the years 1890 , 1902 , 1920 , 1944 , 1966 and 2011 from a baseline of around 14th magnitude . These outbursts are thought to be due to the white dwarf accreting material from its companion and ejecting periodically .
TY Pyxidis is an eclipsing binary star whose apparent magnitude ranges from 6 @.@ 85 to 7 @.@ 5 over 3 @.@ 2 days . The two components are both of spectral type G5IV with a diameter 2 @.@ 2 times , and mass 1 @.@ 2 times that of the Sun , and revolve around each other every 3 @.@ 2 days . The system is classified as a RS Canum Venaticorum variable , a binary system with prominent starspot activity , and lies 184 ± 5 light @-@ years away . The system emits X @-@ rays , and analysing the emission curve over time led researchers to conclude that there was a loop of material arcing between the two stars . RZ Pyxidis is another eclipsing binary system , made up of two young stars less than 200 @,@ 000 years old . Both are hot blue @-@ white stars of spectral type B7V and are around 2 @.@ 5 times the size of the Sun . One is around five times as luminous as the Sun and the other around four times as luminous . The system is classified as a Beta Lyrae variable , the apparent magnitude varying from 8 @.@ 83 to 9 @.@ 72 over 0 @.@ 66 days . XX Pyxidis is one of the more @-@ studied members of a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology . Astronomers made more sense of its pulsations when it became clear that it is also a binary star system . The main star is a white main sequence star of spectral type A4V that is around 1 @.@ 85 ± 0 @.@ 05 times as massive as the Sun . Its companion is most likely a red dwarf of spectral type M3V , around 0 @.@ 3 times as massive as the Sun . The two are very close — possibly only 3 times the diameter of the Sun between them — and orbit each other every 1 @.@ 15 days . The brighter star is deformed into an egg shape .
AK Pyxidis is a red giant of spectral type M5III and semi @-@ regular variable that varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 09 and 6 @.@ 51 . Its pulsations take place over multiple periods simultaneously of 55 @.@ 5 , 57 @.@ 9 , 86 @.@ 7 , 162 @.@ 9 and 232 @.@ 6 days . UZ Pyxidis is another semi @-@ regular variable red giant , this time a carbon star , that is around 3560 times as luminous as the Sun with a surface temperature of 3482 K , located some 2116 light @-@ years away from Earth . It varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 99 and 7 @.@ 83 over 159 days . VY Pyxidis is a BL Herculis variable ( type II Cepheid ) , ranging between apparent magnitudes 7 @.@ 13 and 7 @.@ 40 over a period of 1 @.@ 24 days . Located around 650 light @-@ years distant , it shines with a luminosity approximately 45 times that of the Sun .
The closest star to Earth in the constellation is Gliese 318 , a white dwarf of spectral class DA5 and magnitude 11 @.@ 85 . Its distance has been calculated to be 26 light @-@ years , or 28 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 5 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It has around 45 % of the Sun 's mass , yet only 0 @.@ 15 % of its luminosity . WISEPC J083641.12 @-@ 185947 @.@ 2 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T8p located around 72 light @-@ years from Earth . Discovered by infrared astronomy in 2011 , it has a magnitude of 18 @.@ 79
= = = Planetary systems = = =
Pyxis is home to three stars with confirmed planetary systems — all discovered by doppler spectroscopy . A hot Jupiter , HD 73256 b , that orbits HD 73256 every 2 @.@ 55 days , was discovered using the CORALIE spectrograph in 2003 . The host star is a yellow star of spectral type G9V that has 69 % of our Sun 's luminosity , 89 % of its diameter and 105 % of its mass . Around 119 light @-@ years away , it shines with an apparent magnitude of 8 @.@ 08 and is around a billion years old . HD 73267 b was discovered with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) in 2008 . It orbits HD 73267 every 1260 days , a 7 billion year @-@ old star of spectral type G5V that is around 89 % as massive as the Sun . A red dwarf of spectral type M2.5V that has around 42 % the Sun 's mass , Gliese 317 is orbited by two gas giant planets . Around 50 light @-@ years distant from Earth , it is a good candidate for future searches for more terrestrial rocky planets .
= = = Deep sky objects = = =
Pyxis lies in the plane of the Milky Way , although part of the eastern edge is dark , with material obscuring our galaxy arm there . NGC 2818 is a planetary nebula that lies within a dim open cluster of magnitude 8 @.@ 2 . NGC 2818A is an open cluster that lies on line of sight with it . K 1 @-@ 2 is a planetary nebula whose central star is a spectroscopic binary composed of two stars in close orbit with jets emanating from the system . The surface temperature of one component has been estimated at as high as 85 @,@ 000 K. NGC 2627 is an open cluster of magnitude 8 @.@ 4 that is visible in binoculars .
Discovered in 1995 , the Pyxis globular cluster is a 13 @.@ 3 ± 1 @.@ 3 billion year @-@ old globular cluster situated around 130 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth and around 133 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from the centre of the Milky Way — a region not previously thought to contain globular clusters . Located in the galactic halo , it was noted to lie on the same plane as the Large Magellanic Cloud and the possibility has been raised that it might be an escaped object from that galaxy .
NGC 2613 is a spiral galaxy of magnitude 10 @.@ 5 which appears spindle @-@ shaped as it is almost edge @-@ on to observers on Earth . Henize 2 @-@ 10 is a dwarf galaxy which lies some 30 million light @-@ years away . It is notable for having a black hole around a million solar masses at its centre . Known as a starburst galaxy due to very high rates of star formation , it has a bluish colour due to the huge numbers of young stars within it .
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= Michael Laucke =
Michael Laucke ( born 29 January 1947 ) is a Canadian classical , new flamenco , and flamenco guitarist and composer , and a music industry businessman . Starting at the age of thirteen , Laucke gave professional snooker demonstrations and his winnings allowed him to take trips from Montreal to New York City to study the classical guitar with Rolando Valdés @-@ Blain . Still active in a career spanning five decades , Laucke began performing in 1965 , recording the first of 16 albums in 1969 , and has toured in 25 countries . In 1971 , he performed his first of many concerts at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. His first concert in New York , where he also first met Senator Claiborne Pell , took place in 1972 .
Laucke was introduced to complex flamenco techniques by Spanish guitarist Paco de Lucía when the two shared a loft and performed together for the jet set in New York City in the early 1970s . In 1982 he was selected by Andrés Segovia to perform for the PBS network at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City . Laucke subsequently became Segovia 's pupil , and also studied with other classical guitar players , including Julian Bream and Alirio Díaz . He performed mainly on classical guitar until 1990 ; from then on , his concerts have consisted exclusively of flamenco and new flamenco works .
Laucke has broadened the guitar repertoire by creating over 100 transcriptions of classical and flamenco music . Several notable Canadian composers have written atonal works for him . SOCAN 's The Music Scene magazine considered Laucke to be one of " five of Canada 's best @-@ known soloists " . Music critic emeritus , historian , and musician Eric McLean of the Montreal Gazette avowed : " Laucke is the person who has done more for the guitar in this country than anyone else . " He has received many other awards and honours throughout his career , including the Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada for Best Canadian Recording .
= = Early life = =
Laucke was born in Montreal , Quebec , Canada on 29 January 1947 to parents of Russian and Polish @-@ Jewish heritage . After they separated when Laucke was six months old , he lived with his mother , brother , uncle , and grandmother . His grandmother raised and nurtured him ; she died at the age of 100 .
At the age of seven , Laucke appeared in the Montreal Star newspaper having designed and built a boat from 2 @,@ 000 toothpicks . A yo @-@ yo expert by age ten , he soon discovered that he loved performing and competing , eventually winning a C $ 60 bicycle as the champion among 2 @,@ 000 contestants in a Montreal yo @-@ yo competition . He discovered an interest in playing guitar , but his brother disapproved , so he practiced at friends ' homes . He also took up snooker , and became competent enough by the age of thirteen to gain a job as a demonstrator for the Brunswick Corporation , a snooker table manufacturer . Laucke learned billiards from George Chenier , a fellow Montrealer and the North American snooker champion . The two faced each again four years later at the North American snooker championships in Montreal , where Laucke won the championship . Laucke recalls : " Then I decided to leave snooker , I had done what I wanted to do ... My love for the guitar was overwhelming . There was a lot more money in snooker , but snooker was just a passion , and music was my love . " Laucke 's snooker winnings allowed him to finance 110 trips from Montreal to New York City to study the classical guitar with Franco @-@ Spaniard Rolando Valdés @-@ Blain .
= = Early career = =
With Frank Angelo as his manager since 1961 , Laucke performed his first guitar concert in Montreal in 1965 , a program of atonal music with the Société de musique contemporaine du Québec . In 1971 , following the first of his many concerts at the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , The Washington Post proclaimed that Laucke had displayed " the highest form of virtuosity " . His first concert in New York took place in 1972 at the Greenwich House Music School . Senator Claiborne Pell was in attendance and invited Laucke to perform his first concerts in Washington , DC , thus beginning a 15 @-@ year affiliation as Laucke 's active supporter in the U.S. Pell 's former campaign manager , Raymond Nelson , handled logistics for many of Laucke 's U.S. performances . In 1973 , Laucke starred in a documentary produced by Radio @-@ Québec called La Guitare , and he performed at Montreal 's Summer Olympic Games in 1976 .
Laucke studied with several classical guitar masters : Franco – Spaniard Rolando Valdès @-@ Blain from 1963 to 1977 , Julian Bream in 1969 as winner of the Julian Bream Master classes , Alirio Díaz from 1977 to 1979 and Andrés Segovia from 1982 to 1986 . Laucke was introduced to complex and advanced flamenco techniques by Spanish guitarist Paco de Lucía when the two shared a loft in New York City in the early 1970s . During this period , de Lucía and Laucke gave a concert in the Spanish Embassy , where Countess Elsa Peretti , jewelry designer at Tiffany 's , first heard the two guitarists . She immediately invited them to one of her parties at her New York penthouse , where the two guitarists performed in private for the New York City jet set , including fashion designer Calvin Klein , Andy Warhol , Halston , and Giorgio di Sant 'Angelo . The Montreal Gazette noted that these artistic gatherings were : " the closest thing to the 18th century intellectual and artistic salon to be found anywhere these days " . Laucke was frequently hired to play at the launches of Giorgio di Sant ' Angelo 's new fashion lines and later those of Calvin Klein . " I was only 21 at the time , and it all seemed like a dream , " Laucke recalled . In 1977 , he founded Trio 3 with Sayyd Abdul Al @-@ Khabyyr and Pauline Vaillancourt , and the D 'Addario strings @-@ manufacturing company became his sponsor .
His recording of works by William Walton , Richard Rodney Bennett , and François Morel on the Radio Canada International label ( RCI 457 ) won the Canadian Music Council 's Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada in 1979 . The album included Morel 's new composition Me duele España , written for and dedicated to Laucke . The world premiere of the 21 @-@ minute piece took place at Place des Arts in Montreal , under the auspices of the Société de musique contemporaine du Québec .
Later that year , with an increasing number of concerts and recordings , and a busy travel schedule , Laucke became concerned that he would not have enough hours left for practising . He invented a " practiser " : a small , wooden fingerboard with six strings stretched across a bridge . The device measured 8 by 4 inches ( 20 by 10 centimetres ) and allowed him to practice quietly during travel . Laucke found that : " Those extra hours of finger exercises pay off in handsome performance dividends . "
Laucke recorded his last classical album in 1981 with singer Riki Turofsky and Guitar and Lute magazine declared it : " One of the best voice and guitar albums you will ever hear . " Although Laucke had played both classical and flamenco guitar music from an early age , he performed mainly classical guitar works until 1990 . From late 1990 onwards , his concerts have consisted exclusively of many flamenco and new flamenco works he learned from de Lucía .
= = = Teaching = = =
He was a professor of guitar at Concordia University in Montreal in 1976 , but left after two years to pursue a performing career , and has not taught guitar since . Ten years later , however , he released an eight @-@ tape instructional video series , to pass along the knowledge he had learned from his teachers . This video series was reviewed by Guitar Player magazine : " Laucke 's enthusiasm is infectious " and by Frets Magazine : " thoughtful and thorough instruction " . Laucke has also published articles on classical guitar .
= = Style and influences = =
Laucke 's classical / flamenco musical style is a blend of his classical studies with Bream , Segovia , Valdès @-@ Blain , and his friendship with de Lucía . Although classical and flamenco guitar are two quite different musical styles , Québec 's French @-@ language newspaper Le Soleil chronicled Laucke 's feelings and reasoning about performing both .
Since the classical guitar is limited , you eventually look for something else . I was doing flamenco , and I love it . There are more varied techniques in flamenco ; just in the right hand alone , we have 20 of them .
I would like flamenco to become the new jazz ! Flamenco has everything that it takes to follow in the footsteps of jazz and become a language to people of all countries and all cultures . We forget that before being a universal language , jazz was only the mode of expression of blacks in New Orleans ! Like jazz , flamenco is based on improvisation and dialogue between instrumentalists . And flamenco is something even more , since players also interact with the dancers .
( English translation )
His blend of the classical and flamenco styles , sometimes referred to as " new flamenco " ( nuevo flamenco ) , led music critic Eric McLean of the Montreal Gazette to proclaim : " It is Laucke 's interest in flamenco that makes him special : He might be called the first interpreter of flamenco music , in the sense that he borrows these traditional works by Sabicas , Carlos Montoya and Paco de Lucía , and employs them in his own fashion , a practice to which they agree . " Laucke summarized : " The Spanish guitar remains my first love . The flamenco guitar is my passion . " According to The Music Scene magazine published by Society of Composers , Authors and Music Publishers of Canada ( SOCAN ) , he is one of " five of Canada 's best @-@ known soloists " and the Canadian federal and provincial governments gave him " full recognition as the person who has done more for the guitar in this country than anyone else " .
= = = Paco de Lucía = = =
In the 1970s , Laucke moved to New York City to further his career . He was asked by Valdès @-@ Blain if he would mind sharing his one @-@ room apartment with flamenco guitarist Paco de Lucía . Laucke taught de Lucía music by Bach and Villa @-@ Lobos . In return , de Lucía showed Laucke some of the secrets of his art of flamenco , an oral tradition handed down through generations , " their secrets and knowledge jealously guarded " . Although Laucke had played flamenco for his own pleasure since he was a child , he had never felt comfortable playing it in public . De Lucía 's influence helped change this : " This meeting changed my life , " Laucke declared , " he taught me flamenco works which were not written anywhere and to which no other guitarist had access . So for me to be taught all these techniques by a guitarist of Paco 's caliber was an incredible stroke of luck " . ( English translation )
In an interview with the Montreal Gazette , Laucke stated : " [ de Lucía ] was the greatest natural talent I have ever come across . " At the time , Laucke was impressed by a piece called Entre dos aguas ( Between Two Seas ) that de Lucía was creating , which has become arguably his best @-@ known composition . Since de Lucía did not read music , Laucke offered to teach him but he refused . When the question arose as to whether Laucke would ever play de Lucía 's compositions in public , he advised Laucke , " you must do it in your own style " .
He teamed up again with de Lucía to give a series of concerts combining the two repertoires . Many newspapers talked about this association . The Canadian Spanish magazine El Popular stated : " Laucke is convinced that flamenco possesses enormous seductive powers . ' The harmonies and the rhythm leave no one indifferent ' , says Laucke . "
The meeting with de Lucía led Laucke to perform two incompatible guitar styles . In 1991 , he recorded compositions de Lucía taught him on the album Spanish Guitar Stories . De Lucía expressed his approval , saying the album was : " very beautiful , all of it , from a to z , even my pieces ! "
= = = Flamenco Road album = = =
On 12 September 2001 , Laucke released a CD called Flamenco Road , consisting mainly of his own compositions in the new flamenco style , which he also arranged . In an interview for Voir magazine , Laucke stated : " It is also very influenced by my classical background . So it 's a smoother flamenco . " An example of this style from the album can be heard in Laucke 's treatment of the well @-@ known classical guitar transcription " Leyenda " , which is given a flamenco rendition using several percussion instruments ( claves , maracas , special castanets mounted on wood blocks , chimes , and a large gong ) , bass , and flute .
Ten works were recorded at five different studios in Montreal , each chosen for its unique acoustics . The instrumentation for the recording 's title piece , " Flamenco Road " , required the use of 24 tracks . It comprises a combination of four types of guitars — flamenco , Spanish , classical , and electric — and all natural acoustic guitars are played the Spanish way , using all the fingers of the right hand without a pick . The rhythm section includes bongos , four congas , and a rock drum set blended with other percussion instruments such as claves , maracas , and castanets . It further incorporates three dancers performing typical " palmas " ( hand @-@ clapping ) in synchronization , as well as three trumpets , three pianos , and a " country @-@ style " violinist .
The enhanced CD includes two videos : one with interactive live concert footage filmed during Laucke 's tenth season at Montreal ’ s Place des Arts , and the other with the video clip of " Flamenco Road " . The latter reached number one on video charts across Canada for five consecutive weeks .
= = Contributions to the guitar repertoire = =
= = = Transcriptions = = =
SOCAN lists 112 classical works transcribed for the guitar by Laucke , illustrating the extent to which he has broadened the guitar 's repertoire in music of the Renaissance , classical , baroque , and romantic eras , as well as in flamenco . Library and Archives Canada and Canadian Libraries list 43 music recordings , music scores of transcriptions for guitar and Canadian guitar articles written by Laucke . Waterloo Music Company published and distributed 24 of Laucke 's guitar transcriptions of works by J. S. Bach , Luis de Narváez , Eric Satie , Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos and others .
= = = = Trois Gymnopédies by Eric Satie = = = =
While living in Greenwich Village , New York , in the early 1970s , Laucke became interested in the French music of Eric Satie , " the world 's first hippie " . At that time , only simplified arrangements of Trois Gymnopédies ( Three Gymnopédies ) existed for the guitar , so Laucke set out to transcribe Satie 's three works from the piano score . Determined to fit all of the notes from the original piano version using the guitar 's six strings , over the course of three weeks he calculated the number of times open strings would occur per note .
In 1979 , Laucke signed with the Waterloo Music Publishing Company , which that year published the sheet music of his transcription of Trois Gymnopédies , the first of many of his transcriptions to be published by Waterloo and arguably the only version for guitar to include all of the notes of the original piano composition . In 1985 , the company created The Michael Laucke Series of guitar arrangements and transcriptions .
In the introductory notes to his sheet music for Trois Gymnopédies , Laucke comments : " The characteristic harmonies of much of the music of Erik Satie belong to the impressionist period and , though originally written for the piano , are extremely well @-@ suited to the natural idiomatic expression of the guitar . This has led me to make these transcriptions which will enrich the repertoire of the guitar while remaining faithful to Satie 's intentions . "
After giving many concert performances of these works , Laucke recorded them on his CD entitled Flamenco Road which held the number one position on video charts across Canada for six weeks . The liner notes read : " My arrangements of ' The [ sic ] Three Gymnopédies ' comprise ALL the notes of the original piano versions : a most complex process since all the piano sounds must fit comfortably , or uncomfortably , onto the six strings of the guitar . " He continues to say : " The present recording is done as it is in concert , on one classical guitar , without overdubbing . My tempo is a little quicker than when the pieces are played on the piano , due to the shorter resonance time of notes played on the Spanish guitar . Now and then , I use a ' vibrato ' and slides , which , of course , can 't be done on the piano but which add warmth of expression to this undeniably charming , exotic and mystic music . "
= = = Original works = = =
Laucke has had 25 original , Canadian atonal works written for him , among them the Flamenco Concierto for guitar and full symphonic orchestra by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent , Me duele España by François Morel , Exploration by Jean Papineau @-@ Couture and Pour guitare , Claude Vivier 's only work for the guitar . Laucke performed all 25 works in major halls , on CBC radio and on his record albums ; all of them were commissioned by , and dedicated to , Laucke .
In 1984 , critics began to take note of the growth of new Canadian guitar works energized by Laucke . In La Presse , a Canadian newspaper , music critic Claude Gingras found in Laucke " an interpreter who could not be more convincing " . Canadian composer Claude Vivier expressed his appreciation to Laucke . In his letters , Vivier states that he had : " hardly ever met a musician as committed and dedicated , of such great quality and , above all , of such great completeness and intense capacity for work " .
= = World tours = =
Laucke 's career spans over 50 years , with concert and television appearances in 25 countries , including England ( Wigmore Hall ) , the U.S. ( Carnegie Hall , and the White House ) , as well as China , on the Great Wall of China . Other countries where Laucke performed include Bulgaria , Hungary , Hong Kong , Spain , Israel , India , Japan , Morocco , Pakistan , and Russia . In Canada , he has given annual concerts at Montreal 's Place des Arts since 1986 . Following a concert in 1990 in Quebec City 's Grand Théâtre de Québec , the French @-@ language newspaper Le Soleil wrote a review entitled " Michael Laucke makes one fall in love with the guitar " , stating : " More than a virtuoso , charismatic Michael Laucke is pure talent ! For him playing is instinctive , just like breathing ... irresistible Michael Laucke . " Critics have often written about Laucke 's stage presence . A Chicago music critic described how : " His relaxed manner , beaming smile and gracious speaking voice won the hearts of the audience before he even played a note . "
He performed many concerts in Washington , DC , under the auspices of U.S. Senator Claiborne Pell , including several at the National Gallery of Art . The Washington Post proclaimed that Laucke is : " one of the finest guitarists to have played in Washington in a long time . " On another occasion , Laucke gave the premiere of Bregent 's " Version of Sapho , " written for him , an atonal work which received a less favorable critique . The Washington Post stated : " Since the mind can only respond to some sort of form , its essential formlessness precludes discussion . A triad out of the blue signaled the end , which the large audience recognized and applauded . "
= = Personal life = =
In 1994 , Laucke became a director of the Mac AIDS Fund ( M · A · F ) established by his friend Frank Angelo , the co @-@ founder of MAC Cosmetics . After a fourteen @-@ year tenure , he became honorary charter member of the board of directors and no longer participated in its activities . According to Laucke , MAF 's directors helped coordinate the film Pandemic : Facing AIDS by Rory Kennedy , and MAF became a secondary sponsor while the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation became title sponsor .
= = Present day = =
After over 50 years of concert performances , Laucke continues an active career . Besides numerous concert appearances in North America , he has recently accepted more international tours . A new album called Flamenco Road 2 is in preparation as of September 2015 . He is also an entrepreneur and businessman in the music industry .
In 2012 , Laucke was nominated for the Order of Canada Lifetime Achievement Award . In 2015 , he was again nominated for the same award ; the results will be announced in 2016 .
= = Media = =
= = = Audio = = =
= = = Video = = =
= = Selected works = =
= = = CD = = =
Flamenco Road ( 2001 )
Michael Laucke & Fiesta Flamenco : Live ( 1996 )
Spanish Guitar ( 1993 )
Momentum – IMAX Film ( the music ) ( 1992 )
Spanish Guitar Stories ( 1991 )
Light Classics ( 1990 )
= = = LP = = =
Take A Short Cut ( 1989 )
Canadian Guitar Music ( 1987 )
Music For Jacques Cartier ( 1986 )
Canadian Guitar Quartet : Live From ( 1985 )
Com @-@ Possession ( 1985 )
Divergences ( 1984 )
Jade Eyes ( 1980 )
Michael Laucke , Guitarist : Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada , ( 1979 )
Trio 3 ( 1979 )
Transcription ( 1969 )
= = = Filmography = = =
Momentum ( IMAX film ) ( 1992 )
I Won 't Dance ( 1991 )
How to Play Solo Classical Guitar ( 1985 )
Michael Laucke : Guitar recital , CBC ( 1983 )
Segovia : Metropolitan museum : a master class , PBS ( 1982 )
Form & Fire : Michael Laucke ( 1981 )
Musique instrumentale : La guitare ( 1973 )
= = = Atonal works written for Laucke = = =
The following works have been performed by Laucke in Carnegie Hall ( performing Jean Papineau @-@ Couture ) , Wigmore Hall ( Michel @-@ Georges Brégent ) , and National Gallery of Art ( Michel Gonneville ) . In Canada , the SMCQ honoured Laucke 's contribution by featuring him in a two @-@ hour @-@ long concert .
Départ by François Morel ( 1970 )
Iikkii by François Morel ( 1970 )
Pour Guitare by Claude Vivier ( 1976 )
Le Cercle gnostique by Walter Boudreau ( 1976 )
Me duele españa by François Morel ( 1979 )
Contrastare no 1 by David Eagle ( 1980 )
La Fille du Pecheur by Alan Crossman ( 1981 )
Calme en soi by Bruno Deschênes ( 1981 )
Quatre études , Anachorétisme , Quatre mouvements by Claude Lassonde ( 1982 )
Image et Sonoritéé , Silène pur Satyre , La Règne by Claude Lassonde ( 1982 )
Com @-@ possession by John Rea ( 1983 )
... ascends at full moon by John Burke
Exploration by Jean Papineau @-@ Couture ( 1983 )
Le Sommeil , le Regard , le Choix by Michel Gonneville ( 1983 )
Three Amerindian Songs , Prelude by Wolfgang Bottenberg ( 1983 )
Sapho by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent ( 1983 )
Divergence by François Morel ( 1983 )
Pas de deux by Denis Dion ( 1983 )
Cobwebs in my Spanish castle by Leon Zukert ( 1983 )
Chamber Concierto for guitar by Donald Steven ( 1986 )
Concierto Flamenco by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent ( 1991 )
= = Articles = =
Laucke has published articles in music journals about the growth in popularity of the guitar in Canada including :
" The Guitar in Canada " ( five pages ) — Soundboard Magazine , California
" Growth of the Guitar in Canada " , by Michael Laucke ( six pages ) — Guitar and Lute magazine , Hawaii
" Michael Laucke Writes About the Canadian Guitar " — Waterloo Music Journal , Canada
= = Timeline = =
1976 , he performed at Montreal 's Olympic Games
1979 , Laucke won the Grand Prix du Disque @-@ Canada for Best Canadian Recording
1981 , Laucke was invited to perform a Command performance for His Excellency the Right Honourable Edward Schreyer the Governor General of Canada and his wife , as winner of the Jules Léger Prize for New Chamber Music
March 1982 , Laucke 's album Jade Eyes , for CBS records , was reviewed by Guitar and Lute magazine ( Hawaii ) as the best international classical guitar album of the year
1982 , he was selected by Segovia to perform a 25 @-@ minute work by Manuel Ponce which was filmed by the PBS network at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , after which he became Segovia 's pupil .
1985 , 8 to 12 February — five days of interviews and career profile , two hours each day , on CBC Radio 's Morningside with Peter Gzowski
1986 , on the 450th anniversary of Jacques Cartier 's first voyage of discovery to Canada , Canadian Heritage requested that Laucke record a commemorative album . Laucke recorded music that Cartier would have heard on his voyage to the new world
1986 , several musical publications mention Laucke 's contribution to the guitar and its new repertoire . SOCAN , the Canadian copyright organization , stated in The Music Scene magazine , that they considered Laucke to be one of " five of Canada 's best @-@ known soloists "
1986 , he created an instructional video series which was critically reviewed by Guitar Player magazine and Frets Magazine .
May 1988 , two years later , Canada 's music Critic Emeritus Eric McLean wrote in the Montreal Gazette that Laucke was then recognized as : " the person who has done more for the guitar in this country than anyone else "
1991 , Laucke performed the world premiere of the Flamenco Concierto with the Montreal Symphony Orchestra . Written for him by Michel @-@ Georges Brégent , reviewers called it " Brilliant " .
1992 , Laucke performed in a Super IMAX film called Momentum , for the National Film Board of Canada ; it was shown in the Canadian pavilion during the Universal Exposition of Seville ( Expo ' 92 ) — a world 's fair . The most popular pavilions for the visitors were those of Spain and Canada . Co @-@ directed by Colin Low , it is the first film in 48 frames per second IMAX HD .
12 September 2001 , Laucke 's CD Flamenco Road reached number one on video charts across Canada for five consecutive weeks
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= Sacrifice ( 2005 ) =
Sacrifice ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on August 14 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first show of the Sacrifice series and eighth event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Nine professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match were featured on the card .
The main event was a Tag Team match between the team of Jeff Jarrett and Rhino facing the team of Raven and Sabu , in which if Jarrett pinned Raven he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match . If Raven pinned Jarrett in the contest , then Jarrett would not receive a championship match for an entire year . Jarrett and Rhino won the match , with Rhino scoring the pin . The Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament took place at Sacrifice between A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe . Joe defeated Styles in the encounter , thus becoming number @-@ one contender to the TNA X Division Championship and winning the 2005 Super X Cup trophy . Also on the card was Jerry Lynn versus Sean Waltman , which Lynn won . B.G. James was Special Guest Referee for a Tag Team match between the team of Kip James and Monty Brown and the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) , which the latter won . TNA also promoted an Internet Dream match for the show that involved an internet poll to decide who would face then @-@ TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels . Austin Aries was the chosen opponent ; Daniels defeated him at the event .
Sacrifice is remembered for the Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament . Corey David Lacroix of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer posted a review of the gathering , stating he felt " there was not a single bad match " on the card .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
TNA issued a press release in May 2005 announcing that they would be holding a PPV titled Sacrifice on August 14 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . TNA created a section covering the event on their website . TNA released a poster prior featuring Raven and the tagline " Pain " . TNA produced a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show for Sacrifice featuring the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki against the team of Jerrelle Clark and Mikey Batts . An " Internet Dream match " was promoted for the event . It consisted on a poll to determine then @-@ TNA X Division Champion Christopher Daniels ' opponent in a non @-@ title bout . Austin Aries , Jay Lethal , and Roderick Strong were the choices in the poll ; Aries won , thus setting up Daniels versus Aries .
= = = Storylines = = =
Sacrifice featured nine professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match that involved wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines portraying villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters ; these scripted events built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Sacrifice was a Tag Team match between the team of Jeff Jarrett and Rhino and the team of Raven and Sabu . This match was the result of an existing rivalry between Raven and Jarrett over the NWA World Heavyweight Championship which Raven held . At TNA 's previous PPV event No Surrender on July 17 , Raven defeated Abyss in a No Surrender Dog Collar match to retain the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . After the encounter , Jarrett distracted Raven , allowing Rhino to attack Raven from behind . On the July 22 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Jarrett and Rhino claimed that Raven had no allies to help defend himself before they physically assaulted him . Cassidy Riley had previously pledged allegiance to Raven , even aiding Raven in his match at No Surrender . During the July 29 episode of Impact ! , Rhino and Jarrett attacked Riley , believing he would aid Raven in some way . Afterwards , Raven announced he had chosen a partner to team with him to face Jarrett and Rhino at Sacrifice . Sabu then made his TNA return revealing himself as Raven 's partner by attacking Jarrett and Rhino .
The Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament were scheduled for Sacrifice . Over the weeks leading up to Sacrifice on Impact ! , TNA held the eight @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament to decide which two would compete for the 2005 Super X Cup trophy and who would earn a future TNA X Division Championship match . A.J. Styles , Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Matt Bentley , Petey Williams , Samoa Joe , Shocker , and Sonjay Dutt all competed in the tournament . Joe defeated Dutt , Shelley defeated Shocker , Styles defeated Bentley , and Williams defeated Sabin in the Quarterfinals on the respective July 22 and July 29 episodes of Impact ! to advance to the Semifinals . In the Semifinals , Joe defeated Shelley and Styles defeated Williams to advance to the Finals at Sacrifice on the August 5 and August 10 episodes of Impact ! , respectively . With their victories , Joe versus Styles in the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament Final was scheduled for Sacrifice .
Jerry Lynn versus Sean Waltman was also promoted for Sacrifice . At No Surrender , Lynn was Special Guest Referee for a bout between Styles and Waltman , which Styles won after aid from Lynn . TNA created a storyline from this and Lynn and Waltman 's past real @-@ life friendship . On the July 22 episode of Impact ! , Waltman accused Lynn of trying to steal his spotlight in a backstage segment , while Lynn took credit for Waltman 's success . Lynn argued that he was the one who helped get Waltman into the industry as well as early success thanks to a critically acclaimed series of matches the two had in the past . The segment ended with Waltman challenging Lynn to a match at Sacrifice , which Lynn accepted . This bout was also promoted as a clash between two pioneers of TNA 's X Division style .
At No Surrender , the team of Kip James and Monty Brown fought the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) in a Tag Team Street Fight . Brown and Kip won the encounter , however , during the bout Kip assaulted several TNA personnel . As such , a storyline developed in which referees refused to participate in future encounters involving Kip . After a rematch between the two teams was announced for Sacrifice on the July 22 episode of Impact ! , a segment took place between referees Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson and NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko . In the segment , each refused to referee the bout at Sacrifice , telling Zbyszko he would need to find a replacement . Former 3Live Kru member B.G. James was appointed the Special Guest Referee by Zbyszko for the bout at Sacrifice on the July 29 episode of Impact ! .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
TNA held a thirty minute pre @-@ show prior to the event , during which the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki defeated the team of Jerrelle Clark and Mikey Batts in a bout lasting 4 minutes and 27 seconds . A segment took place on the pre @-@ show between Larry Zbyszko , Jeff Jarrett , and TNA commentator Mike Tenay , in which Jarrett questioned Zbyszko on whether he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match if he pinned Raven during the main event . Zbyszko agreed he would earn the title shot , however , adding if Raven pinned Jarrett then Jarrett would not have a title match for a full year .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Sacrifice , as well as the pre @-@ show , featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash ( for the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Finals only ) and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Shane Douglas handled the interview duties for the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Cassidy Riley , James Mitchell , Jimmy Hart , and Zbyszko all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
A Six Man Tag Team match pitting the team of Chris Sabin , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt against The Diamonds in the Rough ( Elix Skipper , David Young , and Simon Diamond ) was the first bout of the telecast . Its duration was 7 minutes and 21 seconds . Sabin won the encounter for his team by pinning Skipper with a small package pin .
Alex Shelley fought Shocker in the second match on the show . Shelley won the contest with a roll @-@ up pin with his feet on the ropes for leverage at 8 minutes and 50 seconds .
Abyss , who was accompanied by James Mitchell , versus Lance Hoyt was the following encounter . It lasted 9 minutes and 9 seconds . Mitchell interfered in the bout by handing Abyss a steel chair , which was taken by the referee before Abyss could use it . Hoyt gained a near @-@ fall after kicking the chair into Abyss ' face . Abyss also gained a near @-@ fall after slamming Hoyt back @-@ first into the mat with his signature Black Hole Slam maneuver . Hoyt earned another near @-@ fall by laying a steel chair across Abyss ' chest while Abyss laid in one of the six turnbuckle corners , then jumping off the opposing ring ropes and dropkicking the steel chair into Abyss ' chest . Abyss won the contest after performing the Black Hole Slam .
A Tag Team match with B.G. James as Special Guest Referee between the 3Live Kru ( Konnan and Ron Killings ) and the team of Kip James and Monty Brown was next . It lasted 7 minutes and 45 seconds . Konnan took off his shoe during the match and began to use it as a weapon . He attempted to throw it at Brown and Kip , however , he accidentally struck B.G. in the process . Later , Kip attempted to attack Konnan with a steel chair but was stopped by B.G. Kip in returned shoved B.G. , which caused B.G. to punch Kip in retaliation . Konnan then grabbed the chair and bashed Kip over the head with it to score the pinfall victory for his team .
In the fifth match , Christopher Daniels fought Austin Aries in what was promoted as the Internet Dream match . Daniels and Aries each gained several near @-@ falls during the encounter . Daniels won the contest by slamming Aries face @-@ first against the mat with his signature Angel Wings maneuver at 9 minutes and 35 seconds .
= = = Main event matches = = =
In the next scheduled match Jerry Lynn faced Sean Waltman . The contest duration was 15 minutes and 31 seconds . During the bout while Lynn stood on the ring apron , Waltman attempted to suplex him back into the ring , however , Lynn countered and instead suplexed Waltman over the ring ropes and down to the floor . Waltman scored a near @-@ fall following a groin hit and slamming Lynn 's face into the mat with his signature X @-@ Factor maneuver . Chris Sabin , Shark Boy , and Sonjay Dutt came from the backstage area to view this encounter from ringside . Lynn gained the pinfall on Waltman after countering a scoop powerslam into a victory roll pin . Following the bout , Waltman and Lynn shook hands and hugged in a display of mutual respect . This instead was a trick by Waltman , allowing him to attack Lynn and bash Lynn 's arm with a steel chair while it was draped over the ring apron until Dutt , Sabin , and Shark Boy came to Lynn 's aid .
TNA held an Eight Man Tag Team match pitting the team of America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) , who were accompanied by Jimmy Hart , against Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 , Bobby Roode , Eric Young , and Petey Williams ) . A brawl ensued during the bout after The Naturals performed their signature Natural Disaster tag team maneuver on Young . This resulted in A @-@ 1 , Douglas , Storm , Young , and Williams fighting at the ringside area until Harris jumped off the top of a padded turnbuckle onto the group with a splash . Williams attempted to bash Storm with a hockey stick , but missed allowing Storm to toss him to the floor . Meanwhile , Roode scored the pinfall on Stevens with a small package pin while holding his tights for leverage at 11 minutes and 11 seconds .
The Finals of the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament was next between A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe . The duration of the encounter was 15 minutes and 15 seconds . Christopher Daniels provided commentary for this contest , due to him labeling the tournament the Christopher Daniels Invitational and being the TNA X Division Champion at the time . The winner of this match won the silver Super X Cup trophy and became number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship , earning a title match against Daniels at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 . In the beginning while Styles was laying against the ring ropes , Joe ran across the ring and kicked him in the face , causing him to fly out of the ring and crash against the floor . Joe then followed by diving through the ring ropes and smashing Styles in the face with his forearm once Styles reached his feet . Later , Styles held Joe on his shoulders before twisting him off into a powerbomb for what he calls a Rack Bomb . However , during the move referee Andrew Thomas was knocked unconscious after being kicked in the face , which allowed Daniels to interfere in the contest attacking Styles and attempting to attack Joe with the X Division Title belt before Styles threw Daniels from the ring . Joe followed by lifting Styles up and performing his signature Muscle Buster maneuver by slamming Styles back and neck @-@ first into the mat before placing Styles in his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold . Once the referee came too Styles submitted to the move , giving the victory to Joe and thus Joe winning the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament and a X Division Championship match at Unbreakable .
The main event was a Tag Team match pitting the team of Jeff Jarrett and Monty Brown against the team of Raven and Sabu . An added stipulation to this bout was if Jarrett pinned Raven he would earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match , however , if Raven pinned Jarrett then he would not garner one for an entire year . Despite this match being under standard tag team rules in which there are disqualifications and count outs , the participants used weapons and fought outside the ring for an extended period . In the beginning , Raven used a pizza cutter to cut open Jarrett 's forehead , causing him to bleed . Both teams used trashcans and steel chairs during the bout . Abyss interfered in the bout attacking Sabu by throwing him over the top rope and through a table at ringside . Jeff Hardy then interfered in the match attacking Jarrett and Rhino with a steel chair . Hardy then performed his signature Twist of Fate maneuver by forcing Jarrett 's face into the mat . He followed by doing a front @-@ flip splash off the top of a padded turnbuckle . Afterwards , Raven covered Jarrett for a two count . Rhino gained the pinfall at 16 minutes and 23 seconds on Raven after tackling Raven with his signature Gore maneuver through a table .
= = Reception = =
A total of 775 people attended Sacrifice . Canadian Online Explorer writer Corey David Lacroix felt " there was not a single bad match " on the show . Lacorix also commented saying " With less than two months before they make their national debut on Spike TV , Total Nonstop Action needed to show everyone in the wrestling business that they are prepared to do what needs to be done to elevate their product above everyone else . Last night at TNA 's Sacrifice pay per view the promotion clearly did so , showing everyone they have a vision and are willing and able to take it to a new level of intensity . " Lacroix rated the main event and Jerry Lynn versus Sean Waltman a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The Super X Cup Finals and the Abyss versus Lance Hoyt bouts were each rated an 8 out of 10 , which were his highest ratings of the review . His lowest went to the 3Live Kru versus Kip James and Monty Brown Tag Team match , with 4 out of 10 . Speaking on the main event , Lacorix felt it was a " well @-@ executed , high @-@ octane , hardcore match with all four giving a good performance . " Lacorix believed that the Super X Cup Finals " could have been a certified Match of the Year contender if someone in the back had not decided to make Daniels interfere in this contest . " He went on to state the match " was a thing of beauty that got stained . "
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch rated the main event and the Christopher Daniels versus Austin Aries encounter 3 and a fourth stars out of 5 . Regrading the main event , Keller felt it was a " good chaotic bag @-@ o @-@ tricks match . " As for the Daniels versus Aries , Keller stated " it was very good . " Keller 's highest rating of his review went to the Super X Cup Finals with 4 and a fourth stars out of 5 , which Keller believed was a " four star match that was begging to be given an extra ten minutes to be a match of the year candidate . " Meanwhile , the Lynn versus Waltman bout was ranked 3 and three @-@ fourth stars out of 5 , with Keller stating it was a " very smartly executed match , which told a story without the frenetic pace of so many TNA spotfests – yet it still had enough good highspots to not feel old fashioned or conservative . "
= = Aftermath = =
A.J. Styles received a tendon injury during his bout with Samoa Joe at Sacrifice . TNA Management did not have him wrestle on the proceeding Impact ! tapings , hoping to keep him rested in order to not chance any further injury despite the belief in him not expecting to be sidelined long . Styles , however , was forced to cancel a scheduled appearance for the Ring of Honor promotion on August 20 , but appeared for the promotion the following week on August 27 at their Dragon 's Gate Invasion event in a losing effort against CIMA . On the August 19 episode of Impact ! , it was announced Jerry Lynn received a shoulder injury from Waltman 's attack following their bout , and would be sidelined for at least one month in the storyline .
After winning the 2005 TNA Super X Cup Tournament , Joe was scheduled to face Christopher Daniels for the TNA X Division Championship at TNA 's next PPV event Unbreakable . However , Styles ended up assaulting Daniels on the August 19 episode of Impact ! , as revenge for Daniels ' interference at Sacrifice . Daniels demanded Styles be suspended due to the attack , but the request was declined by NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko . Instead Zbyszko added Styles to the contest at Unbreakable on the August 26 episode of Impact ! , thus making it a Three Way match for the TNA X Division Championship . Styles ended up gaining the pinfall on Daniels during the main event of the show , thus winning the championship .
Following Sacrifice , TNA announced on their website that Rhino was considered the new number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . On the August 19 episode of Impact ! , Mike Tenay announced that Raven and Rhino would face for the title at Unbreakable . At the event , the match was given a Raven 's Rule stipulation , which aided Raven in retaining the championship as he pinned Rhino to win the encounter .
Abyss and Sabu engaged in a rivalry following the event , with the two facing in a No Disqualification match at Unbreakable , which Abyss won . The two then fought in a Four Way Monster 's Ball match , also involving Rhino and Jeff Hardy , at TNA 's Bound for Glory PPV event on October 23 . Rhino won the contest at the gathering . At TNA 's Genesis PPV event on November 13 , Abyss and Sabu fought in another No Disqualification match , with Abyss coming out the victor . The two ended their rivalry at TNA 's Turning Point PPV event on December 11 , where Sabu defeated Abyss in the first @-@ ever Barbed Wire Massacre .
TNA held The Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament in the weeks leading up to Unbreakable . It involved eight randomly assigned teams , with the team of Alex Shelley and Sean Waltman defeating Chris Sabin and Shocker in the Finals on the September 9 episode of Impact ! . Due to winning the tournament , Shelley and Waltman gained entry into a Four Way Elimination match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship at Unbreakable which also involved then @-@ champions The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) , and Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 and Eric Young ) . Waltman ended up missing the event for unknown reasons , with Chris Candido 's legitimate brother Johnny Candido taking Waltman 's place as Shelley 's partner . The Naturals ended up retaining the championship at the event .
The feud between the 3Live Kru ( B.G. James , Konnan , and Ron Killings ) and Kip James and Monty Brown ended following Sacrifice . The 3Live Kru went on to defeat The Diamonds in the Rough ( David Young , Elix Skipper , and Simon Diamond ) at Unbreakable , while Brown and Kip defeated Apolo and Lance Hoyt at the show .
TNA Management were impressed with Aries ' performance in his match with Daniels at the gathering that they stated they wished to bring him in for another match down the line . This led to Aries facing another non @-@ TNA contracted wrestler Roderick Strong at Unbreakable , which Aries won .
= = Results = =
Tournament bracket
|
= Disturbia ( song ) =
" Disturbia " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded ( 2008 ) , a re @-@ release of her third studio album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . It was written by Andre Merritt , Chris Brown , Brian Kennedy and Rob . A ! , with production of the song helmed by Kennedy . The song was released as the third single from the reloaded edition of the album , and seventh overall . " Disturbia " was sent to US Contemporary hit radio on June 17 , 2008 , and was released as a CD single in the United Kingdom on July 22 , 2008 .
" Disturbia " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop and electropop song with a " sizzling " beat . Lyrically , the song is about the experiences of anguish , anxiety and confusion . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who generally praised its dark musical tone , lyrics and beat , and noted that it is reminiscent of Rihanna 's previous single , " Don 't Stop the Music " ( 2007 ) . " Disturbia " earned Rihanna an award for Best International Song at the 2009 NRJ Music Awards and a nomination for Best Dance Recording at the 2009 Grammy Awards .
" Disturbia " was a commercial success , and peaked at number one in Belgium ( Flanders ) and New Zealand and became a top @-@ ten hit in more than twenty countries including Australia , Canada and the United Kingdom . The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for two consecutive weeks , and became Rihanna 's third number @-@ one single from Good Girl Gone Bad and fourth overall on the Hot 100 . The accompanying music video for " Disturbia " was directed by Anthony Mandler , which portrays Rihanna in various locations such as in a prison cell and gas chamber . " Disturbia " has regularly featured on the set lists of Rihanna 's tours and live performances since its release .
= = Background = =
" Disturbia " was written by American recording artist Chris Brown and his team which included Brian Kennedy , Rob . A and Andre Merritt , better known as the Graffiti Artizts . The track was originally considered to be part of the re @-@ release edition of Brown 's second studio album , Exclusive ( 2007 ) . However , after finishing the song , he took preference to another song , " Forever " , which later became the lead single from his re @-@ released album , titled Exclusive : The Forever Edition ( 2008 ) . He felt that " Disturbia " would be better suited for a female singer and instead forwarded the song to Rihanna . When writing the song , he was inspired " to go totally left and kind of weird " . Speaking to USA Today , Brown described his feelings with regard to him giving the song to Rihanna : " It 's fun being creative and even if you have a concept in your head to write about , you can write it and give it and give it to someone else because it might not personally fit you , but it might be an idea you have . "
" Disturbia " was recorded in 2008 at Rocky Mountain Recorders in Denver , Colorado . Speaking to Nick Levine of Digital Spy , Rihanna explained : " I went into the studio making music my way . I found myself all at once . " In an interview on This Morning , Rihanna said that the song is not necessarily about a specific personal experience , but rather the general feelings of mental anguish , anxiety and confusion . Rihanna further explained that she wanted to record the song because she felt that listeners would be able to relate to the subject matter . When Good Girl Gone Bad was repackaged , Rihanna approached L.A. Reid , boss of Def Jam , suggesting to release " Disturbia " as a single and follow @-@ up to " Take a Bow " . Speaking to MTV News , Reid said , " It was the first time Rihanna actually came to me and said , ' Here 's the song I want to put out . ' She played me the song . That was her taking control [ ... ] She understands what hits are , and she knows what she wants to say . She 's at that place where she can do that . "
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Disturbia " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop and electropop song with a " sizzling " beat . The song is reminiscent of Rihanna 's previous single " Don 't Stop the Music " ( 2007 ) . The rock @-@ tinged song opens with a horror movie @-@ like scream , followed by the hook " Bum @-@ bum @-@ be @-@ dum @-@ bum @-@ bum @-@ be @-@ dum @-@ bum " which has been likened to the " Ella @-@ ella @-@ ella @-@ ey @-@ ey " hook from " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) . It then transitions into a spoken part , where Rihanna says , " What 's wrong with me ? / Why do I feel like this ? / I 'm going crazy now ! " , before the first verse begins . Some critics interpreted it as Rihanna singing about being frightened but felt that lyrically , it made no sense .
Fraser McAplpine from BBC Music has claimed that the song 's chorus can be likened to Eiffel 65 's " Blue ( Da Ba Dee ) " ( 1999 ) . According to digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Disturbia " is composed in a key of B minor and is set in common time with a moderate techno @-@ pop groove . Rihanna 's vocal range spans from the lower note of F3 to the high note of D5 and the track follows a chord progression of Bm @-@ D @-@ A @-@ G in the verses and chorus . The song features various vocal effects , namely the use of Auto @-@ Tune and a vocoder in contrast with the detached electronic bounce of the song and its weaving , winding melody .
= = Reception and accolades = =
" Disturbia " received positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Josh Tyrangiel of Time complimented the song 's " rubber @-@ ball melodies that bounce around your head " . Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy said that unlike the usual seventh single release by an artist , " Disturbia " is one Rihanna 's stronger releases and that it proves that she is ruling ' 08 much like she did ' 07 . He went on to describe it as a " fun @-@ packed electro treat filled with sizzling beats and crazy vocal effects . " Fletcher further highlighted the song 's strong intro hook and said that the chorus is her catchiest since " Umbrella " . Spence D of IGN felt that the track has an infectious " Bum @-@ bum @-@ be @-@ dum @-@ bum @-@ bum " hook that sucks you into the detached electronic bounce of the track . Jaime Gill from Yahoo ! Music highlighted the song 's " insistent hook , sturdy beat and weaving , winding melody . " Fraser McAlpine from the BBC Music deemed the song 's plus points to be Rihanna 's icy whine , the frosty @-@ rave chorus and the Eiffel 65 @-@ like refrain .
Billboard ranked the song at number nine on its list of " Songs of the Summer of 2008 " . Time Magazine has named the song on number two on its list of ' 10 Best Songs of the Summer ' , only behind Kid Rock 's " All Summer Long " . According to Caryn Ganz , a reviewer from the US @-@ based magazine Rolling Stone , " Disturbia " was the second best song of 2008 , only behind MGMT 's " Kids " . The song won the award for Best International Song at the 2009 NRJ Music Awards , however , after a miscommunication , Katy Perry accepted the award for her single " I Kissed A Girl " . Later , the awards host Nikos Aliagas admitted that originally Rihanna won the award . The song also earned Rihanna a nomination for Best Dance Recording at the 51st Grammy Awards , but lost to Daft Punk 's " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Disturbia " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number eighteen on June 26 , 2008 , becoming Rihanna 's sixth top 20 from Good Girl Gone Bad . In the issue dated August 14 , 2008 the song topped the chart , selling 148 @,@ 000 downloads according to Nielsen SoundScan and replaced Katy Perry 's " I Kissed A Girl " after seven weeks reign . " Disturbia " became Rihanna 's fourth number @-@ one song on the chart only after " SOS " , " Umbrella " and " Take a Bow " , and tied her with Beyoncé and Mariah Carey for most number @-@ one singles of the decade . The single topped the chart for two consecutive weeks . For the Billboard issue dated September 13 , 2008 , " Disturbia " also topped both the Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Dance Airplay charts . The song also peaked at number one on the US Billboard Pop Songs , becoming her third number one on the chart , after " Unfaithful " and " Take a Bow " . " Disturbia " has been certified six @-@ times platinum by the RIAA , having sold 4 @.@ 8 million digital copies as of June 2015 , marking Rihanna 's third best @-@ selling single in the country . The song was also successful in Canada , where it peaked at number two on the Canadian Hot 100 , remaining at the position for five weeks .
In the United Kingdom , following the release of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , " Disturbia " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number forty @-@ seven due to strong digital sales . After the release of the music video , the song re @-@ entered the chart at number forty @-@ seven , ultimately peaking at number three from digital sales . The song remained within the top ten for eleven weeks , marking Rihanna 's eighth top ten single in the country . " Disturbia " also became Rihanna 's third longest charting single in the UK , having spent 36 weeks in the top 100 , being passed only by " Don 't Stop the Music " and the worldwide hit single " Umbrella " . " Disturbia " has sold over 430 @,@ 000 copies in the country as of 2010 .
Elsewhere in Europe , " Disturbia " managed to reach the top ten in fifteen other countries . The song debuted on number three in France and stayed there for one week . Disturbia stayed on the French Singles Chart for 36 weeks , becoming Rihanna 's second longest charting single on it , only after " Only Girl ( In the World ) . The single was more successful in Belgium ( Flanders ) where it peaked at number one and managed to peak at number four in Belgium ( Wallonia ) . It was later certified Gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association for selling over 10 @,@ 000 copies . In Spain , " Disturbia " reached a peak of ten and was also certified Gold by the Productores de Música de España . The song managed to reach number two in Finland , number three in Norway , number four in Austria , Denmark , Hungary , the Republic of Ireland , Sweden and Switzerland , number five in Germany , number seven in Slovakia , and number ten in Czech Republic and Netherlands . It also reached number one in New Zealand , becoming Rihanna 's third number one single , and her first since " Umbrella " . On August 23 , 2009 " Disturbia " was certified Platinum , for selling over 15 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , it managed to reach number six . It was certified Gold on the downloads alone , before the physical release several weeks later , when it was subsequently certified Platinum .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " Disturbia " was filmed on July 1 , 2008 in Los Angeles , California . Originally , it was reported that the video was directed by American photographer and director , David LaChapelle , who previously directed Christina Aguilera 's " Dirrty " ( 2002 ) and Gwen Stefani 's " Rich Girl " ( 2004 ) . However , later sources surfaced stating that the video was directed by Rihanna 's long collaborator Anthony Mandler , who previously directed her music videos for " Shut Up and Drive " ( 2007 ) , " Hate That I Love You " ( 2007 ) and " Take a Bow " ( 2008 ) . Rihanna also co @-@ directed the video , becoming her second work after the co @-@ direction for the 2007 single " Don 't Stop the Music " . The " Disturbia " music video , was released exclusively on iTunes on July 22 , 2008 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The music video for " Disturbia " begins in a surrealistic , circus @-@ like torture chamber where Rihanna is seen dressed in black , wearing dark make @-@ up and having long black nails while she presses the keys of a big dark piano and looks into the camera . As the song starts different images of Rihanna are shown . In one of the scenes she is seen imprisoned wearing lenses that make look as if her eyes have rolled into the back of her head . Rihanna stays in the prison with two men watching on her from the both sides . Other scenes include Rihanna sitting on a throne chair and singing the song , while two strange women are around her . Then , multiple people around her are holding her in front of a gas chamber . As the chorus starts Rihanna is seen tied up in a bed from which she can 't get out . At the bridge of the song Rihanna and her dancers are performing a Thriller @-@ esque dance routine . As the second verse starts , Rihanna is seen holding a column and fire is around her . As the song continues , Rihanna drags a man doll around a metal web . In the second chorus she wears a metal spines corset while one tarantula is upon her arm . In the later scene , Rihanna is in a very tiny room , with her hands and legs been tied up . The video ends with Rihanna turning around on her chair .
According to Tamar Anitai from MTV Buzzworthy , " Disturbia " is " yin to the yang of Chris Brown 's ' Wall to Wall ' which features creepy crawly chicks climbing the walls in latex . " He later , listed the video at number five on the " Buzzworthy 's Top 5 Most Paranoid Music Videos " stating : " In Rihanna 's ' Disturbia ' video , obsession manifests itself in freaky @-@ deaky tarantulas , wigs , wolves , and a creepy dude in an eye patch . And S & M @-@ y corsets . Paranoia never looked so supernaturally sexy ! " . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly also reviewed the video commenting : " It looks like she accidentally wandered into Nine Inch Nails ' ' Closer ' video , or else some sort of freaky Victorian mental hospital " . He later continued saying that the video is not what he expected from a dance @-@ pop song , but it 's also cool that Rihanna is trying something new .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna performed " Disturbia " for first time at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards . The song opened the show , and was performed after Britney Spears ' opening speech . Rihanna performed it while revealing a leather " goth inspired " outfit . Together with the dancer troops , she performed a Thriller inspired dance , with glow sticks and leather props being used through the performance . About the performance , Brian Orloff from People commented that " after Britney left , the stage was ceded to a futuristic @-@ looking Rihanna , who launched into her hit ' Disturbia ' with a goth @-@ theme . " In 2011 , according to poll made by Billboard , the performance was the tenth best ever on the MTV Video Music Awards . On September 19 , 2008 Rihanna went to France , to perform " Disturbia " at Star Academy France . Following the performance of the song , Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded soared from number forty @-@ three to number eleven and peaked at number eight the following week , becoming Rihanna 's first album to reach the top ten in France . Rihanna also performed " Disturbia " at the NFL Pepsi Smash Super Bowl Bash in Tampa , Florida held the Thursday and Friday prior to the 2009 Super Bowl . It was the first song on the set @-@ list that also featured other songs from her latest release Good Girl Gone Bad . The performance of the song featured a sample from White Stripes song " Seven Nation Army " and flames that shot up across the front of the stage .
Following the release of her fourth studio album Rated R ( 2009 ) , Rihanna held a Nokia promotional concert at Brixton Academy in London . Rihanna performed the song as part of a set list , which included some songs from the new release : " Russian Roulette " , " Wait Your Turn " and " Hard " , the latter of which Rihanna was joined on stage by Young Jeezy , to perform the song together . However , during the set , Rihanna also performed other songs from Good Girl Gone Bad , including " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Take a Bow " . " Run This Town " and " Umbrella " were performed with assistance of Jay @-@ Z , whose vocals are featured on the songs . On February 5 , 2010 , Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Super Bowl in Miami , Florida . She performed " Disturbia " in a medley with other songs including " Russian Roulette " and " Wait Your Turn " . Rihanna performed the song while revealing a one @-@ shoulder , one @-@ leg catsuit that featured white trimming . In February 2010 she also recorded an AOL Sessions , where she performed the song together with other tracks including " Hard " , " Rude Boy " and " Take a Bow " .
Rihanna performed " Disturbia " on her three major tours : Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 — 09 ) , Last Girl on Earth ( 2010 — 11 ) and the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) . The song was added on the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour set list during the Australasian leg of the tour . It was the opening song , performed only after the intro on the tour . Rihanna also performed " Disturbia " on her second major concert tour , Last Girl on Earth Tour . The song was performed as the sixth track , after " Fire Bomb " . Rihanna performed a slower ballad remix tempo of the song , surrounded by three big four @-@ legged insect monsters as she crawled on the floor to escape while singing it . About the performance Lisa Wilton from Calgary Sun commented that : " Rihanna 's goth side came out – and by ' goth side ' I mean she sang alongside dancers dressed as freaky , giant spiders – during the darker dancefloor anthem , ' Disturbia ' . " On her Loud Tour , Rihanna performed " Disturbia " as second track , only after the opening song " Only Girl ( In the World ) " . Rihanna performed the song in a brightly colored sequined bikini , while partially been dragging on a moveable floor . Rob Williams from Winnipeg Free Press stated : " Rihanna dropped her blue coat to reveal a jewel- encrusted bikini for ' Disturbia ' . It was the first of numerous costume changes that showed off her fashion sense and plenty of skin . " Rihanna performed " Disturbia " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the second song on the set list .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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= Braid ( video game ) =
Braid is a platform and puzzle video game developed by Number None , Inc . The game was originally released in August 2008 for the Xbox 360 's Xbox Live Arcade service . Ports were developed and released for Microsoft Windows in April 2009 , OS X in May 2009 , PlayStation 3 in November 2009 , and Linux in December 2010 .
The basic story elements unfold as the protagonist , Tim , attempts to rescue a princess from a monster . Text passages laid throughout the game reveal a multifaceted narrative , giving clues about Tim 's contemplations and motivations . The game features traditional aspects of the platform genre while integrating various powers of time @-@ manipulation . Using these abilities , the player progresses by finding and assembling jigsaw puzzle pieces .
Jonathan Blow designed the game as a personal critique of contemporary trends in game development . He funded the three @-@ year project with his own money . Webcomic artist David Hellman drew the artwork , which underwent several iterations until it satisfied Blow 's vision . A preliminary version of Braid without the final artwork won the " Innovation in Game Design " award at the 2006 Independent Games Festival ; the final version received additional accolades . The game received highly positive reviews from critics , eventually becoming the highest critically rated title on Xbox Live . Some reviewers , however , criticized the game 's price relative to its length .
Braid was seen as a keystone title in the growth of indie game development since its 2008 release , and Jonathan Blow and its production were documented in the 2012 film , Indie Game : The Movie . The game , as of 2015 , had total revenue nearing $ 6 million , which Blow used to fund his next game , The Witness .
= = Gameplay = =
Braid is played by solving physical puzzles in a standard platform game environment . The player controls the protagonist Tim as he runs , jumps , and climbs across the game 's levels . Tim jumps and stomps on enemies to defeat them , and can collect keys to unlock doors or operate levers to trigger platforms . A defining game element is the player 's unlimited ability to reverse time and " rewind " actions , even after dying . The game is divided into six worlds , which are experienced sequentially and can be entered from different rooms of Tim 's house ; the player can return to any world previously visited to attempt to solve puzzles they missed .
Each world has its own time @-@ based game mechanic :
2 . Time and Forgiveness plays as an ordinary platform game , except that the player may rewind time to undo their actions . The section includes several challenges that would be unplayable or unfair in an ordinary platform game , but become feasible when the rewind mechanic is available .
3 . Time and Mystery introduces objects surrounded by a green glow that are unaffected by time manipulation ; for example , switches will remain flipped even if time is rewound to before the action occurred . Rewinding can thus be used to change the synchronization between objects that can and cannot be rewound , the basis of many puzzles in this section . This theme is also used in later worlds to denote objects unaffected by the player 's time manipulation .
4 . Time and Place links the passage of time to the player character 's location on the horizontal axis . As the player moves toward the right , time flows forward , while moving toward the left reverses the flow ; standing still or moving vertically will pause time . The player 's location must be carefully managed in relation to enemies and objects .
5 . Time and Decision involves a " shadow " of the player character appearing after the player rewinds time and performing the actions that the real player character rewound ; if the timeline expires , the shadow will complete any initiated falls and jumps but will otherwise stand still before disappearing . Things coloured in violet can interact both with the main character and its shadow at the same time . Puzzles in this section revolve around using this mechanic to carry out multiple actions at once .
6 . Hesitance provides the player with a magic ring which , when dropped , warps the flow of time around itself ; the closer moving objects ( including Tim ) are to it , the slower time passes for them . The regular rewind control remains available .
The final world is labeled simply " 1 . " In this world , time flows in reverse . Rewinding time returns the flow of time to its normal state .
Each stage contains puzzle pieces that must be collected to create jigsaw puzzles that tell the story , and to unlock the last stage . On completing the main game , a speedrun mode becomes available for select levels and the entire game . There are also eight stars hidden throughout the world of Braid that correspond to the stars in the constellation of Andromeda just outside the main character 's house .
= = Plot = =
Tim is a man searching for a princess who " has been snatched by a horrible and evil monster . " His relationship with this princess is vague at best , and the only clear part of this relationship is that Tim has made some sort of mistake which he hopes to reconcile or , if possible , erase . As one progresses through the six worlds in Braid , storyline text at the beginning of each world provides further insight into Tim 's quest for the princess , and alludes to the overarching gameplay mechanic of each level . The themes evoked include forgiveness , desire , and frustration . The final level , in which everything but Tim moves in reverse , depicts the princess escaping from a knight , and working together with Tim to surpass obstacles and meet at her home . Tim is suddenly locked out of the house , and , as time progresses forward , reversing Tim 's actions , the events show the princess running from Tim , setting traps that he is able to evade , until she is rescued by the knight . Tim is revealed to be the " monster " the princess is running from .
Following completion of the game , the player finds additional texts that expand the story . The ending of the game is purposely ambiguous , and has been subject to multiple interpretations . One theory , based on the inclusion of a hidden event and the famous quotation stated by Kenneth Bainbridge after the detonation of the first atomic bomb — " Now we are all sons of bitches " — is that the princess represents the atomic bomb and Tim is a scientist involved in its development . Some also refer to the name of the game as both reference to the hair braid of the princess Tim seeks as well as the intertwining of time , demonstrated by the various time mechanics explored in the game . Journalists have considered Braid 's plot to be interwoven with the game itself , much as the book Dictionary of the Khazars and the films Memento and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind interweave the narrative into the work 's construction . In this sense , some have considered the game to carry a simple credo , such as " You must look back to go forwards " as suggested by Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead . Others have likened Braid to punk rock , designed ( as explicitly stated by Blow ) specifically as a statement against the status quo of the industry ; it is considered to deconstruct traditional gameplay concepts , such as jumping on enemies or rescuing a princess from a castle as borrowed from Super Mario Bros. , and rebuild them in the game to force the player to rethink current game design . Blow has stated that there is more than one interpretation of the story ; he " would not be capable " of explaining the whole story of the game in words , and said that the central idea is " something big and subtle and resists being looked at directly . " Blow considered Braid to be " about the journey , not the destination " . He deliberately designed the plot not to be fully revealed to the player unless they completed the game , seeing it as a way to provide " a longer @-@ term challenge " .
= = Development = =
Jonathan Blow created Braid as a game that deconstructed current video games trends , " bringing together the abstract parts of a complex puzzle , revealing deep moral and philosophical questions " . Blow came up with the concept of Braid in December 2004 while on a trip to Thailand , and started development work on it in April the following year . By December 2005 , a version of the game was completed that had the same number of worlds and puzzles as the final version , but lacked the final artwork ; this version won the Independent Games Festival game design award at the 2006 Game Developer 's Conference . While working on the art direction , Blow tightened the presentation and mechanics of the puzzles to improve their playability . During the game 's three years of development , Blow put about US $ 200 @,@ 000 of his own money into its development , most going towards hiring of David Hellman for artwork and for living expenses .
Originally , Blow had envisioned the game to be broken into several different worlds as in the final game , each exploring facets of space , time , and causality , but with each world having very different high @-@ level mechanics . One mechanic that he could not develop further was a world with no " arrow of time " that would have required the player to traverse the level in a manner that could be repeated in reverse . For example , the player would have been forbidden to jump down from a tall height while moving in forward time , as they would not be able to jump that height in reverse time . While this idea was not used , Blow discovered the rewind feature could be developed further for other aspects . Another game mechanic that Blow considered was to show the player the expected result of an action they would take ; while this concept was informative , he did not find it to be an entertaining game mechanic . Blow had previously explored this in a prototype game called " Oracle Billiards " , the game predicting each billiards shot before it was made . He had found the billiards setting too chaotic for this idea and this led him to try out similar ideas in a simpler " Mario @-@ style " setting . After selecting the game mechanics he wanted , he began adding puzzles that made philosophical points on his views on game design in general . After brainstorming more puzzles and concepts , Blow dropped the least interesting puzzles and worlds from the game . Blow wanted to include significant consequences of rewinding time , not found in games such as Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time , Blinx : the Time Sweeper , and Timeshift in which rewinding time creates few or no changes to the game 's world . While these games immerse the player with these time @-@ shifting effects using a first- or third @-@ person perspective , he decided to use a 2D presentation . Blow noted that some of the puzzles in Braid would have been more difficult or impossible to solve in any other perspective .
One of Blow 's design goals was to achieve gameplay innovation naturally through the artistic expression of the game . He used Rod Humble 's The Marriage as an example , in which Humble set out to make a game that related his feelings of being in a marriage , instead of developing game concepts first and adding the story later . As such , Blow noted that while there were no new gameplay mechanics , the gameplay felt different from any other game . Another concept that he used for Braid 's development related to the game 's presentation to the player . Blow recognized that many games present a complex interface to the player that get in the way of understanding the game , but at times are needed to explain the game 's rules to draw in players . Blow referenced Jeff Minter 's Space Giraffe , pointing out that the game never communicated the purpose of playing the game upfront to the player , citing that as one of the reasons for the game 's poor reception . Braid was developed to promote this non @-@ verbal communication to the player , explaining the fundamental rule of each world at its start and allow the player to interact with that rule throughout the world . Commenting during the development of his following game , The Witness , Blow noted that he would run into difficulty in demonstrating Braid through video footage alone , as it would not show " what happens in the player 's mind during the puzzle @-@ solving process " , a problem that he had also encountered with The Witness .
Blow recognized that the puzzles in Braid had a range of difficulties , with some puzzles being more difficult for certain players than others , and did not have any set difficulty curve . He designed most of the game 's levels to let the player bypass the puzzles , allowing them to experience the rest of the game even if they could not solve a difficult puzzle . Only certain boss fights require the player to defeat the enemy character before continuing on , using a combination of the time mechanics . Blow hoped that players would be able to find solutions to puzzles they had skipped by completing puzzles later in the game . Blow felt that " unearned rewards are false and meaningless " , and thus included collectibles earned only after solving a puzzle . He strongly discouraged players from using a walkthrough to work their way through Braid , instead encouraging players to solve them on their own so that they " will feel very good about " completing the puzzles without help ; Blow created his own official " walkthrough " that guides the player but instead restates his insistence that the player work through the puzzles on their own . Some puzzles pay homage to other video games ; one level features a Donkey Kong @-@ inspired puzzle , and the ending of most worlds tells the player that " the princess is in another castle " , similar to the end of each world in Super Mario Bros.
The game 's story was influenced by such works as Italo Calvino 's Invisible Cities , Alan Lightman 's Einstein 's Dreams , Robert A. Heinlein 's The Cat Who Walks Through Walls , and David Lynch 's Mulholland Drive . Specifically , while Blow took the unique narrative model of Invisible Cities , he did not like the homage to it in Einstein 's Dreams , and thus avoided taking the story in that direction . Blow 's goal was that Braid would " be mind @-@ expanding " and that " people [ would ] get experiences from it that they [ had ] not gotten from anything else " . Blow opted to present his story through on @-@ screen text instead of in @-@ game cutscenes , asserting , against criticism of the lack of such cut @-@ scenes , that Braid was " conceived as a videogame with its story presented in the tradition of a few books that I respect " .
= = = Artwork = = =
The game 's artwork took more than a year to complete . Background artwork for the game went through initial rough color concepts created by Mike Corriero ( creative illustrator and concept artist ) and ultimately the final artwork was created by David Hellman , artist of the critically acclaimed webcomic A Lesson Is Learned but the Damage Is Irreversible . Blow gave Hellman rough images of the level 's layout and told him to draw over it . Hellman and Blow iterated through several styles before settling on final versions . Through these changes , the two worked to identify and remove elements of the art that could confuse the player , while retaining aesthetic elements that would be generalized by the player as non @-@ functional parts of the level . Once the game 's overall artwork was created , Blow and Hellman broke out functional pieces that could be used in Braid 's level editor . As each world was built up using these pieces , Blow suggested more changes that reflected the tone of each world and avoided art that distracted from the gameplay . " Time and Forgiveness " , the first world the player encounters , was drawn to create a feel of exploration and forgiveness , while artwork for " Time and Decision " used a mix of " luxurious domestic objects ( nice furniture and fabrics ) with rugged outdoor objects ( swampy water , rotting piers and nautical rope ) " to create an intentionally " incongruous " look to convey aspects of alternate realities . Several variations on the game 's backgrounds were done until they arrived at the concept of blurring the background elements to make them appear out of focus , while keeping the foreground elements sharply in focus and clear to the player . Particle effects were applied to both background and foreground elements to add apparent motion to them , such as the waving of grass blades or the movement of clouds . The character visuals were originally created by Edmund McMillen , but were later redrawn by Hellman " to better match the now @-@ predominant style of the backgrounds " .
= = = Music = = =
Braid features licensed music from Magnatune artists Cheryl Ann Fulton , Shira Kammen and Jami Sieber . Part of Blow 's decision to use licensed music was to reduce development costs . He also felt that those who regularly compose video game music did not have the necessary skills needed to create the mood he wanted for the game . He ultimately selected eight tracks that were sufficiently long to avoid notable looping while a player attempted to solve a difficult puzzle , and that provided a " different and interesting " sound when played in reverse to match the reverse time mechanic of the gameplay . Blow also selected tracks that were " organic and complex " as to help set the game 's mood and aimed " to present something that isn 't necessarily clear @-@ cut " . The selection of the music influenced the creation of the background artwork for the game . Both Kammen and Sieber received favorable feedback from listeners as a result of their works ' inclusion in Braid . Magnatune released a soundtrack of the game 's music on April 9 , 2009 , which includes two additional track remixes that incorporate some of the time @-@ shifting elements from the game . The pieces included in Braid are :
" Maenam " by Jami Sieber , from Hidden Sky
" Undercurrent " by Jami Sieber , from Lush Mechanique
" The Darkening Ground " by Jami Sieber , from Lush Mechanique
" Tell It by Heart " by Jami Sieber , from Second Sight
" Long Past Gone " by Jami Sieber , from Second Sight
" Downstream " by Shira Kammen , from Music of Waters ( The entire track is actually composed of three pieces of music . The first is " Downstream " itself , composed by Kammen , the second is " O Son do Ar " , composed by Luar Na Lubre , and the third is Eric Montbel 's " Borrèia d 'Aragon " )
" Lullaby Set " by Shira Kammen and Swan , from Wild Wood
" Romanesca " by Cheryl Ann Fulton , from The Once and Future Harp
= = Release = =
Prior to release , Blow withdrew Braid from the 2007 Slamdance Guerrilla Games Competition in protest after the controversial Super Columbine Massacre RPG ! was dropped from the competition despite being one of six finalists . Several other developers followed suit and later withdrew their games , including thatgamecompany 's flOw and The Behemoth 's Castle Crashers .
Braid was originally developed as a Windows title with possible console versions , though Blow was not committed to releasing either a PC or console version first . Blow signed up with Microsoft to release the game on Xbox Live in mid @-@ 2007 , with that version officially announced at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show . Blow was critical of the Xbox Live certification process , as he believed the effort to meet all the requirements could have been better spent on polishing the game . At the same time , the certification team allowed him to retain certain aspects of his vision for the game that were otherwise contrary to the process , including giving the player immediate control of the game instead of requiring a start @-@ up title screen . Microsoft also requested that Blow include some additional hints to the player based on results of playtesting , but Blow held his ground , refusing to release the game if he was forced to add these . He said he would likely not release a game again on the Xbox Live service under the same business model . Blow later released a Braid theme for Xbox Live ; though he wanted to release this theme for free , Microsoft required the theme to be priced at a nominal level .
The Windows version was originally slated for a late 2008 release but slipped to at least October 2008 . Blow decided to prevent Braid being overwhelmed by a number of large titles that were scheduled for release in late 2008 and pushed the release to early 2009 . The PC version benefited from the work by Blow to create Braid on a standardized platform like the Xbox 360 in order to finish the core game before dealing with various compatibility issues inherent in PC development . Prior to the game 's release for Microsoft Windows , Blow had priced the game at US $ 20 , using pricing models for other games such as World of Goo and Crayon Physics Deluxe . However , this was priced $ 5 more than the Xbox Live version , leading many to criticize his pricing choice . Due to this response , Blow reduced the price to meet the Xbox Live cost , stating that he would " rather have people talking about the game itself " than complaining about its cost . Hothead Games ported Braid to both the PlayStation 3 and Macintosh platforms . A Linux port was done by Ryan C. Gordon and released in December 2010 as part of the second Humble Indie Bundle alongside the Windows and Mac version . It was further added as a bonus to the Humble Indie Bundle V. Blow said that a WiiWare version would not be possible under Nintendo 's current size restrictions .
Blow has expressed that he has no current plans to release more levels or make a sequel ; however , he specified that " if another developer out there really likes the time mechanics and wants to make a game that uses them , and perhaps some new ones , with their own new level designs , then hey , awesome . " Shortly after the PC release , Blow released resources for a level editor for Braid that allow users to import new graphics into the game .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release to Xbox Live Arcade , Braid was met with nearly unanimously positive reviews , with an aggregate review score of 93 % at Metacritic , making it the top @-@ rated Xbox Live Arcade game and the 10th highest @-@ rated Xbox 360 game . Braid was purchased by more than 55 @,@ 000 people during the first week of release . According to Blow , Braid was the second @-@ largest selling Xbox Live Arcade title in 2008 and sales were " very profitable " , making him more money than if he had been working at a high @-@ paying job for the time it took to develop the game . The game had sold 450 @,@ 000 copies by April 2012 . By 2014 , Blow had stated that sales of Braid brought in more than $ 4 million in revenue , much of which he used towards the development of his 2016 game , The Witness .
Braid has been considered a masterpiece , and was highly praised for the unique puzzles it presented . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer noted the creative variation on time manipulation and the need to understand the non @-@ linearity of his actions made him feel as if " years of gaming blinders have been ripped away . " Jason Hill of The Age stated the puzzles were " elaborate and formidable " , but " impeccably designed and hugely satisfying to solve " , a point reiterated by Sunday Herald Sun 's Paddy Reiley . The connection between the puzzles and the overall presentation of the game was favorably received ; Tom McShea of GameSpot stated that Braid was " the rare game that will make you rack your brain trying to solve puzzles one minute while challenging you to come to terms with its mature tale the next " . Sam Roberts , game director for the Slamdance Film Festival Guerrilla Gamemaking Competition , was impressed that Braid did not " feel immature " as it " expects [ as ] much " of the player as any other form of media and " doesn 't short you in any respect " . Braid 's artwork and presentation were given high regards . Nick Suttner of 1UP.com commented that Braid 's artwork " juxtapose old @-@ school design sensibilities with impressionist backdrops and lovingly hand @-@ painted environments " , while McShea stated that the game 's visuals were " eye @-@ catching but never distracting " . Wired 's Jean Snow wrote that Braid 's " beautiful symphonic melodies contribute to what is already an impressive and unique vision " , and that " the soothing tunes are probably the reason you never really lose it when facing particularly tough puzzles " . Arthouse Games ' Jason Rohrer interpreted the ability to rewind time indefinitely as a commentary about traditional platform game design : the fact the player is not forced to restart the level when they die gives greater emphasis to the game 's " core challenges " .
The game was primarily criticized for its short length . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein stated that the game offers " no reason to come back " once you 've completed all the puzzles . However , others compared Braid 's short experience to similar criticisms with Portal in that its length " can be disregarded in the face of its unique approach to storytelling and expansive ideas " . The game 's price was also seen as a negative for the game , though McShea wrote that " Braid is worth every penny " . Blow later said that he expected the price to be US $ 10 , but Microsoft , in promoting the game as part of its Summer of Arcade , made the price $ 15 . Edge also noted that while Blow had tried to integrate the story and gameplay throughout the game , this only worked well in the final world , and otherwise the story was " a little trite in its self @-@ conscious obscurity " . However , others — including new media academics — have disagreed , praising the philosophical complexity of the game , saying " Jonathan Blow 's Braid is the sort of ontological labyrinth that Jorge Luis Borges might have made . Embedded in the simple gameplay design are genuinely huge concepts . "
The PC version of the game was considered to be " faithful " to the Xbox 360 version of the game , retaining the same content without adding any new features . Reviewers commented that Braid benefited from keyboard controls . However , as a port of the Xbox 360 version , the lack of initial support for optimizing the graphics display for one 's computer , either through larger screen resolutions or turning off certain game effects , was seen as a drawback , though it is expected that patches will be released to add these options . Both the PlayStation 3 and Macintosh ports of the game by Hothead Games were found to be easily accessible on the system and retained all the innovation and challenge of the original Xbox Live game .
= = = Awards = = =
In addition to winning the Independent Games Festival award in 2006 during its design , Braid was selected by GameSpot for their 2008 awards in " Best Original Downloadable Console Game " , " Best Platformer " , and " Best Licensed Music " , and by Official Xbox Magazine for their 2008 awards of " Xbox Live Arcade Game of the Year " , " Best Soundtrack " , and " Best Ending " and one of their " Indisputably Incredible Runners @-@ ups to Game of the Year " . Braid was awarded the " Casual Game of the Year " at the 12th Annual Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Awards . Braid was nominated for five Xbox Live Arcade 2008 awards , winning one award in the category of " Best Innovation " . MacWorld included Braid in its 2009 Game Hall of Fame . IGN named Braid the 8th best Xbox Live Arcade game in a September 2010 listing .
= = = Legacy = = =
Developers have cited Braid as an influence on their game design ; The Guardian considered the game as the " Sex , Lies , and Videotape " of indie gaming , a potent symbol for the saleable potential of non @-@ mainstream productions " . Japanese video game developer Goichi " Suda51 " Suda , developer of killer7 and No More Heroes , stated that playing Braid made him want to try making a 2D title . Tim can be unlocked as a playable character in Super Meat Boy , a game designed by independent game developer Edmund McMillen who had previously created Gish and the original character designs for Braid . Braid has also garnered academic interest and acclaim for its complexity , with narratologists saying " Anyone who thinks ... the unique constraints of game play cannot possibly be used to best structure a story has probably not encountered Braid , which marries pure mechanics and story into a philosophical platform . " Braid 's use of narrative elements and puzzle @-@ making has been compared to similar techniques of " imperative storytelling " in novels such as Life A User 's Manual and Through the Looking @-@ Glass .
Braid is considered a title that launched wide interest in independently @-@ developed video games starting around 2008 and onward . Joshuah Bearman for the New York Times called Braid the " Easy Rider moment " , showcasing how a small developer can be as successful as a large one , while Sam Machkovech for Ars Technica compared the game to The Beach Boys ' Pet Sounds , a transformative work in the genre that used familiar elements in a new manner . Braid , along with Jonathan Blow 's insight on the game , was featured in Indie Game : The Movie .
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= Edmund Herring =
Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Francis Herring , KCMG , KBE , DSO , MC , KStJ , ED , KC ( 2 September 1892 – 5 January 1982 ) was a senior Australian Army officer during the Second World War , Lieutenant Governor of Victoria , and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria . A Rhodes scholar , Herring was at New College , Oxford , when the First World War broke out and served with the Royal Field Artillery on the Macedonian front , for which he was awarded the Military Cross and Distinguished Service Order . After the war he carved out a successful career as a barrister and King 's Counsel . He also joined the Australian Army , rising to the rank of colonel by 1939 .
During the Second World War , Herring commanded the 6th Division Artillery in the Western Desert Campaign and the Battle of Greece . In 1942 , as a corps commander , he commanded the land forces in the Kokoda Track campaign . The following year , he directed operations at Lae and Nadzab . Herring left his corps to become the longest @-@ serving Chief Justice and Lieutenant Governor of Victoria , serving for three decades . In the latter capacity , he was patron of many charitable organisations .
= = Education and early life = =
Edmund Francis Herring , known as Ned to his family , was born in Maryborough , Victoria , on 2 September 1892 , the third of five children of Edmund Selwyn Herring , a solicitor , and his Irish @-@ born wife Gertrude Stella Herring , formerly Fetherstonhaugh . He was educated at Maryborough College and High School and at Melbourne Grammar , where he excelled at tennis and cricket , and was both School Captain and Dux in 1910 . While at Melbourne Grammar , he served in the Commonwealth Cadet Corps , reaching the rank of sergeant .
In 1911 , Herring entered Trinity College , the Church of England residential college at the University of Melbourne , where he played cricket and tennis . In 1912 , he won a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford in England . There , he joined the Officers Training Corps in 1913 . In November of that year he enlisted as a trooper in King Edward 's Horse , a cavalry unit in the British Army .
= = First World War = =
King Edward 's Horse was mobilised in August 1914 , but was not immediately sent overseas . In December 1914 , Herring was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery , and was posted to B Battery , 99th Field Artillery Brigade of the British 22nd Division . The division moved to the Western Front in August 1915 , but was there only a month before being transferred to the Macedonian front , where it served for the rest of the war .
In the Battle of Doiran in April 1917 , Herring served as an artillery observer , directing artillery fire in support of the 22nd Division 's attack from a front line observation post on Pip Ridge . There was a furious artillery duel . Twenty minutes after Captain Thomas Winwood took Herring 's place as forward observer , the observation post took a direct hit from an enemy shell , killing Winwood . Herring succeeded Winwood as battery captain , and was promoted to acting captain in April 1917 . For his " conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty " under heavy shellfire , Herring received an immediate award of the Military Cross .
After three years ' service , Herring was granted three weeks ' leave in Australia in October 1917 . He returned to Maryborough , where he met Mary Ranken Lyle , the daughter of the mathematical physicist Thomas Lyle , then a medical student at the University of Melbourne , on New Year 's Day 1918 . The two became constant companions and agreed to correspond regularly .
Herring departed for Salonika in February , returning to duty there in March 1918 , and was promoted to acting major on 24 October 1918 on assuming command of B Battery , 99th Field Artillery Brigade . For his service as a battery commander , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order . He reverted to lieutenant on ceasing to command the battery on 22 January 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
When the war ended , Herring wished to return to Australia and see Mary before resuming his studies at the University of Oxford in October 1919 . Mary wrote back pointing out the impracticality of this idea ; while she would be disappointed not to see him , he should remain in England and complete his course at Oxford first . The university had awarded him a wartime Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree in 1915 ; the Rhodes Scholarship Trust allowed him to resume his scholarship , and he studied for a Bachelor of Civil Law ( BCL ) degree . Since it had been five years since he had been awarded his BA , he was entitled to a MA as well , and graduated with both degrees in July 1920 . After a holiday in Britain and France with his sister Kathleen , he arrived back in Melbourne on 26 November 1920 .
Herring was admitted to practice in Victoria as a barrister and solicitor on 1 March 1921 and signed the roll of counsel of the Victorian Bar on 8 June of that year , while Mary graduated with her Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery ( MB BS ) and became a resident surgeon at Royal Melbourne Hospital . The two were married on 6 April 1922 , and had three daughters , Mary Cecile ( Molly ) , born in 1924 , Judith Ann ( Judy ) , born in 1926 , and Margaret Lyle , born in 1933 . Herring worked as a barrister , and lectured in law at the University of Melbourne . He became a King 's Counsel on 25 February 1936 . Mary worked as a physician at antenatal clinics .
Herring joined the Australian Army on 1 October 1922 as a legal staff officer in the part @-@ time militia , with the rank of captain . On 1 August 1923 he transferred to Australian Field Artillery . He was promoted to major on 1 July 1925 , lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1929 , and temporary colonel on 1 August 1939 , commanding the 3rd Division Artillery .
Herring was involved in politics throughout the 1930s . He was elected to the Melbourne Club in 1927 , a year before Sir Thomas Lyle became its president . He joined the Young Nationalists , an organisation founded by Robert Menzies and Wilfrid Kent Hughes . Along with many senior army and ex @-@ army officers , he was also a member of the clandestine far @-@ right wing paramilitary organisation known as the White Guard , White Army or League of National Security . Composed primarily of former soldiers , the White Guard saw themselves as defenders of order who stood ready to stop a Catholic or Communist revolution in the wake of an emergency like the 1923 Victorian Police strike . After failing to gain United Australia Party preselection for the Victorian Legislative Assembly seat of Prahran in 1931 , he ran as an unendorsed candidate ( i.e. one lacking formal political endorsement ) for the seat of Brighton in 1936 . He gained 12 @,@ 258 votes , losing by just 528 . Herring also joined the Christian service organisation Toc H in 1925 and became its Victorian Area Commissioner in 1936 .
= = Second World War = =
On 6 October 1939 , Herring was informed that Major General Sir Thomas Blamey had decided to appoint him as Commander , Royal Artillery , of the 6th Division , of the new Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) being raised for service overseas . A week later , Herring was promoted to substantive colonel and temporary brigadier , and given the AIF serial number VX15 . His first task was to organise his new command , which was equipped with World War I vintage 18 pounder guns and 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers . Herring left for Palestine on 15 April 1940 , along with the 6th Division 's commander , Major General Iven Mackay and his headquarters . Training was difficult as the old ammunition was in short supply . His command was only partially reequipped with the new 25 pounders before being committed to the Western Desert Campaign in December 1940 .
= = = Western desert = = =
At the Battle of Bardia , Herring controlled all 120 guns used in the division 's attack , in which the infantry were supported by Great @-@ War @-@ style barrages . After the victory at Bardia , Herring 's gunners supported the attack on Tobruk . More than half of his guns were British , and some were commanded by regular British officers who were sceptical of the ability of an Australian Militia officer . War Correspondent Chester Wilmot noted that :
Herring has a quiet , easy manner and his last war service has given him an understanding of the British to which they were quick to respond . After Bardia and Tobruk those officers who had been most skeptical were his strongest champions . In building up the artillery plan , Herring brought to bear the same thorough , relentless logic and attention to detail with which he had so often built up a legal argument .
= = = Greece = = =
In the campaign in Greece , Herring had , in addition to his own gunners , the 2nd Regiment , Royal Horse Artillery , 64th Medium Regiment , Royal Artillery and , for a time , the 6th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery , under his command . His Australian , New Zealand and British gunners demonstrated " the extent to which , in such rugged country , artillery , with reliable infantry ahead , could halt and confuse a pursuer " but they were unable to stop the enemy advance .
Herring was ordered to evacuate from Greece . He was one of between 7 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 troops that gathered at Nafplion on 24 April 1941 , although transportation had been arranged for only 5 @,@ 000 . The ship that he was to sail on , the Ulster Prince ran aground near the harbour entrance . She was refloated but then ran aground again near the wharf . Despite this , some 6 @,@ 600 men and women were embarked . Herring and fellow Brigadier Clive Steele were among 5 @,@ 100 that managed to reach Crete on the Royal Navy transport HMS Glenearn . From there they flew back to Alexandria . Others were transported by HMS Phoebe , HMS Hyacinth , HMAS Stuart and HMAS Voyager , which carried 150 Australian and New Zealand nurses . For his service in Libya and Greece , Herring was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
Herring was promoted to the temporary rank of major general on 14 August 1941 when he took over command of the 6th Division . He returned to Australia with it in March 1942 . Unaware that the government had already decided that General Sir Thomas Blamey should be appointed Commander in Chief , Herring , along with Major General George Alan Vasey and Brigadier Clive Steele , approached Army Minister Frank Forde with a proposal that all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Major General Horace Robertson appointed Commander in Chief . The ' revolt of the generals ' collapsed with the announcement that General Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief , but seems to have done the participants no harm .
In Blamey 's reorganisation of the Army in April 1942 , Herring was given command of Northern Territory Force . At this time Darwin was being subjected to Japanese air raids . As supply by sea or air was impractical , Herring developed a land line of communications running across the outback from Alice Springs .
On 14 August 1942 , Herring was ordered to Esk , Queensland , to assume command of II Corps with the temporary rank of Lieutenant General . As such , he was responsible for the defence of Brisbane . At this time he was criticised in Federal Parliament by Arthur Calwell for allegedly issuing a verbal order whilst commander of the 6th Division that no officer was to be commissioned unless they had at least attained an Intermediate Certificate . There was no evidence that such an order was ever issued , but the allegation reflected a suspicion that Herring was an elitist .
= = = Papuan campaign = = =
In the wake of the dismissal of Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell for insubordination , Blamey ordered Herring to join him in Port Moresby as the new commander of I Corps . Before departing , Herring met with General Douglas MacArthur , who emphasised that the first duty of a soldier was obedience to his superiors .
As at Darwin , Herring 's primary difficulty was logistics . The troops on the Kokoda Track had to be supplied from Port Moresby either by air or by Papuan native carriers who lugged stores over the track on their backs . MacArthur created the Combined Operation Service Command ( COSC ) , an unusual combined Australian @-@ American logistical organisation , under U.S. Brigadier General Dwight Johns , who in turn was answerable to Herring . Herring backed a plan to take American engineers off working on the airstrips in order to develop the port by building a causeway to Tatana Island , the successful completion of which doubled the port 's capacity and was the logistical turning point of the campaign .
More controversial was Herring 's relief of Brigadier Arnold Potts and Blamey 's of Major General Arthur Samuel Allen at Herring 's urging . Herring acknowledged that the two men had faced a difficult task but felt that they were tired and that Brigadier Ivan Dougherty and Major General Vasey could do better . Supporters of Allen , who left school at age 14 , saw this as the action of an autocratic elitist who " ran his staff as he had controlled junior counsel in his barrister 's chamber ; they did his bidding , his way , or were forthwith dispensed with " .
In a letter to Herring in 1959 , General Robert L. Eichelberger ( who had himself relieved two division commanders – Major Generals Edwin F. Harding and Horace H. Fuller ) had this to say about the matter :
It is a funny thing about war historians . If a general dismisses a subordinate at any time he is immediately attacked ; whereas in our football game , if you have a better player for a particular place , you always play him , and everybody expects you to do this . I have little doubt that the same is true of your ball game . War historians never seem to give generals credit for having thought that X might be better than Y for the next phase of operations .
In November , Herring flew across the mountains to take control of the fighting around Buna , leaving Blamey to control operations elsewhere in New Guinea . Herring planned the systematic reduction of the Japanese positions at Buna and Sanananda . He struggled to amass enough troops , equipment , guns , and supplies to allow Australian troops under Vasey and Americans under Eichelberger to overcome the Japanese and capture the area .
= = = New Guinea campaign = = =
Following the victory at Buna , for which Herring and Eichelberger were appointed Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire , Blamey ordered him to return to Australia for a rest . While in Melbourne , Herring had an attack of malaria , but recovered to resume command in New Guinea in May . Blamey charged him with responsibility for the next phase of Operation Cartwheel , the capture of Lae . Herring would command I Corps , which would be part of New Guinea Force , under Blamey and later Mackay . Blamey intended to have Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead command the subsequent phase of the operation , the assault on Madang .
At this time operations were in train to drive the Japanese back to Salamaua . Once again , the difficulties of supplying the attacking force were formidable . Out of sensitivity towards the sensibilities of the Americans , Herring left the command arrangements between Major General Stanley Savige 's 3rd Division and units of the American 41st Infantry Division ambiguous . This backfired , producing acrimony between the Australian and American commanders . Herring prepared to fire Savige , but an investigation by Major General Frank Berryman determined that the dispute was not Savige 's fault .
The new offensive , which opened on 5 September 1943 with the 7th Division landing at Nadzab by air and 9th Division landing at Lae from the ships of Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey 's VII Amphibious Force , saw the rapid capture of Lae . While the 7th Division moved up the Markham and Ramu Valleys , the 9th Division made another landing at Scarlet Beach near Finschhafen . The timing of the landing was contentious , with Barbey , who feared air attack , wanting to land at night while Herring held out for a dawn landing , threatening to take the issue to General MacArthur . Eventually Berryman managed to persuade Herring to accept a compromise H @-@ hour in the darkness before dawn . The U.S. Naval Historian Samuel Eliot Morison noted : " The Australians proved to be right ; ' Uncle Dan 's ' outfit was not prepared for a neat night landing . The usual SNAFU developed . " But Berryman saw Herring as being uncooperative , and his intransigence as a sign of battle weariness .
In the subsequent Battle of Finschhafen , it soon became clear that the strength of the Japanese forces there had been seriously underestimated , and the 9th Division needed to be resupplied and reinforced , and its casualties evacuated . Herring strove to get the necessary amphibious lift from the navy but the commander of the United States Seventh Fleet , Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender , was reluctant to expose his ships to the Japanese air threat . The matter went up the chain of command to Mackay , to Blamey , and ultimately to MacArthur , who could do little , given that he had no real authority over the U.S. Navy .
Carpender was not inflexible , and reached a compromise with Mackay to transport a battalion to Finschhafen in high speed transports ( APDs ) . Herring was in Dobodura , lunching with Lieutenant General Brehon B. Somervell , when he heard this news . He decided to fly to Milne Bay to discuss the matter of resupply in general with Barbey . On 28 September , Herring and two of his staff officers , Brigadiers R. B. Sutherland and R. Bierwirth , boarded a U.S. Fifth Air Force B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber at Dobodura . As the plane was about to take off , the undercarriage collapsed and the plane ploughed into the Marston Mat runway . A propeller shattered , splinters ripped through the fuselage into the cabin and Sutherland , who was sitting in the navigator 's compartment next to Herring , was struck by a flying fragment that killed him instantly . The crew , Herring and Bierwirth escaped shaken but unscathed . The trip to Milne Bay was cancelled . Brigadier Sutherland was buried with full military honours at Soputa the next day , with a fly past by B @-@ 25s . When next he flew , Herring once again took a B @-@ 25 and made a point of requesting the major who had been in charge of the crashed plane to be his pilot .
Mackay became convinced that Herring was becoming increasingly difficult to work with as a result of stress and fatigue and asked Blamey for permission to relieve him . Blamey 's response was characteristic : Morshead would be on the next plane . Yet Blamey maintained his faith in Herring , who retained command of I Corps on the Atherton Tableland , where he trained his men for the next operation . He did not know when or where this would be , so he focused on amphibious warfare . He created the 1st Beach Group and developed tactics and doctrine for amphibious operations based on his own experience in the New Guinea Campaign and reports from the Allied invasion of Sicily . The benefits of his work would be realised in the Borneo Campaign .
= = Chief Justiceship and later life = =
On 2 February 1944 , the Victorian government decided to appoint Herring as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria . Blamey advised the Prime Minister that :
General Herring is prepared to accept the appointment and I recommend he be released from the Army . He has had two serious attacks of Malaria . I am afraid that in view of his age , further tropical service may seriously injure his health and that the command may suffer as a result . He has rendered excellent service over four years , mainly on active service in the field .
It was not quite the end of his military service . Herring was recalled to duty for a year as Director General of Recruiting in August 1950 when the Korean War spurred efforts to build up the Army again . In January 1953 , Herring was selected as leader of the Australian Services Contingent for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . This saw Australian soldiers as the Queen 's Guard at Buckingham Palace on 26 May 1953 , with Herring personally taking part in the procession . On 10 July , he was made a Knight of the Order of St John at Buckingham Palace . At the same time , Mary was made a commander of the same order for her charity work .
Herring maintained connections with his comrades from both World Wars . On the way back from the coronation , the Herrings stayed with the Eichelbergers in Asheville , North Carolina . The two generals remained close friends , exchanging regular letters until Eichelberger 's death in 1961 . In 1962 , Herring visited Richard O 'Connor at his home in Ross . In 1967 and 1971 , the Herrings again travelled to America where they were guests of Dwight Johns and his wife . In 1973 , he visited Washington , D.C. for the annual reunion of MacArthur 's staff , and resolved that the next reunion should be held in Australia . He obtained government backing for his idea , and arranged for more than twenty former American generals , including Leif J. Sverdrup , Hugh John Casey , William C. Chase and Clyde D. Eddleman and their wives , to visit Australia in 1974 , with commemorative functions being held in Melbourne , Sydney and Brisbane . Herring steadfastly believed that MacArthur , like Blamey , was a great commander who was not fully appreciated in his own country .
Herring 's twenty years as Chief Justice was a period of significant change and growth in the administration of the law . During his period of office the number of judges on the Court increased from six to fourteen , reflecting the growth in cases . Herring earned a reputation as a fine judge and able administrator . He set up the Chief Justice 's Law Reform Committee to try to ensure justice in Victoria 's courts was abreast of the times , and a committee for religious observances and services to arrange the religious services marking the opening of the legal year . Herring retired as Chief Justice in 1964 but stayed on as Lieutenant Governor until his 80th birthday in 1972 , serving in the position for a record 27 years . For his service as Lieutenant Governor , Herring was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in the King 's Birthday Honours of 9 June 1949 .
In a speech given on the occasion of his retiring as Chief Justice of Victoria , Herring said :
And now the time has come for me to lay down my office , but before I do so there are two matters to which I feel bound to draw attention . The first is this , that under the Australian constitution the great common law courts of Australia are the Supreme Courts of the States . Federal Parliament has no power to set up common law courts and so it is to the Supreme Courts of the States the citizen must look for protection from illegal arrest and other encroachments on his liberty . It is to these Courts that he must come for a writ of habeas corpus . These Courts and their prestige must , therefore , at all costs be sustained so that they will continue to attract the finest characters and best legal brains that we can produce . As a community we will pay heavily if we allow our Supreme Court to be relegated to a position of inferiority . The second matter I feel I should mention is that the principle of the independence of the judiciary from the executive is fundamental to our freedom . What happens when this principle is departed from is evident from what is going on in many lands today . We must see to it that our citizens all understand that an independent judiciary is the greatest bulwark of their liberties and their best protection from totalitarian rule .
While opening the Victorian Returned Services League Conference shortly before his retirement as Lieutenant Governor , Herring criticised anti @-@ war protesters and praised Australian soldiers who had served in the Vietnam War . " People who throw stones at Americans , " he said , " should stop and think where we would have been in 1942 without the Americans . " Such remarks earned him a rebuke from the then acting State Opposition Leader , Frank Wilkes , as " untactful " for a representative of the Crown .
Herring again became the subject of controversy in May 1978 when Barry Jones revealed in Federal Parliament that during the Second World War Herring had confirmed death sentences on 22 Papuans convicted of handing over seven Anglican missionaries to the Japanese , which Jones called " the darkest secret in modern Australian history " . The Papuans had been convicted of offences including murder and treason . Herring claimed that they had been treated fairly under the conventions and circumstances applicable in wartime . " I have a clear conscience about it " , he said . The seven missionaries had all been murdered by the Japanese . Four of them were women who had been raped as well . The Papuans had also handed over to the Japanese for execution two planters , six Australian soldiers , and two American airmen , and they had murdered Australian soldiers of the 39th Infantry Battalion near Kokoda . They were handed over to ANGAU , which had carried out the executions at Higaturu in September 1943 .
Herring was president of the Boy Scouts ' Association of Victoria for 23 years , and was later the first president of the Australian Boy Scouts ' Association from 1959 to 1977 . He was chairman of trustees of the Shrine of Remembrance from 1945 to 1978 ( and remained a trustee until his death ) and chairman of trustees of the Australian War Memorial from 1959 to 1974 . He was made a fellow of New College , Oxford , in 1949 , received an honorary DCL from Oxford in 1953 , became an honorary bencher of the Inner Temple in 1963 and received an honorary LLD from Monash University in 1973 . He was also active in the Anglican Church , and for many years was chancellor of the diocese of Melbourne , the highest church office that could be held by a layman . In 1980 he was elected one of the inaugural fellows of Trinity College , Melbourne , under its new constitution .
= = Death and legacy = =
Herring died at a Camberwell , Victoria , nursing home on 5 January 1982 . He was given a state funeral at St Paul 's Cathedral , Melbourne , planned by his wife , Dame Mary Ranken Herring , who had died three months before .
Victoria 's Herring Island is named after him ; it is beside the Monash Freeway ( named for Herrings fellow " civilian soldier " , general and lawyer , Sir John Monash ) in Melbourne 's Yarra River at South Yarra , approximately 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the city . Herring 's wartime portraits are in the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , which featured him as one of the fifty most prominent Australians with a military background . His papers are in the State Library of Victoria .
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= Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine ( 1895 – 1903 ) =
Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine ( Prinzessin Elisabeth Marie Alice Viktoria von Hessen und bei Rhein ) ( 11 March 1895 – 16 November 1903 ) was the only daughter of Ernst Ludwig , Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and his first wife , Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . She was named after her paternal great @-@ grandmother , who was born Princess Elisabeth of Prussia . Her paternal aunt had the same name and was also nicknamed Ella . Elisabeth 's early death was rumored to be a result of poison meant for her uncle , Tsar Nicholas II , but the court physician said she died of virulent typhoid , probably caused by her taking a drink of water from a contaminated stream .
= = Birth = =
Her parents , nicknamed ' Ernie ' and ' Ducky , ' were first cousins who married at the instigation of their common grandmother , Queen Victoria . The marriage was an unhappy one from the start . Princess Victoria Melita was eighteen at the time of Elisabeth 's birth . She was fond of Elisabeth , but found it hard to compete with Ernst 's devotion to their daughter . Ernst was convinced even before Elisabeth could speak that he alone could understand her . At the age of six months , she was scheduled to move to a new nursery and her father ' consulted ' her on her color preferences . He claimed that she made ' happy little squeals ' when he showed her a particular shade of lilac material . Ernst then decorated her nursery in shades of lilac . He later had a playhouse built for his daughter that stood in its own garden . Adults were forbidden to enter " much to the frustration of royal nurses and tutors , who could be seen pacing up and down impatiently outside as they waited for their high @-@ spirited young charges to stop their games and emerge . "
= = Childhood = =
Margaretta Eagar , a governess for the daughters of Tsar Nicholas II , described Elisabeth as " a sweet and pretty child , with wide grey @-@ blue eyes and a profusion of dark hair . She was much like her mother , not only in face , but also in manner . " The four @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth wanted a baby sister and tried to persuade her aunt and uncle to let her parents adopt one of her paternal first cousins , Tatiana or Maria . Her parents had only one other child together , a stillborn son , in 1900 .
She was a favorite with her great @-@ grandmother , Queen Victoria , who called the little girl " my precious . " Queen Victoria refused to permit the unhappily married Victoria and Ernst to divorce for the sake of Elisabeth . It was Elisabeth whom Queen Victoria asked to see first and to receive eightieth birthday greetings from in 1899 . When the child heard Queen Victoria 's pony cart approaching on the road below Windsor Castle , the four @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth ran out on the balcony , waving and calling , " Granny Gran , I 'm here ! " Elisabeth 's playfulness made the queen laugh out loud .
Elisabeth 's grandmother , Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia , the Duchess of Edinburgh , brought five @-@ year @-@ old Elisabeth to see Queen Victoria on her death bed on 22 January 1901 . After the queen died , the child was taken in to see her body and told that her great @-@ grandmother had gone to be with the angels . " But I don 't see the wings , " Elisabeth whispered . Elisabeth sat next to her second cousin , Prince Edward of York ( called David by family and friends , later to become King Edward VIII ) during Queen Victoria 's funeral . " Sweet little David behaved so well during the service , " wrote his aunt Maud , " and was supported by the little Hesse girl who took him under her protection and held him most of the time round his neck . They looked such a delightful little couple . "
In his memoirs , written more than thirty years after her death , her father wrote of Elisabeth 's " deep sensitivity " and " very large heart . " He wrote that " I never knew a child who had so much influence on adults . Her inner personality was very strong , and she had a natural quality that protected her from being spoiled . " In October 1901 , after the death of Queen Victoria , Elisabeth 's parents finally divorced . Her mother had rekindled a previous romance with another cousin , her future husband , Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich of Russia . Her father , according to letters written by her mother , had been caught cavorting with domestic servants . Her parents ' divorce meant that Elisabeth divided her year between Darmstadt and her mother 's new home in Coburg . Elisabeth was at first mistrustful of her mother and resented the divorce , although Victoria did her best to mend her relationship with her daughter during her visit with Elisabeth in the spring of 1902 . She was only partially successful , though Victoria enjoyed turning her daughter into an outstanding horsewoman .
In his memoirs , Ernst said he had difficulty persuading Elisabeth to visit her mother . Before one visit , he found the child " whimpering under a sofa , full of despair . " He assured Elisabeth that her mother loved her too . " Mama says she loves me , but you do love me , " Elisabeth replied . Margaret Eagar thought the child 's eyes were the saddest she had ever seen . " Looking at her I used to wonder what those wide grey @-@ blue eyes saw , to bring such a look of sadness to the childish face , " she wrote . Eagar wondered if Elisabeth had a premonition of her own death because she often told her cousin Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia that " I shall never see this again . " However , despite Elisabeth 's sad eyes , she was generally a sweet , happy child who was a peacemaker when her cousins had a dispute .
= = Death = =
On 6 October 1903 , Ernst hosted a large family gathering at Darmstadt for the wedding of his niece , Princess Alice of Battenberg , to Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark . A few weeks later he took Elisabeth to stay with his younger sister , Empress Alexandra Feodorovna , her husband , Tsar Nicholas II , and their family . At the imperial family 's hunting lodge in Skierniewice , Poland , Elisabeth went on long walks and had picnics in the forest with her cousins .
Her nanny , who called Elisabeth " my baby , " woke Elisabeth in the middle of the night and settled her in a window seat of the nursery so that she might look out on the game spread out upon the grounds below . One morning , the eight @-@ year @-@ old awoke with a sore throat and pains in her chest , which the Russian Court doctor put down to too much excitement with her cousins the previous day . Her fever rose to 104 degrees . The imperial party didn 't believe her illness was a serious one and went ahead with their plans for the day and attended the theater as planned . By the evening Elisabeth was in even more severe pain and had started gasping for breath . A specialist was summoned from Warsaw . The specialist gave her injections of caffeine and camphor to stimulate her slowing heart , but without success .
" Suddenly she sat up in her bed and looked from one to the other of us with wide , frightened eyes , " wrote Eagar . " She cried out suddenly , ' I 'm dying ! I 'm dying ! ' She was coaxed to lie down again , but remained agitated . " The child turned to me , and said anxiously , ' Send a telegram to mama . ' " Eagar promised it would be done . " She added , ' immediately . ' ... We continued to fan the feeble spark of life , but moment by moment it declined . She began to talk to her cousins , and seemed to imagine she was playing with them . She asked for little Anastasie and I brought the wee thing into the room . The dying eyes rested on her for a moment , and Anastasie said , ' Poor cousin Ella ! Poor Princess Elizabeth ! ' I took the baby out of the room . " Doctors told Alexandra that the child 's mother should be notified , but the telegram did not arrive until the following morning , when Elisabeth had already died . An autopsy following her death confirmed that she had died of virulent typhoid , although it was rumored she had eaten from a poisoned dish intended for the Tsar .
= = Funeral and legacy = =
Elisabeth 's body was placed in a silver casket , a gift from Nicholas II , for the journey back to Darmstadt . Her father arranged a white funeral , with white instead of black for the funeral trappings , white flowers , and white horses for the procession . The Hessian people came out by the thousands to view the funeral procession and " sobbed in unison so that I could hear it , " Ernst wrote . A cousin , Kaiser Wilhelm II , expressed shock at the child 's death in a letter to Tsar Nicholas II on 7 November 1903 . " How joyous and merry she was that day at Wolfsgarten , when I was there , so full of life and fun and health ... What a terrible heartrending blow for poor Ernie , who doted and adored that little enchantress ! " Elisabeth was buried in the Rosenhöhe with other members of the Hessian grand ducal family . A marble angel was later installed to watch over her grave . In a final gesture to Elisabeth and Ernst , Victoria Melita placed her badge of the Order of Hesse , granted to her upon her marriage , into Elisabeth 's coffin . Ernst was still devastated by the memory of his daughter 's death thirty years later . " My little Elisabeth , " he wrote in his memoirs , " was the sunshine of my life . "
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
11 March 1895 – 16 November 1903 : Her Grand Ducal Highness Princess Elisabeth Marie Alice Viktoria of Hesse and by Rhine
= = Ancestry = =
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= Thiomersal controversy =
The thiomersal controversy describes claims that vaccines containing the mercury @-@ based preservative thiomersal contribute to the development of autism and other brain development disorders . Thimerosal is no longer used in children 's vaccines in the United States , except some types of flu shots . While exposure to mercury may result in damage to brain , kidneys , and developing fetus , the current scientific consensus has found no convincing scientific evidence supporting claims that thiomersal has such effects .
Thiomersal is an organomercury compound used as a preservative in vaccines since the 1930s to prevent bacterial and fungal contamination . Following a mandated review of mercury @-@ containing food and drugs in 1999 , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) and the American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP ) asked vaccine makers to remove thiomersal from vaccines as quickly as possible as a precautionary measure , and it was rapidly phased out of most U.S. and European vaccines . It is still used in all multi @-@ dose vials of flu vaccines in the U.S. In the context of perceived increased autism rates and increased number of vaccines in the childhood vaccination schedule , some parents believed the action to remove thiomersal was an indication that the preservative caused autism .
The potential impact of thiomersal on autism has been investigated extensively . Multiple lines of scientific evidence have shown that thiomersal does not cause autism . For example , the clinical symptoms of mercury poisoning differ significantly from those of autism . In addition , multiple population studies have found no association between thiomersal and autism , and rates of autism have continued to increase despite removal of thiomersal from vaccines . Thus , major scientific and medical bodies such as the Institute of Medicine and World Health Organization ( WHO ) as well as governmental agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) and the CDC reject any role for thiomersal in autism or other neurodevelopmental disorders . In spite of the consensus of the scientific community , some parents and advocacy groups continue to contend that thiomersal is linked to autism .
This controversy has caused harm due to parents attempting to treat their autistic children with unproven and possibly dangerous treatments , discouraging parents from vaccinating their children due to fears about thiomersal toxicity and diverting resources away from research into more promising areas for the cause of autism . Thousands of lawsuits have been filed in the U.S. to seek damages from alleged toxicity from vaccines , including those purportedly caused by thiomersal . US courts have ruled against multiple representative test cases involving thiomersal , suggesting the majority are unlikely to succeed . A 2011 journal article described the vaccine @-@ autism connection as " the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years " .
Outside of the United States , worries about thiomersal had not gained any significant traction as of 2009 .
= = History = =
Thiomersal was introduced as a preservative in the 1930s to prevent the growth of infectious organisms such as bacteria and fungi , and has been in use in vaccines and other products such as immunoglobulin preparations and ophthalmic and nasal solutions . Vaccine manufacturers have used preservatives to prevent microbial growth during the manufacturing process or when packaged as " multi @-@ dose " products to allow for multiple punctures of the same vial to dispense multiple vaccinations with less fear of contamination . After the FDA Modernization Act of 1997 mandated a review and risk assessment of all mercury @-@ containing food and drugs , vaccine manufacturers responded to FDA requests made in December 1998 and April 1999 to provide detailed information about the thiomersal content of their preparations .
A review of the data showed that while the vaccine schedule for infants did not exceed FDA , Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ( ATSDR ) , or WHO guidelines on mercury exposure , it could have exceeded Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) standards for the first six months of life , depending on the vaccine formulation and the weight of the infant . The review also highlighted difficulty interpreting toxicity of the ethylmercury in thiomersal because guidelines for mercury toxicity were based primarily on studies of methylmercury , a different mercury compound with different toxicologic properties . Multiple meetings were scheduled among various government officials and scientists from multiple agencies to discuss the appropriate response to this evidence . There was a wide range of opinions on the urgency and significance of the safety of thiomersal , with some toxicologists suggesting there was no clear evidence that thiomersal was harmful and other participants like Neal Halsey , director of the Institute of Vaccine Safety at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health , strongly advocating removal of thiomersal from vaccines due to possible safety risks . In the process of forming the response to this information , the participants attempted to strike a balance between acknowledging possible harm from thiomersal and the risks involved if childhood vaccinations were delayed or stopped .
Upon conclusion of their review , the FDA , in conjunction with the other members of the US Public Health Service ( USPHS ) , the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , CDC and Health Resources and Services Administration ( HRSA ) , in a joint statement with the AAP in July 1999 concluded that there was " no evidence of harm caused by doses of thimerosal found in vaccines , except for local hypersensitivity reactions . "
Despite the lack of convincing evidence of toxicity of thiomersal when used as a vaccine preservative , the USPHS and AAP determined that thiomersal should be removed from vaccines as a purely precautionary measure . This action was based on the precautionary principle , which assumes that there is no harm in exercising caution even if it later turns out to be unnecessary . The CDC and AAP reasoned that despite the lack of evidence of significant harm in the use of thiomersal in vaccines , the removal of this preservative would increase the public confidence in the safety of vaccines . Although thiomersal was largely removed from routine infant vaccines by summer 2001 in the U.S. , some vaccines continue to contain non @-@ trace amounts of thiomersal , mainly in multi @-@ dose vaccines targeted against influenza and tetanus .
In 2004 Quackwatch posted an article saying that chelation therapy has been falsely promoted as effective against autism , and that practitioners falsified diagnoses of metal poisoning to " trick " parents into having their children undergo the process . As of 2008 , between 2 – 8 % of children with autism had had the therapy .
= = = Rationale for concern = = =
Although intended to increase public confidence in vaccinations , the decision to remove thiomersal instead led to some parents suspecting thiomersal as a cause of autism . This concern over a vaccine @-@ autism link grew from a confluence of several underlying factors . First , methylmercury had for decades been the subject of widespread environmental and media concern after two highly publicized episodes of poisonings in the 1950s and 1960s in Minamata Bay , Japan from industrial waste and in the 1970s in Iraq from fungicide contamination of wheat . These incidents led to new research on methylmercury safety and culminated in the publication of an array of confusing recommendations by public health agencies in the 1990s warning against methylmercury exposure in adults and pregnant women , which ensured a continued high public awareness of mercury toxicity . Second , the vaccine schedule for infants expanded in the 1990s to include more vaccines , some of which , including the Hib vaccine , DTaP vaccine and hepatitis B vaccine , could have contained thiomersal . Third , the number of diagnoses of autism grew in the 1990s , leading parents of these children to search for an explanation for the apparent rise in diagnoses , including considering possible environmental factors . The dramatic increase in reported cases of autism during the 1990s and early 2000s is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices , referral patterns , availability of services , age at diagnosis , and public awareness , and it is unknown whether autism 's true prevalence increased during the period . Nevertheless , some parents believed that there was a growing " autism epidemic " and connected these three factors to conclude that the increase in number of vaccines , and specifically the mercury in thiomersal in those vaccines , were causing a dramatic increase in the incidence of autism .
Advocates of a thiomersal @-@ autism link also relied on indirect evidence from the scientific literature , including analogy with neurotoxic effects of other mercury compounds , the reported epidemiologic association between autism and vaccine use , and extrapolation from in vitro experiments and animal studies Studies conducted by Mark Geier and his son David Geier have been the most frequently cited research by parents advocating a link between thiomersal and autism . This research by Geier has received considerable criticism for methodological problems in his research , including not presenting methods and statistical analyses to others for verification , improperly analyzing data taken from Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System , as well as either mislabelling or confusing fundamental statistical terms in his papers , leading to results that were " uninterpretable " .
= = = Publicity of concern = = =
Several months after the recommendation to have thiomersal removed from vaccines was published , a speculative article was published in Medical Hypotheses , a non @-@ peer @-@ reviewed journal , by parents who launched the parental advocacy group SafeMinds to promote the theory that thiomersal caused autism . The controversy began to gain legitimacy in the eyes of the public from this foundation , and gained widening support within certain elements in the autism advocacy community as well as in the political arena , with U.S. Representative Dan Burton openly supporting this movement and holding a number of Congressional hearings on the subject .
Further support for the association between autism and thiomersal appeared in an article by Robert F. Kennedy , Jr. in the magazines Rolling Stone and Salon.com alleging a government conspiracy at a CDC meeting to conceal the dangers of thiomersal to protect the pharmaceutical industry , and a book written by David Kirby , Evidence of Harm , dramatizing the lives of parents of autistic children , with both authors participating in media interviews to promote their work and the controversy . Although the allegations by Kennedy were denied and a US Senate committee investigation later found no evidence to substantiate the most serious allegations , the story had already been well publicized by leveraging Kennedy 's celebrity . Salon magazine subsequently amended Kennedy 's article five times due to factual errors and later retracted it completely on January 16 , 2011 , stating that the works of critics of the article and evidence of the flaws in the science connecting autism and vaccines undermined the value of the article to the editors .
Meanwhile , during this time of increased media publicity of the controversy , public health officials and institutions did little to rebut the concerns and speculative theories being offered . Media attention and polarization of the debate has also been fueled by personal injury lawyers who took out full @-@ page ads in prominent newspapers and offered financial support for expert witnesses who dissented from the scientific consensus that there is no convincing evidence for a link between thiomersal and autism . Paul Offit , a leading vaccine researcher and advocate , has also noted a tendency in the media to provide false balance by perpetually presenting both sides of an issue even when only one side is supported by the evidence and thereby giving a platform for the spread of misinformation .
Despite the consensus from experts that there is no link between thiomersal and autism , many parents continue to hold on to their belief that such a link exists . These parents share the viewpoint that autism is not just treatable , but curable through " biomedical " interventions and have been frustrated by the lack of progress from more " mainline " scientists in finding this cure . Instead , they have supported an alternative community of like @-@ minded parents , physicians and scientists who promote this belief . This mindset has taught these parents to challenge the expertise from the mainstream scientific community . Parents have also been influenced by a large number of online anti @-@ vaccination websites that present themselves as an alternative source for evidence using pseudoscientific claims . These websites use emotional appeals to gather support and frame the controversy as an adversarial dispute between parents and a conspiracy of doctors and scientists . Advocates for a thiomersal @-@ autism link have also relied on celebrities like model Jenny McCarthy and information presented on Don Imus ' Imus in the Morning radio show to persuade the public to their cause , instead of relying only on " dry " scientific papers and scientists . McCarthy has published a book describing her personal experience with her autistic son and appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show to promote the hypothesis of vaccines causing autism . Bitterness over this issue has led to numerous threats made against the CDC as well as researchers like Offit , with increased security placed by the CDC in response to these threats .
= = Scientific evaluation = =
= = = Rationale for doubting link = = =
Various lines of evidence undermine a proposed link between thiomersal and autism . For example , although advocates of a thiomersal @-@ autism link consider autism a form of " mercury poisoning , " the typical symptoms of mercury toxicity are significantly different from symptoms seen in autism . Likewise , the neuroanatomic and histopathologic features of the brains of patients who have mercury poisoning , both with methylmercury as well as ethylmercury , have significant differences from the brains of people with autism . Previous episodes of widespread mercury toxicity in a population such as in Minamata Bay , Japan would also be expected to lead to documentation of a significant rise in autism or autism @-@ like behavior in children should autism be caused by mercury poisoning . However , research on several episodes of acute and chronic mercury poisoning have not documented any such rise in autism like behavior . Although some parents cite an association between the timing of onset of autistic symptoms with the timing of vaccinations as evidence of an environmental cause such as thiomersal , this line of reasoning can be misleading . Associations such as these do not establish causation as the two occurring together may be only coincidental in nature . Also , genetic disorders that have no environmental triggers such as Rett syndrome and Huntington 's disease nevertheless have specific ages when they begin to show symptoms , suggesting specific ages of onset of symptoms does not necessarily require an environmental cause .
Although the concern for a thiomersal @-@ autism link was originally derived from indirect evidence based on the known potent neurotoxic effects of methylmercury , recent studies show these feared effects were likely overestimated . Ethylmercury , such as in thiomersal , clears much faster from the body after administration than methylmercury , suggesting total mercury exposure over time is much less with ethylmercury . Currently used methods of estimating brain deposition of mercury likely overestimates the amounts deposited due to ethylmercury , and ethylmercury also decomposes quicker in the brain than methylmercury , suggesting a lower risk of brain damage . These findings show that the assumptions that originally led to concern about the toxicity of ethylmercury , which were based on direct comparison to methylmercury , were flawed .
= = = Population studies = = =
Multiple studies have been performed on data from large populations of children to study the relationship between the use of vaccines containing thiomersal , and autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders . Almost all of these studies have found no association between thiomersal @-@ containing vaccines ( TCVs ) and autism , and studies done after the removal of thiomersal from vaccines have nevertheless shown autism rates continuing to increase . The only epidemiologic research that has found a purported link between TCVs and autism has been conducted by Mark Geier , whose flawed research has not been given any weight by independent reviews .
In Europe , a cohort study of 467 @,@ 450 Danish children found no association between TCVs and autism or autism spectrum disorders ( ASDs ) , nor any dose @-@ response relationship between thiomersal and ASDs that would be suggestive of toxic exposure . An ecological analysis that studied 956 Danish children diagnosed with autism likewise did not show an association between autism and thiomersal . A retrospective cohort study on 109 @,@ 863 children in the United Kingdom found no association between TCVs and autism , but a possible increased risk for tics . Analysis in this study also showed a possible protective effect with respect to general developmental disorders , attention @-@ deficit disorder , and otherwise unspecified developmental delay . Another UK study based on a prospective cohort of 13 @,@ 617 children likewise found more associated benefits than risks from thiomersal exposure with respect to developmental disorders . Because the Danish and UK studies involved only diphtheria @-@ tetanus @-@ pertussis ( DTP ) or diphtheria @-@ tetanus ( DT ) vaccines , they are less relevant for the higher thiomersal exposure levels that occurred in the U.S.
In North America , a Canadian study of 27 @,@ 749 children in Quebec showed that thiomersal was unrelated to the increasing trend in pervasive developmental disorders ( PDDs ) . In fact , the study noted that rates of PDDs were higher in the birth cohorts with no thiomersal when compared to those with medium or high levels of exposure . A study performed in the US which analyzed data from 78 @,@ 829 children enrolled in HMOs taken from the Vaccine Safety Datalink ( VSD ) did not show any consistent association between TCVs and neurodevelopmental outcomes , noting different results from data in different HMOs . A study performed in California found that removal of thiomersal from vaccines did not decrease the rates of autism , suggesting that thiomersal could not be the primary cause of autism . A study on children from Denmark , Sweden and California likewise argued against TCVs being causally associated with autism .
= = = Scientific consensus = = =
Due to growing concerns in the public , in 2001 the Centers for Disease Control and the National Institutes of Health asked the U.S. National Academy of Science 's ( NAS ) Institute of Medicine to establish an independent expert committee to review hypotheses about existing and emerging immunization safety concerns . This initial report found that based on indirect and incomplete evidence available at the time , there was inadequate evidence to accept or reject a thiomersal @-@ autism link , though it was biologically plausible .
Since this report was released , several independent reviews have examined the body of published research for a possible thiomersal @-@ autism link by examining the theoretical mechanisms of thiomersal causing harm and by reviewing the in vitro , animal , and population studies that have been published . These reviews determined that no significant evidence exists to establish thiomersal as the cause of autism or other neurodevelopmental disorders .
The scientific consensus on the subject is reflected in a follow up report that was subsequently published in 2004 by the Institute of Medicine , which took into account new data that had been published since the 2001 report . The committee noted , in response to those who cite in vitro or animal models as evidence for the link between autism and thiomersal :
" However , the experiments showing effects of thimerosal on biochemical pathways in cell culture systems and showing abnormalities in the immune system or metal metabolism in people with autism are provocative ; the autism research community should consider the appropriate composition of the autism research portfolio with some of these new findings in mind . However , these experiments do not provide evidence of a relationship between vaccines or thimerosal and autism . In the absence of experimental or human evidence that vaccination ( either the MMR vaccine or the preservative thimerosal ) affects metabolic , developmental , immune , or other physiological or molecular mechanisms that are causally related to the development of autism , the committee concludes that the hypotheses generated to date are theoretical only . "
The committee concludes :
" Thus , based on this body of evidence , the committee concludes that the evidence favors rejection of a causal relationship between thimerosal @-@ containing vaccines and autism . " [ bold in original ]
Further evidence of the scientific consensus includes the rejection of a causal link between thiomersal and autism by multiple national and international scientific and medical bodies including the American Medical Association , the American Academy of Pediatrics , the American College of Medical Toxicology , the Canadian Paediatric Society , the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , the Food and Drug Administration , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the World Health Organization , the Public Health Agency of Canada , and the European Medicines Agency .
A 2011 journal article reflects this point of view and described the vaccine @-@ autism connection as " the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years " .
= = Consequences = =
The suggestion that thiomersal has contributed to autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders has had a number of effects . Public health officials believe fear driven by advocates of a thiomersal @-@ autism link has caused parents to avoid vaccination or adopt " made up " vaccination schedules that expose their children to increased risk from preventable diseases such as measles and pertussis . Advocates of a thiomersal @-@ autism link have also helped enact laws in six states ( California , Delaware , Illinois , Missouri , New York and Washington ) between 2004 and 2006 to limit the use of thiomersal given to pregnant women and children , although later attempts in 2009 in twelve other states failed to pass . These laws can be temporarily suspended , but vaccine advocates doubt their utility given the lack of evidence for danger with thiomersal in vaccines . Vaccine advocates are also concerned that passage of such laws help fuel a backlash against vaccination and contribute to doubts about the safety of vaccines that are unwarranted .
During the period of time of removal of thiomersal , the CDC and AAP asked doctors to delay the birth dose of hepatitis B vaccine in children not at risk for hepatitis . This decision , though following the precautionary principle , nevertheless sparked confusion , controversy and some harm . Approximately 10 % of hospitals suspended the use of hepatitis B vaccine for all newborns , and one child born to a Michigan mother infected with hepatitis B virus died of it . Similarly , a study found that the number of hospitals who failed to properly vaccinate infants of hepatitis B seropositive mothers rose by over 6 times . This is a potential negative outcome given the high probability that infants who acquire hepatitis B infection at birth will develop the infection in a chronic form and possibly liver cancer .
The notion that thiomersal causes autism has led some parents to have their children treated with costly and potentially dangerous therapies such as chelation therapy , which is typically used to treat heavy metal poisoning , due to parental fears that autism is a form of " mercury poisoning " . As many as 2 to 8 % of autistic children in the U.S. , numbering as many as several thousand children per year , receive mercury @-@ chelating agents . Although critics of using chelation therapy as an autism treatment point to a lack of any evidence to support its use , hundreds of doctors prescribe these medications despite possible side effects including nutritional deficiencies as well as damage to the liver and kidney . The popularity of this therapy caused a " public health imperative " that led the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH ) to commission a study about chelation in autism by studying DMSA , a chelating agent used for lead poisoning , despite worries from critics that there would be no chance it would show positive results and it would be unlikely to convince parents to not use the therapy . Ultimately , the study was halted due to ethical concerns that there would be too much risk to children with autism who did not have toxic levels of mercury or lead due to a new animal study showing possible cognitive and emotional problems associated with DMSA . A 5 @-@ year @-@ old autistic boy died from cardiac arrest immediately after receiving chelation therapy treatment using EDTA in 2005 .
The notion has also diverted attention and resources away from efforts to determine the causes of autism . The 2004 Institute of Medicine report committee recommended that while it supported " targeted research that focuses on better understanding the disease of autism , from a public health perspective the committee does not consider a significant investment in studies of the theoretical vaccine @-@ autism connection to be useful at this time . " Alison Singer , a senior executive of Autism Speaks , resigned from the group in 2009 in a dispute over whether to fund more research on links between vaccination and autism , saying , " There isn 't an unlimited pot of money , and every dollar spent looking where we know the answer isn 't is one less dollar we have to spend where we might find new answers . "
= = Court cases = =
From 1988 until August 2010 , 5 @,@ 632 claims relating to autism were made to Office of Special Masters of the U.S. Court of Federal Claims ( commonly known as the " Vaccine Court " ) which oversees vaccine injury claims , of which one case has received compensation , 738 cases have been dismissed with no compensations made , and with the remaining cases pending . In the one case which received compensation , the U.S. government agreed to pay for injury to a child that had a pre @-@ existing mitochondrial disorder who developed autism @-@ like symptoms after multiple vaccinations , some of which included thiomersal . Citing the inability to rule out a role of these vaccinations in exacerbating her underlying mitochondrial disorder as the rationale for payment , CDC officials cautioned against generalizing this one case to all autism @-@ related vaccine cases as most patients with autism do not have a mitochondrial disorder . In February 2009 , this court also ruled on three autism @-@ related cases , each exploring different mechanisms that plaintiffs proposed linked thiomersal @-@ containing vaccines with autism . Three judges independently found no evidence that vaccines caused autism and denied the plaintiffs compensation . Since these same mechanisms formed the basis for the vast majority of remaining autism @-@ related vaccine injury cases , the chance for compensation in any of these cases has significantly decreased . In March 2010 , the court ruled in three other test cases that thiomersal @-@ containing vaccines do not cause autism .
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= Tute =
Tute ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ˈtute ] ) is a trick @-@ taking card game for two to four players . Originating in Italy , where it was known as Tutti , during the 19th century the game spread in Spain , becoming one of the most popular card games in the country . The name of the game was later modified by Spanish speakers , who started calling the game Tute . The game is played with a deck of traditional Spanish playing cards , or naipes , that is very similar to the Italian 40 @-@ card deck .
The classic version of the game is Two @-@ player Tute , while the most played is Tute in Pairs , where four players form two teams . The object of the game is to score the most points in the baza ( a pile next to a player that contains the cards that the player gets after winning a trick ) and by declarations ( holding certain combinations of cards ) . Due to its wide popularity , several variations of the game exist .
= = Overview = =
Tute originated in Italy . The game belongs to the same family as Brisca and has similar rules in gameplay and final count of points . The name of the game originated from the Italian word Tutti ( all ) , the declaration that a player announces when holding the four kings . The game spread to Spain during the 19th century , brought back by Spanish troops who returned from missions in Italy . As the popularity of the game increased , its name was modified over time by Spanish speakers , who started calling the game Tute . The game became one of the most popular in Spain , leading to the later appearance of regional variations of the game .
The game is played with a Spanish deck of cards , which is divided into four suits : Oros ( coins ) , Espadas ( spades ) , Copas ( cups ) and Bastos ( clubs ) . The 8s and 9s of each suit are excluded , leaving forty cards in the deck . The object of the game is to score the most points in the baza and from declarations ( see Scoring below ) .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Two @-@ player Tute = = =
During the deal , each player receives eight cards . After the last card is dealt , one more card is drawn . It indicates which suit becomes the trump . The card is placed perpendicular to the stock , at the bottom .
The first player chooses a card to play . If the second player has one or more cards of higher value of the same suit as this card , one of them must be played , and the second player wins the trick . If the second player has cards of the same suit , but only ones of less value than the first card , one of these must be played ; in this case , the second player loses the trick . If the second player does not have any cards of the same suit but has one or more trump cards , one of these must be played ; the second player wins the trick . If the second player has no cards of the same suit and no trumps , any other card can be played , and the second player loses the trick .
The winning player takes both cards of the trick , and places them face down in an individual pile on the table , called the baza . These cards are out of play until scores are calculated , at the end of the round .
The winner of the trick takes the first card from the stock , and the loser the second ; thus , until the stock runs out , they each hold ten cards at the start of every trick . When the trump card at the bottom of the deck is superior to a 7 ( Ace , Three , King , Knight , or Knave ) , the player that holds the 7 of the trump suit is able to exchange it for any of these . The 7 , and cards of lesser value ( 6 , 5 , and 4 ) , can later be exchanged only by a 2 . The trump exchanges are allowed anytime in the game until only the last two cards are left in the stock .
After a player makes the first baza , that player is allowed to announce declarations . Declaring is allowed until the last two cards are left in the stock ( the last faced @-@ down card , and the faced @-@ up trump below it ) . After these final two cards are picked up , all of the cards the players hold must be played in order to finish the round . When the round is over , the players start to count their scores ( see Scoring below ) . After the counting ends , and their scores are calculated , the cards in the bazas are mixed again in a single stock to be dealt at the start of the next round .
= = = Tute in pairs = = =
Tute in Pairs is played by four players — two teams of two players each — and every player receives ten cards ( since there are 40 cards , this means that all of the cards in the deck are dealt ) . The last card to be dealt is shown to the rest of the players and becomes the trump . This card belongs to the player it was dealt to . The four people sit in a circle , with opponent players to the right and left of each player , and players sitting opposite their team members .
One person plays a card , and the player to the right of this person , from the opponent team , plays a card . As with Two @-@ player Tute , if the second player has one or more higher cards of the same suit as the first player 's card , one of these must be played . If the second player has cards of the same suit , but only ones of less value than the first card , one of these must be played . If the second player does not have any cards of the same suit but has one or more trump cards , one of these must be played . If the second player has no cards of the same suit and no trumps , any other card can be played .
Now , the next player to the right plays a card following the same rules as the second player : if possible , a card of the same suit as the first player 's card must be played , higher than the first two cards if possible ; or if this is not possible , then lower ; if no card of the same suit is held , then if possible , a trump card must be played ; if no trump card is held , then any card may be played . The fourth player likewise plays a card following these same rules .
When all four cards of the trick are on the table , the pair that played the card with the strongest card wins the hand . The trump suit beats the other three suits , with the ranking of trump cards from strongest to weakest as follows : Ace @-@ 3 @-@ King @-@ Knight @-@ Knave @-@ 7 @-@ 6 @-@ 5 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 . The next strongest suit is the one the first player played , again with the card rankings being Ace @-@ 3 @-@ King @-@ Knight @-@ Knave @-@ 7 @-@ 6 @-@ 5 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 . Cards of the other two suits always lose to trumps and the first player 's suit . The winning team places the four cards from the trick into their baza . The rules for the declarations are similar to Two @-@ player Tute , but it is mandatory to declare the cards after a player or the partner begins a baza . Only the scoring team can declare . To declare their cards , the opposing team has to begin a baza . Declaring cards in the plays that follow the beginning of a baza is not allowed . After the hand is over , the counting starts ( see Scoring below ) . When the counting ends , and after the score is calculated , the cards in the bazas are mixed again in a single stack to be dealt at the start of the next round . The deal of cards rotates counter @-@ clockwise during the subsequent hands .
= = Scoring = =
Tute games are played until an established number of game points is reached . Each time one of the competitors wins a round , one point is added to the total score of the player or pair . New rounds are played until a player or pair reaches the game points goal ( three and six point games are the most common ) . When the number is reached the player or pair wins .
The winner ( or the pair of winners ) of the round is determined by the total of round points each player ( or pair ) collects . These points are calculated as the sum of card values in baza , bonus points for declarations and the final trick bonus .
= = = Card values = = =
The values of cards are associated with their ranks :
The rest of the cards ( 7 @-@ 6 @-@ 5 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 ) are called cartas blancas ( white cards ) because their value is zero round points .
= = = Declarations = = =
A player ( or a pair ) , who wins at least one trick receives an ability to gain more round points upon declaring the card combinations . In Tute in Pairs the declarations can be performed until the end of round ; in Two @-@ player Tute this ability persists until only two cards are left in the deck .
The player , who collected all the four Kings , is entitled to declare tute ( all ) , which automatically ends the round with a collector 's victory . Having both King and Knight of the trump suit , one can declare las cuarenta ( forty ) , scoring additional 40 round points . The combination of King and Knight of any other suit can be declared as veinte ( twenty ) ; it adds 20 round points to the player 's score . If possible , a player can declare several combination . In such cases the declarations with the higher round point value must be made first . For example , after declaring veinte the player loses right to declare las cuarenta , though declaring another veinte is still allowed . In Two @-@ player games the declaration order rule only applies to declarations between each trick is played , so the player can declare las cuarenta after veinte if the combination is collected by picking the previously missing card from the stock .
The total of the round points the player ( or pair ) has gained is calculated as the sum of values of the cards collected in the baza and the values of the declared combinations . The winner of the last trick also receives ten bonus round points . The total value of the deck ( and thus the maximum amount of round points ) is 230 points .
= = Variants = =
Due to the popularity of the game in Spain , modifications to the traditional rules have appeared regionally , creating variations . The variants are played with similar rules to normal Tute , but differing in the number of cards , rules for declarations , and other minor modifications of the traditional rules .
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= Mass Rapid Transit ( Singapore ) =
The Mass Rapid Transit , or MRT , is a rapid transit system forming the major component of the railway system in Singapore , spanning the entire city @-@ state . The initial section of the MRT , between Yio Chu Kang and Toa Payoh , opened on 7 November 1987 , making it the second @-@ oldest metro system in Southeast Asia , after Manila 's LRT System . The network has since grown rapidly in accordance with Singapore 's aim of developing a comprehensive rail network as the backbone of the public transport system in Singapore , with an average daily ridership of 3 @.@ 031 million in 2015 ( including the Light Rail Transit ( LRT ) ) , approximately 78 % of the bus network 's 3 @.@ 891 million in the same period .
The MRT network encompasses 170 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 106 @.@ 1 mi ) of route , with 102 stations in operation , on standard gauge . The lines are built by the Land Transport Authority , a statutory board of the Government of Singapore , which allocates operating concessions to the profit @-@ based corporations , SMRT Corporation and SBS Transit . These operators also run bus and taxi services , thus facilitating full integration of public transport services . The MRT is complemented by a small number of local LRT networks in Bukit Panjang , Sengkang and Punggol that link MRT stations with HDB public housing estates .
= = History = =
The origins of the Mass Rapid Transit ( MRT ) are derived from a forecast by city planners in 1967 which stated the need for a rail @-@ based urban transport system by 1992 . Following a debate on whether a bus @-@ only system would be more cost @-@ effective , Ong Teng Cheong , came to the conclusion that an all @-@ bus system would be inadequate , as it would have to compete for road space in a land @-@ scarce country . The initial S $ 5 billion construction of the Mass Rapid Transit network was Singapore 's largest public works project at the time , starting on 22 October 1983 at Shan Road . The network was built in stages , with the North South Line given priority because it passed through the Central Area that has a high demand for public transport . The Mass Rapid Transit Corporation ( MRTC ) , later renamed as SMRT Corporation — was established on 14 October 1983 ; it took over the roles and responsibilities of the former provisional Mass Rapid Transit Authority . On 7 November 1987 , the first section of the North South Line started operations , consisting of five stations over six kilometres . Fifteen more stations were opened later , and the MRT system was officially launched on 12 March 1988 by then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew . Another 21 stations were subsequently added to the system ; the opening of Boon Lay on the East West Line on 6 July 1990 marked the completion of the system two years ahead of schedule .
The MRT has subsequently been expanded . The first expansion was in 1996 . This was a S $ 1 @.@ 2 billion expansion of the North South Line into Woodlands , merging the Branch Line into the North South Line and joining Yishun and Choa Chu Kang Stations . The concept of having rail lines that bring people almost directly to their homes led to the introduction of the Light Rail Transit ( LRT ) lines connecting with the MRT network . On 6 November 1999 , the first LRT trains on the Bukit Panjang LRT went into operation . In 2002 , the Changi Airport and Expo stations were added to the MRT network . The North East Line , the first line operated by SBS Transit , opened on 20 June 2003 , one of the first fully automated heavy rail lines in the world . On 15 January 2006 , after intense lobbying by the public , Buangkok station was opened . The Boon Lay Extension of the East West Line , consisting of Pioneer and Joo Koon stations , began revenue service on 28 February 2009 . The Circle Line opened in four stages from 28 May 2009 to 14 January 2012 . Stage 1 of Downtown Line opened on 22 December 2013 with its official opening made on 21 December 2013 by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong . Stage 2 opened on 27 December 2015 , with its official opening on 26 December by Prime Minister Lee .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Network = = =
The following table lists the Mass Rapid Transit lines that are currently operational :
= = = Facilities and services = = =
Except for the partly at @-@ grade Bishan , the entirety of the MRT is elevated or underground . Most below @-@ ground stations are deep and hardened enough to withstand conventional aerial bomb attacks and to serve as bomb shelters . Mobile phone and 3G service is available in every part of the network . Underground stations and the trains themselves are air @-@ conditioned , while above @-@ ground stations have ceiling fans installed .
Every station is equipped with General Ticketing Machines ( GTMs ) , a Passenger Service Centre and LED or plasma displays that show train service information and announcements . All stations are equipped with restrooms and payphones ; some restrooms are located at street level . Some stations , especially the major ones , have additional amenities and services , such as retail shops and kiosks , supermarkets , convenience stores , automatic teller machines , and self @-@ service automated kiosks for a variety of services . Heavy @-@ duty escalators at stations carry passengers up or down at a rate of 0 @.@ 75 m / s , 50 % faster than conventional escalators .
The older stations on the North South and East West lines were originally built with no accessibility facilities , such as lifts , ramps , tactile guidance systems ( Braille tactiles on the floor surface ) , wider fare gates , or toilets for passengers with disabilities ; authorities in the past actively discouraged use of their system by the disabled . Now , these facilities are being progressively installed as part of a programme to make all stations accessible to the elderly and to those with disabilities . All stations are now barrier @-@ free , although works are still ongoing to provide stations with additional barrier @-@ free facilities . The installation of lifts at pedestrian overhead bridges next to six MRT stations and additional bicycle racks at 20 stations is slated to be completed by the end of 2013 .
= = = Hours of operation = = =
MRT lines operate from 5 : 30am to before 1 : 00am daily , with the exception of selected periods such as New Year 's Eve , Chinese New Year , Deepavali , Hari Raya , Christmas , eves of public holidays , and special occasions such as the state funeral of Lee Kuan Yew ( 2015 ) , when most of the lines stay open throughout the night or extended till later . MRT serves as an essential purpose of transport owing to the support from various organisations and being a car @-@ lite society . When train services operate 24 hours , operators cannot carry out maintenance and engineering works to be done overnight .
= = = Rolling Stock = = =
The following table lists the rolling stock of the network :
At present , all Singapore lines run with fixed length trains between three and six cars , with the future Thomson @-@ East Coast Line using four cars . Since the system 's conception in 1987 , all train lines have been powered by the 750 volt DC third rail , with the exception of the North East Line which is powered by 1500 volt DC overhead lines . The North South and East West lines uses an automatic train operation system that is similar to London Underground 's Victoria line .
No rolling stock has been completely scrapped since service began , with the oldest C151 trains operating since the inauguration of the MRT System in 1987 . Older trains have been renewed over the years under refurbishment schemes to enhance their lifespan as well as to adhere to updated safety and usability codes . Refurbished and new trains sport sleeker designs , improved passenger information systems , more grab poles , wider seats , more space near the doors , spaces for wheelchairs and CCTV cameras . As a trial run , luggage racks were installed on the C751B trains to serve travellers on the Changi Airport branch line . However , the scheme was subsequently withdrawn in June 2002 and the luggage racks removed .
All trains are contracted by open tender , with their contract numbers forming the most recognised name of the stock . Official sources occasionally refer to the trains of the North South and East West lines as numbered generation trains , with the C151 train being the first and the newest C151C train being the Sixth .
= = = Signalling = = =
All Mass Rapid Transit Lines are able to run automatically , and with exception of the North South Line and the East West Line , are fully driverless and automated . The following list documents the systems :
= = = Depots = = =
SMRT Corporation has four train depots : Bishan Depot is the central maintenance depot with train overhaul facilities , while Changi Depot and Ulu Pandan Depot inspect and house trains overnight . In March 2012 , it was announced the new Tuas Depot would be ready in 2016 for the East West Line . The underground Kim Chuan Depot houses trains for the Circle Line and Downtown Line , now jointly managed by the two operators .
SBS Transit has two depots : Sengkang Depot houses trains for the North East Line , the Sengkang LRT and the Punggol LRT . Kim Chuan Depot is currently jointly operated with SMRT for the Downtown Line . Major operations will eventually be shifted to the main Gali Batu Depot by end 2015 although it will continue to operate on a minor capacity .
In August 2014 , plans for the world 's first four @-@ in @-@ one train and bus depot were announced . It will be built at Tanah Merah beside the original Changi Depot site to serve the East West , Downtown , and Thomson @-@ East Coast lines . The new 36ha depot can house about 220 trains and 550 buses and integrating the depot for both buses and trains will help save close to 66 @.@ 12 acres ( 26 @.@ 76 ha ) , or 60 football fields ' worth , of land space .
= = = Architecture and art = = =
Early stages of the MRT 's construction paid relatively scant attention to station design , with an emphasis on functionality over aesthetics . This is particularly evident in the first few stages of the North South and East West lines that opened between 1987 and 1988 from Yio Chu Kang to Clementi . An exception to this was Orchard , chosen by its designers to be a " showpiece " of the system and built initially with a domed roof . Architectural themes became a more important issue only in subsequent stages , and resulted in such designs as the cylindrical station shapes on all stations between Kallang and Pasir Ris except Eunos , and west of Boon Lay , and the perched roofs at Boon Lay , Lakeside , Chinese Garden , Bukit Batok , Bukit Gombak , Choa Chu Kang , Khatib , Yishun and Eunos stations .
Art pieces , where present , are seldom highlighted ; they primarily consist of a few paintings or sculptures representing the recent past of Singapore , mounted in major stations . The opening of the Woodlands Extension introduced bolder pieces of artwork , such as a 4 @,@ 000 kg sculpture in Woodlands . With the opening of the North East Line , more series of artworks created under a programme called " The Art In Transit " were commissioned by the Land Transport Authority . Created by 19 local artists and integrated into the stations ' interior architecture , these works aim to promote the appreciation of public art in high @-@ traffic environments . The artwork for each station is designed to suit the station 's identity . All stations on the North East , Circle and Downtown Lines come under this programme . An art contest was held by the authorities in preparation for a similar scheme to be implemented for the Circle Line .
The Expo station , located on the Changi Airport branch of the East West Line , is adjacent to the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre Singapore Expo exhibition facility . Designed by Foster and Partners and completed in January 2001 , the station features a large , pillarless , titanium @-@ clad roof in an elliptical shape that sheathes the length of the station platform . This complements a smaller 40 @-@ metre reflective stainless @-@ steel disc overlapping the titanium ellipse and visually floats over a glass elevator shaft and the main entrance . The other station with similar architecture is Dover .
Changi Airport , the easternmost station on the MRT network , has the widest platform in any underground MRT station in Singapore . It is rated 10 out of 15 most beautiful subway stops in the world in 2011 .
Two Circle Line stations — Bras Basah and Stadium — were commissioned through the Marina Line Architectural Design Competition , which was jointly organised by the Land Transport Authority and the Singapore Institute of Architects . The competition did not require any architectural experience from competitors , and is acknowledged by the industry as one of the most impartial competitions held in Singapore to date . The winner of both stations was WOHA . In 2009 , " Best Transport Building " was awarded to the designers at WOHA Architects at the World Architecture Festival .
= = Expansion = =
The MRT system relied on its two main lines , the North South and East West lines , for more than a decade until the opening of the North East Line in 2003 . While plans for these lines as well as those currently under construction were formulated long before , the Land Transport Authority 's publication of a White Paper titled " A World Class Land Transport System " in 1996 galvanised the government 's intentions to greatly expand the system . It called for the expansion of the 67 kilometres of track in 1995 to 360 in 2030 . It was expected that daily ridership in 2030 would grow to 6 @.@ 0 million from the 1 @.@ 4 million passengers at that time
The following table lists Mass Rapid Transit lines and stations that are currently under testing , construction , or that are in the planning stages :
= = = Downtown Line = = =
The 42 @-@ kilometre , 36 station fully underground Downtown Line , will connect the northwestern and eastern regions of Singapore to the new downtown at Marina Bay in the south and to the Central Business District . Similar to the Circle Line , three @-@ car trainsets will run on the Downtown Line with line capacity projected for 500 @,@ 000 commuters daily . The Downtown Line is slated to be completed in three stages . Stage 1 from Bugis to Chinatown began operations on 22 December 2013 . Stage 2 from Bukit Panjang to Rochor began operations on 27 December 2015 . Stage 3 from Fort Canning to Expo will begin operations in 2017 and Stage 3e from Expo to Sungei Bedok in 2024 respectively .
= = = Thomson @-@ East Coast Line = = =
The 43 @-@ kilometre , 31 station fully underground Thomson @-@ East Coast Line will connect the northern region of Singapore to the south , running parallel to the existing North South Line passing through Woodlands , Sin Ming , Upper Thomson and Marina Bay before turning east and running through Tanjong Rhu , Siglap , Marine Parade and Bedok . The line will commence operation in five stages , with the first three stages starting from Woodlands North to Gardens by the Bay commencing operations between 2019 and 2021 respectively , Stage 4 from Tanjong Rhu to Bayshore in 2023 and Stage 5 from Bedok South to Sungei Bedok in 2024 . The northern terminus of Woodlands North is also expected to interchange with the Singapore @-@ Johor rail link to provide access to Johor Bahru and the future Johor Bahru Rapid Transit System .
= = = Jurong Region Line = = =
First proposed as a LRT line when originally announced in 2001 , the Jurong Region Line has since been upgraded to be a medium capacity line after the project was revived in 2013 . The new configuration will serve West Coast , Tengah and Choa Chu Kang and Jurong . Details will be announced once Tengah New Town development is up , and the completion will be by 2025 .
= = = Cross Island Line = = =
The 50 @-@ kilometre Cross Island Line will span the island of Singapore , passing through Tuas , Jurong , Sin Ming , Ang Mo Kio , Hougang , Punggol , Pasir Ris and Changi . The addition of the new line brings commuters with another alternative for East @-@ West travel to the current East West Line . It will also connect to all the other major lines to serve as a key transfer line , complementing the role currently fulfilled by the orbital Circle Line . This line will even have a longer timeframe due to the environmental study aspects , with the completion by 2030 .
= = = Tuas West extension = = =
The Tuas West Extension is an extension of the East West Line from Joo Koon to Tuas Link . The stations — Gul Circle , Tuas Crescent , Tuas West Road and Tuas Link — will extend MRT connectivity to the Tuas area and are expected to serve more than 100 @,@ 000 commuters daily . Construction began in 2012 and is planned to be completed in 2016 .
= = = Circle Line Stage 6 = = =
To be completed by 2025 , the 4 @-@ kilometre extension will run from Marina Bay through Keppel , ending at HarbourFront . On 29 October 2015 , the LTA announced the 3 station locations for the ' Circle Line Stage 6 ' . The stations are Keppel Station , Cantonment Station and Prince Edward Station .
= = = Downtown Line 3 extension = = =
To be completed by 2024 , the additional 2 @.@ 2 km extension will run from Expo via Xilin and interchange with Sungei Bedok of the Thomson @-@ East Coast Line .
A commuter who lives along the corridor of the Thomson @-@ East Coast Line ( TEL ) will be able to access key employment nodes along the Downtown Line 3 corridor in a single train ride . The Downtown Line 3 Extension also brings direct connectivity along the corridor it serves .
= = = North East Line extension = = =
To be completed by 2030 , the 2 @-@ kilometre extension will run from Punggol through Punggol North including the new Punggol Downtown . The extension is for future residents in Punggol North to have train access to the city centre as well as other parts of Singapore .
= = Fares and ticketing = =
Stations are divided into two areas , paid and unpaid , which allow the rail operators to collect fares by restricting entry only through the fare gates , also known as access control gates . These gates , connected to a computer network , can read and update electronic tickets capable of storing data , and can store information such as the initial and destination stations and the duration for each trip . General Ticketing Machines sell tickets for single trips or allow the customer to buy additional value for stored @-@ value tickets . Tickets for single trips , coloured in green , are valid only on the day of purchase , and have a time allowance of 30 minutes beyond the estimated travelling time . Tickets that can be used repeatedly until their expiry date require a minimum amount of stored credit .
As the fare system has been integrated by TransitLink , commuters need to pay only one fare and pass through two fare gates ( once on entry , once on exit ) for an entire journey , even when transferring between lines operated by different companies . Commuters can choose to extend a trip mid @-@ journey , and pay the difference when they exit their destination station .
= = = Fares = = =
Because the rail operators are government @-@ assisted , profit @-@ based corporations , fares on the MRT system are pitched to at least break @-@ even level . The operators collect these fares by selling electronic data @-@ storing tickets , the prices of which are calculated based on the distance between the start and destination stations . These prices increase in fixed stages for standard non @-@ discounted travel . Fares are calculated in increments based on approximate distances between stations , in contrast to the use of fare zones in other subway systems , such as the London Underground .
Although operated by private companies , the system 's fare structure is regulated by the Public Transport Council ( PTC ) , to which the operators submit requests for changes in fares . Fares are kept affordable by pegging them approximately to distance @-@ related bus fares , thus encouraging commuters to use the network and reduce its heavy reliance on the bus system . Fare increases over the past few years have caused public concern , the latest one having taken effect from 1 October 2008 . There were similar expressions of disapproval over the slightly higher fares charged on SBS Transit 's North East Line , a disparity that SBS Transit justified by citing higher costs of operation and maintenance on a completely underground line , as well as lower patronage .
= = = Ticketing = = =
The ticketing system uses the EZ @-@ Link and NETS FlashPay contactless smart cards based upon the Symphony for e @-@ Payment ( SeP ) system for public transit built on the Singapore Standard for Contactless ePurse Application ( CEPAS ) system . This system allows for up to 4 card issuers in the market . The EZ @-@ Link card was introduced on 13 April 2002 as a replacement for the original TransitLink farecard , while its competitor the NETS FlashPay card entered the smartcard market on 9 October 2009 .
A stored value adult EZ @-@ Link or NETS FlashPay branded CEPAS card may be purchased at any TransitLink Ticket Office or Passenger Service Centre . The CEPAS card may be used for the payment of MRT , LRT and bus fares . The CEPAS card may also be used for payment for goods and services at selected merchants , Electronic Road Pricing tolls , and Electronic Parking System carparks . Additional credit may be purchased via cash or NETS at any General Ticketing Machine ( GTM ) , Add Value Machine , TransitLink Ticket Office , Passenger Service Centre , AXS Station , DBS / POSB / OCBC / UOB Automatic Teller Machines , online via a card reader purchased separately , or selected merchants . Additional credit of a predetermined value may also be automatically credited into the card when the card value runs low via an automatic recharge service provided by Interbank GIRO or credit card . An Adult Monthly Travel Card for unlimited travel on MRT , LRT and buses may also be purchased and is non @-@ transferable .
A Standard Ticket contactless smart card for single or return journeys may also be purchased at the GTM for the payment of MRT and / or LRT fares . A S $ 0 @.@ 10 deposit will be levied on top of the fare to be paid . The deposit will be automatically refunded through an offset of the fare to be paid for the third journey on the same ticket while an additional discount of S $ 0 @.@ 10 will be given for the sixth journey on the same ticket . No refund of the deposit is provided if the card is used for fewer than 3 journeys . The ticket can be used for the purchase of single or return journeys to and from pre @-@ selected stations up to a maximum of six journeys over 30 days . Fares for the Standard Ticket are always higher than those charged for the stored @-@ valued CEPAS ( EZ @-@ Link and NETS FlashPay ) cards for the same distance traveled . The ticket is retained by the user after each journey and does not need to be returned to any GTM or Passenger Service Centre . Identical to the usage of CEPAS cards , the ticket is tapped onto the faregate reader upon entry and exit .
For tourists , a Singapore Tourist Pass contactless smartcard may be purchased . The card may be bought at selected TransitLink Ticket Offices and Singapore Visitors Centres . The tourists may retrieved their deposit by returning the card to the ticket offices or visitors centres within 5 days from the date of issue .
= = Safety and security = =
= = = Safety = = =
Operators and authorities state that numerous measures had been taken to ensure the safety of passengers , and SBS Transit publicised the safety precautions on the driverless North East Line before and after its opening . Safety campaign posters are highly visible in trains and stations , and the operators frequently broadcast safety announcements to passengers and to commuters waiting for trains . Fire safety standards are consistent with the strict guidelines of the US National Fire Protection Association .
There were calls for platform screen doors to be installed at above @-@ ground stations after several incidents in which passengers were killed by oncoming trains when they fell onto the railway tracks at above @-@ ground stations . Underground stations already featured platform screen doors since 1987 . The authorities initially rejected the proposal by casting doubts over functionality and concerns about the high installation costs , but made an about @-@ turn when the government announced plans to install half @-@ height platform screen doors on the above @-@ ground stations in January 2008 , citing lower costs due to it becoming a more common feature worldwide . They were first installed at Jurong East , Pasir Ris and Yishun stations in 2009 under trials to test their feasibility .
By 14 March 2012 , all elevated stations have been retrofitted with the doors and are operational . These doors prevent suicides and unauthorised access to restricted areas . Under the Rapid Transit Systems Act , acts such as smoking , eating or drinking in stations and trains , the misuse of emergency equipment and trespassing on the railway tracks are illegal , with penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment .
There were a few major accidents in the history of the MRT that raised safety concerns among the public . On 5 August 1993 , two trains collided at Clementi station because of an oil spillage on the track , which resulted in 132 injuries . During the construction of the Circle Line on 20 April 2004 , a tunnel being constructed under Nicoll Highway collapsed and led to the deaths of four people . The overall reliability of the ageing North South and East West lines were questioned by the public after multiple major train disruptions in December 2011 led to a Committee of Inquiry , which uncovered serious shortcomings in SMRT Corporation 's maintenance regime . Since then , every MRT line had been plagued with disruptions of various degrees of severity .
On 7 July 2015 , train services on the North South MRT Line and East West MRT Line in Singapore were suspended in both directions following a major power trip . The disruption lasted for more than 3 hours , affecting 250 @,@ 000 commuters . This was considered the worst disruption to the MRT network since it first began operations in 1987 . Independent experts from Sweden and Japan were hired to conduct investigation into the cause of the disruption . The cause was identified as damage to a third rail insulator due to a water leak at Tanjong Pagar station . Consequently , a program was implemented to replace insulators liable to similar failure .
= = = Security = = =
Security concerns related to crime and terrorism were not high on the agenda of the system 's planners at its inception . However , after the Madrid train bombings in 2004 and the foiled plot to bomb the Yishun MRT Station in 2001 , the operators deployed private , unarmed guards to patrol station platforms and conduct checks on the belongings of commuters , especially those carrying bulky items .
Recorded announcements are frequently made to remind passengers to report suspicious activity and not to leave their belongings unattended . Digital closed @-@ circuit cameras ( CCTVs ) have been upgraded with recording @-@ capability at all stations and trains operated by SMRT Corporation . Trash bins and mail boxes have been removed from station platforms and concourse levels to station entrances , to eliminate the risk of bombs planted in them . Photography without permission was also banned in all MRT stations since the Madrid bombings , but it was not in the official statement in any public transport security reviews .
On 14 April 2005 the Singapore Police Force announced plans to step up rail security by establishing a specialised security unit for public transport , the unit today is known as the Public Transport Security Command or more commonly known as TRANSCOM . These armed officers began overt patrols on the MRT and LRT systems on 15 August 2005 , conducting random patrols in pairs in and around rail stations and within trains . They are trained and authorised to use their firearms at their discretion , including deadly force if deemed necessary . On 8 January 2006 , a major civil exercise involving over 2 @,@ 000 personnel from 22 government agencies , codenamed Exercise Northstar V , simulating bombing and chemical attacks at Dhoby Ghaut , Toa Payoh , Raffles Place and Marina Bay MRT stations was conducted . Thirteen stations were closed and about 3 @,@ 400 commuters were affected during the three @-@ hour exercise .
Security concerns were brought up by the public when two incidents of vandalism at train depots occurred within two years . In both incidents , graffiti on the affected trains were discovered after they entered revenue service . The first incident , on 17 May 2010 , involved a breach in the perimeter fence of Changi Depot and resulted in the imprisonment and caning of a Swiss citizen , and an Interpol arrest warrant for his accomplice . The train involved was a C151 train . SMRT Corporation received a S $ 50 @,@ 000 fine by the Land Transport Authority for the first security breach . Measures were put in place by the Public Transport Security Committee to enhance depot security in light of the first incident , but works were yet to be completed by SMRT Corporation when the second incident , on 17 August 2011 , occurred at Bishan Depot .
On 22 November 2012 , the Land Transport Authority carried out a ground deployment exercise with SMRT to test their incident management plans in the event of a train service disruption . In total , about 135 personnel including representatives from the Singapore Police Force 's Transport Command ( TransCom ) and SBS Transit participated in the exercise . Train service continued as per normal and commuters were not affected by the exercise . Codenamed ' Exercise Greyhound ' , the exercise went through the scenario of a broken rail on the East West Line at Buona Vista . SMRT had also activated their Rail Incident Management Plan .
On 22 August 2013 , ‘ Exercise Greyhound 2013 ’ was carried out by the Land Transport Authority with SBS Transit to validate the procedures of SBST ’ s Operations Control Centre ( OCC ) and the workability of its contingency plans for bus bridging , free bus service and deployment of Goodwill Ambassadors ( GAs ) during a simulated prolonged train service disruption . About 300 personnel including representatives from LTA , SBST , SMRT , the Singapore Police Force ’ s Transport Command ( TransCom ) , Traffic Police and Singapore Civil Defence Force ( SCDF ) participated in the exercise . Train service continued as per normal and commuters were not affected by the exercise .
= = = General = = =
= = = Academic publications = = =
= = = Corporate and governmental sources = = =
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= A Meeting by the River =
A Meeting by the River is an album recorded by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt ; it was recorded in September 1992 and released in April 1993 through the record label Water Lily Acoustics . This improvised , collaborative album features Cooder on slide guitar and Bhatt on the Mohan veena , a stringed instrument created by Bhatt . A Meeting by the River was produced by Kavichandran Alexander and Jayant Shah , engineered by Alexander , and mastered by Kevin Michael Gray and Paul Stubblebine . It peaked at number four on Billboard 's Top World Music Albums chart , and earned Cooder and Bhatt Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album at the 36th Grammy Awards ( 1994 ) . The album is included in Tom Moon 's 2008 book 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die .
= = Composition = =
A Meeting by the River was recorded in September 1992 ; it features Cooder solely on slide guitar and Bhatt on the Mohan veena , a stringed instrument he created . Allmusic 's Daniel Gioffre described the instrument as a hybrid between a guitar and a vichitra veena ; it is played with a metal slide moving across steel rods along the neck . Cooder had heard a recording of Hindustani classical music performed by Bhatt and was impressed by his playing and the " haunting clarity " of the Mohan veena . Cooder and Bhatt met for the first time less than one hour before recording began ; they improvised much of the set ; the album 's liner notes state , " this recording was unplanned and unrehearsed " . The album was produced by Kavichandran Alexander , founder of Water Lily Acoustics , and Jayant Shah . It was engineered by Alexander , and was mastered by Kevin Michael Gray and Paul Stubblebine . Cooder and Bhatt are accompanied by Cooder 's fourteen @-@ year @-@ old son Joachim on dumbek , a Middle Eastern drum , and by Sukhvinder Singh Namdhari on tabla .
The collaboration between Cooder and Bhatt is Alexander 's first attempt to record musicians of different cultures together , one of his goals when he founded the record label . Author George Plasketes described Bhatt 's playing as " highly nuanced " and said , Cooder performs in a more " loose @-@ jointed , slip ' n ' slide style " . According to Gioffre , Cooder and Bhatt use improvisation and " voice @-@ like " phrasing , showing melodic performances in an alternating fashion and in unison . The album contains four tracks , three of which are credited to Cooder and Bhatt ; tracks range in duration from approximately seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes to twelve minutes . " Longing " has a structure similar to a raga . Author Tom Moon said Cooder takes the lead on the hymn " Isa Lei " as Bhatt contributes " elaborate squiggling asides " and " swooping nosedives " . In 2011 , Bhatt performed " A Meeting by the River " at a music festival in honor of guru Kelucharan Mohapatra . Bhatt said of the song , " Music has no religion and no geographical or linguistic barrier . It speaks a universal language . My composition – ' A Meeting by the River ' – aims at explaining this . " Bhatt has said he considers working with Cooder his " most special " collaboration .
= = Reception = =
Gioffre wrote a positive review of the album and called Cooder and Bhatt " genuine masters " of their respective instruments . He described the musical interplay between the musicians as " nothing short of astounding " and the album as a rare instance in which a combination of genres works . Gioffre also wrote , " this album is masterfully recorded ; each instrument is clear , distinct , and three @-@ dimensional sounding . A Meeting by the River is a must @-@ own , a thing of pure , unadulterated beauty , and the strongest record in Cooder 's extensive catalog . " Peter Margasak of the Chicago Tribune awarded the album four stars out of four , describing Cooder 's performance as " arresting " and Bhatt 's as " haunting " . Margasak wrote that the fusion revealed a " rare , often transcendental beauty " as the two artists " gently and intuitively " found common ground . Rolling Stone called the album " fruitful " and awarded it three stars out of five .
= = Chart performance and recognition = =
A Meeting by the River reached a peak position of number four on Billboard 's Top World Music Albums chart . In 1994 , the album earned Cooder and Bhatt Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album . Bhatt became one of a few Indian musicians to have received a Grammy Award until A. R. Rahman won at the 52nd Grammy Awards in 2010 . Previous Indian award winners had been recognized jointly with Western artists . The February 25 , 1995 , issue of Billboard , which featured the annual " Indies Spotlight " and covered independent music between the January 29 , 1994 , and January 21 , 1995 , issues of the magazine included A Meeting by the River at number ten on its list of the " Top Indie World Music Albums " . The album is included in Tom Moon 's 2008 book 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die : A Listener 's Life List .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks by Ry Cooder and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt unless noted otherwise .
" A Meeting by the River " – 10 : 03
" Longing " – 11 : 56
" Ganges Delta Blues " – 9 : 57
" Isa Lei " ( Caten ) – 7 : 39
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
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= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Jamaica =
In early July 2005 , Hurricane Dennis brushed Jamaica , bringing torrential rain and damaging floods to the island nation . Forming from a tropical depression on July 4 , Dennis began impacting Jamaica three days later . Approximately 6 @,@ 000 people evacuated from coastal and flood @-@ prone areas prior to the storm 's arrival while relief agencies allocated resources for recovery operations . Passing northeast of the island , impact from Dennis stemmed primarily from rainfall — accumulations peaked at 24 @.@ 54 in ( 623 mm ) and reached 1 @-@ in @-@ 50 year event levels . Widespread flooding and landslides damaged homes and isolated communities . Saint Thomas and Portland Parishes were hardest @-@ hit ; hundreds required evacuation as multiple rivers burst their banks .
Overall , 209 @,@ 000 people were affected with 6 @,@ 000 households requesting assistance . A week after Dennis , Hurricane Emily brought further rain to the island , exacerbating damage . Their combined effects damaged or destroyed 440 homes with total losses reaching J $ 5 @.@ 976 billion ( US $ 96 @.@ 87 million ) , of which at least J $ 2 @.@ 128 billion ( US $ 34 @.@ 5 million ) can be attributed to Dennis alone . One person died due to flooding . Relief operations began before the hurricane subsided , and international communities provided further aid . The overall effects of Dennis were limited and the nation 's economy sustained no major ramifications .
= = Background and preparations = =
On July 4 , 2005 , the National Hurricane Center classified a tropical depression near the Windward Islands . This system moved briskly to the west @-@ northwest , becoming Tropical Storm Dennis the following day . Taking advantage of highly favorable environmental factors , such as low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , Dennis rapidly intensified . By July 6 , the system reached hurricane strength as it began traversing the Jamaica Channel . Around 18 : 00 UTC on July 7 , the hurricane passed 30 mi ( 45 km ) northeast of Port Antonio — 60 mi ( 95 km ) northeast of Kingston — with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) — a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The system subsequently struck Cuba as a Category 4 twice before moving over the Gulf of Mexico . It ultimately moved inland over Florida as a Category 3 on July 10 and dissipated over the Great Lakes eight days later .
Late on July 5 , the Government of Jamaica issued a hurricane watch for the nation as Dennis intensified over the eastern Caribbean . This was upgraded to a hurricane warning early on July 6 . The warning remained in place for 48 hours as the hurricane brushed the island , being discontinued on July 8 as Dennis moved over northern Cuba and no longer posed a direct threat to Jamaica .
Following the issuance of the hurricane warning , Jamaica 's National Emergency Operations Center and Parish Emergency Operations Center were activated . At the behest of Jamaica 's Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management , the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency allocated resources to assist the nation following the passage of Dennis . The Jamaican Red Cross also notified its branches of the storm , placing personnel and volunteers on standby on July 7 . The Jamaica Defence Force Coast Guard assisted with evacuations of Pedro Bank and Morant Cays . Shelters prepped for opening by the evening of July 6 and Norman Manley International Airport ceased operations at 04 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 p.m. local time ) and Sangster International Airport following soon thereafter .
By July 7 , 30 shelters opened across five parishes , with at least 793 people using their services . Some officials complained that residents refused to evacuate . However , as the storm impacted the island this number dramatically increased to 6 @,@ 000 people with shelters open in all parishes . Approximately J $ 25 million ( US $ 405 @,@ 000 ) was made available for relief operations through the nation 's Disaster Mitigation Programme . An additional J $ 20 million ( US $ 324 @,@ 000 ) was allocated for clearing drains in preparation for heavy rain .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Dennis brought torrential rainfall to most of Jamaica , which already experienced above @-@ average rainfall since April , as it brushed the island to the northeast . Many places recorded over 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain , with the highest totals occurring across the Blue Mountains ; accumulations peaked at 24 @.@ 54 in ( 623 mm ) in Mavis Bank . One @-@ hour rainfall rates reached 2 @.@ 6 in ( 65 mm ) in this location with a twenty @-@ four @-@ hour peak of 19 @.@ 59 in ( 497 @.@ 6 mm ) . The latter value equates to a 1 @-@ in @-@ 50 year event for the town and was 1 @,@ 005 % of the 30 @-@ year mean . Rainfall in Constant Spring reached 1 @-@ in @-@ 25 year levels . Sustained winds in Montego Bay peaked at 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) , equivalent to a strong tropical storm . Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston observed peak winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) with a gust to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . These winds downed trees and power lines , leaving roughly 100 @,@ 000 customers without electricity ; however , overall wind damage was minimal . Several homes and business lost their roofs .
Saint Thomas Parish suffered widespread flooding as multiple rivers burst their banks . The first to flood was the Yallahs River . A bridge spanning the river was severely damaged . The nearby Mundicot River prompted multiple evacuations in Yallahs while Johnson River flooded much of Seaforth . Evacuations also took place in Bull Bay where graves were unearthed . Sixty @-@ seven homes in the Taylor Land subdivision of Bull Bay were affected , prompting a proposal to relocate residents elsewhere to avoid future damage . Overflow from tributaries of the Cane River inundated multiple villages , leaving many isolated . One person drowned after being swept away in the Negro River ; his body was recovered three days later . Approximately 200 homes in the parish suffered inundation — including several illegally built structures which were destroyed — with residents reporting maximum flood depths of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . The community of Eight Miles remained under 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) a day after the hurricane 's passage . The severity of flooding was blamed on poor building and maintenance of retaining walls along gullies .
Landslides in Portland Parish rendered roads impassable and damaged many homes . A bridge spanning the Rio Grande , connecting eastern and western sides of the parish , was severely damaged . The severed connection left 500 people temporarily isolated . Elsewhere along the river , three homes and two stores were swept away . A landslide in Mill Bank destroyed eight homes . Agriculture sustained significant damage , with effects compounded by the quick succession of Dennis and Emily a week apart . Along the Rio Grande , the entire banana crop was lost . The two storms wrecked 626 ha ( 1 @,@ 550 acres ) of crops and killed 4 @,@ 330 livestock , mostly chickens , at a cost of J $ 250 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 05 million ) .
Two homes along the Mamee River in Saint Andrew Parish were swept away while other residents in mountainous areas of the parish were stranded by landslides . Multiple residents became trapped within Gordon Town and hazardous weather hampered their rescue . A bridge in Mahoneyvale was destroyed . During the pre @-@ dawn hours of July 9 , the Annotto , Pencar , and Motherford rivers burst their banks in Saint Mary Parish ; more than 500 people relocated from their homes in Annotto Bay . Flooding took place across much of Saint Catherine Parish with eight people requiring rescue . The Cobrun Gully submerged several homes in Bushy Park . Eastern areas of Clarendon Parish experienced significant flooding , with several communities cut @-@ off or inundated . A sink hole in Halse Hall engulfed 35 homes . An oil tank overflowed due to heavy rain at a Petrojam Refinery in Kingston Harbour resulting in a minor oil spill . Petrojam crews cleaned the spill within a day . Some streets in downtown Kingston were flooded . Effects in Trelawny Parish were relatively limited , with J $ 16 million ( US $ 259 @,@ 000 ) in agricultural damage .
In all , an estimated 209 @,@ 000 people were affected to varying degrees across 121 communities in the nation . Approximately 6 @,@ 000 households — an estimated 22 @,@ 000 people — reported need for assistance ; the combined effects of Dennis and Emily left 49 homes destroyed and 391 damaged . Associated losses reached J $ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 62 million ) from Dennis . The agricultural industry sustained extensive losses , with 610 ha ( 1 @,@ 500 acres ) damaged and nearly 160 @,@ 000 livestock , primarily chickens , killed . The rapid succession of Dennis and Emily makes differentiating damage between them difficult . Collectively , the two storms wrought J $ 5 @.@ 976 billion ( US $ 96 @.@ 87 million ) in damage , primarily stemming from infrastructure , of which at least J $ 2 @.@ 128 billion ( US $ 34 @.@ 5 million ) can be attributed to Dennis alone .
= = Aftermath = =
Distribution of relief supplies began on July 7 . Isolated communities across Saint Andrew , Saint Thomas , and Portland Parishes received airlifted aid the following day . Residents in Cascade required evacuation by airlift and Mill Bank was declared a disaster area . A previously defunct railway bridge — the 500 ft ( 150 m ) St. Margaret 's Bay bridge — in Portland Parish , not in use since the 1980s , was repaired at a cost of J $ 26 million ( US $ 421 @,@ 000 ) and re @-@ opened on July 30 to enable travel after the Rio Grande bridge was damaged . Residents in the parish were also advised to temporarily boil or bleach water to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases due to contaminated supplies . The Salvation Army assisted with relief efforts . Efforts to repair and restore damaged roadways reached J $ 405 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 56 million ) . The Leader of the Opposition party requested the Jamaican government release J $ 500 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 1 million ) for immediate relief ; however , Prime Minister P. J. Patterson rejected the proposal . Joseph Hibbert further criticized the government for inadequately maintaining roads , citing a lack of maintenance contracts which is how such work is carried out in the nation . Although the Government of Jamaica indicated it would not request international assistance , the Government of Cuba provided 11 tons of supplies and Venezuela offered support .
WINDALCO reported a loss of 10 @,@ 000 tons of aluminum due to flooding . Manufacturing companies reported J $ 18 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 296 @,@ 000 ) in losses , primarily from suspended operations . In November , the Jamaica Labour Party sought J $ 3 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 51 @.@ 8 million ) in additional funding to repair roads damaged by Hurricanes Ivan , Dennis , Emily , and Wilma . The following month , the Jamaica Agricultural Society received J $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 88 @,@ 266 ) from the Japanese embassy to assist 500 farmers in Portland Parish . The long @-@ term effects of Dennis were limited , with nearly every economic sector returning to normal within a few months . The only exceptions were exports of banana and coffee crops , both of which were still recovering from Hurricane Ivan in 2004 . Overall implications to the nation 's gross domestic product were negligible , merely flat @-@ lining growth rather than causing decline . However , in combination with the effects of a drought early in 2005 , inflation values required adjustment upwards from 9 % to 14 @.@ 3 % .
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= The Boat Race 1846 =
The 8th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 3 April 1846 . Umpired by Charles Jasper Selwyn , Cambridge won in a time of 21 minutes 5 seconds , with a winning margin of three lengths . The race was held on the ebb tide , starting in Mortlake and ending in Putney . For the first time , outriggers were used by both crews .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London .
Following their ten @-@ length defeat in the previous year 's race , Oxford sent their challenge to Cambridge in February 1846 , proposing that the race should take place at Easter . The umpire for the race was Charles Jasper Selwyn . Cambridge went into the race leading the contest overall , with five wins to Oxford 's two since the inaugural race in 1829 . On one of only a handful of occasions , the race was rowed on the ebb tide , from Mortlake to Putney .
For the first time in the history of the race , both boats used outriggers . Cambridge " rowed in an outrigger built by Searle , 60 ft in length , 2 ft 8 in in breadth " , while Oxford 's boat was " expressly built for this match by King of Oxford " and 58 ft 6 in long . Both crews had professional coaches : Oxford used John Noulton while Cambridge were trained by Robert Coombes , a champion sculler . It marked the start of the debate over the use of professional coaches which was not resolved until the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 375 lb ( 73 @.@ 5 kg ) , 3 @.@ 25 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . Oxford saw three Blues return from the 1845 race in Royds , Stapylton and Milman ; Harkness and Hill returned for Cambridge .
= = Race = =
Conditions for the race were described by MacMichael as " very fine , and the little wind there was with the tide . " The race commenced shortly after 11.10am , started by Edward Searle . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing Cambridge the Middlesex side of the river . Despite taking an early lead , Oxford were soon caught and Cambridge drew away , holding a third @-@ of @-@ a @-@ length lead by Chiswick . As the long bend began to favour Oxford , Cambridge slowed in shallow water allowing the Dark Blues to close some of the discrepancy , but by Hammersmith Bridge , Cambridge were back to a half @-@ length lead . A final surge from Oxford once again closed the gap , but Cambridge pulled away to take the victory in a record time of 21 minutes 5 seconds and by a margin of three lengths .
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= Cultural depictions of dinosaurs =
Cultural depictions of dinosaurs have been numerous since the word dinosaur was coined in 1842 . The dinosaurs featured in books , films , television programs , artwork , and other media have been used for both education and entertainment . The depictions range from the realistic , as in the television documentaries of the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century , or the fantastic , as in the monster movies of the 1950s and 1960s .
The growth in interest in dinosaurs since the Dinosaur Renaissance has been accompanied by depictions made by artists working with ideas at the leading edge of dinosaur science , presenting lively dinosaurs and feathered dinosaurs as these concepts were first being considered . Cultural depictions of dinosaurs have been an important means of translating scientific discoveries to the public .
Cultural depictions have also created or reinforced misconceptions about dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals , such as inaccurately and anachronistically portraying a sort of " prehistoric world " where many kinds of extinct animals ( from the Permian animal Dimetrodon to mammoths and cavemen ) lived together , and dinosaurs living lives of constant combat .
Other misconceptions reinforced by cultural depictions came from a scientific consensus that has now been overturned , such as the alternate usage of dinosaur to describe something that is maladapted or obsolete , or dinosaurs as slow and unintelligent .
= = History of depictions = =
= = = Early human history to 1900 : Early depictions = = =
The classical folklorist Adrienne Mayor has proposed that the griffin of mythology is based on dinosaur skeletons found in the Gobi Desert . She noted that griffins were said to inhabit the Scythian steppes that reached from the modern Ukraine to central Asia . Mayor draws a connection to Protoceratops , a frilled dinosaur that was commonly found in the Gobi . This dinosaur has features associated with griffins : they share sharp beaks , four legs , claws , similar size , and large eyes ( or eye sockets in the case of the fossils ) , and the neck frill of Protoceratops , with large open holes , is consistent with descriptions of large ears or wings . However , the palaeontologist Mark Witton notes that the suggestion ignores pre @-@ Mycenaean accounts , and has not found favour with archaeologists including N. Wyatt and T.F. Tartaron .
The scientific study of dinosaurs began in the 1820s of England . In 1842 , Richard Owen coined the term dinosaur , which under his vision were elephantine reptiles . An ambitious scientist who used dinosaurs and other fossils to promote his beliefs , Owen was the driving force for the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures , the first large @-@ scale dinosaur reconstructions that were accessible to the public ( 1854 ) . These sculptures , which can still be seen today , immortalized a very early stage in the perception of dinosaurs .
The Crystal Palace sculptures were successful enough that Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins , Owen 's collaborator , sold models of his sculptures and planned a second exhibition , Paleozoic Museum , for Central Park in Manhattan in the late 1860s ; it was never completed due to the interference of local politics and " Boss " William Marcy Tweed .
In the same period , dinosaurs first appeared in popular literature , with a passing mention of an Owen @-@ style Megalosaurus in Charles Dickens 's Bleak House ( 1852 – 1853 ) . However , depictions of dinosaurs were rare in the 19th century , possibly due to incomplete knowledge . Despite the well @-@ publicized " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century between the American palaeontologists Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh , dinosaurs were not yet ingrained in culture . Marsh , although a pioneer of skeletal reconstructions , did not support putting mounted skeletons on display , and derided the Crystal Palace sculptures .
= = = 1900 to the 1930s : New media = = =
As study caught up to the wealth of new material from western North America , and venues for depictions proliferated , dinosaurs gained in popularity . The paintings of Charles R. Knight were the first influential representations of these finds . Knight worked extensively with the American Museum of Natural History and its director , Henry Fairfield Osborn , who wanted to use dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals to promote his museum and his ideas on evolution .
Knight ’ s work , found in museums around the country , helped popularize dinosaurs and influenced generations of paleoartists . Interestingly , his early work showing fighting " Laelaps " ( = Dryptosaurus ) depicted dinosaurs as much more lively than they would be presented for much of the 20th century . At the same time , improvements in casting allowed dinosaur skeletons to be reproduced and shipped across the world for display in far @-@ flung museums , bringing them to the attention of a wider audience ; Diplodocus was the first such dinosaur reproduced in this way .
Dinosaurs began appearing in films soon after the introduction of cinema , the first being the good @-@ natured animated Gertie the Dinosaur in 1914 . However , lovable dinosaurs were quickly replaced by monsters as moviemakers recognized the potential of huge frightening monsters . D. W. Griffith in 1914 ’ s Brute Force provided the first example of a threatening cinematic dinosaur , a Ceratosaurus who menaced cavemen . This film enshrined the fiction that dinosaurs and early humans lived together , and set up the cliché that dinosaurs were bloodthirsty and attacked anything that moved .
The now @-@ common trope of dinosaurs existing in isolated locations in today ’ s world appeared at the same time , with Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1912 book The Lost World and the works of Edgar Rice Burroughs as pioneers . The Lost World crossed into the movies in 1925 , setting heights for special effects and attempts at scientific accuracy . It is unusual , even today , for attempting to portray dinosaurs as something other than monsters that spent their lives in combat .
The stop @-@ motion techniques of Willis O 'Brien went on to bring dinosaurs to life in the 1933 film King Kong , which merged the tropes of dinosaur combat and dinosaurs in a lost world . His protégé Ray Harryhausen would continue to refine this method , but most later dinosaurs movies until the advent of CGI would eschew such expensive effects for cheaper methods , such as humans in dinosaur suits , modern reptiles enlarged by cinematography , and reptiles with dinosaur decorations . Dinosaur depictions diversified in the 1930s , spreading to newspaper comic strips in Alley Oop and to advertising for Sinclair Oil .
= = = The 1930s to 1970s : Moribund dinosaurs to renaissance = = =
The Great Depression and World War II combined to sink the study of dinosaurs into a decades @-@ long lull . Scientists considered dinosaurs a group of unrelated animals that left no descendants , and dinosaurs were presented as stupid , slow , stuck in swamps , and doomed to extinction . Scientific dinosaur artwork , primarily from Rudolph F. Zallinger and Zdeněk Burian , reflected and reinforced the conception of dinosaurs as slow and static ( one artistic quirk that became commonplace in representations of Mesozoic landscapes , the presence of a volcano , was a hallmark of Zallinger 's ) . From such ideas came the alternate definition of “ dinosaur ” as something out of date .
Films of the time typically used dinosaurs as monsters , with the added element of atomic fears in the early Cold War . Thus , The Beast from 20 @,@ 000 Fathoms ( 1953 ) and Godzilla ( 1954 ; American release 1956 ) portray monstrous dinosaur @-@ like prehistoric reptiles that go on rampages after being awakened by atomic bomb tests . An alternative appears in Disney ’ s animated Fantasia ( 1940 ) , in its The Rite of Spring sequence , which attempted to portray dinosaurs with some scientific accuracy ( although it has the common error of showing prehistoric animals from many different time periods living at the same time ) .
In 1956 , Oliver Butterworth authored a children 's book , The Enormous Egg . The book and a movie adaptation televised in 1968 by the NBC Children 's Theatre tell the story of a boy who finds an enormous egg laid by a hen that hatches a baby Triceratops . The dinosaur , named Uncle Beazley , becomes too big , so the boy brings him to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C. Beasley is first kept at National Museum of Natural History , but is eventually transferred to the National Zoo 's Elephant House because there is a law against stabling large animals in the District of Columbia .
Dinosaurs gained a home in television in the 1960s animated sitcom The Flintstones , in another example of dinosaurs shown as coexisting with humans ( for comedic effect in this case ) . Dinosaurs also entered comic books in this period in such series as Tor and Turok , where prehistoric humans fought anachronistic dinosaurs . For those wanting more scientific accounts of dinosaurs , there were the first nontechnical dinosaur books . Ned Colbert ’ s The Dinosaur Book ( 1945 ) was the first such book , and its status as the only such book for many years made Colbert an important figure for the coming generations of paleontologists and dinosaur enthusiasts .
In the 1960s , paleontologist John Ostrom began work on the theropod Deinonychus . His findings , which were expanded upon by his student Robert T. Bakker , contributed to the Dinosaur Renaissance , a revolution in the study of dinosaurs . Of particular importance were a reevaluation of the origin of birds that showed them to be closely related to coelurosaurian dinosaurs , reappraisal of dinosaur physiology that suggested they weren ’ t the sluggish cold @-@ blooded animals they ’ d long been assumed to be , and a recognition that dinosaurs formed a natural group .
Soon thereafter came new evidence on dinosaur social behavior , with nests of Maiasaura suggesting parental care . These findings were reflected in the work of a new generation of paleoartists . One milestone was Sarah Landry 's feathered dinosaur in Bakker 's 1975 Scientific American article , Dinosaur Renaissance .
Louis Paul Jonas created the first full sized dinosaur sculptures for the 1964 New York World 's Fair in the " Dinoland " area , which was sponsored by the Sinclair Oil Corporation , whose logo featured a dinosaur . Jonas consulted with paleontologists Barnum Brown , Edwin H. Colbert and John Ostrom in order to create nine sculptures that were as accurate as possible . After the Fair closed , the dinosaur models toured the country on flatbed trailers as part of a company advertising campaign . Most of the statues are now on display at various museums and parks .
In 1967 , the Sinclair Oil Corporation gave one of its dinosaurs , a fiberglass model of a Triceratops , to the Smithsonian Institution . The model , which appeared in the The Enormous Egg television movie in 1968 as Uncle Beazley , is now on display at the National Zoo . From the 1970s to 1994 , the statue was located on the National Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History . ( Some sources state that the Kentucky Science Center in Louisville ( formerly named the " Louisville Museum of Natural History and Science " and the " Louisville Science Center " ) now owns the Triceratops model ) .
= = = The 1980s to the present : Dinosaurs reconsidered = = =
The reevaluation of dinosaurs spurred public interest , with the new generation of paleoartists quick to respond . Artists such as Mark Hallett , Doug Henderson , John Gurche , Gregory S. Paul , William Stout , and Bob Walters illustrated the new findings in response to the demand .
By the latter half of the 1980s and into the 1990s , other media were showing the influence of the increased popularity , with diverse depictions aimed at a variety of ages and interests .
In 1990 the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of Natural History in Washington , D.C. , featured an exhibition of dinosaur sculpture by Jim Gary that drew more visitors than any of its previous exhibits . His Twentieth Century Dinosaurs , popular since the 1960s , began being featured in textbooks , encyclopedias , and videos as well as later , by the likes of National Geographic , in their publications for children in 1975 .
For preschoolers , there was the educational television show Barney & Friends starting in 1992 ; their older siblings had the 1988 animated movie The Land Before Time and its increasing line of direct to video sequels ( 12 by 2008 ) . Dinosaurs , a television sitcom , parodied humans and other television shows . Of particular note is Michael Crichton ’ s 1990 novel , Jurassic Park , the popularity of which led to a series of films and other media . The first of these , Jurassic Park , married advanced CGI with advances in scientific knowledge of dinosaurs . Dinosaur was the most expensive movie in 2000 , but was a box @-@ office success . The falling cost of computer @-@ generated effects also has recently allowed the increased production of documentaries for television ; the award @-@ winning 1999 BBC series Walking with Dinosaurs , the 2001 When Dinosaurs Roamed America , the 2009 Animal Armageddon , and the 2011 Planet Dinosaur are notable examples .
In April 2016 , a proposal was submitted to the Unicode committee to encode three pictures of heads of three dinosaur species considered exemplary as emoji .
= = Public perception of dinosaurs = =
The popular ideals of dinosaurs have many misconceptions , reinforced by films , books , comics , television shows , and even theme parks . Typical errors include : prehistoric humans living with dinosaurs ; dinosaurs as monsters that did little else but fight ; the portrayal of a kind of " prehistoric world " where all prehistoric animals are shown to exist ; dinosaurs as all large ; dinosaurs as stupid and slow ; dinosaurs as being lizard @-@ like and all scaled ( non @-@ feathered ) ; the inclusion of many prehistoric animals ( such as Dimetrodon , ichthyosaurs , mosasaurs , pterosaurs , and plesiosaurs ) as dinosaurs ; and dinosaurs as failures .
Reports in the news media of dinosaur finds and dinosaur science are often inaccurate and sensationalistic , and popular dinosaur books usually lag scientific understanding . Dinosaur toys and models are often inaccurate , packaged indiscriminately with other prehistoric animals , or have fictitious additions like the large sharp teeth in some rubber Triceratops toys .
The pejorative use of " dinosaur " as something behind the times has been applied to people , styles , and ideas that are perceived to be out of date , and on the wane . For example , members of the punk movement derided the " progressive " bands that preceded them as " dinosaur bands " .
However , some popular depictors have strived for accuracy and presented up @-@ to @-@ date information ; Michael Crichton and Bill Watterson ( of Calvin and Hobbes ) are two recent examples . Paleoartists and illustrators in particular have kept up with research . Popular conceptions of dinosaurs have also been important in stimulating the interest and imagination of young people , and have been responsible for introducing many who would later become paleontologists to the field . In addition , popular depictions have the freedom to be more imaginative and speculative than technical works .
= = = Usage = = =
The typical use of dinosaurs in popular culture has been as vicious monsters . There are several distinct genres of dinosaur depictions commonly used : " lost worlds " on modern Earth ; time travel stories ; educational works for children ; prehistoric world stories ( often with cavemen ) ; and dinosaurs running amok in the modern world .
= = = Appeal = = =
The appeal of dinosaurs , as suggested by author , researcher , and dinosaur enthusiast Donald F. Glut , has multiple factors . Dinosaurs were " monsters , " yet are safely extinct , allowing for vicarious thrills . They appeal to the imagination , and there are many ways to approach them intellectually . Finally , they appeal to adults nostalgic for what they enjoyed as children . Children have been particularly drawn to dinosaurs over the years .
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= Adolfo Farsari =
Adolfo Farsari ( Italian pronunciation : [ aˈdolfo farˈsaːri ] ; 11 February 1841 – 7 February 1898 ) was an Italian photographer based in Yokohama , Japan . His studio , the last notable foreign @-@ owned studio in Japan , was one of the country 's largest and most prolific commercial photographic firms . Largely due to Farsari 's exacting technical standards and his entrepreneurial abilities it had a significant influence on the development of photography in Japan .
Following a brief military career , including service in the American Civil War , he became a successful entrepreneur and commercial photographer . His photographic work was highly regarded , particularly his hand @-@ coloured portraits and landscapes , which he sold mostly to foreign residents and visitors to the country .
Farsari 's images were widely distributed , presented or mentioned in books and periodicals , and sometimes recreated by artists in other media ; they shaped foreign perceptions of the people and places of Japan and to some degree affected how Japanese saw themselves and their country .
= = Early years = =
Adolfo Farsari was born in Vicenza , Lombardy @-@ Venetia ( then part of the Austrian Empire , now in Italy ) . He began a career in the Italian military in 1859 but emigrated to the United States in 1863 and , a fervent abolitionist , Farsari served with the Union Army as a New York State Volunteer Cavalry trooper until the end of the American Civil War . He married an American , but the marriage failed and in 1873 he left his wife and two children and moved to Japan .
Based in Yokohama , Farsari formed a partnership with E. A. Sargent . Their firm , Sargent , Farsari & Co . , dealt in smokers ' supplies , stationery , visiting cards , newspapers , magazines and novels , Japanese and English conversation books , dictionaries , guidebooks , maps , and photographic views of Japan . The creator of these photographs remains unknown , but Farsari was the maker of at least some of the maps , notably of Miyanoshita ( in the Hakone resort area ) and Yokohama . After his partnership with Sargent ended , the company , now A. Farsari & Co . , published successive editions of Keeling 's Guide to Japan and Farsari himself wrote and published Japanese Words and Phrases for the Use of Strangers . The firm was among the most prolific publishers of materials to aid travellers , having produced its first guidebook to Japan by July 1880 .
= = Photographic career and studio = =
Farsari expanded his business interests into commercial photography and taught himself photography in 1883 . In 1885 he formed a partnership with photographer Tamamura Kozaburō to acquire the Stillfried & Andersen studio ( also known as the Japan Photographic Association ) , which had some 15 Japanese employees . The studio 's stock included images by Felice Beato that it had acquired along with Beato 's studio in 1877 . It is not clear how long the partnership of Tamamura and Farsari lasted , for within a few years they were in competition with each other . Farsari further expanded his business in 1885 when the Yokohama Photographic Company ( owned by David Welsh ) folded and Farsari acquired its premises ( next door to his own ) and moved in . In addition to his Yokohama studio , Farsari likely had agents in Kobe and Nagasaki . By the end of 1886 , Farsari and Chinese photographer Tong Cheong were the only foreign commercial photographers still operating in Japan , and by the following year even Tong Cheong had gone .
In February 1886 a fire destroyed all of Farsari 's negatives , and he then toured Japan for five months taking new photographs to replace them . He reopened his studio in 1887 . Despite his losses in the fire , by 1889 Farsari 's stock comprised about 1 @,@ 000 Japanese landscapes and genre portraits .
Following the innovations of Felice Beato and Baron Raimund von Stillfried , Farsari further developed the trade in photograph albums . His studio generally produced sepia monochrome albumen prints that were hand @-@ coloured and mounted on album leaves . These pages were often hand decorated and bound between covers of silk brocade or lacquer boards inlaid with ivory , mother @-@ of @-@ pearl and gold . Like his contemporaries , Farsari usually captioned and numbered his photographs in the images , often in white lettering on a black background .
Farsari sold many of these photograph albums , particularly to foreign residents and visitors . He employed excellent artists who each produced high @-@ quality work at a pace of two or three hand @-@ coloured prints per day . Farsari ensured that the colours were true to life and that the best materials were used . Accordingly , his work was expensive , yet popular and often praised by clients and visitors to Japan , even receiving a glowing reference by Rudyard Kipling following his 1889 visit to Yokohama . That same year , Farsari presented a deluxe photograph album to the King of Italy . By the 1890s , the studio 's high reputation earned it exclusive rights to photograph the Imperial Gardens in Tokyo .
Prospective colourists at A. Farsari & Co. were interviewed by Farsari himself , who ensured they were familiar with Japanese painting techniques . Once hired , they were given unpaid instruction for several months , and then a basic salary that steadily increased as Farsari became satisfied with their work . A capable and loyal colourist could earn twice the rate offered at other Yokohama studios and double his own daily rate for work on Sundays . Colourists also received regular bonuses and gifts . On the other hand , Farsari complained in a letter to his sister that to motivate his employees he had to rage , swear and beat them , which he did according to a fixed schedule . By 1891 A. Farsari & Co. had 32 employees , 19 of whom were hand @-@ colouring artists .
In 1885 Farsari had a daughter , Kiku , by a Japanese woman whom he may not have married . He described himself as living like a misanthrope , associating with very few people outside of business , and his correspondence indicates that he increasingly hoped to return to Italy . He tried to regain the Italian citizenship lost when he emigrated to the United States , and he even hoped to be made a cavaliere and thereby join the Italian aristocracy . His success in these endeavours is not clear . Nevertheless , in April 1890 he and his daughter left Japan for Italy . On 7 February 1898 Farsari died in his family home in Vicenza .
Following Farsari 's departure from Japan in 1890 , his studio continued to operate and even listed him as proprietor until 1901 , when Tonokura Tsunetarō became the owner . Tonokura , whom Farsari had known since the mid @-@ 1870s , had long managed the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the studio . In 1904 Tonokura left the business to start his own studio and another of Farsari 's former employees , Watanabe Tokutarō , became the new owner , only to be succeeded by the former secretary , Fukagawa Itomaro . The business was finally registered as a Japanese company in 1906 and it continued to operate until at least 1917 and possibly as late as 1923 , the year in which Yokohama was largely destroyed by the Great Kantō earthquake . A. Farsari & Co. was the last notable foreign @-@ owned photographic studio to operate in Japan .
= = Farsari and Yokohama shashin = =
Farsari expressed his view of photography in a letter to his sister , writing , " taking pictures is just a mechanical thing . " In describing his development as a photographer , he wrote , " I have had no real teachers , I have learned everything from books . I bought all the necessary equipment and with no help from anyone , I printed , took photographs and so on . Then I taught others . "
Farsari did not work in isolation . The works ( particularly those that were hand @-@ coloured ) and practices of the many foreign and Japanese commercial photographers who operated in Yokohama from the 1860s to the 1880s have been termed Yokohama shashin ( literally , " Yokohama photographs " or " photography " ) . Farsari and its other practitioners – notably Beato , Stillfried , Tamamura , Kusakabe Kimbei , Ogawa Kazumasa , and Uchida Kuichi – produced works that in their subject matter , composition and colouring present a striking combination of the conventions and techniques of Western photography with those of Japanese artistic traditions , particularly ukiyo @-@ e . These photographers also provided the key images by which Meiji @-@ era Japan and the Japanese were known to people in other countries . Their images also changed the ways in which Japanese saw their own country . Through their images , foreign photographers publicised sites that interested them , sometimes drawing Japanese attention to hitherto neglected locations . One was the now @-@ important " Daibutsu " ( great Buddha ) at Kōtoku @-@ in , Kamakura . In a similar vein , Farsari 's and others ' photographs of the mausoleums of Tōshō @-@ gū made the once restricted site familiar to a wider audience .
Farsari and other 19th @-@ century commercial photographers generally concentrated on two types of subject matter : the scenery of Japan and the " manners and customs " of its inhabitants . Such subjects , and the ways in which they were literally and figuratively framed , were chosen to appeal to foreign taste ; and the reason for this , apart from the photographer 's individual aesthetics , vision and preconceptions , had much to do with economics . Photographs were expensive to make and accordingly expensive to buy . In 1870s Japan , a portrait photograph usually cost half a ryō " per head " , about a month 's pay for an artisan . Given such pricing , few Japanese could afford photographs and a photographer 's clientele was largely drawn from the foreign residents of the European and American enclaves : colonial administrators , missionaries , merchants and the military . By the early 1870s , tourists had joined their number . To appeal to this clientele , photographers often staged and contrived the scenes they photographed , particularly the portraits depicting " manners and customs " .
In 1885 , Charles J. S. Makin used some of Farsari 's views to illustrate his travel account Land of the Rising Sun , Being a Short Account of Japan and the Japanese . As photomechanical printing was still in its infancy , it was common for artists and illustrators to create works derived from photographs . For example , Charles Wirgman 's numerous engravings for the Illustrated London News were made from views by Wirgman 's friend and sometime partner Felice Beato . Occasionally the link between a work of art and its photographic source material was less overt : Louis @-@ Jules Dumoulin 's 1888 oil painting Boys ' Festival from the Bluff , Yokohama [ sic ] ( now called Carp Banners in Kyoto ) draws heavily from Farsari 's photograph Gionmachi , Kioto ( now often called View of Shijō @-@ dōri , Kyoto ) ; although the painted image strongly resembles the photographic source , the location of the subject has been changed in the title .
During the era of the collodion process , before the arrival of less demanding photographic technology ( the gelatin silver process , photographic film , and smaller cameras ) and the consequent rise of amateur photography , commercial photographers like Farsari had a particular importance for recording events and views . In Japan before 1899 such photographers were even more significant because the government required foreigners to obtain passes to journey to the interior , and commercial photographers based in Japan could more easily gain access and provide rare images of restricted areas . By 1889 , however , Farsari estimated that about half of all visitors to Yokohama were amateur photographers ; even if this was an exaggeration , the presence of increasing numbers of amateur photographers was obviously having an impact on the commercial photography business . To encourage amateur photographers to visit his studio and possibly buy his merchandise , Farsari provided free use of a darkroom .
Attribution is often difficult with Farsari 's photographs because 19th @-@ century photographers frequently acquired each others ' images and sold them under their own names . This may be due to the commonplace exchange of stock and negatives between various commercial photographers , or due to the number of freelance amateurs who sold their work to more than one studio . Thus a photograph identified as by Farsari might actually be by Beato , Stillfried & Andersen or Kusakabe . A case in point is the photograph of an Officer 's Daughter , variously attributed to Farsari , Stillfried , Kusakabe or even Suzuki Shin 'ichi .
The lifetime of A. Farsari & Co. spanned the transition of Japanese photography from the early involvement and influence of foreign photographers to the emergence of an independent , native Japanese photographic identity . Coming after the first generation of photographers , the firm made significant contributions to the development of commercial photography in Japan by emphasising the excellence of materials , refining the practice of presenting photographs in albums ( which became art objects in themselves ) , and making effective use of Farsari 's own tourist @-@ oriented publications to promote his photographic studio 's work – an early , minor example of vertical integration .
= = Evaluations of his work = =
In its time , the work of A. Farsari & Co. was highly regarded and popular . Besides Kipling 's endorsement , photographer and prolific photography writer W. K. Burton published an appraisal in an 1887 article : " I have seen no better work in the way of coloured photographs anywhere than some of Farsari 's productions " . In the same year , an admiring review of Farsari 's work appeared in the journal Photographic Times and American Photographer , describing it as " technically almost perfect " and showing " artistic proportion " in the selection of subjects , depicting Japanese life and providing images of the natural beauty of a country that was admittedly unfamiliar to Americans .
Later opinions have been divided . In a 1988 article , art and photography historian Ellen Handy described A. Farsari & Co. as having become " well @-@ known for issuing albums of landscape views in great quantity , but without regard for print quality and delicacy of hand @-@ colouring " . Terry Bennett , a specialist in the early photography of Asia , refers to Farsari 's work as " inconsistent and lacking the quality found in the photography of Beato , Stillfried or Kusakabe . " But Bennett also notes that Farsari employed excellent artists , used the best paper and produced some " stunningly coloured photographs " . For historian Sebastian Dobson , the artistic and historical significance of the work of Farsari ( and other Yokohama photographers of his era , particularly Kusakabe and Tamamura ) is rightly undergoing re @-@ evaluation after many years in which it was dismissed as tourist kitsch and " perceived by some as pandering to nineteenth @-@ century Western notions of exoticism " . Farsari 's photographs and albums are included in numerous museums and private collections around the world , and a selection of his works was exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 2004 .
= = Selected photographs and other items = =
Photographs are indicated by Farsari 's titles , followed by the date of exposure , the photographic process , and a descriptive title .
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= Subterranean Jungle =
Subterranean Jungle is the seventh studio album by the American punk rock band the Ramones , released by Sire Records in February 1983 . The album appealed to a hardcore punk rock style rather than featuring several pop oriented pieces ; this is because guitarist Johnny Ramone received more leeway with steering the overall genre with his hard rock influenced riffs . The recording sessions saw disputes between band members , mainly because many of the band members were dealing with alcohol addiction , or in bassist Dee Dee Ramone 's case , cocaine .
The album begins with two cover songs , and features a third on Side 2 . Lyrics circle various themes , while the structuring of the songs shifted towards hard rock , psychedelic rock . The album was deemed by critics to be an attempt to retreat to the band 's roots and received mostly positive reviews . Subterranean Jungle was not very successful commercially , peaking at number 83 on the US Billboard 200 and failing to chart internationally . The singles released from the album did not chart either . This is the last album by the band to feature Marky Ramone on drums until the 1989 album Brain Drain .
= = Conception = =
Unlike previous albums , Subterranean Jungle shifted the band 's sound output focus towards getting back to their punk rock roots , rather than trying to expand fan @-@ base by releasing more pop @-@ oriented songs . This change is due to guitarist Johnny Ramone obtaining more priority over the style choice . Johnny felt as though the band needed to " be focused and stop worrying about getting played [ on the radio ] and just make a good record . " Since lead singer Joey Ramone was not given as much stylistic freedom , the album lacks the sense of pop @-@ influence which previous releases had contained and instead was shaped mostly by Johnny 's hard rock background .
Johnny obtained more control over the musical style because the band members experienced conflict amongst themselves , specifically rooted in each member — excluding Johnny — facing issues with addiction . Both Joey and drummer Marky Ramone were dealing with alcoholism , while bassist Dee Dee Ramone was severely addicted to cocaine and was undergoing psychotherapeutic treatment . Since the Ramones ' previous two releases had producers which proved disappointing to the members , they were skeptical of the upcoming producer ; this would be Ritchie Cordell , with whom they also had issues with . Marky relates : " I hated the production , I hated the producer . "
The artwork for Subterranean Jungle features an image of the band inside a subway car . The photograph was taken by George DuBose at the subway station on 57th Street and Sixth Avenue in Manhattan . This cover concept was deemed by Dubose , who suggested that since the B Sixth Avenue Express train stopped at the empty station for about 20 minutes . In the photograph , Marky is featured peering out the subway window — Marky was positioned this way after Johnny asked DuBose to do so because " they were kicking him out of the band , but he didn 't know it yet . " Marky recalled that he " liked that shot , but [ he ] knew something was up . "
" I was lying on my bed , watching Kojak when Joey calls me and says , ' Mark , I feel bad about this , but , uh , you can 't be in the band anymore . ' I deserved it . Joey was okay about it , but the others , forget it . No one called me after that . If it was today , Joey would 've said , ' Why don 't we take off for a month and you get sober ? ' But I didn 't want to tell Joey or the band about my being in rehab , because I would 've been admitting my guilt . "
The internal conflicts during recording sessions would cause band members to fire Marky during the album 's recording , consequently substituting him with drummer Billy Rogers on " Time has Come Today . " Johnny recounts , " We were having trouble with Mark because his drinking problem was really bad . So we did " Time Has Come Today " with a different drummer , Billy Rogers , from Walter Lure 's band . "
= = Compositions and lyrics = =
The album opens with two cover songs ; the first , " Little Bit O ' Soul , " was originally written by John Carter and Ken Lewis and the second , " I Need Your Love , " was first performed by Bobby Dee Waxman . Subterranean Jungle is the first Ramones ' release to begin with a song not written by the band — this track list structure was criticized by author Everett True , who said that it was " disorientating . " Johnny also thought that the fact that the album featured three covers was a bad idea , saying , " we shouldn 't have , but I was happy with the guitar sound on it . " The album 's third track , " Outsider , " was written by Dee Dee and , in 2002 , it was covered by Green Day on Shenanigans . " What 'd Ya Do ? " was track number four , and was described by music journalist Chuck Eddy as " crudely metallic . " Eddy also deemed the next track , " Highest Trails Above , " as " AOR @-@ mystic . " " Somebody Like Me " was called a " full @-@ on rock anthem " by Everett True , who went on to say that the lyrics contained " no @-@ nonsense lines . "
Side B of the album begins with " Psycho Therapy , " which was written by both Johnny and Dee Dee ; the song has since grown into one of the most popular Ramones ' song . Dee Dee recalled : " I knew we needed a real ' Ramones song ' for the album , and I knew [ Johnny ] was depressed about how things were going . He needed that song to get excited about the band again . " The next track is another cover song , " Time Has Come Today , " which was originally recorded by the soul music group The Chambers Brothers . The Ramones ' version of the song featured a psychedelic rock influence , and was said by Eddy to have more of a " garage " feel to it , as compared to the original . " My @-@ My Kind of a Girl " was directed specifically toward the band 's female fandom . The lyrics were written by Joey about meeting a girl on 8th Street in Manhattan and wanting to spend his life with her . In Vanity Fair , the song was regarded as a " lingering affection for Phil Spector 's pop grandeur . " Dee Dee 's " Time Bomb , " which was track number eleven , was said by True to be " more ridiculous than frightening . " The album concludes with " Everytime I Eat Vegetables It Makes Me Think of You , " which was said by author Todd Anderson to be a " sing along . "
= = Release and reception = =
Subterranean Jungle was released by Sire Records in February 1983 . In a contemporary review for The Village Voice , music journalist Robert Christgau wrote that despite containing two inferior pieces ( " Highest Trails Above " and " I Need Your Love " ) , the album is " more worthy of an audience than anything they 've done in the ' 80s . " Stereo Review magazine strongly recommended it to " headbangers of all ages " as " a textbook Ramones album " whose unintellectual lyrics about mental illness and drug abuse " can actually be refreshing . " The album peaked at number 83 in on the Billboard 200 in the US , but failed to chart elsewhere . Neither of the album 's singles — " Psycho Therapy " and " Time Has Come Today " — charted .
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , author Stephen Thomas Erlewine called Subterranean Jungle the band 's " most enjoyable record since Rocket to Russia , " and said that the producers " steered the Ramones back toward the ' 60s pop infatuation that provided the foundation for their early records . " He ended his review by stating that it may not be defined as the " strictest sense " of punk rock ; however , he strongly suggested that the band had not sounded so " alive " since their earlier days . Douglas Wolk , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , was less enthusiastic and called it an " attempt at radio @-@ friendly production , " with a series of cover songs that " almost recasts the group as an oldies act . " In a 2004 interview for New York magazine , Johnny Ramone graded the album a " B " and said that he was pleased with its guitar sound , despite the three cover songs , while remarking " I was watching the Brewers @-@ Cardinals World Series when we were recording it . "
= = Track listing = =
The following track listing can be verified through the Subterranean Jungle expanded edition liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
The following credits are adapted from AllMusic .
Ramones
Joey Ramone – lead vocals ( all but track 11 )
Johnny Ramone – Lead guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – bass guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on track 11
Marky Ramone – drums ( all but track 8 )
Additional musicians
Walter Lure - extra guitar
Billy Rogers - drums on track 8
Production
Ritchie Cordell – producer
Glen Kolotkin – producer
Ron Cote – engineer
George DuBose – photography
Tony Wright – cover art
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= Newcastle United F.C. =
Newcastle United Football Club is an English professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne . Following the club 's most recent relegation from the top @-@ flight during the 2015 – 16 season , Newcastle returned to the Football League 's 2nd tier , the Championship for the 2016 – 17 campaign . The club was founded in 1892 by the merger of Newcastle East End and Newcastle West End , and has played at its current home ground , St James ' Park , ever since . The ground was developed into an all @-@ seater stadium in the mid @-@ 1990s and now has a capacity of 52 @,@ 405 . The club has been a member of the Premier League for all but two years of the competition 's history , and has never dropped below English football 's second tier since joining the Football League in 1893 . The club has been owned by Mike Ashley since 2007 , succeeding long term chairman and owner Sir John Hall .
They have won four League Championship titles , six FA Cups and a Charity Shield , as well as the 1969 Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup and the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup . Newcastle United has the ninth highest total of trophies won by an English club . The club 's most successful period was between 1904 and 1910 , when they won an FA Cup and three of their First Division titles . The club is the seventeenth richest club in the world in terms of annual revenue , generating € 169.3m in 2015 . Historically , Newcastle 's highest placing was in 1999 when they were the fifth richest in the world , and second in England only behind Manchester United . The club were highly successful in the Premier League in the 1990s and early 2000s , but have been mostly struggling since the 2006 – 07 season , and were relegated in 2009 and 2016 .
They have a fierce local rivalry with Sunderland , and the two clubs have engaged in the Tyne – Wear derby since 1898 . The club 's traditional kit colours are black and white striped shirts , black shorts and black socks . Their traditional crest takes elements of the city coat of arms , which features two grey seahorses .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club . Later that year , Newcastle 's first football club , Tyne Association , was formed . The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a football club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881 . This team was renamed Newcastle East End F.C. in October 1882 , to avoid confusion with the cricket club in Stanley , County Durham . Rosewood F.C. of Byker merged with Newcastle East End a short time later . In 1886 , Newcastle East End moved from Byker to Heaton . In August 1882 , Newcastle West End F.C. formed from West End Cricket Club , and in May 1886 , the club moved into St James ' Park . The two clubs became rivals in the Northern League . In 1889 , Newcastle East End became a professional team , before becoming a limited company the following March . However , on the other hand , Newcastle West End were in serious financial trouble and approached East End with a view to a take over . Newcastle West End were eventually dissolved , and a number of their players and backroom staff joined Newcastle East End , effectively merging the two clubs , with Newcastle East End taking over the lease on St James ' Park in May 1892 .
With only one senior club in the city for fans to support , development of the club was much more rapid . Despite being refused entry to the Football League 's First Division at the start of the 1892 – 93 season , they were invited to play in their new Second Division . However , with no big names playing in the Second Division , they turned down the offer and remained in the Northern League , stating " gates would not meet the heavy expenses incurred for travelling " . In a bid to start drawing larger crowds , Newcastle East End decided to adopt a new name in recognition of the merger . Suggested names included Newcastle F.C. , Newcastle Rangers , Newcastle City and City of Newcastle , but Newcastle United was decided upon on 9 December 1892 , to signify the unification of the two teams . The name change was accepted by the Football Association on 22 December , but the club was not legally constituted as Newcastle United Football Club Co . Ltd. until 6 September 1895 . At the start of the 1893 – 94 season , Newcastle United were once again refused entry to the First Division and so joined the Second Division , along with Liverpool and Woolwich Arsenal . They played their first competitive match in the division that September against Woolwich Arsenal , with a score of 2 – 2 .
Turnstile numbers were still low , and the incensed club published a statement stating , " The Newcastle public do not deserve to be catered for as far as professional football is concerned " . However , eventually figures picked up by 1895 – 96 , when 14 @,@ 000 fans watched the team play Bury . That season Frank Watt became secretary of the club , and he was instrumental in promotion to the First Division for the 1898 – 99 season . However , they lost their first game 4 – 2 at home to Wolves and finished their first season in thirteenth place .
In 1903 – 04 , the club built up a promising squad of players , and went on to dominate English football for almost a decade , the team known for their " artistic play , combining team @-@ work and quick , short passing " . Long after his retirement , Peter McWilliam , the team 's defender at the time , said " The Newcastle team of the 1900s would give any modern side a two goal start and beat them , and further more , beat them at a trot . " Newcastle United went on to win the League on three occasions during the 1900s ; 1904 – 05 , 1906 – 07 and 1908 – 09 . In 1904 – 05 , they nearly did the double , losing to Aston Villa in the 1905 FA Cup Final . They were beaten again the following year by Everton in the 1906 FA Cup Final . They reached the final again in 1908 where they lost to Wolves . In 1908 the team suffered a record 9 – 1 home defeat to local rivals Sunderland in the league but still won that season 's league title . They finally won the FA Cup in 1910 when they beat Barnsley in the final . They lost again the following year in the final against Bradford City .
The team returned to the FA Cup final in 1924 , in the second final held at the then new Wembley Stadium . They defeated Aston Villa , winning the club 's second FA Cup . Three years later they won the First Division championship a fourth time in 1926 – 27 , with Hughie Gallacher , one of the most prolific goal scorers in the club 's history , captaining the team . Other key players in this period were Neil Harris , Stan Seymour and Frank Hudspeth . In 1930 , Newcastle United came close to relegation , and at the end of the season Gallacher left the club for Chelsea , and at the same time Andy Cunningham became the club 's first team manager . In 1931 – 32 , the club won the FA Cup a third time . However , a couple of years later , at the end of the 1933 – 34 season , the team were relegated to the Second Division after 35 seasons in the top . Cunningham left as manager and Tom Mather took over .
The club found it difficult to adjust to the Second Division and were nearly further relegated in the 1937 – 38 season , when they were spared on goal averages . However , when World War II broke in 1939 , Newcastle had a chance to regroup , and in the War period , they brought in Jackie Milburn , Tommy Walker and Bobby Cowell . They were finally promoted back to the First Division at the end of the 1947 – 48 season . During the 1950s , Newcastle won the FA Cup trophy on three occasions within a five @-@ year period , beating Blackpool in 1951 , Arsenal in 1952 , and Manchester City in 1955 . However , after this last FA Cup victory the club fell back into decline and were relegated to the Second Division once again at the end of the 1960 – 61 season under the management of Charlie Mitten . Mitten left after one season in the Second Division and was replaced by former player Joe Harvey . Newcastle returned to the First Division at the end of the 1964 – 65 season after winning the Second Division title . Under Harvey , the club qualified for European competition for the first time after a good run in the 1967 – 68 season and the following year won the 1969 Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup Final , triumphing 6 – 2 over two legs against Hungary 's Újpest in the final .
= = = The 70s and 80s = = =
Harvey bought striker Malcolm Macdonald in the summer of 1971 , for a club record transfer fee of £ 180 @,@ 000 . He was an impressive goal scorer , who led United 's attack to Wembley in their 1974 FA Cup Final defeat at the hands of Liverpool . The club also had back to back triumphs in the Texaco Cup in 1974 and 1975 . Harvey left the club in 1975 , with Gordon Lee brought in to replace him . Lee took the team to the 1976 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City , but failed to bring the trophy back to Tyneside . However , he sold Macdonald to Arsenal at the end of the season , a decision of which Macdonald later said " I loved Newcastle , until Gordon Lee took over " . Lee left for Everton in 1977 , and was replaced by Richard Dinnis .
United dropped once again to the Second Division at the end of the 1977 – 78 season . Dinnis was replaced by Bill McGarry , and then he was replaced by Arthur Cox . Cox steered Newcastle back to the First Division at the end of the 1983 – 84 season , with players such as Peter Beardsley , Chris Waddle , and ex @-@ England captain Kevin Keegan the fulcrum of the team . However , with a lack of funds , Cox left for Derby County and Keegan retired . With managers such as Jack Charlton and then Willie McFaul , Newcastle remained in the top @-@ flight , until key players such as Waddle , Beardsley and Paul Gascoigne were sold , and the team was relegated once more in 1989 . McFaul left the managerial post , and was replaced by Jim Smith . Smith left at the start of the 1991 – 92 season and the board appointed Osvaldo Ardiles his replacement .
= = = The 90s = = =
Sir John Hall became the club 's chairman in 1992 , and replaced Ardiles with Keegan , who managed to save the team from relegation to the Third Division . Keegan was given more money for players , and he brought in Rob Lee , Paul Bracewell and Barry Venison and the club won the then First Division Championship at the end of the 1992 – 93 season , earning promotion to the then new Premier League . At the end of the 1993 – 94 season , their first year back in the top flight they finished in third , their highest league finish since 1927 . The attacking philosophy of Keegan led to the team being labelled " The Entertainers " by Sky Sports .
Keegan took Newcastle to two consecutive runners @-@ up finishes in the league in 1995 – 96 and 1996 – 97 , coming very close to winning the title in the former season . This success was in part due to the talent of players like David Ginola , Les Ferdinand and Alan Shearer , who was signed on 30 July 1996 for a then world record fee of £ 15 million .
Keegan left Newcastle in January 1997 and was replaced by Kenny Dalglish , however the club endured a largely unsuccessful season with a 13th @-@ place finish in the 1997 – 98 FA Premier League , failure to progress beyond the group stages of the 1997 – 98 UEFA Champions League despite beating Barcelona and group winners Dynamo Kiev at St James Park as well as coming from 2 – 0 down to draw 2 – 2 with Valery Lobanovsky 's team in Ukraine and defeat in the 1998 FA Cup Final . Dalglish was replaced as manager early in the following season by Ruud Gullit .
The club once again finished thirteenth in the league and lost the 1999 FA Cup Final . Gullit fell into disagreements with the squad and chairman Freddy Shepherd , and quit the club four games into the 1999 – 2000 season with the team bottom of the table to be replaced by Bobby Robson . The club managed to reach an FA Cup Semi @-@ final and to stay in the Premier League .
= = = 2000s = = =
A title challenge emerged during the 2001 – 02 season , and Newcastle 's fourth @-@ place finish saw them qualify for the Champions League . The following season , Robson guided the team to another title challenge and finished third in the League , and the second group stage of the Champions League . Newcastle finished fifth in the league at the end of the 2003 – 04 season , and exited the Champions League in the qualifying rounds , but despite this Robson was sacked in August 2004 following a series of disagreements with the club .
Graeme Souness was brought in to manage by the start of the 2004 – 05 season . In the time he managed , he broke the club 's transfer record by signing Michael Owen , however he was sacked in February 2006 after a bad start to the 2005 – 06 season . Glenn Roeder took over , initially on a temporary basis , before being appointed full @-@ time manager at the end of the season . Shearer retired at the end of the 2005 – 06 season as the club 's all @-@ time record goal scorer , with a total of 206 goals .
= = = = Decline and relegation = = = =
Despite finishing the 2005 – 06 season in seventh , Roeder 's fortunes changed in the 2006 – 07 season , with a terrible injury run to the senior squad , and he left the club by mutual consent on 6 May 2007 .
Sam Allardyce was appointed Roeder 's replacement as manager on 15 May 2007 . On 7 June , Freddy Shepherd 's final shares in the club were sold to Mike Ashley and Shepherd was replaced as chairman by Chris Mort on 25 July .
Allardyce departed the club on in January 2008 by mutual consent after a bad start to the 2007 – 08 season , and Kevin Keegan was reappointed as Newcastle manager . Mort stepped down as chairman in June and was replaced by Derek Llambias , a long @-@ term associate of Ashley . Newcastle finished the 2007 – 08 season in twelfth place , but as the season drew to a close , Keegan publicly criticised the board , claiming they were not providing the team enough financial support .
In September 2008 Keegan resigned as manager , stating " It 's my opinion that a manager must have the right to manage and that clubs should not impose upon any manager any player that he does not want " . Former Wimbledon manager Joe Kinnear was appointed as his replacement , but in February 2009 , due to his heart surgery , Alan Shearer was appointed interim manager in his absence . Under Shearer , the club were relegated to the Football League Championship at the end of the 2008 – 09 season , the first time the club had left the Premier League since joining it in 1993 .
Following their relegation , the club was put up for sale in June 2009 , with an asking price of £ 100 million . Chris Hughton was given the manager job on a caretaker basis before taking over full @-@ time on 27 October 2009 . On the same day , Ashley announced that the club was no longer for sale .
= = = 2010s = = =
Hughton led Newcastle to win the 2009 – 10 Football League Championship , securing automatic promotion on 5 April 2010 with five games remaining , and securing the title on 19 April ; Newcastle were promoted back to the Premier League after just one season away .
Under Hughton , Newcastle enjoyed a strong start to the 2010 – 11 season , but he was sacked on 6 December 2010 . The club 's board stated that they felt " an individual with more managerial experience [ was ] needed to take the club forward . " Three days later , Alan Pardew was appointed as manager with a five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . Further controversy was caused on 31 January 2011 , when striker Andy Carroll was sold to Liverpool for a club record of £ 35 million . Despite this turbulence , Newcastle were able to finish 12th at the end of the season , with one particular highlight being a 4 – 4 home draw against Arsenal that saw Newcastle come back from four goals down to claim a point .
The start of the 2011 – 12 season saw an overhaul in the first team , with the sale of influential first team players Kevin Nolan , Joey Barton and José Enrique during the summer and the elevation of Tim Krul as first choice goalkeeper and centre back Fabricio Coloccini as captain . Signings such as Yohan Cabaye , Italian international Davide Santon and Senegalese striker Demba Ba in cut @-@ price deals saw Newcatle adopt a new transfer policy , one which would be met with success in the season . They went on to enjoy one of their strongest openings to a season , playing 11 consecutive games unbeaten. before losing away to Manchester City . Another Senegalese striker , Papiss Cissé , joined in the January transfer window , and Newcastle had a strong second half of the season , eventually securing a place in the 2012 – 13 Europa League . Newcastle finished in fifth place , their highest league position since the Bobby Robson days . Further honours were to come as Pardew won both the Premier League Manager of the Season and the LMA Manager of the Year awards , captain Coloccini was named in the PFA Team of the Year , and Cissé won the Goal of the Season award for a goal against Chelsea .
The 2012 – 13 season saw Newcastle regain European football for the first time since 2007 . Newcastle made few acquisitions in the summer and suffered injuries over the season , including layoffs to key midfielders Yohan Cabaye and Hatem Ben Arfa , and defenders Steven and Ryan Taylor . As a result , the first half of the season was marred by a run of ten losses in 13 games , which saw the club sink near the relegation zone . In January , Newcastle signed five French players , and advanced to the Europa League quarter @-@ finals before bowing out to eventual finalists Benfica . Domestically , Newcastle struggled , and stayed up after a 2 – 1 victory over already @-@ relegated Queens Park Rangers on the penultimate game of the season .
The 2014 – 15 season saw Newcastle fail to win any of their first seven games , prompting fans to start a campaign to get Pardew sacked as manager before a six @-@ game winning run in all competitions ( including knocking holders Manchester City out of the Capital One Cup ) saw them climb to fifth in the table . After they ended Chelsea 's unbeaten start to the season , Pardew left for Crystal Palace . On 26 January 2015 , his assistant John Carver was put in charge for the remainder of the season but came close to relegation , staying up on the final day with a 2 – 0 home win against West Ham , with Jonás Gutiérrez , who beat testicular cancer earlier in the season , scoring the team 's second goal .
On 9 June 2015 , Carver and his assistant Steve Stone were both sacked and replaced by Steve McClaren the following day . McClaren subsequently signed Georginio Wijnaldum for £ 14 @.@ 5 million from PSV Eindhoven along with both Aleksandar Mitrović and Chancel Mbemba from Belgian club Anderlecht for £ 13 million and £ 8 million , respectively . Newcastle failed to win any of their first eight Premier League games of the 2015 – 16 season , a run which included a 0 – 1 home defeat against Sheffield Wednesday in the third round of the League Cup . In January 2016 , the club signed midfielders Jonjo Shelvey and Andros Townsend for a combined total of £ 24 million as well as midfielder Henri Saivet . However , the club continued to struggle and a 1 – 3 defeat to Bournemouth on 5 March left Newcastle with its lowest points total after 28 games in its Premier League history . On 11 March McClaren was sacked after nine months as manager , with Newcastle in 19th place in the Premier League and the club winning six of 28 Premier League games during his time at the club . He was replaced by Rafael Benítez on the same day , who signed a three @-@ year deal , but was not able to prevent the club from being relegated .
= = Colours and badge = =
The club 's home colours are a black and white striped shirt . Shorts and socks are usually black with white trim , though white socks are sometimes worn under some managers who consider them " lucky " . Newcastle 's colours at the outset was generally the home kit of Newcastle East End F.C. , comprising plain red shirts with white shorts and red socks . In 1894 , the club adopted the black and white striped shirts , which had been used as the reserve team 's colours . These colours were chosen for the senior team because they were not associated with either of the two teams United were merged from . They played in grey shorts until 1897 , and between 1897 and 1921 , they played in blue shorts before adopting the black shorts they play in now .
United 's away colours have changed a number of times over the years . They played in white shirts and black shorts from 1914 until 1961 , and then white shorts until 1966 . They then played in yellow shirts and blue shorts for the 1967 – 68 season , but from 1969 to 1974 played in all red with an all blue third kit . In 1974 , they returned to a yellow shirt , which they played with various coloured shorts until 1983 . They played in all grey from 1983 to 1988 , before once again returning to the yellow kit until 1993 . Since 1995 , the away kit has changed consistently and has not been the same for more than a single season . The club 's shirt sponsor has been Newcastle based bank Northern Rock since 2003 , but prior to this , they had been sponsored at different times by ntl : Telewest , Newcastle Brown Ale and Greenall 's . Through owner Mike Ashley , the club also has a relationship with the Sports Direct retail chain which he founded .
On 4 January 2012 , Virgin Money , who had just bought Northern Rock , signed a two @-@ year deal to sponsor Newcastle United . In January 2010 , Puma became the official supplier and licensee of replica merchandise for Newcastle . The deal meant Puma supplied the team kit , replica kit and training equipment for the 2010 – 11 and 2011 – 12 seasons .
The current club crest was first used in the 1988 – 89 season . The crest includes elements from the coat of arms of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne — the two sea horses representing Tyneside 's strong connections with the sea , the castle representing the city 's Norman keep . The city 's coat of arms were first embroidered on the team 's shirts in 1969 and worn as standard until 1976 . A scroll at the bottom featured the city 's motto in Latin ; fortiter defendit triumphans which translates into English as " triumphing by brave defence . " From 1976 until 1983 , the club wore a specific badge which was developed to wear in place of the city 's coat of arms . The design was of a circular shape , which featured the club 's name in full , it contained a magpie standing in front of the River Tyne with the historic Norman castle of Newcastle in the background . A more simplistic design followed in 1983 , featuring the initials of the club 's name , NUFC with the small magpie used in the previous crest within the horizontally laid " C , " this logo was relatively short lived and was discontinued after 1988 .
On 16 May 2013 , Newcastle released the away shirt for the 2013 – 14 season which for the first time features the Wonga.com logo , which has attracted criticism from many Newcastle supporters ; the shirt is navy blue with light blue bands . The shirt received mixed reviews from Newcastle supporters , who described the shirt as both " awesome " and " bland , " as quoted in the Newcastle daily Evening Chronicle . In July 2013 , Newcastle striker and practicing Muslim Papiss Cissé refused to wear any official kit or training wear with reference to Wonga.com , subsequently failing to travel to the team 's 2013 pre @-@ season tour of Portugal . The matter has since been resolved . Previous kit sponsors include Newcastle Breweries ( 1980 – 86 ) , Greenall 's Beers ( 1986 – 90 ) , McEwan 's Lager and Newcastle Brown Ale ( 1990 – 2000 ) , NTL ( 2000 – 03 ) , Northern Rock ( 2003 – 12 ) , and Virgin Money ( 2012 – 13 )
Newcastle 's current kit manufacturers are Puma , in a deal that started in 2010 . Previous kit manufacturers include Bukta ( 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 80 ) , Umbro ( 1975 – 76 , 1980 – 86 ) , Asics ( 1993 – 95 ) and Adidas ( 1995 – 2010 ) .
= = Stadium = =
Throughout Newcastle United 's history , their home venue has been St James ' Park , the oldest and largest football stadium in North East England , as well as the sixth @-@ largest football stadium in the United Kingdom . It has hosted ten international football matches at senior level , the first in 1901 and the most recent in 2005 . It was used as a venue for both the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2015 Rugby World Cup .
Football had been played at St James ' Park as early as 1880 , the ground being occupied by Newcastle Rangers , before becoming the home of Newcastle West End F.C. in 1886 . Its lease was then bought by Newcastle East End F.C. in 1892 , before they changed their name to Newcastle United . At the turn of the 19th century , the ground 's capacity was given as 30 @,@ 000 before being redeveloped between 1900 and 1905 , increasing the capacity to 60 @,@ 000 and making it the biggest stadium in England for a time . For most of the 20th century , the stadium changed very little , despite various plans for development of the ground . The old West Stand was replaced with the Milburn Stand in 1987 , the Sir John Hall Stand replacing the Leazes End in 1993 , and the rest of the ground renovated making the ground a 37 @,@ 000 capacity all @-@ seater stadium . Between 1998 and 2000 , double tiers were added to the Milburn and John Hall stands to bring the venue up to its current capacity of 52 @,@ 420 . There were plans to build a new 90 @,@ 000 seater stadium in Leazes park , just behind St James ' with Newcastle Falcons taking over St James ' Park , but due to protests the plans were dropped . St James ' Park currently seats 52 @,@ 420 people , but club owner Mike Ashley would consider taking the roof off The Gallowgate end and adding another 6 @,@ 000 seats making the total capacity to 58 @,@ 420 , but only if the team manage to finish in the top six places of the Premier League .
In October 2009 , Mike Ashley announced that he planned to lease the name of the ground in a bid to increase revenue , and in November the stadium was temporarily renamed sportsdirect.com @ St James ' Park Stadium . This name was only supposed to be used until the end of the 2009 – 10 season , but lasted until November 2011 . On 10 November 2011 , the club officially changed the name of the stadium to the Sports Direct Arena , although this will most likely be an interim name , as it is only being used to showcase the sponsorship capabilities of the stadium . The company , owned by Ashley , are not paying anything for the deal . However , if another company purchases the naming rights , they will be expected to pay between £ 8 million and £ 10 million . Many fans voiced their anger at the renaming , but Managing Director Derek Llambias has said that it is necessary to give Newcastle extra money so that they compete with the bigger clubs in the league .
Since 1982 , the stadium is served by St James Metro station on the Tyne and Wear Metro . The station is decorated in a black and white colour scheme , with archive photographs of the club 's players .
The club 's current training ground is located at Darsley Park , which is north of the city at Benton . The facility was opened in July 2003 and is also used by the Newcastle Falcons rugby team .
= = Ownership = =
Newcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895 . The club traded in this way for much of the 20th century , until April 1997 , when John Hall , who bought 72 @.@ 9 % of the club for £ 3 million in 1991 , floated the club on the stock exchange as a public limited company , with less than half the shares sold to the Hall family and the majority holding going to his business partner Freddy Shepherd . Later that year , Hall stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Shepherd , with the Hall family represented on the board by John 's son Douglas . In December 1998 , after buying a 6 @.@ 3 % stake in the club for £ 10 million , the media group NTL had considered a full takeover of the club . This was later dropped after the April 1999 Competition Commission , brought in due to government concerns about football clubs being owned by media companies .
In 2007 , businessman Mike Ashley purchased the combined stakes of both Douglas and John Hall , 41 % share in the club , through a holding company St James Holdings , with a view to buy the rest . Upon purchasing this share , he appointed Chris Mort as chairman , while gaining more shares , owning 93 @.@ 19 % of the club by 29 June 2007 . This figure reached 95 % on 11 July 2007 , forcing the remaining shareholders to sell their shares .
Since completing the purchase of the club , Ashley has twice announced that he planned to sell the club . The first occurred after fan protests over the resignation of Kevin Keegan on 14 September 2008 , when Ashley stated , " I have listened to you . You want me out . That is what I am now trying to do . " However , he took it off the market on 28 December 2008 after being unable to find a buyer . On 31 May 2009 , it was reported that Ashley was attempting to sell the club again . On 8 June 2009 , Ashley confirmed that the club was up for sale at an asking price of £ 100 million . By the end of August 2009 , the club was back off the market .
= = Social responsibility = =
Newcastle United established the Newcastle United Foundation in summer 2008 , which seeks to encourage learning and promote healthy living amongst disadvantaged children , young people and families in the North East region , as well as promoting equality and diversity . The Foundation 's manager Kate Bradley told charity news website The Third Sector , " Children look up to players as their heroes , and anything they say is instantly taken on board . If Newcastle defender Steven Taylor tells them not to eat a Mars bar for breakfast , they 'll listen . " In 2010 , the charity taught over 5 @,@ 000 children about healthy living .
The Foundation 's commitment , along with a similar foundation run by West Bromwich Albion , the unique relationship that Aston Villa has with Acorns Children 's Hospice and Tottenham Hotspur has with SOS Children 's Villages UK , are some leading examples of commitment in the highest level of football to responsibility and change in the communities in which they work and who enrich them through their support and ticket sales . The work of these clubs , and others , are changing the way professional sport interacts with their communities and supporters .
In December 2012 , the club announced that it had become the world ’ s first carbon positive football club .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Supporters of Newcastle United are drawn from all over the North East and beyond , with supporters ' clubs all across the world . The club 's nickname is ' The Magpies ' , while the club 's supporters are also known as the Geordies or the Toon Army . The name Toon originates from the Geordie pronunciation of town . In a 2004 survey by Co @-@ operative Financial Services , it was found that Newcastle United topped the league table for the cost incurred and distance travelled by Newcastle @-@ based fans wishing to travel to every Premier League away game . The total distance travelled for a fan to attend every away game from Newcastle was found to be equivalent to a round @-@ the @-@ world trip . In the 2009 – 10 season , when the club were playing in English football 's second tier , the Football League Championship , the average attendance at St James ' Park was 43 @,@ 388 , the fourth @-@ highest for an English club that season . At the end of the 2011 – 12 Premier league season , Newcastle United held the third @-@ highest average attendance for the season , at 49 @,@ 935 . This figure was only surpassed by Arsenal and Manchester United , the only two clubs in the Premier League with larger stadiums .
The club 's supporters publish a number of fanzines including True Faith and The Mag , along with NUFC.com , which was established in 1996 . They set up Newcastle United Supporters Trust in September 2008 , aiming to " represent the broad church of Newcastle United 's support . "
In addition to the usual English football chants , Newcastle 's supporters sing the traditional Tyneside song " Blaydon Races . "
Traditionally , Newcastle 's main rivals are Sunderland , against whom the Tyne – Wear derby is competed .
= = Statistics = =
To date , inclusive of the 2015 – 16 season , Newcastle United have spent 85 seasons in the top @-@ flight . They are eighth in the All @-@ time FA Premier League table and have the ninth @-@ highest total of major honours won by an English club with 11 wins . The holder of the record for the most appearances is Jimmy Lawrence , having made 496 first team appearances between 1904 and 1921 . The club 's top goal scorer is Alan Shearer , who scored 206 goals in all competitions between 1996 and 2006 . Andy Cole holds the record for the most goals scored in a season : 41 in the 1993 – 94 season in the Premier League . Shay Given was the most capped international for the club , with 127 appearances for Republic of Ireland .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was in the 13 – 0 win against Newport County in the Second Division in 1946 . Their heaviest defeat in the league was 9 – 0 against Burton Wanderers in the Second Division in 1895 . The club 's longest number of consecutive seasons in the top flight of English football was 36 from 1898 – 99 until 1933 – 34 .
Newcastle 's record home attendance is 68 @,@ 386 for a First Division match against Chelsea on 3 September 1930 . The club 's highest attendance in the Premier League is 52 @,@ 389 , in a match against Manchester City on 6 May 2012 . Newcastle lost the game 2 – 0 . The highest transfer fee received for a Newcastle player is £ 35 million , from Liverpool for Andy Carroll in January 2011 , while the most spent by the club on a player was £ 16 million for striker Michael Owen from Real Madrid in August 2005 .
= = = Honours = = =
= = = = Domestic = = = =
Football League First Division :
Winners ( 4 ) – 1904 – 05 , 1906 – 07 , 1908 – 09 , 1926 – 27
Football League Championship :
Winners ( 3 ) – 1964 – 65 , 1992 – 93 , 2009 – 10
FA Cup :
Winners ( 6 ) – 1910 , 1924 , 1932 , 1951 , 1952 , 1955
FA Community Shield :
Winners ( 1 ) – 1909
= = = = European = = = =
Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup :
Winners ( 1 ) − 1969
UEFA Intertoto Cup :
Winners ( 1 ) − 2006
= = = = Other honours = = = =
Texaco Cup :
Winners ( 2 ) − 1974 , 1975
Anglo @-@ Italian Cup :
Winners ( 1 ) − 1973
= = Players = =
As of 22 July 2016 .
= = = Current squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Players outside the First @-@ team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Reserves and academy = = =
For reserve and academy squads , see Newcastle United F.C. Reserves and Academy
= = = Notable players = = =
For details on former players , see List of Newcastle United F.C. players and Category : Newcastle United F.C. players
= = Board of Directors = =
= = Management = =
= = = Current backroom staff = = =
= = = = First Team = = = =
= = = = Reserves & Academy = = = =
= = = Notable managers = = =
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= Dawn Marie Psaltis =
Dawn Marie Psaltis ( born November 3 , 1970 ) is an American retired professional wrestler and professional wrestling valet . She is perhaps best known for her appearances with Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) and the SmackDown ! brand of World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) under her ring name Dawn Marie , where she was a WWE Diva .
Before entering the sports entertainment industry , Psaltis made her living in real estate . After deciding to pursue a career in modeling or acting , Psaltis began managing wrestlers on the independent circuit after meeting a wrestling promoter . She signed a deal with ECW after what was supposed to be a three @-@ week stint . She managed The Impact Players and Simon and Swinger until ECW 's bankruptcy in 2001 .
Psaltis then joined WWE , where her most notable feud involved her marrying Al Wilson , the storyline father of her rival Torrie Wilson . She was released from her WWE contract in 2005 after revealing that she was pregnant , which resulted in her filing a lawsuit against her former employers .
= = Early life = =
Psaltis was raised by her father , a zoologist , and together , they spent their time camping and hunting . In her youth , she was a fan of the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , admiring wrestlers such as Bob Backlund , Jimmy Snuka , and Roddy Piper . Psaltis graduated from the New York University Stern School of Business at the age of 22 . She then went on to work for a real estate consultancy firm in Manhattan , New York , reaching the position of Director of International Real Estate .
After meeting an ex @-@ boyfriend who had aspired to play football professionally and finding out that he had been signed by the Chicago Bears , Psaltis decided that she wanted to pursue a career in entertainment . She resigned from the firm and moved into the entertainment industry with the goal of becoming either a model or an actress .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career and independent circuit = = =
While signing modeling posters for Jonathan Gold , a talent agent and professional wrestling promoter , Psaltis jokingly told Gold that she would be interested in pursuing a career in wrestling . Gold took her comment at face value and later contacted Psaltis , informing her that she was scheduled to appear at a wrestling show in New Jersey . With some trepidation , she went to the show and managed Tony Atlas in his match against Jimmy Snuka . Psaltis made her professional wrestling debut in January 1995 . She met her future fiancé Simon Diamond during her time in the independent wrestling promotions . She also met Buddy Landell and Devon Storm , both of whom helped train her . Psaltis spent four years working on the northeastern independent circuit , appearing with promotions such as Maryland Championship Wrestling and the Mid @-@ Eastern Wrestling Federation .
= = = Extreme Championship Wrestling ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = =
In 1998 , Psaltis was informed that Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) employee Buh Buh Ray Dudley was interested in bringing her into ECW . At the behest of Dudley , Psaltis traveled to the ECW Arena in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where ECW promoter Paul Heyman told her that he would book her for several appearances in an angle with Lance Storm . She debuted in ECW on August 28 , 1998 as the manager of Storm , feuding with Chris Candido and his manager , Tammy Lynn Sytch . Although she was only supposed to have a three @-@ week role in the company , Heyman was impressed by the chemistry between Psaltis and Storm and offered her a contract , which she accepted . Psaltis created her character to be in love with Storm and clumsy rather than glamorous .
Storm and Psaltis feuded with Candido and Sytch for several months , during which time Psaltis was renamed " Tammy Lynn Bytch " to spite Candido and his manager . After the respective feuds ended , she used the ring name " Dawn Marie Bytch , " which was eventually shortened to simply Dawn Marie . After Storm formed a tag team with Justin Credible known as the Impact Players in the summer of 1999 , she managed both men , helping them win the ECW Tag Team Championship on two occasions . Psaltis continued to manage Storm until he left ECW for World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in May 2000 . Psaltis was also offered a contract by WCW , but declined to leave ECW in order to remain with her fiancé , ECW wrestler Simon Diamond . She also had two years left on her ECW contract .
After Storm departed ECW , Psaltis became a color commentator on ECW pay @-@ per @-@ views and the television series ECW on TNN . On December 3 , 2000 at the Massacre on 34th Street pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of a new angle , she announced that she would become the manager of the winner of the opening match pitting Simon Diamond and Swinger against Christian York and Joey Matthews . Although York and Matthews won the bout , Psaltis opted to join forces with Diamond and Swinger , whom she managed until ECW declared bankruptcy in April 2001 .
= = = Return to independent circuit ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = =
Following the bankruptcy of ECW , Psaltis returned to the independent circuit , managing Diamond . The duo made several appearances alongside Swinger with the short lived X Wrestling Federation in November 2001 . During her time on the independent circuit , she trained as a wrestler under Simon Diamond and Mikey Whipwreck . Also in 2001 , Psaltis worked as a stock trader , and in 2002 , she co @-@ hosted a syndicated wrestling radio show known as the " Piledriver Rock and Wrestling Radio Show " .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Debut and Vince McMahon 's Legal Assistant ( 2002 ) = = = =
In April 2002 , Psaltis began negotiating with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , eventually agreeing to a deal . She made her World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) television debut on the May 30 episode of SmackDown ! as Vince McMahon 's legal assistant . She debuted with the name " Dawn Marie Rinaldi " although it was quickly shortened to the original " Dawn Marie " . In her initial storyline , she briefly feuded with Stacy Keibler over McMahon 's affections until McMahon turned over the General Management position to his daughter , Stephanie McMahon , which was followed shortly by Keibler 's departure for the RAW brand .
= = = = Feud with Torrie Wilson ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
Psaltis would begin a controversial feud with Torrie Wilson in 2002 . On the October 17 episode of Smackdown ! , Marie picked up her first victory when she teamed up with Matt Hardy to defeat Rikishi and Torrie Wilson . In the angle , Psaltis attempted to marry Wilson 's real @-@ life father Al Wilson . She also revealed that she had developed feelings for Torrie , and the two shared an on @-@ screen kiss . Dawn Marie even offered to cancel the wedding if Torrie would go to a hotel with her for the night . Despite this , as part of the angle , she developed feelings for Al , and the two got married in Albuquerque , New Mexico on an episode of SmackDown ! in their underwear . Al then , in storyline , died from a heart attack after having rigorous sex numerous times in succession on their honeymoon . In response , Wilson defeated Psaltis at No Mercy in October . She defeated Psaltis again at the Royal Rumble in 2003 in what was billed as a Stepmother vs. Stepdaughter match . The feud lasted approximately nine months .
A year later , Psaltis began a second feud with Wilson . As part of the feud , the two had a match with Wilson 's career on the line when the SmackDown ! General Manager at the time , Kurt Angle , made the stipulation for the match at Judgment Day , which Wilson won .
= = = = Various feuds and release ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
After being on hiatus from SmackDown ! programming , Psaltis began a new storyline with Miss Jackie , involving whether she and Jackie 's fiancée , Charlie Haas , had an affair . This angle led up to a match between the two at Armageddon , with Haas as the guest referee . Psaltis won the match , but afterward , Haas confirmed their affair and broke off both relationships .
At the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view , on February 20 , Dawn Marie entered a feud with Michelle McCool after McCool attacked Marie during the Divas Contest where Marie and Torrie Wilson co @-@ hosted the contest . On the March 3 episode of Smackdown ! , Marie teamed up with Rene Dupree in losing effort to Big Show and McCool in a mixed tag team match . On the March 24 episode of Smackdown ! , Dawn Marie pinned McCool by using the ropes for leverage . On the April 14 episode of Smackdown ! , Dawn Marie was defeated by Torrie in a Divas Match , this would turn out to be Marie 's last match .
Her last appearance with the company was at ECW One Night Stand , managing Lance Storm for his match against Chris Jericho . Afterward , she was released from her WWE contract on July 6 , 2005 while on maternity leave , as she was pregnant .
= = = Other Promotions ( 2005 – present ) = = =
On November 5 , 2005 , a visibly pregnant Psaltis appeared at the ECW reunion event Hardcore Homecoming : November Reign , which is unaffiliated with World Wrestling Entertainment , holding the key for the main event steel cage match between Jerry Lynn and Justin Credible . The match was won by Justin Credible after Psaltis , Jason Knight , and Lance Storm interfered on his behalf . In June 2006 , she managed Johnny Candido in a match for the National Wrestling Superstars promotion .
In July 2009 , Psaltis signed with Dragon Gate USA as the " Live Event Hostess " , a role similar to that of the ring announcer . Marie made appearance for The U.W.E at their pay @-@ per @-@ view Meltdown , on July 21 , 2012 , managing Kevin Murphy and Richie Nightmare against " The Thrill Seeker " Sage Strong and The Mercenary whom was managed by Tommy Dreamer .
Marie is currently taking part in World Wrestling Fan Xperience showcase .
= = = Women Superstars Uncensored ( 2008 , 2010 ) = = =
On March 8 , 2008 , Marie made her debut for Women Superstars Uncensored as a special guest referee for match between Alexa Thatcher and Cindy Rogers versus Nikki Roxx and Alere Little Feather . Marie made her in @-@ ring debut , On the March 22 , 2008 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , competing in the WSU / NWS ( Women 's J @-@ Cup ) losing to Becky Bayless in the first round . On the June 21 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , Marie was defeated by Becky Bayless following the match it was then turned in a tag team match where she teamed up with Portia Perez in a winning effort defeating Bayless and Angelina Love . On the August 23 , 2008 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , Marie 's final match was where she competed in a no @-@ contest with Trixie Lynn , Marie was scheduled to face Becky Bayless but was changed due to Bayless being signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling .
On the March 6 , 2010 episode of Women Superstars Uncensored , Marie was inducted into " Women Superstars Uncensored " Hall of Fame by Alicia .
= = Other media = =
Psaltis starred in The Vampire Carmilla , a 1999 independent film . In 2008 , she appeared in the second installment of Paul Heyman 's The Heyman Hustle video blog , which featured her and Heyman on the streets of New York City in winter , with Psaltis wearing only a bikini under a fur coat .
= = Personal life = =
While wrestling in ECW , Psaltis took one college class a semester because of her love of learning and reading . She also took acting classes with the intention of becoming an actress after her career in professional wrestling was over .
Psaltis began dating Simon Diamond in October 1998 . Before dating , the two had been good friends for almost two years . They had planned to be married by the end of 2000 or into 2001 . They did not wed , but stayed engaged for several years afterwards . After seven years together , their relationship had come to an end .
Later , Psaltis met a man named Matthew , whom she married in June 2005 in Las Vegas . In December 2005 , Psaltis gave birth to her first child , a boy named Matthew . In January 2006 , she filed a complaint against WWE with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission , claiming that her contract had been wrongfully terminated as a result of her pregnancy and that she had suffered mental duress as a result of the release . The case was reportedly settled in late 2007 . Psaltis gave birth to her second child , a girl named Katelyn Marie in May 2009 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Corner slingshot splash
Sitout facebuster
Signature moves
Hair pull snapmare
Atomic drop
Fujiwara armbar
Slap
Drop toe hold
Headbutt
Two handed chokeslam
DDT
Wrestlers managed
Tony Atlas
Simon Diamond
Swinger
Lance Storm
The Impact Players ( Justin Credible and Lance Storm )
Devon Storm
Buddy Landell
Steve Corino
Johnny Candido
Kevin Matthews
Richie Nightmare
Managers
Tammy Lynn Sytch
Entrance themes
" Hell on High Heels " by Mötley Crüe
" El Phantasmo and the Chicken @-@ Run Blast @-@ O @-@ Rama ( Wine , Women & Song Mix ) " by White Zombie
" Neckbone " by Powerman 5000
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Women Superstars Uncensored
WSU Hall of Fame ( 2010 )
|
= Pacific Rim ( film ) =
Pacific Rim is a 2013 American science fiction monster film directed by Guillermo del Toro , and starring Charlie Hunnam , Idris Elba , Rinko Kikuchi , Charlie Day , Robert Kazinsky , Max Martini , and Ron Perlman . The screenplay is by Travis Beacham and del Toro , with a story by Beacham .
The film is set in the future , when Earth is at war with the Kaiju , colossal monsters which have emerged from an interdimensional portal on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean . To combat the monsters , humanity unites to create the Jaegers , gigantic humanoid mechas each controlled by at least two pilots , whose minds are joined by a neural bridge . Focusing on the war 's later days , the story follows Raleigh Becket , a washed @-@ up Jaeger pilot called out of retirement and teamed with rookie pilot Mako Mori as part of a last @-@ ditch effort to defeat the Kaiju .
Principal photography began on November 14 , 2011 in Toronto and lasted through April 2012 . The film was produced by Legendary Pictures and distributed by Warner Bros .. It was released on July 12 , 2013 including in 3D and IMAX 3D , receiving generally positive reviews ; the visual effects and action sequences were highly praised . While the film was a box @-@ office disappointment in the United States , it was highly successful in other territories . It earned a worldwide total of more than $ 411 million — $ 114 million in China alone , its largest market — becoming Del Toro 's most commercially successful film to date .
A sequel with the working title Maelstrom was announced in 2014 , and , following delays , is now to be directed by Steven S. DeKnight and produced by Del Toro , for a scheduled release of February 23 , 2018 .
= = Plot = =
In 2013 , Earth is under attack by gigantic alien monsters ( called Kaiju ) emerging from an inter @-@ dimensional portal called " The Breach " at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean . Humanity unites to construct colossal robots , nicknamed Jaegers , to combat the alien threat . Each Jaeger is controlled by two or more pilots , who are mentally linked via a process called " drifting " to share the mental stress of piloting the machine .
In 2020 , Gipsy Danger , piloted by brothers Raleigh and Yancy Becket , is assigned to protect the Alaskan coastline from a Kaiju . The monster survives the initial assault and blindsides Gipsy Danger , then rips open her hull and kills Yancy . Raleigh takes control of Gipsy alone and kills the Kaiju . Traumatized by the loss of his brother , Raleigh quits the Jaeger program .
Five years later , Kaiju attacks have increased in both frequency and strength , to the point that Jaegers are being destroyed faster than they can be built . World leaders decide to cut funding for the Jaeger program in favor of anti @-@ Kaiju coastal walls . Marshal Stacker Pentecost , veteran Jaeger pilot and commanding officer of the program , summons the surviving Jaegers and pilots to a base in Hong Kong called Shatterdome . He finds Raleigh and convinces him to rejoin the program and make a last stand .
At Shatterdome , Raleigh and Pentecost are greeted by Mako Mori , the director of the Jaeger refurbishment . He sees the remaining Jaegers and their crews : Striker Eureka , Cherno Alpha , and Crimson Typhoon . The fourth Jaeger is Gipsy Danger , rebuilt and refurbished with additional weapons and a nuclear reactor . Pentecost tells Raleigh his plan is to use the four Jaegers to seal the Breach with a nuclear weapon . To find a new partner to pilot Gipsy , Raleigh holds a tryout with the base 's fighters , and finds his most " drift @-@ compatible " partner to be Mori , who is revealed to be Pentecost 's adopted daughter . In their test drift , Mako becomes lost in her memory of the Kaiju attack that orphaned her , and nearly discharges Gipsy Danger 's plasma caster . Pentecost grounds Mako , leaving Raleigh without a copilot .
Pentecost consults with Kaiju scientists Newton Geiszler and Hermann Gottlieb . Herman believes that the Breach is stabilizing , allowing increasing numbers of Kaiju to invade at a time , but allowing them to drop the weapon into the Breach . Newton , for his part , creates a device that allows him to drift with a Kaiju 's brain fragment , and discovers that the Kaiju are bioweapons created by extraterrestrial colonists to wipe out humanity and invade Earth . Pentecost instructs Newton to find black market dealer Hannibal Chau to obtain an intact Kaiju brain and acquire more information . At Hannibal 's place , Newton realizes that during his previous drift , the Kaiju 's hive mind gained access to his knowledge , just as he gained theirs . Two Kaiju , code @-@ named Otachi and Leatherback , are unleashed upon Hong Kong simultaneously to find him .
All Jaegers , except for Gipsy Danger , are dispatched . The Kaiju easily destroy Crimson Typhoon and Cherno Alpha , and immobilize Striker Eureka with an EMP blast . Out of options , Pentecost allows Raleigh and Mako to pilot Gipsy Danger . They kill Leatherback , then pursue Otachi , which is hunting for Newton . After a lengthy and destructive battle , Raleigh and Mako manage to kill Otachi . Newton and Hannibal rush to Otachi 's carcass , and discover that it is pregnant . The infant Kaiju bursts out and swallows Hannibal , before being asphyxiated by its own umbilical cord . Newton and Hermann drift with the infant Kaiju 's brain , and learn that the Breach only opens in the presence of Kaiju DNA .
Pentecost reveals to Raleigh he is terminally ill due to piloting a first generation Jaeger with no radiation shielding . The last time he piloted a Jaeger was during the Tokyo attack , during which he was forced to kill the Kaiju alone , making him and Raleigh the only pilots who have killed a Kaiju without a copilot ( known as solo combat ) . He has the remaining Jaegers proceed with the mission . With pilot Hercules Hansen injured during the previous fight , Pentecost and Chuck Hansen pilot Striker Eureka and carry the bomb ; Raleigh and Mako provide cover in Gipsy Danger . At the bottom of the Pacific Ocean , the two Jaegers are faced with three Kaiju , as Gottlieb predicted . Raleigh and Mako manage to kill the first , but Gipsy Danger is crippled by the second , and Striker Eureka takes critical damage fighting the third . Pentecost and Chuck detonate their nuclear bomb , killing another Kaiju and injuring the last one . Raleigh and Mako defeat the injured Kaiju , then , considering Newton 's discovery , they use the Kaiju corpse to drive Gipsy Danger into the Breach . Seeing Mako has passed out because her oxygen supply is depleted , Raleigh gives Mako his supply and ejects her via an escape pod . He then manually overloads the Jaeger 's nuclear reactor , just as it descends into the aliens ' homeworld , and ejects himself through the Breach .
Gipsy 's reactor explodes , killing the aliens and sealing the Breach . Mako and Raleigh 's pods surface in the Pacific Ocean , and the two embrace as rescue helicopters arrive . In a mid @-@ credits scene , Hannibal cuts his way out of the dead infant Kaiju .
= = Cast = =
Charlie Hunnam as Raleigh Becket :
A washed @-@ up former pilot called out of retirement by the Pan Pacific Defense Corps . On casting Hunnam , del Toro stated : " I saw him and I thought he had an earnest , really honest nature . And he was the kind of guy that I can relate to , as a male audience member I go , ' I like that guy . I would like to have a few beers with that guy ' … he has an earthy quality . " Describing the character , Hunnam stated : " When you meet me , in the beginning of the story , I 've suffered a giant loss . Not only has it killed my sense of self @-@ worth , but also my will to fight and keep on going . And then , Rinko and Idris , and a couple other people , bring me out of retirement to try to help with this grand push . I think that journey is a very relatable one . Everybody , at some point in their life , has fallen down and not felt like getting back up , but you have to , no matter how difficult it is . " Hunnam was also considered for the role of Prince Nuada in del Toro 's previous film , Hellboy II : The Golden Army . Paul Michael Wyers plays Raleigh as a child .
Idris Elba as Stacker Pentecost :
Raleigh 's commanding officer . On selecting Elba , del Toro stated : " This is a movie where I have had to deal with more dialogue than ever , and the way I cast the movie was — who do I want to hear say these things ? Who do I want Charlie Hunnam to go against ? Who can really tell Charlie Hunnam ' sit down and listen ' ? " In another interview , the director said : " I wanted to have Idris not be the blonde , square @-@ jawed , Anglo , super hip marine that knows [ everything ] . I wanted somebody that could bring a lot of authority , but that you could feel the weight of the world on his shoulders . When I watched Luther , that 's the essence of the character ... Luther is carrying literally the evils of the world on his shoulders . He 's doing penance for all humanity ... Idris is one of those actors that is capable of embodying humanity , in almost like a Rodin sculpture @-@ type , larger than life , almost like a Russian realism statue , you know , big hands , all the turmoil of humanity in his eyes . I wanted somebody that you could have doubts internally , and very few guys can do that . " To prepare for the role , Elba watched footage of politicians David Cameron and Barack Obama , as well as Russell Crowe in Gladiator and Mel Gibson in Braveheart . Del Toro initially offered the role to Tom Cruise , who declined because of scheduling conflicts .
Rinko Kikuchi as Mako Mori :
Raleigh 's co @-@ pilot who lost her family in a Kaiju attack . Though Mori possesses a strength and fury that should serve well against the Kaiju , Pentecost is reluctant to use her , partly because of a fatherly bond and partly because he knows she is still fighting the terror of her childhood . Del Toro stated : " I was very careful how I built the movie . One of the other things I decided was that I wanted a female lead who has the equal force as the male leads . She 's not going to be a sex kitten , she 's not going to come out in cutoff shorts and a tank top , and it 's going to be a real earnestly drawn character . " Noting that the other actors were exhausted and " destroyed physically " by filming in the intensive Jaeger cockpit harnesses , del Toro said : " The only one that didn 't break was Rinko Kikuchi , the girl . She never complained ... I asked Rinko her secret and she said ' I think of gummi bears and flowers . ' I try to do that in my life now . " Mana Ashida plays Mako as a child .
Charlie Day as Dr. Newton Geiszler :
A scientist studying the Kaiju . Day stated : " Certainly myself and Burn Gorman provide a little bit of much needed levity , it 's a break from the monsters and the guys fighting . But then the character gets thrust into the story in a way that his life is seriously at risk and it becomes a little more action oriented and a little more horror movie @-@ esque . So , he kinda bounces back between being humorous and also being real ... the rest of these guys , they look really good in their suits and they 've got abs , they can kick and fight and punch . Newt is sort of the ' everyman ' and he 's flawed and he 's arrogant . " Del Toro gave Geiszler the mentality of a celebrity chef , with tattoos and a " big personality " . According to the director , Day was cast based on his performance in an episode of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia : " He comes out with a stick , and he has a monologue about what it is to hunt the rats in the basement . It was very funny , but he was coming from character . He was not doing big stuff , he was , like , really mourning and lamenting his job , you know , how inhuman it is . And I thought , ' This guy is great at shading and comedy . ' There are moments in the movie where he delivers them both . " Trek Buccino portrays Geiszler as a child .
Max Martini as Herc Hansen :
Chuck 's father and co @-@ pilot . Kazinsky stated Martini hated the fact that he was cast as Chuck 's father , being only 13 years Kazinsky 's senior . However , Kazinsky said they developed a bond while filming , " Because we were working so tight together , we would finish and then we would go out for dinner every night and we would go to the gym together on days off we had ... The emotional scene toward the end with the father @-@ son parting , it was very easy for me to play because I had grown to actually genuinely love Max as a man and as a friend . " Kazinsky revealed that Herc and Chuck 's pet bulldog was del Toro 's idea and said , " The dog 's name was Max , ironically , and we ended up using Max for so many things . The story was that Herc and Chuck have difficulty communicating , that they communicated via the dog , and all the love that they couldn 't show each other they would show the dog . " The role was originally written for Ron Perlman , but del Toro decided the scenes between Perlman 's Herc and Hunnam 's Raleigh " might start to feel like Sons of Anarchy 2 @.@ 0 " .
Robert Kazinsky as Chuck Hansen :
An Australian Jaeger pilot considered the finest soldier left in the Resistance . He and his father pilot Striker Eureka , " the strongest and the fastest " Jaeger with eleven Kaiju kills , and make up the Resistance 's " go @-@ to team " . Kazinsky , a fan of science @-@ fiction , was initially drawn by the film 's concept , " My immediate reaction was ' Holy crap , that 's cool . ' In the hands of somebody else , you might sit there and go , ' Well , this might be terrible , ' but with del Toro doing it , you kind of go , ' This is going to be amazing . ' " . Reflecting on his experience in the film , Kazinsky said in an interview , " The most fun I have ever had in my entire life was Pacific Rim , playing Chuck was incredibly fun . "
Ron Perlman as Hannibal Chau :
A black marketeer who makes a living dealing Kaiju organs . Perlman stated , " I actually think this character was designed to be played by another ethnicity other than myself . And somewhere along the way , [ del Toro ] had the notion , ' Wouldn 't it be interesting to turn this guy into more of an invention . ' So , in other words , somebody takes on a persona that completely sounds like he 's someone else and acts like he 's someone else but he 's really , you know , as you see me . That added a dimension to the larger @-@ than @-@ life aspect of the character ... I 'm playing somebody very close to my own origins . But a completely made @-@ up persona ... which makes him even more full of shit . And I think that 's the charm of the guy — that he 's kind of elusive , hard to pin down . " Pacific Rim marks Perlman 's fifth appearance in a del Toro film . The director stated : " I think the moment you have a guy that is called Hannibal Chau and Ron shows up , and he 's from Brooklyn and he 's been selling black market organs , you know the whole story ... That 's all I need to know . If it 's any other actor , there 's a lot more explaining to do . But when Ron comes in with that look , you can make your own story and it 'll be as compelling as anything I can invent . You do a little weightlifting with the audience . " The bird tattoos on Chau 's fingers indicate his past as a gangster . In the film , Chau states he took the name from his favorite historical figure and his second @-@ favorite Szechuan restaurant in Brooklyn . Del Toro drew inspiration from Burt Lancaster 's performance in Elmer Gantry when writing the character .
Clifton Collins , Jr. as Ops Tendo Choi :
A Chinese @-@ American Jaeger technician . Collins described his character as the " brains " behind the Jaegers .
Burn Gorman as Dr. Hermann Gottlieb :
A scientist studying the Kaiju alongside Geiszler . According to del Toro , Gottlieb is a " tweed @-@ wearing , English , phlegmatic introvert that never leaves the lab " . The modest Gottlieb resents Geiszler 's arrogance and radical behavior ; the duo echo the film 's theme of incompatible people functioning together when the time comes . Drew Adkins portrays Gottlieb as a child .
Diego Klattenhoff as Yancy Becket :
Raleigh 's older brother and co @-@ pilot . Klattenhoff joined the project to work with del Toro . Describing his character , Klattentoff stated : " This is a guy who is looking out for his very eager , younger brother and they were enabled with this gift that gave them the opportunity to kind of save the world . Or help , at least . " Tyler Stevenson plays Yancy as a child .
Ellen McLain as Gipsy Danger AI :
The voice of Gipsy Danger 's artificial intelligence system . Del Toro secured permission from Valve Corporation to cast McLain in homage to GLaDOS , her homicidal AI character in the Portal video games . The director stated : " It was clear to me that we needed something beautiful in that voice . My daughter is my wingman , we had done co @-@ op on Portal 2 for a long time and I did Portal 1 when it came out . It becomes ingrained in you , that voice . I didn 't want to use her as a negative force of evil . I called Valve and asked ' Can you give us the filter ? ' so we went full GLaDOS for the first commercial , but I thought it was too much . If you 're a gamer , it 's too distracting so we created our own GLaDOS 2 @.@ 0 filter that 's a little less full @-@ on . "
Additional Jaeger pilots include Charles Luu , Lance Luu and Mark Luu as the Wei Tang triplets ( China ) , and Robert Maillet and Heather Doerksen as Sasha and Aleksis Kaidanovsky ( Russia ) . Joe Pingue portrays Captain Merrit , the captain of a fishing boat caught in a battle between Jaeger and Kaiju . Santiago Segura plays an aide to Hannibal Chau . Brad William Henke and Larry Joe Campbell portray members of a construction team Raleigh joins after retiring from the Pan Pacific Defense Corps . Robin Thomas , Julian Barnes , and David Richmond @-@ Peck portray U.N. representatives from the United States , Great Britain , and Canada respectively . Sebastian Pigott appears as a Jaeger engineer and Joshua Peace appears as an officer , Jonathan Foxon appears as a frantic civilian . David Fox plays an old man on a beach , while Jane Watson portrays Raleigh and Yancy 's mother in a flashback sequence . Producer Thomas Tull makes a cameo appearance .
= = Themes = =
In the film , a Jaeger 's neural load is too much for a single pilot to handle alone , meaning they must first be psychically linked to another pilot — a concept called " drifting " . When pilots drift , they quickly gain intimate knowledge of each other 's memories and feelings , and have no choice but to accept them ; del Toro found this concept 's dramatic potential compelling . The director expressed his intention that the empathy metaphors extend to real life :
The pilots ' smaller stories actually make a bigger point , which is that we 're all together in the same robot [ in life ] … Either we get along or we die . I didn 't want this to be a recruitment ad or anything jingoistic . The idea of the movie is just for us to trust each other , to cross over barriers of color , sex , beliefs , whatever , and just stick together .
Del Toro acknowledged this message 's simplicity , but said he would have liked to have seen adventure films with similar morals when he was a child . The film 's ten primary characters all have " little arcs " conducive to this idea ; del Toro stated : " I think that 's a great message to give kids ... ' That guy you were beating the shit out of ten minutes ago ? That 's the guy you have to work with five minutes later . ' That 's life ... We can only be complete when we work together . " The director noted that Hellboy and The Devil 's Backbone told the same message , though the latter conveyed it in a very different way .
The film centers on the relationship between Becket and Mori , but is not a love story in a conventional sense . Both are deeply damaged human beings who have decided to suppress their respective traumas . While learning to pilot their Jaeger , they undergo a process of " opening up " , gaining access to each other 's thoughts , memories and secrets . Their relationship is necessarily one of respect and " perfect trust " . Hunnam commented that the film is " a love story without a love story . It 's about all of the necessary elements of love without arriving at love itself " . Both Becket and Mori have suffered profound personal tragedies ; one of the script 's central ideas is that two damaged people can metaphorically " become one " , with their figurative missing pieces connecting almost like a puzzle . Del Toro emphasized the characters ' emotional intimacy by filming their training fight scene the way he would a sex scene .
Del Toro , a self @-@ described pacifist , avoided what he termed " car commercial aesthetics " or " army recruitment video aesthetics " , and gave the characters Western ranks including " marshal " and " ranger " rather than military ranks such as " captain " , " major " or " general " . The director stated : " I avoided making any kind of message that says war is good . We have enough firepower in the world . " Del Toro wanted to break from the mass death and destruction featured in contemporary blockbuster films , and made a point of showing the streets and buildings being evacuated before Kaiju attacks , ensuring that the destruction depicted is " completely remorseless " . The director stated :
I don 't want people being crushed . I want the joy that I used to get seeing Godzilla toss a tank without having to think there are guys in the tank … What I think is you could do nothing but echo the moment you 're in . There is a global anxiety about how fragile the status quo is and the safety of citizens , but in my mind — honestly — this film is in another realm . There is no correlation to the real world . There is no fear of a copycat Kaiju attack because a Kaiju saw it on the news and said , " I 'm going to destroy Seattle . " In my case , I 'm picking up a tradition . One that started right after World War II and was a coping mechanism , in a way , for Japan to heal the wounds of that war . And it 's integral for a Kaiju to rampage in the city .
Writing for the Los Angeles Review of Books , Wai Chee Dimock connected the film 's central theme of togetherness to its recurring image of missing shoes , stating the " utopian dream " driving the characters is
that puny humans like us could be " together " — not only in the specific neural melding that must take place between the two Jaeger co @-@ pilots but also , more generally speaking , in a fractal web of resemblance , filling the world with copies of ourselves at varying orders of magnitude and with varying degrees of re @-@ expression , beginning with the shoes on our feet .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In February 2006 , it was reported that Guillermo del Toro would direct Travis Beacham 's fantasy screenplay , Killing on Carnival Row , but the project never materialized . Beacham conceived Pacific Rim the following year . While walking on the beach near Santa Monica Pier , the screenwriter imagined a giant robot and a giant monster fighting to the death . " They just sort of materialized out of the fog , these vast , godlike things . " He later conceived the idea that each robot had two pilots , asking " what happens when one of those people dies ? " Deciding this would be " a story about loss , moving on after loss , and dealing with survivor 's guilt " , Beacham commenced writing the film . On May 28 , 2010 , it was reported that Legendary Pictures had purchased Beacham 's detailed 25 @-@ page film treatment , now titled Pacific Rim .
On July 28 , 2010 , it was reported that del Toro would next direct an adaptation of H. P. Lovecraft 's At the Mountains of Madness for Universal Studios , with James Cameron producing . When del Toro met with Legendary Pictures to discuss the possibility of collaborating with them on a film , he was intrigued by Beacham 's treatment — still a " very small pitch " at this point . Del Toro struck a deal with Legendary : while directing At the Mountains of Madness , he would produce and co @-@ write Pacific Rim ; because of the films ' conflicting production schedules , he would direct Pacific Rim only if At the Mountains of Madness were cancelled . Tom Cruise was attached to star in the Lovecraft adaptation .
On March 7 , 2011 , it was reported that Universal would not proceed with At the Mountains of Madness because del Toro was unwilling to compromise on the $ 150 million budget and R rating . The director later reflected , " When it happened , this has never happened to me , but I actually cried that weekend a lot . I don 't want to sound like a puny soul , but I really was devastated . I was weeping for the movie . " The project collapsed on a Friday , and del Toro signed to direct Pacific Rim the following Monday .
Del Toro spent a year working with Beacham on the screenplay , and is credited as co @-@ writer . He introduced ideas he had always wished to see in the genre , such as a Kaiju birth and a Kaiju attack seen from a child 's perspective . The script also received an uncredited rewrite from Neil Cross , who previously created the Idris Elba @-@ starring drama series Luther and wrote the del Toro @-@ produced horror film Mama . Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan were enlisted to perform uncredited rewrites when their spec script Monstropolis caught the filmmaker 's attention . Drew Pearce also carried out uncredited work on the script .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Filming began on November 14 , 2011 and continued in Toronto into April 2012 . Del Toro gave an update after the second week on filming finished . The film was referred to as Silent Seas and Still Seas during production .
Del Toro had never shot a film in less than 115 days , but had only 103 to shoot Pacific Rim . In order to achieve this , del Toro scheduled a splinter unit that he could direct early in the day , before main unit , and on his off @-@ days . The director worked 17 to 18 hours a day , seven days a week , for much of the schedule . Del Toro took a new approach to directing actors , allowing " looser " movements and improvisation ; the director maintained tight control over the production : " Everything , 100 % goes through me sooner or later . I do not delegate anything . Some people like it , some people don 't , but it has to be done that way . "
The film was shot using Red Epic cameras . At first Guillermo del Toro decided not to shoot or convert the film to 3D , as the effect would not work due to the sheer size of the film 's robots and monsters , explaining
I didn 't want to make the movie 3D because when you have things that big ... the thing that happens naturally , you 're looking at two buildings lets say at 300 feet [ away ] , if you move there is no parallax . They 're so big that , in 3D , you barely notice anything no matter how fast you move ... To force the 3D effects for robots and monsters that are supposed to be big you are making their [ perspective ] miniaturized , making them human scale .
It was later announced that the film would be converted to 3D , with the conversion taking 40 weeks longer than most . Del Toro said : " What can I tell you ? I changed my mind . I 'm not running for office . I can do a Romney . "
Del Toro cut approximately an hour of material from the film . The unused footage explored the characters and their arcs in greater detail , but the director felt it was necessary to strike a balance , stating : " We cannot pretend this is Ibsen with monsters and giant robots . I cannot pretend I 'm doing a profound reflection on mankind . " Each character 's arc was edited down to its minimal requirements . The director wanted to keep the film around two hours , particularly for younger viewers . Alejandro González Iñárritu and Alfonso Cuarón helped with the editing ; Iñárritu removed ten minutes of footage , while Cuarón removed " a few minutes " and rearranged several scenes . Iñárritu and Cuarón receive a " special thanks " in the film 's end credits , as do James Cameron and David Cronenberg .
= = = Design = = =
Del Toro envisioned Pacific Rim as an earnest , colorful adventure story , with an " incredibly airy and light feel " , in contrast to the " super @-@ brooding , super @-@ dark , cynical summer movie " . The director focused on " big , beautiful , sophisticated visuals " and action that would satisfy an adult audience , but has stated his " real hope " is to introduce the Kaiju and mecha genres to a generation of children . While the film draws heavily on these genres , it avoids direct references to previous works . Del Toro intended to create something original but " madly in love " with its influences , instilled with " epic beauty " and " operatic grandeur " . The end credits dedicate the film to Ray Harryhausen and Ishirō Honda , who helped to establish the giant monster genre with films such as The Beast from 20 @,@ 000 Fathoms and Godzilla respectively .
The film was to honor the Kaiju and mecha genres while creating an original stand @-@ alone film , something " conscious of the heritage , but not a pastiche or an homage or a greatest hits of everything " . The director made a point of starting from scratch , without emulating or referencing any previous examples of those genres . He cautioned his designers not to turn to films like Gamera , Godzilla , or The War of the Gargantuas for inspiration , stating : " I didn 't want to be postmodern , or referential , or just belong to a genre . I really wanted to create something new , something madly in love with those things . I tried to bring epic beauty to it , and drama and operatic grandeur . " Rather than popular culture , he drew inspiration from works of art such as The Colossus and George Bellows 's boxing paintings . The film 's designers include Wayne Barlowe , Oscar Chichoni , monster sculptors David Meng and Simon Lee , and Hellboy II and The Hobbit designer Francisco Ruiz Velasco . Del Toro has acknowledged that some designs created for his cancelled At the Mountains of Madness adaptation may have been used in Pacific Rim .
Approximately one hundred Kaiju and one hundred Jaegers were designed , but only a fraction of these appear in the film ; every week the filmmakers would " do an American Idol " and vote for the best . In designing Kaiju , the film 's artists frequently drew inspiration from nature rather than other works . The director commented : " Kaijus are essentially outlandish in a way , but on the other hand they come sort of in families : you 've got the reptilian Kaiju , the insect Kaiju , the sort of crustacean Kaiju ... So to take an outlandish design and then render it with an attention to real animal anatomy and detail is interesting . " Del Toro avoided making the Kaiju too similar to any Earth creatures , instead opting to make them otherworldly and alien . Del Toro called the film 's Kaiju " weapons " , stating that they are " the cleaning crew , the cats sent into the warehouse to clean out the mice . " Certain design elements are shared by all the Kaiju ; this is intended to suggest that they are connected and were designed for a similar purpose . Each Kaiju was given a vaguely humanoid silhouette to echo the man @-@ in @-@ suit aesthetic of early Japanese Kaiju films . While del Toro 's other films feature ancient or damaged monsters , the Kaiju lack scars or any evidence of prior culture , indicating that they are engineered creations rather than the result of an evolutionary system .
Knifehead , the first Kaiju to appear in the film , is a tribute to the plodding kaiju of 1960s Japanese films , and is intended to look almost like a man in a rubber suit ; its head was inspired by that of a goblin shark . Leatherback , the bouncer @-@ like Kaiju which spews electro @-@ magnetic charges , is a favorite of del Toro , who conceived it as a " brawler with this sort of beer belly " ; the lumbering movements of gorillas were used as a reference . The Kaiju Otachi homages the dragons of Chinese mythology . The director called it a " Swiss army knife of a Kaiju " ; with almost 20 minutes of screen time , it was given numerous features so the audience would not tire of it . The creature moves like a Komodo dragon in water , sports multiple jaws and an acid @-@ filled neck sack , and unfurls wings when necessary . It is also more intelligent than the other Kaiju , employing eagle @-@ inspired strategies against the Jaegers . Onibaba , the Kaiju that orphans Mako Mori , resembles a fusion of a Japanese temple and a crustacean . Slattern , the largest Kaiju , is distinguished by its extremely long neck and " half @-@ horn , half @-@ crown " head , which del Toro considered both demonic and majestic .
Gipsy Danger , the American Jaeger , was based on the shape of New York City 's Art Deco buildings , such as the Chrysler Building and the Empire State Building , but infused with John Wayne 's gunslinger gait and hip movements . Cherno Alpha , the Russian Jaeger , was based on the shape and paint patterns of a T @-@ series Russian tank , combined with a giant containment silo to give the appearance of a walking nuclear power plant with a cooling tower on its head . Crimson Typhoon , the three @-@ armed Chinese Jaeger , is piloted by triplets and resembles a " medieval little warrior " ; its texture evokes Chinese lacquered wood with golden edges . Striker Eureka , the Australian Jaeger , is likened by del Toro to a Land Rover ; the most elegant and masculine Jaeger , it has a jutting chest , a camouflage paint scheme recalling the Australian outback , and the bravado of its pilots .
The film 's costumes were designed by Shane Mahan and Kate Hawley , who spent several months on the costumes of the Jaeger pilots . The Russian pilot suits are old @-@ fashioned and echo cosmonaut space suits .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic was chosen to the visual effects for Pacific Rim . Del Toro hired Oscar winners John Knoll and Hal T. Hickel , both known for their work on the Star Wars prequel trilogy and the Pirates of the Caribbean films . Legacy Effects co @-@ owner Shane Mahan , known for creating the armored suits for Iron Man , was tasked with building the suits , helmets and conn @-@ pods . Oscar winner Clay Pinney , known for his work on Independence Day and Star Trek , was also brought on board . Hybride Technologies , a division of Ubisoft , and Rodeo FX also contributed to the visual effects .
Del Toro conceived the film as an operatic work :
That was one of the first words I said to the entire team at ILM . I said , " This movie needs to be theatrical , operatic , romantic . " We used a lot of words not usually associated with high @-@ tech blockbusters ... We went for a very , very , very , very saturated color palette for the battle for Hong Kong . I kept asking John to tap into his inner Mexican and be able to saturate the greens and the purples and the pinks and the oranges .
The classic Japanese woodblock print The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai was a common motif in the ocean battles ; Del Toro recalled , " I would say ' Give me a Hokusai wave ' … we use the waves and weather in the movie very operatically . " The director asked that Knoll not necessarily match the lighting from shot to shot : " It 's pretty unorthodox to do that , but I think the results are really beautiful and very artistically free and powerful , not something you would associate with a big sci @-@ fi action movie . " Del Toro considers the film 's digital water its most exciting visual effect : " The water dynamics in this movie are technically beautiful , but also artistically incredibly expressive . We agreed on making the water become almost another character . We would time the water very precisely . I 'd say ' Get out of the wave [ on this frame ] . ' "
The film also features extensive miniature effect shots provided by 32TEN Studios , under the supervision of ILM VFX Producer Susan Greenhow and ILM VFX Supervisors John Knoll and Lindy DeQuattro . Shot using RED Epic cameras on 3D rigs , the scenes produced by 32TEN involved the creation of a ¼ scale office building interior which was destroyed by the fist of a Jaeger robot which was on a separate pneumatically controlled rig , as well as a sequence which depicted several rows of seats in a soccer stadium being blown apart as a Jaeger lands in the stadium , which was created by using ¼ -scale seats blown apart by air cannons . Additionally 32TEN provided several practical elements for ILM ’ s compositing team including dust clouds , breaking glass and water effects .
= = Video game = =
A single @-@ player fighting video game based on the film was announced by the Australian Classification Board for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Published and developed by Yuke 's , Pacific Rim : The Video Game was released along with the film on July 12 , 2013 . The game received generally negative reviews . Reliance Games developed a Pacific Rim tie @-@ in game for smartphone platforms , such as iOS and Android devices ; this version also received negative reviews .
= = Music = =
The film 's score was composed by Ramin Djawadi . Del Toro selected Djawadi based on his works on Prison Break , Iron Man , and Game of Thrones , stating : " His scores have a grandeur , but they have also an incredible sort of human soul . " The director also stated that some Russian rap would be featured in the film . The soundtrack was released on digital download from Amazon on June 18 , 2013 and CD on June 25 , 2013 . The physical version of the soundtrack was released on July 9 , 2013 by WaterTower Music , three days before the theatrical release of the film itself . Guest musicians Tom Morello and Priscilla Ahn also feature as soloists on the score . Two songs appear in the film which are not included on the soundtrack are " Just Like Your Tenderness " by Luo Xiaoxuan , and the ending theme " Drift " , performed by Blake Perlman featuring Rza . The OST received mostly positive reviews . The Action Elite rated the album with a perfect five stars , the Empire gave four , while MSN and Filmtracks also gave the soundtrack four out of five stars . On July 27 , 2013 , the soundtrack was appeared at peak position number 7 on " US Billboard Top Soundtracks . "
= = Marketing and promotion = =
On November 28 , 2012 , the official film website premiered alongside two viral videos — one depicting the initial Kaiju attack as captured by a handheld camera . Blueprints depicting the designs for the Jaeger machines were also released online . On June 5 , 2013 , the graphic novel Pacific Rim : Tales from Year Zero was released . Written by Travis Beacham and featuring cover art by Alex Ross , Tales from Year Zero serves as an introductory prologue to the film , and is set twelve years before its events . On June 18 , Insight Editions published Pacific Rim : Man , Machines , and Monsters , an art book written by David S. Cohen . The book chronicles the film 's production with concept art , photography , the cast and crew 's accounts of the shoot , and a foreword by del Toro . On July 2 , a viral video was released in which Ron Perlman 's character , Hannibal Chau , advertises his fictional Kaiju organ dealership , Kaiju Remedies .
On the day of the film 's release , July 12 , 2013 , another viral video was released to promote the film . It involved the collaboration of the film studio ( including del Toro himself ) and the YouTube network Polaris ( also known as The Game Station ) . It featured members of the YouTube network ( such as the Game Grumps ) as Jaeger pilots fighting Kaiju . On July 16 , a novelization by Alex Irvine was released . NECA began selling action figures of the film 's Kaiju and Jaegers .
= = Release = =
Pacific Rim was initially expected to reach theaters in July 2012 . However , Warner Bros. decided to postpone the film 's release date to May 10 , 2013 . In March 2012 , it was announced that the film would be released on July 12 , 2013 . The film premiered in Mexico City on July 1 , 2013 .
= = = Box office = = =
Pacific Rim grossed $ 101 @.@ 8 million in North America , and has had a favorable international release , grossing $ 309 @.@ 2 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 411 @,@ 002 @,@ 906 .
The film grossed $ 3 @.@ 6 million from Thursday night showings , 23 percent of which came from IMAX showings . It then faced competition from Grown Ups 2 and ultimately fell behind it on opening day , earning $ 14 @.@ 6 million . The film reached the # 3 spot during the opening weekend with $ 37 @.@ 2 million , behind Despicable Me 2 and Grown Ups 2 . This is the highest ever opening for a film by del Toro , surpassing Hellboy II : The Golden Army . Around 50 percent of tickets were in 3D , which makes it the second highest 3D share of 2013 , behind Gravity . During its second weekend , the film dropped a steep 57 % with a gross of $ 16 million , and during its third weekend , had dropped a further 52 % with a gross of $ 7 @.@ 7 million .
On July 22 , 2013 , it was reported that the film had reached # 1 at the international box office over the weekend . The film had a successful opening in China , grossing $ 45 @.@ 2 million , until overtaken by The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies the largest opening in China for a Warner Bros. title , and the sixth @-@ largest Chinese debut of all time for any Hollywood film . On August 19 , 2013 , its gross crossed $ 100 million in China alone , becoming the sixth @-@ highest grossing American film ever in China . It grossed a total of $ 114 @.@ 3 million in the country , making China the largest market for the film . In Japan , the film landed in the fifth position on opening weekend , with an initial earning of $ 3 million ( behind World War Z 's gross of $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) .
In September 2013 , Forbes highlighted Pacific Rim as " the rare English @-@ language film in history to cross $ 400 million while barely crossing $ 100 million domestic " .
= = = Critical response = = =
Pacific Rim received generally positive reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Metacritic gives a rating of 64 out of 100 based on reviews from 48 critics , which indicates " generally favorable " reviews . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 71 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 259 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " It may sport more style than substance , but Pacific Rim is a solid modern creature feature bolstered by fantastical imagery and an irresistible sense of fun . "
The Daily Telegraph 's Robbie Collin awarded the film five stars out of five , likening the experience of watching it to rediscovering a favorite childhood cartoon . He praised del Toro for investing his own affection for the genre and sense of artistry into the project in such a way that the viewer found themselves immersed in the film rather than watching from afar , noting the director had catered to younger and older audiences alike and expressed surprise that the film could rise above the sum of its parts . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review , describing the film as the sum of the potential every monster film had ever tried to fulfill . Lou Lumenick of The New York Post gave the film four stars out of four , and said it had " no shortage of brains , brawn , eye candy , wit and even some poetry " , praising the " clean and coherent " action sequences and the " terrific chemistry " between Hunnam and Kikuchi . Drew McWeeny of HitFix highlighted other aspects of the film , paying particular attention to the production and art design . He also praised the cinematography for " perfectly capturing " the film , and described the score as " ridiculously cool " . Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers called the film " the work of a humanist ready to banish cynicism for compassion " , saying that del Toro " drives the action with a heartbeat " . Keith Uhlich of Time Out called the film " pure , pleasurable comic @-@ book absurdity " , and noted that del Toro had lent the proceedings a " plausible humanity " lacking in most of summer 2013 's destruction @-@ heavy blockbusters . He said the Kaijus ' civilian victims make a " palpably personal impression " , deeming one scene with Mako Mori " as mythically moving as anything in the mecha anime , like Neon Genesis Evangelion , that the director emulates with expert aplomb . " The Village Voice 's Stephanie Zacharek called it " summer entertainment with a pulse " , praising its " dumbly brilliant " action and freedom from elitism , but noted the story is predictable and suggested del Toro 's time would be better spent on more visionary films . Angela Watercutter of Wired called it the " most awesome movie of the summer " , a " fist @-@ pumping , awe @-@ inspiring ride " , and opined that its focus on spectacle rather than characterization " simply does not matter " in the summer blockbuster context . Richard Roeper gave the film a B , commenting that either the Jaegers or Kaiju " can take down any of the Transformers . " Leonard Maltin gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , calling it " three @-@ quarters of a really good movie that doesn 't know when to quit . "
The Guardian 's Andrew Pulver was less enthusiastic , calling the film a mix of " wafer @-@ thin psychodrama " and " plot @-@ generator dialogue " . Time 's Richard Corliss said the action was let down by " inert " drama , describing the film as " 45 minutes of awesome encased in 90 minutes of yawnsome . " Justin Chang of Variety criticized it as loud and lacking the nuance and subtlety of del Toro 's previous films . The New Yorker 's Anthony Lane 's verdict read as " It is possible to applaud Pacific Rim for the efficacy of its business model while deploring the tale that has been engendered — long , loud , dark , and very wet . You might as well watch the birth of an elephant . " The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mike LaSalle reacted extremely negatively by stating " If this is the best we can do in terms of movies - if something like this can speak to the soul of audiences - maybe we should just turn over the cameras and the equipment to the alien dinosaurs and see what they come up with ... Director Guillermo del Toro , who gave us Pan 's Labyrinth not too many years ago , used to be known as an artistic and discerning filmmaker , despite his affection for blockbuster action and grotesqueness . But too often he gets lost in his computer ... Why go to the movies to look at somebody else 's computer after looking at your own all week ? ... The actors can 't make Pacific Rim any better . They can only relieve some of the pain . " Slant Magazine 's Ed Gonzalez , who said the film lacked poignancy , compared it to a video game : " a stylish but programmatic ride toward an inevitable final boss battle " . The Wrap 's Alonso Duralde criticized the choice to set most battles at night or during the rain , feeling it detracted from the action , and said the comic relief actors — Day , Gorman , and Perlman — stole the film from the less interesting leads . Jordan Hoffman of Film.com identified Hunnam as the weak link in the cast , calling him a " charisma black hole " . Giles Hardie of The Sydney Morning Herald was particularly critical of the film , awarding the action sequences " five IQ points out of five " as he described the film as an hour and twenty minutes of fight sequences vaguely connected by ten minutes of story .
Director Rian Johnson praised the film , as did Japanese game director Hideo Kojima , who called it the " ultimate otaku film " and stated he " never imagined [ he ] would be fortunate enough to see a film like this in [ his ] life " . Go Nagai , who pioneered the idea of mecha piloted from an interior cockpit , praised the film 's fun and intense action , while game developer Fumito Ueda said its battle scenes surpassed memories of the tokusatsu films he saw as an impressionable child . Science fiction author William Gibson called the film " A ravishing display of intelligent , often wonderfully witty visual design , every frame alive with coherent language , in the service of what is at heart a children 's story ... A baroque that doesn 't curdle , that never fetishizes itself . "
The inclusion of only one female character of note resulted in Pacific Rim not passing the Bechdel test . This became a topic of discussion in the media and on the Internet . Opinions were divided between those pointing to the film as an example of Hollywood 's practice of ostracizing women , and those noting that the film did not sexually objectify Mako Mori and gave her a narrative arc not revolving around a man .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
Pacific Rim became available for download on the iTunes Store and Vudu on October 1 , 2013 . The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the USA on October 15 , 2013 , and in the UK and other countries on November 25 , 2013 . A collector 's edition was also available on the same date . To help promote the home media release , Bryan Harley and Roque Rodriguez of Fresno , California , produced a " sweded " version of the film 's Gipsy Danger vs. Otachi battle scene , after del Toro was impressed by the duo 's " sweded " trailer released on YouTube in March 2013 . As of March 2014 , Pacific Rim has sold 961 @,@ 845 DVDs along with 1 @,@ 427 @,@ 692 Blu @-@ ray discs in the United States for $ 10 @,@ 045 @,@ 530 and $ 24 @,@ 634 @,@ 992 in revenue respectively for a total of $ 37 @,@ 079 @,@ 122 .
= = Sequels = =
In July 2012 , del Toro discussed the possibility of making a Pacific Rim sequel . " We always leave ideas that were in the first draft as you go along . You know , either a set piece that was great but too expensive , an idea that was really bright , but it couldn 't quite fit the structure ... so we have a little stash of stuff we wanted to do that we didn 't get to do . So if that 's a possibility , A ) I would be very happy to do a sequel , but B ) a lot of these ideas , set pieces and all that , actually have in them a really good seed for a sequel . " On December 4 , Legendary Pictures announced that it had selected Pacific Rim co @-@ writer Travis Beacham to write the sequel , along with del Toro , though there was no comment as to whether del Toro would return to direct the second film . At WonderCon 2013 , del Toro expressed enthusiasm for a potential crossover between Pacific Rim and Godzilla — another Legendary Pictures Kaiju film — but stressed that no such plans were in place . In July 2013 , del Toro discussed the sequel , stating : " The main idea that we 're bouncing off is the fact that Newt drifted with a Kaiju brain , and all Kaiju brains are connected . We say that . They are like a hive mentality . So , you know , draw your own conclusions . " The director has also stated the sequel will feature " Gipsy 2 @.@ 0 " , as well as a " merging of Kaiju and Jaeger " . In October 2013 , del Toro revealed that he and Beacham would return to write the sequel , despite the film not yet being greenlit at the time .
In June 2014 , when the sequel was still unconfirmed , del Toro stated that he had secretly been working on the script with Zak Penn for several months and confirmed that Raleigh and Mako would return . Beacham initially developed the storyline with del Toro , but dropped out to work on the TV series Hieroglyph . Later in June 2014 , del Toro confirmed that he would direct the sequel , and that it would be released by Universal Studios , Legendary 's new financing and distribution partner , on April 7 , 2017 . A non @-@ episodic animated series connecting both films and a continuation of the graphic novel were also announced . On July 9 , del Toro announced that the design production for Pacific Rim 2 would start in August 2014 , and that scouting for the location would take place in July 2015 , with principal photography commencing in November that year .
In October 2014 , del Toro talked about beginning production for Pacific Rim 2 in late 2015 , and also mentioned the possibility of a third installment . The next month , del Toro confirmed that the sequel will not be an immediate follow @-@ up and will take place years after the first film , focusing on the aftermath of the Kaiju war and fate of the Jaeger technology . Del Toro additionally confirmed that the characters for Charlie Day and Burn Gorman will return , with the sequel set to feature " very different " types of Jaegers and Kaiju and that the film will be " quite a different adventure " .
In January 2015 , Penn revealed that film 's sequel will focus on the origins of Kaiju . In April 2015 , Legendary announced that the sequel film 's release date has been moved to August 4 , 2017 . Filming was expected to begin in November 2015 at Toronto 's Pinewood Studios with the working title Maelstrom .
On September 16 , 2015 , the sequel was reported to have been " halted indefinitely " due to conflicts between Legendary and Universal Studios ; however , Del Toro later clarified that the sequel was simply " moved further " and the film will continue to proceed , stating , " We are still turning in a screenplay and a budget in three weeks . As far as I ’ m concerned , it ’ s not gone . We ’ re still on it . " On September 29 , 2015 , Universal removed the sequel from their release calendar but confirmed that the sequel is still moving forward , stating that the extra time will be used to ensure the sequel is the " vanguard , fully @-@ immersive experience that the franchise deserves . " Del Toro expressed interest in casting Maisie Williams in the film . Del Toro later tweeted that the budget and the script of the film are finished . In February 2016 , it was announced that Steven S. DeKnight will direct the sequel , making it his feature film directorial debut , while del Toro will serve as a producer . They also announced that they are working on a possible Pacific Rim 3 script in the future . On June 6 , 2016 , John Boyega announced that he would serve as the lead for Pacific Rim 2 as the son of Stacker Pentecost , and that his own production company would co @-@ produce . At the end of the month , Deadline.com reported that Scott Eastwood was in early negotiations to join the cast in a key role . A new release date of February 23 , 2018 was confirmed by the studio on June 30 , 2016 . Ars Technica reported on July 20 , 2016 that the screenwriters for the new film were Emily Carmichael and Kira Snyder .
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= USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 8 ) =
USS Alabama ( BB @-@ 8 ) was an Illinois @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the United States Navy . She was the second ship of her class , and the second to carry her name . Her keel was laid in December 1896 at the William Cramp and Sons shipyard , and she was launched in May 1898 . She was commissioned into the fleet in October 1900 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns and she had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Alabama spent the first seven years of her career in the North Atlantic Fleet conducting peacetime training . In 1904 , she made a visit to Europe and toured the Mediterranean . She took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet until damage to her machinery forced her to leave the cruise in San Francisco . She instead completed a shorter circumnavigation in company with the battleship Maine . The ship received an extensive modernization from 1909 to 1912 , after which she was used as a training ship in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet . She continued in this role during World War I. After the war , Alabama was stricken from the naval register and allocated to bombing tests that were conducted in September 1921 . She was sunk in the tests by US Army Air Service bombers and later sold for scrap in March 1924 .
= = Description = =
Alabama was 374 feet ( 114 m ) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 16 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 565 long tons ( 11 @,@ 751 t ) as designed and up to 12 @,@ 250 long tons ( 12 @,@ 450 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and eight coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers , generating a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 536 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 690 – 713 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 in ( 330 mm ) / 35 caliber guns guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber Mark IV guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried sixteen 6 @-@ pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Alabama carried four 18 in ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted launchers .
Alabama 's main armored belt was 16 @.@ 5 in ( 419 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 4 in ( 102 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 15 in ( 381 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery . The conning tower had 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Alabama was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 2 December 1896 and was launched on 18 May 1898 . She was commissioned on 16 October 1900 , the first member of her class to enter service . The ship 's first commander was Captain Willard H. Brownson . Alabama was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron , though she remained at Philadelphia until 13 December , when she made a visit to New York , where she remained through January 1901 . On the 27th , Alabama steamed south for the Gulf of Mexico , where she joined the rest of the North Atlantic Squadron for training exercises off Pensacola , Florida . For the next six years , she followed a pattern of fleet training in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean during the winter , followed by repairs and then operations off the east coast of the United States from the middle of the year onward . The only interruption came in 1904 , when she , the battleships Kearsarge , Maine , and Iowa , and the protected cruisers Olympia , Baltimore , and Cleveland made a visit to southern Europe . During the trip , they stopped in Lisbon , Portugal , before touring the Mediterranean until mid @-@ August . They then recrossed the Atlantic , stopping in the Azores while en route , and arrived in Newport , Rhode Island on 29 August . Toward the end of September , Alabama went into dry dock at the League Island Navy Yard for repairs , which were completed by early December . On 31 July 1906 , the ship was involved in a collision with her sister Illinois .
Alabama 's next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world , which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads . On 17 December , the fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco , where Alabama was detached from the rest of the fleet . The ship could not keep up with the fleet due to a cracked cylinder head , which necessitated repairs at the Mare Island Navy Yard . The battleship Maine also left the fleet , as her boilers had proved to be badly inefficient , requiring excessive amounts of coal .
On 8 June , Alabama and Maine began their crossing of the Pacific independently , via Honolulu , Hawaii , Guam , and Manila in the Philippines . They then cruised south to Singapore in August and crossed the Indian Ocean , stopping in Colombo , Ceylon , and Aden on the Arabian peninsula on the way . The ships then steamed through the Mediterranean , stopping only in Naples , Italy , before calling at Gibraltar and then proceeding across the Atlantic in early October . They stopped in the Azores before arriving off the east coast of the United States on 19 October ; the two ships then parted company , with Alabama steaming to New York , while Maine went to Portsmouth , New Hampshire . Both ships arrived the following day . Following her arrival , Alabama was reduced to reserve status on 3 November . She remained in New York , and on 17 August 1909 , she was decommissioned for a major overhaul that lasted until early 1912 .
Alabama returned to service on 17 April 1912 in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet , under Commander Charles F. Preston . The ships of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet — which included eight other battleships and three cruisers — were kept in service with reduced crews that could be fleshed out with naval militiamen and volunteers in the event of an emergency . There were enough officers and men in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet to fully man two or three ships , which allowed them to take them to sea in rotating groups to ensure that the ships were in good condition . On 25 July , Alabama was temporarily placed in full commission for service with the Atlantic Fleet during the summer training exercises , before returning to reserve status on 10 September . In mid @-@ 1913 , the Navy began to use the Atlantic Reserve Fleet to train naval militia units . Alabama operated off the east coast of the United States and made two training cruises to Bermuda that summer to train men from the naval militias of several states . These operations ended on 2 September , and on 31 October she was again laid up .
The ship remained largely inactive in Philadelphia for the next three years . On 22 January 1917 , she became a receiving ship for naval recruits . Alabama was transferred to the southern Chesapeake to begin training recruits in the middle of March . Shortly thereafter , on 6 April , the United States declared war on Germany . Two days later , Alabama became the flagship of the 1st Division , Atlantic Fleet , and for the rest of the war she continued her training mission of the east coast of the United States . During this period , she made one cruise to the Gulf of Mexico from late June to early July 1918 . On 11 November , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the fighting in Europe ; Alabama continued training naval recruits , though at a reduced level of intensity . She took part in fleet maneuvers in February and March 1919 in the West Indies before returning to Philadelphia in April for repairs . A summer training cruise for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy followed ; Alabama departed Philadelphia on 28 May bound for Annapolis , where she arrived the next day . After taking on a contingent of 184 midshipmen , she steamed out of Annapolis on 9 June . The cruise went to the West Indies and passed through the Panama Canal and back . By mid @-@ July , the ship was cruising off the coast of New England . She returned south in August for maneuvers , and at the end of the month she returned the midshipmen to Annapolis before docking in Philadelphia .
= = = Bombing tests = = =
Alabama was decommissioned for the final time on 7 May 1920 , having spent the previous nine months inactive at Philadelphia . The ship was transferred to the War Department for use as a target ship on 15 September 1921 , and she was stricken from the naval register . She was allocated to bombing tests conducted by the US Army Air Service on 27 September 1921 , under the supervision of General Billy Mitchell . In addition to Alabama , the old battleships New Jersey and Virginia were to be sunk in the tests . The first phase of the testing began on 23 September , and included tests with chemical bombs , including tear gas and white phosphorus , to demonstrate how such weapons could be used to disable command and control systems and kill exposed personnel . That night , another test with 300 @-@ pound ( 140 kg ) demolition bombs took place , the purpose of which was to determine whether flares could sufficiently illuminate a target for precise bombing . The second phase took place the next morning , and it was a much larger operation . The 1st Provisional Air Brigade took part in the tests , which were to simulate a combat scenario . A group of eight Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s , armed with 25 lb ( 11 kg ) bombs attacked first ; their bombs and machine gun fire were intended to simulate clearing the decks of anti @-@ aircraft gunners in preparation for the heavy bombers . Four Martin NBS @-@ 1 bombers attacked next , with 300 lb bombs at an altitude of 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) . Two of the bombs hit the deck toward the bow . Three more NBS @-@ 1s followed with 1 @,@ 100 lb ( 500 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , though none of these hit .
On 25 September , the last round of tests took place . Seven more NBS @-@ 1s attacked the ship ; three carried 1 @,@ 100 lb bombs , while the other four carried one 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) bomb each . One of the 2 @,@ 000 lb bombs landed close to the ship on the port side ; the mining effect caused considerable damage , and Alabama began listing to port . The bombers scored two more near @-@ misses with the 2 @,@ 000 lb bombs , followed by a direct hit and two near misses with the 1 @,@ 100 lb bombs . The last bomb , a 2 @,@ 000 lb weapon , struck the ship at her stern . The blast broke her anchor chains , and the battered ship began to drift toward the wrecks of San Marcos and Indiana , the latter having been sunk in bombing tests earlier that year . The ship remained afloat for another two days before finally sinking in shallow water on 27 September . Mitchell attempted to use the sinking as evidence of the predominance of the bomber in his efforts to secure an independent Air Force , though the Navy pointed out that the ship was stationary , undefended , unmanned , and was not protected with the latest " all or nothing " armor scheme . The sunken wreck was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924 .
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= Lobe den Herrn , meine Seele , BWV 143 =
Lobe den Herrn , meine Seele ( Praise the Lord , my soul ) , BWV 143 , is an early cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . It is not known if he composed the cantata for New Year 's Day in Mühlhausen or Weimar , as the date of composition is unclear .
An unknown librettist drew mainly from Psalm 146 and from Jakob Ebert 's hymn " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " to develop seven movements , supplying only two of the movements himself . The text assembly is similar to Bach 's early cantatas . Bach 's authorship is doubted because the cantata has several features unusual for Bach 's later cantatas : it is the only Bach cantata to combine three corni da caccia with timpani . The cantata is in seven movements which combine the three major text sources : psalm , hymn and contemporary poetry . The opening chorus is based on a psalm verse , followed by the first hymn stanza and another psalm verse as a recitative . An aria on poetry is followed by a third psalm verse as an aria . It is followed by another aria on poetry , which simultaneously quotes the hymn tune instrumentally . The last movement combines elements of a chorale fantasia on the third stanza of the hymn , with vivid counterpoint of " Hallelujah " which closes the psalm .
= = History and text = =
Bach wrote the cantata for New Year 's Day , which is also the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ . The prescribed readings for the day were from the Epistle to the Galatians , " by faith we inherit " ( Galatians 3 : 23 – 29 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the circumcision and naming of Jesus eight days after his birth . However , most of the text for the cantata was taken by the unknown librettist from Psalms 146 , and from Jakob Ebert 's hymn " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " , written in 1601 .
The text is compiled from psalm verses ( verse 1 for movement 1 , verse 5 for movement 3 , and verse 10 for movement 5 ) , and two stanzas from the hymn , the first as movement 2 , the third as the final movement . Only movements 4 and 6 are free poetry , with the hymn tune sounding again instrumentally during movement 6 . Due to its text structure , the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff dates the work to around 1710 .
The oldest ( and also the only ) manuscript was written in 1762 , after Bach 's death . The provenance of the cantata is disputed : some suggest that it may not be a Bach work because of its " unpretentious " nature and the lack of authoritative original music , or perhaps it was a transposition of an earlier work . Alternatively , part of the cantata may have been written by Bach , while other parts ( likely the choruses and the bass aria ) were added or amended by other composers . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , remarks on the stylistic similarity of the text structure to Bach 's early cantatas written in Mühlhausen . He also sees similar musical expression to the cantata for the inauguration of a new town council there , Gott ist mein König , BWV 71 , written in 1708 . While some musicologists assume that it may have been composed for the same occasion one year later , Gardiner proposes that it could either be a still earlier work , or that it " was , at least in part , an apprentice piece written in Weimar under Bach 's direct tutelage .
Bach 's biographer Philipp Spitta had written that the cantata was first performed on New Year 's Day of 1735 . However , according to more recent research , it was not performed at all that day , but rather Part IV of the Christmas Oratorio .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata is scored festively for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) , and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three corni da caccia ( Co ) , timpani ( Ti , listed with the winds ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo . It is the only Bach cantata to combine three corni da caccia with timpani .
The cantata is structured in seven movements . It begins with a chorus on a verse from the psalm , followed by the first stanza from the hymn , sung by the soprano . Another psalm verse is rendered as a tenor recitative , followed by a tenor aria on free poetry . A third psalm verse is set as a bass aria , answered by another tenor aria on free poetry with an instrumental quotation of the hymn tune . The cantata is closed by a hybrid movement which combines like a chorale fantasia the third stanza of the hymn as cantus firmus with a vivid counterpoint of " Hallelujah " closing the psalm .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The opening chorus on the first verse of the psalm , " Lobe den Herrn , meine Seele " ( Praise the Lord , my soul . ) , is quite short , using imitative fanfare figures without much harmonic development . It employs a ritornello theme on the tonic and dominant chords , incorporating a descending @-@ third sequence . The voices sing mostly in homophony .
The soprano chorale , " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " ( O Prince of peace , Lord Jesus Christ ) , is accompanied by a violin obbligato . Although the vocal line is mostly undecorated , it is accompanied by a rhythmically active violin counterpoint following the circle of fifths . The obbligato line reaches a double cadence before the soprano entrance .
The tenor recitative on another verse from the psalm , " Wohl dem , des Hülfe der Gott Jakob ist " ( It is fortunate for him , whose help the God of Jacob is ) , is quite short and is considered unremarkable .
The fourth movement is a tenor aria in free verse , " Tausendfaches Unglück , Schrecken " ( Thousand @-@ fold misfortune , terror ) . The vocal line is " convoluted and angular " , reflecting the themes of misfortune , fear and death . The musicologist Julian Mincham suggests that these themes suggest that Salomon Franck may be the poet , as these were recurrent images in his texts , but also notes a lack of integration atypical of Franck 's oeuvre .
The bass aria on the tenth verse from the psalm , " Der Herr ist König ewiglich " ( The Lord is King eternally ) , employs a triadic motif similar to that of Gott ist mein König , BWV 71 . It is short and has a limited range of tonal development or chromatic variation . The voice is accompanied by the horns and timpani , vithout strings , illustrating God 's power .
The sixth movement is another tenor aria on free poetry , " Jesu , Retter deiner Herde " ( Jesus , saver of Your flock ) , characterized by the layered scale figuration in the instrumental accompaniment . The voice , bassoon and continuo perform as a trio , while the chorale tune is heard in the violins and organ with the Vox humana stop .
The closing chorus employs the third stanza of the chorale , " Gedenk , Herr , jetzund an dein Amt " ( Think , Lord , at this time on Your office ) , as a cantus firmus in the soprano . It is not composed as the typical four @-@ part setting , but the lower voices sing lively contrasting Alleluia , derived from the psalm .
= = Recordings = =
Frankfurter Kantorei / Bach @-@ Collegium Stuttgart . Die Bach Kantate . Hänssler , 1975 .
Thomanerchor / Neues Bachisches Collegium Musicum . Kantaten Mit Corno da Caccia . Eterna , 1984 .
Monteverdi Choir / English Baroque Soloists . Bach Cantatas vol . 17 . Soli deo Gloria , 2000 .
Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir . J.S. Bach : Complete Cantatas . Antoine Marchand , 2001 .
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= Off the Wall ( album ) =
Off the Wall is the fifth studio album by American singer Michael Jackson . It is his debut studio album released through Epic Records . It was released on August 10 , 1979 , following Jackson 's critically well @-@ received film performance in The Wiz . While working on that project , Jackson and Quincy Jones had become friends , and Jones agreed to work with Jackson on his next studio album . Recording sessions took place between December 1978 and June 1979 at Allen Zentz Recording , Westlake Recording Studios , and Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles , California . Jackson collaborated with a number of other writers and performers such as Paul McCartney , Stevie Wonder and Rod Temperton . Five singles were released from the album . Three of the singles had music videos released . Jackson wrote three of the songs himself , including the number @-@ one Grammy @-@ winning single " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . It was his first solo release under Epic Records , the label he would record on until his death roughly 30 years later .
The record was a departure from Jackson 's previous work for Motown . The lyrical themes on the record relate to escapism , liberation , loneliness , hedonism and romance . Several critics observed that Off the Wall was crafted from funk , disco , soft rock , jazz , broadway and pop ballads . Jackson received positive reviews for his vocal performance on the record . The record gained critical acclaim and recognition and won the singer his first Grammy Award . With Off the Wall , Jackson became the first solo artist to have four singles from the same album peak inside the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was an enormous commercial success ; as of 2014 it is certified eight times platinum in the United States and has reportedly sold more than 20 million copies worldwide , making it one of the best selling albums of all time .
On October 16 , 2001 , a special edition reissue of Off the Wall was released by Sony Records . It was re @-@ released on February 26 , 2016 . Recent reviews by AllMusic and Blender have continued to praise Off the Wall for its appeal in the 21st century . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 68 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The National Association of Recording Merchandisers listed it at number 80 of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time . In 2008 , Off the Wall was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
= = Background = =
Starting in 1972 , Michael Jackson released a total of four solo studio albums with Motown , among them Got to Be There and Ben . These were released as part of The Jackson 5 franchise , and produced successful singles such as " Got to Be There " , " Ben " and a remake of Bobby Day 's " Rockin ' Robin " . The Jackson 5 's sales , however , began declining in 1973 , and the band members chafed under Motown 's strict refusal to allow them creative control or input . Although the group scored several top 40 hits , including the top five disco single " Dancing Machine " and the top 20 hit " I Am Love " , The Jackson 5 ( minus Jermaine Jackson ) left Motown in 1975 . The Jackson 5 signed a new contract with CBS Records in June 1975 , first joining the Philadelphia International Records division and then Epic Records . As a result of legal proceedings , the group was renamed The Jacksons . After the name change , the band continued to tour internationally , releasing six more albums between 1976 and 1984 . From 1976 to 1984 , Michael Jackson was the lead songwriter of the group , writing or co @-@ writing such hits as " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " , " This Place Hotel " and " Can You Feel It " .
In 1978 , Jackson starred as Scarecrow in the film musical The Wiz . The musical scores were arranged by Quincy Jones , who formed a partnership with Jackson during the film 's production and agreed to produce the singer 's solo album Off the Wall . Jackson was dedicated to the role , and watched videotapes of gazelles , cheetahs and panthers in order to learn graceful movements for his part . Jones recalled working with Jackson as one of his favorite experiences from The Wiz , and spoke of Jackson 's dedication to his role , comparing his acting style to Sammy Davis , Jr . Critics panned The Wiz upon its October 1978 release . Jackson 's performance as the Scarecrow was one of the only positively reviewed elements of the film , with critics noting that Jackson possessed " genuine acting talent " and " provided the only genuinely memorable moments . " Of the results of the film , Jackson stated : " I don 't think it could have been any better , I really don 't " . In 1980 , Jackson stated that his time working on The Wiz was " my greatest experience so far ... I 'll never forget that " .
= = Production = =
When Jackson began the Off the Wall project he was not sure what he wanted as the final result ; however , he did not want another record that sounded like The Jacksons , but rather he wanted more creative freedom , something he had not been allowed on prior albums . Jones produced " Off the Wall " , with co @-@ production credit given to Jackson on the songs he wrote for the album . Songwriters included Jackson , Heatwave 's Rod Temperton , Stevie Wonder and Paul McCartney . All sessions took place at Los Angeles County @-@ based recording studios . Rhythm tracks and vocals were recorded at Allen Zentz Recording , the horn section 's contributions took place at Westlake Audio , and string instrumentation was recorded at Cherokee Studios in West Hollywood . Following the initial sessions , audio mixing was handled by Grammy @-@ winning engineer Bruce Swedien at Westlake Audio , after which the original tapes went to the A & M Recording Studio , also located in L.A. , for mastering . Swedien would later mix the recording sessions for Jackson 's next album and his most well @-@ known work , 1982 's Thriller . Jones recalled that , at first , he found Jackson to be very introverted , shy and non @-@ assertive .
" She 's Out of My Life " was written for Jones by Tom Bahler three years prior . Jackson heard and enjoyed it , and Jones allowed him to use it on the record . Jones called in Heatwave 's keyboardist Rod Temperton to write three songs . The intention was for Jackson and Jones to select one of his songs , but Jackson , liking them all , included all of them in the final cut . Jackson stayed up all night to learn the lyrics to these songs instead of singing from a sheet . He finished the vocals to these three Temperton songs in two recording sessions . Temperton took a different approach to his song writing after spending some time researching the background to Jackson 's music style . Temperton mixed his traditional harmony segments with the idea of adding shorter note melodies to suit Jackson 's aggressive style . Jackson wrote " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " after humming a melody in his kitchen . After listening to hundreds of songs , Jackson and Jones decided upon a batch to record . In hindsight , Jones believed they took a lot of risks in the production of Off the Wall and the final choice of album tracks . Attention was also paid to the album cover , which shows Jackson smiling , wearing a tuxedo and trademark socks . His manager stated , " The tuxedo was the overall plan for the Off the Wall project and package . The tuxedo was our idea , the socks were Michael ' " .
= = Music and vocals = =
Music critics Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Stephen Holden of AllMusic observed that Off the Wall was crafted from funk , disco @-@ pop , soul , soft rock , jazz and pop ballads . Prominent examples include the ballad " She 's Out of My Life " , the funk tune " Workin ' Day and Night " , and the disco song " Get on the Floor " . " I Can 't Help It " is a jazz piece . In Quincy Jones ' autobiography , he compares Jackson to other jazz singers noting that Jackson " has some of the same qualities as the great jazz singers I 'd worked with : Ella , Sinatra , Sassy , Aretha , Ray Charles , Dinah . Each of them had that purity , that strong signature sound and that open wound that pushed them to greatness . " " She 's Out of My Life " is a melodic pop ballad . The end of the former song showed an " emotional " Jackson crying as the track concluded . Of the song R & B writer Nelson George proclaimed , " [ It ] became a Jackson signature similar to the way " My Way " served Frank Sinatra . The vulnerability , verging on fragility that would become embedded in Michael 's persona found , perhaps , its richest expression in this wistful ballad " . " Rock with You " is a romantic , mid @-@ tempo song . The album 's songs have a tempo ranging from 66 beats per minute on " She 's Out of My Life " , to 128 on " Workin ' Day and Night " .
With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s , Jackson 's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded ; AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine described him as a " blindingly gifted vocalist " . At the time , Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the " breathless , dreamy stutter " of Stevie Wonder . Their analysis was also that " Jackson 's feathery @-@ timbered tenor is extraordinary beautiful . It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that 's used very daringly " . Writer , journalist and biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli expressed the opinion that Jackson sings with " sexy falsetto " vocals in " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " .
= = Release = =
Taraborrelli stated , " Fans and industry peers alike were left with their mouths agape when Off the Wall was issued to the public . Fans proclaimed that they hadn 't heard him sing with such joy and abandon since the early Jackson 5 days " . On July 28 , 1979 , Off the Wall 's first single , " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , was released . It peaked atop the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number three in the UK . On November 3 , 1979 the second single from the album , " Rock with You " was released , again it peaked atop the Billboard Hot 100 .
In February , the album 's title track was released as a single and went to number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became a top 10 hit in four countries . " She 's Out of My Life " , also reaching number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June . Thus Off the Wall became the first album by a solo artist to generate four US top 10 hits . Today , Off the Wall is certified 8 × Multi @-@ Platinum in the US for shipments of eight million units and sold over 20 million copies worldwide . The album 's success lead to the start of a 9 @-@ year partnership between Jackson and Jones ; their next collaboration would be Thriller , which is the world 's best selling album of all time .
= = Reception = =
Off the Wall was hailed as a major breakthrough for Jackson , while receiving critical recognition , along with praises , from major music publications . In a 1979 review of the album , Rolling Stone magazine contributor Stephen Holden praised Jackson 's maturity and transition from his early Motown material , while calling the album a " slick , sophisticated R & B @-@ pop showcase with a definite disco slant " . Holden went on to compare Jackson to Stevie Wonder , another Motown performer who began recording at a young age and gained critical acclaim for his transition .
In The Village Voice , Robert Christgau hailed Off the Wall as " the dance groove of the year " and that Jackson 's vocal stylings were a reminder that he had grown up . In a review for Melody Maker Phil McNeill expressed the opinion that in Off the Wall Jackson sounded comfortable , confident and in control . He believed " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " had a " classy " introduction and that it was the best song on the album . He also praised " Rock with You " , describing it as " masterful " . The reviewer concurred with a colleague that Jackson was " probably the best singer in the world right now in terms of style and technique " . Giving the album a favorable review in Smash Hits , David Hepworth said that Jackson " sings like an angel " . Sounds shared the same point of view , qualifying Jackson 's voice as " astoninshingly agile " . The first side of Off the Wall is praised for its " clutch of dancers that must have even Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards watching their backs " .
In 1980 , Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts : Favorite Soul / R & B Album , Favorite Male Soul / R & B Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Single ( for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " ) . That year , he also won Billboard Music Awards for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album and a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance ( for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " ) . Despite its commercial success , Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a much bigger impact , and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release . In particular , Jackson was disappointed that he had won only a single Grammy Award at the 1980 Grammys , a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . Jackson stated that " It was totally unfair that it didn 't get Record of the Year and it can never happen again " .
= = Legacy = =
On October 16 , 2001 , a special edition reissue of Off the Wall was released by Sony Records . The material found strong praise from critics more than 20 years after the original release . AllMusic gave the record a five star review , praising the record 's disco @-@ tinged funk and mainstream pop blend , along with Jackson 's songwriting and Jones ' crafty production . The publication believed , " [ Off the Wall ] is an enormously fresh record , one that remains vibrant and giddily exciting years after its release " .
In recent years Blender gave the record a full five star review stating that it was , " A blockbuster party LP that looked beyond funk to the future of dance music , and beyond soul ballads to the future of heart @-@ tuggers — in fact , beyond R & B to color @-@ blind pop . Hence , the forgivable Wings cover " .
In 2003 , the album was ranked number 68 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . The National Association of Recording Merchandisers listed it at number 80 of the Definitive 200 Albums of All Time . In 2004 , Nelson George wrote of Jackson and his music , " the argument for his greatness in the recording studio begins with his arrangements of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . The layers of percussion and the stacks of backing vocals , both artfully choreographed to create drama and ecstasy on the dance floor , still rock parties in the 21st century " . In 2008 , Off the Wall was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
On January 7 , 2016 , Sony Music and The Estate of Michael Jackson announced that Off the Wall will be reissued and packaged with a new documentary directed by Spike Lee entitled Michael Jackson 's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall . The reissue and documentary was released on February 26 , 2016 .
Grammy Awards
Grammy Hall of Fame
= = Track listing = =
Notes
The original LP , cassette pressings and first CD issue of this album contain the original mixes of " Rock with You " and " Get on the Floor " .
= = Personnel = =
= = Sales = =
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= Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull =
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull is a 2008 American science fiction adventure film . It is the fourth installment in the Indiana Jones series created by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg . Released nineteen years after the previous film , the film acknowledges the age of its star Harrison Ford by being set in 1957 . It pays tribute to the science fiction B @-@ movies of the era , pitting Indiana Jones against Soviet agents — led by Irina Spalko ( Cate Blanchett ) — searching for a telepathic crystal skull . Indiana is aided by his former lover Marion Ravenwood ( Karen Allen ) and their son Mutt Williams ( Shia LaBeouf ) . Ray Winstone , John Hurt and Jim Broadbent are also part of the supporting cast .
Screenwriters Jeb Stuart , Jeffrey Boam , Frank Darabont , and Jeff Nathanson wrote drafts before David Koepp 's script satisfied the producers . Shooting began on June 18 , 2007 , and took place in various locations including New Mexico ; New Haven , Connecticut ; Hawaii ; and Fresno , California , as well as on sound stages in Los Angeles . To keep aesthetic continuity with the previous films , the crew relied on traditional stunt work instead of computer @-@ generated stunt doubles , and cinematographer Janusz Kamiński studied Douglas Slocombe 's style from the previous films .
The film premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival on May 18 , 2008 , and was released worldwide on May 22 , 2008 to generally positive reviews from critics , although audience reception was more mixed . Significant praise was geared towards the performances , action scenes , John Williams ' musical score , and costume design . However , the main points of criticism were towards the dialogue , storyline , pacing , and overuse of CGI . It was also a financial success , grossing over $ 786 million worldwide , becoming the franchise 's highest @-@ grossing film when not adjusted for inflation , and the second highest @-@ grossing film of 2008 . Marketing relied heavily on the public 's nostalgia for the series , with products taking inspiration from all four films . Kingdom of the Crystal Skull is also the last film in the series to be distributed by Paramount Pictures , as Walt Disney Studios has become the distributor of its future films , since its parent company 's acquisition of Lucasfilm in 2012 .
= = Plot = =
In 1957 , nineteen years after The Last Crusade , Indiana Jones and his partner George " Mac " McHale are kidnapped in Nevada by Soviet agents under Colonel Dr. Irina Spalko . The Soviets infiltrate warehouse labeled " Warehouse 51 " and force Jones to locate an alien corpse with a crystal skull , recovered ten years earlier . Upon its discovery , Mac reveals he is a double agent working for the Soviets . Jones escapes , unsuccessfully attempts to retrieve the skull , and in a fight with Spalko 's sadistic henchman , Colonel Antonin Dovchenko , they both fall onto a rocket sled , which ignites and speeds them away . Jones staggers away and , still pursued , arrives in a model town at the Nevada Test Site , minutes before an atomic bomb test , and takes shelter in a lead @-@ lined refrigerator . Jones is rescued , decontaminated , and apprehended by FBI agents , who suspect him of working for the Soviets ; and though freed on the recommendation of General Ross , who vouches for him , he is put on indefinite leave of absence from Marshall College , also at the cost of the dean having to resign to keep Indiana 's job at the college .
Jones is approached by greaser Mutt Williams , who tells him that Harold Oxley had found a crystal skull in Peru , suffered a mental breakdown , and was later kidnapped . In return , Jones tells Mutt about the legend of crystal skulls found in Akator . Mutt gives Jones a letter from his mother , who is also held captive , containing a riddle written by Oxley in an ancient Native American language . KGB agents try to take the letter , but Jones and Mutt evade them and reach Peru . At the local psychiatric hospital , Oxley 's scribbles on the walls and floor of his cell lead them to the grave of Francisco de Orellana , a Conquistador searching for Akator . They discover the skull at the grave , with Jones reasoning that Oxley had returned it there .
On leaving the grave site , Jones and Mutt are captured by Mac and the Soviets and taken to their camp in the Amazon jungle , where they find Oxley and Mutt 's mother , Marion Ravenwood , who later reveals that Mutt is Jones ' son , Henry Jones III . Jones berates her for not convincing him to finish school . Mac tells Jones he is really a CIA double @-@ agent to regain Jones ' trust . Spalko believes that the crystal skull belongs to an alien life form and holds great psychic power , and that finding more skulls in Akator will grant the Soviets the advantage of psychic warfare . Spalko uses the skull on Jones to enable him to understand Oxley and identify a route to Akator . Jones and his four allies escape with the skull into the Amazon . They elude giant ants , and after Dovchenko loses a fight with Jones , he is devoured by the ants . Jones and his allies survive three waterfalls in a GAZ 46 amphibious vehicle ( which gets destroyed after the third drop ) , as many of the Soviets fall from a cliff while trying to pursue them . Jones and Oxley then identify a rock formation that leads them to Akator , unaware that Mac is still loyal to Spalko and has been dropping transceivers to allow the surviving Soviets to track them .
They escape the city 's guardians , gain access to the temple , and find it filled with artifacts from many ancient civilizations . Indy believes the aliens - in fact , inter @-@ dimensional beings - were " archaeologists " studying the different cultures of Earth , and Mac remarks that there 's not a museum in the world that wouldn 't sell its soul for the collection inside the temple . The five enter a chamber containing the crystal skeletons of thirteen enthroned skeletal crystal beings , one missing its skull . Spalko arrives and presents the skull to this skeleton . It suddenly flies from her hands to the skeleton and rejoins , whereupon the aliens reanimate and telepathically offer a reward in ancient Mayan through Oxley . A portal to their dimension becomes activated , and Spalko demands knowledge equal to the aliens ' . The thirteen beings fuse into one , and in the process of receiving the overwhelming knowledge , Spalko is disintegrated and sucked into the portal . Indy , Marion , Mutt , and Oxley - now released from the skull - escape , while the Soviets are also drawn into the portal . Mac is caught in the pull while trying to scrounge some of the treasure , and even though Indy offers him the whip to pull him to safety , he replies wink of his eye , " Jonesy , I 'm gonna be all right , " lets go and is pulled in . The survivors watch as the temple walls crumble , revealing a flying saucer rising from the debris , which vanishes into the " space between spaces " while the hollow in the valley floor left by its departure is flooded by the waters of the Amazon .
The following year , Indy is reinstated at Marshall College and made an associate dean . He and Marion are then married in a church . As the wedding party leaves the chapel , a gust of wind blows Indy 's brown fedora off the coat rack and deposits it at Mutt 's feet . Mutt picks it up and is about to don it before Indy takes it from him and puts it on with a grin .
= = Cast = =
Harrison Ford reprises the role of Dr. Henry " Indiana " Jones , Jr . To prepare for the role , the 64 @-@ year @-@ old Ford spent three hours a day at a gym , practiced with the bullwhip for two weeks , and relied on a high @-@ protein diet of fish and vegetables . Ford had kept fit during the series ' hiatus anyway , as he hoped for another film . He performed many of his own stunts because stunt technology had become safer since 1989 , and he also felt it improved his performance . It is also said that he still fit into his pants from Raiders of the Lost Ark . He argued , " The appeal of Indiana Jones isn 't his youth but his imagination , his resourcefulness . His physicality is a big part of it , especially the way he gets out of tight situations . But it 's not all hitting people and falling from high places . My ambition in action is to have the audience look straight in the face of character and not at the back of a capable stuntman 's head . I hope to continue that no matter how old I get . " Ford felt his return would reduce American ageism ( he refused to dye his hair for the role ) , because of the film 's family appeal : " This is a movie which is geared not to [ the young ] segment of the demographic , an age @-@ defined segment ... We 've got a great shot at breaking the movie demographic constraints . " He told Koepp to add more references to his age in the script . Spielberg said Ford was not too old to play Indiana : " When a guy gets to be that age and he still packs the same punch , and he still runs just as fast and climbs just as high , he 's gonna be breathing a little heavier at the end of the set piece . And I felt , ' Let 's have some fun with that . Let 's not hide that . ' " Spielberg recalled the line in Raiders that said , " It 's not the years , it 's the mileage , " and felt he could not tell the difference between Ford during the shoots for Last Crusade and Kingdom of the Crystal Skull .
Cate Blanchett plays Soviet agent Irina Spalko . Screenwriter David Koepp created the character . Frank Marshall said Spalko continued the tradition of Indiana having a love @-@ hate relationship " with every woman he ever comes in contact with . " Blanchett had wanted to play a villain for a " couple of years " , and enjoyed being part of the Indiana Jones legacy . Spielberg praised Blanchett as a " master of disguise " , and considers her his favorite Indiana Jones villain for inventing much of Spalko 's character . Spalko 's bob cut was her idea , with the character 's stern looks and behaviour recalling Rosa Klebb in From Russia with Love . Blanchett learned to fence for the character ; but during filming , Spielberg decided to give Spalko " karate chop " skills . LaBeouf recalled Blanchett was elusive on set , and Ford was surprised when he met her on set out of costume . He noted , " There 's no aspect of her behavior that was not consistent with this bizarre person she 's playing . "
Karen Allen reprises the role of Marion Ravenwood ( under the married name of Marion Williams ) , who previously appeared in Raiders of the Lost Ark . Frank Darabont 's script introduced the idea of Marion returning as Indiana 's love interest . Allen was not aware her character was in the script until Spielberg called her in January 2007 , saying , " It 's been announced ! We 're gonna make Indiana Jones 4 ! And guess what ? You 're in it ! " Ford found Allen " one of the easiest people to work with [ he 's ] ever known . She 's a completely self @-@ sufficient woman , and that 's part of the character she plays . A lot of her charm and the charm of the character is there . And again , it 's not an age @-@ dependent thing . It has to do with her spirit and her nature . " Allen found Ford easier to work with on this film , than in Raiders .
Shia LaBeouf plays Mutt Williams / Henry Jones III , Indiana 's sidekick and son . The concept of Indiana Jones having offspring was introduced in The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles ; in the episode " Princeton , February 1916 " , Indy and his high school sweetheart discuss having a child and naming him " Henry Jones III . " ( This scene was deleted from the VHS and DVD releases . ) ; additionally , in several episodes , an elderly Indy is shown to have a daughter . During the film 's development , the latter was incorporated into Frank Darabont 's script , with Indiana and Marion having a 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter . Spielberg found this too similar to The Lost World : Jurassic Park , so a son was created instead . Koepp credited the character 's creation to Jeff Nathanson and Lucas . Koepp wanted to make Mutt more academic , but Lucas likened Mutt to Marlon Brando 's character in The Wild One : " he needs to be what Indiana Jones ' father thought of [ him ] – the curse returns in the form of his own son – he 's everything a father can 't stand . " LaBeouf was Spielberg 's first choice for the role , having been impressed by his performance in Holes . Excited at the prospect of being in an Indiana Jones film , LaBeouf agreed without reading the script and did not know what character he would play . He later gained fifteen pounds of muscle for the role , and also repeatedly watched the other films to acquire character . LaBeouf also watched Blackboard Jungle , Rebel Without a Cause , and The Wild One to develop his character 's personality , copying mannerisms and words including the use of a switchblade as a weapon . Lucas also consulted on the greaser look , joking that LaBeouf was " sent to the American Graffiti school of greaserland . " LaBeouf pulled his rotator cuff when filming Mutt 's duel with Spalko ; an injury that worsened throughout filming . He later pulled his groin .
Ray Winstone plays George " Mac " McHale , a British agent whom Jones worked alongside in World War II , but has now allied with the Russians to resolve financial problems . The character acts as a spin on Sallah and René Belloq – Jones 's friend and nemesis , respectively , in Raiders of the Lost Ark . Spielberg cast Winstone as he found him " one of the most brilliant actors around " , having seen Sexy Beast . Winstone tore his hamstring during filming . " I keep getting these action parts as I ’ m getting older " , he remarked . Like John Hurt , Winstone wished to see the script prior to committing to the film . In interviews on British TV Winstone explained that he was only able to read the script if it was delivered by courier , who waited while he read the script , and returned to the U.S. with the script once Winstone had read it . His reasoning for wanting to read the script was , " If I 'm gonna be in it , I want to be in it . " He gave suggestions to Spielberg , including the idea of Mac pretending to be a double agent . He also stated that once filming was completed he had to return the script , such was the secrecy about the film . He was later presented with a copy of the script to keep .
John Hurt plays Harold " Ox " Oxley , Mutt 's surrogate father and Indiana 's old friend . Frank Darabont had suggested Hurt while writing the screenplay . The character is inspired by Ben Gunn of Treasure Island . Hurt read the script before agreeing to his role , unlike other cast members who came on " because Steven — you know , ' God ' — was doing it . And I said , ' Well , I need to have a little bit of previous knowledge even if God is doing it . ' So they sent a courier over with the script from Los Angeles , gave it to me at three o 'clock in the afternoon in London , collected it again at eight o 'clock in the evening , and he returned the next day to Los Angeles . "
Jim Broadbent plays Charles Stanforth , the dean of Marshall College and friend of Jones . Broadbent 's character stands in for Marcus Brody , whose actor , Denholm Elliott , died in 1992 . As a tribute to Elliott , the filmmakers put a portrait and a statue on the Marshall College location , and a picture on Jones ' desk , saying he died shortly after Indiana 's father .
Igor Jijikine plays Russian Colonel Antonin Dovchenko , Spalko 's second @-@ in @-@ command . His character stands in for the heavily built henchmen that Pat Roach played in the three previous films , as Roach died in 2004 from throat cancer .
Joel Stoffer and Neil Flynn have minor roles as FBI agents interrogating Indiana in a scene following the opening sequence . Alan Dale plays General Ross , who protests his innocence . Andrew Divoff and Pasha D. Lychnikoff play Russian soldiers . Spielberg cast Russian @-@ speaking actors as Russian soldiers so their accents would be authentic . Dimitri Diatchenko plays Spalko 's right @-@ hand man who battles Indiana at Marshall College . Diatchenko bulked up to 250 pounds to look menacing , and his role was originally minor with ten days of filming . When shooting the fight , Ford accidentally hit his chin , and Spielberg liked Diatchenko 's humorous looking reaction , so he expanded his role to three months of filming . Ernie Reyes , Jr. plays a cemetery guard .
Sean Connery turned down an offer to cameo as Henry Jones , Sr. , as he found retirement too enjoyable . Lucas stated that in hindsight it was good that Connery did not briefly appear , as it would disappoint the audience when his character would not join the film 's adventure . Ford joked , " I 'm old enough to play my own father in this one . " The film addresses Connery 's absence by Indiana implying that both Henry , Sr. and Marcus Brody died before the film 's events . Connery later stated that he liked the film , describing it as " rather good and rather long . " John Rhys @-@ Davies was asked to reprise his role as Sallah as a guest in the wedding scene . He turned it down as he felt his character deserved a more substantial role .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During the late 1970s , George Lucas and Steven Spielberg made a deal with Paramount Pictures for five Indiana Jones films . Following the 1989 release of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , Lucas let the series end as he felt he could not think of a good plot device to drive the next installment , and chose instead to produce The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles for TV , which explored the character in his early years . Harrison Ford played Indiana in one episode , narrating his adventures in 1920 Chicago . When Lucas shot Ford 's role in December 1992 , he realized the scene opened up the possibility of a film with an older Indiana set in the 1950s . The film could reflect a science fiction 1950s B @-@ movie , with aliens as the plot device . Meanwhile , Spielberg believed he was going to " mature " as a filmmaker after making the trilogy , and felt he would just produce any future installments .
Ford disliked the new angle , telling Lucas , " No way am I being in a Steven Spielberg movie like that . " Spielberg himself , who depicted aliens in Close Encounters of the Third Kind and E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , resisted it . Lucas came up with a story , which Jeb Stuart turned into a script from October 1993 to May 1994 . ( Stuart had previously written The Fugitive , which starred Ford . ) Lucas wanted Indiana to get married , which would allow Henry Jones , Sr. to return , expressing concern over whether his son is happy with what he has accomplished . After he learned that Joseph Stalin was interested in psychic warfare , he decided to have Russians as the villains and the aliens to have psychic powers . Following Stuart 's next draft , Lucas hired Last Crusade writer Jeffrey Boam to write the next three versions , the last of which was completed in March 1996 . Three months later , Independence Day was released , and Spielberg told Lucas he would not make another alien invasion film . Lucas decided to focus on the Star Wars prequels .
In 2000 , Spielberg 's son asked when the next Indiana Jones film would be released , which made him interested in reviving the project . The same year , Ford , Lucas , Spielberg , Frank Marshall and Kathleen Kennedy met during the American Film Institute 's tribute to Ford , and decided they wanted to enjoy the experience of making an Indiana Jones film again . Spielberg also found returning to the series a respite from his many dark films during this period , such as A.I. : Artificial Intelligence , Minority Report , and Munich . Lucas convinced Spielberg to use aliens in the plot by saying they were not " extraterrestrials " , but " interdimensional " , with this concept taking inspiration in the superstring theory . Spielberg and Lucas discussed the central idea of a B @-@ movie involving aliens , and Lucas suggested using the crystal skulls to ground the idea . Lucas found those artifacts as fascinating as the Ark of the Covenant , and had intended to feature them for a Young Indiana Jones episode before the show 's cancellation . M. Night Shyamalan was hired to write for an intended 2002 shoot , but he was overwhelmed writing a sequel to a film he loved like Raiders of the Lost Ark , and claimed it was difficult to get Ford , Spielberg and Lucas to focus . Stephen Gaghan and Tom Stoppard were also approached .
Frank Darabont , who wrote various Young Indiana Jones episodes , was hired to write in May 2002 . His script , entitled Indiana Jones and the City of Gods , was set in the 1950s , with ex @-@ Nazis pursuing Jones . Spielberg conceived the idea because of real life figures such as Juan Perón in Argentina , who protected Nazi war criminals . Darabont claimed Spielberg loved the script , but Lucas had issues with it , and decided to take over writing himself . Lucas and Spielberg acknowledged the 1950s setting could not ignore the Cold War , and the Russians were more plausible villains . Spielberg decided he could not satirize the Nazis after directing Schindler 's List , while Ford noted , " We plum [ b ] wore the Nazis out . "
Jeff Nathanson met with Spielberg and Lucas in August 2004 , and turned in the next drafts in October and November 2005 , titled The Atomic Ants . David Koepp continued on from there , giving his script the subtitle Destroyer of Worlds , based on the J. Robert Oppenheimer quote . It was changed to Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , as Spielberg found it more inviting a title and actually named the plot device of the crystal skulls . Lucas insisted on the Kingdom part . Koepp 's " bright [ title ] idea " was Indiana Jones and the Son of Indiana Jones , and Spielberg had also considered having the title name the aliens as The Mysterians , but dropped that when he remembered that was another film 's title . Koepp collaborated with Raiders of the Lost Ark screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan on the film 's " love dialogue . "
= = = Filming = = =
Unlike the previous Indiana Jones films , Spielberg shot the entire film in the United States , stating he did not want to be away from his family . Shooting began on June 18 , 2007 , in Deming , New Mexico . An extensive chase scene set at the fictional Marshall College was filmed between June 28 and July 7 at Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut ( where Spielberg 's son Theo was studying ) . To keep in line with the fact the story takes place in the 1950s , several facades were changed , although signs were put up in between shots to tell the public what the store or restaurant actually was .
Afterwards , they filmed scenes set in the Peruvian jungles in Hilo , Hawaii until August . Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull was the biggest film shot in Hawaii since Waterworld , and was estimated to generate US $ 22 million to $ 45 million in the local economy . Because of an approaching hurricane , Spielberg was unable to shoot a fight at a waterfall , so he sent the second unit to film shots of Brazil 's and Argentina 's Iguazu Falls . These were digitally combined into the fight , which was shot at the Universal backlot .
Half the film was scheduled to shoot on five sound stages at Los Angeles : Downey , Sony , Warner Bros. , Paramount and Universal . Filming moved to Chandler Field in Fresno , California , substituting for Mexico City International Airport , on October 11 , 2007 . After shooting aerial shots of Chandler Airport and a DC @-@ 3 on the morning of October 12 , 2007 , filming wrapped . Although he originally found no need for re @-@ shoots after viewing his first cut of the film , Spielberg decided to add an establishing shot filmed on February 29 , 2008 , in Pasadena , California .
= = = Design = = =
Spielberg and Janusz Kamiński , who has shot all of the director 's films since 1993 's Schindler 's List , reviewed the previous films to study Douglas Slocombe 's style . " I didn ’ t want Janusz to modernize and bring us into the 21st century " , Spielberg explained . " I still wanted the film to have a lighting style not dissimilar to the work Doug Slocombe had achieved , which meant that both Janusz and I had to swallow our pride . Janusz had to approximate another cinematographer 's look , and I had to approximate this younger director 's look that I thought I had moved away from after almost two decades . " Spielberg also hired production designer Guy Hendrix Dyas after admiring his design work for Superman Returns . Spielberg did not want to fast cut action scenes , relying on his script instead for a fast pace , and had confirmed in 2002 that he would not shoot the film digitally , a format Lucas had adopted . Lucas felt " it looks like it was shot three years after Last Crusade . The people , the look of it , everything . You ’ d never know there was 20 years between shooting . " Kamiński commented upon watching the three films back @-@ to @-@ back , he was amazed how each of them advanced technologically , but were all nevertheless consistent , neither too brightly or darkly lit .
While shooting War of the Worlds in late 2004 , Spielberg met with stunt coordinator Vic Armstrong , who doubled for Ford in the previous films , to discuss three action sequences he had envisioned . However , Armstrong was filming The Mummy : Tomb of the Dragon Emperor during shooting of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , so Dan Bradley was hired instead . Bradley and Spielberg used previsualization for all the action scenes , except the motorcycle chase at Marshall College , because that idea was conceived after the animators had left . Bradley drew traditional storyboards instead , and was given free rein to create dramatic moments , just as Raiders of the Lost Ark second unit director Michael D. Moore did when filming the truck chase . Spielberg improvised on set , changing the location of Mutt and Spalko 's duel from the ground to on top of vehicles .
The Ark of the Covenant is seen in a broken crate during the Hangar 51 opening sequence . Lucasfilm used the same prop from Raiders of the Lost Ark . Guards were hired to protect the highly sought after piece of film memorabilia during the day of its use . A replica of the staff carried by Charlton Heston in The Ten Commandments was also used to populate the set to illustrate the Hangar 's history .
= = = Effects = = =
Producer Frank Marshall stated in 2003 that the film would use traditional stunt work so as to be consistent with the previous films . CGI was used to remove the visible safety wires on the actors when they did their stunts ( such as when Indy swings on a lamp with his whip ) . Timed explosives were used for a scene where Indiana drives a truck through crates . During the take , an explosive failed to detonate and landed in the seat beside Ford . It did not go off and he was not injured .
Spielberg stated before production began that very few CGI effects would be used to maintain consistency with the other films . During filming significantly more CGI work was done than initially anticipated as in many cases it proved to be more practical . There ended up being a total of about 450 CGI shots in the film , with an estimated 30 percent of the film 's shots containing CG matte paintings . Spielberg initially wanted brushstrokes to be visible on the paintings for added consistency with the previous films , but decided against it . The script also required a non @-@ deforested jungle for a chase scene , but this would have been unsafe and much CGI work was done to create the jungle action sequence . Visual effects supervisor Pablo Helman ( who worked on Lucas ' Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace and Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones as well as Spielberg 's War of the Worlds and Munich ) traveled to Brazil and Argentina to photograph elements that were composited into the final images . Industrial Light and Magic then effectively created a virtual jungle with a geography like the real Amazon .
The appearance of a live alien and flying saucer was in flux . Spielberg wanted the alien to resemble a Grey alien , and also rejected early versions of the saucer that looked " too Close Encounters " . Art director Christian Alzmann said the aesthetic was " looking at a lot of older B @-@ movie designs – but trying to make that look more real and gritty to fit in with the Indy universe . " Other reference for the visual effects work included government tapes of nuclear tests , and video reference of real prairie dogs shot in 1080p by Nathan Edward Denning .
= = = Music = = =
John Williams began composing the score in October 2007 ; ten days of recording sessions wrapped on March 6 , 2008 , at Sony Pictures Studios . Williams described composing for the Indiana Jones universe again as " like sitting down and finishing a letter that you started 25 years ago " . He reused Indiana 's theme ( Raiders March ) and also Marion 's from Raiders of the Lost Ark , and also composed five new motifs for Mutt , Spalko and the skull . Williams gave Mutt 's a swashbuckling feel , and homaged film noir and 1950s B @-@ movies for Spalko and the crystal skull respectively . As an in @-@ joke , Williams incorporated a measure and a half of Johannes Brahms ' " Academic Festival Overture " when Indiana and Mutt crash into the library . The soundtrack features a Continuum , an instrument often used for sound effects instead of music . The Concord Music Group released the soundtrack on May 20 , 2008 .
= = Release = =
The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on May 18 , 2008 , a couple of days ahead of its worldwide May 21 – 23 release . It was the first Spielberg film since 1982 's E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial to premiere at Cannes . The film was released in approximately 4 @,@ 000 theaters in the United States , and dubbed into 25 languages for its worldwide release . More than 12 @,@ 000 release prints were distributed , which is the largest in Paramount Pictures ' history . Although Spielberg insisted his films only be watched traditionally at theaters , Paramount chose to release the film in digital cinemas as part of a scheme to convert 10 @,@ 000 U.S. cinemas to the format .
= = = Secrecy = = =
Frank Marshall remarked , " In today 's information age , secrecy has been a real challenge . ... People actually said , ' No , we 're going to respect Steven 's vision . ' " Prior to release , moviegoers on the Internet scrutinized numerous photos and the film 's promotional LEGO sets in hope of understanding plot details ; Spielberg biographer Ian Freer wrote , " What Indy IV is actually about has been the great cultural guessing game of 2007 / 08 . Yet , it has to be said , there is something refreshing about being ten weeks away from a giant blockbuster and knowing next to nothing about it . " To distract investigative fans from the film 's title during filming , five fake titles were registered with the Motion Picture Association of America ; The City of Gods , The Destroyer of Worlds , The Fourth Corner of the Earth , The Lost City of Gold and The Quest for the Covenant . Lucas and Spielberg had also wanted to keep Karen Allen 's return a secret until the film 's release , but decided to confirm it at the 2007 Comic @-@ Con.
An extra in the film , Tyler Nelson , violated his nondisclosure agreement in an interview with The Edmond Sun on September 17 , 2007 , which was then picked up by the mainstream media . It is unknown if he remained in the final cut . At Nelson 's request , The Edmond Sun subsequently pulled the story from its website . On October 2 , 2007 , a Superior Court order was filed finding that Nelson knowingly violated the agreement . The terms of the settlement were not disclosed . A number of production photos and sensitive documents pertaining to the film 's production budget were also stolen from Spielberg 's production office . The Los Angeles County Sheriff 's Department set up a sting operation after being alerted by a webmaster that the thief might try to sell the photos . On October 4 , 2007 , the seller , 37 @-@ year @-@ old Roderick Eric Davis , was arrested . He pleaded guilty to two felony counts and was sentenced to two years and four months in prison .
= = = Marketing = = =
Howard Roffman , President of Lucas Licensing , attributed the film 's large marketing campaign to it having been " nineteen years since the last film , and we are sensing a huge pent @-@ up demand for everything Indy " . Paramount spent at least $ 150 million to promote the film , whereas most film promotions range from $ 70 to 100 million . As well as fans , the film also needed to appeal to younger viewers . Licensing deals include Expedia , Dr Pepper , Burger King , M & M 's and Lunchables . Paramount sponsored an Indiana Jones open wheel car for Marco Andretti in the 2008 Indianapolis 500 , and his racing suit was designed to resemble Indiana Jones 's outfit . The distributor also paired with M & M 's to sponsor the # 18 Joe Gibbs Racing Toyota , with NASCAR driver Kyle Busch behind the wheel , in the 2008 Dodge Challenger 500 at Darlington Raceway . Kyle Busch and the # 18 team won the race and visited victory lane with Indiana Jones on the car . With the film 's release , producer Frank Marshall and UNESCO worked together to promote conservation of World Heritage Sites around the world . Disneyland hosted " Indiana Jones Summer of Hidden Mysteries " to promote the film 's release .
The Boston @-@ based design studio Creative Pilot created the packaging style for the film 's merchandise , which merged Drew Struzan 's original illustrations " with a fresh new look , which showcases the whip , a map and exotic hieroglyphic patterns " . Hasbro , Lego , Sideshow Collectibles , Topps , Diamond Select , Hallmark Cards , and Cartamundi all sold products . A THQ mobile game based on the film was released , as was a Lego video game based on the past films . Lego also released a series of computer @-@ animated spoofs , Lego Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Brick , directed by Peder Pedersen . Stern Pinball released a new Indiana Jones pinball machine , designed by John Borg , based on all four films . From October 2007 to April 2008 , the reedited episodes of The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles were released in three DVD box sets .
Random House , Dark Horse Comics , Diamond Comic Distributors , Scholastic and DK published books , including James Rollins ' novelization of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , a two @-@ issue comic book adaptation written by John Jackson Miller and drawn by Luke Ross ( Samurai : Heaven and Earth ) , children 's novelizations of all four films , the Indiana Jones Adventures comic book series aimed at children , and the official Indiana Jones Magazine . Scholastic featured Indiana and Mutt on the covers of Scholastic News and Scholastic Maths , to the concern of parents , though Jack Silbert , editor of the latter , felt the film would interest children in archaeology .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD in North America on October 14 , 2008 and in the U.K. on November 10 . This release includes a two @-@ disc edition Blu @-@ ray , a two @-@ disc Special Edition DVD , and a one @-@ disc edition DVD . The film made its worldwide television premiere on USA on December 9 , 2010 . On September 18 , 2012 , it was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray as part of Indiana Jones : The Complete Adventures .
Several collectible editions have also been released . For example : Best Buy 's gift set includes a replica crystal skull from Sideshow Collectibles and a $ 25 gift card to Sideshowcollectibles.com ; Kmart 's giveaway of four mini @-@ posters comprises LEGO replicas of the original Indiana Jones theatrical posters ; and Target Corporation 's DVD package includes an 80 @-@ page hardcover book of behind the scenes photographs .
As of October 16 , 2013 , the film has made $ 117 @,@ 239 @,@ 631 in revenue .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
The director of the Institute of Archeology of Belize , Dr. Jaime Awe , sued Lucasfilm , Disney and Paramount Pictures on behalf of the country Belize for using the Mitchell @-@ Hedges skull 's " likeness " in the film .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Indiana Jones is distributed by one entity , Paramount , but owned by another , Lucasfilm . The pre @-@ production arrangement between the two organizations granted Paramount 12 @.@ 5 % of the film 's revenue . As the $ 185 million budget was larger than the original $ 125 million estimate , Lucas , Spielberg and Ford turned down large upfront salaries so Paramount could cover the film 's costs . In order for Paramount to see a profit beyond its distribution fee , the film had to make over $ 400 million . At that point , Lucas , Spielberg , Ford and those with smaller profit @-@ sharing deals would also begin to collect their cut .
The film was released on Thursday , May 22 , 2008 in North America and grossed $ 25 million its opening day . In its opening weekend , the film grossed an estimated $ 101 million in 4 @,@ 260 theaters in the United States and Canada , ranking # 1 at the box office , and making it the third widest opening of all time . Within its first five days of release , it grossed $ 311 million worldwide . The film 's total $ 151 million gross in the U.S. ranked it as the second biggest Memorial Day weekend release , behind Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End . It was the third most successful film of 2008 domestically , behind The Dark Knight and Iron Man respectively , and the year 's second highest @-@ grossing film internationally , behind The Dark Knight . In February 2010 , it was the 25th highest @-@ grossing film of all time domestically , and 44th highest @-@ grossing worldwide , as well as the most financially successful Indiana Jones film when not adjusted for inflation of ticket prices .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull received strongly polarized reviews , yet mostly positive ; as a result , it has been nominated both for numerous " best of " and " worst of " awards . Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 77 % based on 257 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 9 out 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Though the plot elements are certainly familiar , Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull still delivers the thrills and Harrison Ford 's return in the title role is more than welcome . " Another aggregator , Metacritic , gives the film a weighted average rating of 65 out of 100 , based on 40 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Surveys conducted by CinemaScore indicated a general " B " rating from audiences , on an A + to F scale .
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 , the same rating he gave The Last Crusade , finding it " same old , same old " , but what " I want it to be . " Leonard Maltin also gave the film 3 1 / 2 stars out of 4 , more than he gave Temple of Doom and Last Crusade , and wrote that " Indy returns with the same brand of high adventure that marked the original Raiders of the Lost Ark . " Empire 's Damon Wise criticised the use of CG but praised Ford 's performance and wrote that " It won 't change your life but , if you 're in the right frame of mind , it will change your mood : you might wince , you might groan , you might beg to differ on the big , silly climax , but you 'll never stop smiling . "
James Berardinelli gave the film 2 stars out of 4 , calling it " the most lifeless of the series " and " simply [ not ] a very good motion picture . " Margaret Pomeranz of At the Movies gave the film 2 1 / 2 stars out of 5 , saying that the filmmakers " had 19 years since the last Indiana Jones movie to come up with something truly exciting and fresh , but I feel there 's a certain laziness and cynicism in this latest adventure . " Associated Press reported that J. Sperling Reich , who writes for FilmStew.com , said : " It really looked like they were going through the motions . It really looked like no one had their heart in it . " USA Today stated reviews were " mixed " and reviewers felt the " movie suffers from predictable plot points and cheesy special effects . "
The film was nominated for Best Action Movie at the 2009 Critics ' Choice Awards . The Visual Effects Society nominated it for Best Single Visual Effect of the Year ( the valley destruction ) , Best Outstanding Matte Paintings , Best Models and Miniatures , and Best Created Environment in a Feature Motion Picture ( the inside of the temple ) . The film ranks 453rd on Empire 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time . It was nominated at the Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film , Best Director , Best Actor , Best Supporting Actor , Best Costumes and Best Special Effects . It won Best Costumes . At the 51st Grammy Awards , John Williams won an award for the Mutt Williams theme .
In 2009 , the film won the Razzie Award for Worst Prequel , Remake , Rip @-@ off or Sequel . Comcast voted it the 11th worst film sequel of all time . Paste magazine ranked the movie 10th on its list " The 20 Worst Sequels to Good Movies " . Listverse.com ranked the film 8th on its list of the " Top 10 Worst Movie Sequels " .
= = = International reaction = = =
The Communist Party of the Russian Federation called for a ban on the film , accusing the production team of " demonizing " the Soviet Union . A party official said : " In 1957 the USSR was not sending terrorists to America but sending the Sputnik satellite into space ! " Spielberg responded : " When we decided the fourth installment would take place in 1957 , we had no choice but to make the Russians the enemies . World War II had just ended and the Cold War had begun . The U.S. didn 't have any other enemies at the time . " The film 's depiction of Peru also received criticism from the Peruvian and Spanish @-@ speaking public .
= = = Fan reception and legacy = = =
According to the Associated Press , Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull received a " respectful " but " far from glowing " reception from Indiana Jones fans , and that " some viewers at its first press screening loved it , some called it slick and enjoyable though formulaic , some said it was not worth the 19 @-@ year wait . " South Park parodied the film in the episode " The China Probrem " , broadcast five months after the film 's release . The episode parodied the negative fan reaction , with the characters filing a police report against Lucas and Spielberg for " raping Indiana Jones " .
Some disappointed Indiana Jones fans used the term " nuking the fridge " , based on a scene where Jones survives a nuclear blast by hiding in a refrigerator , to denote the point when a franchise passes its peak and crossed into the absurd , similar to " jumping the shark " . This phrase has appeared across the internet , and was chosen as # 5 on Time magazine 's list of " top ten buzzwords " of 2008 . Asked about the scene and phrase , Spielberg said : " Blame me . Don 't blame George . That was my silly idea ... I 'm proud of that . I 'm glad I was able to bring that into popular culture . " Lucas denied this , saying Spielberg was " protecting him " . According to Lucas , he had assembled a dossier of research data to convince Spielberg ; Lucas stated that his research claimed the odds of surviving in the refrigerator are about " 50 @-@ 50 . "
The mixed fanbase reaction did not surprise Lucas , who was familiar with mixed response to the Star Wars prequels , and predicted that " we 're all going to get people throwing tomatoes at us . " David Koepp said : " I knew I was going to get hammered from a number of quarters [ but ] what I liked about the way the movie ended up playing was it was popular with families . I like that families really embraced it . " Although Spielberg said " I 'm very happy with the movie . I always have been " , he also said " I sympathise with people who didn 't like the MacGuffin [ the interdimensional beings ] because I never liked the MacGuffin . "
At the 2010 Cannes Film Festival , LaBeouf told the Los Angeles Times he had " dropped the ball on the legacy that people loved and cherished " and felt that " the movie could have been updated ... we just misinterpreted what we were trying to satiate . " In 2011 , in response to LaBeouf 's comments , Harrison Ford said : " I think I told [ LaBeouf ] he was a fucking idiot ... As an actor , I think it 's my obligation to support the film without making a complete ass of myself . Shia is ambitious , attentive and talented — and he 's learning how to deal with a situation which is very unique and difficult . " LaBeouf later regretted his comments and their effect on his relationship with Spielberg : " He told me there 's a time to be a human being and have an opinion , and there 's a time to sell cars . It brought me freedom , but it also killed my spirits because this was a dude I looked up to like a sensei . "
= = Sequel = =
On March 15 , 2016 , it was announced that Spielberg and Ford are both set to return for a fifth Indiana Jones film , scheduled for release on July 19 , 2019 . Lucas will return as executive producer , while Kennedy and Marshall will serve as producers and Koepp as screenwriter . Williams will also return to compose the score .
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= Force Majeure ( Millennium ) =
" Force Majeure " is the thirteenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on February 7 , 1997 . The episode was written by Chip Johannessen and directed by Winrich Kolbe . " Force Majeure " featured guest appearances by Brad Dourif , Morgan Woodward and C. C. H. Pounder .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) investigates a pair of suicides connected to a cult which has been experimenting with human cloning . Black is dogged on his travels by a strange man interested in both the Millennium Group and doomsday predictions .
" Force Majeure " features stock footage of the 1996 Saguenay Flood , and makes mention of a conjunction of planets which occurred in May 2000 . The episode was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 9 million households during its original broadcast , and has received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
During a hailstorm in Roseburg , Oregon university students run to find shelter . One girl , Lauren ( Kristi Angus ) , stands in the rain , lights a cigarette , and goes up in flames . Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels to the university to interview witnesses to the death . A teaching assistant tells Black that the dead girl was highly intelligent , pointing out an armillary sphere Lauren had constructed . She also tells Black that the previous Millennium Group contact had taken great interest in this sphere . Black did not realize the Group had sent another member , but on leaving , he meets the man in question — Dennis Hoffman ( Brad Dourif ) . Hoffman describes his theories to Black , detailing how when several planets achieve syzygy on May 5 , 2000 , a series of natural disasters will bring about the end of the world . Hoffman believes that this cataclysm will be preceded by strange events and weather patterns .
Black later contacts another Group member , Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , who tells him that Hoffman had attempted to join the Group years earlier , and although he was refused admission , has continued to track the Group 's activities harmlessly . Watts also finds that Lauren is not her parents ' biological child , but cannot find any record of her adoption . Group coroner Cheryl Andrews ( C. C. H. Pounder ) finds traces of accelerant on the body , and rules the death a suicide . She also finds an astrological symbol representing conjunction carved in the girl 's thigh .
At a waterfall , another girl commits suicide by drowning . The girl , Carlin , looks identical to Lauren . Andrews performs an autopsy on Carlin as well , finding the same astrological symbol . It also becomes clear that the two girls are related — identical twins , born seven years apart . The girls are clones , produced using a technique similar to that used to create identical cattle . Black believes that this is connected to Hoffman 's Earth Changes theory , that someone is breeding offspring destined to survive May 5 , 2000 .
Hoffman provides the Group with information leading them to Pocatello , Idaho , where a group of even more cloned girls is found living in a commune . The police fear that a cult @-@ involved suicide may be being planned , and they take the girls into protective custody . The girls are taken onto a bus as Black speaks to their biological father , a preacher confined to a negative pressure ventilator ( Morgan Woodward ) . The man reveals to Black that he attempted to create a caste of pure and innocent people who could repopulate society benevolently after the cataclysm . He contacted some of the girls to let them know he would die before the apocalyptic date , and they committed suicide shortly afterwards . That night , a power cut stops the man 's ventilator , killing him .
When Black leaves to meet with the girls in custody , he finds that the bus driver was another of the man in the ventilator 's offspring , and has escaped with the clones ; Hoffman has also disappeared . Black realizes that the building they found the girls in is located in an area of extreme geological stability , and is built on shock absorbing foundations — Black does not know where the cult has escaped to , but he does know where they will be on May 5 , 2000 .
= = Production = =
" Force Majeure " was the second of four episodes helmed by director Winrich Kolbe , who had previously worked on " Kingdom Come " , and would return later in the first season for " Lamentation " and " Broken World " . The episode also marks the second writing credit in the series for Chip Johannessen , after the earlier " Blood Relatives " . Johannessen would go on to write an additional eleven episodes across all three seasons , including the series ' final episode " Goodbye to All That " . After Millennium 's cancellation , Johannessen would also contribute an episode to its sister show The X @-@ Files , 1999 's " Orison " . Johannessen would also become one of the series ' executive producers during its third season , alongside Ken Horton .
Footage used in the episode to demonstrate cataclysmic flooding was taken from stock footage of the 1996 Saguenay Flood , a series of flash floods across the Saguenay @-@ Lac @-@ Saint @-@ Jean region in Quebec . The " little white house " visible in the footage has since been converted into a museum . The episode features the third appearance by C. C. H. Pounder as Millennium Group pathologist Cheryl Andrews . Pounder would appear in four other episodes as the character , appearing across all three seasons .
The conjunction of several planets which Brad Dourif 's character Dennis Hoffman speaks about was reliably predicted at the time of the episode 's broadcast . The effects of such an alignment had been debated for some time , with studies both linking conjunction to several major earthquakes and debunking the theory entirely . Several similar alignments have occurred in the past without resulting in any additional natural activity on Earth . The predicted conjunction did occur in May 2000 , with no consequence on Earth .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Force Majeure " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on February 7 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 1 during its original broadcast , meaning that 7 @.@ 1 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented 6 @.@ 9 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ third most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A − , describing it as " sort of kind of pretty much batshit insane " . Handlen felt that the episode " was a lot of fun to watch , though , even if it didn 't entirely come together . The script is Carter and company 's usual hodepodge of crackpot theory and weird extemporization , but it 's a huge relief to shift away , even for a week , from the grind of heavy @-@ handed murder parties that define so much of the series " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , calling it " superb " and " very atmospheric " . Gibron praised Dourif 's guest role , and noted that the episode helped to lay the groundwork for the direction the series would take in its second season . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Force Majeure " five stars out of five , describing it as " rich and dark " . Shearman felt that the episode 's plot was " borrowed from The X @-@ Files " , and came across as " just a collection of ideas " . However , he praised Dourif 's " barnstorming performance " , comparing it to his role in The X @-@ Files episode " Beyond the Sea " , and noted that " Force Majeure " was " an episode which bravely redefines what [ Millennium ] is capable of " .
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= Isabella Beeton =
Isabella Mary Beeton ( née Mayson ; 14 March 1836 – 6 February 1865 ) , also known as Mrs Beeton , was an English journalist , editor and writer . Her name is particularly associated with her first book , the 1861 work Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management . She was born in London and , after schooling in Islington , north London , and Heidelberg , Germany , she married Samuel Orchart Beeton , an ambitious publisher and magazine editor .
In 1857 , less than a year after the wedding , Isabella began writing for one of her husband 's publications , The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . She translated French fiction and wrote the cookery column , though all the recipes were plagiarised from other works or sent in by the magazine 's readers . In 1859 the Beetons launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements to The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine ; the 24 instalments were published in one volume as Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management in October 1861 , which sold 60 @,@ 000 copies in the first year . Isabella was working on an abridged version of her book , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery , when she died of puerperal fever in February 1865 at the age of 28 . She gave birth to four children , two of whom died in infancy , and had several miscarriages . Two of her biographers , Nancy Spain and Kathryn Hughes , posit the theory that Samuel had unknowingly contracted syphilis in a premarital liaison with a prostitute , and had unwittingly passed the disease on to his wife .
The Book of Household Management has been edited , revised and enlarged several times since Isabella 's death and is still in print as at 2016 . Food writers have stated that the subsequent editions of the work were far removed from and inferior to the original version . Several cookery writers , including Elizabeth David and Clarissa Dickson Wright , have criticised Isabella 's work , particularly her use of other people 's recipes . Others , such as the food writer Bee Wilson , consider the censure overstated , and that Beeton and her work should be thought extraordinary and admirable . Her name has become associated with knowledge and authority on Victorian cooking and home management , and the Oxford English Dictionary states that by 1891 the term Mrs Beeton had become used as a generic name for a domestic authority . She is also considered a strong influence in the building or shaping of a middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life , 1836 – 54 = = =
Isabella Mayson was born on 14 March 1836 in Marylebone , London . She was the eldest of three daughters to Benjamin Mayson , a linen factor ( merchant ) and his wife Elizabeth ( née Jerrom ) . Shortly after Isabella 's birth the family moved to Milk Street , Cheapside , from where Benjamin traded . He died when Isabella was four years old , and Elizabeth , pregnant and unable to cope with raising the children on her own while maintaining Benjamin 's business , sent her two elder daughters to live with relatives . Isabella went to live with her recently widowed paternal grandfather in Great Orton , Cumberland , though she was back with her mother within the next two years .
Three years after Benjamin 's death Elizabeth married Henry Dorling , a widower with four children . Henry was the Clerk of Epsom Racecourse , and had been granted residence within the racecourse grounds . The family , including Elizabeth 's mother , moved to Surrey and over the next twenty years Henry and Elizabeth had a further thirteen children . Isabella was instrumental in her siblings ' upbringing , and collectively referred to them as a " living cargo of children " . The experience gave her much insight and experience in how to manage a family and its household .
After a brief education at a boarding school in Islington , in 1851 Isabella was sent to school in Heidelberg , Germany , accompanied by her stepsister Jane Dorling . Isabella became proficient in the piano and excelled in French and German ; she also gained knowledge and experience in making pastry . She had returned to Epsom by the summer of 1854 and took further lessons in pastry @-@ making from a local baker .
= = = Marriage and career , 1854 – 61 = = =
Around 1854 Isabella began a relationship with Samuel Orchart Beeton . His family had lived in Milk Street at the same time as the Maysons — Samuel 's father still ran the Dolphin Tavern there — and Samuel 's sisters had also attended the same Heidelberg school as Isabella . Samuel was the first British publisher of Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin in 1852 and had also released two innovative and pioneering journals : The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine in 1852 and the Boys ' Own magazine in 1855 . The couple entered into extensive correspondence in 1855 — in which Isabella signed her letters as " Fatty " — and they announced their engagement in June 1855 . The marriage took place at St Martin 's Church , Epsom , in July the following year , and was announced in The Times . Samuel was " a discreet but firm believer in the equality of women " and their relationship , both personal and professional , was an equal partnership . The couple went to Paris for a three @-@ week honeymoon , after which Samuel 's mother joined them in a visit to Heidelberg . They returned to Britain in August , when the newlyweds moved into 2 Chandos Villas , a large Italianate house in Pinner .
Within a month of returning from their honeymoon Isabella was pregnant . A few weeks before the birth , Samuel persuaded his wife to contribute to The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , a publication that the food writers Mary Aylett and Olive Ordish consider was " designed to make women content with their lot inside the home , not to interest them in the world outside " . The magazine was affordable , aimed at young middle class women and was commercially successful , selling 50 @,@ 000 issues a month by 1856 . Isabella began by translating French fiction for publication as stories or serials . Shortly afterwards she started to work on the cookery column — which had been moribund for the previous six months following the departure of the previous correspondent — and the household article . The Beetons ' son , Samuel Orchart , was born towards the end of May 1857 , but died at the end of August that year . On the death certificate , the cause of death was given as diarrhoea and cholera , although Hughes hypothesises that Samuel senior had unknowingly contracted syphilis in a premarital liaison with a prostitute , and had unwittingly passed the condition on to his wife , which would have infected his son .
While coping with the loss of her child , Isabella continued to work at The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Although she was not a regular cook , she and Samuel obtained recipes from other sources . A request to receive the readers ' own recipes led to over 2 @,@ 000 being sent in , which were selected and edited by the Beetons . Published works were also copied , largely unattributed to any of the sources . These included Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families , Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper , Marie @-@ Antoine Carême 's Le Pâtissier royal parisien , Louis Eustache Ude 's The French Cook , Alexis Soyer 's The Modern Housewife or , Ménagère and The Pantropheon , Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , Maria Eliza Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli . Suzanne Daly and Ross G. Forman , in their examination of Victorian cooking culture , consider that the plagiarism makes it " an important index of mid @-@ Victorian and middle @-@ class society " because the production of the text from its own readers ensures that it is a reflection of what was actually being cooked and eaten at the time . In copying the recipes of others , Isabella was following the recommendation given to her by Henrietta English , a family friend , who wrote that " Cookery is a Science that is only learnt by Long Experience and years of study which of course you have not had . Therefore my advice would be compile a book from receipts from a Variety of the Best Books published on Cookery and Heaven knows there is a great variety for you to choose from . "
The Beetons partly followed the layout of Acton 's recipes , although with a major alteration : whereas the earlier writer provided the method of cooking followed by a list of the required ingredients , the recipes in The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine listed the components before the cooking process . Isabella 's standardised layout used for the recipes also showed the approximate costs of each serving , the seasonality of the ingredients and the number of portions per dish . According to the twentieth @-@ century British cookery writer Elizabeth David , one of the strengths of Isabella 's writing was in the " clarity and details of her general instructions , her brisk comments , her no @-@ nonsense asides " . Margaret Beetham , the historian , sees that one of the strengths of the book was the " consistent principle of organisation which made its heterogeneous contents look uniform and orderly " , and brought a consistent style in presentation and layout . Whereas Daly and Forman consider such an approach as " nothing if not formulaic " , Hughes sees it as " the thing most beloved by the mid Victorians , a system " .
During the particularly bitter winter of 1858 – 59 Isabella prepared her own soup that she served to the poor of Pinner , " Soup for benevolent purposes " ; her sister later recalled that Isabella " was busy making [ the ] soup for the poor , and the children used to call with their cans regularly to be refilled " . The recipe would become the only entry in her Book of Household Management that was her own . After two years of miscarriages , the couple 's second son was born in June 1859 ; he was also named Samuel Orchart Beeton . Hughes sees the miscarriages as further evidence of Samuel 's syphilis .
As early as 1857 the Beetons had considered using the magazine columns as the basis of a book of collected recipes and homecare advice , Hughes believes , and in November 1859 they launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements with The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . The print block for the whole series of the supplements was set from the beginning so the break between each edition was fixed at 48 pages , regardless of the text , and in several issues the text of a sentence or recipe is split between the end of one instalment and the beginning of the next .
The Beetons decided to revamp The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , particularly the fashion column , which the historian Graham Nown describes as " a rather drab piece " . They travelled to Paris in March 1860 to meet Adolphe Goubaud , the publisher of the French magazine Le Moniteur de la Mode . The magazine carried a full @-@ sized dress pattern outlined on a fold @-@ out piece of paper for users to cut out and make their own dresses . The Beetons came to an agreement with Goubaud for the Frenchman to provide patterns and illustrations for their magazine . The first edition to carry the new feature appeared on 1 May , six weeks after the couple returned from Paris . For the redesigned magazine , Samuel was joined as editor by Isabella , who was described as " Editress " . As well as being co @-@ editors , the couple were also equal partners . Isabella brought an efficiency and strong business acumen to Samuel 's normally disorganised and financially wasteful approach . She joined her husband at work , travelling daily by train to the office , where her presence caused a stir among commuters , most of whom were male . In June 1860 Isabella and Samuel travelled to Killarney , Ireland , for a fortnight 's holiday , leaving their son at home with his nurse . The Beetons enjoyed the sightseeing , although on the days it rained , they stayed inside their hotel and worked on the next edition of The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Isabella was impressed with the food they were served , and wrote in her diary that the dinners were " conducted in quite the French style " .
In September 1861 the Beetons released a new , weekly publication called The Queen , the Ladies ' Newspaper . With the Beetons busy running their other titles , they employed Frederick Greenwood as the editor .
= = = Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management and later , 1861 – 65 = = =
The complete version of Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , consisting of the 24 collected monthly instalments , was published on 1 October 1861 ; it became one of the major publishing events of the nineteenth century . Isabella included an extensive 26 @-@ page " Analytical Index " in the book . Although not an innovation — it had been used in The Family Friend magazine since 1855 — Hughes considers the index in the Book of Household Management to be " fabulously detailed and exhaustively cross @-@ referenced " . Of the 1 @,@ 112 pages , over 900 contained recipes . The remainder provided advice on fashion , child care , animal husbandry , poisons , the management of servants , science , religion , first aid and the importance in the use of local and seasonal produce . In its first year of publication , the book sold 60 @,@ 000 copies . It reflected Victorian values , particularly hard work , thrift and cleanliness . Christopher Clausen , in his study of the British middle classes , sees that Isabella " reflected better than anyone else , and for a larger audience , the optimistic message that mid @-@ Victorian England was filled with opportunities for those who were willing to learn how to take advantage of them " . The food writer Annette Hope thinks that " one can understand its success . If ... young ladies knew nothing of domestic arrangements , no better book than this could have been devised for them . "
The reviews for Book of Household Management were positive . The critic for the London Evening Standard considered that Isabella had earned herself a household reputation , remarking that she had " succeeded in producing a volume which will be , for years to come , a treasure to be made much of in every English household " . The critic for the Saturday Review wrote that " for a really valuable repertory of hints on all sorts of household matters , we recommend Mrs Beeton with few misgivings " . The anonymous reviewer for The Bradford Observer considered that " the information afforded ... appears intelligible and explicit " ; the reviewer also praised the layout of the recipes , highlighting details relating to ingredients , seasonality and the times needed . Writing in The Morning Chronicle , an anonymous commentator opined that " Mrs Beeton has omitted nothing which tends to the comfort of housekeepers , or facilitates the many little troubles and cares that fall to the lot of every wife and mother . She may safely predict that this book will in future take precedence of every other on the same subject . " For the 1906 edition of the book , The Illustrated London News 's reviewer considered the work " a formidable body of domestic doctrine " , and thought that " the book is almost of the first magnitude " .
Samuel 's business decisions from 1861 were unproductive and included an ill @-@ advised investment in purchasing paper — in which he lost £ 1 @,@ 000 — and a court case over unpaid bills . His hubris in business affairs brought on financial difficulties and in early 1862 the couple had moved from their comfortable Pinner house to premises over their office . The air of central London was not conducive to the health of the Beetons ' son , and he began to ail . Three days after Christmas his health worsened and he died on New Year 's Eve 1862 at the age of three ; his death certificate gave the cause as " suppressed scarlatina " and " laryngitis " . In March 1863 Isabella found that she was pregnant again , and in April the couple moved to a house in Greenhithe , Kent ; their son , who they named Orchart , was born on New Year 's Eve 1863 . Although the couple had been through financial problems , they enjoyed relative prosperity during 1863 , boosted by the sale of The Queen to Edward Cox in the middle of the year .
In the middle of 1864 the Beetons again visited the Goubauds in Paris — the couple 's third visit to the city — and Isabella was pregnant during the visit , just as she had been the previous year . On her return to Britain she began working on an abridged version of the Book of Household Management , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery . On 29 January 1865 , while working on the proofs of the dictionary , she went into labour ; the baby — Mayson Moss — was born that day . Isabella began to feel feverish the following day and died of puerperal fever on 6 February at the age of 28 .
Isabella was buried at West Norwood Cemetery on 11 February . When The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery was published in the same year , Samuel added a tribute to his wife at the end :
Her works speak for themselves ; and , although taken from this world in the very height and strength , and in the early days of womanhood , she felt satisfaction — so great to all who strive with good intent and warm will — of knowing herself regarded with respect and gratitude .
= = Legacy = =
In May 1866 , following a severe downturn in his financial fortunes , Samuel sold the rights to the Book of Household Management to Ward , Lock and Tyler ( later Ward Lock & Co ) . The writer Nancy Spain , in her biography of Isabella , reports that , given the money the company made from the Beetons ' work , " surely no man ever made a worse or more impractical bargain " than Samuel did . In subsequent publications Ward Lock suppressed the details of the lives of the Beetons — especially the death of Isabella — in order to protect their investment by letting readers think she was still alive and creating recipes — what Hughes considers to be " intentional censorship " . Those later editions continued to make the connection to Isabella in what Beetham considers to be a " fairly ruthless marketing policy which was begun by Beeton but carried on vigorously by Ward , Lock , and Tyler " . Those subsequent volumes bearing Isabella 's name became less reflective of the original . Since its initial publication the Book of Household Management has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
Isabella and her main work have been subjected to criticism over the course of the twentieth century . Elizabeth David complains of recipes that are " sometimes slapdash and misleading " , although she acknowledges that Prosper Montagné 's Larousse Gastronomique also contains errors . The television cook Delia Smith admits she was puzzled " how on earth Mrs Beeton 's book managed to utterly eclipse ... [ Acton 's ] superior work " , while her fellow chef , Clarissa Dickson Wright , opines that " It would be unfair to blame any one person or one book for the decline of English cookery , but Isabella Beeton and her ubiquitous book do have a lot to answer for . " In comparison , the food writer Bee Wilson opines that disparaging Isabella 's work was only a " fashionable " stance to take and that the cook 's writing " simply makes you want to cook " . Christopher Driver , the journalist and food critic , suggests that the " relative stagnation and want of refinement in the indigenous cooking of Britain between 1880 and 1930 " may instead be explained by the " progressive debasement under successive editors , revises and enlargers " . David comments that " when plain English cooks " were active in their kitchens , " they followed plain English recipes and chiefly those from the Mrs Beeton books or their derivatives " . Dickson Wright considers Beeton to be a " fascinating source of information " from a social history viewpoint , and Aylett and Ordish consider the work to be " the best and most reliable guide for the scholar to the domestic history of the mid @-@ Victorian era " .
Despite the criticism , Clausen observes that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' has ... been for over a century the standard English cookbook , frequently outselling every other book but the Bible " . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term Mrs Beeton became used as a generic name for " an authority on cooking and domestic subjects " as early as 1891 , and Beetham opines that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' became a trade mark , a brand name " . In a review by Gavin Koh published in a 2009 issue of The BMJ , Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management was labelled a medical classic . In Isabella 's " attempt to educate the average reader about common medical complaints and their management " , Koh argues , " she preceded the family health guides of today " . Robin Wensley , a professor of strategic management , believes that Isabella 's advice and guidance on household management can also be applied to business management , and her lessons on the subject have stood the test of time better than some of her advice on cooking or etiquette .
Following the radio broadcast of Meet Mrs. Beeton , a 1934 comedy in which Samuel was portrayed in an unflattering light , and Mrs Beeton , a 1937 documentary , Mayston Beeton worked with H. Montgomery Hyde to produce the biography Mr and Mrs Beeton , although completion and publication were delayed until 1951 . In the meantime Nancy Spain published Mrs Beeton and her Husband in 1948 , updated and retitled in 1956 to The Beeton Story . In the new edition Spain hinted at , but did not elucidate upon , on the possibility that Samuel contracted syphilis . Several other biographies followed , including from the historian Sarah Freeman , who wrote Isabella and Sam in 1977 ; Nown 's Mrs Beeton : 150 Years of Cookery and Household Management , published on the 150th anniversary of Isabella 's birthday , and Hughes 's The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs Beeton , published in 2006 . Isabella was ignored by the Dictionary of National Biography for many years : while Acton was included in the first published volume of 1885 , Isabella did not have an entry until 1993 .
There have been several television broadcasts about Isabella . In 1970 Margaret Tyzack portrayed her in a solo performance written by Rosemary Hill , in 2006 Anna Madeley played Isabella in a docudrama , and Sophie Dahl presented a documentary , The Marvellous Mrs Beeton , in the same year .
The literary historian Kate Thomas sees Isabella as " a powerful force in the making of middle @-@ class Victorian domesticity " , while the Oxford University Press , advertising an abridged edition of the Book of Household Management , considers Isabella 's work a " founding text " and " a force in shaping " the middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era . Within that identity , the historian Sarah Richardson sees that one of Beeton 's achievements was the integration of different threads of domestic science into one volume , which " elevat [ ed ] the middle @-@ class female housekeeper 's role ... placing it in a broader and more public context " . Nown quotes an unnamed academic who thought that " Mrs Beetonism has preserved the family as a social unit , and made social reforms a possibility " , while Nicola Humble , in her history of British food , sees The Book of Household Management as " an engine for social change " which led to a " new cult of domesticity that was to play such a major role in mid @-@ Victorian life " . Nown considers Isabella
... a singular and remarkable woman , praised in her lifetime and later forgotten and ignored when a pride in light pastry ... were no longer considered prerequisites for womanhood . Yet in her lively , progressive way , she helped many women to overcome the loneliness of marriage and gave the family the importance it deserved . In the climate of her time she was brave , strong @-@ minded and a tireless champion of her sisters everywhere .
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= Eastcote House Gardens =
Eastcote House Gardens is an area of public parkland in Eastcote , within the London Borough of Hillingdon . The site covers 3 @.@ 63 hectares ( 9 acres ) and incorporates the walled garden , dovecote and coach house of Eastcote House . The house was demolished in 1964 by the Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District Council ( RNUDC ) , the predecessor of the London Borough of Hillingdon . At the public 's request , the garden and outbuildings were retained and are now maintained by a group of volunteers , the Friends of Eastcote House Gardens , in partnership with the local authority .
Eastcote House was one of three largest in Eastcote , together with Highgrove House and Haydon Hall . All came to be owned by the RNUDC , but only Highgrove House remains in its original form ; Haydon Hall was demolished in 1967 by the RNUDC 's successor .
The coach house , dovecote , and garden walls received Grade II listed status on 6 September 1974 . Ecological surveys have found fifty types of trees in the gardens , and numerous species of birds , mammals and insects have been recorded . The gardens received the Green Flag Award in September 2011 following an earlier inspection .
= = History = =
= = = Eastcote House = = =
Eastcote House is first recorded in 1507 , when it was known as " Hopkyttes " , under the ownership of the Walleston family . In 1525 , Ralph Hawtrey married Winifred Walleston , and they made Hopkyttes their marital home , renaming it Eastcote House . The house was extended by either Ralph Hawtrey or his son John , and the brick exterior added . The original timber framework was not revealed again until the house was demolished . John Hawtrey built the dovecote without applying for the required licence . After his death in 1593 , his nephew Ralph Hawtrey applied retrospectively , and the licence was granted . During the 18th century , the dovecote was substantially rebuilt , leaving only the original first few rows of bricks . The Hawtrey family , later the Hawtrey @-@ Deanes , continued to live in the house until Francis Deane moved to East View in Uxbridge in 1878 . Eastcote House was then let to tenants and parts of the estate sold for housing developments .
The Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District Council purchased the house and grounds , totalling 9 @.@ 1 acres ( 3 @.@ 7 ha ) , in 1931 after it became endangered by the proposed new housing development by the builders Comben & Wakeling . Eastcote House became a public building for the use of the Scouts , Guides , Women 's Institute and a welfare clinic , though under the ownership of the council , the condition of the house deteriorated . In 1962 the house was declared unsafe , and it was demolished two years later after the council ruled there were no features of the house worth retaining .
The Eastcote Billiards Club began using the coach house in 1938 . The club 's lease of the building expired in 2005 , but the club remained in residence , rent @-@ free . In 2013 , the club had moved to nearby Haydon Hall .
= = = Gardens = = =
The narrow bricks in the garden walls have been dated to around the 17th century . The walled garden would originally have been used predominantly for growing fruit , vegetables , and herbs for the household 's consumption , as well as flowers to exhibit at shows and for pleasure .
The walled garden , coach house , and dovecote were retained at the public 's request when the house was demolished . On 6 September 1974 , the garden walls and remaining buildings were awarded Grade II listed status . The herb garden was planted across the four centre beds in 1977 to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II . These included Artemisia , catmint , Santolina and curry plants . To keep the plants within the beds , each was lined by box in 1983 .
The eastern wall was rebuilt in 1981 , at which point the northern wall was reduced by seven layers of brick . An area of topiary with seven specimens was planted in 1983 with box , behind the coach house . Lilacs , weeping cherries and hibiscus were planted in 1984 along the garden wall near the coach house . A pergola covered with laburnum and wisteria was introduced in 1986 leading to the entrance into the walled garden . Between 1986 and 1988 , two iron gates and a sundial were added . In the 1990s , the orchard near the walled garden was supplemented by black mulberry , walnut and quince trees .
A footbridge crossing the River Pinn and leading to Long Meadow was replaced in 2007 ; the original had been built in 1977 . In 2008 , the Friends of Eastcote House Gardens was formed to care for the gardens and ensure they remain protected . The group received a £ 24 @,@ 000 grant from the Big Lottery Fund for the replanting of the gardens , which went ahead in April 2010 . The Mayor of Hillingdon officially reopened the gardens on 17 July 2010 .
A survey completed in November 2009 found 50 types of trees in the gardens . Bats were found in the coach house during an ecological survey , but were not believed to be nesting there long @-@ term . Species of birds observed in the gardens have included song thrush , jay , wren , robin , kingfisher and tawny owl . Mammals regularly observed include hedgehogs , grey squirrels and foxes . Butterflies including the holly blue and painted lady have been recorded .
Hillingdon Council provided a £ 150 @,@ 000 grant in September 2010 for the restoration of the buildings . In April 2011 , the council joined with the Friends to seek funding of up to £ 1 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund , to support restoration work . It is planned that the coach house could be converted into a tea room .
The gardens received the Green Flag Award in 2011 following an earlier inspection . The flag was raised in a ceremony on 14 September 2011 .
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= Perseus ( constellation ) =
Perseus , named after the Greek mythological hero Perseus , is a constellation in the northern sky . It is one of the 48 listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , and among the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere near several other constellations named after ancient Greek legends surrounding Perseus , including Andromeda to the west and Cassiopeia to the north . Perseus is also bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south , Auriga to the east , Camelopardalis to the north , and Triangulum to the west . Some star atlases during the early 19th century also depicted Perseus holding onto the head of the Medusa , whose asterism was named together as Perseus et Caput Medusae , however , this never came into popular usage .
The galactic plane of the Milky Way passes through Perseus but is mostly obscured by molecular clouds . The constellation 's brightest star is the yellow @-@ white supergiant Alpha Persei ( also called Mirfak ) , which shines at magnitude 1 @.@ 79 . It and many of the surrounding stars are members of an open cluster known as the Alpha Persei Cluster . The best @-@ known star , however , is Algol ( Beta Persei ) , linked with ominous legends because of its variability , which is noticeable to the naked eye . Rather than being an intrinsically variable star , it is an eclipsing binary . Other notable star systems in Perseus include X Persei , a binary system containing a neutron star , and GK Persei , a nova that peaked at magnitude 0 @.@ 2 in 1901 . The Double Cluster , comprising two open clusters quite near each other in the sky , was known to the ancient Chinese . The constellation gives its name to the Perseus cluster ( Abell 426 ) , a massive galaxy cluster located 250 million light @-@ years from Earth . It hosts the radiant of the annual Perseids meteor shower — one of the most prominent meteor showers in the sky .
= = History and mythology = =
The constellation of Perseus may be derived from the Babylonian Old Man ( MUL.SHU.GI ) constellation , then associated with East in the MUL.APIN — an astronomical compilation dating to around 1000 BCE . In Greek mythology , Perseus was the son of Danaë , who was sent by King Polydectes to bring the head of Medusa the Gorgon — whose visage caused all who gazed upon her to turn to stone — as a wedding gift . Perseus slew Medusa in her sleep , and Pegasus and Chrysaor appeared from her body . Perseus continued to the realm of Cepheus whose daughter Andromeda was to be sacrificed to Cetus the sea monster .
Perseus rescued the princess Andromeda from Cetus by turning it to stone with Medusa 's head . He turned Polydectes and his followers to stone and appointed Dictys the fisherman king . Perseus and Andromeda married and had six children . In the sky , Perseus lies near the constellations Andromeda , Cepheus , Cassiopeia ( Andromeda 's mother ) , Cetus , and Pegasus .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
Four Chinese constellations are contained in the area of the sky identified with Perseus in the West . Tiānchuán ( 天船 ) , the Celestial Boat , was the third paranatellon ( A star or constellation which rises at the same time as another star or object . ) of the third house of the White Tiger of the West , representing the boats that Chinese people were reminded to build in case of a catastrophic flood season . Incorporating stars from the northern part of the constellation , it contained Mu , Delta , Psi , Alpha , Gamma and Eta Persei . Jīshuǐ ( 積水 ) , the Swollen Waters , was the fourth paranatellon of the aforementioned house , representing the potential of unusually high floods during the end of August and beginning of September at the beginning of the flood season . Lambda and possibly Mu Persei lay within it . Dàlíng ( 大陵 ) , the Great Trench , was the fifth paranatellon of that house , representing the trenches where criminals executed en masse in August were interred . It was formed by Kappa , Omega , Rho , 24 , 17 and 15 Persei . The pile of corpses prior to their interment was represented by Jīshī ( 積屍 , Algol ) , the sixth paranatellon of the house . The Double Cluster , h and Chi Persei , had special significance in Chinese astronomy . Known as Hsi and Ho , the two clusters represented two astronomers who failed to predict a total solar eclipse and were subsequently beheaded .
In Polynesia , Perseus was not commonly recognized as a separate constellation ; the only people that named it were those of the Society Islands , who called it Faa @-@ iti , meaning " Little Valley " . Algol may have been named Matohi by the Māori people , but the evidence for this identification is disputed . Matohi ( " Split " ) occasionally came into conflict with Tangaroa @-@ whakapau over which of them should appear in the sky , the outcome affecting the tides . It matches the Maori description of a blue @-@ white star near Aldebaran but does not disappear as the myth would indicate .
= = Characteristics = =
Perseus is bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south , Auriga to the east , Camelopardalis and Cassiopeia to the north , and Andromeda and Triangulum to the west . Covering 615 square degrees , it ranks twenty @-@ fourth of the 88 constellations in size . It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere 's spring . Its main asterism consists of 19 stars . The constellation 's boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a 26 @-@ sided polygon . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 01h 29.1m and 04h 51.2m , while the declination coordinates are between 30 @.@ 92 ° and 59 @.@ 11 ° . The International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) adopted the three @-@ letter abbreviation " Per " for the constellation in 1922 .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Algol ( from the Arabic رأس الغول Ra 's al @-@ Ghul , which means The Demon 's Head ) , also known by its Bayer designation Beta Persei , is the best @-@ known star in Perseus . Representing the eye of the Gorgon Medusa in Greek mythology , it was called Horus in Egyptian mythology and Rosh ha Satan ( " Satan 's Head " ) in Hebrew . Located 92 @.@ 8 light @-@ years from Earth , it varies in apparent magnitude from a minimum of 3 @.@ 5 to a maximum of 2 @.@ 3 over a period of 2 @.@ 867 days . The star system is the prototype of a group of eclipsing binary stars named Algol variables , though it has a third member to make up what is actually a triple star system . The brightest component is a blue @-@ white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type B8V , which is 3 @.@ 5 times as massive and 180 times as luminous as the Sun . The secondary component is an orange subgiant star of type K0IV that has begun cooling and expanding to 3 @.@ 5 times the radius of the Sun , and has 4 @.@ 5 times the luminosity and 80 % of its mass . These two are separated by only 0 @.@ 05 astronomical units ( AU ) — five percent of the distance between the Earth and Sun ; the main dip in brightness arises when the larger fainter companion passes in front of the hotter brighter primary . The tertiary component is a main sequence star of type A7 , which is located on average 2 @.@ 69 AU from the other two stars . AG Persei is another Algol variable in Perseus , whose primary component is a B @-@ type main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 6 @.@ 69 . Phi Persei is a double star , although the two components do not eclipse each other . The primary star is a Be star of spectral type B0.5 , possibly a giant star , and the secondary companion is likely a stellar remnant . The secondary has a similar spectral type to O @-@ type subdwarfs .
With the historical name Mirfak ( Arabic for elbow ) or Algenib , Alpha Persei is the brightest star of this constellation with an apparent magnitude of 1 @.@ 79 . A supergiant of spectral type F5Ib located around 590 light @-@ years away from Earth , Mirfak has 5 @,@ 000 times the luminosity and 42 times the diameter of our Sun . It is the brightest member of the Alpha Persei Cluster ( also known as Melotte 20 and Collinder 39 ) , which is an open cluster containing many luminous stars . Neighboring bright stars that are members include the Be stars Delta ( magnitude 3 @.@ 0 ) , Psi ( 4 @.@ 3 ) , and 48 Persei ( 4 @.@ 0 ) ; the Beta Cephei variable Epsilon Persei ( 2 @.@ 9 ) ; and the stars 29 ( 5 @.@ 2 ) , 30 ( 5 @.@ 5 ) , 31 ( 5 @.@ 0 ) , and 34 Persei ( 4 @.@ 7 ) . Of magnitude 4 @.@ 05 , nearby Iota Persei has been considered a member of the group , but is actually located a mere 34 light @-@ years distant . This star is very similar to our Sun , shining with 2 @.@ 2 times its luminosity . It is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V . Extensive searches have failed to find evidence of it having a planetary system .
Zeta Persei is the third @-@ brightest star in the constellation at magnitude 2 @.@ 86 . Around 750 light @-@ years from Earth , it is a blue @-@ white supergiant 26 – 27 times the radius of the Sun and 47 @,@ 000 times its luminosity . It is the brightest star ( as seen from Earth ) of a moving group of bright blue @-@ white giant and supergiant stars , the Perseus OB2 Association or Zeta Persei Association . Zeta is a triple star system , with a companion blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B8 and apparent magnitude 9 @.@ 16 around 3900 AU distant from the primary , and a white main sequence star of magnitude 9 @.@ 90 and spectral type A2 , some 50 @,@ 000 AU away , that may or may not be gravitationally bound to the other two . X Persei is a double system in this association ; one component is a hot , bright star and the other is a neutron star . With an apparent magnitude of 6 @.@ 72 , it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye even in perfectly dark conditions . The system is an X @-@ ray source and the primary star appears to be undergoing substantial mass loss . Once thought to be a member of the Perseus OB2 Association , Omicron Persei is a multiple star system with a combined visual magnitude of 3 @.@ 85 . It is composed of two blue @-@ white stars — a giant of spectral class B1.5 and main sequence star of B3 — which orbit each other every 4 @.@ 5 days and are distorted into ovoids due to their small separation . The system has a third star about which little is known . At an estimated distance of 1475 light @-@ years from Earth , the system is now thought to lie too far from the center of the Zeta Persei group to belong to it .
GRO J0422 + 32 ( V518 Persei ) is another X @-@ ray binary in Perseus . One component is a red dwarf star of spectral type M4.5V , which orbits a mysterious dense and heavy object — possibly a black hole — every 5 @.@ 1 hours . The system is an X @-@ ray nova , meaning that it experiences periodic outbursts in the X @-@ ray band of the electromagnetic spectrum . If the system does indeed contain a black hole , it would be the smallest one ever recorded . Further analysis in 2012 calculated a mass of 2 @.@ 1 solar masses , which raises questions as to what the object actually is as it appears to be too small to be a black hole .
GK Persei , also known as Nova Persei 1901 , is a bright nova that appeared halfway between Algol and Delta Persei . Discovered on 21 February 1901 by Scottish amateur astronomer Thomas David Anderson , it peaked at magnitude 0 @.@ 2 — almost as bright as Capella and Vega . It faded to magnitude 13 around 30 years after its peak brightness . Xi Persei , traditionally known as Menkhib , a blue giant of spectral type O7III , is one of the hottest bright stars in the sky , with a surface temperature of 37 @,@ 500 K. It is one of the more massive stars , being between 26 and 32 solar masses , and is 330 @,@ 000 times as luminous as our Sun .
Named Gorgonea Tertia , Rho Persei varies in brightness like Algol , but is a pulsating rather than eclipsing star . At an advanced stage of stellar evolution , it is a red giant that has expanded for the second time to have a radius around 150 times that of our Sun . Its helium has been fused into heavier elements and its core is composed of carbon and oxygen . It is a semiregular variable star of the Mu Cephei type , whose apparent magnitude varies between 3 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 0 with periods of 50 , 120 and 250 days . The Double Cluster contains three even larger stars , each over 700 solar radii : S , RS , and SU Persei are all semiregular pulsating M @-@ type supergiants . The stars are not visible to the naked eye ; SU Persei , the brightest of the three , has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 9 and thus is visible through binoculars . AX Persei is another binary star , the primary component is a red giant in an advanced phase of stellar evolution , which is transferring material onto an accretion disc around a smaller star . The star system is one of the few eclipsing symbiotic binaries , but is unusual because the secondary star is not a white dwarf , but an A @-@ type star . DY Persei is a variable star that is the prototype of DY Persei variables , which are carbon @-@ rich R Coronae Borealis variables that exhibit the variability of asymptotic giant branch stars . DY Persei itself is a carbon star that is too dim to see through binoculars , with an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 6 .
Seven stars in Perseus have been found to have planetary systems . V718 Persei is a star in the young open cluster IC 348 that appears to be periodically eclipsed by a giant planet every 4 @.@ 7 years . This has been inferred to be an object with a maximum mass of 6 times that of Jupiter and an orbital radius of 3 @.@ 3 AU .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The galactic plane of the Milky Way passes through Perseus , but is much less obvious than elsewhere in the sky as it is mostly obscured by molecular clouds . The Perseus Arm is a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy and stretches across the sky from the constellation Cassiopeia through Perseus and Auriga to Gemini and Monoceros . This segment is towards the rim of the galaxy .
Within the Perseus Arm lie two open clusters ( NGC 869 and NGC 884 ) known as the Double Cluster . Sometimes known as h and Chi ( χ ) Persei respectively , they are easily visible through binoculars and small telescopes . Both lie more than 7 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Earth and are several hundred light @-@ years apart . The Double Cluster was first recorded during the reign of the Chinese king Tsung @-@ K 'ang , who reigned during the Xia dynasty ( 2858 – 2146 BCE ) . Both clusters are of approximately magnitude 4 and 0 @.@ 5 degrees in diameter . The two are Trumpler class I 3 r clusters , though NGC 869 is a Shapley class f and NGC 884 is a Shapley class e cluster . These classifications indicate that they are both quite rich ( dense ) ; NGC 869 is the richer of the pair . The clusters are both distinct from the surrounding star field and are clearly concentrated at their centers . The constituent stars , numbering over 100 in each cluster , range widely in brightness .
M34 is an open cluster that appears at magnitude 5 @.@ 5 , and is approximately 1 @,@ 500 light @-@ years from Earth . It contains about 100 stars scattered over a field of view larger than that of the full moon . M34 can be resolved with good eyesight but is best viewed using a telescope at low magnifications . IC 348 is a somewhat young open cluster that is still contained within the nebula from which its stars formed . It is located about 1 @,@ 027 light @-@ years from Earth , is about 2 million years old , and contains many stars with circumstellar disks . Many brown dwarfs have been discovered in this cluster due to its age ; since brown dwarfs cool as they age , it is easier to find them in younger clusters .
There are many nebulae in Perseus . M76 is a planetary nebula , also called the Little Dumbbell Nebula . It appears two arc @-@ minutes by one arc @-@ minute across and has an apparent brightness of magnitude 10 @.@ 1 . NGC 1499 , also known as the California Nebula , is an emission nebula that was discovered in 1884 – 85 by American astronomer Edward E. Barnard . It is very difficult to observe visually because its low surface brightness makes it appear dimmer than most other emission nebulae . NGC 1333 is a reflection nebula and a star @-@ forming region . Perseus also contains a giant molecular cloud , called the Perseus molecular cloud ; it belongs to the Orion Spur and is known for its low rate of star formation compared to similar clouds .
Perseus contains some notable galaxies . NGC 1023 is a barred spiral galaxy of magnitude 10 @.@ 35 , around 11 @.@ 6 million pc ( 38 million ly ) from Earth . It is the principal member of the NGC 1023 group of galaxies and is possibly interacting with another galaxy . NGC 1260 is either a lenticular or tightly @-@ wound spiral galaxy about 76 @.@ 7 million pc ( 250 million ly ) from Earth . It was the host galaxy of the supernova SN 2006gy , one of the brightest ever recorded . It is a member of the Perseus cluster ( Abell 426 ) , a massive galaxy cluster located 76 @.@ 6 million pc ( 250 million ly ) from Earth . With a redshift of 0 @.@ 0179 , Abell 426 is the closest major cluster to the Earth . NGC 1275 , a component of the cluster , is a Seyfert galaxy containing an active nucleus that produces jets of material , surrounding the galaxy with massive bubbles . These bubbles create sound waves that travel through the Perseus Cluster , sounding a B flat 57 octaves below middle C. This galaxy is a cD galaxy that has undergone many galactic mergers throughout its existence , as evidenced by the " high velocity system " — the remnants of a smaller galaxy — surrounding it . Its active nucleus is a strong source of radio waves .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
The Perseids are a prominent annual meteor shower that appear to radiate from Perseus from mid @-@ July , peaking in activity between 9 and 14 August each year . Associated with Comet Swift – Tuttle , they have been observed for about 2 @,@ 000 years . The September Epsilon Perseids , discovered in 2012 , are a meteor shower with an unknown parent body in the Oort cloud .
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= Brolga =
The brolga ( Grus rubicunda ) , formerly known as the native companion , is a bird in the crane family . It has also been given the name Australian crane , a term coined in 1865 by well @-@ known ornithological artist John Gould in his Birds of Australia .
The brolga is a common , gregarious wetland bird species of tropical and south @-@ eastern Australia and New Guinea . It is a tall , upright bird with a small head , long beak , slender neck and long legs . The plumage is mainly grey , with black wing tips , and it has an orange @-@ red band of colour on its head . It is well known for its intricate mating dance . The nest is built of sticks on an island in marshland and usually two eggs are laid . Incubation takes 32 days and the newly hatched young are precocial . The adult diet is mostly plant matter , but invertebrates and small vertebrates are also eaten .
Although the bird is not considered endangered over the majority of its range , populations are showing some decline , especially in southern Australia , and local action plans are being undertaken in some areas . It is the official bird emblem of the state of Queensland .
= = Description = =
The brolga is a tall bird with a large beak , long slender neck and stilt @-@ like legs . The sexes are indistinguishable in appearance though the females are usually a little smaller . The adult has a grey @-@ green , skin @-@ covered crown , and the face , cheeks and throat pouch are also featherless and are coral red . Other parts of the head are olive green and clothed in dark bristles . The gular pouch , which is particularly pendulous in adult males , is covered with such dense bristles as to make it appear black . The beak is greyish @-@ green , long and slender , and the iris is yellowish @-@ orange . The ear coverts appear as a grey patch of small feathers surrounded by red naked skin and the body plumage is silvery @-@ grey . The feathers on the back and the wing coverts have pale margins . The primary wing feathers are black and the secondaries grey . The legs and feet are greyish @-@ black . Juveniles lack the red band and have fully feathered heads with dark irises . A fully @-@ grown brolga can reach a height of 0 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 2 ft 4 in to 4 ft 3 in ) and has a wingspan of 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 5 ft 7 in to 7 ft 10 in ) . Adult males average slightly less than 7 kilograms ( 15 lb ) with females averaging a little under 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) . The weight can range from 3 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 7 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 2 to 19 @.@ 2 lb ) .
The brolga can easily be confused with the sarus crane , however the latter 's red head colouring extends partly down the neck while the brolga 's is confined to the head . The brolga is more silvery @-@ grey in colour than the sarus , the legs are blackish rather than pink and the trumpeting and grating calls it makes are at a lower pitch . Additionally , in Australia the range of the sarus is limited to a few scattered localities in northern Australia , compared to the more widespread distribution of the brolga .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Brolgas are widespread and often abundant in north and north @-@ east Australia , especially north @-@ east Queensland , and are common as far south as Victoria . They are also found in southern New Guinea and as rare vagrants in New Zealand and the northern part of Western Australia . The population in northern Australia is estimated at between 20 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 birds and in southern Australia , 1 @,@ 000 birds . The numbers of individuals in New Guinea are unknown .
Brolgas are non @-@ migratory but move to different areas in response to seasonal rains . In northern Australia , during the dry season ( June to November ) , populations of brolgas are gregarious and largely occupy a strip of freshwater marshland up to 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) wide , lying between the coastal hills and the saline mangrove swamps that fringe the sea . They also visit freshwater lagoons in the vicinity , river and tidal pools , the edges of lakes and irrigated farmland . In December , shortly before the start of the monsoon season , they disperse to their breeding areas . Some remain near the coast but others move up to 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) inland to similar habitats . Little is known of the movements and habitats of the New Guinea populations .
Further south , in Victoria and New South Wales , rainfall is spread more evenly throughout the year and the driest season lasts from December to May . At this time , southern populations congregate in inland flocking areas which include upland marshes , the edges of reservoirs and lakes , pastures and agricultural land . When rain arrives in June and July , they disperse to the coastal freshwater marshes , shallow lakes , wet meadows and other wetlands where they breed .
Queensland is the state in which the greatest numbers of brolgas are found , and sometimes flocks of over 1 @,@ 000 individuals are seen here . The bird is the official bird emblem for the state and also appears on its coat of arms .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Brolgas are gregarious creatures ; the basic social unit is a pair or small family group of about three or four birds , usually parents together with juvenile offspring , though some of such groups are unrelated . In the non @-@ breeding season , they gather into large flocks , which appear to be many self @-@ contained individual groups rather than a single social unit . Within the flock , families tend to remain separate and to coordinate their activities with one another rather than with the flock as a whole .
When taking off from the ground the flight is ungainly , with much flapping of wings . The bird 's black wingtips are visible while it is in the air and once it gathers speed , its flight is much more graceful and it often ascends to great heights . Here it may be barely discernible as it wheels in great circles , sometimes emitting its hoarse cry .
= = = Diet = = =
Brolgas are omnivorous and forage in wetlands and saltwater marshes . They tear up the ground with their powerful beaks in search of bulbs and edible roots . Northern populations mainly eat tubers of the bulkuru sedge ( Eleocharis dulcis ) which they extract by digging holes in the mud , but these are not available south of Brisbane . They also eat the shoots and leaves of wetland and upland plants , cereal grains , seeds , insects , mollusks , crustaceans , frogs and lizards . In saltwater marshes they may drink saline water and they have glands near their eyes through which they can excrete excess salt .
= = = Mating and breeding = = =
Brolgas are monogamous and usually bond for life , though new pairings may follow a fatality of one individual . A feature of a bonded couple is the synchronous calling which the female usually initiates . She stands with her wings folded and beak pointed to the sky and emits a series of trumpeting calls . The male stands alongside in a similar posture but with his wings flared and primaries drooping . He emits one longer call for every two emitted by the female .
Brolgas are well known for their ritualised , intricate mating dances . The performance begins with a bird picking up some grass and tossing it into the air before catching it in its bill . The bird then jumps a metre ( yard ) into the air with outstretched wings and continues by stretching its neck , bowing , strutting around , calling and bobbing its head up and down . Sometimes just one brolga dances for its mate ; often they dance in pairs ; and sometimes a whole group of about a dozen dance together , lining up roughly opposite each other before they start .
The brolga breeds throughout its range in Australia and New Guinea . The start of the breeding season is largely determined by rainfall rather than the time of year ; thus the season is February to May after the rainy season in the monsoonal areas , and September to December in southern Australia . The flocks split up and pairs establish nesting territories in wetlands . In food @-@ rich habitats , nests can be quite close together , and are often found in the same area as those of the sarus crane . The nest , which is built by both sexes , is a raised mound of sticks , uprooted grass , and other plant material sited on a small island in shallow water , or occasionally floating . If no grasses are available , mud or roots unearthed from marsh beds are employed . Sometimes the birds make hardly any nest , take over a disused swan nest , or simply lay on bare ground .
There is a single brood produced per year . The clutch size is usually two , but occasionally one or three eggs are laid about two days apart . The dull white eggs are sparsely spotted or blotched with reddish brown , with the markings being denser at the larger end of the egg . They measure 95 by 61 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 4 in ) . Both sexes incubate the eggs with the female sitting on the nest at night . Hatching is not synchronised , and occurs after about thirty @-@ two days of incubation . The newly hatched chicks are covered with grey down and weigh about 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) . They are precocial and are able to leave the nest within a day or two . Both parents feed and guard the young . The chicks fledge within four or five weeks , are fully feathered within three months and are able to fly about two weeks later . When threatened , they hide and stay quiet while the parents perform a broken @-@ wing display to distract the predator . The adults continue to protect the young for up to eleven months , or for nearly two years if they do not breed again in the interim .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists the brolga as being of " least concern " . This is because it has a large range and a population of more than 10 @,@ 000 individuals . Although the population may be declining slowly , this is not at a rate that would warrant the brolga being included in a more vulnerable category . Brolga are not listed as threatened on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . However , their conservation status varies from state to state within Australia . For example , the brolga is listed as threatened under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ( 1988 ) . Under this Act , an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared . It is also included in the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria where it is listed as vulnerable .
The chief threats faced by the brolga , particularly in the southern part of its range , are habitat destruction , the drainage of wetlands , collision with powerlines , and predation by the introduced red fox . It is more secure in its northern habitat as the land is mostly unsuitable for farming and much of it is in national parks or private ownership , but changes in vegetation cover , encouraged by the rooting activities of feral pigs , may reduce the abundance of bulkuru sedge and may make the brolga more vulnerable by providing cover for predators .
Conservation measures being undertaken include international cooperation , legal protection , research , monitoring , habitat management , education and the maintenance of captive flocks for propagation and reintroduction . Although the bird breeds well in the wild , it has proved much more problematic to get it to breed while in captivity . The International Crane Foundation , a conservation organisation located in Baraboo , Wisconsin , began a captive breeding programme with three pairs of wild brolga captured in Australia in 1972 . In 1984 they imported twelve fertile eggs for further breeding .
= = Taxonomy = =
When first described by the naturalist George Perry in 1810 , the brolga was misclassified as a species of Ardea , the genus that includes the herons and egrets . It is in fact a member of the Gruiformes — the order that includes the crakes , rails , and cranes , and a member of the genus Grus . The ornithologist John Gould used the name Grus australasianus when he wrote about it and noted it to be widespread in the north and east of Australia . He also recorded that it was easy to tame , and that James Macarthur had kept a pair at his home in Camden . Calling it the Australian Crane , he mentioned that its early colonial name had been Native Companion . The Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union made brolga , a popular name derived from Gamilaraay burralga , the official name for the bird in 1926 .
In 1976 , it was suggested that the brolga , sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) and white @-@ naped crane ( Grus vipio ) formed a natural group on the basis of similarities in their calls . This was further confirmed by molecular studies of their DNA . These also showed that the brolga is more closely related to the white @-@ naped crane than it is to the morphologically more similar sarus crane .
There have traditionally been considered to be two subspecies ; G.r. argentea is the northern Australian crane and is found in Western Australia , the Northern Territory and western Queensland ; G.r. rubicunda , the southern Australian crane , occurs in New Guinea , Queensland , New South Wales , Victoria and South Australia . The two subspecies intergrade where their ranges coincide . Some authorities now consider that there are no subspecies , merely two separate populations of the bird adapted to breed at different periods of the year .
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= Steve Dodd =
Steve Dodd ( 1 June 1928 – 10 November 2014 ) was an Indigenous Australian actor , notable for playing indigenous characters across seven decades of Australian film . After beginning his working life as a stockman and rodeo rider , Dodd was given his first film roles by prominent Australian actor Chips Rafferty . His career was interrupted by six years in the Australian Army during the Korean War , and limited by typecasting .
Dodd performed in several major Australian movies , including Gallipoli and The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith , in which he played Tabidgi , the murdering uncle of the lead character . He also held minor parts in Australia @-@ based international film productions including The Coca @-@ Cola Kid , Quigley Down Under and The Matrix . He likewise appeared in minor roles in early Australian television series , such as Homicide and Rush , as well as later series including The Flying Doctors . In 2013 , Dodd was honoured with the Jimmy Little Lifetime Achievement Award at the 19th Deadly Awards at the Sydney Opera House . He died in November 2014 .
= = Life and career outside acting = =
Dodd , also known as Mullawa or Mulla walla ( flying fish ) , was an Arunta or Arrente Indigenous man from central Australia . It is unclear if Dodd was from the Northern Territory or South Australia : one source states he was born in Alice Springs , and another states he was born at the Hermannsburg Mission , to the town 's south @-@ west . However a third source suggests Oodnadatta , across the border in South Australia , while Dodd himself , in a 2011 interview , stated he was South Australian . A 1953 newspaper report states that he was from Coober Pedy and had been resident at Colebrook Home , which housed Indigenous children from northern South Australia ; some residents subsequently identified as members of the Stolen Generation . The only record of a birth date is in the Department of Veterans ' Affairs ' Nominal Roll of Australian Veterans of the Korean War , which gives 1 June 1928 .
In 1966 he was reported to be a bachelor ; later sources shed no light on his marital status . In 1971 he remarked in an interview that his father and six brothers were living in the Northern Territory .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , Indigenous Australian men played significant roles as stockmen in the Australian pastoral industry , and as entertainers participating in competitive demonstrations of stockmen 's skills , referred to as rough riding . Dodd worked as a stockman , horse breaker and rodeo rider prior to and during his acting career , including a period working for rider and entertainer Smoky Dawson . He was a member of the Rough Riders Association , and gave exhibition rides at the Calgary Stampede in 1964 .
Dodd served in Korea , during a six @-@ year stint in the Australian Army , with the 1st Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ; his service number was 41018 . Interviewed in May 2011 he indicated that he " was the first Aboriginal to sign up from South Australia to go to Korea " . A photograph of him in uniform in Korea is amongst images on permanent display at the Australian War Memorial . From 1969 to at least 1973 Dodd worked as a guide for Airlines of New South Wales , escorting tours to Uluru and other locations in central Australia . Dodd has stated that he demonstrated boomerang and spear @-@ throwing at Expo 70 , and at an Olympic Games ( though which year is unknown ) . He was also a participant in a re @-@ enactment of Captain James Cook 's landing in Australia , as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations .
In 1985 , Dodd was living in Manly , New South Wales , having spent fifteen years in Sydney 's northern suburbs . For the last two decades of his life , Dodd lived at St Georges Basin on the south coast of New South Wales , where he died on 10 November 2014 , aged 86 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Dodd 's first opportunity to act in Australian film came in 1946 , when actor Chips Rafferty noticed Dodd on the set of The Overlanders and gave him a small role . It was the first of three Rafferty movies in which Dodd secured a part , the second being Bitter Springs in 1950 . This film was notable for being " a serious study of the relations of white settlers and Aborigines " and " more honest than most Australian film @-@ makers ventured to be at that time " .
Film writer Bruce Molloy described the film as a " lucid and dramatically effective representation " of black – white conflict in colonial Australia , giving Indigenous Australians " a degree of justice long denied them in cinematic representation " .
Dodd was working on Bitter Springs as a tracker and interpreter for actor Michael Pate when Rafferty arranged for him to have an on @-@ screen role . There was a positive relationship between the Indigenous Arrente people and the cast and crew , particularly Rafferty , involved in the location filming for Bitter Springs in the area of Quorn in northern South Australia . Michael Pate said that Rafferty " wasn 't a prejudiced person ... Chips was a person who appreciated the Aborigine [ sic ] very much ... he got on very well with the people " . Dodd , meanwhile , appreciated Rafferty 's vision for an Australian film industry and its potential to provide opportunities for Indigenous Australians .
Rafferty was the star of the film that gave Dodd his third minor screen role , Kangaroo ( 1952 ) .
In 1957 , the J Arthur Rank Organisation , an English company , came to Australia to make a film adaptation of Robbery Under Arms , an Australian colonial novel by Rolf Boldrewood . Dodd travelled to Britain and the United States with the company for six months ; in what role is unknown . He said he worked with Rafferty on a fourth film , Wake in Fright , in 1971 , but Dodd 's name does not appear in published cast lists . In the same year , he was cast in the role of an Aboriginal caretaker for a film he said was called Sacrifice .
On stage , Dodd performed the role of Darky Morris in a 1966 J.C. Williamson stage production of Desire of the Moth , with a season of nearly three months in Melbourne and Sydney . In 1971 , he appeared in an early Sydney production of Kevin Gilbert 's seminal work , The Cherry Pickers .
There were numerous small television roles for Dodd . His work for Smoky Dawson included appearing in a television production , Adventure with Smoky Dawson : Tim Goes Walkabout , broadcast in June 1966 . In other television work , Dodd participated in a Channel 7 documentary series about pioneering Australian transport company Cobb and Co , and also worked on several documentary programs for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Dodd had minor roles in many early Australian TV dramas of the 1960s and 1970s , including Skippy the Bush Kangaroo , Division 4 , Delta ( 1969 ) , Riptide ( 1969 ) , Woobinda – Animal Doctor ( 1970 ) , Spyforce ( 1972 – 73 ) , Homicide ( 1974 ) , and Rush ( 1976 ) . One of these , Woobinda – Animal Doctor , marked the first appearance of an Indigenous Australian in a television series lead role – not by Dodd , but by a Bindi Williams , playing an adopted son of the show 's star . In 1973 it was reported that a television film Marra Marra featuring prominent Aboriginal actors David Gumpilil and Bob Maza , together with Dodd and Zac Martin , had been completed .
Although Dodd obtained small parts in several television series , for many years he and his fellow Aboriginal actors found themselves included in only minor and typecast roles in television productions . According to Indigenous actor , historian and activist Gary Foley , Dodd joked that " he was sick of roles where his total dialogue was , ' he went that way , Boss ! ' " Reflecting on this issue , a commentator remarked on the 1978 film Little Boy Lost : " There are many irrelevant scenes , the most obvious one being where Tracker Bindi ( Steve Dodd ) , an Aboriginal , is introduced – yet another tired reinforcement of a false stereotype . "
= = = Later career = = =
Dodd contributed to several films in which issues facing Indigenous Australians , such as land rights and race relations , were the central subjects . These appearances included Bitter Springs ( mentioned above ) and The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith ( 1978 ) , the first of two films in which he appeared alongside Jack Thompson . Dodd played the character of Tabidgi , the uncle of the lead character , Aboriginal man Jimmie Blacksmith . In the film , Jimmie Blacksmith marries a white woman named Gilda Marshall ( played by Angela Punch McGregor ) . When they have a baby , Dodd 's character , " a tribal elder , ... is worried about Jimmie 's marriage to a white woman and has brought him a talisman to keep him safe " . Pauline Kael , writing in The New Yorker , described the performances of the two black professional actors ( Jack Charles and Dodd ) as " wonderful as sots : ... Steve Dodds [ sic ] , who is tried for murder and simply says , ' You 'd think it would take a good while to make up your mind to kill someone and then to kill them , but take my word for it , it only takes a second ' " .
Dodd 's career was busiest in the 1980s , and by 1985 it was reported that he had acted in 55 movies or television features . In 1981 he played Billy Snakeskin in the film Gallipoli , about the fate of young men who participated in the World War I Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 . This was followed by parts in Chase Through the Night and Essington , both in 1984 . In 1985 he played the role of Mr Joe in The Coca @-@ Cola Kid , an Australian romantic comedy with an international cast including Eric Roberts and Greta Scacchi . In 1986 he appeared in the film Short Changed , while through the mid @-@ 1980s he had minor parts in the popular television series The Flying Doctors ( 1985 – 1988 ) .
The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith was not the only film in which Dodd appeared that addressed topical Indigenous issues of the day . A decade after Jimmie Blacksmith , Dodd performed in Ground Zero , again with Jack Thompson in one of the lead roles . This film is a thriller based on claims that Indigenous Australians were used as human guinea pigs in the British nuclear tests at Maralinga . The film uses as its context the McClelland Royal Commission , which was investigating radioactive contamination at the site . In the film , Dodd plays a minor character named Freddy Tjapaljarri .
Sources differ on whether Dodd had a part in Evil Angels ( released as A Cry in the Dark outside of Australia and New Zealand ) , the 1988 film about the Azaria Chamberlain disappearance , with Dodd 's name not included in the cast list published by Australian Film 1978 – 1994 , but appearing in the longer cast listing provided by IMDb . In 1988 he played a minor role in Kadaicha , an unreleased horror film about a series of unexplained murders . In 1990 Dodd appeared in two films : Quigley Down Under , a western made in Australia but starring American Tom Selleck and Briton Alan Rickman ; and The Crossing , an Australian drama set in a country town .
Dodd 's career returned to politically contentious Indigenous issues when he played a minor role , of Kummengu , in the 1991 film Deadly . This film is a police drama based around the death of an Indigenous man in police custody . As in Ground Zero , the subject was very topical : the movie was released at the same time as the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody , which had for four years been examining why so many Indigenous Australians died in police detention .
In 1999 , Dodd was one of three actors in Wind , a short film portraying the pursuit of an old Aboriginal man ( Dodd ) by a young black tracker and a white police sergeant . That same year was marked by the most commercially successful film of his career , The Matrix . Later , Dodd played minor roles in an episode of television series The Alice ( 2006 ) and the movies My Country ( 2007 ) and Broken Sun ( 2008 ) ; by this time his career in film and television had lasted for over sixty years .
In 2013 , Dodd received the Jimmy Little Lifetime Achievement Award at the 19th Deadly Awards at the Sydney Opera House . Departing from tradition by presenting the award to someone who was not primarily a musician , the organisers described Dodd as " an actor that created a pathway for others across the entire arts and music sectors to follow , at a time when typecasting stereotypes and discrimination was the ' norm ' in Australia 's arts industry " .
= = Filmography = =
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= Society and culture of the Han dynasty =
The Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) was a period of ancient China divided into the Western Han ( 206 BC – 9 AD ) and Eastern Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) periods , when the capital cities were located at Chang 'an and Luoyang , respectively . It was founded by Emperor Gaozu of Han and briefly interrupted by the regime of Wang Mang ( r . 9 – 23 CE ) who usurped the throne from a child Han emperor .
The Han dynasty was an age of great economic , technological , cultural , and social progress in China . Its society was governed by an emperor who shared power with an official bureaucracy and semi @-@ feudal nobility . Its laws , customs , literature , and education were largely guided by the philosophy and ethical system of Confucianism , yet the influence of Legalism and Daoism ( from the previous Zhou dynasty ) could still be seen . Members of the scholarly @-@ gentry class who aspired to hold public office were required to receive a Confucian @-@ based education . A new synthetic ideology of Han Confucianism was created when the scholar Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BCE ) united the Confucian canon allegedly edited by Kongzi , or Confucius ( 551 – 479 BCE ) , with cosmological cycles of yin and yang and the Chinese five elements .
Although the social status of nobles , officials , farmers , and artisan @-@ craftsmen were considered above the station of the lowly registered merchant , wealthy and successful businessmen acquired huge fortunes which allowed them to rival the social prestige of even the most powerful nobles and highest officials . Slaves were at the bottom of the social order , yet they represented only a tiny portion of the overall population . Retainers attached themselves to the estates of wealthy landowners , while medical physicians and state @-@ employed religious occultists could make a decent living . People of all social classes believed in various deities , spirits , immortals , and demons . While Han Daoists were organized into small groups chiefly concerned with achieving immortality through various means , by the mid 2nd century CE they formed large hierarchical religious societies that challenged imperial authority and viewed Laozi ( fl . 6th century BCE ) as a holy prophet .
The typical Han @-@ era Chinese household contained a nuclear family with an average of four to five members , unlike in later dynasties when multiple generations and extended family members commonly lived in the same household . Families were patrilineal , which made the father the supreme head of the house . Arranged marriages were the norm , while a new wife was expected to join the clan of her husband . Having sons over daughters was considered extremely important for the sake of carrying on ancestor worship . Although girls and women were expected by custom and Confucian tradition to behave passively towards their male relatives , mothers were given a familial status above that of their sons . Women also engaged in various professions in and outside of the home and were given protection under the law . The empress was superior in status to the male relatives of her consort clan , while the mother of the emperor — the empress dowager — had the authority to override his decisions and choose his successor ( if one had not been appointed before his death ) .
= = Social class = =
= = = Royal family , regents , nobles , and eunuchs = = =
At the apex of Han society was the emperor , a member of the Liu family and thus a descendant of the founder Emperor Gaozu ( r . 202 – 195 BCE ) . His subjects were not allowed to address him by name ; instead they used indirect references such as " under the steps to the throne " ( bixia 陛下 ) or " superior one " ( shang 上 ) . If a commoner , government minister , or noble entered the palace without official permission , the punishment was execution . Although the Commandant of Justice — one of the central government 's Nine Ministers — was in charge of meting out sentences in court cases , the emperor not only had the ability to override the Commandant 's decision , but also had the sole ability to draft new laws or repeal old ones . An emperor could pardon anyone and grant general amnesties . Although the emperor often obeyed the majority consensus of his ministers in court conferences ( tingyi 廷議 ) , his approval was still needed for any state policy decision and he sometimes even rejected the majority opinion .
The emperor 's most powerful relative was the empress dowager , widow to the previous emperor and usually the natural mother of the emperor . If the grandmother of an emperor — the grand empress dowager — was still alive during his reign , she enjoyed a superior position over the empress dowager . Emperors often sought the approval of the empress dowager for their decisions . If an emperor was only a child , he acted merely as a figurehead while the empress dowager dominated court politics . She not only had the right to issue edicts and pardons , but if the emperor died without a designated heir , she had the sole right to appoint a new emperor . Below the empress dowager were the empress and imperial concubines . Although she was the wife of the emperor , the empress 's position at court was not secure and she could be removed by the emperor . However , the empress did enjoy the submission of concubines as her subordinates , who advocated the elevation of their sons over the empress 's at their own peril .
In the early Western Han , imperial relatives and some military officers who had served Emperor Gaozu were made kings who ruled over large semi @-@ autonomous fiefs , but once the non @-@ related kings had died off , an imperial edict outlawed all non @-@ Liu family members from becoming kings . The emperor 's brothers , paternal cousins , brother 's sons , and emperor 's sons — excluding the heir apparent — were made kings . The emperor 's sisters and daughters were made princesses with fiefs . Although the central government eventually stripped away the political power of the kings and appointed their administrative staffs , kings still had a right to collect a portion of the taxes in their territory as personal income and enjoyed a social status that ranked just below the emperor . Each king had a son designated to be heir apparent , while his other sons and brothers were given the rank of marquess and ruled over small marquessates where a portion of the taxes went to their private purse . Although kings and marquesses enjoyed many privileges , the imperial court was at times aggressive towards them to check their power . Starting with Emperor Gaozu 's reign , thousands of noble families , including those from the royal houses of Qi , Chu , Yan , Zhao , Han , and Wei from the Warring States period , were forcibly moved to the vicinity of the capital Chang 'an . In the first half of Western Han , resettlement could also be imposed on powerful and wealthy officials as well as individuals who owned property worth more than a million cash .
The position of regent ( officially known as General @-@ in @-@ Chief 大將軍 ) was created during Emperor Wu 's reign ( r . 141 – 87 BCE ) when he appointed three officials to form a triumvirate regency over the central government while the child Emperor Zhao ( r . 87 – 74 BCE ) sat on the throne . Regents were often relatives @-@ in @-@ law to the emperor through his empress 's family , but they could also be men of lowly means who depended on the emperor 's favor to advance their position at court . Eunuchs who maintained the harem of the palace could also gain a similar level of power . They often came from the middle class and had links to trade . In the Western Han , there are only a handful of examples where eunuchs rose to power since the official bureaucracy was strong enough to suppress them . After the eunuch Shi Xian ( 石顯 ) became the Prefect of the Palace Masters of Writing ( 中尚書 ) , Emperor Yuan ( r . 48 – 33 BCE ) relinquished much of his authority to him , so that he was allowed to make vital policy decisions and was respected by officials . However , Shi Xian was expelled from office once Emperor Cheng ( 33 – 7 BCE ) took the throne . No palace eunuch would obtain comparable authority again until after 92 CE , when the eunuchs led by Zheng Zhong ( d . 107 CE ) sided with Emperor He ( r . 88 – 105 CE ) in a coup to overthrow the Dou 竇 clan of the empress dowager . Officials complained when eunuchs like Sun Cheng ( d . 132 CE ) were awarded by Emperor Shun ( r . 125 – 144 CE ) with marquessates , yet after the year 135 CE the eunuchs were given legal authority to pass on fiefs to adopted sons . Although Emperor Ling ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) relinquished a great deal of authority to eunuchs Zhao Zhong ( d . 189 CE ) and Zhang Rang ( d . 189 CE ) , the eunuchs were slaughtered in 189 CE when Yuan Shao ( d . 202 CE ) besieged and stormed the palaces of Luoyang .
= = = Gentry scholars and officials = = =
Those who served in government had a privileged position in Han society that was just one tier below the nobles ( yet some high officials were also ennobled and had fiefs ) . They could not be arrested for crimes unless permission was granted by the emperor . However , when officials were arrested , they were imprisoned and fettered like commoners . Their punishments in court also had to gain the approval of the emperor . Officials were not exempt from execution , yet they were often given a chance to commit suicide as a dignified alternative . The most senior posts were the Three Excellencies — excluding the Grand Tutor , a post that was irregularly occupied . The individual titles and functions of the Three Excellencies changed from Western to Eastern Han . However , their annual salaries remained at 10 @,@ 000 dan ( 石 ) of grain , largely commuted to payments in coin cash and luxury items like silk . Below them were the Nine Ministers , each of whom headed a major government bureau and earned 2 @,@ 000 bushels a year . The lowest @-@ paid government employees made Equivalent to 100 bushels annually . It was thought that wealthy officials would be less tempted by bribes . Therefore , in the beginning of the dynasty , having a total assessed taxable wealth of one hundred thousand coins was a prerequisite for holding office . This was reduced to forty thousand coins in 142 BCE , yet from Emperor Wu 's reign onwards this policy was no longer enforced .
Starting in Western Han was a system of recommendation where local officials submitted proposals to the capital on which of their subordinates were worthy candidates for holding office ; this created a patron @-@ client relationship between former superiors and successful nominees to higher office . With the enhanced prestige of the consort clan under Empress Dowager Dou ( d . 97 CE ) , a succession of regents from her clan and others amassed a large amount of clients whose chances of promotion hinged on the political survival of the empress dowager 's clan , which was often short @-@ lived . Aside from patron @-@ client relationships , one could use family connections to secure office . Patricia Ebrey writes that in the Western Han , access to public office and promotion through social mobility were open to a larger segment of the populace than in Eastern Han . A third of the two hundred and fifty @-@ two Eastern Han government officials who had biographies in the Book of Later Han were sons or grandsons of officials , while a fifth came from prominent provincial families or had ancestors who had served as officials . For forty @-@ six of the one hundred and ten years between 86 and 196 CE , at least one post of the Three Excellencies was occupied by a member of either the Yuan or Yang clan .
Many central government officials also began their careers as subordinate officers for commandery @-@ level administrations . There are only rare cases ( i.e. involving military merit during rebellions of late Eastern Han ) when subordinate officers of county @-@ level administrations advanced to the level of central government . Even if one secured an office by these means , an official was still expected to be competent , thus a formal education became the hallmark of those aspiring to fill public office . In addition to private tutoring , the Imperial University was established in 124 BCE which then accommodated only fifty pupils , but by the 2nd century CE the student body had reached about thirty thousand . These students could be appointed by the emperor to various government posts according to their examination grades .
Despite a decline in social mobility for those of less prominent clans , the local elites became far more integrated into a nationwide upper class social structure during the Eastern Han period , thus expanding the classification of who belonged to the upper class . The emerging gentry class — which became fully consolidated during the Eastern Han — consisted of unemployed scholars , teachers , students , and government officials . These men , although geographically separated and mired in local activities , started to view themselves as participants in wider national affairs of politics and scholarship . They recognized shared values of filial piety , deference , and emphasizing study in the Five Classics over holding public office . Emperors Yuan and Cheng were forced to abandon their resettlement schemes for officials and their families around the royal tombs settlement in 40 BCE and 15 BCE , respectively ; unlike the days of Emperor Wu , historian Cho @-@ Yun Hsu asserts that at this point officials and scholars had so much influence in both local and national @-@ level politics that to forcibly relocate them became unthinkable .
In a show of solidarity against the eunuchs ' interference in court politics with the coup against the regent Liang Ji ( d . 159 CE ) , a widespread student protest broke out where Imperial University students took to the streets and chanted the names of the eunuchs they opposed . At the instigation of the eunuchs , Emperor Huan ( r . 146 – 168 CE ) initiated the Partisan Prohibitions in 166 CE , a wide @-@ scale proscription against Li Ying ( 李膺 ) and his associates in the Imperial University and in the provinces from holding office ( branded as partisans : 黨人 ) . With the suicide of regent Dou Wu ( d . 168 CE ) in his confrontation with the eunuchs shortly after Emperor Ling ( r . 168 – 189 CE ) was placed on the throne , the eunuchs banned hundreds more from holding office while selling offices at the highest bidder . Repulsed by what they viewed as a corrupted government , many gentrymen considered a moral , scholarly life superior to holding office , and thus rejected nominations to serve at court . Until they were repealed in 184 CE ( to garner gentry support against the Yellow Turban Rebellion ) , the partisant prohibitions created a large independent , disaffected portion of the gentry who did not simply return to a reclusive life in their hometowns , but maintained contacts with other gentry throughout China and actively engaged in the protest movement . Acknowledging that the gentry class was able to recruit and certify itself , the Chancellor Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 CE ) established the nine @-@ rank system where a distinguished gentry figure in each county and commandery would assign local gentlemen a rank that the government would use to evaluate nominees for office .
= = = Farmers and landowners = = =
Many scholars who needed additional funds for education or vied for political office found farming as a decent profession which , although humble , was not looked down upon by fellow gentrymen . Wealthy nobles , officials , and merchants could own land , but they often did not cultivate it themselves and merely acted as absentee landlords while living in the city . They mostly relied on poor tenant farmers ( diannong 佃農 ) who paid rent in the form of roughly fifty percent of their produce in exchange for land , tools , draft animals , and a small house . Wage laborers ( gunong 雇農 ) and slaves were also employed on the estates of the wealthy , although they were not as numerous as tenants . During Western Han , the small independent owner @-@ cultivator represented the majority of farming peasants , yet their economic struggle to remain independent during times of war , natural disaster and crisis drove many into debt , banditry , slavery , and dramatically increased the number of landless tenants by late Eastern Han . The social status of poor independent owner @-@ cultivators was above tenants and wage laborers , yet below that of wealthy landowners . While wealthy landowners employed tenants and wage laborers , landowners who managed small to medium @-@ sized estates often acted as managers over their sons who tilled the fields and daughters who weaved clothes and engaged in sericulture to produce silk for the home or sale at market .
During the Western Han , farming peasants formed the majority of those who were conscripted by the government to perform corvée labor or military duties . For the labor service ( gengzu 更卒 ) , males aged fifteen to fifty @-@ six would be drafted for one month out of the year to work on construction projects and perform other duties in their commanderies and counties . For the military obligation ( zhengzu 正卒 ) , all males aged twenty @-@ three were to train for one year in one of three branches of the military : infantry , cavalry , or navy . Until they reached age fifty @-@ six , they were liable to perform one year of active service as troops sent to guard the frontiers from hostile nomads or to act as guards in the capital city . Significant changes were made to this system during Eastern Han ; a commuting tax could be paid by peasants if they wanted to avoid the one @-@ month labor obligation , since hired labor became more popular in construction and other projects . The military service obligation could even be avoided if a peasant paid a commuting tax , since the Eastern Han military became largely a volunteer force . Other commoners such as merchants were also able to join the army .
= = = Artisans and craftsmen = = =
Artisans and craftsmen during the Han had a socio @-@ economic status between that of farmers and merchants . Yet some were able to obtain a valuable income , such as one craftsman who made knives and swords and was able to eat food fit for nobles and officials . Artisans and craftsmen also enjoyed a legal status that was superior to merchants . Unlike lowly merchants , artisans were allowed by law to wear fancy silks , ride on horseback , and ride in carriages . There were also no laws which barred artisans from becoming officials . An artisan painter who worked at the Imperial Academy turned down many offers to become nominated for public office . In contrast , a bureaucrat who appointed a merchant as an official could suffer impeachment from office , while some even avoided nominations by claiming they were merchants .
Despite their legal privileges over that of merchants , the work of artisans was considered by Han Confucian scholars to be of secondary importance to that of farmers . This is perhaps largely because scholars and officials could not survive without the farmer 's product and taxes paid in grain . The government relied on taxed grain to fund its military campaigns and stored surplus grain to mitigate widespread famine during times of poor harvest . Despite the prominence given to farmers , Confucian scholars did accept that artisans performed a vital economic role . This view was only rejected by a small minority of Legalists , who advocated a society of only soldiers and farmers , and certain Daoists who wanted everyone to live in self @-@ sufficient villages and without commercial interests .
Artisans could be privately employed or they could work for the government . While government workshops employed convicts , corvée laborers , and state @-@ owned slaves to perform menial tasks , the master craftsman was paid a significant income for his work in producing luxury items such as bronze mirrors and lacquerwares .
= = = Merchants and industrialists = = =
With the exception of the bookseller and apothecary , the scholarly gentry class did not engage in trade professions , since scholars and government officials viewed the merchant class as lowly and contemptible . Sympathetic to the plight of farming peasants who had lost their land , a court edict of 94 CE stipulated that farming peasants who had been reduced to selling wares as street peddlers were not to be taxed as registered merchants , since the latter were heavily taxed by the state . Registered merchants , the majority being small urban shopkeepers , were obligated to pay commercial taxes in addition to the poll tax .
Registered merchants were forced by law to wear white @-@ colored clothes , an indication of their low status , and could be singled out for conscription into the armed forces and forced to resettle in lands to the deep south where malaria was known to be prevalent . In contrast , itinerant merchants were often richer due to their trade between a network of towns and cities and their ability to avoid registering as merchants . Starting with Emperor Gaozu 's reign , registered merchants were banned from wearing silk clothes , riding on horseback , or holding public office . This is in stark contrast to unregistered itinerant merchants who Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) states wore fine silks , rode in carriages pulled by fat horses , and whose wealth allowed them to associate with government officials .
Although these laws were relaxed over time , Emperor Wu renewed the state 's persecution of merchants when in 119 BCE he made it illegal for registered merchants to purchase land . If they violated this law , their land and slaves would be confiscated by the state . The effectiveness of this law is questionable , since contemporary Han writers mention merchants owning huge tracts of land . A merchant who owned property worth a thousand catties of gold — equivalent to ten million cash coins — was considered a great merchant . Such a fortune was one hundred times larger than the average income of a middle class landowner @-@ cultivator and dwarfed the annual 200 @,@ 000 cash @-@ coin income of a marquess who collected taxes from a thousand households . Some merchant families made fortunes worth over a hundred million cash , which was equivalent to the wealth acquired by the highest officials in government .
Merchants engaged in a multitude of private trades and industries . A single merchant often combined several trades to make greater profits , such as animal breeding , farming , manufacturing , trade , and money @-@ lending . Some of the most profitable commodities sold during the Han were salt and iron , since a wealthy salt or iron distributor could own properties worth as much as ten million cash . In the early Western Han period , powerful merchants could muster a workforce of over a thousand peasants to work in salt mines and marshes to evaporate brine to make salt , or at ironworks sites where they operated bellows and casted iron implements . To curb the influence of such wealthy industrialists , Emperor Wu nationalized these industries by 117 BCE and for the first time drafted former merchants with technical know @-@ how such as Sang Hongyang ( d . 80 BCE ) to head these government monopolies . However , by the Eastern Han period the central government abolished the state monopolies on salt and iron . Even before this , the state must have halted its employment of former merchants in the government salt and iron agencies , since an edict of 7 BCE restated the ban on merchants entering the bureaucracy . However , the usurper Wang Mang ( r . 9 – 23 CE ) did employ some merchants as low @-@ level officials with a salary @-@ rank of 600 bushels . Another profitable industry was brewing wine and liquor , which the state briefly monopolized from 98 to 81 BCE , yet relinquished its production to private merchants once again ( with alcohol taxes reinstalled ) . The official Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 CE ) started a brewery business to help pay for his father 's costly funeral , an act which was heavily criticized by his fellow gentrymen who considered this sideline occupation a shameful one for any scholar . Cinnabar mining was also a very lucrative industry .
= = = Guests and retainers = = =
Commoners known as guests and retainers ( binke 賓客 ) who lived on the property of a host in exchange for services had existed since the Warring States period . Retainers often originally belonged to other social groups , and sometimes they were fugitives seeking shelter from authorities . Hosts were often wealthy nobles and officials , yet they were sometimes wealthy commoners . In a typical relationship , a host provided lodging , food , clothing , and carriage transport for his retainers in return for occasional and non @-@ routine work or services such as an advisory role , a post as bodyguard , menial physical labor around the house , and sometimes more dangerous missions such as committing assassinations , fighting off roving bandits , or riding into battle to defend the host . Others could work as spies , scholarly protégés , or astrologers .
A host treated his retainers very well and showered them with luxury gifts if he wanted to boast his wealth and status . One retainer even received a sword scabbard decorated with jade and pearls , while others were given items like shoes decorated with pearls . However , not all retainers shared the same status , as those showered with gifts often provided highly skilled work or greater services ; retainers who were not as skilled were given lesser gifts and seated in less honorable positions when meeting the host . Regardless of status , any retainer was allowed to come and go from his host 's residence as he or she pleased , unlike a slave who was the property of his master and permanently attached to the estate . There was no official government policy on how to deal with retainers , but when they broke laws they were arrested , and when their master broke the law , sometimes the retainers were detained alongside him .
Retainers formed a large portion of the fighting forces amassed by the future Emperor Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 CE ) during the civil war against Wang Mang 's failing regime . The military role of retainers became much more pronounced by the late 2nd century CE during the political turmoil that would eventually split the empire into three competing states . By then , hosts began to treat retainers as their personal troops ( buqu 部曲 ) , which undercut the freedoms of mobility and independence that earlier retainers had enjoyed . Whereas individual retainers had earlier joined a host by their own personal decision , by the late 2nd century CE the lives of the retainers ' entire families became heavily controlled by the host .
= = = Slaves = = =
Slaves ( nuli 奴隸 ) comprised roughly 1 % of the population , a proportion far less than the contemporary Greco @-@ Roman world which relied on the labor of a large slave population . Slaves were classified into two categories : those who were privately owned , and those who were owned by the state . Privately owned slaves were often former peasants who fell into debt and sold themselves into slavery , while others were former government slaves bestowed to nobles and high officials as rewards for their services . State @-@ owned slaves were sometimes prisoners of war ( yet not all were made slaves ) . However , most slaves were tributary gifts given to the court by foreign states , families of criminals who committed treason against the state , and former private slaves who were either donated to authorities ( since this would exempt the former slaveholder from labor obligations ) or confiscated by the state if their master had broken a law . In both Western and Eastern Han , arrested criminals became convicts and it was only during the reign of Wang Mang that counterfeiting criminals were made into slaves .
State @-@ owned slaves were put to work in palaces , offices , workshops , stables , and sometimes state @-@ owned agricultural fields , while privately owned slaves were employed in domestic services and sometimes farming . However , the vast majority of non @-@ independent farmers working for wealthy landowners were not hired laborers or slaves , but were landless peasants who paid rent as tenants . It might have been more economically feasible to maintain tenants instead of slaves , since slave masters were obligated to pay an annual poll tax of 240 coins for each slave they owned ( the same rate merchants had to pay for their poll tax ) . Government slaves were not assigned to work in the government 's monopolized industries over iron and salt ( which lasted from Emperor Wu 's reign until the beginning of Eastern Han ) . Privately owned slaves were usually assigned to kitchen duty while others fulfilled roles as armed bodyguards , mounted escorts , acrobats , jugglers , dancers , singers , and musicians .
The children of both government and private slaves were born slaves . Government slaves could be granted freedom by the emperor if they were deemed too elderly , if the emperor pitied them , or if they committed a meritous act worthy of a manumission . In one exceptional case , the former slave Jin Midi ( d . 86 BCE ) became one of the regents over the government . Private slaves could buy their freedom from their master , while some masters chose to free their slaves . Although slaves were subject to beatings if they did not obey their masters , it was against the law to murder a slave ; kings were stripped of their kingdoms after it was found that they had murdered slaves , while Wang Mang even forced one of his sons to commit suicide for murdering a slave . An edict of 35 CE repealed the death penalty for any slave who killed a commoner .
Not all slaves had the same social status . Some slaves of wealthy families lived better than commoners since they were allowed to wear luxurious clothes and consume quality food and wine . Slaves of high officials could even be feared and respected . The slaves of regent Huo Guang ( d . 68 BCE ) sometimes came armed to the marketplace and fought commoners , forced the Imperial Secretary to kowtow and apologize ( after a scuffle with his slaves over the right @-@ of @-@ way on the street ) , and were provided services by some officials who sought a promotion through Huo Guang 's influence .
= = = Other occupations = = =
In addition to officials , teachers , merchants , farmers , artisans , and retainers , there were many other occupations . The pig @-@ breeder was not seen as a lowly profession if it was merely utilized by a poor scholar to pay for a formal education . For example , the first chancellor in Han to lack either a military background or a title as marquess was the pig @-@ breeder Gongsun Hong ( 公孫弘 ) of Emperor Wu 's reign . Physicians who practiced medicine and studied medical classics could not only make a decent income , but were also able to gain an education and become officials . The physician Hua Tuo ( d . 208 CE ) was nominated for office while another became Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( 郎中令 ) . Those who practiced occult arts of Chinese alchemy and mediumship were often employed by the government to conduct religious sacrifices , while on rare occasions — such as with Luan Da ( d . 112 BCE ) — an occultist might marry a princesses or be enfeoffed as a marquess . While it was socially acceptable for gentry scholars to engage in the occult arts of divination and Chinese astrology , career diviners were of a lower status and earned only a modest income . Other humble occultist professions included sorcery and physiognomy ; like merchants , those who practiced sorcery were banned from holding public office . Being a butcher was another lowly occupation , yet there is one case where a butcher became an official during Emperor Gaozu 's reign , while Empress He ( d . 189 CE ) and her brother , the regent He Jin ( d . 189 CE ) , came from a family of butchers . Runners and messengers who worked for the government were also considered to have a lowly status , yet some later became government officials .
= = = Twenty ranks = = =
The Han court upheld a socio @-@ economic ranking system for commoners and nobles , which was based on the twenty @-@ ranks system installed by the statesman Shang Yang ( d . 338 BCE ) of the State of Qin . All males above the age of 15 ( excluding slaves ) could be promoted in rank up to level eight . When a commoner was promoted in rank , he was granted a more honorable place in the seating arrangements of hamlet banquets , was given a greater portion of hunted game at the table , was punished less severely for certain crimes , and could become exempt from labor service obligations to the state . This system favored the elderly , since a longer lifespan meant more opportunities to become promoted . In addition to an increase in salary ( see table to the right ) , newly promoted men were granted wine and ox @-@ meat for a celebratory banquet . The 19th and 20th ranks were both marquess ranks , yet only a 20th rank allowed one to have a marquessate fief .
Promotions in rank were decided by the emperor and could occur on special occasions , such as installation of a new emperor , inauguration of a new reign title , the wedding of a new empress , or the selection of a royal heir apparent . The central government sometimes sold ranks to collect more revenues for the state . The official Chao Cuo ( d . 154 BCE ) once wrote that anyone who presented a substantial amount of agricultural grain to the government would also be promoted in rank .
= = Urban and rural life = =
During the Han , the empire was divided into large administrative units of kingdoms and commanderies ; within a commandery there were counties , and within counties there were districts that contained at least several hamlets . An average hamlet contained about a hundred families and usually was enclosed by a wall with two gates . At the center of social life in the hamlet was the religious altar ( built in honor of a local deity ) where festivities could be staged . Each district and county also had an official religious altar . The official reach of government extended no further than the district level , where county @-@ appointed officials included the chief of police who maintained law and order and the district tax collector . However , the government was able to control local society at the hamlet level with their bestowal of twenty ranks .
The government funded flood control projects involving the building of new canals , thus aiding the speed of waterborne transport and allowing undeveloped areas to become irrigated farmlands . These conscription labor projects allowed for the building of new hamlets which were dependent on the government for their livelihoods . When the authority of the central government declined in the late Eastern Han period , many commoners living in such hamlets were forced to flee their lands and work as tenants on large estates of wealthy landowners . The people of older hamlets which never had to rely on central government projects for their wellbeing or existence often sought support from powerful local families .
The Western Han capital at Chang 'an was divided into one hundred and sixty walled residential wards . Affairs of each ward were overseen by a low @-@ ranking official . Influential families within the wards usually maintained social order . Historians are still unsure as to how many government @-@ controlled marketplaces existed in Chang 'an . Although there are claims of nine markets , it is possible that seven of them were actually divisible parts of two main markets : the East Market and West Market . Both the East Market and West Market had a two @-@ story government office with a flag and drum placed on the roof . A market chief and deputy were headquartered in each of these buildings , yet not much is known about their involvement in the marketplace . In the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang , the market chief 's office employed thirty @-@ six sub @-@ officers who ventured into the marketplace daily to maintain law and order . They also collected taxes on commercial goods , assigned standard prices for specific commodities on the basis of monthly reviews , and authorized contracts between merchants and their customers or clients . Besides merchants engaging in marketplace violations , other crimes were committed by adolescent street gangs who often wore clothes distinguishing their gang . The maintenance of law and order outside the market and in slum areas was conducted by constables ; Han officials sometimes argued for increasing their salaries which they assumed would encourage them to reject bribes from criminals .
There were many amusements in the cities which could attract audiences rich and poor , such as trained animals performing tricks , cockfighting and caged animal fights between tigers , horse racing , puppet shows , musical performances with dancing , acrobatic feats , and juggling . Wealthy families could afford their own house choirs and five @-@ piece orchestras with bells , drums , flutes , and stringed instruments . Gambling and board games such as liubo also provided entertainment .
= = Marriage , gender , and kinship = =
= = = Patrilineal , nuclear family = = =
Chinese kinship relations during the Han were influenced by Confucian mores and involved both immediate nuclear family and extended family members . The Chinese family was patrilineal , since a father 's sons did not consider a mother 's kin to be part of their clan ; instead , they were considered ' outside relatives ' . The Han dynasty law code inherited the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BCE ) law that any family with more than two sons had to pay extra taxes . This was not repealed until the Cao Wei period ( 220 – 265 CE ) . The average Han family under one household typically had about four or five immediate family members , which was unlike the large extended families under one household in later dynasties . It was common during Han to send adult married sons away with a portion of the family fortune and visit them occasionally , yet in all dynasties during and after the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 CE ) , a son who moved away and lived separately from his living parents would be considered a criminal . Larger families appeared during the Eastern Han when some married brothers chose to live with each other 's families . However , a household with three generations living under its roof was incredibly rare . This is in contrast to the Jin dynasty ( 265 – 420 ) , when having three or more generations under one roof was commonplace .
= = = Clan and lineage = = =
The Chinese clan or lineage involved men who shared a common patrilineal ancestor , yet were divided into subgroups whose behavior towards each other was regulated according to Confucian mores which dictated what relative should be closer and more intimate . The four different subgroups were : ( 1 ) brother , brother 's sons , and brother 's grandsons ; ( 2 ) father 's brothers , father 's brother 's sons and grandsons ; ( 3 ) paternal grandfather 's brothers , their sons , and grandsons ; and ( 4 ) paternal great @-@ grandfather 's brothers , their sons , grandsons , and great @-@ grandsons . While one was expected to mourn for an entire year over the death of any relative in the first subgroup , one was expected to mourn for only five months when a relative in the second subgroup had died . No ritual mourning was expected at all for relatives in the third and fourth subgroups . While a son mourned three years for a father 's death , he only mourned one year for his mother 's . Since carrying on the patrilineal line meant the continuation of ancestor worship , it was important to have at least one son , even if he was adopted from another family ( although it was considered imperative that he share the same surname , otherwise his ancestral sacrifices could be considered null and void ) .
The majority of clan or lineage groups were not very influential in local society . However , prominent kinship groups could enjoy a great deal of ad hoc influence , especially if a member served as a government official . Wealthy scholars or officials often shared the same kinship group with poor commoners . Since clan members were expected to defend fellow members ( even to the point of murder ) , government authorities constantly struggled to suppress powerful kinship groups . Local lineage groups formed the backbone of rebel forces in the popular uprising against Wang Mang in the early 1st century CE . When central government authority broke down in the late Eastern Han , less @-@ developed areas of the country remained relatively stable due to entrenched kinship groups , while in heavily developed areas ( where kinship groups had been effectively broken down by the state ) there were many more peasants willing to turn to rebel movements for protection and survival .
= = = Marriage and divorce = = =
Although romantic love was not discouraged , marriages were arranged as agreements and bonds formed between two clans ( with property as the chief concern ) , not necessarily two individuals . A father 's input on who his sons and daughters should marry carried more weight than the mother , although a grandfather could override a father 's decision . Once a couple had married , the new wife was obligated to visit the family temple so she could become part of the husband 's clan and be properly worshipped by her descendants after death . However , she retained her natal surname . The vast majority of people during Han practiced monogamy , although wealthy officials and nobles could afford to support one or many concubines in addition to their legal wife .
Although the ideal ages for marriage were thirty for a man and twenty for a woman , it was common for a male to marry at age sixteen and a female at age fourteen . To encourage families to marry off their daughters , a law was introduced in 189 BCE that increased the poll tax rate fivefold for unmarried women between the ages of fifteen and thirty . People of the Han practiced a strict form of exogamy where one could not marry a person who had the same surname , even if both partners could not be traced back to a common ancestor ( however , this excluded the royal family , who sometimes married distant relatives for political reasons ) . Officials often married into families with officials of equal status and sometimes married royal princesses or had their daughters marry kings and even the emperor .
By custom there were seven conditions where a man could divorce his wife . These were : ( 1 ) disobedience to parents @-@ in @-@ law , ( 2 ) barrenness ( unable to continue family line ) , ( 3 ) adultery ( mixing another clan 's blood into the family ) , ( 4 ) jealousy ( of concubines ) , ( 5 ) incurable disease ( unable to continue family line ) , ( 6 ) loquacity ( not getting along with brothers @-@ in @-@ law or sisters @-@ in @-@ law ) , and ( 7 ) theft . However , a husband was not allowed to divorce his wife if she had completed three years of mourning for one of his deceased parents , if there were no living relatives in her father 's family to return to , or if the husband 's family was originally poor but became rich after marriage . Sometimes women were also able to initiate the divorce and remarry if the husband 's family was in poverty , he was diseased , or his in @-@ laws were too abusive . Although remarriage was frowned upon ( especially since divorce meant a wife took away her dowry wealth from her ex @-@ husband 's family ) , it was nonetheless common amongst divorcees and widowers in all social groups .
= = = Inheritance = = =
The two types of inheritance during Han included the common inheritance of property from the deceased , which all social groups ( except for slaves ) participated in , and the inheritance of titles , which only the people of twenty ranks , nobility , and royalty could enjoy . In the first form , officials and commoners bequeathed an equal share of property to each of their sons in their will . This excluded daughters , who married into other families and thus did not carry on the family name . However , daughters did receive a portion of the family property in the form of their marriage dowries , which were sometimes equal to a brother 's share of wealth in the will . The second type of inheritance involved the practice of primogeniture , where the official title was inherited by only one son . This was as true of the emperor as it was for any king , marquess , or commoner of the twenty ranks . However , to limit the power of the kings while still upholding primogeniture , an imperial edict of 127 BCE stated that kings had to divide the territories of their kingdoms between the chosen successor ( i.e. heir apparent ) and the kings ' brothers , who were made marquesses , thus establishing new marquessates and effectively reducing the size of every kingdom with each generation .
= = = Status and position of women = = =
Historian Ban Zhao ( 45 – 116 CE ) wrote in her Lessons for Women that , like the opposite and complementary forces of yin and yang , men 's great virtues were strength and rigidity , while a woman 's great virtues were respect and compliance . Throughout her life , a Han woman was to bend to the will of first her father , then her husband , and then her adult son ( 三從四德 ) . However , there are many recorded deviations from this rule , as some Han women are written to have engaged in heated arguments with their husbands over concubines ( sometimes beating concubines out of jealousy and to punish the husband ) , wrote essays and letters for husbands serving as government officials , and sometimes husbands turned to their wives for advice on political affairs of the court . When a father died , the eldest son was theoretically the senior member of the family , yet as hinted in various works of Han literature , they still had to obey the will of their mother and she could even force them to kowtow to her when apologizing for an offense . Deviations from common customs regarding gender were especially pronounced in the imperial family . The empress was able to give orders to her male relatives ( even her father ) and if they disobeyed her , she could publicly reprimand and humiliate them .
Certain occupations were traditionally reserved for women , while they were also exempted from corvée labor duties . Women were expected to rear children , weave clothes for the family , and perform domestic duties such as cooking ; although farming was considered men 's work , sometimes women tilled fields alongside their husbands and brothers . Some women formed communal spinning and weaving groups to pool resources together to pay for candles , lamp oil , and heat during night and winter . A successful textile business could employ hundreds of women . Singing and dancing to entertain wealthy patrons were other common professions open for women . When a husband died , sometimes the widow became the sole supporter of her children , and thus had to make a living weaving silk cloths or making straw sandals to sell in the market . Some women also turned to the humble profession of sorcery for income . Other more fortunate women could become renowned medical physicians who provided services to the families of high officials and nobility . Some wealthy women engaged in luxury trade , such as one who frequently sold pearls to a princess . Some even aided in their husband 's business decisions . Female merchants dressed in silk clothes which rivaled even female nobles ' attire were considered immoral compared to the ideal woman weaver .
= = Education , literature , and philosophy = =
= = = Competing ideologies = = =
The historian Sima Tan ( d . 110 BCE ) wrote that the Legalist tradition inherited by Han from the previous Qin dynasty taught that imposing severe man @-@ made laws which were short of kindness would produce a well @-@ ordered society , given that human nature was innately immoral and had to be checked . ' Legalism ' was the label created by Han scholars to describe the socio @-@ political philosophy formulated largely by Shen Buhai ( d . 340 BCE ) , Shang Yang ( d . 338 BCE ) , and Han Fei ( c . 280 – c . 233 BCE ) , a philosophy which stressed that government had to rely on a strict system of punishments and rewards to maintain law and order . Some early Western Han officials were influenced by the tenet of ' nonaction ' apparent in Han Fei 's work and the Daoist Laozi . By utilizing this concept , they argued that once laws and administrative systems were set in place , the government functioned smoothly and intervention on behalf of the ruler became unnecessary . This school of thought was known as ' Yellow Emperor and Laozi ' ( Huang @-@ Lao 黃老 ) , which gained full acceptance at court under the patronage of Empress Dowager Dou ( d . 135 BCE ) . Its followers believed that the originator of ordered civilization was the mythical Yellow Emperor , a view that contradicted later Confucian scholars ' views that the mythological Yao and Shun were responsible for bringing man out of a state of anarchy . Works such as the Huainanzi ( presented in 139 BCE ) introduced new systematic ideas about the cosmos which undercut the message of Huang @-@ Lao thought . Scholars such as Shusun Tong ( 叔孫通 ) began to express greater emphasis for ethical ideas espoused in ' Classicist ' philosophical works such as those of Kongzi ( i.e. Confucius , 551 – 479 BCE ) , an ideology anachronistically known as Confucianism . Emperor Gaozu found Shusun Tong 's Confucian reforms of court rituals useful so long as they further exalted his status , yet it was not until Emperor Wu 's reign that Confucianism gained exclusive patronage at court .
= = = Confucianism becomes paramount = = =
At the core of Confucian ethics were the selected virtues of filial piety , harmonious relationships , ritual , and righteousness . The amalgamation of these ideas into a theological system involving earlier cosmological theories of yin and yang as well as the five phases ( i.e. natural cycles which governed Heaven , Earth , and Man ) was first pioneered by the official Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BCE ) . Although full authenticity of Dong 's authorship of the Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals comes into question with hints that parts were rewritten around the time of Liu Xiang ( 79 – 8 BCE ) or Liu Xin ( d . 23 CE ) , three of his original memorials sent to the throne discussing his syncretic version of Confucianism were preserved in the 1st @-@ century @-@ CE Book of Han .
Since his model incorporated and justified the imperial government into the natural order of the universe , it appealed to Emperor Wu , who in 136 BCE abolished non @-@ Confucian academic chairs or erudites ( 博士 ) not dealing with the Confucian Five Classics : the Classic of Poetry , the Classic of Changes , the Classic of Rites , the Classic of History , and the Spring and Autumn Annals . Expanding on the position of Mengzi ( c . 372 – 289 BCE ) that human nature was innately good , Dong wrote that people needed external nourishment of education to become ' awakened ' and develop morality . To produce morally sound officials , Emperor Wu further sponsored Confucian education when he established the Imperial University in 124 BCE . Despite mainstream acceptance of Confucianism for the rest of Han ( and until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1911 ) , philosophers still defended some Legalist ideas while the state 's laws and policies reflect a compromise reached between Legalism and Han Confucianism .
There were varying regional traditions or ' schools ' within Confucianism assigned to certain texts . The two which caused most debate were New Texts and Old Texts traditions . The former represented works transmitted orally after the Qin book burning of 213 BCE , and the latter was newly discovered texts alleged by Kong Anguo , Liu Xin , and others to have been excavated from the walls of Kongzi 's home , displayed archaic written characters , and thus were more authentic versions . Although initially rejected , the Old Texts found acceptance at the courts of Emperor Ping ( r . 1 BCE – 5 CE ) and Wang Mang , were rejected by Emperor Guangwu , and accepted once more by Emperor Zhang only to be rejected a third time by the following rulers .
= = = Further philosophical synthesis = = =
In contrast to Dong 's certainty about innate goodness , the contemporary writer Jia Yi ( 201 – 169 BCE ) synthesized the opposing perspectives of Mengzi and Xunzi ( c . 312 – c . 230 BCE ) in the chapter " Protecting and Tutoring " ( Baofu 保傅 ) of his book New Recommendations ( Xinshu 新書 ) to argue that human nature was malleable and thus neither originally good or evil . Han Confucianism was transformed in the Eastern Han period when scholars struggled to understand how Wang Mang 's regime had failed despite its great sponsorship of Confucian reform . The transition from Western Han idealism to Eastern Han skepticism can be represented in part by the Exemplary Sayings ( Fayan 法言 ) of Yang Xiong ( 53 BCE – 18 CE ) , who argued that human nature was indeterminate , that one could cultivate good and escape negative situations by learning the valuable precepts of many schools of thought ( not just Confucianism ) , yet man had no control over his ultimate fate ( 命 ) decided by Heaven . In his New Discussions ( Xinlun 新論 ) , Huan Tan ( 43 BCE – 28 CE ) argued that although the Han court sponsored Confucian education , the government had become corrupt and thus undermined Dong Zhongshu 's cosmically ordained belief that Confucian education went hand @-@ in @-@ hand with political success . In his Balanced Discourse ( Lunheng ) , Wang Chong ( 27 – 100 CE ) argued that human life was not a coherent whole dictated by a unitary will of Heaven as in Dong 's synthesis , but rather was broken down into three planes : biological ( mental and physical ) , sociopolitical , and moral , elements which interacted with each other to produce different results and random fate . Eastern Han Confucians incorporated ideas of Legalism and Daoism to explain how society could be salvaged , such as Wang Fu ( 78 – 163 CE ) in his Comments of a Recluse ( Qian fu lun ) who argued that the evils accumulated by mankind over time could be rectified by direct engagement of the body @-@ politic ( the Legalist approach ) , but that the individual had to cultivate personal virtue in the meantime as a long @-@ term solution ( the Daoist approach ) .
= = = Public and private education = = =
In order to secure a position as a teacher , erudite in the capital , or government official , a student could choose one of several paths to become well educated . Perhaps the most prestigious path was enrollment in the Imperial University . Students had to be above the age of eighteen to enroll , and were selected by the Minister of Ceremonies from those recommended by local authorities . Other students could choose to enroll in a school sponsored by the local commandery government . A professional teacher who opened a private school in a small town or village could sometimes gather a following of several hundred to over a thousand students . Students were expected to pay tuition , thus a teacher enjoyed a significant salary . His standing in the local community was usually paramount , and was even sought as an arbiter in disputes . Although the size of the Imperial Academy was greatly expanded in Eastern Han , private schools grew in importance as the imperial government lost authority and its academy 's persecution of Old Text tradition drove many to pursue Old Text studies in private institutions .
= = = The Standard Histories = = =
Before the Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji ) by Sima Qian ( 145 – 86 BCE ) , there existed terse chronicles of events such as the Spring and Autumn Annals and the chronicle found at Shuihudi covering events in the State of Qin and Qin dynasty from 306 to 217 BCE . There was also the Classic of History — part of the Confucian canon — which recorded the deeds of past rulers and political events ( sometimes mythological instead of historical ) . However , Sima 's work is considered the first of China 's Standard Histories , laid the groundwork for Chinese historiography by creating the first universal history of China . He divided his work of one hundred and thirty chapters into basic annals , chronological tables in grid format ( with year @-@ by @-@ year accounts since 841 BCE , the start of the Gonghe Regency ) , treatises on general subjects ( such as the economy and the calendar ) , histories of hereditary houses and states , biographies on individuals arranged in roughly chronological order , and his own autobiography as the last chapter . Being a court archivist allowed Sima to utilize eighty textual sources in addition to memorials , edicts , and stone inscriptions . These sources enhanced the enormous scope of his work , which mentions roughly four thousand people by name . He also traveled extensively to interview witnesses for more recent accounts .
Unlike the Western historiographical tradition established by the Greek Herodotus ( c . 484 c . – 425 BCE ) , University of North Carolina associate professor Dr. Grant Hardy asserts that Sima 's work was intended to be a textual microcosm representing every aspect of the Universe , Earth , and Man in model form , in much the same way that the raised @-@ relief map in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang ( r . 221 – 210 BCE ) represented his empire . Hardy explains that this was not unique to Sima 's work , as Han scholars believed encoded secrets existed in the Spring and Autumn Annals , which was deemed " a microcosm incorporating all the essential moral and historical principles by which the world operated " and future events could be prognosticated . However , Hardy 's microcosm thesis as an explanation for the Shiji 's inconsistencies in ideological approach , organization , and literary characteristics has been criticized by Michael Loewe and David Schaberg . They express doubt about Hardy 's view that Sima intended his work to be a well @-@ planned , homogeneous model of reality , rather than a loosely connected collection of narratives which retains the original ideological biases of the various sources used .
The next Standard History was the Book of Han , compiled by Ban Biao ( 3 – 54 CE ) , his son Ban Gu ( 32 – 92 CE ) , and his daughter Ban Zhao ( 45 – 116 CE ) . Unlike Sima 's private and independent work , this history text was commissioned and sponsored by the Han court under Emperor Ming ( r . 57 – 75 CE ) , who let Ban Gu use the imperial archives . This set a significant precedent for the rest of the Standard Histories , since the historian was now virtually unable to criticize his ruling patron . The Book of Han covered the history of China left off from Sima 's work during Emperor Wu 's reign up until the middle Eastern Han . Although the Records of the Three Kingdoms included events in late Eastern Han , no history work focused exclusively on the Eastern Han period until the Book of Later Han was compiled by Fan Ye ( 398 – 445 CE ) .
= = = Treatises , dictionaries , manuals , and biographies = = =
The Ready Guide ( Erya ) is the oldest known Chinese dictionary and was compiled sometime in the 3rd century BCE before the Han . Dictionaries written during the Han dynasty include Yang Xiong 's Regional Speech ( Fangyan ) of 15 BCE and Xu Shen 's ( c . 58 – c . 147 CE ) Explaining Unitary Characters and Analyzing Compound Characters ( Shuowen Jiezi ) of 121 CE . Yang Xiong 's Fangyan was the first Chinese dialect vocabulary work ; the modern Chinese term for ' dialect ' is derived from the title of this book . In the Shuowen Jiezi , Xu Shen divided written characters between wen ( 文 ) and zi ( 字 ) , where the former were original pictographs and the latter were characters derived from them . Listing 9 @,@ 353 characters with 1 @,@ 163 variant forms , Xu arranged these into 540 section headers according to their written radicals . This convenient and systematic approach of arranging characters by their radicals became the standard for all Chinese dictionaries to follow .
Handbooks , guides , manuals , and treatises for various subjects were written in the Han . The Western Han Book of Fan Shengzhi ( Fan Shengzhi shu 氾勝之書 ) written during Emperor Cheng 's reign is one of two manuals on agricultural techniques and processes that have survived from the Han . The other is the Eastern Han Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People ( Simin yueling 四民月令 ) written by Cui Shi ( 催寔 ) ( d . 170 CE ) . Mathematical treatises included the Book on Numbers and Computation ( Suan shu shu ) The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven ( Zhoubi suanjing ) , and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ( Jiuzhang Suanshu ) . There were also works on astronomy , such as the Miscellaneous Readings of Cosmic Patterns and Pneuma Images ( Tianwen qixiang zazhan 天文氣象雜占 ) from the 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE Mawangdui Silk Texts and Zhang Heng 's ( 78 – 139 CE ) Spiritual Constitution of the Universe ( Lingxian 靈憲 ) published in 120 CE .
Aside from the biographies found in the Standard Histories , it became popular amongst gentrymen to write stylistic essays and commission private biographies on other gentlemen . These privately published biographies focused either on gentrymen from one 's locality or more well known figures who held national prominence .
= = = Poetry and rhapsodies = = =
The rhapsody , known as fu in Chinese , was a new literary genre . The poet and official Sima Xiangru ( 179 – 117 BCE ) wrote several rhapsodies , yet his largest and most influential was the " Rhapsody on the Son of Heaven on a Leisurely Hunt " ( Tianzi Youlie Fu 天子遊獵賦 ) written in debate form . Sima 's rhapsodies incorporated literary elements found in the Songs of Chu — an anthology of poems attributed to Qu Yuan ( 340 – 278 BCE ) and Song Yu ( fl . 3rd century BCE ) — such as flying with heavenly immortals . Yang Xiong was the other prominent fu writer of Western Han , and although he at first praised Sima 's work , he later criticized it as an example of the genre 's shortcomings . In Eastern Han , Ban Gu wrote a rhapsody comparing the capital cities Chang 'an and Luoyang , in which he concluded that Luoyang was the better of the two ( which was a subtle praise of the current emperor , hinting that his virtue surpassed the rulers of Western Han ) . The court astronomer and inventor Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 CE ) also wrote rhapsodies on the capital cities which were inspired by those of Ban Gu . Zhang also penned the rhapsody " Returning to the Fields " , which fused Daoist and Confucian ideals as well as laid the groundwork for later metaphysical nature poetry .
Zhang Heng also wrote " Lyric Poems on Four Sorrows " ( 四愁詩 ) , which represent the earliest heptasyllabic shi poems in Chinese literature . The government 's Music Bureau also produced folk songs and yuefu , a lyrical form of verse that became a standard subgenre of shi poetry . These poems focused largely on issues of morality that Confucian scholars found acceptable and in @-@ line with Zhou dynasty traditions . Poets of the Jian 'an ( 建安 ) period ( 196 – 220 CE ) usually attended the same social events to compose poems on a given topic in one another 's company .
= = Laws and customs = =
By the Han dynasty , written law had matured from its archaic form based largely on natural law and social customs into a rational corpus influenced by politics and based on positive law . However , the Han dynasty law code established by Chancellor Xiao He ( d . 193 BCE ) was largely an extension of an existing Qin dynasty law code . Evidence for this includes archaeological finds at Qin @-@ era Shuihudi and Han @-@ era Zhangjiashan . The nine chapters of the law code consisted of statutes which dealt with criminality , while two of these chapters dealt with court procedure . Although it survives only in small fragments , it was allegedly a massive written work on 960 written scrolls . The code had 26 @,@ 272 articles written in 7 @,@ 732 @,@ 200 words that outlined punishments . There were 490 articles on the death penalty alone which contained 1 @,@ 882 offenses and 3 @,@ 472 analogies or pieces of case law .
The county magistrate and commandery administrator were the official court judges of the county and commandery , respectively . Their jurisdictions overlapped , yet the commandery administrator only interfered in county court cases when necessary ; it was generally agreed that whoever arrested a criminal first would be the first to judge him or her . If a commandery @-@ level court case could not be resolved , the central government 's Commandant of Justice was the final authority of appeal before the emperor . Yet he most often dealt with cases of political rebels and regicide in regards to kings , marquesses , and high officials . Above the Commandant was the emperor , the supreme judge and lawgiver .
As with previous codes , Han law distinguished what should be considered murderous killings ( with malice and foresight ) , wittingly killing , killing by mistake , and killing by accident . Although a father was the undisputed head of the family , he was not allowed to mutilate or kill any of its members as punishment ; if he did , he would be tried for physical assault or murder , respectively . Yet not all murders were given the same sentence , since relation and circumstance were considered in the sentencing . For example , A father would be given a much less severe sentence for murdering a son than if a son murdered his father . Women had certain rights under Han law . It was against the law for husbands to physically abuse their wives . Rape cases were also commonly filed in court and were punished by Han law . Women could level charges against men in court , while it was commonly accepted in Han jurisprudence that women were capable of telling the truth in court .
Sometimes criminals were beaten with the bastinado to gain confessions , but Han scholars argued that torture was not the best means of gaining confession , while court conferences were called into session to decide how many strokes should be given and what size the stick should be so as not to cause permanent injury . Imprisonment was an unheard of form of punishment during Han ; common punishments were the death penalty by beheading , periods of forced hard labor for convicts , exile , or monetary fines . Mutilating punishments also existed in early Han , borrowed from previous practice in Qin . This included tattooing the face , cutting off the nose , castration , and amputation of one or both feet , yet by 167 BCE these were abolished in favor of lengthy floggings with the bastinado . Further reforms were implemented by the first year of Emperor Jing 's ( r . 154 – 141 BCE ) reign which decreased the amount of strokes a prisoner could receive from the bastinado . Starting in 195 BCE , those aged seventy and older were exempt from mutilating punishments . Further reforms exempted those aged seventy and older from harsh interrogation methods in cases other than false accusation and murder .
Although modern scholars know of some surviving cases where Han law dealt with commerce and domestic affairs , the spheres of trade ( outside the monopolies ) and the family were still largely governed by age @-@ old social customs . Many ways in which family relations were conducted during the Han were already stipulated in the ancient Confucian canon , especially in the Book of Rites . This became accepted as the mainstream guide to ethics and custom . In terms of private commercial contracts , they usually entailed information on the goods transferred , the amount paid , the names of the buyer and seller , the date of transfer and the signatures of witnesses .
= = Arts and crafts = =
Artists were classified as artisans since they were nonagricultural laborers who manufactured and decorated objects . The philosopher Wang Fu argued that urban society exploited the contributions of food @-@ producing farmers while able @-@ bodied men in the cities wasted their time ( among other listed pursuits ) crafting miniature plaster carts , earthenware statues of dogs , horses , and human figures of singers and actors , and children 's toys . However , during Eastern Han some scholar @-@ officials began engaging in crafts originally reserved for artisans , such as mechanical engineering . Emperor Ling commissioned the official Cai Yong ( 132 – 192 CE ) to paint portraits and produce eulogies for five generations of the prominent Yang clan of officials and military officers . This is the first recorded instance in China where a scholar @-@ official was commissioned to write eulogies and paint portraits in conjunction , instead of relying on skilled artisans to do the painting .
Han luxury items furnished the homes of wealthy merchants , officials , nobles , and royalty . Such goods were often highly decorated by skilled artisans . These include red @-@ and @-@ black lacquerwares in various shapes and sizes , bronze items such as raised @-@ relief decorated mirrors , oil lamps in the shape of human figures , and gilded bronzewares , glazed ceramic wares with various incised designs , and ornaments and jewelry made of jade , opal , amber , quartz , gold , and silver .
Besides domestic decoration , Han artwork also served an important funerary function . Han artists and craftsmen decorated the wall bricks lining underground tombs of the deceased with mural paintings and carved reliefs ; the purpose of this artwork was to aid the deceased in traveling through their afterlife journey . Stamping artistic designs into tile and brick was also common . Human figurine sculptures found in Han tombs were placed there to perform various functions for the deceased in the afterlife , such as dancing and playing music for entertainment , as well as serving food . A common type of ceramic figurine found in Han tombs is a female entertainer sporting long , flowing silk sleeves that are flung about while dancing . Some ceramic human figures — both male and female — have been found naked , all with clearly distinguished genitalia and missing arms . This is because they once had wooden or cloth arms which were attached to holes in the shoulders by pegs , as well as miniature clothes made of perishable materials such as silk .
During the Western Han , grave goods were usually wares and pieces of art that were used by the tomb occupant when he or she was alive . By the Eastern Han , new stylistic goods , wares , and artwork found in tombs were usually made exclusively for burial and were not produced for previous use by the deceased when they were alive . These include miniature ceramic towers — usually watchtowers and urban residential towers — which provide historians clues about lost wooden architecture . In addition to towers , there are also miniature models of querns , water wells , pigsties , pestling shops , and farm fields with pottery pigs , dogs , sheep , chickens , ducks . Although many items placed in tombs were commonly used wares and utensils , it was considered taboo to bring objects specified for burial into living quarters or the imperial palace . They could only be brought into living quarters once they were properly announced at funerary ceremonies , and were known as mingqi ( 明器 / 冥器 ) ( " fearsome artifacts , " " objects for the dead , " or " brilliant artifacts " ) according to Cary Y. Liu ( Ph.D. from Princeton University , licensed architect and museum curator ) .
= = Clothing and cuisine = =
The most common agricultural food staples during Han were wheat , barley , rice , foxtail millet , proso millet , and beans . People of the Han also consumed sorghum , Job 's tears , taro , mallow , mustard green , melon , bottle gourd , bamboo shoot , the roots of lotus plants , and ginger . Some of the fruits the Han ate included the chestnut , jujube , pear , peach , plum ( including the plum of Prunus salicina and Prunus mume ) , melon , apricot , red bayberry , and strawberry . The Han Chinese domesticated and ate chickens , Mandarin ducks , geese , camels , cows , sheep , pigs , and dogs . The type of game animals hunted during the Han included rabbit , sika deer , turtle dove , goose , owl , Chinese bamboo partridge , magpie , common pheasant , and cranes , while fish and turtles were taken from streams and lakes . Beer — which could be an unfermented malt drink with low alcohol content or a stronger brew fermented with yeast — was commonly consumed alongside meat , but virtually never consumed alongside grains such as rice . Wine was also regularly consumed .
The 2nd @-@ century @-@ BCE tomb of the Lady Dai contained not only decayed remnants of actual food , such as rice , wheat , barley , two varieties of millet , and soybeans , but also a grave inventory with recipes on it . This included vegetable and meat stews cooked in pots , which had combinations such as beef and rice stew , dog meat and celery stew , and even deer , fish , and bamboo shoot stew . Seasonings mentioned in the recipes include sugar , honey , soy sauce , and salt . Recipes in the Han usually called for meat stuffed in cereals , cakes , and other wrappings .
Like their modern counterparts , the Han @-@ era Chinese used chopsticks as eating utensils . For drinking beverages , wealthy people during Han often used cups with golden handles and inlaid with silver .
For the poor , hemp was the common item used to make clothing , while the rich could afford silk clothes . Silk clothes found in Han tombs include padded robes , double @-@ layered robes , single @-@ layered robes , single @-@ layered skirts , shoes , socks , and mittens . The wealthy also wore fox and badger furs , wild duck plumes , and slippers with inlaid leather or silk lining ; those of more modest means could wear wool and ferret skins . Large bamboo @-@ matted suitcases found in Han tombs contained clothes and luxury items such as patterned fabric and embroidery , common silk , damask and brocade , and the leno ( or gauze ) weave , all with rich colors and designs . The Han also had tools for ironing clothes .
= = Religion , cosmology , and metaphysics = =
= = = Ancestor worship , deities , and the afterlife = = =
Families throughout Han China made ritual sacrifices ( usually involving animals and foodstuffs ) to various deities , spirits , and ancestors . Deceased ancestors were thought to require food and drink in the afterlife , so living family members were routinely obligated to offer food and wine to the ancestors in a family shrine or temple . Wealthy families who could afford to bury their dead in large tombs often placed the food items at the entrances of such complexes .
Han @-@ era Chinese believed that a person had two souls , the hun and po . The spirit @-@ soul ( hun 魂 ) was believed to travel to the paradise of the immortals ( xian 仙 ) while the body @-@ soul ( po 魄 ) remained on earth in its proper resting place so long as measures were taken to prevent it from wandering to the netherworld . The body @-@ soul could allegedly utilize items placed in the tomb of the deceased , such as domestic wares , clothes , food and utensils , and even money in the form of clay replicas . It was believed that the bipartite souls could also be temporarily reunited in a ceremony called " summoning the hun to return to the po " ( zhao hun fu po 招魂復魄 ) .
However , Han beliefs in the afterlife were not uniform across the empire and changed over time . Not only were there many different burial customs and views on how one journeyed through the afterlife , but even the names hun and po for spirit @-@ soul and body @-@ soul could be substituted with demon ( gui 鬼 ) and spirit ( shen 神 ) . Demons , or gui , were thought to be partial manifestations of the deceased which lacked their essential vital energy ( qi 氣 ) that had to be exorcised when they maliciously caused the living to become ill ; however , a demon could also be considered a neutral ' ghost ' . Spirits , or shen , were usually associated with the animalistic spirits embodying certain places , such as the Earl of the Yellow River ( He Bo 河伯 ) . If proper sacrifices were made to these spirits , it was believed to bring good fortune ; if ritual sacrifices were neglected , the spirit could inflict bad fortune on individuals and local communities . In the Western Han , texts left behind in tombs illustrate that the living took a more sympathetic view towards the dead than in the Eastern Han , when spirits were generally more feared as dangers to the living . The Western Han ' letters informing the underground ' ( gaodishu 告地書 ) were written to ' inform the Ruler of the Underground ' 告地下王 about the deceased 's wants and needs for clothing , vessels , and implements . However , ' tomb @-@ quelling texts ' ( zhenmuwen 鎮墓文 ) that appeared during the 1st century CE acted as passports for the dead so that they did not disturb or bring danger to the living . Both Western Han and Eastern Han tombs contained ' land contracts ' ( diquan 地券 ) which stated that the deceased owned the land they were buried in .
Since the emperor fulfilled the role of the highest priest in the land , he was obligated to offer ritual sacrifices to Heaven , the supreme deities , and spirits of the mountains and rivers . The Qin court had made sacrifices to and worshipped four main deities , to which Emperor Gaozu added one in 205 BCE to make Five Powers ( Wudi 五帝 ) . However , Emperor Cheng ( r . 33 – 7 BCE ) cancelled state worship of the Five Powers in favor of ceremonies dedicated to Heaven ( Tian 天 ) and the supreme god ( Shangdi 上帝 ) , who the kings of the Zhou dynasty ( c . 1050 – 256 BCE ) had worshipped and traced their legitimacy to . One of the underlying reasons for this shift in state policy was Emperor Cheng 's desire to gain Heaven 's direct favor and thus become blessed with a male heir . The court 's exclusive worship of Heaven continued throughout the rest of Han .
= = = Yin @-@ yang and five phases = = =
The Han Chinese believed that three realms of Heaven , Earth , and Mankind were inextricably linked and subject to natural cycles ; if man could understand these cycles , they could understand the hidden secrets of the three realms . One cycle was yin and yang , which corresponded to yielding and hard , shade and sunlight , feminine and masculine , and the Moon and Sun , respectively , while it was thought to govern the three realms and changing of seasons . The five phases was another important cycle where the elements of wood ( mu 木 ) , fire ( huo 火 ) , earth ( tu 土 ) , metal ( jin 金 ) , and water ( shui 水 ) succeeded each other in rotation and each corresponded with certain traits of the three realms . For example , the five phases corresponded with other sets of five like the five organs ( i.e. liver , heart , spleen , lungs and kidneys ) and five tastes ( i.e. sour , bitter , sweet , spicy , and salty ) , or even things like feelings , musical notes , colors , planets , calendars and time periods .
It was accepted during the Qin dynasty that whoever defeated his rivals in battle would have legitimacy to rule the land . Yet by the time of Wang Mang 's usurpation it was commonly believed that Heaven , which was now given greater prominence in state worship , designated which individual and hereditary house had the right to rule , a concept known as the Mandate of Heaven . Michael Loewe ( retired professor from the University of Cambridge ) writes that this is consistent with the gradually higher level of emphasis given to the cosmic elements of Five Phases , which were linked with the future destiny of the dynasty and its protection . Dong Zhongshu stressed that a ruler who behaved immorally and did not adhere to proper conduct created a disruption in the natural cycles governing the three realms , which resulted in natural calamities such as earthquakes , floods , droughts , epidemics , and swarms of locusts . This idea became fully accepted at court ( and in later dynasties ) , as emperors often implemented reforms to the legal system or granted amnesties to restore nature 's balance .
At the beginning of the Han dynasty , the Liu family associated its dynasty with the water phase as the previous Qin dynasty had done . By 104 BCE , to accompany the installment of the new Taichu Calendar ( 太初历 ) , the Han court aligned itself with the earth phase to legitimately supplant the Qin 's element . Yet by 26 CE ( shortly after the downfall of Wang Mang ) the new Eastern Han court made a retrospective argument that Han 's element had always been fire .
= = = Daoism and Buddhism = = =
After Huang @-@ Lao thought became eclipsed by other ideologies explaining the cosmos during the 2nd century BCE , the sage philosopher Laozi replaced the Yellow Emperor as the ancestor and originator of the teachings of Daoism . As written by Wang Chong in the 1st century CE , Daoists were chiefly concerned with obtaining immortality . Valerie Hansen writes that Han @-@ era Daoists were organized into small groups of people who believed that individual immortality could be obtained through " breathing exercises , sexual techniques , and medical potions . " However , these were the same practices of Daoists who followed Zhuangzi ( fl . 4th century BCE ) centuries before . The Han @-@ era Chinese believed that the Queen Mother of the West ruled over a mountainous realm of immortal semi @-@ human creatures who possessed elixirs of immortality that man could utilize to prolong his life . Besides the Queen Mother 's mountain to the west , Mount Penglai in the east was another mythological location where the Han @-@ era Chinese believed one could achieve immortality . Wang Chong stated that Daoists , organized into small groups of hermits largely unconcerned with the wider laity , believed they could attempt to fly to the lands of the immortals and become invincible pure men . His criticism of such groups is the best known source of his century to describe Daoist beliefs . However , a major transformation in Daoist beliefs occurred in the 2nd century CE , when large hierarchical religious societies formed and viewed Laozi as a deity and prophet who would usher in salvation for his followers .
The first mentioning of Buddhism in China occurred in 65 CE . This was in regards to Liu Ying ( d . 71 CE ) , a half @-@ brother of Emperor Ming , who allegedly paid homage to the Buddha . At this point , the Chinese heavily associated Buddhism with Huang @-@ Lao Daoism . Emperor Ming also had the first known Buddhist temple constructed in China , the White Horse Temple of Luoyang . It was allegedly built in honor of the foreign monks Jiashemoteng ( 迦葉摩騰 ) ( Kāśyapa Mātanga ) and Zhu Falan ( 竺法蘭 ) ( Dharmaratna the Indian ) . A popular myth asserted that these two monks were the first to translate the Sutra of Forty @-@ two Chapters into Chinese , although it is now known that this work was not translated into Chinese until the 2nd century CE . The Parthian monk An Shigao from the Parthian Empire came to Han China in 148 CE . He translated Buddhist works on the Hinayana into Chinese , as well as works on yoga that Han @-@ era Chinese associated with Daoist exercises . Another foreign monk , Lokaksema from Kushan @-@ era Gandhara , India , traveled and stayed in Han China from around 178 – 198 CE . He translated the Perfection of Wisdom , Shurangama Sutra , and Pratyutpanna Sutra , and introduced to China the concepts of Akshobhya Buddha , Amitābha Buddha ( of Pure Land Buddhism ) , and teachings about Manjusri .
= = = Religious societies and rebel movements = = =
The Daoist religious society of the Five Pecks of Rice was initiated by Zhang Daoling in 142 CE . Zhang was raised in what is now Jiangsu where he studied Daoist beliefs in immortality . He moved to what is now Sichuan province and claimed to have a revelation where the deified Laozi appointed him as his earthly representative and Celestial Master . The movement spread rapidly , particularly under Zhang 's sons , Zhang Heng and Zhang Lu . Instead of money , followers were asked to contribute five pecks of rice to the religious society and banned the worship of ' unclean ' gods who accepted sacrificial offerings of meat . Initiated members of the group were called ' libationers ' , a title associated with village elders who took the first drink at feasts . The laity were told that if they obeyed the rules of the religious society , they would be rewarded with good health . Illness was thus seen as the result of violating religious rules and committing personal sins , which required confession to libationers charged with overseeing the recovery of sinners . They believed that chanting parts of the Daodejing would bring about cures for illnesses . Zhang Daoling 's second successor Zhang Lu initiated a rebellion in 184 CE that allowed him to retain complete control over Ba and Hanzhong commanderies ( of modern Sichuan and southern Shanxi ) for three decades . He even modelled his ' charity houses ' after Han postal stations , yet his establishments offered grain and meat to followers . Although Zhang Lu surrendered to Chancellor Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 CE ) in 215 CE , Cao was still wary of his influence over the people , so he granted Zhang and his sons fiefs to placate them .
The widespread Yellow Turban Rebellion also occurred in 184 CE , its leaders claiming that they were destined to bring about a utopian era of peace . Like the Five Pecks of Rice society , the Yellow Turbans of the Huai and Yellow River valleys also believed that illness was a sign of wrongdoing that necessitated confession to church leaders and faith healers . However , the Yellow Turbans typically utilized holy water as a ramification for sickness ; if this did not cure the sick , the latter 's sins were deemed too great to be exculpated . Since the year 184 CE was the first ( and very auspicious ) year of a new sexagenary cycle , the Yellow Turban 's supreme leader Zhang Jue ( d . 184 CE ) chose the third month of that year as the time to rebel ; when this was leaked to the Han court , Zhang was forced to initiate the rebellion prematurely . Although the Yellow Turbans were able to muster hundreds of thousands of troops , they were overpowered by the combined force of imperial troops and independent generals . By the end of the year their leadership — including Zhang Jue — had been killed and only scattered groups remained until they were amalgamated into the forces of Cao Cao in 192 CE .
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= Boom Box ( No Doubt album ) =
Boom Box is a limited @-@ edition box set album by the American rock band No Doubt , released on November 25 , 2003 through Interscope Records . It compiled The Singles 1992 – 2003 , The Videos 1992 – 2003 , Everything in Time , and Live in the Tragic Kingdom . The Singles 1992 – 2003 was also released on a separate CD on the same date . Everything in Time was released as a separate CD later on October 12 , 2004 . The Videos 1992 – 2003 was released as a separate DVD on May 4 , 2004 . At the time of Boom Box 's release , Live in the Tragic Kingdom had already been released on VHS and it was re @-@ released on DVD on June 13 , 2006 .
The Singles 1992 – 2003 and The Videos 1992 – 2003 are compiled from the singles released from four of the band 's five studio albums , No Doubt , Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn and Rock Steady , with tracks from the last three heavily represented . Everything in Time is an album of B @-@ sides , rare songs and remixes , taken mainly from the recording sessions of Return of Saturn . Live in the Tragic Kingdom is a recording of a concert filmed during the band 's tour for Tragic Kingdom .
The release of Boom Box received very little coverage from music critics because it was not a studio album . The few reviews it received were positive . The album charted at number 206 on the Top Internet Albums . However , in its separate release , The Singles 1992 – 2003 was reviewed widely and positively , and it charted highly across North America and Europe , peaking at number 2 in the U.S. and number 5 in the UK . Everything in Time , in its separate release , charted on the U.S. Billboard 200 at number 182 .
= = Background = =
No Doubt released five studio albums throughout its career before going into hiatus . Their debut album , No Doubt , was released on March 17 , 1992 . It sold only 30 @,@ 000 copies on its initial release , and the band 's record company , Interscope Records , refused to fund the release of a single from it . No Doubt therefore financed the production of a music video for the song " Trapped in a Box " , which was received local airplay in Orange County , California but did not attract mainstream attention . No Doubt recorded their second album , The Beacon Street Collection , in March 1995 . It was released independently , because No Doubt had recorded many songs that they knew would not make it onto Tragic Kingdom and were frustrated by a lack of attention from their label . They released two singles from it : " Squeal " and " Doghouse " . The Beacon Street Collection sold 100 @,@ 000 copies . No Doubt 's independence shocked their company representative and ensured that the label would finance a third album .
The band 's third album , Tragic Kingdom , was released shortly after The Beacon Street Collection , on October 10 , 1995 under Interscope Records . Work began on the album in 1993 but Interscope rejected most of the material , leading to the release of Beacon Street . The band was introduced to Paul Palmer , who had his own label Trauma Records , which was already associated with Interscope . Palmer mixed the record and was allowed to release Tragic Kingdom under Trauma Records . The album produced seven singles : " Just a Girl " , " Spiderwebs " , " Don 't Speak " , " Excuse Me Mr. " , " Happy Now ? " , " Sunday Morning " , and " Hey You ! " . In total , Tragic Kingdom sold over 16 million copies worldwide , and was certified diamond in the United States and Canada , and platinum in the United Kingdom .
No Doubt 's fourth studio album was Return of Saturn , released on April 11 , 2000 after two and a half years of touring to promote Tragic Kingdom . The album spawned four singles — " New " , a song from the soundtrack to the movie Go , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " , and " Bathwater " . Return of Saturn sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies upon its release . No Doubt released its fifth studio album , Rock Steady , in December 2001 . Four singles were released from it — " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " , and " Running " — between 2001 and 2003 . The album sold 3 million copies upon its release and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Later , in April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus to take a break to spend time with their families before starting to compile Everything in Time ; The Singles 1992 – 2003 ; The Videos 1992 – 2003 ; and Boom Box , containing all of the above and Live in the Tragic Kingdom , which was originally recorded in 1997 . They would all be released on the same date . The main reason to go into hiatus was that , in early 2003 , lead singer Gwen Stefani started work on her 1980s @-@ inspired new wave / dance @-@ pop music side project , under which she released two solo albums : Love . Angel . Music . Baby. on November 22 , 2004 and The Sweet Escape on December 4 , 2006 .
Live in the Tragic Kingdom had previous been released on VHS on November 11 , 1997 and was later released as a separate DVD on June 13 , 2006 . Everything in Time was later released as a separate CD on October 12 , 2004 . The Videos 1992 – 2003 was released on a separate DVD on May 4 , 2004 .
= = Music = =
Boom Box compiles four albums : Everything in Time , The Singles 1992 – 2003 , The Videos 1992 – 2003 , and Live in the Tragic Kingdom . The Singles 1992 – 2003 is a greatest hits collection of No Doubt 's singles , containing tracks from four of their five studio albums : No Doubt , Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn , and Rock Steady . Tracks from No Doubt 's second album , The Beacon Street Collection , were not included because the album was produced and released independently by the band . The Videos 1992 – 2003 is a DVD containing No Doubt 's music videos , including those of all the tracks on The Singles 1992 – 2003 as well as a video of the band 's cover of " Oi to the World ! " , a song originally by Californian punk rock band The Vandals from their album of the same name . Everything in Time is a CD collection of B @-@ sides , rare songs , and remixes . Live in the Tragic Kingdom is a DVD filmed at one of the concerts in No Doubt 's Tragic Kingdom tour and contains performances of the seven songs released as singles from Tragic Kingdom , along with other tracks from the album and cover versions of songs by other bands .
Boom Box spans mostly No Doubt 's later musical style . The two greatest hits discs , The Singles 1992 – 2003 and The Videos 1992 – 2003 , take 13 of their 15 or 16 tracks from Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn and Rock Steady . Their earlier musical style , in which the songs were written by keyboard player Eric Stefani , who left the band before Tragic Kingdom was recorded , is represented by only one song — " Trapped in a Box " from No Doubt . The band 's musical style changed later when Gwen Stefani started writing the songs ; the tracks on Tragic Kingdom , which are heavily represented on Boom Box , are built on the themes of Gwen Stefani 's femininity and the breakup of her relationship with fellow band member Tony Kanal . The B @-@ sides and rare songs on Everything in Time were mainly recorded in the sessions for the band 's fourth album , Return of Saturn , but two of the three remixes were of the song " Rock Steady " , from No Doubt 's album , Rock Steady . Boom Box was given a Parental Advisory : Explicit Content sticker in the United States because of the content in Live in the Tragic Kingdom , which also received the sticker upon its release .
= = Critical reception = =
Because Boom Box was not one of No Doubt 's official studio albums , it lacked much attention from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the album four stars out of five , although criticizing the mix of songs , saying that only " hardcore No Doubt fans ... would want any of this material . " He called the set 's appearance of being " a generous gift to [ No Doubt 's ] fans " " deceiving " and the album not as " carefully assembled " as the standalone The Singles 1992 – 2003 . He said that the packaging " feels as if it was done on the cheap " and criticized the lack of special features on the DVDs . However , he praised The Singles 1992 – 2003 and Everything in Time , calling them " very good " and that they displayed what a " dynamic singles band No Doubt was " , summarizing the album as " something worthwhile for the fans " .
However , The Singles 1992 – 2003 and Everything in Time from Boom Box were released separately and were reviewed as separate albums . The Singles 1992 – 2003 was well received by critics and was described as " a real joy " and a " stellar collection " . Its mixture of styles was both praised as " sheer diversity " and criticised as having a " hotch @-@ potch feel " . The album charted well across Europe , Oceania and North America . In the United States , it sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies , peaked at number 2 on the U.S. Billboard 200 and was certified gold , platinum and 2 × platinum . It peaked in the top ten of the album charts of Canada , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Denmark , the Netherlands , Finland , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland ; and in the top forty of the album charts of Germany , Australia , Belgium and Portugal . Everything in Time peaked at number 182 on the Billboard 200 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Disc one = = =
= = = Disc two = = =
= = = Disc three = = =
= = = Disc four = = =
= = Credits = =
= = Chart positions = =
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= Dragon Quest VII =
Dragon Quest VII : Fragments of the Forgotten Past ( ドラゴンクエストVII エデンの戦士たち , Doragon Kuesuto Sebun Eden no Senshi @-@ tachi , lit . " Dragon Quest VII : Warriors of Eden " ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game developed by Heartbeat and ArtePiazza , and published by Enix for the PlayStation in 2000 . It was released in North America in 2001 under the title Dragon Warrior VII . The game received a remake on the Nintendo 3DS on February 7 , 2013 in Japan , and it was announced that the game would be released in North America and Europe for the Nintendo 3DS under the title Dragon Quest VII : Fragments of the Forgotten Past in 2016 . A version of the game for Android and iOS was also released in Japan on September 17 , 2015 .
Dragon Quest VII : Fragments of the Forgotten Past is the seventh installment of the popular Dragon Quest series of role playing games , and is the successor to 1995 's Dragon Quest VI for the Super Famicom . An immediate success upon release , Dragon Warrior VII 's sales have totalled 4 @.@ 06 million , making it the best @-@ selling PlayStation game in Japan by April 6 , 2001 , and is an Ultimate Hits title . It was the first main series Dragon Quest title to be released outside Japan since the release of Dragon Quest IV in North America in 1992 , and the last Dragon Quest title to be released in North America with the Dragon Warrior name . The game was produced by Yuji Horii , who has presided over the Dragon Quest series since its inception . Artwork and character designs were once again provided by Akira Toriyama , the artist responsible for all previous Dragon Quest games and a famous manga artist .
The game follows the Hero and his friends as they discover secrets about the mysterious islands surrounding their home of Estard . Through some ancient ruins , they are transported to the pasts of various islands and must defeat evil in each new location . Game mechanics are largely unchanged from previous games in the series , although an extensive Class system allows players to customize their characters .
= = Gameplay = =
Dragon Warrior VII is best known for its huge size . Without completing the game 's side quests , a single game of Dragon Warrior VII can take a hundred hours or more . In terms of gameplay , not much has changed from previous installments ; battles are still fought in a turn @-@ based mode from a first person perspective . Although non @-@ battle sequences are rendered in 3D , battles themselves are still portrayed two dimensionally . The ability to talk with the party characters in and outside of battles was added to this game . They offer advice about battle strategies and plot points , or simply comment on how they feel at a given moment . There are four ways and means of locomotion : feet , boat , magic carpet , and skystone . Each of these can move across different terrain .
The main flow of the game is different from the other Dragon Quest games ; instead of exploring one large world , the party goes to separate continents by placing stone shards into their appropriate pedestals in Estard Fane . Once all of the missing shards are located and placed for a particular pedestal , the party is transported to the trapped location in the past . After solving whatever problems plague the location , the party then travels back to Estard , the beginning island . From there , they can travel via boat , carpet , or skystone to the modern version of the location they just saved . These saved lands appear on the main map , although the originals ( from the past ) can be revisited through the ruins .
Like most of the other Dragon Quest games , this game has several mini @-@ games to participate in . The Immigrant Town , similar to the one in Dragon Quest IV , lets the player recruit people from various towns . They then live in the town , which changes depending on the type of people living there ( e.g. several merchants will bring more stores to the town ) . A prominent feature in most Dragon Quest games is the casino . Poker , slot machines , and luck panel can all be played in Dragon Warrior VII . The Ranking Association allows the player to compete for the highest stats , like the Beauty Competition from Dragon Quest VI . The player can also catch monsters , although they are only displayed in the Monster Park , unlike in Dragon Quest V , where monsters fought in the party . Blueprints are found to add new environments to the park .
= = = Class system = = =
Dragon Warrior VII uses a class system for learning abilities , similar to that of Dragon Quest VI . Some available classes include Warrior , Fighter , Cleric , Mage , Bard , Dancer , Jester , Thief , Idol , Pirate , Ranger , Dragoon , Paladin , Summoner , God Hand , and Hero , some of which are unlocked by mastering other classes . The game also includes monster classes , which can be unlocked by using the appropriate monster heart or mastering pre @-@ requisite monster classes .
Characters generally stop learning character specific spells and skills around experience level 15 ; however , around this time in the game , players will reach Dharma Island , where they can give their characters certain classes . Each non @-@ monster class belongs to one of three tiers ( Basic , Intermediate , and Advanced ) , while monster classes have more tiers . Characters gain levels in classes by fighting a certain number of battles , as opposed to gaining experience points . Characters learn different spells and skills when they reach another class level and their stats are affected by what class they are . Once a character reaches the 8th and final level of a class , it is considered " mastered " , if a character masters certain classes , higher tier classes will become available to them . For example , if a character masters the Mage and Cleric classes , which are both Basic , then the Intermediate class Sage will be available to them . If that character was to then master the Teen Idol class , the Advanced Summoner class would open up .
= = Plot and setting = =
= = = Story = = =
The story begins when the father of the protagonist brings home a map fragment from a fishing trip ; this map suggests to the protagonist and his friend that the world had , at some point in its past , many continents , though now there is only the small island of Estard ( エスタード , Esutādo ) . The two of them find a way to travel back to the past , when the continents still existed . The continents are facing serious problems that threaten their existence ; the protagonist and his growing party work to resolve the problems , and when they do , the continents reappear in the present . When all the continents are finally restored , the Demon Lord , who is responsible for the loss of many of the continents , appears and seals away many of the continents again . He then raises up his Dark Palace , where the party face the Demon Lord in a final showdown .
= = = Characters = = =
Hero ( 主人公 , Shujinkō ) — The Hero has no default name ; as is traditional in the Dragon Quest series , the name is supplied by the player ( however , he is called Arus in the official manga and was given the name Auster in the 3DS English translation ) . The Hero is a lifelong native of the town of Fishbel on Estard Island . He is good friends with Maribel , daughter of the mayor of Fishbel , and Kiefer , prince of Estard Castle . In particular , he has a fondness for going out on impromptu " adventures " with Kiefer . It is one such adventure than begins the story of the game .
In terms of gameplay , the Hero is a well @-@ rounded character who is one of the strongest fighters in the game . He also lays claim to a variety of healing magics , and has fairly average statistical growth .
Kiefer ( キーファ ・ グラン , Kīfa Guran ) — Kiefer is a prince of Estard , and the presumptive heir to the throne . Far from anticipating his elevation to kingship , however , Kiefer seems to resent his royal blood , and is a source of endless worry and frustration to his family and advisors . Kiefer , for his part , spends much of his time in search of excitement and adventure , and has found a kindred spirit in the Hero , whom he considers his closest friend .
Kiefer is incredibly strong , with a high physical attack statistic and naturally high hit points ( HP ) . He is the most powerful character available early on in the game . On one trip to an ancient land , Kiefer falls in love , and remains behind . Upon returning to the present , the hero finds out that Kiefer became a famous guardian of the Dejan tribe , and is the biological ancestor of almost an entire culture / continent . Kiefer is also the main character of the game Dragon Quest Monsters : Caravan Heart .
Maribel ( マリベル , Mariberu ) — A friend of both the Hero and Kiefer , Maribel is the daughter of the mayor of Fishbel . Unlike Kiefer , who has steadfastly refused to let his social status influence how he looks upon other people , Maribel tends to be a bit condescending , even bossy . Despite this , she gets along well with her friends , and occasionally accompanies them on their adventuring , even if she sometimes has to pressure them into letting her tag along .
Maribel is primarily a magic user : with low starting physical statistics , and an early lack of powerful weapons available for her use , it takes a good deal of time before she can do anything approaching the amount of physical damage inflicted by some of the other characters . On the other hand , Maribel has access to a variety of damaging attack spells relatively early on . Unlike Kiefer , she does rejoin the Hero after leaving .
Gabo ( ガボ ) known as Ruff in the 3DS English translation — Although he appears normal , Gabo is actually a white wolf pup who was irrevocably turned into a boy . As such , he retains a number of obvious lupine characteristics , and can be somewhat animalistic at times . He agrees to travel with the heroes hoping to protect his family , but remains with the group out of a sense of loyalty .
In contrast to Maribel , Gabo 's specialty is in physical combat . Despite his diminutive size , he can easily become as powerful as the Hero , Melvin , and Aira through mastery of the class system .
Melvin ( メルビン , Merubin ) known as Mervyn in the 3DS English translation — A skilled paladin of generations past , Melvin fought on the side of God against the Demon Lord many years ago . Melvin excelled at his work , and distinguished himself in both skill and honor . As such , Melvin was petrified in stone by God , so that , should the need arise , he could be reawakened to once again take up the fight against evil . The party finds Melvin , who joins their adventure , although his age and unfamiliarity with the present day often leave other characters somewhat befuddled .
Melvin is proficient at both magic and physical combat , though his magic casting abilities are slightly superior to his physical attack skills .
Aira ( アイラ ) known as Aishe in the 3DS English translation — Aira is the lead ritual dancer of the Deja tribe , an ancient race of people charged with the stewardship of a temple necessary in the act of calling forth God . Raised and trained at swordsmanship , Aira is a more than capable fighter , as well . But , for all her skills , Aira harbors a secret from her past that weighs heavily upon her soul .
Aira is a powerful fighter and magic user . Although capable of doing both significant physical and significant magical damage , Aira stands in contrast to Melvin , in that her magic skills tend to lag slightly behind her physical statistics .
= = Development and release = =
Dragon Warrior VII was designed by series creator Yuji Horii and directed by Manabu Yamana . Shintaro Majima signed on as art director , while series veterans Akira Toriyama and Koichi Sugiyama designed the characters and composed the music respectively . The game was officially announced in 1996 and originally planned for the Nintendo 64DD . On January 15 , 1997 , it was announced that development had been moved to the PlayStation . By the next day , both stock in Sony and Enix rose significantly in Japan . By 2000 , Dragon Quest VII was predicted to be so successful in Japan that it would " create a 50 billion yen effect on the Japanese economy " , said research firm DIHS . Dragon Warrior VII would go on to be released on August 26 , 2000 and sold 4 @.@ 06 million games in Japan alone , becoming one of the highest selling games of all time .
The game was delayed numerous times before its actual release . Work on the game was extended because the development staff wanted to perfect the game due to high expectations from the fans and because the team only consisted of about 35 people . Before its release , it was ranked as the most wanted game in Japan and Square , knowing about Dragon Warrior VII 's release , moved Final Fantasy IX to come out on a later date . Horii stated in an interview that the team focused more on puzzle solving than the game 's story . Being the first game in the series to include 3D graphics , the team was also initially reluctant to include CG movies and cinematics due to letters written to Enix by fans fearing that doing so would change the overall feeling of the series .
The English language localization of Dragon Warrior VII began directly after the game 's Japanese release . Enix of America was tasked with translating over 70 @,@ 000 pages of text via 20 translators and 5 copy editors . No effort was made to edit or censor the context of the Japanese script . Weeks prior to the game 's US release , Enix released new information about the game 's different mechanics on their website weekly to introduce players to the game . Paul Handelman , president of Enix America , commented on the game that " All the talk this month about new systems with the latest technological wizardry doesn 't diminish the fact that at the end of the day , compelling game play is what it 's all about , and Dragon Warrior VII provides just that . " Dragon Warrior VII was released in the US on November 1 , 2001 and was the last game in the series to have Warrior in its title instead of Quest . In 2003 , Square Enix registered the Dragon Quest trademark in the US , with the intent to retire the Dragon Warrior name . Soon after the game 's release , developer Heartbeat went on hiatus . Justin Lucas , product manager of Enix America , commented on the hiatus , saying that the developer merely " worked their tails off on Dragon Warrior 7 and Dragon Warrior 4 . They decided to take a sabbatical for a while and rest up " , noting that it had nothing to do with the game 's US sales .
The back of the Dragon Warrior VII manual in North America contained an advertisement for Dragon Warrior IV , an enhanced remake for the PlayStation of a Nintendo game of the same name . The localization was later cancelled , due to Heartbeat 's closure .
= = = Remake = = =
On October 30 , 2012 Square Enix announced that they were remaking Dragon Quest VII exclusively for the Nintendo 3DS and that it would be released in Japan in February 2013 . Later that day , Square Enix confirmed that the release date would be February 7 , 2013 for Japan . Similarly to Dragon Quest IX , the game features visible enemy encounters instead of random encounters , unique backgrounds and enemies that have individual attack characteristics . In the November 2015 Nintendo Direct , it was shown that Dragon Quest 7 will be coming outside Japan in 2016 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Soundtrack = = =
As with nearly every Dragon Quest game , Koichi Sugiyama composed the musical score . As was done for Dragon Quest VI , the original sound version was bundled with the symphonic suite in a two @-@ disc set called Dragon Quest VII : Eden no Senshitachi Symphonic Suite + OST . The entire first disc and the opening track of the second disc consists of the symphonic suite , while the rest of the second disc is the original sound version . The Symphonic Suite was released alone on Super Audio CD later that year , and re @-@ released in 2009 . A disc titled Dragon Quest VII : Eden no Senshitachi on Piano was also released , and contained 27 piano @-@ arranged tracks . The Symphonic Suite was later re @-@ recorded in 2006 along with the rest of the music from the series . An original soundtrack for the 3DS remake was released on March 19 , 2014 , and features the original recordings by the Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra from the remake .
All songs written and composed by Koichi Sugiyama .
All songs written and composed by Koichi Sugiyama .
= = = Manga = = =
The manga adaptation of Dragon Quest VII was published by Enix 's Monthly Gangan in Japan . It was illustrated by Kamui Fujiwara , who also worked on another franchise @-@ related manga , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō . Fourteen volumes were released between 2001 and 2006 , though the series is currently on hiatus . In this adaptation , the hero is given the name " Arus " . The manga follows the game story while adding in new characters and more detailed relationships , as the original hero was silent and a personality needed to be added for the comic version .
= = Reception = =
Dragon Warrior VII was very well received in Japan both commercially and critically . It was the best @-@ selling PlayStation game of 2000 in the region at 3 @.@ 78 million copies sold . As most of the units were sold mere weeks after the game 's release , the game established itself for having the largest annual shipment of any independently sold game for the original PlayStation . Shipment of Dragon Quest VII reached four million copies on January 5 , 2001 , and the game became the sixth best @-@ seller video game of all platforms at that time . Worldwide , sales of the game have surpassed 4 @.@ 1 million units as of February 2004 . Dragon Warrior VII won the grand prize in Digital ( Interactive ) Art Division at the 4th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2000 , where the game was praised for being " ... engaging without depending on a high degree of realism ... " and " ... well refined and artfully executed . " The game also won four awards from the 5th Japan Entertainment Software Awards by the Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association ( CESA ) , including Best Prize , Scenario Prize , Sales Prize , and Popularity Prize . In 2006 , the readers of Famitsu magazine voted Dragon Warrior VII the 9th best video game of all time .
Sales of the North American version of Dragon Warrior VII reached about 200 @,@ 000 copies according to The Magic Box , which was not nearly as stellar as its Japanese counterpart . Enix of America still expressed their satisfaction with the sales figures . Dragon Warrior VII met with mostly positive reviews from North American critics . IGN noted that all " 100 + hours " of the game are enjoyable despite the dated visuals and clunky presentation . GameZone.com praised the game 's concept and nostalgia factor and cited it as " what role @-@ playing games were meant to be . " They also noted the game 's high difficulty , which , instead of making the game frustrating , they say , " make it that much more of an accomplishment when you complete a quest . " IGN described the game 's class system as " one of the best class systems seen outside a strategy RPG . "
Other critics were not as pleased with Dragon Warrior VII . GameShark.com described the first two hours of the game as " some of the most boring hours you will ever play in a video game . " XenGamers.com also pointed out that in order to play the game , the player needs " the patience of a rock " . Game Informer even went as far as to say that " four million Japanese can be wrong " , referring to the game 's immense popularity in Japan . Because of the game 's delay in being developed , its release was after the PlayStation 2 's release , which created some negative feedback , particularly about the game 's graphics . IGN commented on this , calling the game " a game that makes only a bare minimum of concessions to advancing technology , but more than makes up for this with its deep gameplay , massive quest , and sheer variety . " GameSpot called the graphics " not good " and warned readers that if the " most rewarding things " they " got out of Final Fantasy VII were the full @-@ motion video interludes , you definitely won 't be wowed by anything you see in Dragon Warrior VII . "
Sales of the Nintendo 3DS remake exceeded 800 @,@ 000 copies the first week in Japan . As of March 17 , 2013 , the remake has sold 1 @,@ 174 @,@ 077 copies . Famitsu rated the remake a 35 / 40 , praising the new orchestrated score as well as the improved graphics , intro and first dungeon .
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= Operation Goodwood ( naval ) =
Operation Goodwood was a series of unsuccessful British carrier air raids conducted against the German battleship Tirpitz at her anchorage in Kaafjord , Norway , during late August 1944 . It formed the last of several major attacks made by the Home Fleet during 1944 which sought to eliminate the potential threat Tirpitz posed to Allied shipping by badly damaging or sinking the warship . While each of the previous raids on Kaafjord conducted by Fleet Air Arm aircraft had involved only a single air strike , Operation Goodwood involved repeated attacks over a week . The Royal Navy hoped that these raids would wear down the formidable German defences .
The British fleet departed its base on 18 August , and launched the first raid against Kaafjord on the morning of the 22nd . This major attack was unsuccessful , and a small raid that evening inflicted little damage . Two further major strikes were conducted on 24 and 29 August , but without success . Tirpitz was struck by two bombs during the raid on 24 August , but neither caused significant damage . British losses during Operation Goodwood were 17 aircraft to all causes , and a frigate sunk by a submarine . An escort carrier was also badly damaged . German forces suffered the loss of 12 aircraft and damage to 7 ships .
Following Operation Goodwood , responsibility for attacking Tirpitz was transferred to the Royal Air Force in late August 1944 . In three heavy bomber raids conducted during September and October 1944 , the battleship was first crippled and then sunk . Historians regard Operation Goodwood as a significant failure for the Fleet Air Arm , and attribute its results to shortcomings with the force 's aircraft and their armament .
= = Background = =
From early 1942 , Tirpitz posed a significant threat to the Allied convoys transporting supplies through the Norwegian Sea to the Soviet Union . Stationed in fjords on the Norwegian coast , the battleship was capable of overwhelming the close @-@ escort forces assigned to the Arctic convoys or breaking out into the North Atlantic . To counter this threat , the Allies needed to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet , and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union .
Several air and naval attacks were launched against Tirpitz in 1942 and 1943 . On 6 March 1942 , torpedo bombers flying from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious attacked the battleship while she was attempting to intercept Convoy PQ 12 but did not achieve any hits . Bombers from the Royal Air Force and Soviet Air Forces also attempted to strike Tirpitz in her anchorages several times in 1942 and 1943 but failed to inflict any damage . On 23 September 1943 , two British X @-@ class midget submarines penetrated the defences around the battleship 's main anchorage at Kaafjord in northern Norway during Operation Source , and placed explosive charges in the water beneath her . This attack caused extensive damage to Tirpitz , putting her out of service for six months .
Following Operation Source , the task of attacking Tirpitz was assigned to the Home Fleet 's aircraft carriers . Following months of preparations , a successful attack ( Operation Tungsten ) involving two strike forces of 20 Fairey Barracuda dive bombers escorted by 40 fighters was conducted on 3 April 1944 . While Tirpitz 's crew suffered heavy casualties during this operation , the battleship was not badly damaged . Nevertheless , she was placed out of action for several additional months while repairs were completed .
The Home Fleet initiated a further four raids against Tirpitz between April and July 1944 , though the battleship was only attacked during the last of these operations . These attacks were hindered by the transfer of many of the Home Fleet 's airmen to other units following Operation Tungsten , as the replacement aircrew were less experienced . The first raid ( Operation Planet ) began on 21 April but cancelled three days later when agents stationed near Kaafjord reported bad weather over the target area . The Home Fleet put to sea to attack Tirpitz again in mid @-@ May in what was designated Operation Brawn . A strike force of 27 Barracudas escorted by Vought F4U Corsair and Supermarine Seafire fighters took off from the carriers HMS Furious and Victorious on 15 May , but returned to the ships without attacking after they encountered heavy cloud over Kaafjord . The next raid , Operation Tiger Claw , was initiated in late May but cancelled due to bad weather on the 28th of the month . The subsequent attack ( Operation Mascot ) was timed for mid @-@ July , before the resumption of the Arctic convoys , which had been suspended since April 1944 to free up ships for the Normandy landings . The strike force of 44 Barracudas and 40 fighters dispatched on 17 July reached the target area , but found Tirpitz cloaked in a protective smokescreen and the attack failed to inflict any damage on the battleship .
= = Preparations = =
In the weeks after Operation Mascot , Tirpitz continued to prepare for potential combat operations . Following trials in the sheltered waters of Altafjord , she put to sea on 31 July and 1 August to train with her protective destroyers . Additional smoke generators were also installed around Kaafjord to improve the area 's already strong defences . These activities were reported by spies , and the British Admiralty interpreted them to mean that Tirpitz was being readied for a raid against Allied shipping . To defend against this threat , it was decided to conduct further attacks against the battleship at her anchorage in Kaafjord at the time of the next series of Arctic convoys . In reality , the German Navy was not planning to use Tirpitz offensively as she would be very vulnerable to the superior Allied naval and air forces if she put to sea . Instead , the battleship was being maintained in active service to tie down Allied warships and aircraft .
The failure of Operation Mascot convinced the commander of the Home Fleet , Admiral Sir Henry Moore , that the Fleet Air Arm 's main strike aircraft , the Fairey Barracuda dive bomber , was not suited to operations against Kaafjord . As the dive bombers ' slow speed gave the defenders of Kaafjord enough time to cover Tirpitz in a smoke screen between the time incoming raids were detected and their arrival over the target area , Moore concluded that further attacks using these aircraft would be futile . However , the Admiralty judged that repeatedly striking Kaafjord with Barracudas over a 48 @-@ hour period might wear down the German defences and exhaust the supply of fuel for Tirpitz 's protective smoke generators . Consideration was also given to flying fast and long @-@ ranged de Havilland Mosquito bombers off the carriers in an attempt to achieve surprise , but none of these land @-@ based aircraft could be spared from supporting the Allied bombing of Germany . Despite his misgivings , Moore agreed to make another attempt to strike Tirpitz .
As proposed by the Admiralty , Moore 's plans for the new attack on Kaafjord involved the Home Fleet 's aircraft attacking the region over several days . While the fighter aircraft involved in the previous raids had used only their machine guns to strafe German defences in order to reduce the threat they posed to the Barracudas , it was decided to use some of these aircraft as dive bombers during Operation Goodwood . In preparation , the two squadrons of Corsairs and single squadron of Grumman F6F Hellcats selected to participate in the attack received training in dive @-@ bombing tactics during the period between Operations Mascot and Goodwood . Another new element of the plans was a decision to use Fleet Air Arm aircraft to drop mines near Tirpitz and the entrance to Kaafjord . The mines dropped near the battleship were to be fitted with time @-@ delay fuses , and it was hoped that the explosions of these devices would cause Tirpitz 's captain to try to move the warship into safer waters and pass through the minefield at the fjord 's entrance . During the period before Operation Goodwood , the Home Fleet 's flying squadrons conducted training exercises using a target range at Loch Eriboll in northern Scotland ; the terrain in this area is comparable to that around Kaafjord , and the loch had also been used for this purpose as part of the preparations for Operation Tungsten .
= = Opposing forces = =
The Operation Goodwood attack fleet was divided into three groups . Admiral Moore embarked on board the battleship HMS Duke of York , which sailed with the fleet aircraft carriers HMS Indefatigable ( the flagship of Rear Admiral Rhoderick McGrigor , commander of the 1st Cruiser Squadron ) , Formidable and Furious as well as two cruisers and fourteen destroyers . The second force comprised the escort carriers HMS Nabob and Trumpeter , cruiser HMS Kent and a group of frigates . A pair of fleet oilers escorted by four corvettes sailed separately to support the two attack groups .
The aircraft carriers embarked the largest group of Fleet Air Arm aircraft assembled up to that point in the war . Their main striking element was the 35 Barracudas assigned to 820 , 826 , 827 , and 828 Naval Air Squadrons which operated from the three fleet carriers . The two units of 6 Naval Fighter Wing , 1841 and 1842 Squadrons , flew 30 Corsairs from Formidable . A total of 48 Seafires were assigned to 801 , 880 , 887 and 894 Squadrons on board Indefatigable and Furious . In addition , 1770 and 1840 Squadrons operated 12 Fairey Firefly and 12 Hellcat fighters respectively from Indefatigable . The two escort carriers embarked a total of 20 Grumman TBF Avengers ( which had responsibility for the mine @-@ dropping element of Operation Goodwood ) and 8 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters ; these aircraft were split between 846 Squadron on board Trumpeter and 852 Squadron on Nabob .
Tirpitz 's anchorage at Kaafjord was heavily defended . Prior to Operation Tungsten , eleven batteries of anti @-@ aircraft guns , several anti @-@ aircraft warships and a system of smoke generators capable of hiding Tirpitz from aircraft were located around the fjord . After the attack , additional radar stations and observation posts were established and the number of smoke generators was increased . Tirpitz 's air defences were strengthened by fitting her with additional 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) cannons , modifying the 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns so they could be used to attack aircraft , and supplying anti @-@ aircraft shells for her 380 @-@ millimetre ( 15 in ) main guns . The German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) had few fighters stationed at airfields near Kaafjord , and their operations were constrained by a lack of fuel .
= = Attacks = =
= = = 22 August = = =
The Operation Goodwood attack force sailed on 18 August . The timing of the operation was set to allow the Home Fleet to also protect Convoy JW 59 , which had departed from Scotland on 15 August bound for the Soviet Union . After an uneventful journey north , the attack forces arrived off Norway on 20 August . While the first attack against Kaafjord had been planned to take place on 21 August , weather conditions that day were unsuitable for flying operations , and Moore decided upon a 24 @-@ hour postponement . The Germans were first alerted to the presence of the British fleet on 21 August when radio messages from the carriers were detected .
The first strike against Kaafjord was launched on 22 August . While flying conditions were poor due to low cloud , Moore decided to attack that day as some of his ships were starting to run low on fuel and would soon need to move away from Norway to refuel . At 11 : 00 am a force comprising 32 Barracudas , 24 Corsairs , 11 Fireflies , 9 Hellcats and 8 Seafires was launched from the three fleet carriers . No Avengers were dispatched as the cloudy conditions were unsuitable for the execution of their task . Because few mines were available and the Avengers could not safely land while still carrying these weapons , the mine @-@ dropping element of the plan would fail if the aircraft were unable to locate Tirpitz and had to dump their loads into the sea .
As the strike force neared the coast , heavy cloud was sighted covering the hills near Kaafjord . Because the clouds prevented accurate bombing , the Barracudas and Corsairs returned to the carriers without attacking . The Hellcat and Firefly fighters continued on , and approached the fjord below the cloud base . These aircraft achieved surprise , and Tirpitz was not obscured by smoke when they arrived over Kaafjord . The Fireflies initiated the attack at 12 : 49 pm by strafing German anti @-@ aircraft guns on and around Tirpitz . Two minutes later nine Hellcats attacked the battleship with 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs but did not achieve any hits . As the strike force returned to the carriers it destroyed two of Tirpitz 's seaplanes in Bukta harbour and badly damaged the submarine U @-@ 965 at Hammerfest . At Ingøy , north of Hammerfest , three Hellcats strafed a German radio station . The attack set the station 's buildings ablaze and damaged the aerials . The eight Seafires made diversionary attacks on the Banak area and a nearby seaplane base , destroying five German seaplanes . Three British aircraft were lost during the attack on the morning of 22 August ; one Hellcat and a Seafire were shot down , and one of the Barracudas was forced to ditch into the sea during its return flight .
After the strike force was recovered , much of the Home Fleet sailed away from the Norwegian coast to refuel . A group comprising Formidable , Furious , two cruisers and several destroyers set a course for the two fleet oilers , and the escort carrier group withdrew so that the carriers could refuel their escorts . At 5 : 25 pm , Nabob was struck by a torpedo fired from U @-@ 354 . The carrier suffered serious damage and 21 fatalities but was able to continue limited flight operations . Shortly afterwards U @-@ 354 torpedoed the frigate HMS Bickerton as the latter searched for Nabob 's attacker . Nabob was forced to return to the Home Fleet 's base at Scapa Flow that evening , escorted by Trumpeter , a cruiser and several destroyers . Formidable and Furious covered their withdrawal ; during this period Furious also refuelled from the Home Fleet 's tankers . The departure of both escort carriers meant that the mine @-@ dropping component of Operation Goodwood had to be cancelled . Bickerton 's stern was wrecked by the torpedo , and she could have potentially been salvaged . However , the force 's commander did not want to have to protect two crippled ships , and the frigate was scuttled at around 8 : 30 pm on 22 August . Shortly after the attacks on Nabob and Bickerton , Seafires from 894 Naval Air Squadron shot down two German Blohm & Voss BV 138 reconnaissance aircraft .
During the evening of 22 August , a force of eight Fireflies and six bomb @-@ armed Hellcats from Indefatigable raided Kaafjord again . This was the first in what was intended to be a series of small harassing attacks conducted to wear down the German defences . German forces did not detect the aircraft before they arrived over Kaafjord at 7 : 10 pm , and the Fireflies ' strafing attacks on German gun positions killed one member of Tirpitz 's crew and wounded ten . However , the Hellcats ' bombs failed to inflict any damage on the battleship . The British fighters also attacked German ships and radar stations on their return flight , damaging two tankers , a supply ship and a patrol boat . No British aircraft were lost during this raid .
= = = 24 August = = =
Fog cancelled Indefatigable 's flying operations on 23 August , including a planned diversionary attack against German shipping in Langfjord . The other two carriers and their escorts rejoined Moore and Indefatigable off Norway during the morning of 24 August . While conditions that day were initially foggy , the weather cleared enough in the afternoon to permit a strike against Kaafjord . The attacking force comprised 33 Barracudas carrying 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piecing bombs , 24 Corsairs ( including 5 armed with a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound [ 450 kg ] bomb ) , 10 Hellcats , 10 Fireflies and 8 Seafires . In an attempt to achieve surprise , the aircraft flew off from the carriers from a point further to the south of those used in previous raids . The strike aircraft then flew parallel to the coast , before making landfall and approaching Kaafjord from the south . A German radar station detected the force at 3 : 41 pm , and immediately alerted Tirpitz .
The British attack began at 4 : 00 pm . It was initiated with attacks on German gun positions by the Hellcats and Fireflies , which were flying five minutes ahead of the Barracudas and Corsairs . Tirpitz 's protective smokescreen was not fully in place at the start of the raid , but by the time the Barracudas and Corsairs arrived she was completely covered by smoke . As a result , these aircraft had to blind bomb the ship , releasing their weapons from altitudes between 5 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 and 1 @,@ 200 m ) . Only two bombs hit Tirpitz . The first was a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) weapon dropped by a Hellcat that exploded on the roof of her " Bruno " main gun turret . The explosion destroyed the quadruple 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun mount located on top of the turret , but did not cause any significant damage to the turret itself . The second bomb to strike the ship was a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing weapon which penetrated through five decks , killed a sailor in a radio room and lodged near an electrical switch room . This bomb failed to explode , and German bomb disposal experts later determined that it had been only partially filled with explosives . The German report on the attack judged that if the bomb had gone off it would have caused " immeasurable " damage . British fighters also attacked other German ships and facilities in the Kaafjord area , damaging two patrol boats , a minesweeper and a radar station , as well as destroying an ammunition dump and three guns of an anti @-@ aircraft battery . Tirpitz 's last remaining Arado Ar 196 seaplane was attacked in Bukta harbour and damaged beyond repair . Four Corsairs and two Hellcats were shot down during the raid , and the battleship 's crew suffered 8 fatalities and 18 men wounded . Casualties among the anti @-@ aircraft units stationed around Kaafjord were heavy .
At 7 : 30 pm on 24 August , a pair of Fireflies conducted a photo @-@ reconnaissance sortie over Kaafjord to gather intelligence on the results of the attack ; their presence caused the Germans to generate a smoke screen over the fjord and fire an intensive anti @-@ aircraft barrage . In a separate action that day , U @-@ 354 was sunk off Bear Island by Fairey Swordfish operating from the escort carrier HMS Vindex which was escorting Convoy JW59 .
The German command at Kaafjord judged that the attacks on 24 August had been " undoubtedly the heaviest and most determined so far " , and requested that fighter units be transferred from northern Finland to bolster the area 's defences . Due to the other demands on Germany 's fighter force at this time , the request was turned down on 26 August by the Luftwaffe 's headquarters .
Gales and fog prevented the British from conducting further attacks between 25 and 28 August . On 25 August Indefatigable , Formidable , two cruisers and seven destroyers refuelled from the oilers . Both of the cruisers later detached from the force and returned to Scapa Flow . Duke of York , Furious , a cruiser and five destroyers also sailed to the Faroe Islands to load supplies . Before leaving the fleet , Furious transferred two Barracudas and a pair of Hellcats to Indefatigable . As the elderly Furious was judged to be no longer capable of combat operations , she proceeded from the Faroe Islands to Scapa Flow with the cruiser and several destroyers . On 29 August Duke of York and the remaining destroyers rejoined the main body of the Home Fleet off north Norway . During this period , the flying squadrons ' maintenance personnel worked to repair aircraft which had been damaged during the 24 August attacks .
Convoy JW59 completed its journey on 25 August , with most of its ships docking at Kola in northern Russia . The convoy had been repeatedly attacked by U @-@ boats from 20 to 24 August , and its escorting warships and aircraft sank two submarines . All of the merchant vessels arrived safely , with the only Allied loss being the sloop HMS Kite which was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 344 on 21 August .
= = = 29 August = = =
The final attack of Operation Goodwood was made on 29 August . The strike force comprised 26 Barracudas , 17 Corsairs ( of which 2 were armed with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound [ 450 kg ] bombs ) , 10 Fireflies and 7 Hellcats . Seven Seafires also conducted a diversionary raid on Hammerfest . In an attempt to give the bombers accurate aiming points once the artificial smokescreen was generated around Tirpitz , four of the Hellcats were armed with target indicator bombs . The aircraft began launching at 3 : 30 pm .
The British aircraft failed to achieve surprise . German radar stations had been tracking the Home Fleet 's routine anti @-@ submarine and fighter patrols , and the Seafires were detected at 4 : 40 pm when they were 54 miles ( 87 km ) from Kaafjord . In response to this report , the smoke generators around Kaafjord were activated and the fjord 's defenders went to their battle positions . The arrival of the main body of British aircraft over Kaafjord was delayed by stronger than expected winds and a navigational error , and they did not reach the target area until 5 : 25 pm . By this time Tirpitz was covered in a very thick smokescreen , and none of the British airmen sighted the ship . The Barracudas and Corsairs were forced to blind @-@ bomb Kaafjord , and while no hits were achieved on the battleship , six members of her crew were wounded by bomb fragments from near misses . German ships and gun positions were once again strafed by the fighters , but no significant damage was inflicted . Heavy anti @-@ aircraft gunfire from Tirpitz , which was directed by a party of observers stationed on a mountain near Kaafjord , shot down a Corsair and a Firefly .
Following the raid on 29 August , the Home Fleet sailed west to cover Convoy RA59A which had sailed from northern Russia on 28 August bound from the UK . Due to fuel shortages , Indefatigable and three destroyers detached later that day to return to Scapa Flow and Formidable with two destroyers followed 24 hours later . Duke of York and six destroyers remained on station in the Arctic Sea until 11 : 00 am on 1 September when the convoy was judged to be safe from attack .
Overall , Fleet Air Arm casualties during Operation Goodwood were 40 airmen killed and 17 aircraft destroyed . Nabob was also judged to be beyond economical repair , and was withdrawn from service . On the German side , Tirpitz suffered only superficial damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the 29 August raid , the British learned from Ultra signals intelligence that Tirpitz had not sustained any significant damage during Operation Goodwood . In public statements the Royal Navy claimed to have damaged or sunk 19 German warships during the attacks on Kaafjord , but did not report damage to Tirpitz .
During the final days of Operation Goodwood Royal Navy planners decided not to order further Fleet Air Arm operations against Kaafjord . The planners accepted that the Germans were now able to cover Tirpitz in smoke before Barracudas could reach the battleship , and these aircraft could not carry bombs large enough to inflict heavy damage . Further consideration was given to attacking Kaafjord using Mosquitos launched from aircraft carriers , but the light bombers continued to be in short supply and it was judged that they were not well suited to the task . Moreover , there was a growing need to transfer the carriers to the Pacific to strengthen Britain 's contribution to the war against Japan .
As Tirpitz was still considered a threat to shipping , the British Chiefs of Staff Committee and the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force General Dwight D. Eisenhower decided in late August to conduct further attacks against her using Royal Air Force heavy bombers . On 15 September , a force of Avro Lancasters attacked Kaafjord after refuelling at bases in northern Russia and inflicted irreparable damage on the battleship . Following this raid she was towed to an anchorage near Tromsø to be used as an immobile coastal defence battery . Another heavy bomber attack on 29 October caused only minor damage , but in a third raid mounted on 12 November , Tirpitz was struck by several Tallboy bombs and capsized , sinking with heavy loss of life .
Historians have judged Operation Goodwood to have been a failure . Writing in 1961 , the British official historian Stephen Roskill stated that the attacks marked the end of a " series of operations whose results can only be classed as intensely disappointing " , and concluded that the possibility of sinking Tirpitz had been " remote " due to the shortcomings of the Barracudas and their armament . Similarly , Norman Polmar argued in 1969 that Operation Goodwood was " perhaps the most striking failure of the F.A.A. [ Fleet Air Arm ] during World War II and can be directly attributed to the lack of effective aircraft – the Barracudas were too slow and could not carry large enough bombs to make effective attacks " . More recently , Mark Llewellyn Evans judged the results of Operation Goodwood to have been " pathetic " , and Mark Bishop concluded that " the Fleet Air Arm 's greatest operation of the war ... ended in failure " .
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= Jenny Morris ( musician ) =
Jennifer " Jenny " Patricia Morris ( born 29 September 1956 in Tokoroa ) OAM is a New Zealand @-@ born Australian pop , rock singer @-@ songwriter . Her first success came with New Zealand band The Crocodiles , who had a top 20 hit single with " Tears " . Re @-@ locating to Sydney , Australia in February 1981 , she was a backing vocalist for various groups and formed a trio , QED , in 1983 .
Morris provided backing vocals for INXS on their 1983 album , The Swing . She then recorded a duet with lead singer , Michael Hutchence , on a cover of Nancy Sinatra and Lee Hazlewood 's hit " Jackson " ; it was included as a bonus track on the April 1984 ( cassette only ) INXS EP , Dekadance , which reached number two on the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart . Morris worked on their 1985 – 1986 Listen Like Thieves World Tour .
Her solo career includes top five Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Albums with Shiver in 1989 and Honeychild in 1991 , and her top five ARIA Singles are " She Has to Be Loved " and " Break in the Weather " . These albums and singles also peaked in the top ten on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) charts .
Morris has won two ARIA Music Awards for ' Best Female Artist ' in 1987 and 1988 and was nominated for the same award in 1992 . In 2003 , on Australia Day ( 26 January ) , Morris became an Australian citizen and in 2010 she received the Medal of the Order of Australia .
= = Life and music career = =
= = = Early years and The Crocodiles = = =
Jenny Morris was born in Tokoroa , New Zealand and grew up in Hamilton with three brothers ( Alistair , Rhys and Tam ) and four sisters ( Maxine , Bronte , Joanne and Shanley ) . Morris wrote a poem on the Vietnam War when she was 12 and used her sister 's guitar to put it to music . Morris has stated that her influences include Aretha Franklin and Dusty Springfield . Her first professional performance was at age fifteen , at Andersons Theatre Restaurant , in Hamilton . In 1976 she became a singer with How 's Your Father , who were finalists in the ' National Battle of the Bands ' . She began working as a Home Economics teacher for two years at a high school near Wellington . Late in 1978 Morris joined an all @-@ girl group , Wide Mouthed Frogs in Wellington , performing lead vocals . Fellow members were Kate Brockie on lead vocals , Andrea Gilkison on guitar , Tina Matthews on bass guitar , Bronwyn Murray on keyboards and Sally Zwartz on drums . In 1979 they released the track , " Some Day " for the compilation album , Home Grown Volume One ; " Some Day " was cowritten with Tony Backhouse , guitarist of fellow Wellington band , The Spats , which also had a track , " Young Ladies in Hot Cars " , on the compilation .
Wide Mouthed Frogs worked with The Spats ' members : drummer Bruno Lawrence sometimes played saxophone for them and keyboardist Peter Dasent became their musical director . By 1980 , The Spats had evolved into The Crocodiles , under the mentorship of US producer Kim Fowley , and featured Backhouse , Dasent , Fane Flaws ( guitar , vocals ) , Mark Hornibrook ( bass guitar ) , Lawrence , and songwriter Arthur Baysting . Morris was asked to join and soon after , Hornibrook departed and was replaced by Matthews . The Crocodiles were managed by Mike Chunn ( ex @-@ Split Enz bassist ) and regularly performed in Auckland . In January 1980 they played the high profile Sweetwaters Music Festival and in April that year , they released their debut album , Tears , produced by Glyn Tucker Jnr , and its lead single , " Tears " , both reached number 17 on the respective New Zealand albums and singles charts .
Lawrence left and was replaced on drums by Ian Gilroy ( ex @-@ Whizz Kids ) , then Flaws left , although he continued to write material for the second album . Released in November 1980 , Looking at Ourselves , was produced by Ian Morris . That year they won ' Best Group ' and ' Most Promising Group ' at the New Zealand Music Awards . The line @-@ up went through further changes , Gilroy left to join The Swingers , then Matthews and Dasent left . In February 1981 , following a repeat performance at the Sweetwaters Festival , The Crocodiles moved to Sydney , at the behest of their manager , Chunn , with new band members , Barton Price ( drums ) , Rick ' Rikki ' Morris ( guitar ) and Jonathan Zwartz ( bass ) only to disband in July . Price went on to join Models . Morris explained why The Crocodiles left :
New Zealand is not particularly supportive of its local music industry . [ Going to Australia ] was something people had done before and been successful , so we decided to do it too and maybe get some extra information from the trip .
= = = QED and " Jackson " = = =
Morris began her solo career with the single , " Puberty Blues " in December 1981 on Mushroom Records ; it was the title track from the 1981 film Puberty Blues , which was a local box @-@ office success . The song was written by Tim Finn and performed by Sharon O 'Neill in the film . The B @-@ side was " Adolescent Angst " , which Morris recorded with The Morris Majors . " Puberty Blues " reached the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart top 100 . The follow @-@ up single , " Little By Little " — a cover of The Springfields 1960 's song — was released in 1982 but failed to chart .
During 1982 – 1984 , Morris continued as a session backing vocalist , contributing to releases by ex @-@ manager Chunn 's brother Geoff ( also ex @-@ Split Enz ) ; ex @-@ band mate Flaws ' project and album , I Am Joe ’ s Music ; the 1983 Models ' album The Pleasure of Your Company ; and New Zealand outfit D.D. Smash ’ s 1984 album The Optimist , she went on to tour with D.D. Smash front man Dave Dobbyn , and the New Zealand version of The Party Boys . Morris was credited for Dropbears ' 1984 mini @-@ LP , Untitled , before contributing backing vocals to INXS ' first number 1 album The Swing .
In late 1983 , Morris formed QED in Sydney with guitarist Rex Goh ( ex @-@ Air Supply ) and bassist Ian Belton ( ex @-@ Dave Dobbyn , Renée Geyer ) . The trio signed with EMI Australia and their recordings were produced by Mark Moffatt ( The Saints , Mondo Rock , Tim Finn ) and Ricky Fataar ( Geyer , Finn , Kids in the Kitchen ) . Morris was now managed by Chris Murphy , who also handled INXS . QED recorded their versions of The Crocodiles ' material including , " Everywhere I Go " , " Animal Magic " and " You 're So Hip " ; Morris also co @-@ wrote new songs with Goh . QED 's debut single , " Everywhere I Go " , was released in December , and performed on national television pop music show , Countdown , on 1 April 1984 ; it peaked at number 19 on the national chart . The follow @-@ up single " Solo and More " was issued in March , but failed to chart . The third single , " This One " , appeared in August and reached top 50 . Additional musicians for QED ’ s first album , Animal Magic , included keyboardist Amanda Vincent ( Eurogliders , later joined the Jenny Morris band ) , drummer Steve Fearnly , saxophonist Tony Buchanan , and Fataar on drums . EMI released it in November , but sales remained low and the album did not chart . QED only released one album and disbanded by 1985 , Morris continued session and touring work with other artists , Belton went on to Mondo Rock , and Goh to Eurogliders .
Morris recorded a duet with INXS lead singer , Michael Hutchence , on a cover of Nancy Sinatra and Lee Hazlewood 's hit " Jackson " , it was included as a bonus track on the April 1984 ( cassette only ) INXS EP , Dekadance , which reached number two on the charts . Morris and INXS performed " Jackson " live at the 1984 Countdown Music and Video Awards held on 19 May 1985 . At Murphy 's suggestion she teamed with INXS as a backing singer on their 1985 Australian tour — originally just for a few weeks — and stayed on for eighteen months on their 1985 – 1986 Listen Like Thieves World Tour . Morris recorded and , in November 1985 , released her first single for Warner Entertainment Australia ( WEA ) , " Get Some Humour " , with a contribution from Dave Dobbyn , which reached the top 100 .
= = = Solo success : 1986 – 1994 = = =
During the US leg of the Listen Like Thieves World Tour , in January 1986 , Morris recorded " You ’ re Gonna Get Hurt " , which was written and produced by INXS songwriter and keyboardist , Andrew Farriss . Recorded with backing from INXS ' Andrew and Jon Farriss and Garry Gary Beers , together with guitarist Ian Moss ( ex @-@ Cold Chisel ) , it was released in September and peaked at number 24 . The next single " Body and Soul " — composed by Morris — reached the top 100 in mid @-@ 1987 .
In 1986 she performed on The Rock Party 's Everything to Live For , a charity project initiated by The National Campaign Against Drug Abuse ( NCADA ) , which included many Australasian musicians such as Big Pig 's Sherine Abeyratne ; Crowded House 's Neil Finn , Tim Finn , Paul Hester , Eddie Rayner and Nick Seymour ; Dynamic Hepnotics ' Robert Susz ; GANGgajang 's Mark Callaghan , Robbie James and Geoff Stapleton ; Paul Kelly & the Coloured Girls ' Michael Barclay and Paul Kelly ; Mental As Anything 's Reg Mombassa and Martin Plaza ; Models ' Sean Kelly ; The Promise 's Greg Herbert ; Rockmelons ' Mary Azzopardi , Peter Blakeley and Danny De Costa ; The Venetians ' Rick Swinn ; The Vitabeats ' Andrew Barnum and Lissa Barnum ; and Deborah Conway , Spencer P. Jones , and John Kennedy .
In July 1987 , Morris released her first solo album , Body and Soul , produced by Moffatt and Fataar and mixed by Tim Kramer . It sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies in Australia ( platinum status ) reaching number 13 on the album charts in Australia and number 21 in New Zealand . The album spawned two further hits in " You I Know " — written by Neil Finn — which reached number 13 in Australia and number 30 in New Zealand , and " Light @-@ hearted " peaked in the top 100 in both countries . Morris also hit the road with her backing band , including Vincent , Jehan Lindsay ( ex @-@ Richard Clapton Band ) , Paul Burton ( ex @-@ Mark Williams Band ) , and Roger Mason ( ex @-@ Models ) . Morris won back @-@ to @-@ back ARIA Awards for ' Best Female Artist ' in 1987 and 1988 . In 1988 , Morris and photographer , Paul Clarke , were married .
Her next single " Saved Me " was released in July 1989 — reached top 40 in Australia and New Zealand — it featured a distinctly Latin @-@ Spanish feel permeated by funk undertones , with the promo video shot in Nicaragua by Richard Lowenstein . Morris ' second solo album Shiver , followed in August and was produced by Farriss , with Morris writing ten of the eleven tracks . In between recording the album , she gave birth to her son , Hugh . The second single was " She Has to Be Loved " , a song which melded funk rhythms with a pop hook . In addition , it featured a strong feminist theme , and quickly became a favourite among Morris 's female fans . " She Has to Be Loved " became Morris ' first Australasian top ten hit reaching number five in Australia and number three in New Zealand during October 1989 . Shiver continued to chart over the Southern Hemisphere summer of 1989 – 1990 , peaking at number five on the Australian album charts and number six in New Zealand , it established Morris as one of the best selling female artists in Australia . The track " Aotearoa " — Māori term for ' Land of the Long White Cloud ' or New Zealand — received a special single release in New Zealand and reached top 40 . The album eventually sold over 250 @,@ 000 copies , achieving double platinum status in Australia . It spawned two more singles ; " Street of Love " written by Australian songsmith Paul Kelly , which reached the top 100 in Australia ; and the reggae inspired " Self Deceiver " , penned by Morris and Kelly , which reached top 100 in Australia .
As one of Australia 's leading female singer @-@ songwriters , Morris toured extensively locally and internationally , first by backing Tears for Fears on the European leg of their 1989 Sowing the Seeds of Love Tour , then on Prince 's 1990 Nude Tour in Denmark , Germany and France , — with Dweezil Zappa as her lead guitarist — and again with INXS on their X @-@ Factor tour .
In 1990 she released a cover of " Piece of my Heart " — popularised by Janis Joplin — which peaked in the Australian top 40 in early 1991 . She recorded her third album , Honeychild , with producers Nick Launay ( Midnight Oil , Killing Joke ) and Mark Forrester . The first single from the album , " Break in the Weather " , was co @-@ written by Morris and her youngest brother Tam , appeared in September 1991 , it reached number two in Australia and number five in New Zealand . Honeychild was released in October and became her second consecutive top ten album , peaking at number five in Australia and New Zealand . Her session musicians , included Wendy Matthews and Midnight Oil ’ s Jim Moginie . Honeychild spawned three more singles ; " I ’ ve Had You " , another Morris and Kelly collaboration , which reached top 50 in Australia and New Zealand ; the funk laden " Zero " , featuring the rhythm section of drummer Sly Dunbar and bassist Robbie Shakespeare , which peaked top 100 in Australia and top 40 in New Zealand ; and " Crackerjack Man " , which failed to reach the top 100 ARIA chart in Australia .
On 28 March 1992 Morris performed at the Concert for Life at Centennial Park in Sydney — a fund raiser for the Victor Chang Cardiac Research Centre — with Crowded House , Def FX , Diesel , INXS , Ratcat and Yothu Yindi . Due to inclement weather an expected attendance of 100 @,@ 000 never eventuated and , with the event only raising $ 500 @,@ 000 , scandal was expressed in the media over funding distribution .
In November , The Best of Jenny Morris : The Story So Far , a best @-@ of compilation was released , it included " Jackson " which was performed as a duet with Michael Hutchence and INXS on a 1985 Countdown episode , and a re @-@ recorded version of an old The Crocodiles ' hit " Tears " . The album sold steadily and peaked at number four in New Zealand and number 12 on the Australian charts during May 1993 , after Morris had supported Paul McCartney on the Australian leg of his The New World Tour . 1994 saw the birth of her daughter , Bella . Morris ' next single , " The Price I Pay " , a Billy Bragg cover , was her last appearance on the Australian ARIA top 100 singles chart .
= = = Later years : 1995 – current = = =
Morris ' next four singles " Only We Can Hear " , " Rhythm and Flow " , " In Too Deep " , and " What Do I Do Now " , were released over eighteen months , from mid @-@ 1994 to early 1996 . Salvation Jane was released in July 1995 , nearly four years after her last album , and featured some of her strongest vocal work , including the languid " Rhythm and Flow , " with its Aboriginal influences . Issued on the rooArt label , it was produced by Andrew Farriss and Moffatt , together with Electric Hippies ' duo Steve Balbi and Justin Stanley . The album featured songs from a song writing retreat held at Miles Copeland 's castle in Bordeaux , France . Here , Morris co @-@ wrote a number of songs with other international songwriters . Also in 1995 , Morris became a non @-@ executive writer director on the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) Board and as of 2009 is still on the Board . Morris made an appearance in the television drama , Water Rats , in 1997 she continued her gigs , worked for environmental causes and maintained her family life .
In October 2000 she performed with Vika and Linda Bull and Jodi Phillis , at a sold @-@ out Carole King tribute show , Tapestry : the songs of Carole King , held at the Sydney Opera House ; it then toured the other Australian capital cities in August – September 2001 . In August 2002 , Morris ' released her next album , Hit & Myth , co @-@ produced by Nick Wales ( Coda ) , was released on 8 May 2002 by Yep ! Records . The album features classical musicians ( Renaissance Players , Winsome Evans ) , pop musicians ( Davey Lane , Jodi Phillis ( ex Clouds ) ) and jazz ( PROP ) musicians .
I had people playing on the album from different backgrounds – classical musicians , programmers , jazz musicians , pop . The songs have been crafted so long and so hard , they ’ re not throw away but they ’ re not inaccessible . It ’ s lush , lots of strings beautifully arranged and then groove and beats and really modern sounds and classical guitars as well . It ’ s a collage of all my influences really .
Morris wrote or co @-@ wrote nine of the eleven songs on the album , the others , " Guiding Star " , was written by Neil Finn and " The Blacksmith " is a traditional folk song — the first one she learnt on guitar . Neither the album nor the singles " Home " , released 29 October 2001 , and " Downtime " , released 15 July 2002 , managed to chart . The music video for " Downtime " featured a number of well @-@ known Australian actors , including Hugo Weaving , Bryan Brown , Matt Newton and Peter Fenton , miming the words to the song . Also in 2002 , a portrait of Morris by artist Jan Williamson was entered in the Archibald Prize . The portrait did not win the main prize , but won both the popular awards , the " Packing Room Prize " and " The People 's Choice Award " . In February , Morris appeared on the SBS TV documentary , Mum 's the Word , where high profile women talked about being a working mother . She sang , " Little Little " an ode to her ( then ) unborn child written for her 1989 album , Shiver . In October Morris appeared in Finding Joy , a low budget independent Australian feature film , in a cameo role ( Tracey ) . She sings part of a song called " Educated Kind of Thing " . In November 2002 she performed at the Candlelight AIDS Memorial , in Darlinghurst , marking the beginning of AIDS awareness week .
In March 2003 , Port Fairy 's 27th Annual Folk Festival was staged with Archie Roach , John Williamson , Renée Geyer , Morris and emerging Australian band The Waifs were among the popular performers . In October she joined the board of Nordoff @-@ Robbins Music Therapy Australia , and is an active member of their Fundraising Committee .
In April 2004 , Listen : The Very Best of Jenny Morris a repackaging of her 1992 compilation , The Story So Far , was issued with new artwork and a bonus track , " Little Little " , an ode to her then unborn baby . In May 2005 , the Alive DVD was released , it was recorded in Sydney at The Basement and features Morris playing her hits with her band : Steve Balbi ( Noiseworks ) ; Paul Searles ( Skunkhour ) ; James Hasselwood ( The Dissociatives ) ; Jared Underwood ( Coda ) and actor Josh Quong Tart , with special guest appearances from Ian Moss , Andrew Farriss and Midnight Oil drummer Rob Hirst . The DVD was released with a bonus CD .
Clear Blue in Stormy Skies , her next album , was released by Liberation Music in June 2006 and includes a dozen remodelled versions of her radio hits of the 1980s and 1990s , together with some new material , a cover of the INXS song , " This Time " , in tribute to Michael Hutchence , and a new song , " The Time " .
In September 2009 , Morris toured Afghanistan to Tarin Kowt and Kandahar and played for occupying troops . In October , she appeared on the SBS TV quiz show , RocKwiz , which included a performance of the Crowded House classic , " It 's Only Natural " , with Don McGlashan . She performed at the closing ceremony of the 2009 World Masters Games in Sydney , together with Dragon and The Choirboys .
In January 2010 Morris received the Order of Australia with a citation , " for service to the arts , particularly music , and to the community through charitable organisations " . Morris was glad that her charity , Nordoff @-@ Robbins was recognised . Morris appeared at the 2010 New Zealand International Arts Festival in Wellington on 13 March .
On February 22 , 2016 The Australian Taxation Office initiated insolvency proceedings for her company Aymsolo Pty Ltd ( aka Jenny Morris Band . )
= = = Personal life = = =
Morris married photographer , Paul Clarke , in 1986 and they have had two children , Hugh and Bella .
She has two brothers : Tam ( a storyboard artist and musician ) and Rhys ( a graphic designer and web developer ) , and four sisters : Maxine , Bronte , Joanne and Shanley . Younger sister , Shanley Del has also won an ARIA Award – as a country music artist in 1998 . Her youngest brother , Tam Morris , co @-@ wrote , " Break in the Weather " with Jenny ; he is also in the group Tracky Dax as a singer @-@ songwriter .
In 2003 , on Australia Day ( 26 January ) , Morris became an Australian citizen . In 2005 Morris noticed the effects of a health disorder , spasmodic dysphonia , which affects both her speaking and singing voice . Subsequently she has stopped publicly singing and in October 2015 appeared on Australian Story episode " Raise You Voice " to publicise the disorder .
= = Discography = =
= = = The Crocodiles = = =
= = = QED = = =
= = = Solo = = =
Body and Soul
Shiver
Honeychild
Salvation Jane
Hit & Myth
Clear Blue in Stormy Skies
= = Awards and recognition = =
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= Final Resolution ( 2005 ) =
Final Resolution ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , which took place on January 16 , 2005 from the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first annual event under the Final Resolution chronology . Nine matches were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was a standard wrestling match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in which the champion , Jeff Jarrett , defeated the challenger , Monty Brown to retain the championship . The TNA X Division Championship was contested in an Ultimate X match , in which A.J. Styles defeated Chris Sabin and the champion , Petey Williams . The event 's undercard featured different varieties of matches . America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defeated Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) for the NWA World Tag Team Championship on the undercard . Monty Brown defeated Diamond Dallas Page and Kevin Nash in a Three Way Elimination match to challenge Jeff Jarrett for the NWA Championship in the main event .
The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event an 8 out of 10 , which was higher than the 2006 event 's rating .
= = Background = =
The event featured nine professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Final Resolution was a standard wrestling match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between the champion , Jeff Jarrett , and the challenger , Monty Brown . On the December 24 episode of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! , authority figure Dusty Rhodes announced a Three Way Elimination match for Final Resolution involving Brown , Kevin Nash , and Diamond Dallas Page ( DDP ) . The winner of said match would challenge Jarrett for the NWA Championship in the main event . A Three Way Elimination match involves three competitors fighting to eliminate each man by pinfall , submission , or throwing one another over the top rope and down to the floor until there is one left . Brown defeated Nash and DDP at Final Resolution to gain the opportunity to challenge Jarrett .
Also on the event 's card , the TNA X Division Championship was contested for in an Ultimate X match , with the participants being the champion , Petey Williams , and the two challengers being , A.J. Styles and Chris Sabin . In an Ultimate X match , four pillars are set up at ringside with steel red ropes attached at the top , which are criss @-@ crossed to form an " X " over the center of the ring . The championship belt is hung on the center " X " with the objective being to remove it and fall to the mat below to win . On the December 17 episode of Impact ! , Rhodes announced that there was going to be an Ultimate X match at Final Resolution for the TNA X Division Championship . Styles and Williams were scheduled to be in the match after it was announced with Sabin being the only one having to earn the right to be in the match . Sabin defeated Christopher Daniels on the January 14 episode of Impact ! to gain entry .
In the tag team division , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AMW ) challenged Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) for the NWA World Tag Team Championship . On the December 24 episode of Impact ! , AMW defeated Team Canada to earn the chance to challenge for the championship at Final Resolution .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Two matches aired during the thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show . The first encounter pitted The Naturals ( Chase Stevens and Andy Douglas ) against Johnny B. Badd and Sonny Siaki . The Naturals won the bout after Stevens bashed Siaki over the head with steel folding chair and then pinned him . A standard wrestling match between Chris Candido and Cassidy Riley followed . Candido was victorious in the bout by pinning Riley after a diving headbutt off the top of a padded turnbuckle .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first contest was a Six Man Tag Team match between the team of Ron Killings , Konnan , and B.G. James — The 3Live Kru ( 3LK ) — and the team of Christopher Daniels , Michael Shane , and Kazarian . The 3LK were the winners by pinfall after Killings kicked Shane in the face .
Elix Skipper fought Sonjay Dutt in the second encounter . Skipper defeated Dutt in the match after he performed a move he calls the Play of the Day , in which he laid his leg on Dutt 's head and neck , grabbed Dutt 's near arm , and then spun and slammed Dutt to the mat .
The third match was between Dustin Rhodes and Kid Kash . Rhodes claimed victory after grabbing Kash 's head and jumping forward to land on his butt to perform a bulldog .
Raven fought Erik Watts in the next contest . Watts won the match by pinfall , after he lifted Raven up by the neck and slammed him down to perform a chokeslam .
Roddy Piper was Special Guest Referee for a bout between Jeff Hardy and Scott Hall , which was the following contest . After the two fought for a few minutes , Hardy gained the pinfall victory after he jumped off the top rope and performed a Swanton Bomb , a high @-@ angle front flip from the top rope , onto Hall who was laying flat against the mat . Abyss attacked Hardy after the match finished , and lifted Hardy up onto his shoulders and then dropped to a seated position , a move which Abyss dubbed the Shock Treatment .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth scheduled bout was a Three Way Elimination match between DDP , Kevin Nash , and Monty Brown . The winner of this match would go on to challenge Jeff Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship in the main event . DDP eliminated Nash by performing a dropkick , which caused Nash to fall over the top rope and down to the floor . With Nash eliminated , it was down to Brown and DDP . After the two fought back and forth for a few minutes , Brown threw DDP against the ropes while he ran against the opposite ropes and performed a running shoulder block in the center of the ring to complete a move he named the Pounce .
America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) challenged Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) , who were accompanied by Coach D 'Amore , for the NWA World Tag Team Championship in the seventh match . Johnny Devine interfered mid @-@ way through by hitting Storm with a kendo stick , which led to a pinfall attempt by Young , however Stormed kicked out at two . Later , Young went to grab a chair from Devine who had his back turned to the ring . This caused Devine to panic and hit Young in the head with the chair . Storm immediately followed by grabbing Young and pinning his shoulders to the mat with a school boy type pin attempt for the victory .
The TNA X Division Championship was defended in an Ultimate X match , which involved A.J. Styles , Chris Sabin , and the champion , Petey Williams , who was accompanied by Coach D 'Amore . D 'Amore was banned from ringside in the opening minutes of the contest . Styles at one point was climbing across the cables to retrieve the championship , when Sabin springboarded off the far top rope and performed a dropkick in mid @-@ air to Styles . This caused Styles to perform a front @-@ flip in mid @-@ air and land on his back in the center of the ring . The finish of the match saw Williams and Sabin both hanging on the ropes , each holding one end of the belt . Styles then springboarded off the far top rope and grabbed the belt in mid @-@ flight . After he landed on the mat , he was declared the official winner .
Jeff Jarrett defended the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Monty Brown in the main event . Near the closing minutes , Brown grabbed a guitar , which Jarrett had tried to use earlier , and bashed Jarrett over the head with it . Jarrett retained the championship in the bout after performed a maneuver he named the Stroke three times by grabbing Brown 's head , and tucking his leg between Brown 's two . He follows by extending Brown 's near arm and tripping him to force his face into the mat . Jarrett then pinned Brown to end the match .
= = Aftermath = =
After Final Resolution , Jeff Jarrett went on to be challenged by Kevin Nash for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Against All Odds . Their match was announced on the episode of Impact ! that followed Final Resolution . At Against All Odds , Jarrett defeated Nash to retain the championship .
Newly crowned TNA X Division Champion , A.J. Styles , went on to defend his championship against Christopher Daniels in a 30 @-@ minute Iron Man match at Against All Odds . Styles had to defend the championship against Daniels at the event as per a pre @-@ match stipulation to their bout on the January 21 episode of Impact ! , in which if Styles failed to defeat Daniels in under 10 minutes , then he would have to give Daniels a title shot . Styles failed to win the contest in under ten minutes , which granted Daniels a title match . Dusty Rhodes then made the match a 30 @-@ minute Iron Man match . Styles went on to defeat Daniels at Against All Odds 2 to 1 in falls during over @-@ time .
America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AMW ) went on to Against All Odds to defend their newly won NWA World Tag Team Championship against Kid Kash and Lance Hoyt . This feud was built on a challenge made by Kash and Hoyt directed towards AMW on the January 21 episode of Impact ! to defend their championship at Against All Odds against them , which AMW accepted . At the event , AMW retained the championship .
= = = Reception = = =
The Canadian Online Explorer 's writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event an 8 out of 10 , which was higher than the 2006 event 's rating of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The NWA World Tag Team Championship bout was rated a 9 out of 10 . The Ultimate X match for the TNA X Division Championship was rated a 10 out of 10 . The Three Way Elimination match for a chance to challenge Jeff Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 5 out of 10 , while main event was rated a 6 out of 10 . Clevett stated in his review that he felt " the crowd went home happy after the stellar Ultimate X bout " . When commenting on the NWA World Tag Team Championship match he stated it was " an awesome , awesome tag team match with insane crowd heat " . He thought the main event was a " decent match that was marred once again by an abundance of overbooking B.S. that seems to plague the main event scene of TNA . " The event was released on DVD on November 15 , 2005 by TNA Home Video .
= = Results = =
= = = Three @-@ way elimination match = = =
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= SMS Victoria Louise =
SMS Victoria Louise was the lead ship of her class of protected cruisers , built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the late 1890s . She was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in 1895 , launched in March 1897 , and commissioned into the German fleet in February 1899 . She was named after Princess Victoria Louise , the daughter of Kaiser Wilhelm II . The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 @.@ 2 knots ( 35 @.@ 6 km / h ; 22 @.@ 1 mph ) .
Victoria Louise served with the fleet for the first seven years of her career . During this time , she represented Germany during the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901 . In 1906 , she was modernized and after 1908 , used as a training ship for naval cadets . In 1909 , she visited the United States , and at the outbreak of World War I , was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group . She was attacked unsuccessfully by the British submarine HMS E1 in October 1914 , and at the end of the year she was withdrawn from service . She was used as a minelayer and barracks ship based in Danzig for the rest of the war . Victoria Louise was sold in 1919 and converted into a freighter the following year , though she served in this capacity until 1923 , when she was broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Victoria Louise was ordered under the contract name " L " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1895 . She was launched on 29 March 1897 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 20 February 1899 . The ship was 110 @.@ 60 meters ( 362 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 17 @.@ 40 m ( 57 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 ft 7 in ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Dürr boilers . Her engines provided a top speed of 19 @.@ 2 knots ( 35 @.@ 6 km / h ; 22 @.@ 1 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Victoria Louise also carried eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns . Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . She also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns . The gun armament was rounded out by machine guns . She was also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline .
= = Service history = =
Victoria Louise joined the squadron , commanded by Prince Heinrich , that went to Britain to participate in the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901 . Along with Victoria Louise , Baden , Hagen , and Nymphe represented Germany at Spithead . In 1902 , Victoria Louise was assigned to the Cruiser Division of the I Squadron of the German home fleet . The Division consisted of the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich , the flagship , Freya , and the light cruisers Hela , Amazone , and Niobe . The Division participated in the summer fleet maneuvers of August – September 1902 . In 1906 , the ship went into dock for modernization in the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel . After emerging from the drydock in 1908 , Victoria Louise served as a training ship for naval cadets and cabin boys . In September – October 1909 , Victoria Louise , Hertha , Dresden , and Bremen traveled to the United States to represent Germany during the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . In 1912 , Theodor Krancke served aboard the ship as a cadet ; he would go on to command the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer in World War II .
She served as a school ship until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . She was briefly mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , which was tasked with training cadets in the Baltic Sea . Shortly after 0900 on 17 October , the British submarine HMS E1 , commanded by Noel Laurence , attempted to torpedo Victoria Louise at a range of 460 m ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) . The torpedo ran too deep , however , and missed . By the end of 1914 , however , the ships were again removed from service . She was put into service as a coastal defense ship . After 1915 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line duty again and employed as a minelayer and barracks ship in Danzig . In 1916 , Victoria Louise was disarmed . She remained in service in Danzig until 1 October 1919 , when she was stricken from the naval register . She was sold to the Norddeutscher Tiefbau company and rebuilt in 1920 into a freighter . She was renamed Flora Sommerfeld and operated by Danziger Hoch- und Tiefbau GmbH . She served in this capacity only briefly ; she was broken up for scrap in 1923 in Danzig .
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= LW1 ( classification ) =
LW1 is a para @-@ Alpine standing skiing classification for people with severe lower extreme disabilities in both extremities . It includes both skiers with amputations and cerebral palsy . International classification is done through International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing , and national classification through local national sport federations . LW1 classified skiers use outriggers , and two skis or one ski with a prosthesis . Other equipment is used during training such as ski @-@ tips , ski @-@ bras , and short skis .
As this classification includes skiers with cerebral palsy and amputations , there are different skiing techniques used specific to these disability types . For skiers with amputations falling is an important skill to learn , while addressing balance is an important thing for skiers with cerebral palsy to master .
A factoring system is used to allow LW1 competitors to fairly compete against skiers in other standing classifications . At events such as the 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships , this class had its own medal events . In later events such as the 2002 Winter Paralympics , it was grouped with other classes for a single medal event . Skiers in this class include New Zealanders Adam Hall and Kevin O 'Sullivan .
= = Definition = =
LW1 is a standing classification used in para @-@ Alpine skiing but not para @-@ Nordic skiing . LW stands for Locomotor Winter , and the classification is for people with severe lower extreme disabilities in both extremities . They may have cerebral palsy and be classified as CP5 or CP6 , or have spina bifida . The International Paralympic Committee explicitly defined this class as " Competitors with severe disabilities in both lower limbs ... The typical disability profile of the class is double above @-@ knee amputation . " In 2002 , Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , two poles , disability in both legs above the knees . "
For international competitions , classification is done through International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = Equipment = =
LW1 classified skiers use outriggers , and two skis or one ski with a prosthesis . International Ski Federation rules for ski boots and binding heights are modified for this class and are not the same rules used for able @-@ bodied skiers . Skiers in this class are allowed to use ski @-@ tips in competition , using a setup sometimes called a Four Track . In training , they may use additional equipment . For example , skiers with cerebral palsy may use cants , wedges , ski @-@ bras , outriggers or short skis depending on the nature of their disability . Skiers with an amputation may use a prosthesis . As skiers in this classification improve , they require less use of this equipment . Ski bras are devices clamped to the tips of skis , which result in the skis being attached to each other . Outriggers are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . Cants are wedges that sit under the binding that are intended to more evenly distribute weight , and are customised for the specific needs of the skier . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
As this classification includes skiers with cerebral palsy and amputations , there are different skiing techniques used specific to these disability types . While skiing , competitors have a wider turning radius as a result of their disability .
For skiers in this class with above the knee amputations , how to fall properly is an important skill . They are taught to try to prevent the stump of their leg from hitting the snow as it can cause more damage to that leg than the one that is not partially missing . When working on side stepping , the skier is supported to keep the stump of their leg on the uphill side . Elite skiers are taught to avoid using outriggers as crutches . They are taught to turn using their leg instead of their ski poles . In getting on ski lifts , skiers in this classification with amputations are taught to lift their outriggers off the ground and point them forward .
Some skiers with cerebral palsy have better balance while using skis than they would otherwise . This presents challenges for coaches who are working with the skier . Compared to other skiers in the class , the skier with cerebral palsy may tire more quickly . In teaching skiers with cerebral palsy , instructors are encouraged to delay the introduction ski poles as skiers may overgrip them . Use of a ski bra is also encourage as it helps the skier learn correct knee and hip placement . Some skiers with cerebral palsy in this class have difficulty with the snowplough technique .
The American Teaching System is one learning method for competitors with cerebral palsy in this classification . Skiers first learn about their equipment , and how to put it on , before learning how to position their body in a standing position on flat terrain . After this , the skier learns how to side step , and then how to fall down and get back up again . The skier then learns how to do a straight run , and then is taught how to get on and off the chair lift . This is followed by learning wedge turns and weight transfers , wedge turns , wide track parallel turns , how to use ski poles , and advanced parallel turns . Skiers with cerebral palsy in this classification have difficulty walking in ski boots , and sometimes require assistance when walking in them . To go up hill , skiers often point their weaker side upwards .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
In disability skiing events , this classification is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the Slalom and Giant Slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . The skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . In 2005 , the men 's Slalom alpine factor was 0 @.@ 7999898 . The LW1 factoring during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 838 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8233 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8203 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8462 for downhill .
= = Events = =
This class competed at its own medal events at competitions in the 1990s , before being grouped with other classes . LW1 was not grouped with other classes at the 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships for disciplines that included the downhill . At the 1992 Winter Paralympics and 1994 Winter Paralympics , it was grouped with LW2 for men 's para @-@ Alpine events . For the 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships , in Lech , Austria , it was grouped with LW3 and LW5 for medal events . At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the women 's LW1 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes competed in one group , with LW1 , LW3 and LW5 grouped for men 's medal events . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics , the LW1 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes were combined for the women 's downhill , Giant Slalom and Slalom events , while on the men 's side , LW1 , LW3 , LW5 and LW9 were combined for the downhill and Giant Slalom events . There were no competitors from this class competing at the para @-@ Alpine 2009 World Championships on either the men 's side or the women 's side .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this class include :
Austria : Helmut Falch
Canada : Wayne Burton , Stephen Ellefson
Japan : Tsutomu Mino
New Zealand : Adam Hall , Kevin O 'Sullivan and Devin Shanks
Switzerland : Edwin Zurbriggen
United States : Dan Ashbaugh , Andy Fasth , Rod Hernley , Mark Godfrey
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= The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) =
" The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1973 album Living in the Material World . Like the album 's title track , it was inspired by the teachings of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) , more commonly known as the Hare Krishna movement . The song is an uptempo rock track with elements of blues and gospel . Some commentators have described it as the musical highpoint of Living in the Material World , with Harrison 's slide guitar playing singled out as being among the finest performances of his career .
The composition originated during a period marked by Harrison 's devotion to a Hindu @-@ aligned ascetic life and the height of his public association with the Hare Krishna movement , which included his donation of Bhaktivedanta Manor for use as an ISKCON temple . In his lyrics , Harrison sings of the falsehood of striving for wealth or power in the material world and advocates a direct relationship with one 's deity as a genuine life goal . In doing so , he belittles the role of political leaders , as well as his own status as a celebrated rock musician . The song 's Krishna Conscious message was also reflected in Harrison 's choice of artwork for the Material World album , specifically the reproduction of a painting from a Prabhupada @-@ published edition of the Bhagavad Gita .
Harrison recorded " The Lord Loves the One " between October 1972 and March 1973 with session musicians Nicky Hopkins , Klaus Voormann , Jim Keltner and Jim Horn . While the music has invited critical praise , the devout assertions in Harrison 's lyrics typified what some reviewers in 1973 viewed as an overly didactic message on much of the parent album . Among reviewers in the 21st century , the composition continues to divide opinion . Although some commentators consider it an obvious choice as a live track , Harrison performed " The Lord Loves the One " only once in concert – on the opening night of his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar .
= = Background = =
In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , George Harrison credits the influence for " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " to A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) , also known as the Hare Krishna movement . Harrison 's association with ISKCON began in December 1968 , when he befriended a small group of devotees that Prabhupada had sent to London to establish what became the Radha Krishna Temple . The Gaudiya Vaishnava teachings of Prabhupada , based on Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita , resonated with Harrison , whose quest for an ego @-@ less , God @-@ conscious existence amid the false reality of Beatlemania had first taken him to India in September 1966 .
Harrison provided the devotees with financial assistance , in addition to producing their hit recording of the 5000 @-@ year @-@ old Hare Krishna mantra , to help spread the message of Krishna Consciousness . He then met Prabhupada in England in September 1969 and was impressed by the acharya 's declaration that he was merely " the humble servant of the servant of the servant " of the Hindu god Krishna . In line with Prabhupada 's contention that the chanting of Sanskrit mantras led to a direct connection with God , Harrison adopted the practice , counting out each mantra on Hindu prayer beads stored inside a cloth bag that he wore over his shoulder .
Further Harrison @-@ produced recordings by the Radha Krishna Temple followed their " Hare Krishna Mantra " single , culminating in an eponymous album released on Apple Records in May 1971 . By that time , the devotees were regular guests at Harrison 's Friar Park estate , and he subsequently bought permanent accommodation for the growing UK arm of ISKCON , at what became known as Bhaktivedanta Manor . When Prabhupada died in November 1977 , he bequeathed one of the rings he was wearing to Harrison , referring to him as the Hare Krishna movement 's " archangel " .
= = Composition = =
Author Dale Allison writes of the lyrical themes in " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " : " this song preaches karma , warns about judgment at death , and exalts love as our most important aspiration . " Harrison wrote the song over 1971 – 72 , a period of heightened devotion on his part , as well as one of frustration due to the legal and business issues afflicting his Concert for Bangladesh aid project . The idea for the composition came about after a conversation with Prabhupada , when the latter visited Harrison at Friar Park .
The song begins with a riff over the chords of B major and B7 , which is then followed by a chorus , rather than a verse . Author Simon Leng describes the musical mood as " mean , dirty blues – funky and low @-@ down " , accompanying a " most uncompromising lyric " . In Allison 's view , the lyrics to the chorus equate love received from one 's deity with " human love " ( in that it " grows as it is reciprocated " ) , while also serving as a statement on karmic retribution :
The Lord loves the one that loves the Lord
And the law says if you don 't give , then you don 't get loving
Now the Lord helps those that help themselves
And the law says whatever you do 's gonna come right back on you .
The first verse reflects Harrison and Prabhupada 's discussion that day – although the reference to political leaders " acting like big girls " is an example of Harrison reverting to " Scouse parlance " , according to author Alan Clayson . The latter also notes the antipathy that Harrison felt towards politicians following the Bangladesh aid project , when the American and British governments continued to withhold funds intended for the millions of starving Bangladeshi refugees . The lyric centres on maya , or the illusory nature of human existence , as Harrison sings of humankind behaving as if " we own this whole world " , oblivious to the consequences and the end that awaits the individual in this life . Allison summarises the message to mean : " karma is the law of our existence ; substituting ego for God is our problem ; we must prepare ourselves for death . "
As with another Prabhupada @-@ inspired track that he wrote during this period , " Living in the Material World " , Harrison expresses his belief that the pursuit of fame and riches – particularly in the music industry – is meaningless . In the second verse of " The Lord Loves the One " , he sings : " We all fool around , with objectives in mind / To become rich or famous , with our reputations signed ... " While author Joshua Greene compares Harrison 's songs from this period to Vedic sutras , Allison specifies this verse @-@ two message to a passage from the Katha Upanishad , which reads : " Intoxicated , deluded by the glamour of riches , the childish do not see that they must pass away . They think , ' This is the world and there is no other . ' "
As with the ISKCON @-@ inspired " Awaiting on You All " , Allison views the conditions that Harrison imposes in the song 's choruses as a rare exception within the singer 's work . Elsewhere , Allison continues , Harrison 's songwriting reveals " a strong belief in the efficacy of unmerited divine grace " . In a 1982 interview , Harrison described his statement on God rewarding those who first look to God as a " flexible " one , adding : " In one way , I 'm never going to get out of here [ i.e. , escape the constant cycle of reincarnation ] unless it 's by His grace , but then again … [ t ] he amount of grace I would expect from God should be equal to the amount of grace I can gather or earn . "
Among other Harrison biographers ' interpretations of the lyrics , Ian Inglis writes of Harrison 's unwelcome " evangelical " message regarding " the consequences of a life of selfishness and greed which finds no place for ' the Lord ' " . In contrast , Leng views the verses as " the singer 's inner conversation " , in which Harrison acknowledges the futility of his own existence , at a time when he felt overwhelmed by his success as a solo artist following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 . Of the apparent sermonising in the choruses , Leng concludes : " ' The Lord Loves the One ' conveys the same basic message as ' what you put in is what you get out , ' so , at one level , it 's more a matter of common sense than divine revelation . "
= = Recording = =
Harrison began sessions for his Living in the Material World album in October 1972 , at Apple Studio in London . As a result of the problems associated with the Bangladesh project , author Peter Doggett writes , " [ e ] verything connected with the physical world seemed to annoy him . " The studio manager at the time , former Beatles engineer Geoff Emerick , recalls Harrison wearing his Hindu prayer bag and " mumbling away , chanting his mantra " , often unable to reply to questions put to him . As for all the tracks on the album , the recording engineer on " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " was Phil McDonald , who had also worked in that capacity for the Beatles .
The recording opens with Harrison 's acoustic guitar and an electric piano riff that creates " a sense of foreboding " , according to Inglis , who likens the intro to Three Dog Night 's 1970 hit single " Mama Told Me Not to Come " . Along with Harrison , the musicians on the basic track were Jim Keltner ( drums ) , Nicky Hopkins ( electric piano ) and Klaus Voormann ( bass ) . Part of Harrison 's guide vocal from the basic track was retained for the official release .
Among the overdubs , which were completed by the end of February 1973 , Harrison added slide guitar and Jim Horn played various saxophone parts that Leng describes as " a straight lift from Harrison 's favorite ' Savoy Truffle ' model " , with baritone saxophone prominent in the mix . Assisting Horn on " The Lord Loves the One " , Voormann played one of the tenor saxophone parts , a role he had recently provided on Harry Nilsson 's Son of Schmilsson album ( 1972 ) , to which Harrison and Hopkins also contributed .
= = Release = =
Apple released Living in the Material World in May 1973 in the United States ( June 1973 in Britain ) , with " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " sequenced as the first track on side two of the LP . According to authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , Harrison had considered an alternative running order , whereby the album opener , " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " , began side two . The UK cassette format followed the latter sequence , which also placed " The Lord Loves the One " as the second track on side one , following " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " . As with eight other songs on Material World , Harrison donated the copyright to " The Lord Loves the One " to the Material World Charitable Foundation , which he launched in April 1973 with a stated aim " to encourage the exploration of alternative life views and philosophies " .
Reflecting the lyrical content of songs such as " The Lord Loves the One " and " Living in the Material World " , Tom Wilkes 's design for the album artwork contrasted a devout spiritual existence with life in the material world . The front of the inner @-@ sleeve insert reproduced a painting from a Prabhupada @-@ published edition of the Bhagavad Gita , depicting Krishna and the warrior prince Arjuna driving a chariot . Part of this image was also used on the LP 's side @-@ one face label ; in addition , it appeared opposite the words to " The Lord Loves the One " in the lyrics section of the Material World songbook , published by the Charles Hansen sheet music company .
Writing in 1977 , author Nicholas Schaffner described the combination of these " color representations of the Hindu scriptures " and the album @-@ wide message espoused by Harrison in " The Lord Loves the One " as " a luxuriant rock devotional designed to transform his fans ' stereo equipment into a temple " . In a 1982 interview with ISKCON 's Mukunda Goswami , Harrison discussed the song 's lyrics and referred to his use of the Krishna and Arjuna picture , along with the credit he gave Prabhupada 's book , as a " plug " for the Hare Krishna movement .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
The song , if not the title alone , was a source of irritation for those critics who deemed Living in the Material World overly preachy and didactic . In a full @-@ page album review in Melody Maker , Michael Watts summarised his impression of Harrison 's spiritual message : " One gets this feeling of George , somewhat remote and rarefied , indicting the world for being what it is , although if anybody could change the world it would be an old Beatle . " While noting the song as an autobiographical statement on the singer 's " struggle to retain personal dignity and peace of mind " , Watts wrote : " He 's dealing in lofty sentiments and abstractions ; not everyone will want to drink of the cup . "
In his 1973 album review for the NME , Tony Tyler described Material World as " so damn holy I could scream " . Two years later , he and his Beatles : An Illustrated Record co @-@ author Roy Carr remarked of Harrison 's religious beliefs : " it 's difficult to see why he travelled all the way to India to import a God who , by the sound of him ( ' The Lord Loves the One [ That ] Loves the Lord ' ) is as intractable and selfish as the petulant Jehovah of Victorian Sunday schools . "
To Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone , the track was " a compelling gospel @-@ flavored rocker ... a stunning achievement that carries the authority of pop scripture " . On an album that he considered " a pop religious ceremony for all seasons , one in which Harrison acts as priest , deliberately placing his gifts and his legend into public service for God " , Holden added of the song : " I hope that Aretha Franklin gets her hands on it , and soon . "
= = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = =
Among reviewers in the 21st century , Zeth Lundy of PopMatters and Music Box editor John Metzger highlight " The Lord Loves the One " as one of the standout tracks on Living in the Material World . As with " The Day the World Gets ' Round " , Simon Leng sees the lyrics ' spiritual framework as a distraction from the true message of the song , which in this case is the " bankruptcy " of the music business . While noting that the media and anyone else associated with " the rock circus " had a vested interest in upholding its importance , Leng comments on the hostile reception afforded the song originally : " In 1973 , no one dared point out that the emperor had no clothes on – except Harrison . "
Author Robert Rodriguez describes " The Lord Loves the One " as " not the sanctimonious rant that some characterized it as " , but a revelation of Harrison 's inner conflict between his " earthly " status as a rock star and that role 's " utter triviality in the Grand Scheme of things " . Conversely , writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham finds the song 's " ' law says ' finger @-@ wagging " the exception on an album that otherwise " conveys his struggle " between the physical and spiritual worlds " with restraint and , in places , considerable grace and beauty " , while former Mojo editor Mat Snow commented in 2006 of this and the majority of the songs on Material World : " The rest is Hari Georgeson at his most preachy , but it 's never less than musical and often light on its feet . " Also writing for Mojo , John Harris pairs " The Lord Loves the One " with " Give Me Love " , as two tracks that support Material World 's standing as " a Hindu concept album … a pleasing fusion of Eastern religion , gospel , and the ghost of ' For You Blue ' " .
In his unfavourable assessment of the song , Ian Inglis contrasts it with the " impressive set of lyrics " on " Living in the Material World " and criticises Harrison for his " turgid proselytizing " , which he likens to " the imprecations of an evangelical preacher " . Inglis concludes : " Harrison 's impressive guitar work helps to compensate for the absence of a clear melody , but the song is ultimately undermined by some of his least @-@ effective lyrics ; the description of political leaders as ' big girls ' is puerile and sexist . " Another Harrison biographer , Elliot Huntley , describes " The Lord Loves the One " as a " polished foot @-@ tapper " , on which " the drums push the song along nicely but the excessively wordy libretto somehow struggles to fit " . Terry Staunton of Record Collector considers Living in the Material World to be " sloganeering with slide guitars " but lacking in any " out @-@ and @-@ out protest " message , such that " the more generalised , universally religious themes of The Lord Loves The One ( That Loves The Lord ) tend to sound a tad diluted . "
Leng praises the track 's musical accompaniment , highlighting Horn 's sax arrangement and particularly Harrison 's slide @-@ guitar playing , which includes a solo that he views as " one of the best of his career " . Similar sentiments come from Bruce Eder of AllMusic , who writes : " ' The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) ' , despite its title , is the high point of the record , a fast , rollicking , funky , bluesy jewel with a priceless guitar break ( maybe the best of Harrison 's solo career ) ... "
In a 2011 article for The Huffington Post , coinciding with the release of Martin Scorsese 's documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , Steve Rabey describes Harrison as " perhaps the most explicitly and consistently theological rock star of the last half @-@ century " . Rabey refers to the song among Harrison 's " mini @-@ sermons illustrating Hindu concepts " ( in this case , karma ) and concludes : " While he failed to convert everyone to his beliefs , he nudged his [ Beatles ] bandmates – and his listener fans – a bit further to the East , encouraging audiences to open themselves to new ( or very old ) spiritual influences . "
= = Performance = =
Harrison performed " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " at the start of his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar . In addition to Jim Horn , the horn players on this live version were Tom Scott and Chuck Findley . Consistent with his perception of an anti @-@ stardom message in the song , Leng writes of there being an " immense [ paradox ] " in Harrison 's attitude to this highly publicised tour , since : " here was one of the world 's most famous musicians telling a leading writer from Rolling Stone that he 'd ' gladly kiss it all good @-@ bye ' and purse his utterly sincere spiritual quest . "
On the first show of the tour , at Vancouver 's Pacific Coliseum on 2 November , Harrison played the song following his opening instrumental , " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " . In Rolling Stone , Ben Fong @-@ Torres began his feature article with the words " Holy Krishna ! What kind of an opening night for George Harrison is this ? " , before writing of Harrison 's performance of " The Lord Loves the One " : " he sang off key , and the voice , in its first flight , instantly sounded tired . " With Shankar 's segments having been poorly received , Harrison then reworked the show 's setlist , with the result that " The Lord Loves the One " and another Material World track , " Who Can See It " , were dropped for the rest of the tour . Leng writes of the song 's removal as " a fate the heavy @-@ funky arrangement did not deserve " , and Eder similarly considers that " The Lord Loves the One " belonged at " the heart " of any Harrison concert setlist .
Later on during the West Coast leg of his 1974 tour , Harrison donated the profits from one concert to the Haight @-@ Ashbury Free Medical Clinic in San Francisco . As recorded in Fong @-@ Torres 's article , Harrison then visited the clinic and sang the chorus of " The Lord Loves the One " to the grateful staff , as a way to illustrate his point : " Don 't thank me ... it 's something else over us that acts through people like me . I 'm just an instrument . "
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitar , slide guitars , backing vocals
Nicky Hopkins – electric piano
Klaus Voormann – bass , tenor saxophone
Jim Keltner – drums , percussion
Jim Horn – saxophones , horn arrangement
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= Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark =
Letters Written During a Short Residence in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) is a personal travel narrative by the eighteenth @-@ century British feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft . The twenty @-@ five letters cover a wide range of topics , from sociological reflections on Scandinavia and its peoples to philosophical questions regarding identity . Published by Wollstonecraft 's career @-@ long publisher , Joseph Johnson , it was the last work issued during her lifetime .
Wollstonecraft undertook her tour of Sweden , Norway , and Denmark in order to retrieve a stolen treasure ship for her lover , Gilbert Imlay . Believing that the journey would restore their strained relationship , she eagerly set off . However , over the course of the three months she spent in Scandinavia , she realized that Imlay had no intention of renewing the relationship . The letters , which constitute the text , drawn from her journal and from missives she sent to Imlay , reflect her anger and melancholy over his repeated betrayals . Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark is therefore both a travel narrative and an autobiographical memoir .
Using the rhetoric of the sublime , Wollstonecraft explores the relationship between self and society in the text . She values subjective experience , particularly in relation to nature ; champions the liberation and education of women ; and illustrates the detrimental effects of commerce on society .
Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark was Wollstonecraft 's most popular book in the 1790s — it sold well and was reviewed favorably by most critics . Wollstonecraft 's future husband , philosopher William Godwin , wrote : " If ever there was a book calculated to make a man in love with its author , this appears to me to be the book . " It influenced Romantic poets such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge , who drew on its themes and its aesthetic . While the book initially inspired readers to travel to Scandinavia , it failed to retain its popularity after the publication of Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1798 , which revealed Wollstonecraft 's unorthodox private life .
= = Biographical background = =
In 1790 , at the age of thirty @-@ one , Wollstonecraft made a dramatic entrance onto the public stage with A Vindication of the Rights of Men , a work that helped propel the British pamphlet war over the French revolution . Two years later she published what has become her most famous work , A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Anxious to see the revolution firsthand , she moved to France for about two years , but returned in 1795 after revolutionary violence increased and the lover she met there , American adventurer Gilbert Imlay , abandoned her and their illegitimate daughter , Fanny Imlay . Shortly after her return to Britain , Wollstonecraft attempted suicide in May ; Imlay , however , managed to save her .
One month after her attempted suicide , Wollstonecraft agreed to undertake the long and treacherous journey to Scandinavia in order to resolve Imlay 's business difficulties . Not only was her journey to Scandinavia fraught with peril ( she was a woman travelling alone during a time of war ) , it was also laced with sorrow and anger . While Wollstonecraft initially believed that the trip might resurrect their relationship , she eventually recognized that it was doomed , particularly after Imlay failed to meet her in Hamburg . Wollstonecraft 's despair increased as her journey progressed .
On her return to Britain in September , Wollstonecraft tried to commit suicide a second time : she attempted to drown herself in the River Thames but was rescued by passersby . Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , which draws its material from her journal and the letters she sent Imlay during the three @-@ month tour , was published in January 1796 by Wollstonecraft 's close friend and career @-@ long publisher , Joseph Johnson . Written after her two suicide attempts , Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark frequently returns to the topic of death ; it recreates Wollstonecraft 's mental state while she was in Scandinavia and has been described as a suicide note addressed to Imlay , although he is never referred to by name in the published text . It is the last work by Wollstonecraft published within her lifetime : she died in childbirth just one year later .
= = = Scandinavian journey and Imlay 's business interests = = =
Although Wollstonecraft appears as only a tourist in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , during her travels she was actually conducting delicate business negotiations on behalf of Imlay . For almost two hundred years , it was unclear why she had travelled to Scandinavia , but in the 1980s historian Per Nyström uncovered documents in local Swedish and Norwegian archives that shed light on the purpose of her trip . He revealed that Wollstonecraft was searching for a ship and cargo that had been stolen from Imlay . Imlay had authorized her to conduct his business dealings , referring to her in legal documents as " Mrs. Mary Imlay , my best friend and wife " , although the two were not married .
The intricate details of Imlay 's business dealings are laid out clearly by Nyström . On 18 June 1794 , Peder Ellefsen , who belonged to a rich and influential Norwegian family , bought a ship called the Liberty from agents of Imlay in Le Havre , France . It would later become clear that Ellefsen never owned the ship but rather engaged in a pro @-@ forma sale on behalf of Imlay . He renamed the ship the Maria and Margaretha ( presumably after Mary and her maid Marguerite ) and had the Danish Consulate in Le Havre certify it so that the ship could pass through the British blockade of France ( Imlay was a blockade runner ) . Carrying silver and gold Bourbon plate , the ship sailed from France under a Danish flag and arrived at Copenhagen on 20 August 1794 . Although Ellefsen supposedly ordered the ship to continue on to Gothenburg , it never reached its destination . Imlay engaged in several fruitless attempts to locate the ship and its valuable cargo and then dispatched Wollstonecraft to negotiate an agreement with Ellefsen , who had subsequently been arrested for stealing the ship and its contents . Wollstonecraft 's success or failure in the negotiations is unknown as is the ultimate fate of the ship and its treasure .
To engage in these negotiations , Wollstonecraft travelled first to Gothenburg , where she remained for two weeks . Leaving Fanny and her nurse Marguerite behind , she embarked for Strömstad , Sweden , where she took a short detour to visit the fortress of Fredriksten , and then proceeded to Larvik , Norway . From there she travelled to Tønsberg , Norway , where she spent three weeks . She also visited Helgeroa , Risør , and Kristiania ( now Oslo ) and returned by way of Strömstad and Gothenburg , where she picked up Fanny and Marguerite again . She returned to England by way of Copenhagen and Hamburg , finally landing at Dover in September 1795 , three months after she had left her home country .
= = Structure , genre , and style = =
Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark consists of twenty @-@ five letters that address an extensive range of contentious political topics , such as prison reform , land rights , and divorce laws , as well as less controversial subjects , such as gardening , salt works , and sublime vistas . Wollstonecraft 's political commentary extends the ideas she had presented in An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution ( 1794 ) ; her discussion of prison reform , for example , is informed by her own experiences in revolutionary France and those of her friends , many of whom were jailed .
While at first glance Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark appears to be a travel narrative , it is actually a " generic hybrid " . The nature of this hybridity , however , is not altogether agreed upon by scholars . Some emphasize Wollstonecraft 's fusion of the travelogue with the autobiography or memoir ( a word used by Wollstonecraft in the book 's advertisement ) , while others see it as a travelogue cum epistolary novel . The text , which reveals Wollstonecraft 's thought processes , flows seamlessly from autobiographical reflections to musings on nature to political theories . However , it is unified by two threads : the first is Wollstonecraft 's argument regarding the nature and progress of society ; the second is her increasing melancholy . Although Wollstonecraft aims to write as a philosopher , the image of the suffering woman dominates the book .
= = = Travel narrative : " the art of thinking " = = =
One @-@ half of the " generic hybridity " of Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark is the epistolary travel narrative . Wollstonecraft 's conception of this genre was shaped by eighteenth @-@ century empirical and moral travel narratives , particularly Oliver Goldsmith 's The Traveller , or a Prospect of Society ( 1764 ) , Laurence Sterne 's A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy ( 1768 ) , Samuel Johnson 's A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland ( 1775 ) , James Boswell 's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides ( 1785 ) , and Arthur Young 's travel books .
After reviewing twenty @-@ four travel books for Joseph Johnson 's periodical , the Analytical Review , Wollstonecraft was well @-@ versed in the genre . This extensive reading solidified her ideas of what constituted a good travel book ; in one review , she maintained that travel writers should have " some decided point in view , a grand object of pursuit to concentrate their thoughts , and connect their reflections " and that their books should not be " detached observations , which no running interest , or prevailing bent in the mind of the writer rounds into a whole " . Her reviews praised detailed and engaging descriptions of people and places , musings on history , and an insatiable curiosity in the traveller .
" The art of travel is only a branch of the art of thinking " , Wollstonecraft wrote . Her journey and her comments on it are , therefore , not only sentimental but also philosophical . She uses the two modes to continue the critique of the roles afforded women and the progress of civilization that she had outlined in A Vindication of the Rights of Men ( 1790 ) , A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) , and An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution . After overturning the conventions of political and historical writing , Wollstonecraft brought what scholar Gary Kelly calls " Revolutionary feminism " to yet another genre that had typically been considered the purview of male writers , transforming the travel narrative 's " blend of objective facts and individual impressions ... into a rationale for autobiographical revelation " . As one editor of the Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark writes , the book is " nothing less than a revolution in literary genres " ; its sublimity , expressed through scenes of intense feeling , made " a new wildness and richness of emotional rhetoric " desirable in travel literature .
One scholar has called Wollstonecraft the " complete passionate traveler " . Her desire to delve into and fully experience each moment in time was fostered by the works of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , particularly his Reveries of a Solitary Walker ( 1782 ) . Several of Rousseau 's themes appear in the Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , such as " the search for the source of human happiness , the stoic rejection of material goods , the ecstatic embrace of nature , and the essential role of sentiment in understanding " . However , while Rousseau ultimately rejects society , Wollstonecraft celebrates both domesticity and industrial progress .
= = = Letter = = =
In one of the most influential interpretations of Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , Mary Favret has argued that Wollstonecraft 's letters must not only be viewed as personal correspondence but also as business correspondence , a genre that would have been ideologically ambiguous for her . According to Favret , Wollstonecraft attempts to reclaim the impersonal genre of the business letter and imbue it with personal meaning . One way she does this is through extensive use of " imaginative " writing that forces the reader to become a participant in the events narrated .
Favret points out that Wollstonecraft 's Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark is quite different from the despondent and plaintive love letters she actually sent to Imlay ; the travel narrative much more closely resembles the personal journal in which she recorded her thoughts regarding the people she encountered and the places she visited . While her letters to Imlay contain long passages focused almost exclusively on herself , the Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark offers social commentary and sympathizes with the victims of disaster and injustice . To Imlay , Wollstonecraft represents herself as laid low by doubts , but to the world she depicts herself as overcoming all of these fears . She ruminates on them and transforms them into the basis of a letter akin to the open political letter popular during the last quarter of the eighteenth century , using her personal experience as the foundation for a discussion of national political reform .
= = = Autobiography = = =
Heavily influenced by Rousseau 's frank and revealing Confessions ( 1782 ) , Wollstonecraft lays bare her soul in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , detailing not only her physical but also her psychological journey . Her personal disclosures , like those of other female autobiographers , are presented as " unpremeditated self @-@ revelations " and often appear to be " circuitous " . However , as Wollstonecraft scholar Mitzi Myers has made clear , Wollstonecraft manages to use this style of writing to articulate a stable and comprehensible self for the reader . Increasingly confident in her ability as a writer , she controls the narrative and its effect on readers to a degree not matched in her other works . She transforms the individual sorrows of her trip , such as the dissolution of her relationship with Imlay , into the stuff of gripping literature .
= = = Sublimity = = =
Wollstonecraft relies extensively on the language of the sublime in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark . She draws on and redefines Edmund Burke 's central terms in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful ( 1757 ) . Burke privileges the sublime ( which he associates with masculinity , terror , awe , and strength ) over the beautiful ( which he associates with femininity , passivity , delicacy , and weakness ) , while Wollstonecraft ties the sublime to sterility and the beautiful to fertility . For her , the beautiful is connected to the maternal ; this aesthetic shift is evident , for example , in the many passages focusing on the affectionate tie between Wollstonecraft and little Fanny , her daughter . She thus claims the feminine category of the " beautiful " for the most virtuous and useful of women : mothers .
Wollstonecraft also revises the conventional negative associations between the sublime and death ; thoughts of death , prompted by a waterfall , for example , lead her to contemplate rebirth and immortality as well :
Reaching the cascade , or rather cataract , the roaring of which had a long time announced its vicinity , my soul was hurried by the falls into a new train of reflections . The impetuous dashing of the rebounding torrent from the dark cavities which mocked the exploring eye , produced an equal activity in my mind : my thoughts darted from earth to heaven , and I asked myself why I was chained to life and its misery ? Still the tumultuous emotions this sublime object excited , were pleasurable ; and , viewing it , my soul rose , with renewed dignity , above its cares – grasping at immortality – it seemed as impossible to stop the current of my thoughts , as of the always varying , still the same , torrent before me – I stretched out my hand to eternity , bounding over the dark speck of life to come .
Like her other manipulations of the language of the sublime , this passage is also heavily inflected by gender . As one scholar puts it , " because Wollstonecraft is a woman , and is therefore bound by the legal and social restrictions placed on her sex in the eighteenth century , she can only envisage autonomy of any form after death " .
= = Themes = =
= = = Reason , feeling , and imagination = = =
Often categorized as a rationalist philosopher , Wollstonecraft demonstrates her commitment to and appreciation of feeling in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark . She argues that subjective experiences , such as the transcendent emotions prompted by the sublime and the beautiful , possess a value equal to the objective truths discovered through reason . In Wollstonecraft 's earlier works , reason was paramount , because it allowed access to universal truths . In Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , however , reason serves as a tool for reflection , mediating between the sensual experiences of the world and an abstract notion of truth ( not necessarily universal truth ) . Maturation is not only the acquisition of reason — the view Wollstonecraft had adopted in Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) — but also an understanding of when and how to trust one 's emotions .
Wollstonecraft 's theories regarding reason , emotion , and the imagination are closely tied together . Some scholars contend that Wollstonecraft uses the imagination to liberate the self , especially the feminine self ; it allows her to envision roles for women outside the traditional bounds of eighteenth @-@ century thought and offers her a way to articulate those new ideas . In contrast , others view Wollstonecraft 's emphasis on the power of the imagination as detrimental , imprisoning her in an " individualized , bourgeois desire " which can never truly embrace sociality .
Favret has argued that Wollstonecraft uses the imagination to reconcile " masculine understanding " and " female sensibility " . Readers must imaginatively " work " while reading : their efforts will save them from descending into sentimentality as well as from being lured into commercial speculation . Even more importantly , readers become invested in the story of the narrator . Wollstonecraft 's language demands that they participate in the " plot " :
'they ' rescue the writer from the villain ; ' they ' accompany her on her flight from sorrow ... With the readers ' cooperation , the writer reverses the standard epistolary plot : here the heroine liberates herself by rejecting her correspondent and by embracing the ' world ' outside of the domestic circle .
In giving the imagination the power to reshape society ( a power suggested through numerous allusions to Shakespeare 's The Tempest ) , Wollstonecraft reveals that she has become a Romantic .
= = = Individual and society = = =
Throughout Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , Wollstonecraft ponders the relationship between society and the individual . While her earlier works largely focus on society 's failings and responsibilities , in this work she turns inward , explicitly arguing for the value of personal experience . In the advertisement for the work , also published as a preface , she explains her role as the " hero " of the text :
In writing these desultory letters , I found I could not avoid being continually the first person – ' the little hero of each tale . ' I tried to correct this fault , if it be one , for they were designed for publication ; but in proportion as I arranged my thoughts , my letter , I found , became stiff and affected : I , therefore , determined to let my remarks and reflections flow unrestrained , as I perceived that I could not give a just description of what I saw , but by relating the effect different objects had produced on my mind and feelings , whilst the impression was still fresh .
Throughout the book , Wollstonecraft ties her own psychic journey and maturation to the progress of civilizations . Nations , like individuals , she maintains have , as Wollstonecraft scholar Mary Poovey describes it , " a collective ' understanding ' that evolves organically , ' ripening ' gradually to fruition " . However , Wollstonecraft still views civilization 's tragedies as worthier of concern than individual or fictional tragedies , suggesting that , for her , sympathy is at the core of social relations :
I have then considered myself as a particle broken off from the grand mass of mankind ; — I was alone , till some involuntary sympathetic emotion , like the attraction of adhesion , made me feel that I was still a part of a mighty whole , from which I could not sever myself — not , perhaps , for the reflection has been carried very far , by snapping the thread of an existence which loses its charms in proportion as the cruel experience of life stops or poisons the current of the heart .
= = = Nature = = =
Wollstonecraft dedicates significant portions of Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark to descriptions of nature and her emotional responses to it . One of her most effective tactics is to associate a set of thoughts and feelings with a specific natural formation , such as the waterfall passage quoted above . Nature , Wollstonecraft assumes , is " a common reference point " between readers and herself , therefore her letters should generate a sense of social sympathy with them . Many of the letters contain these " miniature Romantic excursus " which illustrate Wollstonecraft 's ideas regarding the connections between nature , God , and the self . The natural world becomes " the necessary ground of speculation and the crucial field of experience " .
= = = Gender : " Hapless woman ! what a fate is thine ! " = = =
All of Wollstonecraft 's writings , including the Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , address the concerns of women in eighteenth @-@ century society . As in previous works , she discusses concrete issues such as childcare and relationships with servants , but unlike her more polemical books such as Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) or the Rights of Woman , this text emphasizes her emotional reactions to nature and maternity . Yet she does not depart from her interest in promoting women 's education and rights . In Letter 19 , the most explicitly feminist letter , Wollstonecraft anticipates readers ' criticisms : " still harping on the same subject , you will exclaim – How can I avoid it , when most of the struggles of an eventful life have been occasioned by the oppressed state of my sex : we reason deeply , when we forcibly feel . " Wollstonecraft comes to the realization that she has always been forced to experience the world as a woman — it is the defining feature of her sense of self .
Throughout Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , Wollstonecraft comments on the precarious position women occupy in society . She defends and sympathizes with Queen Caroline of Denmark , for example , who had been accused of " licentiousness " for her extra @-@ marital affair during her marriage to the insane Christian VII . ( Wollstonecraft herself had had unorthodox love affairs and an illegitimate child . ) Wollstonecraft describes this royal , who was also a progressive social reformer , as a woman of courage who tried to revolutionize her country before it was prepared . Such examples fuel Wollstonecraft 's increasing despair and melancholy . At one point , she laments the fate of her daughter :
You know that as a female I am particularly attached to her – I feel more than a mother 's fondness and anxiety , when I reflect on the dependent and oppressed state of her sex . I dread lest she should be forced to sacrifice her heart to her principles , or principles to her heart . With trembling hand I shall cultivate sensibility , and cherish delicacy of sentiment , lest , whilst I lend fresh blushes to the rose , I sharpen the thorns that will wound the breast I would fain guard – I dread to unfold her mind , lest it should render her unfit for the world she is to inhabit – Hapless woman ! what a fate is thine !
Wollstonecraft 's anger and frustration over the secondary status afforded women compels her to define herself in antithesis to conventional images of femininity . In the first letter she proudly announces " at supper my host told me bluntly that I was a woman of observation , for I asked him men 's questions " ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ) .
Wollstonecraft casts the female imagination as the productive counterpoint to destructive masculine commerce , a feat she achieves primarily through her use of the genre of the letter . While the Rights of Woman argued that women should be " useful " and " productive " , importing the language of the market into the home , Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark adopts the values of the domestic space for the larger social and political world .
= = = Commercialism = = =
Although Wollstonecraft spends much of Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark musing on nature and its connection to the self , a great deal of the text is actually about the debasing effects of commerce on culture . She argues , for example , that the damage done to Hamburg and France by mercenaries and an increasingly commercial culture is far greater than the damage caused by the violence of the French revolution , writing that " the sword has been merciful , compared with the depredations made on human life by contractors , and by the swarm of locusts who have battened on the pestilence they spread abroad " . Wollstonecraft believed that commerce " embruted " the mind and fostered a selfish disposition in its practitioners . Commerce should be , she thought , " regulated by ideas of justice and fairness and directed toward the ideals of independence and benevolence " .
Wollstonecraft had become disenchanted with Imlay not only because of his dismissive attitude towards her but also because of his greed . Throughout Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark , she attaches criticisms of commerce to the anonymous lover who has betrayed her :
A man ceases to love humanity , and then individuals , as he advances in the chase after wealth ; as one clashes with his interest , the other with his pleasures : to business , as it is termed , every thing must give way ; nay , is sacrificed ; and all the endearing charities of citizen , husband , father , brother , become empty names .
Throughout the text , she contrasts the constructive , creative imagination with destructive commerce . By associating commercialism with the anonymous lover in the text , Wollstonecraft was also directly censuring Imlay , who she believed cared more for his business speculations than for her and their child .
= = = Revolution and progress = = =
Wollstonecraft spends several large sections of Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark speculating about the possibilities of social and political revolution and outlining a trajectory for the progress of civilization . In comparing Norway with Britain and France , for example , she argues that the Norwegians are more progressive because they have a free press , embrace religious toleration , distribute their land fairly , and have a politically active populace . However , her description of Norway 's " golden age " becomes less rhapsodic after she discovers that the country has no universities or scientists .
In many ways Norwegian society embodied the British radical ideal of " a small @-@ producer society , its wealth sufficiently dispersed to ensure rough equality " , similar to what Wollstonecraft had outlined in A Vindication of the Rights of Men ( 1790 ) . After careful consideration of how to improve the social and political problems in the places she visited , Wollstonecraft came to the conclusion that social progress must occur at a measured and " natural " rate . She argues that each country has to find its own way to improve , that democratic revolution cannot be foisted upon a people . She believed that the lower classes and the yeomen were the most promising " potential source of revolutionary social transformation " . Implicit in her assessment , however , was a bourgeois condescension ; she viewed the lower classes as a group separate from herself , at one point describing their behavior as " picturesque " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Wollstonecraft was prompted to publish Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark because she was heavily in debt . The successful sales of this , her most popular book in the 1790s , came at an opportune moment . Well @-@ received by reviewers , the work was translated into German , Dutch , Swedish , and Portuguese ; published in America ; and reissued in a second edition in 1802 .
Amelia Alderson praised the work , separating the philosopher from the woman : " As soon as I read your Letters from Norway , the cold awe which the philosopher had excited was lost in the tender sympathy call 'd forth by the woman . " William Godwin , Wollstonecraft 's future husband , wrote in his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman that reading Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark caused him to fall in love with Wollstonecraft :
If ever there was a book calculated to make a man in love with its author , this appears to me to be the book . She speaks of her sorrows , in a way that fills us with melancholy , and dissolves us in tenderness , at the same time that she displays a genius which commands all our admiration . Affliction had tempered her heart to a softness almost more than human ; and the gentleness of her spirit seems precisely to accord with all the romance of unbounded attachment .
Connecting the work to Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction ( 1788 ) , he celebrates its sensibility and " eroticizes the condition of feminine sorrow " ; for Godwin , the work was an epistolary romance , not a work of political commentary . After Wollstonecraft 's death in 1797 , Godwin published her original letters to Imlay ( destroying the originals in the process ) . He deleted all references to contemporary political events and her business negotiations , emphasizing the romantic connection between the two sets of letters . Favret contends that Godwin wanted the public to see Wollstonecraft 's affair as a sentimental romance akin to that between Charlotte and Werther in Goethe 's Sorrows of Young Werther ( 1774 ) .
For a woman , a one @-@ year @-@ old child , and a maid to travel to Scandinavia without the protection of a man was unprecedented in the eighteenth century . The book resulting from the trip also seemed highly unusual to readers at the time : details of Wollstonecraft 's travels to a rarely visited area of the world , what one editor of the Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark describes as " a boreal wilderness " , intrigued and even shocked contemporary readers . The unorthodox theology of the book also alienated some readers . The Monthly Magazine and American Review wrote :
[ She ] discarded all faith in christianity . [ sic ] ... From this period she adored [ God ] ... not as one whose interposing power is ever silently at work on the grand theatre of human affairs , causing eventual good to spring from present evil , and permitting nothing but for wise and benevolent purposes ; but merely as the first great cause and vital spring of existence .
Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark retreated from Wollstonecraft 's earlier focus on God as judge to God as mere creator , shocking some conservative readers who were not prepared to accept anything akin to deism . Worried more about Wollstonecraft 's promotion of sensibility , fellow feminist and author Mary Hays criticized the book 's mawkishness . A professor of moral philosophy , Thomas Brown , published a poetic response to the book , The Wanderer in Norway ( 1816 ) . Rather than rejoicing in the freedom that Wollstonecraft argued the connection between nature and emotion offered , however , Brown represented her work as a failure and Wollstonecraft as a tragic victim . He read the book as a cautionary tale , whereas Wollstonecraft had intended it as a description of the possibilities of social and personal reform . As Favret argues , almost all of the responses to Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark placed the narrator / Mary in the position of a sentimental heroine , while the text itself , with its fusion of sensibility and politics , actually does much to challenge that image .
After the publication of Godwin 's Memoirs , which revealed and endorsed Wollstonecraft 's love affairs and illegitimate child , her works were scorned by the majority of the public . Nevertheless , " the book was to arouse a passion for travel among cultivated people in Europe " . Intrepid nineteenth @-@ century British female travel writers such as Isabella Bird and Mary Kingsley still read it and were inspired by Wollstonecraft 's pioneering efforts . Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark was republished at the end of the nineteenth century and Robert Louis Stevenson , the author of Treasure Island , took a copy on his trip to Samoa in 1890 .
Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark was a powerful influence on Wollstonecraft 's daughter , Mary Shelley . In 1817 , Shelley would publish History of a Six Weeks ' Tour , a narrative of her travels through Europe and to Lake Geneva which was modeled after her mother 's work .
= = = Romanticism = = =
The Romantic poets were more profoundly affected by Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark than anyone , except perhaps Godwin . The poet Robert Southey , for example , wrote to his publisher : " Have you met with Mary Wollstonecraft 's [ travel book ] ? She has made me in love with a cold climate , and frost and snow , with a northern moonlight . " The book 's combination of progressive social views with the advocacy of individual subjective experience influenced writers such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge . Wollstonecraft 's " incarnational theory of the creative imagination " paved the way for Wordsworth 's thorough treatment of the imagination and its relation to the self in Book V of The Prelude ( 1805 ; 1850 ) . Her book also had a significant influence on Coleridge 's Rime of the Ancient Mariner ( 1797 – 99 ) and Percy Shelley 's Alastor ( 1815 ) ; their depictions of " quest [ s ] for a settled home " strongly resemble Wollstonecraft 's . The most striking homage to Wollstonecraft 's work , however , is in Coleridge 's famous poem " Kubla Khan " ( 1797 ; 1816 ) . Not only does much of his style descend from the book , but at one point he alludes to Wollstonecraft as he is describing a cold wasteland :
= = Modern editions = =
Wollstonecraft , Mary . The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft . Ed . Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler . 7 vols . London : William Pickering , 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8147 @-@ 9225 @-@ 1 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary and Godwin , William . A Short Residence in Sweden , Norway and Denmark and Memoirs of the Author of ' The Rights of Woman ' . Ed . Richard Holmes . London : Penguin Books , 1987 . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 043269 @-@ 8 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . Letters Written during a Short Residence in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark . Ed . Carol H. Poston . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press , 1976 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 0862 @-@ 6
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= Henry Percy , 2nd Earl of Northumberland =
Henry Percy , 2nd Earl of Northumberland ( 3 February 1393 – 22 May 1455 ) was an English nobleman and military commander in the lead up to the Wars of the Roses . He was the son of Henry " Hotspur " Percy , and the grandson of Henry Percy , 1st Earl of Northumberland . His father and grandfather were killed in different rebellions against Henry IV in 1403 and 1408 respectively , and the young Henry spent his minority in exile in Scotland . Only after the death of Henry IV in 1413 was he reconciled with the Crown , and in 1416 he was created Earl of Northumberland .
In the following years , Northumberland occasionally served with the king in France , but his main occupation was the protection of the border to Scotland . At the same time , a feud with the Neville family was developing , particularly with Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury . This feud became entangled with the conflict between the Duke of York and the Duke of Somerset over control of national government . The conflict culminated in the first battle of the Wars of the Roses , at St Albans , where both Somerset and Northumberland were killed .
= = Family @-@ background = =
Henry Percy was the son of another Henry Percy , known as " Hotspur " , and Elizabeth Mortimer . Elizabeth was the daughter of Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March and Philippa , granddaughter of Edward III . Hotspur 's father – the young Henry 's grandfather – was also called Henry Percy , and in 1377 became the first of the Percy family to hold the title of Earl of Northumberland . Both Hotspur and his father were early and active supporters of Henry Bolingbroke , who usurped the throne from Richard II in 1399 , and became King Henry IV . They were initially richly rewarded , but soon grew disillusioned with the new regime . Hotspur rose up in rebellion , and was killed at Shrewsbury on 21 July 1403 .
Earl Henry was not present at the battle , but there is little doubt that he participated in the rebellion . After a short imprisonment , he was pardoned , and in June 1404 he delivered his grandson into the king 's custody at Doncaster . By May 1405 , however , the earl was involved in another rebellion . His plans failed , and he was forced to flee to Scotland , taking his grandson with him . The following years were marked by an itinerant life and further plotting , while the young Henry remained in the custody of the Duke of Albany . On 19 February 1408 , the first earl of Northumberland was killed in the Battle of Bramham Moor , leaving the young Henry Percy as heir apparent to the earldom . Henry remained in Scotland until the accession of Henry V in 1413 , when he tried to claim his grandfather 's title . His cause was aided by the king 's aunt , Joan Beaufort , Countess of Westmorland , who arranged his marriage to her daughter Eleanor . It was in Henry V 's interest to reconcile with the Percys , with their vast network in the north of England ; in 1416 Henry Percy was created Earl of Northumberland .
= = Service to the king = =
Northumberland served occasionally in Henry V 's wars in France over the following years . He joined the king on an expedition to the Continent in 1416 , and sent a minor contingent of soldiers the next year . His main task , however , was the defence of the Scottish Borders , and on 16 December 1416 he was appointed Warden of the East March . In late August 1417 , the Scots invaded northern England ; while Albany laid siege to Berwick Castle , the Earl of Douglas attempted to take Roxburgh Castle . Percy lifted the siege of Berwick , and forced both Albany and Douglas across the border . At the same time , he was also involved in national political affairs , and acted as steward at the coronation of Henry 's queen Catherine on 24 February 1421 .
When Henry V died in 1422 , Northumberland was appointed member of the council appointed to govern during the minority of Henry VI . He might have been involved in an embassy to the Council of Siena in 1423 , but still his main area of responsibility lay in the border region . In the council , he seems to have belonged to the circle around Bishop Henry Beaufort , and he followed Beaufort – now cardinal – to peace negotiations at Berwick in 1429 . As Warden of the East March , he was constantly occupied with peace negotiations and defence of northern England , but his efforts were constantly frustrated , and in 1434 he resigned his commission . The next year , Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury , equally exasperated by the lack of royal support , gave up his commission as Warden of the West March . Northumberland was appointed joint warden with the earl of Huntingdon of both marches for one year , during which time , although suffering defeat by the Earl of Angus at the Battle of Piperdean , he was able to repel a siege on Roxburgh by James I of Scotland . In 1440 he was once more appointed Warden of the West March , and this time held the position until his death .
= = Feud with Neville family = =
Initially , Northumberland 's relations with the other great northern family , the Nevilles , were friendly . He was already connected to the Neville Earls of Westmorland through his marriage with Eleanor Neville , and in 1426 he married his sister Elizabeth to the young Ralph Neville , 2nd Earl of Westmorland . In the early 1440s , Northumberland was involved in other disputes . A conflict over land with the Archbishop of York escalated into open violence . The king intervened on the archbishop 's side , though Northumberland remained in favour at court . Nevertheless , he spent less time involved in central affairs at Westminster in the later 1440s .
In the early 1450s , the relationship between the Percy family and Salisbury – who belonged to a cadet branch of the Westmorland Neville family – started to deteriorate . What triggered the conflict was the marriage between Salisbury 's son Thomas and Maud Stanhope , niece and heiress of Lord Cromwell . By this marriage Wressle Castle , which had traditionally been in the possession of the Percy family , would pass to the Nevilles . At the same time , the Neville @-@ Cromwell wedding had led Huntingdon ( now Duke of Exeter ) to join the cause of the Percys , because of a territorial dispute with Cromwell . Northumberland himself , who was nearing sixty , did not take action at the time , but one of his younger sons did . Thomas Percy had been created Baron Egremont in 1449 , relating to his possessions in the Neville @-@ dominated county of Cumberland . On 24 August 1453 , Thomas attacked the Neville @-@ Cromwell wedding party at Heworth near York with a force of over 700 men . No one was killed in the skirmish , and the wedding party escaped intact .
The conflict , however , continued over the following years . On 8 October , Northumberland and Salisbury were summoned to court and ordered to end the conflict , but the warnings were ignored . Instead , the collective forces of the Percy and Neville families gathered at their Yorkshire strongholds of Topcliffe and Sand Hutton respectively , only a few miles apart . Both sides had ignored royal commands to disband , and battle seemed inevitable , but eventually a truce ensued and the forces withdrew . Then , in October 1454 , Thomas Percy and his brother Richard were captured by the Nevilles in a battle at Stamford Bridge . The conflict was escalating , and converging with events in national politics .
= = Towards civil war = =
Discontent was brewing in England against the personal rule of Henry VI , who had been declared of age in 1437 . The main antagonists were Richard , Duke of York , and Edmund Beaufort , Duke of Somerset . Somerset enjoyed great influence over the king , but after Henry had been incapacitated by mental illness in 1453 , York was appointed protector in 1454 . The Nevilles were by this time closely associated with York , so the natural option for Northumberland was to side with Somerset and the king . Attempts were made to reconcile Northumberland and Salisbury in the north , but little was accomplished . In December , the king rallied sufficiently to resume control of government , and York 's protectorate was terminated . With Somerset back at the centre of power , civil war seemed imminent .
In May 1455 , Northumberland was travelling with the king and Somerset to a great council at Leicester , when the party was intercepted by York and the Nevilles . On 22 May 1455 , at the First Battle of St Albans , the royal forces clashed with the forces loyal to the Duke of York , in what has been described as the first battle of the Wars of the Roses . The battle was a complete victory for the Yorkist side , and led to another reversal of the political situation . The king was taken captive , and Somerset was killed . Northumberland was also among the casualties , and was buried at the nearby St Albans Abbey . A suggestion made by a contemporary chronicler , and supported by modern @-@ day historians , said that the true purpose of the battle was to settle personal scores . Once York and Salisbury had killed Somerset and Northumberland respectively , the battle was effectively over .
= = Estates and family = =
The Percy estates were primarily located in the northern counties of Yorkshire , Northumberland , and Cumberland . Even though the title was restored in 1416 , and the Percy estates were officially regranted , this did not mean the immediate return of all the family possessions . Protracted legal battles followed , particularly with John , Duke of Bedford . Even at the time of his death , Northumberland had not recovered all the estates once held by his grandfather .
Northumberland 's marriage to Eleanor Neville produced at least ten children . Henry Percy was succeeded by his son Henry Percy , 3rd Earl of Northumberland , who himself died fighting in the Wars of the Roses , at the Battle of Towton on 29 March 1461 .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Azumanga Daioh =
Azumanga Daioh ( Japanese : あずまんが大王 , Hepburn : Azumanga Daiō , lit . " Great King Azumanga " ) is a Japanese yonkoma comedy manga series written and illustrated by Kiyohiko Azuma , which was serialized in MediaWorks ' Dengeki Daioh magazine between 1999 and 2002 . Three additional chapters were published in Shogakukan 's Monthly Shōnen Sunday in May 2009 to celebrate the manga 's tenth anniversary . The manga was first released in English by ADV Manga , and was later re @-@ issued by Yen Press .
A television anime adaptation titled Azumanga Daioh : the Animation was produced by J.C.Staff and aired in Japan between April and September 2002 , consisting of 130 five @-@ minute segments compiled into 26 episodes . The compiled episodes were released on DVD and Universal Media Discs ( UMDs ) by Starchild Records , and an English @-@ language version was produced by ADV Films . Prior to the series , a theatrical short and an original net animation were also produced . Several soundtrack albums were released , as well as three Azumanga Daioh video games .
Both the manga and anime have been praised for their humor driven by eccentric characters , with Azuma acclaimed as a " master of the four @-@ panel form " for both his art style and comic timing .
= = Title = =
The series title has no particular significance to the story . " Azumanga " is a portmanteau of the author 's name " Azuma " and " manga " , while " Daioh " comes from the magazine in which it was originally published , Dengeki Daioh . In the anime , " daioh " is mentioned during the next episode previews , used in context with the meaning " great king " .
" Azumanga " is also used as a general term for Kiyohiko Azuma 's other comics and illustrations . Two previous collections of Azuma 's works , including official tie @-@ in comics of Pioneer animations , were published as Azumanga and Azumanga 2 in 1998 and 2001 , respectively . Azumanga was later republished in a reduced @-@ size edition called Azumanga Recycle .
= = Plot = =
Azumanga Daioh chronicles the everyday life in an unnamed Japanese high school of six girls and two of their teachers : child prodigy Chiyo Mihama and her struggle to fit in with girls five years older ; reserved Sakaki and her obsession with the cute animals who seem to hate her ; spacey Ayumu " Osaka " Kasuga with a skewed perspective on the world ; Koyomi " Yomi " Mizuhara 's aggravation at an annoying best friend ; Tomo Takino , whose energy is rivaled only by her lack of sense ; sporty Kagura and her one @-@ sided athletics rivalry with Sakaki ; their homeroom teacher Yukari Tanizaki ; and her friend , physical education teacher Minamo " Nyamo " Kurosawa .
Secondary characters include Kimura @-@ sensei , a creepy male teacher with an obsession with teenage girls , and Kaorin , a female classmate with a crush on Sakaki .
The story covers three years of tests , talking between classes , culture festivals , and athletic events at school , as well as time spent traveling to and from school , studying at Chiyo 's house , and vacations at Chiyo 's summer beach home and the fictional theme park Magical Land , concluding with the graduation of the main cast . It is generally realistic in tone , marked by occasional bursts of surrealism and absurdity , such as Osaka imagining Chiyo 's ponytails being " unscrewed " from her head and an episode featuring the characters ' New Year 's dreams .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Azumanga Daioh was written and illustrated by Kiyohiko Azuma , largely in yonkoma ( four @-@ panel ) format . The unnumbered chapters were serialized by MediaWorks ' in the monthly magazine Dengeki Daioh from February 1999 to May 2002 . The series was collected in four tankōbon volumes . Each of the four volumes covers about a year in the characters ' lives . A new edition in three volumes was released in Japan by Shogakukan to commemorate the manga 's 10th anniversary , with volume one , covering the first year of high school , being published June 11 , 2009 . The reprint edition contains three additional 16 @-@ page chapters serialized in Monthly Shōnen Sunday starting in May 2009 under the title Azumanga Daioh : Supplementary Lessons ( あずまんが大王 · 補習編 , Azumanga Daiō Hoshūhen ) .
The series was licensed in English in North America and the United Kingdom by ADV Manga , which released all four volumes between 2003 and 2004 . ADV later reprinted the series in an omnibus edition ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4139 @-@ 0364 @-@ 5 ) on November 7 , 2007 . In 2009 , Yen Press acquired the North American and UK license of Azumanga Daioh , and released a new translation in December 2009 in an omnibus volume . In Europe , Azumanga Daioh is licensed in French by Kurokawa , in German by Tokyopop , in Spanish by Norma Editorial , and in Finnish by Punainen jättiläinen . In Asia , the series has been licensed in Korean by Daiwon C.I. , in Thai by Negibose Comics , in Vietnam by TVM Comics , and in Chinese by Tong Li Publishing . It was the first yonkoma manga translated in France .
= = = Anime = = =
The anime television series , Azumanga Daioh : the Animation , was produced by J.C.Staff and aired from the week of April 8 , 2002 until the week of September 30 , 2002 . It was broadcast on TV Tokyo , TV Aichi , TV Osaka , and AT @-@ X in five @-@ minute segments every weekday , then repeated as a 25 @-@ minute compilation that weekend , for a total of 130 five @-@ minute segments collected in 26 episodes . For the compilation episodes , the respective opening and ending themes were " Soramimi Cake " ( 空耳ケーキ , Soramimi Kēki , Cake of Mishearing ) and " Raspberry Heaven " , both performed by Oranges & Lemons . The compilation episodes , which were the only versions to include the title and credits sequences , were released on 6 DVDs in 2003 and 9 Universal Media Discs between 2005 and 2006 by Starchild Records , and a DVD box set of all episodes was released on June 24 , 2009 ; the five @-@ minute segments can be distinguished by their individual titles .
Besides the anime television series , there have been two other animated adaptations : The Very Short Azumanga Daioh Movie , a six @-@ minute trailer released to movie theaters to publicize the upcoming television series , and Azumanga Web Daioh , a shorter original net animation made available for paid streaming on chara @-@ ani.com beginning from December 28 , 2000 , then offered as a paid download for a limited time . Azumanga Web Daioh was originally intended to gauge whether there was enough interest to create a web @-@ released anime adaptation ; because of overwhelming demand , the original plan for web @-@ release was changed to a television release . It featured different voice actors and music from the regular series .
In the United States , the anime television series was released in six DVDs on September 9 , 2005 , and then later in a five DVD volume " Thinpak " set , both by ADV Films . The sixth DVD volume included The Very Short Azumanga Daioh Movie . In 2009 , Nokia offered the first five episodes of Azumanga Daioh on its Ovi phone service . Madman Entertainment licensed the series for release in Australia and New Zealand . As of September 1 , 2009 , all of ADV 's former catalog are transferred to AEsir Holdings , with distribution from Section23 Films . The series was later re @-@ licensed in 2016 by Sentai Filmworks .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Several soundtrack albums for the anime of Azumanga Daioh were released by Lantis , including two volumes of the Azumanga Daioh Original Soundtrack , collecting the show 's score and themes ; two tribute albums ; and Vocal Collection , collecting character image songs . One single was released for the opening and closing theme of the anime , and eight singles of image songs were released for the main cast members . Most of the releases charted on the Japanese Oricon charts , with the highest ranking album being Tribute to Azumanga Daioh at number 68 , and the highest ranking single being Soramimi no Cake / Raspberry Heaven , the opening and closing themes , at 36th .
The opening and closing theme single Soramimi no Cake / Raspberry Heaven was released on April 22 , 2002 , and peak ranked 36th on the Oricon singles chart . The two volumes of the soundtrack were released on June 26 , 2006 and October 23 , 2002 , and peak ranked 72nd and 99th on the Oricon albums chart , respectively . The soundtrack albums were re @-@ released as a two @-@ disc set on June 24 , 2009 in conjunction with the 10th anniversary release of the DVD box set . Azumanga Daioh Original Soundtrack Volume 1 was released in the United States by Geneon .
Azumanga Daioh : Vocal Collection collects the character image songs performed by the voice actors in the personas of the characters they played , and the opening and the closing theme songs . It was released on December 25 , 2002 in Japan , Eight image song singles were released as Azumanga Daioh Characters Songs Volumes 1 through 8 , which focused in order on Chiyo , Sakaki , Osaka , Tomo , Kagura , Yomi , Sensei , and Kaorin . Volumes 1 and 2 were released May 22 , 2002 , Volume 3 on June 26 , 2002 , Volumes 4 and 5 on July 27 , 2002 , Volume 6 and 7 on September 4 , 2002 , and Volume 8 on September 25 , 2002 . Azumanga Daioh Characters Songs Volumes 3 through 8 peak ranked 63rd , 80th , 79th , 70th , 75th , and 49th on the Oricon singles chart , respectively . Azumanga Daioh : Vocal Collection was released in the United States by Geneon on July 5 , 2005 .
Two tribute albums , Tribute to Azumanga Daioh and Tribute to Live Azumanga Daioh , were released on October 2 , 2002 and December 10 , 2003 . Tribute to Azumanga Daioh peak ranked 68th on the Oricon albums chart . Tribute to Live Azumanga Daioh is the live album of the concert held on October 4 , 2003 at the public hall of Toshima , Tokyo .
= = = Other media = = =
Two art books for the anime were published under the titles Azumanga Daioh the Animation Visual Book 1 ( あずまんが大王 THE ANIMATION ビジュアルブック ( 1 ) ) ( ISBN 4 @-@ 8402 @-@ 2203 @-@ 7 ) and Azumanga Daioh the Animation Visual Book 2 ( あずまんが大王 THE ANIMATION ビジュアルブック ( 2 ) ) ( ISBN 4 @-@ 8402 @-@ 2290 @-@ 8 ) were published by MediaWorks on August 26 , 2002 and December 10 , 2002 , respectively .
Three Azumanga Daioh video games were released . Azumanga Donjyara Daioh , a puzzle game similar to mahjong , was released by Bandai for the PlayStation on April 18 , 2002 . Azumanga Daioh Puzzle Bobble was released by Taito Corporation as an arcade @-@ only Puzzle Bobble spin @-@ off in December , 2002 . Azumanga Daioh Advance , a card @-@ playing game , was released by King Records for the Game Boy Advance on April 25 , 2003 .
= = Reception = =
In Japan , the Azumanga Daioh manga was named a jury recommended work of the sixth Japan Media Arts Festival in 2002 . The manga was named as one of the top 25 manga at the 2006 Japan Media Arts Festival .
English reviewers have commented positively about Azumanga Daioh . In Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson refers to it as a " charming comedy " and a " quiet master of the four @-@ panel form " , praising the series comedic timing and use of running gags . He felt one of the series ' best points was its " character @-@ driven writing " , but does warn that its moe nature and the jokes that revolve around the " vaguely pedophilic teacher " might disturb some newer readers of manga . He later said that Azumanga Daioh was an " almost totally innocent " kind of moe , centered around " peep [ ing ] at the chaste world of girls " , in which " adorable girls do adorable things " . The French manga dictionary Dicomanga noted that despite being a moe series targeted at otaku , it also appealed to female readers for celebrating " friendships between girls as well as [ its ] comedy . " Marc Hairston describes Azumanga Daioh as being " slightly disjointed " , with " frequently oblique " and " culturally biased " humour , and says it is both " lighter " and " more wry " than Maria @-@ sama ga Miteru . He describes the characters of Azumanga as being " individuals with slightly offbeat personalities " . Mark Thomas , writing for Mania.com , says that each character has " a defining personality trait that is ramped up to abnormal levels " and that each has a foil , which highlights these traits and prevents them from becoming too annoying or unbelievable as characters . Thomas said that the yonkoma format does not lend itself to " complex story arcs " , and the story is presented as " quick snapshots of random moments in their daily routines " , noting that the narrative is character @-@ driven . Patrick King , writing for Anime Fringe , considered it to be " one of the funniest , most adorable manga series I 've read " . IGN noted the lack of background art , but said that the expressive faces of the characters made up for it .
Fred Patton of Animation World Magazine described the anime as " delightfully witty and even an educational window onto what Japanese high school life is really like . " Chris Beveridge of Anime on DVD , stated that " There 's a lot to laugh with here and a cast of characters that grow quickly on you as you start finding those you favor and those you don 't . " Andrew Shelton from Anime Meta explains that " The character of the girls is extremely well brought out . The superb observation , and ability to capture expression , makes the anime incredibly fun to watch in addition to meeting the story requirements . The action , and very rich comedy , are also wonderfully represented . There is just so much meaning , and charm , in even the most minor of expressions . " The reviewers of THEM Anime and Anime News Network felt that fans who had already graduated high school would feel nostalgic at times while watching Azumanga Daioh .
The licensed manga had sales that reached top 100 lists on occasions and was included in the top 25 manga recommended by International Correspondence in Retailers Guide to Anime / Manga . The English dub for the show was well received , earning six ADR Awards from fans voting on AnimeonDVD.com and Dubreview.com. Four of the girls were included in Newtype 's top 100 anime heroines of 2002 : Osaka was awarded 7th , Chiyo 11th , Sakaki 21st , and Yomi 78th . Together they made Azumanga Daioh the second most popular series of 2002 for female characters .
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= M @-@ 144 ( 1937 – 1939 Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 144 was the designation assigned to two former state trunkline highways in the US state of Michigan . The original version of M @-@ 144 existed as a 0 @.@ 388 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 624 km ) spur connecting the Michigan State Police headquarters in East Lansing to Michigan Avenue , which was signed M @-@ 39 at the time . It was designated by 1937 and decommissioned in 1939 , after which time the designation was shifted to the second version of M @-@ 144 further north in Roscommon and Oscoda counties .
= = Route description = =
As it existed at the time , M @-@ 144 started at the headquarters for the Michigan State Police next to the campus of Michigan State College , now Michigan State University . The highway ran north along Harrison Road next to campus and across the Red Cedar River . North of the river , the trunkline terminated at the junction with Michigan Avenue ( then M @-@ 39 , now the unsigned M @-@ 143 ) .
= = History = =
The first incarnation of M @-@ 144 was designated by 1937 to serve as the connector to the state police headquarters . The highway was decommissioned in 1939 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in East Lansing , Ingham County .
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= New Kidney in Town =
" New Kidney in Town " is the eighth episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on January 9 , 2011 . The episode follows Peter , after he drinks kerosene , causing him to suffer from immediate kidney failure . In need of a replacement kidney , Peter is unable to locate a match , until it is discovered that his anthropomorphic dog Brian is a match , but would require the donation of both his kidneys . Meanwhile , Chris is instructed by his English teacher to write an essay about hope , in preparation of United States President Barack Obama 's appearance at their school . Unable to write anything inspiring , he decides to pick his sister Meg 's brain and use her ideas .
The episode was written by Matt Harrigan and Dave Willis , and directed by Pete Michels . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 29 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Yvette Nicole Brown , Drew Carey , Gary Cole , Christine Lakin and Rachael MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " New Kidney in Town " was one of five episodes submitted for consideration for an Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Comedy Series " category in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Peter is introduced to Red Bull by Quagmire at the bar . He ends up becoming highly addicted to it and it makes him operate at high speeds . Peter buys packs of Red Bull and introduces it to his family , though things get out of hand as soon as he starts performing everything too fast . One day , Peter comes home to find that Lois has thrown the Red Bull out in an attempt to make Peter give up his new addiction . This angers Peter , who in retaliation , attempts to make his own . Because of a misreading , Peter decides to put kerosene in his beverage believing that fuel causes the effect Red Bull has on him . Brian tries to warn Peter that kerosene is dangerous , but Peter ignores him and adds it anyway .
Upon drinking it , Peter collapses and is rushed to the hospital , where the family learns that Peter has been diagnosed with Kidney failure due to the damage done and he is in need of a transplant . However , since they must wait a few months before they can get donors , Peter must undergo dialysis . Three weeks later , after undergoing constant dialysis procedures , Peter gets angry that the dialysis treatments have stolen him from the world . Convinced that one skipping would not hurt him , Peter eventually decides to skip an appointment but his assumptions are false and him skipping it causes him to become jaundiced and vomit blood .
At the hospital , the family learns that Peter 's condition has a big chance of suddenly failing and thus killing him . They learn that the only other option besides the daily procedures is that one must give up one of their kidneys to Peter . Lois volunteers to give up one of hers , but is informed that she isn 't a match . Dr Hartman suggests the idea of using their kids as donors but Lois refuses to bring them into it . Brian also volunteers , and they discover that he has the same kidney type as Peter . However , as dog kidneys are smaller than human 's , the donation requires both kidneys . If the procedure was successful , Brian would lose his life . Brian decides to go along with the procedure to save Peter 's life . Reluctant to lose Brian , Stewie kidnaps him and takes him to the local playground , in hopes of staying there the rest of their lives . Brian convinces Stewie to let him go , stating that Stewie needs his father more than he needs his dog . The next day , Brian and Peter prepare to undergo the kidney transfer . However , Dr. Hartman reveals that he is also a match and has decided to donate one of his own kidneys : Brian 's life is spared .
Meanwhile , at the same time during the kidney crisis , United States President Barack Obama has decided to visit Quahog , and Chris ' entire English class is assigned to write an essay about hope . He consults his sister Meg for her opinion and she lists her personal opinion on the subject , which Chris plagiarizes . Meg is angered that he has decided to take her words and call them his own , but she is eventually given credit for co @-@ writing the speech , and she and Chris introduce Obama to the school . President Obama then enters the school 's auditorium , and begins singing and playing the guitar as students swoon over his performance .
= = Production and development = =
" New Kidney in Town " was co @-@ written by Williams Street writers Dave Willis and Matt Harrigan , in their first official episode for the series . The two have also worked for Aqua Teen Hunger Force , Space Ghost Coast to Coast , and Squidbillies , among others . The episode was directed by series regular Pete Michels , shortly after the conclusion of the eighth production season , in his first episode for the season . Series veterans Peter Shin and James Purdum , both of whom having previously served as animation directors , served as supervising directors for the episode , with Alex Carter , Andrew Goldberg , Elaine Ko , Spencer Porter and Aaron Blitzstein serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " New Kidney in Town " .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Yvette Nicole Brown , actor , comedian and game show host Drew Carey , actor Gary Cole , actress Christine Lakin and voice actress Rachael MacFarlane , sister of series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors John G. Brennan , actor Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith and writer John Viener made minor appearances in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , after complaining of being exhausted , Peter is introduced to the energy drink Red Bull by his friends , Quagmire and Joe . He then suddenly becomes extremely hyperactive , and begins singing the 1998 single " Ray of Light " by singer @-@ songwriter Madonna in a parody of the high speed time @-@ lapse of its video . Peter also goes on to appear on the American game show The Price Is Right , with actor and comedian Drew Carey appearing as host . He then begins playing the Showcase Showdown game , until the wheel suddenly spins off its axis and into the audience , running over several rows of people . After suffering from Red Bull withdrawal , Peter decides to create his own concoction , including kerosene . After drinking it , he suffers from immediate kidney failure , requiring constant dialysis . Deciding to go to The Drunken Clam with Quagmire and Joe , he is reluctant to go to his scheduled dialysis appointment , in order to watch the 1984 CBS series Charles in Charge .
In preparation for a special appearance at their school , James Woods High School , Chris is assigned to write an essay about " hope " to welcome United States President Barack Obama . After reading his essay to the entire school , along with his sister , Meg , President Barack Obama , dressed similarly to Conrad Birdie as portrayed in the film version of the musical , begins singing and playing guitar in the school 's auditorium . Obama then performs the song " Honestly Sincere " from the stage musical and film Bye Bye Birdie .
= = Reception = =
" New Kidney in Town " was broadcast on January 9 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons and the series premiere of the animated series Bob 's Burgers , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show . It was watched by 9 @.@ 29 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Undercover Boss on CBS and The Cape on NBC . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Bob 's Burgers and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out the latter in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous episode , largely due to the lead @-@ in provided by the NFL Wild Card game that preceded the " Animation Domination " line @-@ up .
Television critics reacted mostly positive toward the episode , calling the storyline " heartfelt . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show that preceded and followed the show , respectively , The A.V. Club 's Rowan Kaiser wrote , " I spent the entire time expecting the rug to be pulled out and the whole thing revealed to be Seth MacFarlane just trying to manipulate my emotions . " Kaiser went on to compliment series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , stating " some of the more recent formal experiments that the show has done , such as the hour @-@ long murder mystery in this season 's premiere , indicate that MacFarlane and company agree with the criticism . " He concluded his review by writing , " I have to give props to Family Guy for going outside their wheelhouse without winking excessively at their audience , but I think it may have been a little bit too far to be truly great . " Kaiser ultimately gave the episode a B rating , the best rating of the night , beating The Cleveland Show episode " Ain 't Nothin ' But Mutton Bustin ' " and The Simpsons episode " Moms I 'd Like to Forget " . In another positive review of the episode , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode 's " funniest moments , " which included the opening sequence involving Peter and the Red Bull , as well as the reference to The Price Is Right . Hughes went on to comment that the episode " taught us about the depths and bonds of love that make a family . Whether it 's acceptance , hope or sacrifice , there 's no limit to what we will do for family . " Kate Moon of TV Fanatic also commented positively on the episode , writing in her review of the storyline , " Overall , I found the installment to be refreshing with everyone taking a part in Peter ’ s dilemma . It was actually sweet and emotional for a change . " Moon also praised the scenes involving President Obama , and Stewie 's attempt at saving Brian .
The episode was among four other episodes submitted by the Family Guy production team for consideration of an Emmy Award nomination , in the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series category . " New Kidney in Town " was submitted , along with " Halloween on Spooner Street " , " Road to the North Pole " , " And I 'm Joyce Kinney " and " Trading Places " . The series was successfully nominated in 2009 , but failed to merit an award . Mark Hentemann , executive producer and showrunner of Family Guy said of the nominating process , " We had internal discussions in the writers ' room , and it seemed like we were much more akin to the other primetime comedies than we were to children 's shows in animation . We assumed we would not get anywhere , and so it was a great surprise when we got the nomination . "
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= Japanese cruiser Tokiwa =
Tokiwa ( 常盤 ) was the second and last Asama @-@ class armored cruiser built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was built in Britain . She played minor roles in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 and World War I , but was very active during the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 where she participated in the Battle of Port Arthur , the Battle off Ulsan , and the Battle of Tsushima . After the war she was sometimes used as a training ship for naval cadets .
Tokiwa was converted into a minelayer in 1922 – 24 . She was placed in reserve in 1927 after she was damaged by an accidental explosion of several mines . The ship was deployed to Northern China in 1932 – 33 after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria . After her refit in 1937 , Tokiwa returned to active duty and was assigned to the 4th Fleet in 1939 . During the Pacific War , she participated in the occupation of the Gilbert Islands and Rabaul and Kavieng in New Guinea . Damaged by American aircraft shortly afterwards , the ship was forced to return to Japan for repairs . Tokiwa laid minefields during 1944 – 45 until she was twice damaged by American mines in 1945 . After repairs were completed , the ship was badly damaged by American aircraft and her crew was forced to beach her lest she sink shortly before the end of the war . Tokiwa was salvaged in 1947 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Background and description = =
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino @-@ Japanese War and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships , all of which had to be ordered from British shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself . Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy . Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships . The revised plan is commonly known as the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " . Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes , Tokiwa and her half @-@ sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline .
The ship was 134 @.@ 72 meters ( 442 ft 0 in ) long overall and 124 @.@ 36 meters ( 408 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 48 meters ( 67 ft 2 in ) and had an average draft of 7 @.@ 4 meters ( 24 ft 3 in ) . Tokiwa displaced 9 @,@ 667 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 514 long tons ) at normal load and 10 @,@ 476 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 311 long tons ) at deep load . The ship had a metacentric height of 0 @.@ 88 meters ( 2 ft 11 in ) . Her crew consisted of 676 officers and enlisted men .
Tokiwa had two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by a dozen cylindrical boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship had a designed speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) and reached 23 @.@ 1 knots ( 42 @.@ 8 km / h ; 26 @.@ 6 mph ) during her sea trials from 19 @,@ 040 ihp ( 14 @,@ 200 kW ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 390 long tons ( 1 @,@ 410 t ) of coal and could steam for 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament for all of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers was four eight @-@ inch guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of 14 Elswick Ordnance Company " Pattern Z " quick @-@ firing ( QF ) , 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields . Tokiwa was also equipped with a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and eight QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Yamauchi guns as close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The ship was equipped with five 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , one above water in the bow and four submerged tubes , two on each broadside .
All of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences , of which the most important was that the two Asama @-@ class ships used less tough Harvey armor . The waterline belt ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from 178 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) amidships to 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . It had a height of 2 @.@ 13 meters ( 7 ft 0 in ) , of which 1 @.@ 52 meters ( 5 ft 0 in ) was normally underwater . The upper strake of belt armor was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck . It extended 65 @.@ 42 meters ( 214 ft 8 in ) from the forward to the rear barbette . The Asama class had oblique 127 mm armored bulkheads that closed off the ends of the central armored citadel .
The barbettes , gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 152 millimeters thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . The deck was also 51 millimeters thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness .
= = Construction and career = =
The contract for Tokiwa was signed on 6 July 1897 with Armstrong Whitworth . The ship had already been laid down at their shipyard in Elswick on 6 January 1897 as a speculative venture . She was launched on 6 July 1898 and completed on 18 May 1899 . The ship departed for Japan the next day and arrived in Yokosuka on 16 July . Captain Dewa Shigetō had been appointed on 5 April to supervise her construction and bring her to Japan . He was relieved of command after his arrival by Captain Nakayama Nagaaki . The following year , Tokiwa supported Japanese forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
Sublieutenant Kichisaburō Nomura , later Foreign Minister , was appointed to the ship in July 1903 until the ship 's return after the Battle off Ulsan in August 1904 . Captain Yoshimatsu Motaro assumed command of Tokiwa on 18 January 1904 . At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War a few weeks later , the ship was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet . She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russians . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight- and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered some 150 , while the Japanese suffered roughly 90 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged .
In early March , Tokiwa was detached from the 2nd Division and reassigned to Rear Admiral Dewa 's 3rd Division . On 10 March , Tokiwa and the protected cruiser Chitose attempted to capture the disabled destroyer Steregushchiy , but were driven off by heavy fire from the shore defenses , although they managed to rescue the wounded crewmen . Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Russian Pacific Squadron on 13 April , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . During this action , Tokiwa engaged the Russian cruisers that preceded the battleships before falling back on Tōgō 's battleships . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur and his flagship ran into the minefield just laid by the Japanese . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . In addition to this loss , the battleship Pobeda was damaged by a mine .
Tokiwa rejoined the 2nd Division a few days later and Kamimura was ordered north in mid @-@ April to cover the Sea of Japan and defend the Korea Strait against any attempt by the Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Karl Jessen , to break through and unite with the Pacific Squadron . The two units narrowly missed each other on the 24th in heavy fog and the Japanese proceeded to Vladivostok where they laid several minefields before arriving back at Wonsan on the 30th .
The division failed to intercept the Russian squadron as it attacked several transports south of Okinoshima Island on 15 June due to heavy rain and fog . The Russians sortied again on 30 June and Kamimura finally was able to intercept them the next day near Okinoshima . The light was failing when they were spotted and the Russians were able to disengage in the darkness . Jessen 's ships sortied again on 17 July headed for the eastern coast of Japan to act as a diversion and pull Japanese forces out of the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea . The Russian ships passed through Tsugaru Strait two days later and began capturing ships bound for Japan . The arrival of the Russians off Tokyo Bay on the 24th caused the Naval General Staff to order Kamimura to sail for Cape Toi Misaki , Kyūshū , fearing that Jessen would circumnavigate Japan to reach Port Arthur . Two days later he was ordered north to the Kii Channel and then to Tokyo Bay on the 28th . The General Staff finally ordered him back to Tsushima Island on the 30th ; later that day he received word that Jessen 's ships had passed through the Tsugaru Strait early that morning and reached Vladivostok on 1 August .
= = = = Battle off Ulsan = = = =
On 10 August , the ships at Port Arthur attempted a breakout to Vladivostok , but were turned back in the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Jessen was ordered to rendezvous with them , but the order was delayed . His three armored cruisers , Rossia , Gromoboi , and Rurik , had to raise steam , so he did not sortie until the evening of 13 August . By dawn he had reached Tsushima , but turned back when he failed to see any ships from the Port Arthur squadron . 36 miles ( 58 km ) north of the island he encountered Kamimura 's squadron , which consisted of four modern armored cruisers , Iwate , Izumo , Azuma , and Tokiwa . The two squadrons had passed during the night without spotting one another and each had reversed course around first light . This put the Japanese ships astride the Russian route to Vladivostok .
Jessen ordered his ships to turn to the northeast when he spotted the Japanese at 05 : 00 and they followed suit , albeit on a slightly converging course . Both sides opened fire around 05 : 23 at a range of 8 @,@ 500 meters ( 9 @,@ 300 yd ) . The Japanese ships concentrated their fire on Rurik , the rear ship of the Russian formation . She was hit fairly quickly and began to fall astern of the other two ships . Jessen turned southeast in an attempt to open the range , but this blinded the Russian gunners with the rising sun and prevented any of their broadside guns from bearing on the Japanese . About 06 : 00 , Jessen turned 180 ° to starboard in an attempt to reach the Korean coast and to allow Rurik to rejoin the squadron . Kamimura followed suit around 06 : 10 , but turned to port , which opened the range between the squadrons . Azuma then developed engine problems and the Japanese squadron slowed to conform with her best speed . Firing recommenced at 06 : 24 and Rurik was hit three times in the stern , flooding her steering compartment ; she had to be steered with her engines . Her speed continued to decrease , further exposing her to Japanese fire , and her steering jammed to port around 06 : 40 .
Jessen made another 180 ° turn in an attempt to interpose his two ships between the Japanese and Rurik , but the latter ship suddenly turn to starboard and increased speed and passed between Jessen 's ships and the Japanese . Kamimura turned 180 ° as well so that both squadrons were heading southeast on parallel courses , but Jessen quickly made another 180 ° turn so that they headed on opposing courses . The Russians reversed course for the third time around 07 : 45 in another attempt to support Rurik although Rossia was on fire herself ; her fires were extinguished about twenty minutes later . Kamimura circled Rurik to the south at 08 : 00 and allowed the other two Russian ships to get to his north and gave them an uncontested route to Vladivostok . Despite this , Jessen turned back once more at 08 : 15 and ordered Rurik to make her own way back to Vladivostok before turning north at his maximum speed , about 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
About this time Kamimura 's two elderly protected cruisers , Naniwa and Takachiho , were approaching from the south . Their arrival allowed Kamimura to pursue Jessen with all of his armored cruisers while the two new arrivals dealt with Rurik . They fought a running battle with the Russians for the next hour and a half ; scoring enough hits on them to force their speed down to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Azuma 's engines again broke down during this chase and Tokiwa assumed her place in the line . The Japanese closed to a minimum of about 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) , but Kamimura then opened the range up to 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) .
About 10 : 00 , Kamimura 's gunnery officer erroneously informed him that Izumo had expended three @-@ quarters of her ammunition and he turned back after a five @-@ minute rapid @-@ fire barrage . He did not wish to leave the Tsushima Strait unguarded and thought that he could use his remaining ammunition on Rurik . By this time she had been sunk by Naniwa and Takachiho . They had radioed Kamimura that she was sunk , but he did not receive the message . Shortly after the Japanese turned back , Gromoboi and Rossia were forced to heave @-@ to to make repairs . None of the Japanese ships were seriously damaged and Tokiwa only suffered three men wounded during the battle . After the battle the cruiser was transferred to Rear Admiral Uryū Sotokichi 's command who began a blockade of Shanghai on 20 August where the Russian cruiser Askold and a destroyer had taken refuge after the Battle of the Yellow Sea . He returned home on 8 September after the Chinese government formally interned the Russian ships .
In mid @-@ September , Tokiwa and Iwate were transferred to the 1st Division . In November the cruiser was sent to the Kure Naval Arsenal to refit . The ship was reassigned to the 2nd Division after the refit , which was ordered north to Wonsan on 2 February to escort the occupation force there . Tokiwa was ordered home on 12 February for another refit . On 13 April , the 2nd Division , including the armored cruisers Izumo and Kasuga , sailed to escort minelayers as they laid 715 mines off Vladivostok .
= = = = Battle of Tsushima = = = =
As the Russian 2nd and 3rd Pacific Squadrons approached Japan on 27 May , having sailed from the Baltic Sea , they were spotted by patrolling Japanese ships early that morning , but visibility was limited and radio reception poor . The preliminary reports were enough to cause Tōgō to order his ships to put to sea and the 2nd Division spotted the Russian ships under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky at around 11 : 30 . Kamimura closed to about a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) before sheering off under fire to join Tōgō 's battleships . Tokiwa was third in line of six when Tōgō opened fire on the 2nd Pacific Squadron at 14 : 10 and , like most of the ships in the division , engaged the battleship Oslyabya which was forced to fall out of formation at 14 : 50 and sank 20 minutes later . By this time the Russian formation was in disorder and Knyaz Suvorov suddenly appeared out of the mist at 15 : 35 at a range of about 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . All of Kamimura 's ships engaged her for five minutes or so with Azuma and the armored cruiser Yakumo also firing torpedoes at the Russian ship without effect .
After 17 : 30 Kamimura led his division in a fruitless pursuit of some of the Russian cruisers , leaving Tōgō 's battleships to their own devices . He abandoned his chase around 18 : 03 and turned northwards to rejoin Tōgō . His ships spotted the rear of the Russian battleline around 18 : 30 and opened fire when the range closed to 8 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 – 9 @,@ 800 yd ) . Nothing is known of any effect on the Russians and they ceased fire by 19 : 30 and rejoined Tōgō at 20 : 08 as night was falling . The surviving Russian ships were spotted the next morning and the Japanese ships opened fire around 10 : 30 , staying beyond the range at which the Russian ships could effectively reply . Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov therefore decided to surrender his ships as he could neither return fire nor close the range . Over the course of the battle , Tokiwa was struck by one large and seven small shells , mostly 75 @-@ millimeter . They caused only minor damage , but killed one crewman and wounded fourteen .
Captain Imai Kanemasa assumed command of the ship on 14 June , as Tōgō was reorganizing the fleet for future operations . As the IJN was preparing to invade Sakhalin Island in early July , Kamimura 's 2nd Division , now reduced to Iwate , Izumo , and Tokiwa , was tasked to defend the Korea Strait before it escorted troops that made an amphibious landing in northeastern Korea . In mid @-@ August , the division covered the landing at Chongjin , closer to the Russian border . In 1910 , Tokiwa 's boilers were replaced by Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers and her six @-@ inch guns were replaced by Japanese @-@ built models . In December 1911 , Iwate and Tokiwa were deployed to Port Arthur to keep order there during the Chinese Revolution .
= = = World War I = = =
The ship participated in the early stages of the Battle of Tsingtao before returning to Sasebo on 2 October 1914 . The following month , Tokiwa was deployed to Singapore preparatory to searching for the German commerce raider Emden , but the ship was sunk before the mission began . The cruiser was assigned to the Training Squadron on 1 September 1916 preparatory to her departure on 5 April 1917 with Yakumo on a training cruise to ports in California , Hawaii and the South Sea Islands with cadets from the 44th class of the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy . After her return on 17 August , the ship was relieved of her assignment to the Training Squadron on 25 August and sent to Honolulu , Hawaii in October to protect shipping from any German commerce raiders and to allow the US Navy to redeploy its forces to the Atlantic .
Tokiwa was reassigned to the Training Squadron on 10 August 1918 and returned home to prepare for her next training cruise , together with Azuma , that began on 1 March 1919 for South Asia and Australia and again on 24 November 1919 , also with Azuma , for Singapore , Southeast Asia , Suez Canal and the Mediterranean Sea . After her return on 20 May 1920 , the ship was relieved of her assignment to the Training Squadron on 4 June . Tokiwa was reclassified as a 1st class coast @-@ defense ship on 30 September 1921 .
= = = Converted into a minelayer = = =
On 30 September 1922 , Tokiwa began her conversion into a minelayer at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal . To accommodate her 200 – 300 mines , her rear 8 @-@ inch gun turret removed , as were the six 6 @-@ inch guns on the main deck . In addition , the number of light guns was reduced to two 12 @-@ pounders , although two 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were added . These modifications were completed in March 1924 . The ship 's stern suffered substantial damage in an accidental explosion in Saiki Bay on 1 August 1927 when fuzed mines were being disarmed . One mine detonated and then several others followed , killing 35 crewmen and wounding 65 . Tokiwa was assigned to the reserve fleet after repairs .
Tokiwa was assigned to the 1st Fleet from January 1932 to May 1933 after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and patrolled northern China . From November 1937 to 1938 , the ship was retrofitted with eight Kampon boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) and her remaining torpedo tubes were removed . The space made available by these changes increased her capacity to 500 mines . With the establishment of the 4th Fleet on 15 November 1939 , Tokiwa was assigned to the 18th Division , and a year later to the 19th Division under the command of Rear Admiral Kiyohide Shima together with the minelayer Okinoshima . In 1940 , the ship was refitted as a training minelayer which reduced her capacity to 200 @-@ 300 mines . As part of the refit , her forward 8 @-@ inch gun turret and the four amidships 6 @-@ inch guns were removed , as was one of the 8 cm / 40 3rd Year Type AA guns . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was heavily reinforced with the addition of two single 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns and twenty license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in twin @-@ gun mounts .
= = = Pacific War = = =
On 9 and 10 December 1941 , Tokiwa and the other minelayers of the 19th Division escorted two troop transports that carried the occupation forces for Makin and Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands . In January 1942 , the ship participated in Operation R ( the invasion of Rabaul and Kavieng ) and returned to Kwajalein Atoll afterwards . She was damaged in an air raid by American aircraft from the carrier USS Enterprise on 1 February 1942 and forced to return to Sasebo for repairs . Tokiwa returned to Truk on 14 July , and , on 19 August , was assigned to the Japanese task force sent to reoccupy Makin Atoll after the Makin Raid .
On 1 May 1943 , the ship was reassigned to the Ōminato Guard District and departed Truk on 26 May in a convoy to Yokosuka that was unsuccessfully attacked by USS Salmon ( SS @-@ 182 ) on 3 June . Tokiwa was reassigned to the 18th Escort Squadron of the 7th Fleet on 20 January 1944 . Tokiwa laid thousands of mines in the waters off Okinawa in June 1944 and Yakushima in February 1945 . Ironically , Tokiwa was herself mined on 14 April 1945 , approximately 78 miles ( 126 km ) off Hesaki , Kyūshū suffering moderate damage . She was later damaged again by mines laid by USAAF B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers on 3 June 1945 . At some point during the war , her armament was augmented with approximately ten 25 mm Type 96 AA guns in single mounts and 80 depth charges . In addition she was fitted with Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 and Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars .
While at Ōminato in Mutsu Bay in northern Japan at 41 @.@ 20 ° N 141 @.@ 60 ° E / 41 @.@ 20 ; 141 @.@ 60 , Tokiwa was severely damaged by a direct bomb hit and four near misses in an air attack on 9 August 1945 by United States Navy aircraft from Task Force 38 , and was beached by her crew . On 30 November 1945 Tokiwa was removed from the navy list . After the end of World War II , the wreck was refloated on 5 April 1947 , towed to Hakodate , Hokkaidō , and scrapped from August – October 1947 .
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= Russian battleship Imperatritsa Mariya =
Imperatritsa Mariya ( Russian : Императрица Мария : Empress Maria ) was one of three Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class dreadnoughts built for the Imperial Russian Navy , lead ship of her class . Construction began before World War I and she served with the Black Sea Fleet during the war . She covered older pre @-@ dreadnought battleships as they bombarded Ottoman facilities in 1915 and engaged the Ottoman light cruiser Midilli , ( formerly the German SMS Breslau ) several times without inflicting anything more serious than splinter damage . Imperatritsa Mariya was sunk at anchor in Sevastopol by a magazine explosion in late 1916 , killing 228 crewmen . She was subsequently raised , but her condition was very poor . She was finally scrapped in 1926 .
= = Description = =
Imperatritsa Mariya was 168 meters ( 551 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 27 @.@ 43 meters ( 90 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 36 meters ( 27 ft 5 in ) . Her displacement was 23 @,@ 600 long tons ( 23 @,@ 979 t ) at load , 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) more than her designed displacement of 22 @,@ 600 long tons ( 22 @,@ 963 t ) . She proved to be very bow @-@ heavy in service and tended to ship large amounts of water through her forward casemates . The ammunition for the forward 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns was reduced from 100 to 70 rounds each , while the 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) ammunition was reduced from 245 to 100 rounds per gun , in an attempt to compensate for her trim . This did not fully cure the problem , but Imperatritsa Mariya was lost before any other changes could be implemented .
The ship was fitted with four Parsons @-@ type steam turbines imported from John Brown & Company of the United Kingdom . They were designed for a total of 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but produced 33 @,@ 200 shp ( 24 @,@ 757 kW ) on her sea trials using steam produced by 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow boilers with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 1 @,@ 773 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Designed speed was 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her maximum coal capacity was 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 727 t ) plus 500 long tons ( 510 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 1 @,@ 640 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 040 km ; 1 @,@ 890 mi ) at maximum speed . All of her electrical power was generated by three Curtis 360 @-@ kilowatt ( 480 hp ) main turbo generators and two 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) auxiliary units .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen 12 @-@ inch Obukhovskii Pattern 1907 guns mounted in four triple gun turrets distributed the length of the ship . Her secondary armament consisted of twenty 130 mm B7 Pattern 1913 guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , six guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four were clustered around the rear turret . She was fitted with four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , one mounted on the roof of each turret . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were carried , two tubes on each broadside abaft the forward magazine .
= = Service = =
Imperatritsa Mariya , named after Tsarina Maria Feodorovna , mother of Tsar Nicholas II , was built by the Russud Shipyard at Nikolayev , Russian Empire . She was laid down on 30 October 1911 along with her sister ships Imperator Aleksander III and Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya , but this was merely a ceremonial event as the design had not yet been finalized nor the contract signed . She was launched on 19 October 1913 and arrived in Sevastopol on 13 July 1915 , where she completed her fitting out during the next few months and conducted sea trials . On 1 October she provided cover for the Black Sea Fleet 's pre @-@ dreadnoughts as they bombarded targets in Kozlu , Zonguldak and Karadeniz Ereğli . She did much the same when older battleships bombarded targets in Bulgaria on 20 – 22 October and then Varna itself on 27 October . The light cruiser Midilli narrowly escaped a running engagement with the Imperatritsa Mariya on 4 April 1916 as the battleship narrowly missed her several times before she could disengage . Three months later both Imperatritsa Mariya and Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya , alerted by intercepted radio transmissions , sortied from Sevastopol in an attempt to intercept the ex @-@ German battlecruiser Yavuz as she returned from a bombardment of the Russian port of Tuapse on 4 July . The Yavuz dodged north and avoided the Russians by paralleling the Bulgarian coastline back to the Bosphorus . The Midilli mined the harbor of Novorossiysk on 21 July , but the Russians , again alerted by radio intercepts , attempted to catch her on her return journey . Midilli was lured into range of Imperatritsa Mariya 's guns the next day when the cruiser pursued the Russian destroyer Schastlivy , but she managed to escape with only splinter damage .
On the morning of 20 October 1916 , a fire was discovered in the Imperatritsa Mariya 's forward powder magazine while at anchor in Sevastopol , but it exploded before any efforts could be made to fight the fire . Sailors led by Engineer @-@ Mechanic Midshipman Ignatyev , however , managed to flood the forward shell magazine before the explosion at the cost of their own lives . Their action probably prevented a catastrophic detonation and all of the other magazines were flooded as a precaution . About forty minutes after the first explosion , a second occurred in the vicinity of the torpedo compartment that destroyed the watertight integrity of the rest of the forward bulkheads . Imperatritsa Mariya began to sink by the bow and listed to starboard . She capsized a few minutes later , taking 228 sailors with her . The subsequent investigation determined that the explosion was probably the result of spontaneous combustion of the nitrocellulose @-@ based propellant as it decomposed .
Following a complex salvage operation , the ship was eventually refloated on 18 May 1918 and moved into Sevastopol 's Northern Dry Dock on 31 May , still upside down . The chaos of the Russian Revolution and Civil War , prevented further repair work , although her 130 mm guns were removed . By 1923 , the wooden blocks supporting her in place were rotting . She was floated out and grounded in shallow water in 1923 . She was approved for scrapping in June 1925 and officially stricken on 21 November 1925 , although the work did not begin until 1926 when she was refloated and moved back into the dry dock . Her gun turrets , which had fallen out of the ship when she capsized , were later salvaged . Two of them were used as the 30th Coast Defense Battery defending the city during the Siege of Sevastopol in World War II .
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= Douglas XCG @-@ 17 =
The Douglas XCG @-@ 17 was an American assault glider , developed by the conversion of a C @-@ 47 Skytrain twin @-@ engine transport during World War II . Although the XCG @-@ 17 was successful in testing , the requirement for such a large glider had passed , and no further examples of the type were built ; one additional C @-@ 47 , however , was converted in the field to glider configuration briefly during 1946 for evaluation , but was quickly reconverted to powered configuration .
= = Design and development = =
With the introduction of the Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster four @-@ engined transport aircraft , the United States Army Air Forces , observing that conventional gliders then in service would be an inefficient use of the C @-@ 54 's power and capacity , determined that a requirement existed for a new , much larger assault glider . It was determined that the best solution to the requirement was the conversion of the Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain , already in large @-@ scale production , to meet the requirement . The C @-@ 47 could be converted to a glider configuration with minimal alteration to the airframe , and would provide the required capacity .
Trials conducted using a conventional , powered C @-@ 47 , first conducting ordinary deadstick landings , then being towed by another C @-@ 47 , indicated that the scheme was feasible . Therefore , a C @-@ 47 @-@ DL was taken in hand for conversion into a glider , which was given the designation XCG @-@ 17 . The aircraft , formerly a Northwest Airlines DC @-@ 3 that had been impressed into military service at the start of World War II , was modified by the removal of the aircraft 's engines ; the nacelles , containing the landing gear , remained in place , covered with aerodynamically profiled hemispherical domes for streamlining , containing fixed weight to compensate for the removal of the engines . Other equipment , no longer necessary with the conversion to an unpowered configuration , was also removed to save weight ; items removed included the aircraft 's wiring and bulkheads , along with the navigator 's and radio operator 's positions .
= = Operational history = =
The conversion , carried out at Clinton County Army Air Field , was completed on June 12 , 1944 , with the aircraft undergoing its initial flight test shortly thereafter . The flight testing of the XCG @-@ 17 proved that the aircraft was satisfactory ; compared with conventional gliders in service , the aircraft possessed lower stalling and higher towing speeds than conventional gliders , as well as gliding at a significantly shallower angle . Tow tests were conducted using a variety of aircraft ; the most commonly used configuration was a tandem tow by two C @-@ 47s , with the towing aircraft coupled in tandem and the leading aircraft detaching following takeoff . This configuration was dangerous for the " middle " C @-@ 47 , however , and it was determined that a single C @-@ 54 was the optimal tug aircraft .
The XCG @-@ 17 's cargo hold had a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) ; alternatively , up to 40 fully equipped troops could be transported , these figures being significantly larger than conventional gliders ' capacity . The XCG @-@ 17 was also capable of carrying three jeeps in a single load , or alternatively two 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) howitzers . Regardless of the aircraft 's load , no ballast was required to maintain the aircraft 's center of gravity , a trait unique among American assault gliders .
Despite the satisfactory results in testing , however , the aircraft failed the Army 's requirement that it be capable of landing on unimproved fields ; in addition , by the time the evaluation of the XCG @-@ 17 was completed the need for such a large assault glider had passed . The primary role for the glider had been intended to increase the amount of supplies that could be carried to China over " The Hump " ; the war situation had , however , become more favorable and the added capacity an oversized glider would provide was no longer required . No further examples of the type were produced ; the prototype , its trials complete , was placed in storage , being ferried to Davis @-@ Monthan Air Force Base for disposal in August 1946 .
In August 1949 , the aircraft was sold to Advance Industries , its engines being reinstalled to return the aircraft to powered status in DC @-@ 3C configuration . Some sources , however , indicate that the XCG @-@ 17 was reconverted to C @-@ 47 configuration in 1946 . Following its restoration to powered status , the aircraft was transferred to Mexico , where it remained in civilian service until 1980 .
= = Field conversion = =
Although the XCG @-@ 17 failed to lead to any production of a C @-@ 47 derived glider type , a single C @-@ 47 was converted in the field to glider configuration by the Fifth Air Service Area Command , located at Nichols Field on Luzon in the Philippines , during January 1946 . Carried out in much the same manner as the XCG @-@ 17 , the conversion included octagonally shaped fairings over the engine mountings , with an auxiliary power unit from a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber being installed .
Referred to as " XCG @-@ 47 " as well as " XCG @-@ 17 " , and named " Nez Perce " , the aircraft undertook its initial flight following conversion on June 17 , 1946 , towed by a C @-@ 54 . The flight tests of the field @-@ converted aircraft proved favorable , and an ambitious flight , towing the aircraft from Luzon to Tokyo in Japan , was planned . This flight was intended to prove the suitability of large gliders to act as an " aerial freight train " for regular transport .
The flight , conducted in late June 1946 , took 11 hours of flight time and included an overnight stay on Okinawa ; covering 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) , it concluded at Tachikawa Airfield near Tokyo . Despite the success of the flight , the " aerial freight train " concept did not catch on ; the aircraft had its engines re @-@ fitted in August 1946 and was returned to service as a normal C @-@ 47 .
= = Operators = =
= = = Military ( as C @-@ 47 , then XCG @-@ 17 ) = = =
United States
United States Army Air Forces
= = = Civilian ( as DC @-@ 3C ) = = =
Mexico
Petroleos Mexicanos
= = Specifications ( 41 @-@ 18496 ) = =
Data from
General characteristics
Crew : Two ( Pilot and copilot )
Capacity : 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) cargo or 40 troops
Length : 63 ft 9 in ( 19 @.@ 43 m )
Wingspan : 95 ft 6 in ( 29 @.@ 11 m )
Height : 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m )
Wing area : 987 sq ft ( 91 @.@ 7 m2 )
Empty weight : 11 @,@ 001 lb ( 4 @,@ 990 kg )
Gross weight : 26 @,@ 000 lb ( 11 @,@ 793 kg )
Performance
Maximum speed : 290 mph ( 467 km / h ; 252 kn ) max towing speed
Cruising speed : 190 mph ; 165 kn ( 305 km / h ) gliding speed
Stall speed : 35 mph ( 30 kn ; 56 km / h )
Maximum glide ratio : 14 : 1
Wing loading : 26 @.@ 3 lb / sq ft ( 128 kg / m2 )
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